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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43405 ***
+
+By RUDOLF EUCKEN
+
+Senior Professor of Philosophy in the University of Jena
+
+The Truth of Religion
+The Life of the Spirit
+Religion and Life
+Ethics and Modern Thought
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Ethics and Modern Thought
+
+A Theory of Their Relations
+
+The Deem Lectures
+
+Delivered in 1913 at New York University
+
+By
+Rudolf Eucken
+Professor of Philosophy, University of Jena
+
+Translated from the German Manuscript by
+Margaret von Seydewitz
+
+G. P. Putnam's Sons
+New York and London
+The Knickerbocker Press
+1913
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913
+BY
+RUDOLF EUCKEN
+
+
+The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+These lectures, delivered at New York University from February 20th till
+March 1, 1913, appeal less to students and philosophers than to the
+cultured public at large. I take this opportunity of expressing my
+sincere gratitude to the New York University, and especially to
+Chancellor Elmer E. Brown, for all the kindness and interest shown to me
+during my stay in New York.
+
+
+RUDOLF EUCKEN.
+
+JENA, June, 1913.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                               PAGE
+  I. THE ETHICAL PROBLEM IN THE PRESENT TIME      1
+
+ II. THE ETHICAL PRINCIPLE                       23
+
+III. A DEFENCE OF THE ETHICAL PRINCIPLE          43
+
+ IV. EVOLUTION OF THE ETHICAL PRINCIPLE          63
+
+  V. MORALITY AND RELIGION                       87
+
+ VI. THE PRESENT STATUS OF MORALITY             107
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE ETHICAL PROBLEM IN THE PRESENT TIME
+
+
+In former times, nothing seemed more plausible and more certain than
+morality. It was a tower of strength, where men sought refuge in the
+midst of all the doubts and conflicts of life. This was especially the
+case during the Age of Enlightenment. Men were beginning to believe less
+absolutely in the religion handed down to them, but they clung all the
+more to morality. Metaphysical speculation and theoretical endeavours to
+reveal the innermost essence of things encountered growing opposition,
+yet morality was welcomed as something superior to all complications,
+and valuable to all. It was held to be the pivot of Archimedes, which
+gives stability to the whole of life.
+
+In our days morality has ceased to be a matter of such unquestionable
+certainty, and has been drawn into the wave of disintegration which is
+passing over our minds. Formerly the scientific definition and accurate
+conception of morality were matters of contention; but it is now the
+fundamental idea of morality that is questioned. Many of our
+contemporaries are of opinion that the revelations of modern science and
+the claims of modern life have destroyed the foundations of morality and
+made it untenable in the old sense. Morality in the old sense demands
+dissociation of our aspirations from our own personal interest, and
+devotion to something that is esteemed higher; whenever an action that
+appears good is seen to proceed from selfish motives, it can no longer
+claim any moral value. There is a widespread tendency in modern life, to
+question the possibility of such detachment from the _Ego_, and to
+acknowledge the coercion exercised over man by his instinct of
+self-preservation. Emancipation from this restraint is not even
+considered desirable, for constant strife and competition seem
+necessary to life and progress, and a softening of this strife would
+inevitably reduce the energy of life.
+
+Morality further demands independence and spontaneity of action. An
+action performed under the pressure of external coercion or mechanical
+habit, loses immediately its moral character. Now such independence and
+spontaneity are not possible apart from some kind of free choice, yet
+this would contradict the law of causality, which in the present age is
+generally considered to rule the whole of reality. In man's soul, the
+supremacy of this law of causality is strengthened by our growing
+insight into the power of heredity and of social environment. Yet
+morality in the old sense stands and falls with man's power of
+spontaneous and independent decision.
+
+It is difficult also for morality to retain in modern life the position
+and estimation it formerly enjoyed. It used to be invested with unique
+significance, and placed high above all other manifestations of the
+inner life. This conviction found its strongest expression at times of
+great historical import. We all remember the words of Jesus: "What shall
+it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own
+soul?" The same conviction is expressed in philosophical language by the
+greatest antique philosopher and the greatest modern philosopher: Plato
+and Kant. Plato says: "All the gold on the earth and under the earth is
+less precious than virtue." Kant says: "If righteousness should perish,
+it would not be worth while for men to inhabit the earth."
+
+But this conviction of the absolute supremacy of the moral task requires
+an inner gradation of life, for which modern conditions offer no scope.
+For modern life subordinates all aspiration and endeavour to the aim of
+enhancing the process of life. Every action is valued as a means to this
+end; and morality could only hold its own as an instrument of human
+welfare. But such degradation of morality would mean annihilation of
+morality. The present time is not entirely dominated by such a movement
+against morality, only a few currents of thought are so absolute in
+their negation of ethical claims. But these currents could never have
+attained the strength and expansion they undoubtedly exhibit, if in our
+day morality were more securely established and more distinctly
+formulated. It is the want of union in moral ideals (never before so
+strongly marked) which gives added power to the enemies of morality.
+
+
+There are to-day no less than four kinds of morality, often crossing and
+opposing each other, which claim men's allegiance. These are:
+
+Religious Morality,
+
+The Morality of Reason or of immanent idealism,
+
+The Morality of Work,
+
+Social Morality.
+
+Religious Morality and the Morality of Reason have come down to us from
+past ages, and grow out of an inner world of thought. The Morality of
+Work and Social Morality are specific results of the present time,
+growing out of work in a visible world of realities. The two older forms
+of morality form an antithesis to the two newer forms, as will hereafter
+be seen.
+
+The most effectual kind of morality is still the religious one--for us,
+the morality associated with Christianity, the religion of ethical
+redemption. Christianity, which is founded on a holy will superior to
+the world, exalts moral action far above arbitrary human choice and
+human aim. It completely severs moral action from all natural
+inclination, dissociates it from all external performance, and gives it
+a purely spiritual character. It supplies a most powerful impulse to
+action, by connecting man's destiny with his attitude to his moral
+obligations. The awakening and ennobling power inherent in Christianity
+was not confined to individuals, but was embodied in a large section of
+the human race, creating a spiritual atmosphere which still acts
+powerfully on individual souls, even if they themselves are not
+conscious of it. Religious morality still continues to influence us in
+this way. All other kinds of morality could not be as effectual as they
+are, were they not constantly supplemented and deepened by religious
+morality.
+
+And yet we cannot ignore the fact that in our day the supremacy of
+religious morality is often contested. The world of religion no longer
+encompasses man as a matter of course, and this also weakens its moral
+influence. At the same time many objections are raised against the
+nature and demands of religious morality. Owing to the closer connection
+between man's endeavour and his environment and to the accentuation of
+the struggle for existence, this kind of morality appears too mild, too
+soft, too subjective, and there is often a desire for a sterner and more
+virile kind. Religious ethics do not seem to have sufficient latitude to
+transform the whole of life. We can therefore understand the widespread
+desire for something which can sufficiently supplement religious ethics.
+
+At all periods of higher civilisation, religious morality has been
+supplemented and completed by the morality of reason, which was
+developed above all by the philosophers, from the Stoics down to Kant
+and Fichte. Here morality does not proceed from a superior and divine
+will, but from man's own reasonable nature. This nature seems to demand
+recognition of a universal law, and voluntary submission to it; only
+then does man bring his own being to perfection. The morality arising
+herefrom is strong and manly; it incites man to a proud independence of
+spirit, and exalts him far above everyday life. To this morality of
+reason we owe the scientific development of the moral world of thought,
+and the distinct formulation of conceptions like Duty and Conscience. By
+means of such conceptions, the morality of reason also influences our
+own time, without however taking the lead, as it did during the Age of
+Enlightenment. The idea of reason as the sure foundation of our
+spiritual life is no longer universally accepted, and has little
+influence on the man of to-day. He is too fully conscious of his
+subordination to the world of sense, of which he is a member, to be able
+to enfranchise himself completely from it, and to assert his own
+superior power. The rationalistic conception of life reckons with
+strong, self-centred personalities, who, as we know, do not abound in
+our time.
+
+Morality could not be in close touch with the movements and problems of
+the present day, if--either as religious or as rational morality--it
+were inseparable from belief in an invisible world. But the latest
+development of life supplies morality with valuable motives derived from
+the visible world, and even creates new specific forms of morality. On
+the one hand, the impulse comes from modern work; on the other hand,
+from modern society. In both cases, we have forces that were always at
+work, but that gain considerable significance from the conditions of
+modern life.
+
+All really earnest work is directed towards some object which it seeks
+to penetrate; it impels us to value the object for its own sake, and to
+treat it according to its own requirements. Man is thus exalted above
+his own personal opinion and inclination. Only in modern times has work
+reached its full development as a factor of education and of moral
+culture. For work has now become more and more independent of separate
+individuals; it is becoming a concern common to all mankind, and it
+forms its own great complexes. Such a complex is modern science. It is
+no longer dependent on individuals, but has formed a fabric of its own.
+In accordance with the development it has attained, science dictates to
+individuals the channels and methods of their work, presents problems to
+be solved, and indicates the means of their solution. The individual
+works in vain, if he detaches himself from the movement of the whole.
+His enrolment in the movement of the whole imparts to life a distinctly
+ethical character. For the individual must subordinate himself
+completely to the demands of the whole; he must repress everything
+bearing upon his own will and desire; he must feel that his own efforts
+are part of the great sum of human endeavour, the promotion of which
+must be his highest satisfaction. Single workers come and go, but
+through the work of generations the proud edifice of science is ever
+growing. As Bacon says: "_Multi pertransibunt et augebitur scientia_."
+(Many will pass by, and science will grow.)
+
+What applies to science is equally true of the other provinces of life.
+In modern times, mighty complexes are everywhere springing up, which
+encompass individuals with their superior power. We see this above all
+in technical and industrial work, but also in state organisation, in
+education with its schools and so forth. All these finally unite in the
+comprehensive conception of civilisation and culture,--in the idea of
+man's supremacy over the world by means of his work.
+
+It is evident that a strong moral force is here engendered. Without
+this ethical factor, without a constant enrolment and subordination,
+modern civilisation could never have reached its present development.
+Yet we cannot deny that this morality of work has inner limitations. The
+technical side of work does indeed repress and even destroy all
+individual will; but it is an open question in what temper the work is
+done, whether from love to the work or from petty and selfish motives.
+It is quite possible for a petty and narrow frame of mind to be
+accompanied by the greatest technical skill. Further work spurs on
+towards achievement, and the worker is judged by what he achieves. What
+becomes of his inner life, of his whole personality, is a matter of
+indifference. Here we are only parts of a structure, and are nothing at
+all in ourselves. This must become so more and more in proportion as
+work is specialised, and vitalises an ever smaller part of the
+individual's powers. Moreover the union of men which in this direction
+takes place, is only confined to their common work. However closely
+connected they may be through their work, their individual principles
+and convictions can be very different, if not absolutely hostile. It is,
+in our day, above all, the social problem, which divides men into
+hostile factions. In one special direction--that of work--there is an
+ethical development of life; but we cannot base on it an inner entity of
+right and humanity. The morality thus developed is cold and impersonal;
+it lacks inner warmth, and cannot appeal to the whole personality.
+
+In this respect, social morality is infinitely superior to the morality
+of work. For social morality proceeds from the immediate relation of man
+to man. Here also, something old and familiar acquires a new form and
+stronger influence. It was an old conviction that man could only develop
+in connection with his fellow-men, towards whom his activity was mainly
+directed. But what has re-cast the idea of society in a new mould, is
+the modern doctrine that men are not united by their common relation to
+an invisible world--ruled either by a Divine Being or by an
+all-pervading Reason--but by their actual living together in the realm
+of experience. This modern doctrine points out that individuals not only
+meet during the course of their life, but that they are interdependent
+from the very beginning,--that union and life with others is a
+fundamental necessity for every human being. In developing this idea,
+modern sociology shows, by means of innumerable statistics, how the
+nature and welfare of the individual depends upon the condition of the
+whole. It tries to prove that all progress--even for the individual--is
+inseparable from the amelioration of the community at large; such
+amelioration therefore becomes the main object of endeavour. Modern
+sociology at the same time advocates the idea of a common
+responsibility, a solidarity of all human life and action. Strong
+motives are thus offered to the individual to direct his activity,
+beyond his own personal interest, towards the welfare of all, and to
+find in work for the welfare of others--in "altruistic" action--the
+highest value of life.
+
+The "social" ethics thus developed are further enhanced by the growing
+conviction that the traditional form of life in the community is
+capable--nay needful--of fundamental changes. Formerly the structure of
+society was above all aristocratic in character. The conduct of life was
+in the hands of a small minority. They alone acquired full development
+of all their powers and full possession of earthly goods, which the rest
+could only enjoy in part and through the agency of the favoured few.
+This division of mankind appeared to be too firmly established by the
+divine will or by a mysterious destiny for human endeavour to try and
+alter it. The modern man, in the consciousness of his power, by no means
+considers these things incapable of change. For him, it is a sublime
+task to suppress such distinctions, and to let "all that bears human
+features" (Fichte) participate in the work and enjoyment of life.
+
+We can here discuss neither the possibility of solving this problem in
+all its bearings, nor the complications resulting therefrom. But we
+cannot deny the strong ethical stimulus of such a movement. It has
+resulted in an eager desire to strengthen the weak, to raise aspiring
+spirits, to oppose injustice, to eradicate suffering as far as possible,
+and to increase the enjoyment of life. In all this, there is much warmth
+and vigour, a strong feeling of responsibility, and recognition of the
+rights of others. No other ethical force so strongly influences the men
+of to-day, as the social idea; we see this in legislation, in education,
+in every relation of man to man. This idea counteracts egoism, and
+produces such a wealth of humane action, as was hardly ever witnessed at
+any period of the world's history.
+
+But even here, in spite of so much that is admirable, inner limitations
+are evident. Life and morality are concentrated on activity for others.
+But this activity is more for man's external welfare than for that of
+his soul,--more for the conditions of life than for life itself. Inner
+problems find too often only a secondary consideration and the
+personality as a whole is apt to be neglected. This morality of social
+activity believes in the existence of goodwill and its growth by means
+of external activity, and takes human virtue for granted. But it has
+nothing to offer that could allay the inner conflicts, or could overcome
+the dark, wild, and passionate element in man's soul. Nor does this kind
+of morality sufficiently realise what complications and passions are
+inseparable from life in the community: the strife for power and
+supremacy, the vanity and unreality which arise and rapidly spread among
+its members. Social morality shows a very optimistic conception of man,
+which is often contradicted by experience. However great therefore the
+merits of social morality may be in one special direction, it takes up
+the problem too superficially, and offers no firm foundation for
+morality, which it presupposes rather than creates.
+
+Morality to-day thus appears to be accompanied by much confusion and
+many complications. There is no lack of separate developments, but these
+cross and oppose each other. What one kind of morality takes to be its
+chief source of strength, appears to another to be mere weakness. The
+inner and spiritual character of the older forms is condemned by the
+younger forms as a subjective illusion, while the unremitting activity
+of the latter seem to their opponents to be an exclusive concentration
+on external work. Life as a whole has become uncertain to us in its
+deepest aspects; and we are no longer satisfied with the moral impulses
+coming from the life around us. We hesitate between absolutely different
+kinds of morality, which can only fully develop their individual
+characteristics by injuring one another; this must inevitably weaken the
+influence of morality on the whole of life. At the same time, movements
+hostile to morality encounter less opposition, and gain ground in spite
+of their inherent superficiality. Morality, once an undoubted
+possession of mankind, has thus come to be a difficult problem; instead
+of ruling over man from the height of its superiority, it seems now to
+depend on his opinion and choice.
+
+The condition of things resulting herefrom is becoming more and more
+unendurable. If morality is weakened, then life is robbed of a strong
+impulse, an ennobling power, and a dominant aim; it is in danger of
+inner insignificance and disintegration. The salt of life is then
+lacking, which alone can keep it fresh and healthy, and with all its
+outer brilliancy, it is threatened with inner decay. If we are to resist
+this danger with all our might, then science must help to overcome the
+uncertainty and want of concentration so characteristic of our time, and
+to gain full recognition of morality as a whole. To do this, it is above
+all necessary to find some point of view whence we can successfully
+combat this disintegration.
+
+We shall therefore have to consider first of all how such a point of
+view may be attained.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE ETHICAL PRINCIPLE
+
+
+The intricate situation of to-day necessarily incites us to reflection.
+We must consider our life as a whole; we must ask ourselves whether
+human existence comprises various kinds and gradations of life, and
+whether a task thus arises which embraces all man's endeavour. There can
+be no doubt that human life is not confined to one single plane,--that
+all variety of endeavour does not easily unite to form a definite
+entity, but that heterogeneous elements meet and mingle in man.
+
+Man at first appears to be part of nature, of the world of sense,
+subject to its laws and impulses. Dim and unreasonable instincts pervade
+man's soul with compelling force. Our conceptions grow out of sense
+impressions, and form at first the purely mechanical concatenation
+which we term "association," while all our efforts are directed towards
+individual self-preservation. In all this, man is entirely within the
+limitations of nature. Yet though this natural life at first
+predominates, it does not represent the whole of our life. We become
+aware of new features, which we characterise as "spiritual." We see how
+man grows independent of his environment, and strives to subdue it from
+without and within. By thought he frees himself from the shackles of his
+environment, and asserts himself against the whole world; at the same
+time he is driven back to the world, and feels impelled to fathom it and
+to make it his own by personal experience. His actions do not always
+remain a mere part of nature's concatenations. He can detach himself
+from all cohesion. In unbridled egoism he can subordinate every event
+and action to his own well-being; or he can absorb into himself all that
+at first existed beside him and apart from him, and that often appeared
+hostile, and can thus manifest boundless love and sympathy. His natural
+instinct of self-preservation will then appear too small and
+insignificant; he can even come to feel its narrow restrictions as
+intolerable.
+
+If we pass from the individual to the whole of mankind, we see in
+civilisation and culture a new form of life opposed to mere nature. For
+man is no longer swayed and ruled by what assails him from without, but
+he confronts it with new aims and ideals. He judges and weighs; he
+approves and rejects; he forms new complexes, like those of state
+organisation and of science. In all this, man is the representative of a
+new and specific kind of life; he manifests an independence unknown to
+nature.
+
+This new life differs from nature and from what may be attained on the
+basis of nature, not only in single characteristics, but in all its
+manifestations and even in its fundamental essence. Nature forms a
+tissue of separate elements, which come into reciprocal action but lack
+all inner cohesion. Great complexes are thus formed, but no combination
+amounts to real cohesion: there is no inner whole, and no life
+proceeding from such an inner entity.
+
+All life grows out of contact with the environment; therefore
+intellectual participation is indissolubly bound to the world of sense.
+In this life of nature, the intellect can create no conceptions
+independent of sense impressions, and action cannot free itself from the
+power of natural impulse. All inner values can here be nothing more than
+an accessory and reminiscence of what reaches us from without.
+
+We see something essentially different, wherever spiritual life
+develops. Here life is not decomposed into a multitude of separate
+particles, but inner cohesions are formed, which embrace and dominate
+all achievement of individual beings. This is especially the case when
+human thought aspires towards Truth. Every individual has his own sum of
+conceptions and his own special associations; but he does not possess a
+truth of his own. All search for truth is based on the conviction that
+something must be acquired which is common to all men, and which
+embraces and governs them all. Aspiration thus extends far beyond
+separate individuals. We have here not a disconnected mass of assertion
+and dogma; all is gathered into a well ordered cohesion, and all
+separate efforts result in progression to the whole. Every kind of
+intellectual endeavour presents a similar situation. Thus the Good and
+the Beautiful are not values confined to single individuals; every man
+striving after them, only contributes towards the sum of common
+endeavour, and what he wins for himself is at the same time a gain for
+all. Aspiration is not confined to a limited number of separate results,
+but the manifestation of a great whole is sought for: a comprehensive
+realm of the good and the beautiful.
+
+Once the mind is thus concentrated on the whole, greater spiritual
+independence inevitably ensues. For it is necessary to rise above the
+sense impression and constantly to assert the autonomy of the soul, if
+aspiration from the whole and to the whole is to be successfully
+developed. From being a mere accessory, the soul now becomes in all
+respects a source of independent life. In science ideas gain a
+significance of their own, apart from the impressions of sense; they
+develop their own laws, and react with transforming power on what they
+have absorbed, as we see in the case of mathematics. Our own mind
+supplies the forms in which we shape our world. Feeling also frees
+itself from sense impressions. Sense enjoyment no longer suffices for
+man's happiness. His relation to other human beings does not remain
+confined to external contact; pity and love can embrace the whole of
+mankind, as is proved by the great religions. We can no longer doubt
+man's capacity of aspiring to values far beyond external possessions;
+and his inner life, the development of his own individual personality
+may become a matter of paramount importance to him.
+
+But this inner life, with all its distinct manifestations, can cope
+successfully with the outer world and its forcible inroads, only by
+developing an inner realm which it extends to an independent world of
+its own. This does in reality take place. What was at first beside us
+and apart from us, can be transferred to the soul without merging into
+it. The antithesis between internal and external values, which at first
+seemed to disintegrate life, can be overcome, if spiritual endeavour
+absorbs the object and brings it into reciprocal action with spiritual
+forces. Where spiritual development is at its highest, life does not
+fluctuate between the subjective and objective, but unites both in
+itself, brings them into reciprocal action, and develops one by means of
+the other. Such a triumph over antitheses is to be seen most clearly in
+the province of art. Art is not merely capable of copying external
+objects as exactly as possible, or of rendering with the greatest
+possible truth the feeling of the individual: really great art must
+embrace both factors and blend them to a perfect unity. This is how a
+real work of art is created, which then gives to life an inner expansion
+and a new reality.
+
+As in art, so also in the other provinces human life. In the mutual
+relation of man to man, the spiritual phase by no means does away with
+all distinctions, but it exalts us above them, and embraces them all
+from a higher point of view. Individuals are not to be merged in a hazy
+and colourless whole, but in rising towards a higher life an inner
+communion becomes possible, within which even what is alien becomes to a
+certain extent our own. This enables men to understand each other, to
+put themselves in the place of one another, to find themselves in
+others. Man acquires in such communion a vaster self, which is not
+dependent on one tiny atom, but has a whole world of its own.
+
+If scientific research is not to degenerate into barren scepticism, it
+must also overcome the antithesis of the subjective and the objective.
+To do this, it assimilates external objects by means of thought, and
+strives to embrace at the same time both the inner man and the outer
+world, developing one by means of the other.
+
+We observe everywhere this tendency to subject everything to the
+operation of spiritual forces--to create and develop an inner world.
+Here all problems are confined to life itself, which is no longer
+concerned with extraneous matters, but with itself alone. In this inner
+world, life develops in its own way; it finds its aims and ideals in
+itself, in its own perfection, in its complete triumph over the
+antitheses it embraces.
+
+How are we to interpret this new life and its origin? It cannot have
+proceeded from that nature inferior to man, from which it differs even
+in its most elementary fundamental forms. It cannot be a creation of man
+alone, in whom--as experience proves--it is far too weak, too much
+alloyed with lower and sensual elements, for a new gradation of life to
+originate in him. Nothing therefore remains but to recognise in this
+inward tendency a movement of the universe--a movement in which man is
+privileged to participate, but which he could never engender from out of
+his own nature. The recognition of such a movement completely changes
+the aspect of reality. The universe now seems to embrace two planes, and
+to be rising--at least as far as humanity is concerned--from one plane
+to the other. A new light is cast on reality, which ceases to be a
+collection of separate and non-cohesive elements, and becomes capable of
+comprehensive operation and of self-concentration. We realise that what
+at first appeared to be the whole of reality was only its outer aspect,
+which is supplemented by the new depth revealed to us. It is only the
+development of these depths that gives life its real significance;
+values come into existence which lie beyond the natural instinct of
+self-preservation--such values as the good, the true, and the beautiful.
+
+Let us now see how this order of things strikes and influences man. The
+new phase of life at first appears--in man--only in a few individual
+operations, while his life and aspiration are still mainly determined by
+nature and natural self-preservation. A certain spirituality does indeed
+appear wherever there is human life, yet only as something subordinate,
+as an accessory to another kind of life, but without the autonomy
+necessary to a comprehensive and self-centred whole, which could develop
+its own specific character. If man is to participate in the movement of
+the universe and bring the spiritual into full operation in himself,
+this autonomy of the spiritual life is of paramount importance. It can
+only develop where a movement reaches man from the universe, embraces
+him, and determines his further course. But, at the same time, man must
+recognise and seize this impulse, thus taking possession of this new
+life. We have seen that what used to be considered of secondary
+importance, is now of paramount value. This requires a reversion of the
+original order of things, a readjustment of the values of life. We have
+not to realise any new achievement within a given sphere of activity, or
+to further develop existing conditions; we have to acquire an
+essentially new life.
+
+The requirements thus formulated lead to a system of ethics. Its
+fundamental doctrine is man's power to rise by free action to the higher
+plane of cosmic life, and to develop it with all the strength of his
+soul. We have shown that the new object of our endeavour is not
+something unfamiliar that suddenly invades our consciousness. For it is
+the working within us of some spiritual force, that exalts us above the
+animal world to the status of human beings. But the spiritual life
+undergoes an essential change, as soon as it acquires autonomy within
+us. As long as it was held to be of secondary importance, it was chiefly
+appreciated as a means towards human ends: spiritual forces were to give
+us more power over external realities, and fuller enjoyment of life,
+but we did not penetrate into the life of the spirit and there find a
+new world. If we do this in accordance with the transformation of life
+we have been considering, great results will soon appear. In science and
+art, as well as in law and morality, our efforts will be accompanied by
+such strength, devotion, and gladness as we never before experienced. We
+shall operate with the laws and powers inherent in the things
+themselves; we shall become indifferent to outer profit and success, and
+shall find full satisfaction in the manifestation of genuine spiritual
+life, in spite of the trials and difficulties it may offer. If the
+spiritual life can thus grow towards perfection, undisturbed by human
+aims, it will manifest all its values in rich and pure abundance; it
+will reveal a new world, and will open up a new depth of reality. We
+thus take possession of a world which exalts us far above all petty
+human considerations, yet which is not alien and unfamiliar to us, but
+is essentially our own life and being.
+
+With autonomy, the spiritual life also gains more unity. As at first
+manifested in human life, it is divided into a variety of separate
+branches--such as art, science, law, technical knowledge--which lack all
+inner cohesion and mutual understanding. If the autonomy of the
+spiritual life reveals a new phase of reality, it must also form a
+comprehensive whole, of which all the separate provinces are but the
+various manifestations. They themselves now appear in a new light, and
+every province must determine its position and significance in the
+whole, and must submit to the operation of the forces proceeding from
+the whole. This will give more depth and more soul to the activity in
+each separate province, while all will seek to come into closer touch
+and to supplement one another.
+
+
+All this implies a great task for man. He is an imperfect and unfinished
+being, full of contradictions. He has to seek and achieve genuine life;
+he must penetrate from the sphere of effects to that of their causes;
+he must recognise the great cosmic movement as a personal concern of his
+own, and must thus give meaning and value to his life and aspiration.
+
+We have here a matter of vast import. Not only must the new world be
+recognised and taken possession of by the individual, but a new order of
+things, valid for all humanity, must be created and triumphantly
+asserted against an entirely different order of things. Instead of the
+mere juxtaposition which the world of sense at first presents to us, we
+must establish inner cohesion in society and history. The efforts of all
+humanity must supplement the visible world, to which we remain bound, by
+an invisible one, and must make of this invisible world the chief seat
+of human life. While time is forever flowing onward, permanent truths
+and values of life must be found, which can sustain from within all
+aspiration and endeavour. We human beings must realise a higher life
+within given natural conditions; and to do this, we have first to
+create and establish a new order of things within our own sphere of
+existence. This transforms our life into a never ending task, but also
+imparts to it an incomparable greatness. While thus striving forward,
+the individual must first of all submerge himself in the new world as a
+whole, until he finds there his true life, his real and higher self. A
+complete negation of the little _Ego_ and emancipation from it are
+requisite. This does not mean that the individual is to disappear and be
+absorbed by the infinite. The infinite becomes a living present at this
+special point, and the individual must take possession of it and assert
+it. He must also promote the forward movement of life, and must enrich
+reality by the culture of a spiritual individuality, very different from
+the one nature has given him. This spiritual individuality can only
+develop on the basis of the spiritual life, from which it takes its aims
+and standards; and it must always be in harmony with the movement of the
+whole.
+
+It is evident that all these factors have laid the foundations for a
+system of ethics. As we have seen, life as a whole challenges man to a
+great change, to a decision, an action, but also to unremitting work for
+the establishment of a new order of things. That which gives us human
+beings our pre-eminence and constitutes our innermost essence is not to
+be gained without our own efforts, and pervades our life as a continuous
+task. We may call the morality arising thence the Ethics of the
+Spiritual Life, for the centre of life and its ruling motive lie in
+man's relation to a superior spiritual life, which is at the root of his
+own being and yet has to be acquired by his own action and effort.
+Morality represents the principles underlying this great change.
+Morality grasps the question as a whole. Morality elucidates the fact
+that all the variety of work is dominated by strife for a spiritual
+self, a strife which can only be successful if the original situation is
+reversed.
+
+We must now try to determine more closely what form these ethics are to
+take, and whether they are able to overcome the objections which
+confront every kind of morality.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+A DEFENCE OF THE ETHICAL PRINCIPLE
+
+
+Before we proceed further in the direction indicated, we must see
+whether our own convictions are capable of overcoming the opposition and
+impediments to morality, presented by widespread currents of
+contemporary thought. Were we unable to overcome them, then all further
+advance would be stamped by inner uncertainty.
+
+The first objection was, that all human action must tend to the
+preservation and advancement of the performer, so that action apart from
+self-interest, as required by morality, is impossible. We are told that
+man cannot be inspired and moved to action by any aim outside his own
+personality, and that even where this appears to be the case, closer
+examination reveals some hidden motive of self-interest. This was the
+doctrine of Spinoza and is now a widespread conviction. There is
+undoubtedly some truth in the fundamental idea, but it is by no means
+certain that this truth is rightly applied. It is true that all
+endeavour must start from the life and being of a man and reflect back
+on him. Something absolutely alien would necessarily leave us cold and
+indifferent; by his action man must in some way grow and gain and assert
+his own inner self.
+
+But we must ask ourselves whether the natural Ego, to which the opponent
+of morality binds all human action, represents the whole of man's life,
+and whether all endeavour is obliged to serve the interests of natural
+self-preservation. If a man recognises any kind of spiritual activity in
+its specific working, he will reject such limitation; and the more he
+sees in the spiritual life a new and independent phase of reality, the
+more decisively will he declare that a real self is not contained in the
+natural Ego, but must first be acquired by means of the spiritual life.
+In spite of all the subjective force and passion displayed in the
+self-preservation of the natural Ego, this Ego and its life are without
+inner significance: it plans and acts, without being absorbed and
+illuminated by an inner force; it remains alien and dense.
+
+On the spiritual plane, on the other hand, man acquires an
+individuality, and is able to embrace a whole of reality, into the life
+of which he submerges himself; and in developing this life, he is able
+to find full satisfaction and joy. The spiritual life does indeed demand
+repression, subjection, and even sacrifice of the little Ego; yet the
+experience of humanity clearly proves that life thereby suffers neither
+degradation nor disintegration, but rather, that it is thus strengthened
+and regenerated. Life is certainly not weakened or extinguished in the
+efforts to gain truth and beauty, in the activity of the scholar and the
+artist, in social and philanthropic work. By enfranchisement from the
+little Ego, life has gained in expansion and strength. Man is conscious
+of finding his real self and of developing his innermost being in such
+work, not of promoting ends outside himself. All deeper religions and
+systems of philosophy have in common this requirement that man should
+give up his little Ego, and they promise that from this renunciation a
+new life shall be born, which is of infinitely greater meaning and value
+than the old life. The movement towards spirituality is not a mere
+negation, but leads to an assertion founded on the basis of negation.
+Once man has found the right plane of life, and has acquired a new
+individuality, the gulf between man and the universe is bridged over.
+Man can then come into inner relation with reality, and can take
+possession of the infinite. This is the meaning of Goethe's lines:
+
+
+     Und so lang du dies nicht hast,
+     Dieses "Stirb und Werde!"
+     Bist du nur ein trüber Gast
+     Auf der dunklen Erde.
+
+     (Till thou hearest the behest
+     Saying: "Death is Birth!"
+     Thou art but a dreary guest
+     On the gloomy earth.)
+
+
+If this is the case, then all spiritual work contributes to the
+development of a new, real self; then no blame can be attached to
+morality for advocating the absolute necessity of this change, and for
+recognising, in all ramifications of work, the one great task of
+developing a new human individuality. Morality will not thereby weaken
+and suppress the impulse of life, but will direct it into the right
+channel and ennoble it. By treating man's task as a harmonious
+whole--which at the same time forms part of the one great entity--it
+will act as a stimulus on all the separate provinces of life. The
+gravity of this ethical task is heightened by the fact, that we must
+pass through a negative stage in order to reach one of positive
+affirmation, and that all action which denies or obscures such negation,
+remains one-sided and imperfect.
+
+Closely allied to this first objection to morality is the second: the
+assertion of the Determinists that human action is but part of an
+immutable concatenation, and that the decision of the moment arises,
+with inevitable necessity, from what is and what has been. This is an
+old assertion, reaching back to the latter days of antiquity. It has
+frequently aroused men to passion in the domain of religion. It
+permeates modern philosophy, and has found classical expression in the
+doctrine of Spinoza. In our day, it is often confirmed by a more careful
+study of the universe. Favourable to Determinism is also our modern
+insight into such forces as heredity and social environment, and our
+greater knowledge of psychology. Everywhere the single atom appears as
+the result of some cohesion, of which it at the same time forms part.
+Closer observation only accentuates such dependence; we can no longer
+consider a separate atom or moment as something absolutely self-centred,
+nor can we interpret any action as really taking place suddenly. There
+exists, without doubt, more cohesion and more subordination than was
+formerly believed, or is often accepted even now.
+
+However legitimate these considerations may be, it does not follow that
+they exhaust all the possibilities offered by reality. If we declare
+that man is completely absorbed in such concatenation, we must assume
+what is by no means unassailable: that man is simply part of a given
+order of things, of a natural mechanism, of a network of causality. Were
+he in reality no more than this, there would be no possibility of his
+own decision, no freedom of action, and consequently no morality. This
+would destroy, not morality alone, but much that its opponents could not
+well give up. If our life were merely part of a natural mechanism, it
+would necessarily cease to be our own life; it would be only a process
+realised in us without our co-operation, and our attitude to it would
+resemble our attitude to our bodily functions. It is difficult to see
+how we could then be made responsible by society, or how we could
+ourselves feel any responsibility,--how such conceptions as those of
+good and evil could come into existence and engross our attention.
+Neither would there be any real present, for if there is no demand for
+decision, and no room for original action, all action would, with
+inevitable necessity, grow out of the past, like a flower out of its
+bud, without our co-operation.
+
+We might be able to endure such determination of our life for all time,
+if the various movements could easily meet and mingle in our soul,
+without any complications. But if our life contains great problems,
+grave conflicts, various and often opposed planes, then we human beings,
+did we submit passively and unresistingly, would be chained like
+Prometheus to a pitiless rock. Determinism, if followed to its logical
+conclusion, is nothing less than inner annihilation of life.
+
+Such recognition necessarily brings us to the question whether the
+hypothesis held by the Determinists is unassailable. Do we really
+appertain absolutely to a given and distinctly limited existence? From
+the point of view of a new plane of reality manifested by the spiritual
+life, our reply must be a decided negative. As we have seen, this new
+phase does not embrace us from the beginning, but must be grasped,
+appropriated, and developed by us; our own decision and action are here
+indispensable. Our life must indeed reckon with certain given factors;
+we must recognise the powerful influence of heredity and environment.
+Our individuality is determined for us by nature; we cannot in all
+things remould ourselves as we would wish to do; we are on all sides
+encompassed by fate. But man is not entirely at the mercy of this fate.
+The spiritual life which can grow up in him gives him a new, spontaneous
+source of life; he can originate something new, something entirely his
+own, and can oppose his own action to fate.
+
+Our life thus becomes a struggle between freedom and fate; and to this
+struggle it chiefly owes its expansion and greatness. The idea of
+development is therefore not applicable to the progression of human
+life. There is no inevitable sequence on a well established basis and in
+one definite direction; later results are not simply determined by what
+has gone before; one thing does not follow another naturally and easily,
+but various elements meet and clash. Time after time, we are in danger
+of losing what we seemed to have won; over and over again, we must climb
+to the summit of life. But this struggle constantly calls forth new
+powers. We see that there is much more in us than appeared at first
+sight, or than we ourselves were wont to believe. Great shocks and
+strong emotions often produce new convictions or set free new forces
+within us. It is, above all, suffering which rouses and regenerates,
+which teaches us to see and cultivate the deepest that is in us. What
+hitherto seemed to constitute our whole being, now proves to be but a
+single stratum, which it is quite possible to transcend.
+
+The real man is only a part, a section of the possible man. The
+possibilities dormant in us are an integral part of our being; and these
+possibilities enable us to attain something higher and greater. On this
+power of inner growth rests the confidence of those who, while
+recognising the evils of this life, fight bravely and hopefully on the
+side of progress. The statesman wishing to raise his people from within,
+builds on such a capacity for inner growth, and believes in the
+realisation of new possibilities; so does the educator in his efforts to
+cultivate and ennoble men's souls. Art and religion are ever at work, in
+order to discover new possibilities and bring them home to man. Were it
+not for such new possibilities and the regenerative power of man, his
+life could retain nothing of its youthful vigour, and would lapse into
+stagnation and senility. The same would apply to human civilisation: it
+would drift away from simplicity and truth, and would become more and
+more artificial.
+
+It is in our own power to maintain our vitality, and to oppose
+increasing inner strength to all alien and hostile forces. It is by no
+means certain that we shall always be victorious; it is one of the
+tragedies of life that a man's soul is filled with longing for something
+better, yet is held captive by circumstance, and is finally driven back
+to that from which he would fain escape. And yet it is this struggle
+which gives to life its vitality and its greatness; and wherever there
+is religious conviction, there also dwells the hope that what could not
+gain full victory in our life, will not be lost before God. To quote
+Browning:
+
+
+     What I aspired to be,
+     And was not, comforts me....
+
+     All instincts immature,
+     All purposes unsure....
+
+     All I could never be,
+     All, men ignored in me:
+
+       This, I was worth to God.[1]
+
+
+If all this helps to prove the autonomy of man and his independent
+power of decision, it does not mean the dissociation of man from all
+inner cohesion. This freedom only becomes possible by the revelation
+within him of a new world. There could be no spontaneity of action in
+single cases, if a world of independent and spontaneous life did not
+exist and embrace us from within. Thus the individual appertains to the
+whole, even in the exercise of freedom. That of which he is capable by
+himself alone, is only his ability to bring his own will into accordance
+with higher laws. All deep thinkers have seen, in the grasp of the
+essence of life and the development of its possibilities by means of
+this individual capacity, not an achievement of man alone, but the
+manifestation of a higher power, a gift of grace. Life did not seem to
+them to be so divided between grace and freedom, that one of these
+factors could only be enriched by what was taken from the other; they
+considered both to be so indissolubly united, that freedom and the power
+of inner growth appeared to them to be the highest sign of grace. The
+most energetic natures, if possessed of any spirituality, have generally
+felt themselves to be instruments of a higher power and compelled by an
+inner necessity. This feeling gave them the strength and self-confidence
+indispensable for their work. In the case of achievement for the visible
+world, this higher power was mostly looked upon as a dark fate, which
+protects man as long as it needs him, and abandons him as soon as he
+ceases to be useful. But in the case of inner change and regeneration,
+this fate was superseded by a power of love and mercy, which sustains
+man even in the midst of the greatest dangers. In religion especially,
+the consciousness of complete dependence on a superior power has not led
+to a suspension or restriction of activity. This is clearly proved by
+such men as St. Paul, St. Augustine, and Calvin. They were not the
+soulless vessels of a truth committed to them; they grasped, by their
+own recognition and decision, what seemed to them to be the truth. Yet
+in their own consciousness, achievement was of small value compared to
+what they revered as a gift of grace. "Quid habemus quod non accepimus?"
+(St. Augustine). "What have we that we have not received?"
+
+
+Hitherto we have been concerned with refuting widespread objections to
+the possibility of morality. We must now consider the violent opposition
+against the appreciation which morality demands--and must demand. It
+seems impossible for morality to be unquestionably superior to
+everything else in life, and to demand absolute obedience to its
+requirements, since it does not fill the whole of life, but must share
+men's allegiance with other obligations, and must seek some compromise
+with them. This objection could only be valid, if our whole life were a
+homogeneous structure,--if one single aim dominated all activity, and
+achievement in this direction could alone determine the value of our
+action. But the case is very different. Even the one fact that two
+planes unite in our life makes it impossible to apply the same standard
+to all the variety we encounter. The various values determined by these
+two planes are too different to be compared with one another. How could
+we judge sensuous enjoyment and outer success in the same way as we
+judge values like truth and honour?
+
+Further, morality is not concerned merely with single values
+appertaining to the higher plane, but with the recognition and
+appropriation of this higher plane itself: it is a movement from a whole
+and to a whole. Once the conviction obtains that the spiritual phase of
+life is something entirely different to nature, the acquisition of it
+becomes the chief problem of life, and the claim of morality--which
+upholds the principle of such acquisition--can assert its supremacy over
+all other claims. Wherever this was contested, the new world revealed by
+the spiritual life was not fully recognised. The experience of history
+shows that no artistic or intellectual achievement could prevent a
+rapid abatement and deterioration of the spiritual life, if the ethical
+task was not fully recognised. Morality is like religion: neither can
+take a secondary or even a co-ordinate place; they must be valued _more_
+than everything else in life, or else they will inevitably come to mean
+_less_.
+
+We have now seen that the doubts assailing morality generally proceed
+from a particular conception of the universe and of man's position in
+it. This more or less naturalistic conception, in spite of all it claims
+to be, by no means exhausts the resources of human life. As soon as we
+recognise the limitations of this conception of life and free ourselves
+from its tyranny, we are able to acknowledge fully the claims of
+morality. Nay, more: these claims must then appeal to us as being both
+legitimate and imperative; and what might at first appear to be
+unintelligible, will become absolutely clear and certain.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] From "Rabbi Ben Ezra."
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+EVOLUTION OF THE ETHICAL PRINCIPLE
+
+
+Having removed the obstructions which oppose the development of
+morality, we can now inquire into the special characteristics of the
+morality based on the spiritual life. Since morality recognises the
+principle of the spiritual life, which it absorbs into its own volition
+and being, therefore the nature of the spiritual life will also
+determine the nature of morality itself. We have already seen that the
+life of the spirit constitutes a new world as compared to the life which
+originally encompasses us in nature and society, and which, though it
+contains certain processes of a spiritual character, is yet mainly and
+fundamentally bound to the senses. The spiritual element is here
+disintegrated into separate manifestations, and is never free from the
+alloy of sense. In the new life, the spiritual gains autonomy, becomes a
+comprehensive whole, and is able to cultivate its own individuality. It
+reveals a plane of life essentially superior to that of nature. On man
+devolves the great task of attaining and developing this plane, on which
+life first acquires self-concentration and inner significance, and
+becomes real, genuine life.
+
+Let us see how this affects morality. It is not confined to individual
+provinces of life, but extends over its whole expansion and into every
+ramification, demanding a change and an uplifting. This refutes a
+conception of morality which limits it to the relation of man to man,
+and makes it synonymous with altruism. Morality undoubtedly has much to
+do in relation to our fellow-men; but does it not also find great tasks
+in the culture of the soul,--in spiritual work for the world, as
+expressed in science and art? The quintessence of the Stoical teaching
+was the development of personality, the proclamation of man's inner
+autonomy and superiority to the world around him. We can hardly refuse
+to acknowledge the moral character of this teaching, as also of the
+Christian teaching, which found expression in men like Augustine, who
+brought all moral action into immediate connection with God, and derived
+it from love to Him.
+
+Let us now turn to science and art. We see how, in spite of all inner
+and outer difficulties, a man like Kant devotes himself in unremitting
+activity to the lifelong task of finding pure and adequate expression
+for the perception of truth struggling into consciousness within him. We
+see how, in the same spirit, an artist scorns all external advantage,
+and strives only after a pure cultivation and assertion of the creative
+power within his soul. Must not such fidelity to oneself and to one's
+own work strike us as being in the highest degree moral? The ethical
+obligation consequently extends to all ramifications of life. Everywhere
+we must take possession of the spiritual life for its own sake,
+transpose ourselves into its inner movement, and exalt it above all
+concerns of the individual or even of mankind. Therefore we must not
+seek the highest aim of our actions in the welfare of society, of the
+community to which we belong.
+
+The welfare of society is a conception capable of very different
+interpretations. It may mean the mere subjective well-being of people
+living together. In that case, a new plane of life is not attained; a
+social utilitarianism develops, which destroys all inner values, and the
+sole _aim_ of life is to provide the _means_ of life. But the condition
+of society can also be our chief aim because the new plane, with its
+essentially new values, is best attained through life in the community.
+Then we do not place ourselves merely in the service of humanity, but we
+labour for the development of a spiritual world within the life of man.
+Then humanity as a whole is uplifted, and acknowledges a great task,
+while social utilitarianism limits life to the human sphere, and takes
+from it all possibility of inner uplifting. Utilitarianism is the most
+dangerous opponent of spiritual productive power, for it degrades to a
+means what should be valued for its own sake and as the highest aim.
+Utilitarianism does not change its character by becoming _social_
+utilitarianism. Inner progress of life is only possible if the spiritual
+values, as the true, the good, and the beautiful, are striven after and
+appreciated for their own sake, and not as a means for promoting human
+welfare,--if creative production is not actuated by any consideration of
+results, but is an inner necessity of a man's own soul.
+
+We have seen that the attainment of autonomy in the spiritual life
+implies a reversion of the original order of things, and that the whole
+of life is thus seen in a new light. It follows that no real morality
+can be engendered merely by developing existing conditions, or
+heightening natural forces. Wherever this was attempted, closer
+investigation will always show the presence of both the lower and the
+higher phase, and the consequent weakening of morality. Here
+Christianity has achieved something of world-wide historical importance:
+it clearly demonstrated the gulf between all merely natural development
+and real moral action; it has also shown us that something essentially
+new appears in morality, something unattainable by merely ennobling
+nature.
+
+This was not only the case with religion, for the deepest thinkers of
+all times have seen in morality not a mere intensification, but a
+complete transformation. Plato made real virtue dependent on aspiration
+to the world of ideas. He distinguished this virtue from all that men
+call virtue, though to him it was little more than physical ability.
+Kant advocated something similar, by forbidding man to base action on
+inclination alone. He even went so far as to make action against natural
+inclination a sign of good principle. The requirement thus formulated
+does not preclude fruitful moral germs and impulses in the existing
+order of things; but their full development is only possible when a
+distinct reversion has taken place, and when an independent spiritual
+life purifies, unites, and exalts all beginnings. These alone can never,
+by a slow process of evolution, raise life to the plane of genuine
+spirituality. As we have seen, the morality of the spiritual life
+rejects a merely natural origin. But because it represents something
+essentially new, its main object cannot consist in the denial and
+suppression of mere nature. This was the aim of asceticism, especially
+in its development as a reaction against the antique over-estimation of
+nature. In the latter days of antiquity, life was swamped and enfeebled
+by a refined form of sensuality. Life could only develop if this
+sensuality was resisted and full supremacy was advocated for the
+spiritual. We can understand that those engaged in this struggle went so
+far as to see the highest morality in the complete suppression of
+sensual life. This bears witness to admirable personal feeling; and yet
+it was a dangerous error, for it diverted men from the great task of
+giving inner significance to life, and of filling it with strong and
+healthy love. The strictest asceticism can be united to inner
+hollowness, to spiritual pride, and to want of love. An ascetic element
+is inseparable from all morality, but only an element subject to higher
+aims. We feel it to have been one of the great merits of the
+Reformation, that it set aside the mediæval appreciation of asceticism.
+
+If it is true that autonomy of the spiritual life results in progression
+towards a new plane, then only such forms of morality can satisfy us as
+fully acknowledge such progression and the consequent affirmation of
+life,--as establish the value of man, and stimulate him to strenuous
+effort. All systems which base morality on pity alone must therefore
+appear inadequate. Pity does much to free man from narrow egoism, and to
+inspire him with sympathy for others, even for all mankind; but pity
+alone shows only one side of life--only limitations and difficulties,
+suffering and gloom. It restricts man's outlook to this one side of
+life, so that he can acquire neither glad courage nor any impulse
+tending to the uplifting of his existence. Pity reveals no new
+possibilities as love does it; complete resignation here forms the
+highest pinnacle of the philosophy of life and not the creating of a new
+world.
+
+Neither can a system of morality satisfy us which only draws up laws and
+regulations,--which indicates definite channels of action, without
+vitalising action or giving it any progressive impulse. This might
+suffice if man only had to take his place in a given order of things.
+But it is quite inadequate if the whole soul is to be gained for a new
+plane, and if a new order of things is to be built up within the human
+sphere. There is, besides, the danger of interpreting morality above all
+as a narrowing, a police system of life, and of thus forfeiting man's
+sympathy. We do not deny that the uplifting, inseparable from spiritual
+life, demands many struggles and renunciations. We can only rise to an
+affirmative by means of a decided negation--a negation rendered
+necessary by the brutality of mere nature and the pettiness of mere man.
+In the history of mankind, morality at first operated chiefly through
+prohibition: it was necessary to restrain the wild natural impulses and
+destructive passions of man, in order to prepare the way for spiritual
+activity. We have but to think of the frequent recurrence of prohibitive
+laws in the older legislation of all nations. But there is a great
+distinction, even in this primitive form of morality. The lower kind may
+remain permanently on the grade of negation, while higher forms will
+work their way through the negation to affirmation, and will retain
+consciousness of this affirmation even in presence of negation. Morality
+must consequently be productive in character, not merely regulative.
+Productive morality will press forward, not waiting till man is brought
+face to face with a new requirement or an opportunity of action, but
+taking the initiative, seeking new points of attack, bringing
+everything into movement, and promoting the growth of the spiritual
+life.
+
+Even then, morality cannot limit its task to the ordering of private
+life, but must extend its activity to general conditions and human
+society. Life in the community must be exalted, and fitted to become the
+representative of spiritual life. It is one of the chief demands of
+modern times, that not only private life, but the whole of human
+society, should be subject to moral judgment and moral operation. Hegel
+condemned as "paltriness of faith," (Kleinkrämerei des Glaubens) men's
+belief in the guidance of their personal destiny by divine might and
+wisdom, while at the same time they believed the fate of mankind, as
+manifested in the history of the world, to be governed by blind
+unreasonable chance. We must also combat a paltriness of morality which
+concerns itself with the private affairs of individuals, but shows no
+interest and recognises no obligation with regard to what concerns
+humanity at large. In former times, when man was conscious of his
+weakness with regard to his environment, the most hopeless situation
+could be accepted as the will of God or as a decree of fate. But the
+modern man, with his consciousness of power and of his obligations
+towards the community, cannot reject the idea of the moral solidarity of
+all. He must therefore concern himself with the general conditions of
+mankind, and must display active interest in this direction.
+
+
+Let us further consider what has been achieved by the autonomy of the
+spiritual life. We must first of all return to the new depth of life
+which we have already recognised as one of its most important results.
+This means that we must cultivate in ourselves a firm basis, a
+continuous activity which determines, vitalises, and permeates each
+individual action. We must develop a distinct nucleus, an essential
+character which is not a mere background to our activity, but an
+integral part of it. This being the case, morality cannot be satisfied
+with stimulating man to certain achievements, and setting free the
+forces within him; it demands of him a new life, in which he must strive
+to make the deepening of activity we have been considering, an essential
+part of all his action. This is the ideal we try to realise in the
+development of personality and moral character. We want not merely to
+_act_ but to _be_ something, to make something out of ourselves, to put
+our own personal self into our action, and to so act that we ourselves
+thereby grow and advance. Only then life is so concentrated on itself
+and becomes self-conscious and self-centred--only then can it gain
+significance; it will otherwise be empty and hollow inwardly, in spite
+of unremitting activity. This is what justifies the estimation in which
+the ideas of personality and character are held. Why indeed should we
+value it so highly, were it but an accumulation of natural forces and
+impulses, and not the representative and starting-point of a new life?
+
+Not only in individuals must such a depth of being, such a spiritual
+individuality be developed; but in every community, in every nation, in
+all mankind. Everywhere must a spiritual character be formed, and this
+spiritual character must inspire and permeate all action. Only thus can
+a spiritual atmosphere be created,--can a really civilised nation be
+differentiated from other nations; only thus, and not by means of outer
+victories and conquests, can any nation gain lasting significance for
+all humanity. So, for instance, Greek culture is a possession forever.
+
+In all this, it is evident that in striving for morality, we are not
+seeking something alien, but rather our own essential being. Yet this
+being does not already exist in us, but has first to be acquired; it
+lies not behind us, but in front of us; we cannot take for granted a
+firm basis and positive continuity, which we see before us as high tasks
+and ideals. From the imperfect and incomplete life we generally lead, we
+must resolutely advance towards real and genuine life. While striving
+after morality, we are at the same time battling for our own spiritual
+self; we cannot but feel morality as a living inner presence, a source
+of strength and of joyous impulse to action. Thus understood, morality
+needs no reward from without; indeed, it sustains grave injury, if
+action is dominated by the thought of reward. For then the autonomy and
+independence which are above all aimed at, must be given up; and we
+force under an alien yoke that life which should be based on itself
+alone.
+
+Such accentuation of autonomy in life and morality, might seem to exalt
+man unduly, and to inspire him with self-conscious pride. But we have
+already guarded ourselves against such misapprehension. We have seen
+that every undertaking possible to the individual lies within a
+sustaining and impelling movement of the whole. The recognition of
+morality is therefore not a matter of personal option or caprice. The
+life of the whole operates in the individual; but, on the other hand,
+his decision influences the whole of reality in the direction of
+progress or retrogression. In this way the conception of duty arises, in
+which the whole of life, the whole of the cosmic movement formulates a
+claim on us. Kant rightly pointed out that duty cannot come to us from
+without, but must proceed from our own being. This can only be the case
+if our being experiences an inner gradation. A spiritual world speaks
+within us, not as something alien, but in union with our own innermost
+being, as the depth of our own soul. The idea of duty is necessary in
+proportion to the consciousness and recognition of the difference
+between man as he is, and the inner world which corresponds to his
+innermost being. Wherever this consciousness grows dim, there morality
+speedily experiences an inner weakening. Duty is the salt of life. Where
+it is lacking, life, however brilliant externally, becomes inwardly tame
+and insipid, while on the other hand, duty can impart inner greatness
+and dignity to what appears small and insignificant. But as we do not
+wish the presence of salt to be everywhere perceptible, so also the idea
+of duty must not always force itself on our consciousness, but must be a
+latent power in our soul and life, lifting us above all that is
+arbitrary and capricious. We must take duty up into our inner being, and
+not place it there as something alien or hostile. Moral life can quite
+well unite earnestness and joy, reverence and love--earnestness and
+reverence towards the superior majesty of a higher power operative to
+us, joy and love arising from the mighty presence of this higher power
+within us.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Thus constituted, morality can fully acknowledge the various moral
+impulses at work in the present day; it can, at the same time, oppose
+their disintegration, and help them as far as possible to promote each
+others best interests. We have seen how, in our day, invisible and
+visible impulses are in operation, which easily come into mutual
+opposition. The morality of the spiritual life can in such cases
+acknowledge both aspects, even if it cannot value them equally. For this
+morality must take up a position in an invisible world, since the
+progression from a visible to an invisible world goes through the whole
+of the spiritual life. At the same time work in the visible world is
+most important for man, if not indispensable. He is driven to it not
+only by the necessity of natural self-preservation, but also by the real
+interests of the invisible world. He does not find this invisible world
+ready for him, or waiting to develop steadily from within, but he must
+acquire and strengthen it by battling against the visible world and its
+resistance. The spiritual movement is sure to become subjective and
+uncertain, as soon as it severs all connection with the visible world,
+in relation to which our work gains strength and confidence. Love,
+strength, and continuity are thus acquired, which must then be
+transformed into activity for our fellow-men. This applies both to
+individuals and to all mankind. Such valuation of activity for the
+visible world does not mean that we constitute life out of the visible
+and the invisible as out of two factors of equal value, for wherever
+spiritual life develops, the invisible is of paramount importance, and
+everything else must be brought into relation with it. The visible is
+valuable only as a means for the development or manifestation of the
+invisible. But as such, it is of considerable value. Thus the morality
+of the spiritual life is quite able to recognise--and to benefit by--the
+great civilising work of the modern age and its untiring social
+activity, even while insisting on their assimilation by a vaster
+cohesion which is to vitalise them.
+
+We shall see, later on, that the invisible world cannot hold its own
+against doubts and obstacles, unless it is aided by religion. But
+although the morality of the spiritual life must seek to be in close
+touch with religion, it must do its best to counteract the dangers
+arising from an exclusively religious system of ethics. Religious
+morality in former times often directed man's endeavour too much towards
+a world of faith and hope beyond our world, and was inclined to neglect
+earthly matters as being of secondary importance. It often transferred
+to human affairs the humility and pliability born of its relation to
+God; and it consequently lacked strength and vigour when dealing with
+the evils of human life. These perils can be counteracted by a morality
+of the spiritual life, which sees the operation of the Divine Being
+above all in man, even while acknowledging its superiority to man. Such
+morality will urge man to seek and appropriate eternal values, not only
+in a future state, but in this our earthly life. Such morality will
+teach man not to accept the unreasonable conditions as he finds them,
+but to struggle against them with all his might, striving to impart
+reality to the reasonable and reason to reality.
+
+The morality of reason and immanent idealism contains a virile strength
+and educational power that the morality of the spiritual life is bound
+to acknowledge. Yet spiritual morality must counteract certain
+undesirable results frequently brought about by mere rational morality,
+which is prone to overrate intellect and abstract ideas, to overvalue
+the strength of the individual, and thus to encourage undue pride and
+self-consciousness.
+
+
+Thus great tasks are evident in all directions. From the standpoint of
+the spiritual life it is possible to take them up hopefully, and to
+counteract antitheses which would otherwise disintegrate human life. In
+all these tasks, taken together, we see how life may be quickened and
+strengthened by the ethics of the spiritual life. Everywhere it is
+necessary to proceed beyond a given order of things,--to rise above
+merely human aims and conditions,--to develop the consciousness of a
+marvellous depth of reality, in which man is privileged to participate.
+We discover a great cosmic movement, and we see our own greatness in our
+co-operation in this movement, by which we contribute something to the
+growth of the spiritual world. To speak with Leibnitz: "Man is not a
+part, but an image of the divine, a presentation of the universe, a
+denizen of the City of God."
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+MORALITY AND RELIGION
+
+
+We have hitherto confined ourselves to the inner development of
+morality, without considering the attitude of the world around us and
+within us to those claims which morality, from its very nature, is bound
+to assert. At all times, this question has presented grave
+complications, which are magnified rather than diminished by the
+philosophy of the spiritual life.
+
+If morality is the first condition and an essential factor of all
+independent spiritual life,--if this spiritual life is the central point
+of reality, and dominates all its manifestations: then we might expect
+to see, throughout the visible world, the triumph of good, the
+repression of evil, and the rule of a moral order of things, moulding
+reality to its requirements. Man's desire for such an order of things
+does not rise from petty motives, but from an imperative desire for the
+unquestioned supremacy of the good: what is in itself of such absolute
+value, must be strong enough to enforce its dominion over reality,
+otherwise it might come to be considered merely as a subjective
+illusion.
+
+The world, as we see it, does not come up to this requirement. It
+evinces--as every impartial observer must acknowledge--absolute
+indifference, not only to the weal and woe of man, but also to his moral
+conduct. How often, in the destiny of nations as of individuals, does
+good succumb and evil triumph! It may be that we often judge too
+exclusively from external impressions, and that there is more justice in
+the world than appears at first sight. But this is no more than a
+possibility, and we cannot assert that it is in any way realised. Much
+remains dark, and has not been explained away, in spite of the efforts
+made by religion and philosophy during thousands of years. These
+efforts have made the darkness less evident, but have not brought light
+into it. We can deny neither the indifference of nature to our moral
+action, nor the incapacity of man to enforce, in his own sphere, the
+triumph and supremacy of the moral idea. And this gulf between what we
+must demand and what we find in the world, receives further accentuation
+by the recognition of an independent spiritual life closely allied to
+morality. For the impotence of morality now appears as the impotence of
+the whole spiritual life. At the same time, the human sphere seems to
+lose all its own special significance, since it cannot enforce universal
+recognition of the power to which it owes its privileged position.
+
+Distressing as is this contradiction between the inner requirement and
+external experience, it does not necessarily lead to a weakening of the
+moral obligation. This is plainly shown by religion, more especially by
+early Christianity. The early Christians were fully conscious of the
+sorrow and gloom of human life; they realised the unreasonableness of
+the world we live in, quite as fully as the pessimists of our day. Yet
+their faith and courage remained unshaken. The contradiction of
+experience only intensified their inner conviction, and gave it an
+almost defiant superiority. This was only possible, because the
+possession of a new life and the certainty of a new world made it easy
+to bear all the contradictions in the existing order of things. From
+their certainty of a new world, arose the conviction that the good could
+only be impotent in a certain phase and for a certain time. The early
+Christians were so sure of the ultimate triumph of good, that they found
+strength to persevere in the battle of life.
+
+The present time lacks this joyous certainty of a higher world and a new
+life. Therefore the contradiction between the course of the world and
+the requirements of morality, is felt in all its rigour, and doubt is
+intensified by the unsatisfactory moral condition of human life, by the
+inner weakness of morality in our day. Single individuals are not
+without good intentions, but they lack the power of achievement.
+Spiritual activity is generally treated as of secondary importance;
+infinitely greater value is attached to the natural self-preservation of
+individuals and of society. Life in the community ought to give greater
+prominence to moral claims, and be governed as far as possible by moral
+law. But on the one hand there is not enough power of volition, and on
+the other hand there is, here also, a wide gulf between volition and
+achievement. Social life also displays so much self-interest,
+selfishness, and passion, so much unreality and hypocrisy, that morality
+cannot reach any adequate development. The spiritual powers which should
+raise man to a higher plane are mostly withdrawn into the service of the
+lower plane, and life is thus diverted into wrong channels. This
+contradiction between human conditions and the requirements of morality
+has been expressed in various ways by the great thinkers. Plato
+lamented, above all, the evanescence and unreality of everyday life;
+Augustine the overweening conceit of man; Kant the insincerity and
+injustice everywhere apparent. But to one and all, the moral condition
+of mankind appeared most unsatisfactory.
+
+All these contradictions, obstructions, and distortions are so
+deep-rooted, that we can hardly expect any essential progress to result
+from a gradual amelioration. In other directions--such as science and
+technical knowledge--humanity may make steady progress; but it is not so
+easy to prove that humanity will also experience moral improvement. The
+progress of civilisation brings with it the development of much that is
+good, but also of much that is evil, for civilisation develops great
+power, without providing for its moral guidance. History shows us how
+mankind has always seemed to alternate between periods of moral growth
+and periods of moral decay; but it is doubtful whether, on the whole,
+much has been gained. How often have the nations longed to return to
+simpler and more innocent beginnings!
+
+
+All these impressions might seem to prove that morality has no power in
+the life of man. A doubt easily arises as to whether, if morality is so
+powerless, we ought to acknowledge it as the guide of our life, or
+whether we should not rather expel it as a mere illusion. But the
+experience of history shows us unmistakably that the roots of morality
+lie deeper, and are not so easily removed. Even if morality is not the
+ruling power, it is unquestionably efficacious as man's lawgiver and
+judge. Again and again, the nations may resist the claims of morality,
+and the conceptions of morality itself may be widely divergent; yet
+wherever human life develops, moral judgment develops with it. Certain
+actions are highly esteemed, others are decidedly condemned. Something
+operates in man which is not confined to his own interest, and which
+forces him to judge his actions. Such judgment must inevitably
+influence both the action and the spiritual condition of man; in one
+direction it promotes, in another it represses.
+
+History gives us an indirect proof of the power of morality over man.
+There are times in the history of mankind when the moral idea, with its
+decree of duty, recedes into the background, and is even scoffed at as
+an irksome instrument of control. But such times, however brilliant on
+the surface, cannot resist inner decay and hollowness, till at last they
+become unendurable. Then, if there is a return to morality, it is
+superior to, and triumphant over all other interests. It was moral
+earnestness and moral strength that were above all instrumental in
+causing early Christianity to overcome the pagan world that was, in all
+outer respects, superior and more powerful. It was moral energy that
+gave the Reformation its power to advance and conquer, while the soft
+and beautiful Renaissance perished because it lacked morality. Look
+where we will, we see that the moral task, if fully and clearly
+grasped, is stronger than anything else.
+
+It is therefore impossible for mankind to renounce morality. But we have
+seen that morality, as a rule, has little power over external life or
+man's soul, and is forced into a subordinate position. This produces
+inner discord in human life. Man acquires inner insincerity by not
+recognising and developing the depths of his own being. This inner
+contradiction can be fully appreciated by a system of philosophy which
+attaches special importance to the idea of the spiritual life. For in
+the light of such philosophy, we see one great contradiction pervading
+the whole of life: the spiritual activity--which ought to lead man to an
+independent inner life, thus making his existence one of joyous creative
+work--is used by average life as a mere means and instrument for human
+ends. Spiritual activity is thus degraded, for the good has mostly to
+give way to utilitarian considerations. This is the case, when the
+motive of scientific research is its utility, and not a desire for
+truth. This is the case, when art does not reveal a new world to man by
+means of genuine beauty, but appeals only to his senses. This is the
+case, whenever the subjective welfare of man--either of the individual
+or of society--is the highest aim,--whenever man is not led to a higher
+life by spiritual activity, but is only confirmed by it in the lower
+life.
+
+Such conflicts, such inner discord, such stagnation of life impel
+morality to seek close contact with religion. We see that man has in
+himself an ideal, on which depends all the greatness and dignity of his
+life; but he cannot reach it unaided. Something strives to assert itself
+within him, without his being able to accomplish it. He remains chained
+to a lower level, above which his innermost soul longs to rise. Doubt
+and uncertainty proceed from the fact that what is of the very highest
+inner value should have so little power in the world and in the sphere
+of human life. For deep and earnest natures as St. Augustine and as
+Luther, such uncertainty has often become unbearable; from inner
+conflicts was born the sure and triumphant conviction of a higher power
+in the movement towards morality,--a power which not only imposes moral
+obligations on man, but which, by the revelation of a new life, gives
+him strength to fulfil them. Morality here appears as something
+infinitely superior to the uncertainty of human conditions, and
+completely independent of man's attitude towards it. If morality does
+not attain the power due to it in man's life, this is now attributed to
+the weakness, not of morality, but of man. The majesty of morality is by
+no means prejudiced by man's line of conduct. Kant could therefore
+declare that "it is most reprehensible to derive either the origin or
+any restriction of the laws telling me what I should do, from that which
+is done by others."
+
+It is the essence of all deep religions, especially of Christianity,
+that a new life is created in man by a revelation of the Divine by means
+of a direct union of the soul with God. This new life is held to be
+superior to the complexity of existing conditions, and is sure to
+triumph, because it is founded in God. A source of life is thus opened
+up, which imparts new activity to the life hitherto stagnant. Man
+regains courage and confidence, because he feels himself sustained by
+divine strength and love. No contradiction in the world of external
+realities is now able to weaken man's inner certainty. A powerful
+impulse towards work and creative activity will be born of the gladness
+within him. This explains the unquestioning confidence and joyous energy
+manifested by all the leaders of religious life; the consciousness of
+their deliverance from dire distress filled them with unbounded
+gratitude, which sought expression in unremitting work for their
+fellow-men. Luther says: "From faith flow love and joy in the Lord, and
+from love a free and joyous spirit of voluntary service of our
+neighbour, quite irrespective of gratitude or ingratitude, praise or
+blame, gain or loss."
+
+Further development of life by means of religion is sure to stamp
+morality with characteristic features. The consciousness of deliverance
+by a higher power will arouse not only gratitude, but humility and
+childlike confidence. If everything man has is but a gift, then he will
+see, in his highest achievement, less his own work than that of God.
+Gentleness and toleration will gain ground; arrogance and harshness will
+disappear; all decisive action will have an inner rather than an outer
+significance. The value of an action depends on loyalty to principle,
+and not on the greatness of what is achieved. This is shown by Jesus in
+the parable of the talents.
+
+But this accentuation of softer elements and inner values by no means
+paralyses activity. For the new life must be energetically developed and
+bravely asserted against an alien, not to say a hostile, world. Man
+finds a great task, first of all in his own soul, but then in the whole
+of his life with other men. We may here apply a principle of the
+Reformation, which has thus been expressed: "The word of God comes to
+change and renew the world, whenever it comes." There is one thing on
+which a philosophy of the spiritual life must emphatically insist: this
+return to religion must not be confined to the individual, but must
+embrace all the conditions of human life. Only thus can the whole of man
+be won. This can only be done by creating a specific religious sphere of
+life, a specific religious community. Many of us may wish the Church to
+be, in certain respects, different to what it is; but that should not
+make us ignore the necessity of a religious community. It is
+indispensable, if we are to establish the new life in the human sphere,
+and bring it within the reach of the individual; it is indispensable, if
+the struggle is to be maintained by great entities, and is not to
+degenerate into small skirmishes. At the present time, when the state is
+engrossed by economic and other constantly changing problems of the day,
+we need a community which attaches paramount importance to the inner
+problems of humanity and which directs our life towards eternal aims and
+values.
+
+In this union with religion, morality will be inclined to see more gloom
+than light in the life around us. For morality will then judge by higher
+standards, and will emphasise the insufficiency of human achievement,
+the unsatisfactory character of the present situation. But morality
+cannot lead to despondency, once it is emancipated from the world of
+immediate environment, and has gained a new world. Morality will then
+see, in the world of strife and antithesis, only a special kind of
+reality, and not the whole of reality; it will recognise in this world
+only one act of a great drama, and not the whole drama.
+
+Much that is dark thus remains unexplained. To speak with Goethe, we
+"walk among mysteries." Even if we cannot enlighten what is dark, the
+new beginnings established in us will save us from becoming cowed and
+despondent. We are certain that great things are being accomplished in
+us and through us,--that a higher power is present within us throughout
+the struggles of our life. At the same time, we feel sure that our inner
+renewal is not mechanical, but requires our own decision and action,
+thus making us co-operate in the movement of the universe, and giving to
+our activity a significance for the whole. That must and that can be
+sufficient for us. We can agree with Luther, when he thus characterises
+human life: "It is not yet done and accomplished, but it is in working
+order and in full swing; it is not the end, but the way. All does not
+yet glow and shine, but all is being burnished."
+
+We know that so close a connection between morality and religion is
+often contested nowadays. But we believe that religious morality can
+only be attacked by those who have too low an estimate of morality or
+too high an estimate of the actual condition of humanity. If morality is
+but a means of tolerable order in the social community of life, and is
+only looked upon as a controlling force, then it can dispense with
+religion. But this means a lowering of the moral requirement, the
+fulfilment of which brings but little gain or profit. It is possible, on
+the other hand, to value morality more highly, but to over-estimate man,
+as experience shows him to be. He is looked on as a good and noble
+being, easily won for the highest aims. Were this a true conception of
+man, then morality could attain its ends by its own strength alone. But
+we are clearly shown that this is not the case, both by the conviction
+of all great religious and philosophical teachers, and by the general
+impression of human life. At all times, the pessimists--and not the
+optimists--were held to have the best knowledge of human nature. We need
+only consider more closely the delineation of human life left us by the
+so-called optimistic philosophers (like Aristotle and Leibnitz), in
+order to see that even they found in it much that was dark and gloomy.
+
+If we maintain a high conception of the moral task and an impartial
+conception of the actual condition of human life, there remains but one
+dilemma: either complete hopelessness and inner collapse of life, or the
+acquisition of further cohesions, such as that offered by an alliance
+with religion. But religion must then mean more than a sum of doctrines
+and institutions. It must influence the whole soul. It must not only
+cling to the past, but must, above all, be a power in the living
+present. It must not only be a source of comfort to individuals, but
+must raise the whole of mankind to a higher and purer level. In all
+these aspects, religion is both action and life, not mere thinking about
+the world, or subjective emotion. A connection of morality with religion
+thus understood, can be only a source of profit--not of loss--to
+morality, which will thus be strengthened in its bearing on external
+reality, and will experience a great deepening of its inner life.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE PRESENT STATUS OF MORALITY
+
+
+We must now consider, in conclusion, the position of Morality in our
+day. Let us see what profit and loss accrues to morality from the
+present, and what its prospects are for the future. There can be no
+doubt about the fact that great changes are being effected--changes not
+only in the world of thought, but in the whole range of life and work.
+These changes at first result in manifold losses to morality. The
+pillars which used to support it began to totter, or gave way
+altogether; new ones arose, but are as yet too weak to offer an adequate
+substitute for what is lost. We cannot therefore look upon the present
+status of morality as a satisfactory one.
+
+The weakening of religious conviction and practice is unfavourable to
+morality. Imperfect as the influence of religion often was on mankind at
+large, and excessive as was the importance attached to the idea of
+reward and punishment, men yet recognised a power superior to all human
+action and all arbitrary human decision. This power was to be an object
+of reverence; and life was raised above the care for purely material
+possessions. It was also a gain for moral culture, that religion
+established the inner solidarity of man, and facilitated mutual
+understanding. Thus it is a loss for morality, that religion no longer
+maintains its former ruling position.
+
+The general condition of our intellectual life is unfavourable to
+morality, inasmuch as this intellectual life lacks a uniform aim which
+could unite scattered aspirations, strengthen every single undertaking,
+and counteract, as a whole, the interests of mere individuals. These
+interests at all times made themselves felt, and life was always in
+danger of being dominated by petty human considerations. But the
+difference between period and period depends on whether or not this
+danger is counteracted and man is raised above himself by some high aim.
+In our day, such counteraction is lacking. Where have we an aim
+embracing the whole man, which is common to us all and binds us together
+to inner communion? Every party and faction preaches some ideal of its
+own, the attainment of which will, it believes, unite men, making them
+good and happy. But these individual aims are very different in
+character; they are a cause of mutual hindrance, and they divide mankind
+in that which should be a means of union.
+
+Another disadvantage for inner culture is the rapid pace of life, as
+compared to former times. While we are hastening from moment to moment,
+we have neither repose nor leisure for the culture of our inner man, for
+the development of a character, a personality. We are more and more in
+danger of being absorbed by the whirlpool of life, and robbed of all
+possibility of self-conscious action. Other perils also beset us. In
+our thirst for achievement and success, our moral judgment is often
+repressed; the accentuation of the battle of life can even make us
+indifferent to the moral quality of the ways and means employed by us.
+All this necessarily weakens morality, and makes it appear unimportant
+and shadowy.
+
+To these dangers arising from the general conduct of life, we must add
+others, which originate in the modern development of work in the
+community. In former times, the conditions of life were at once narrower
+and less subject to change. Social environment exercised a stricter and
+more exclusive control over the individual, holding him within the
+bounds of law and custom. This influence was often only an external one;
+correct behaviour was frequently mistaken for moral integrity. This gave
+rise to much unreality and pharisaical hypocrisy. Still, a certain
+result was attained in the direction of moral culture; certain
+restraints were acknowledged, which cannot, without impunity, be
+dispensed with. Restraints play an important part in the life of the
+soul, as well as in that of the body. Modern freedom of action makes the
+individual depend on himself alone, and we must be very optimistic to
+believe him able to completely withstand, unaided, all the temptations
+of life.
+
+We cannot omit one characteristic modern development: the change of
+men's mutual relation from a personal to an impersonal one. We have but
+to think of the difference between the cordial community of life
+established by the old arts and crafts, and the cool, almost hostile
+manner in which, in our great labour complexes, "employers" and
+"employees" nowadays associate. There is no longer the slightest
+personal relation or personal sympathy between them.
+
+
+If we survey all these losses, the balance of the day will hardly appear
+to be in favour of morality. But we must not forget that the present age
+has also supplied morality with new and valuable impulses. This is
+above all the case with labour--the modern form of work to which we have
+just alluded. There is a strong moral element in the ever increasing
+formation and organisation of great labour complexes, not only in the
+factory, but also in science, state organisation, education, and so
+forth. The individual is thereby obliged to work in close union with
+others, and in accordance with objective requirements. He must adapt his
+own activity to the general character of the work; and yet he must do
+his own part conscientiously, so that the mass of separate achievements
+may blend harmoniously and ensure the steady progress of the whole. This
+requires such loyalty, self-control, and sacrifice of personal taste and
+opinion, that a strong moral effect is undeniable. In this respect, man
+now learns more implicit obedience than at any former period. Another
+moral element in modern labour is the concentration of man's whole
+strength on his work, to the exclusion of all inert repose.
+
+If the impersonal element predominates in work, the social side of
+modern life offers, on the other hand, more direct union and more
+reciprocal action between man and man. This was, at first, mainly
+theoretical. It was pointed out how much one man depends on his
+fellow-men. People realised that the individual develops with other
+individuals and as part of the community, with which his aspirations are
+indissolubly connected, even when he imagines he is striking out a path
+for himself. But such theories could only have so much influence,
+because they were in harmony with the realities of life. Modern life,
+with its technical developments, brought individuals into close touch
+and created new opportunities of mutual intercourse, uniting men both in
+success and in failure. Thus grew up the consciousness of human
+solidarity, the recognition of men's interdependence, the idea of mutual
+obligation. The result is a wealth of humane activity, which penetrates
+into all the ramifications of life, attacking and seeking to eradicate
+all forms of want and misery, instead of merely helping to relieve
+individual cases. We encounter the earnest endeavour to impart material
+and spiritual possessions, as far as possible, to all men; to help and
+strengthen the less favoured section of humanity; to further the
+interests of aspiring spirits. These efforts are but various aspects of
+one great duty, which we feel we cannot ignore; we can no longer look
+upon them as works of mercy, which it is a virtue to perform. This is at
+the root of the social idea. And this social idea is, in our day, the
+greatest bond of union between human beings; not only does it stir
+individuals, but it also exercises a strong influence on law, education,
+and so forth. In this respect our time has a right to claim undoubted
+superiority over all former times.
+
+These moral achievements of the present, valuable as they are, yet have
+their inner limitations. Nearly all movement here proceeds outward, and
+is directed towards distinct single achievements, while the culture and
+welfare of the inner man are mostly treated as of secondary importance.
+Zeal for surface ends leads to the neglect of the central values of
+life. Yet all outer achievement only means real gain for us, if it
+promotes the growth of the whole man, of his soul, of his personality,
+making him nobler, greater, and happier. If there is no development and
+strengthening of the centre of life, achievement on the surface is apt
+to result in grave complications, and all that is great in the present
+may thereby be driven into the wrong channels. Another danger grows out
+of the ever increasing tendency to organise work. Owing to the necessity
+of specialising and differentiating, the amount of work is restricted
+which the individual can comprehend and master. He is tempted to
+concentrate his interest on his own little province, to be indifferent
+to everything outside it, and to lose all consciousness of a leading
+idea and of a great whole. He thus falls a prey to the narrow conceit of
+the specialist, and finally pushes aside as worthless accessories all
+matters of general interest, all the questions and sorrows of humanity
+at large.
+
+By furthering a spirit of pity for human want and misery, without giving
+to life an inner value and a higher aim, we are in danger of becoming
+sentimental and of producing inner languor in spite of all outer
+activity. We are often more anxious to procure for man a comfortable and
+pleasant life, than to promote inner growth; and our care for the weak,
+which is quite justified, leads us to take such weak individuals as a
+criterion and to lower life to their level.
+
+Modern life often lacks the necessary hardness and vigour; in our care
+for the rights of individuals, we are inclined to neglect the rights and
+requirements of the whole and also of the spiritual life. So we are in
+danger of losing that which according to Goethe, "No one brings with him
+into the world, yet which is all important if a man is to become a man
+in every respect: reverence."
+
+If we review the whole and consider the balance of moral profit and
+loss in our day, the result cannot be a favourable one. No full
+substitute is offered for what is lost. We have gained in breadth, but
+we have lost in depth and strength. Above all, morality is in danger of
+losing its former ruling position, and of having a subordinate one
+assigned to it. It can therefore no longer call forth reverence, or be
+treated as an independent aim and ideal. We realise at once the gravity
+of this loss.
+
+But this unfavourable aspect only holds good, if we consider the present
+time as something complete and incapable of further development. If, on
+the contrary, we seek to grasp all that is struggling into life, all the
+requirements of our time that yet await fulfilment: then the situation
+is quite different and far more favourable. What mainly told against
+morality was the prevalent over-estimation of everything pertaining to
+the visible life which surrounds us in nature and in human society. The
+invisible realms of religion and the ideal have, as we have seen, often
+grown dim and shadowy. Many of our contemporaries deny them altogether,
+and look to the visible world for full satisfaction of all man's wants,
+even of his spiritual and intellectual requirements. This could only
+appear possible because, in reality, the invisible world of spiritual
+values continued to influence even those who denied it, and because it
+supplemented and completed the achievements of the visible world. It is,
+however, characteristic of our time, that the old fusion is no longer
+possible, and the irreconcilable antithesis between these two
+conceptions of life stands out in bold relief. With increasing zeal, the
+movement in favour of the visible world--that is to say,
+Naturalism--tries to eradicate everything appertaining to the invisible
+world, and to fashion the whole of life in accordance with its own
+principles. Naturalism tolerates no rival, and declares war to the death
+to Idealism.
+
+We now see the truth of Bacon's words: "_Veritas potius emergit ex
+errore quam ex confusione_" (Truth can more easily emerge from error
+than from confusion). For if we accept naturalism as the only valid
+conception of life, and develop it consistently in all its bearings, we
+cannot but see its incapacity to embrace the whole of life. The apparent
+victory of naturalism thus contains the germ of a defeat, the beginning
+of a great reaction. What becomes of man and of human life, if the
+visible world means to him the only form of reality? He is then but part
+of nature--dark and soulless nature. The vast expansion and range of
+nature overwhelms him with the consciousness of his own insignificance,
+while, at the same time, nature is absolutely indifferent to his wishes
+and aspirations. What he makes of himself and his life has not the very
+slightest significance for this world of nature. All aspiration which
+transcends his natural instinct of self-preservation must appear to be
+mere folly. Such ideals as personality and character are but held to be
+illusions.
+
+If man turns away from the outer world and takes refuge in his own
+sphere, in the social life among his fellows, naturalism there shows him
+a mere juxtaposition, but no inner community which could offer new aims
+or develop new values. What remains is only a number of individuals
+inhabiting the same little corner of the universe. Each of these
+individuals strives to gain recognition of his own merits, and to assert
+himself, to the detriment of others. Much sordidness and hypocrisy
+become rampant, and it is impossible to counteract them within so narrow
+a range, or to hope for the growing up of a nobler and purer race of
+men. The individual remains bound to the condition of society, which
+also determines his own nature; he appears to be but a product of the
+social environment. Having no deeper source of life within himself, how
+should he be able to escape from the trammels of society, to rise above
+it or oppose it? Society and environment thus become the destiny of man;
+and there is no scope for freedom, for initiative, for independent
+action.
+
+If we survey and appreciate all this with unbiassed minds, this life
+must appear empty and meaningless and scarcely worth living. At the same
+time, we shall discern a development of mankind far transcending these
+narrow limits, as indeed has already been pointed out in this our study
+of morality. The degradation of life effected by naturalism might be
+endured in feeble and senile periods conscious of no great tasks, but
+not in our time, which teems with stupendous tasks it is earnestly
+striving to carry out. These great tasks and problems can only be
+grappled with, if we are fully conscious of concentrated energy and
+increased spiritual power. Modern life has developed in various and
+opposite directions. Its expansion is greater than its concentration,
+and this threatens it with disintegration. There is an increasing and
+imperative need of more unity and cohesion, of some universal and
+harmonious character of the whole. How should this be attained without a
+vigorous deepening of life, without the development of invisible
+values? We observe, in our day, the encounter of an older and a newer
+age, of a conception of life hallowed by the traditions of history, and
+a new one that is struggling into existence; there is a sharp conflict
+between the past and the present. We cannot but admit in the old an
+imperishable germ of truth, and in the new, an inalienable right to
+impress and influence us. We must prove and sift, separate and unite.
+But how were any progress in this direction possible, could we not find
+a superior point of view, such as can be offered only by a world of
+thought, not by the visible life? This problem gains vastly in
+significance by extending to the social life of all humanity. We see
+here a struggle between an older, more aristocratic form of society, and
+a newer, more democratic one. This struggle engenders violent passions,
+especially in the province of economics. We are here placed before a
+grave question: shall we be able to impart the benefits of civilisation
+to all men alike, and thus broaden every individual soul, without
+injury to its inner depths?
+
+These are problems which do not originate in ourselves, but which are
+forced upon us by the movement of history. Their very necessity bids us
+hope for progression, in spite of all impediments. The power which has
+imposed these problems on us will enable us to solve them. But we shall
+also need to put forth our uttermost strength, and to quicken all our
+latent spiritual forces; we must grasp our life as a whole, must
+acknowledge its high aims with all our heart and soul, and must find our
+real self in these ideals. Only thus can we gain the sense of inner
+necessity which alone can lead us onward.
+
+In this manner, our aspiration becomes closely linked to morality. Let
+us see wherein we have already recognised the quintessence of morality.
+Life and aspiration are detached from the little Ego, and take root in a
+spiritual world in which we find our own essential being, so that while
+working for this spiritual world, we are at the same time working for
+our own depth and spiritual self-preservation. Such a change and
+reaction, such identification with the movement of the spiritual life,
+means only that our aspiration has gained a moral character. This moral
+character brings us, at all points, into touch with our time. By means
+of our own aspiration, we can now grasp, unite, and deepen all the
+goodwill, genuine feeling, and untiring activity of our day, which was
+hitherto inadequate only because it lacked inner unity and quickening
+spiritual power.
+
+We can thus face the future with courage and confidence. Humanity has by
+no means exhausted its vital power; it is full of new possibilities
+which demand realisation; and therefore we may expect an inner
+progression of life and a rejuvenation of morality.
+
+What is true of mankind in general, is especially true of America. The
+multitude of grave problems cannot discourage a nation which feels in
+itself so much youthful vigour, that it will not submit to a dark fate,
+but is able and ready to mould its own fate, and to aspire to yet
+greater heights than it has hitherto attained. But to achieve this,
+moral force is as necessary as unshaken confidence in the power of the
+spirit. We believe in a bright future for this great country. We believe
+also in the development in America of such moral strength as will
+successfully overcome all conflicts and lead to splendid results, for
+the benefit not only of the American nation, but of all mankind.
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENTS
+
+
+Works by Dr. Rudolf Eucken
+
+Professor of Philosophy, University of Jena
+
+In 1908, Dr. Eucken was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. His
+books have been translated into many languages and their influence is
+widespread.
+
+Through his sustained and heroic appeal to what is most spiritual in
+man, Eucken has ennobled the significance and the mission of philosophy.
+He aims at developing, not a new category, but a new culture, and holds
+that it is the privilege of philosophy, by penetrating to what is most
+inward in human nature, to bring a religious inspiration to bear upon
+the problems of the world of human labor. Eucken's philosophy is a
+philosophy of life. It is a philosophy of reality as well. It treats of
+the sources of man's strength, and the meaning and purpose of his
+spiritual endeavor. And can there be anything more real than the
+activity of a life that has consciously realized the true sources of its
+power and the goal of its ultimate aspirations?
+
+New York  G. P. Putnam's Sons  London
+
+
+Works by Dr. Rudolf Eucken
+
+_In the Crown Theological Library Series_
+
+The Life of the Spirit
+
+An Introduction to Philosophy
+
+Translated by F. L. Pogson, M.A.
+
+_12º, $1.50 net. By mail, $1.65_
+
+_Second Edition. With Introductory Note by Author_
+
+"Germany has again given us a great constructive philosopher, whose
+influence has gone out through all the thinking world.... No one can
+read these powerful pages without understanding that a strong thinker
+has arisen among us, and without enlargement and deepening of his own
+thought."--_Congregationalist._
+
+"With Bergson of France, he is the most influential personal factor in
+arming contemporary thinkers for the fray against materialism and
+irreligion."--_Christian Science Monitor._
+
+
+Knowledge and Life
+
+_12º._
+
+"No one is having more influence upon the spiritual life and religious
+thought of Europe, at the present time, than Prof. Rudolf Eucken. His
+books ... are making a deep impress upon thinking people."--_Christian
+Work._
+
+
+Religion and Life
+
+_16º. Frontispiece. 50 cts. net. By mail, 60 cts._
+
+"The work is able, as may naturally be expected of Prof. Eucken. But it
+is more. The author is very much in earnest and he is anxious for men to
+see the great need of religion in their lives. In this book we have the
+best of his mind and heart."
+
+_Boston Transcript._
+
+"The philosophy of Eucken shares with that of Bergson the keenest living
+interest of thoughtful men of all classes at the present day.... Eucken
+has endeavored in this book to put his constructive system into the
+clearest and most elaborate form."--_Continent._
+
+New York  G. P. Putnam's Sons  London
+
+
+Works by Dr. Rudolf Eucken
+
+_In the Theological Translations Series_
+
+
+The Truth of Religion
+
+Translated by W. Tudor Jones, Ph.D.
+
+_Second English Edition. Translated from the Third and Revised German
+Edition with a special Preface by the Author_
+
+_8º. $3.50 net. By mail, $3.75_
+
+"When a book of really original thought appears it constitutes an epoch
+in literature. Such a new era is introduced by this work. The ideas of
+Prof. Eucken are startling, and revolutionary in some respects, but are
+at the same time inspiring and reassuring to all the essential features
+of Christianity as the true, the supreme and the final
+religion."--_Watchman._
+
+
+Contest for the Spiritual Life
+
+_8º._
+
+"In Professor Eucken, we have the philosopher as preacher. He not only
+handles life, he would spread, enrich, and fortify it, and he is a great
+force for the restoration of idealism in his own land. He is a preacher
+equipped with philosophy and an inspired lecturer on the spiritual life
+and its integration in the Whole."--_The Nation._
+
+
+An Interpretation of Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy
+
+By W. Tudor Jones, Ph.D. (Jena)
+
+_12º. With Portrait. $1.50 net. By mail, $1.65_
+
+The main aim of the volume is to present the essentials of Eucken's
+teaching, to show its genesis and growth, its connection with Science,
+Philosophy, Sociology, History and Religion. The whole volume is an
+attempt to present the nucleus of Eucken's teaching, and to show its
+fundamental importance in the individual life, the society and the
+religion of the future.
+
+New York  G. P. Putnam's Sons  London
+
+
+_Only Authorized Edition_
+
+An Introduction to Metaphysics
+
+By Henri Bergson
+
+Member of the Institute and Professor of the Collège de France
+
+Translated by T. E. Hulme
+
+Authorized Edition, Revised by the Author, with Additional Material
+
+_12º. 75 cts. net. By mail, 85 cts._
+
+
+"I certify that the translation of my volume _Introduction to
+Metaphysics_, which has been prepared by Mr. T. E. Hulme, is the only
+English version to which I have given my authorization. I may add that
+Mr. Hulme was excellently well qualified for his task by the careful
+study that he has made of the whole series of my writings. I have
+examined his translation with care and am able to say that it renders
+with remarkable accuracy the thought and the conclusions presented in my
+volume."
+
+HENRI BERGSON.
+
+This volume forms the best introduction to M. Bergson's philosophy. In
+it the author explains with a thoroughness not attempted in his other
+books the precise meaning he wishes to convey by the word intuition. A
+reading of this book is, therefore, indispensable to a proper
+understanding of Bergson's position. German, Italian, Hungarian,
+Swedish, and Russian translations of it have already appeared,
+testifying to its intrinsic importance and indicating the scope of its
+appeal.
+
+G. P. Putnam's Sons
+New York  London
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Ethics and Modern Thought, by Rudolf Eucken
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43405 ***