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diff --git a/43337.txt b/43337.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1dcaf52..0000000 --- a/43337.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22981 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's History of the Jews, Vol. III (of 6), by Heinrich Graetz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: History of the Jews, Vol. III (of 6) - -Author: Heinrich Graetz - -Release Date: July 28, 2013 [EBook #43337] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. III (OF 6) *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - - - - HISTORY OF THE - JEWS - - BY - PROFESSOR H. GRAETZ - - VOL. III - - FROM THE REVOLT AGAINST THE ZENDIK (511 C. E.) TO - THE CAPTURE OF ST. JEAN D'ACRE BY THE - MAHOMETANS (1291 C. E.) - - [Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA - - THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - - COPYRIGHT, 1894, - BY THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE DECAY OF JUDAEA, AND THE JEWS IN DISPERSION. - - The Zendik Religion--King Kobad and Mazdak the Reformer--Revolt - of the Jews--Mar-Zutra--Revival of the Schools--The Saburaim-- - The Talmud committed to writing--Tolerance of Chosru II--The - Christianization of Judaea--The Jews under Byzantine Rule-- - Justinian--Persecution of the Samaritans--Benjamin of Tiberias - --Attack on Tyre--The Emperor Heraclius _page_ 1 - - 500-628 C. E. - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE JEWS IN EUROPE. - - Growth of the Jews in Europe--The Communities in Constantinople - and Italy--Theodoric--Isidore of Seville--Pope Gregory I--The - Jews of France--Chilperic and Dagobert--Avitus--The Jews in - Spain--Controversies between Jews and Christians _page_ 24 - - 510-640 C. E. - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE JEWS OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA. - - Happy condition of the Jews in Arabia--Traditions as to their - original settlements--Yathrib and Chaibar--The Jewish-Arabic - tribes--The Benu-Nadhir, the Benu-Kuraiza, and Benu-Bachdal-- - The Benu-Kainukaa--The Jews of Yemen--Their power and - influence--Conversion of Arabian tribes to Judaism-- - Abu-Kariba, the first Jewish-Himyarite king--Zorah Dhu-Nowas-- - Samuel Ibn-Adija--Mahomet--His indebtedness to Judaism-- - Mahomet's early friendliness to the Jews and subsequent breach - with them--His attacks on the Jewish tribes--The War of the - Fosse--The position of the Jews under the Caliphs _page_ 53 - - 500-662 C. E. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE AGE OF THE GEONIM. - - The Conquests of Islam--Omar's Intolerance--Condition of the - Jews in Babylonia--Bostanai--The Princes of the Captivity - and the Geonim--Dignity and Revenues of the Prince--Communal - Organization--Excommunication--Julian of Toledo and the Jews-- - The Moslems in Spain--The Jews and Arabic Literature--The - Assyrian Vowel-system--The Neo-Hebraic Poetry: Jose ben Jose-- - Simon ben Caipha--Employment of Rhyme--Jannai--Eleazar Kaliri - --Opposition to the Study of the Talmud--The False Messiah - Serenus, the Syrian--The Jews in the Crimea and the Land of - the Chazars--The False Messiah Obadia Abu-Isa _page_ 86 - - 640-760 C. E. - - - CHAPTER V. - - RISE OF KARAISM AND ITS RESULTS. - - Anan ben David, the founder of Karaism--His life, writings, - and influence--Hostility to the Talmud--Anan's innovations-- - Karaite reverence of Anan--The Exilarchate becomes elective-- - Adoption of Judaism by the Chazars--King Bulan and Isaac - Sinjari--Bulan's Jewish successors--Charlemagne and the Empire - of the Franks--The Jews and Commerce--Jewish Envoy sent to the - Caliph Haroun Alrashid--Spread of the Jews in Europe--The - Caliphs and the Jews--The study of philosophy--Sahal--The - Kalam--Mutazilists and Anthropomorphists--Judah Judghan--The - _Shiur Komah_--The Akbarites--Moses the Persian _page_ 127 - - 761-840 C. E. - - - CHAPTER VI. - - FAVORABLE CONDITION OF THE JEWS IN THE FRANKISH DOMINIONS, - AND THE DECAY OF THE EXILARCHATE IN THE EAST. - - The Jews under Louis le Debonnaire--The Empress Judith - and her Veneration for Judaism--Agobard, Bishop of Lyons-- - Conversion of Bishop Bodo--Amolo's effort against the Jews-- - Charles the Bald--Troubles in Beziers and Toulouse--Decree - against the Jews in Italy--Boso of Burgundy--Basilius--Leo the - Philosopher--Decline of the Exilarchate--The Geonim acquire - Additional Influence--The Prayer Book of Amram--Mar-Zemach-- - Literary and Scientific Activity of the Jews--Decay of Karaism - --Dissensions at Pumbeditha _page_ 160 - - 814-920 C. E. - - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE GOLDEN AGE OF JEWISH SCIENCE: SAADIAH AND CHASDAI. - - Judaism in the Tenth Century--Saadiah, the Founder of Religious - Philosophy--Translation of the Bible into Arabic--Saadiah - opposes Karaism--The Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham--Saadiah and - the School at Sora--Saadiah retires from Sora--His Literary - Activity--Extinction of the Exilarchate--Sahal and other - Karaite writers--Jews in Spain--The School at Cordova--Dunash - ben Tamim--Chasdai--His services to Judaism--Menachem ben - Saruk--Chasdai and the King of the Chazars _page_ 187 - - 928-970 C. E. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE RISE OF JEWISH-SPANISH CULTURE, AND THE DECAY OF - THE GAONATE. - - The Gaon Sherira and his son Hai--Sherira's Historical Letter - --The Jewish Congregations in Spain--Jewish Culture in - Andalusia--The Disciples of Menachem and Dunash--Jehuda Chayuj - --Contest between Chanoch and Ibn-Abitur--Jacob Ibn-Jau--The - Jews of France--Nathan the Babylonian and Leontin--The Jews of - Germany--Gershom and his Ordinances--The Emperor Henry II--The - Caliph Hakem--The Jewish Communities of Northern Africa-- - Chananel, the Son of Chushiel, and Nissim bar Jacob Ibn Shahin - --The Jerusalem Talmud--Hai Gaon--His Character and Importance - --Samuel bar Chofni--Chiskiya, the Last Gaon--Samuel - Ibn-Nagrela--Jonah Ibn-Janach _page_ 231 - - 970-1050 C. E. - - - CHAPTER IX. - - IBN-GEBIROL AND HIS EPOCH. - - Solomon Ibn-Gebirol--His early life--His poems--The statesman - Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan befriends him--Murder of Yekutiel--Bachya - Ibn-Pakuda and his moral philosophy--The Biblical critic - Yizchaki ben Yasus--Joseph ben Chasdai, the Poet--Death of - Samuel Ibn Nagrela--Character of his son Joseph and his tragic - fate--Death of Ibn-Gebirol--The French and German communities - --Alfassi--Life and works of Rashi--Jewish scholars in Spain - --King Alfonso _page_ 265 - - 1027-1070 C. E. - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE FIRST CRUSADE. - - The position of the Jews in Germany previous to the Crusades-- - The community of Speyer and Henry IV--The Martyrs of Treves - and Speyer--Emmerich of Leiningen and the Martyrs of Mayence-- - Cruel persecutions at Cologne--Suffering of the Jews in - Bohemia--Pitiful death of the Jews of Jerusalem--Emperor - Henry's justice towards the Jews--Return of Converts to - Judaism--Death of Alfassi and Rashi _Page_ 297 - - 1096-1105 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XI. - - ZENITH OF THE SPANISH-JEWISH CULTURE: JEHUDA HALEVI. - - The Jews under the Almoravides--Joseph Ibn-Sahal, Joseph - Ibn-Zadik--Joseph Ibn-Migash--The Poets Ibn-Giat, Ibn-Abbas, - Ibn-Sakbel and Ibn-Ezra--Abulhassan Jehuda Halevi--His Poems - and Philosophy--The Chozari--Incidents of his Life--Prince - Samuel Almansur--Jehuda Halevi's Pilgrimage to Jerusalem-- - His Death _page_ 311 - - 1105-1148 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XII. - - PERSECUTIONS DURING THE SECOND CRUSADE AND UNDER - THE ALMOHADES. - - Condition of the Jews in France--The Second Crusade--Peter the - Venerable and the Monk Rudolph--Bernard of Clairvaux and the - Emperor Conrad--Protectors of the Jews--Persecutions under the - Almohades--Abdulmumen and his Edict--The Prince Jehuda - Ibn-Ezra--The Karaites in Spain--Jehuda Hadassi--The historian - Abraham Ibn-Daud and his Philosophy--Abraham Ibn-Ezra--Rabbenu - Tam _page_ 347 - - 1143-1170 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - SURVEY OF THE EPOCH OF MAIMUNI (MAIMONIDES). - - The Jews of Toledo--Ibn-Shoshan, Ibn-Alfachar--The Poet - Charisi--Sheshet Benveniste--Benjamin of Tudela--The Jews of - Provence--The Kimchis--The Communities of Beziers, - Montpellier, Luenel, and Toulouse--Persecutions of Jews in - Northern France--The Jews of England--Richard I--The Jews of - York--The Jews of Germany--Ephraim ben Jacob--Suesskind-- - Petachya the Traveler--The Jews of Italy and of the Byzantine - Empire--Communities in Syria and Palestine--The Jews of Bagdad - --Mosul--The Pseudo-Messiah, David Alroy--The Jews of India-- - Conversion to Judaism of Tartars--The Jews of Egypt _page_ 382 - - 1171-1205 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - MAIMUNI (MAIMONIDES). - - Early years of Maimuni (Maimonides)--His journey to Fez--Letter - of Consolation of Maimun (father of Maimonides)--Maimuni and - the Jewish Converts to Islam--The Maimun Family in Palestine - and Egypt--Maimuni's Commentary on the Mishna--Saladin and the - Jews--Letter of Maimonides to Yemen--The _Mishne-Torah_ of - Maimuni--Controversies with reference to this Work--Joseph - Ibn-Aknin--Maimuni as a Physician--Maimuni attacked by Samuel - ben Ali--Maimuni and the Jews of Provence--The _More Nebuchim_ - and its importance--Death of Maimonides _page_ 446 - - 1171-1205 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XV. - - NEW POSITION OF THE JEWS IN CHRISTIAN LANDS AT THE - BEGINNING OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. - - Effects of the Death of Maimuni--Abraham Maimuni, the son of - Maimuni--Hostility of the Papacy against the Jews--Pope - Innocent III--The Albigenses--Emigration of Rabbis to - Palestine--The Lateran Council and the Jewish Badges--Synod of - Rabbis at Mayence--The Dominicans and the Rise of the - Inquisition--King Jayme of Aragon and his Physician Benveniste - --Stephen Langton and the Jews of England--Gregory IX and - Louis IX of France--The Jews of Hungary _page_ 494 - - 1205-1232 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE MAIMUNIST CONTROVERSY AND THE RISE OF THE - KABBALA. - - The Opposition against Maimuni--Maimunists and anti-Maimunists - --Meir Abulafia--Samson of Sens--Solomon of Montpellier-- - Excommunication of the Maimunists--David Kimchi's energetic - Advocacy of Maimuni--Nachmani--His Character and Work--His - Relations to Maimuni, Ibn-Ezra, and the Kabbala--Solomon of - Montpellier calls in the aid of the Dominicans--Moses of Coucy - --Modern date of the Kabbala--Azriel and Ezra--Doctrines of - the Kabbala--Jacob ben Sheshet Gerundi--The Bahir--Three - Parties in Judaism--Last flicker of the Neo-Hebraic Poetry-- - The Satirical Romance: Al-Charisi and Joseph ben Sabara - _page_ 522 - - 1232-1236 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - PUBLIC DISCUSSIONS, AND THE BURNING OF THE TALMUD. - - Pope Gregory IX--Emperor Frederick II and the Jewish Scholars, - Jehuda Ibn-Matka and Jacob Anatoli--The Jewish Legislation of - Frederick of Austria--The Martyrs of Aquitaine and Gregory IX - --Louis IX of France and his Enmity to the Jews--Attacks on - the Talmud--The Apostate Nicholas-Donin--Disputation at the - French Court between Yechiel of Paris and Nicholas-Donin--Judah - of Melun--The Talmud burnt at Paris--The Church and Jewish - Physicians--Moses Ibn-Tibbon and Shem-Tob Tortosi--Papal Bull - acquitting Jews of the Blood-accusation--The Last French - Tossafists--The Jews of England--The Jewish Parliament--Alfonso - the Wise and the Jews of Spain--Meir de Malea and his Sons--The - Jewish Astronomers Don Judah Cohen and Don Zag Ibn-Said--The - Jews of Aragon--De Penyaforte and the Apostate Pablo Christiani - --The First Censorship of the Talmud--Nachmani's Disputation - with Pablo--Influence of Nachmani--The Karaites _page_ 563 - - 1236-1270 C. E. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - THE AGE OF SOLOMON BEN ADRET AND ASHERI. - - Martyrs in Germany--The Jews of Hungary and Poland--The Council - at Buda--The Jews of Spain and Portugal--Solomon ben Adret, his - character and writings--Raymund Martin's anti-Jewish Works--New - antagonism to the Maimunist Philosophy--David Maimuni--Moses - Taku--Meir of Rothenburg--The Jews of Italy--Solomon Petit-- - Rudolph of Habsburg--Emigration of Jews from the Rhine - Provinces--Sufferings of the English Jews--Expulsion of the - Jews from England and Gascony--Saad Addaula--Isaac of Accho - _page_ 610 - - 1270-1306 C. E. - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE DECAY OF JUDAEA AND THE JEWS IN DISPERSION. - - The Zendik Religion--King Kobad and Mazdak the Reformer-- - Revolt of the Jews--Mar-Zutra--Revival of the Schools-- - The Saburaim--The Talmud committed to writing--Tolerance of - Chosru II--The Christianization of Judaea--The Jews under - Byzantine Rule--Justinian--Persecution of the Samaritans-- - Benjamin of Tiberias--Attack on Tyre--The Emperor Heraclius. - -500-628 C. E. - - -Hardly had the Jews recovered from the long and horrible persecution to -which they had been subjected by King Firuz, when they were overtaken -by fresh storms, which subverted the work of three centuries. Firuz -had been followed by his brother, who reigned a short time, and was -succeeded by Kobad (Kovad, Cabades). The latter was a weak king, not -without good qualities, but he allowed himself to become the tool of a -fanatic, and was prevailed upon to institute religious persecutions. -There arose under this monarch a man who desired to reform the religion -of the Magi and make it the ruling faith. Mazdak--for that was the -name of this reformer of Magianism--believed that he had discovered -a means of promoting the promised victory of Light over Darkness, of -Ahura-Mazda over Angromainyus. He considered greed of property and -lust after women the causes of all evil among men, and he desired to -remove these causes by introducing community of property and of women, -even allowing promiscuous intercourse among those related by ties -of consanguinity. In Mazdak's opinion it was on the foundation of -communistic equality that the edifice of Zoroaster's doctrine could -most safely be raised. As he led a virtuous and ascetic life, and was -very earnest in his endeavors to reform, he soon succeeded in gaining -numerous adherents (about the year 501), who availed themselves of -these advantageous liberties, and called themselves Zendik, or true -believers of the Zend. King Kobad himself became Mazdak's faithful -disciple and supporter. He issued a decree commanding all the -inhabitants of the Persian Empire to accept the doctrines of Mazdak, -and to live in accordance therewith. The lower classes became the -most zealous of Zendiks; they promptly appropriated the possessions -of the rich and such of the women as pleased them. Thus there arose a -confusion of the ideas of right and wrong, of virtue and vice, such as -had never been known in the history of nations. Finally, the Persian -nobles dethroned this communistic king, and threw him into prison; -but when Kobad escaped from confinement and, by the aid of the Huns, -was again placed in possession of his dominions, they were unable to -prevent Mazdak's adherents from renewing their licentious conduct. Many -children born during Kobad's reign were of doubtful paternity, and no -one could be certain of the peaceful enjoyment of his property. - -The Jews and Christians naturally did not escape the communistic -plague, and although only the rich suffered from the legalized robbery -of the Zendiks, the community of women struck a terrible blow at all -classes. Chastity and holding sacred the marriage vows had, from the -first, been characteristic virtues of the Jews, and by Talmudic law, -they had become even more deeply rooted in their natures. They could -not endure the thought of their wives and maidens exposed to violation, -and the purity of their families, which they treasured as the apple of -their eye, threatened with defilement. They appear therefore to have -opposed an armed resistance to the licentious attacks of the Zendiks. -An insurrection of the Jews, which broke out at this juncture, was in -all probability organized for the purpose of resisting this intolerable -communism. At the head of this insurrection stood Mar-Zutra II, the -youthful Prince of the Captivity, who, to judge from the fact alone -that legend has embellished his birth and deeds with wonderful details, -must have been a remarkable personage. - -Mar-Zutra, born in about 496, was the son of Huna, a learned Prince of -the Captivity, who, after the death of the tyrant Firuz, was invested -with the dignity of the Exilarchate (488-508). At the time of his -father's death, Mar-Zutra was still a young boy. During the period of -his minority, the office of Prince of the Captivity was held by Pachda, -his sister's husband, who does not seem to have been inclined to yield -this dignity to the lawful heir. Mar-Zutra's grandfather, Mar-Chanina, -in company with his grandson, sought the court of the Persian king, -and in 511, presumably by means of valuable presents, succeeded in -effecting Pachda's deposition and Mar-Zutra's investiture. It was this -young prince who now arose, sword in hand, to protect his brethren. The -immediate cause of the insurrection is said to have been the murder -of Mar-Isaac, the president of one of the academies. Mar-Zutra's -forces consisted of four hundred Jewish warriors, with whose help -he probably succeeded in expelling Mazdak's rapacious and lustful -adherents from the territory of Jewish Babylonia, and in resisting -this shameless violation of most sacred rights. He is further said to -have accomplished such brilliant feats of arms that the troops which -had been sent by the king to quell the insurrection were unable to -withstand him. Mar-Zutra is even said to have won independence for his -people, and to have laid the non-Jewish inhabitants of Babylonia under -tribute. Machuza, near Ctesiphon, became the capital of a small Jewish -state, with the Prince of the Captivity for its king. - -The independence thus conquered by Mar-Zutra lasted nearly seven years; -the Jewish army was finally overcome by the superior numbers of the -Persian host, and the Prince of the Captivity was taken prisoner. -He and his aged grandfather, Mar-Chanina, were executed, and their -bodies nailed to the cross on the bridge of Machuza (about 520). The -inhabitants of this town were stripped of their possessions, and led -into captivity, and it is probable that this was not the full extent -of the persecution. The members of the family of the Prince of the -Captivity were compelled to flee. They escaped to Judaea, taking with -them Mar-Zutra's posthumous heir, who also bore the name Mar-Zutra. He -was educated in Judaea, and there became a distinguished scholar. On -account of Kobad's persecution, the office of Prince of the Captivity -in Babylonia remained in abeyance for some time. The Talmudical -academies were closed, for the teachers of the Law were persecuted and -compelled to hide. Two of the leading men, Ahunai and Giza, fled, and -the latter settled on the river Zab. Other fugitives probably directed -their steps towards Palestine or Arabia. Kobad's revenge for an -insurrection provoked by fanaticism dealt a severe blow at the public -life of the Babylonian Jews, which centered in the two academies, at -Sora and Pumbeditha. However, the persecution does not seem to have -extended over the whole of Persia, for Jewish soldiers served in the -Persian army which fought against the Greek general Belisarius, and -the Persian captain had so great a regard for them that he requested -a truce in order that they might peacefully observe the feast of -Passover. - -After Kobad's death, the persecution of the Babylonian Jews ceased. -His successor, Chosroes Nushirvan, was not, indeed, well-disposed -towards them, and imposed upon them and the Christians a poll-tax from -which only children and old men were exempt; yet this tax was not an -indication of intolerance or hate, but simply a means of filling the -imperial treasury. - -As soon as peace was restored the representatives of the Babylonian -Jews hastened to re-establish their institutions, to re-open the -academies, and, as it were, to re-unite the severed links in the chain -of tradition. The fugitive Giza, who had remained in hiding by the -river Zab, was called to preside over the academy at Sora; the sister -academy at Pumbeditha chose Semuna as its head. A third name of this -period has been transmitted to posterity, that of Rabai of Rob (near -Nahardea), whose position and office are, however, not clearly known. -These men, with their associates and disciples, devoted their whole -activity to the Talmud. It was the sole object of the attention of all -thoughtful and pious men of that period; it satisfied religious zeal, -promoted tranquillity of mind, and was also the means of acquiring -fame, and thus furthering both spiritual and temporal aims. The -persecution of the Law endeared and sanctified it, and the Talmud was -the sacred banner around which the entire nation rallied. - -But the disciples of the last Amoraim had lost all creative power, -and were unable to continue the development of the Talmud. The -subject-matter and the method of teaching were both so fully defined -that they were incapable of extension or of amplification. The -stagnation in Talmudical development was more marked than ever before. -The presidents of the academies were content to adhere to the ancient -custom of assembling their disciples during the months of Adar (March) -and Ellul (September), giving them lectures on the traditional lore -and the methodology of the Talmud, and assigning to them themes for -private study. At the utmost they settled, according to certain -principles, many points of practice in the ritual, the civil law and -the marriage code, which had until then remained undetermined, or -concerning which there was a difference of opinion in the academies. -Their purpose was to render the exhaustless material of the Talmud, -which discussion and controversy had deprived of all definiteness, -available for practical use. In order to prevent the decay of -religious living, it was necessary that all doubt and uncertainty -should cease; the judges stood in need of fixed principles by which -to decide the cases brought before them, and all were ignorant of -authoritative precepts by which to regulate their religious conduct. -The establishing of the final rules for religious and legal practice -after careful consideration of the arguments _pro_ and _con_ conferred -upon the post-Amoraic teachers the name of Sabureans (Saburai). After -the various opinions (Sebora) were reviewed, they were the ones that -established the final, valid law. The activity of the Sabureans really -began immediately after the completion of the Talmud, and Giza, -Semuna and their associates merely worked along the same lines; their -intention was to develop a practical code rather than the theory of the -Law. They did not arrogate to themselves the authority to originate. -First of all, Giza and Semuna, the presidents of the academies, -engaged in the work of committing the Talmud to writing. They availed -themselves partly of oral tradition, partly of written notes made by -various persons as an aid to memory. - -As everything which proceeded from the Amoraic authorities appeared -of importance to their successors, they gathered up every utterance, -every anecdote which was current in learned circles, so that posterity -might not be deprived of what they deemed to be the fulness of wisdom. -They made additions for the purpose of explaining obscure passages. In -this form, as edited by the Sabureans, the contemporary communities and -posterity received the Talmud. - -The era of the Sabureans witnessed the beginnings of an art without -which the sacred writings had remained a sealed book,--the introduction -of a system of vowel-points, by means of which the text of Holy Writ -became intelligible to the unlearned. This art owes its origin to -a faint breath of "scientific research" wafted from dying Greece. -Justinian had closed the schools of philosophy in Greece, and the last -of her wise men sought refuge in Persia. From them the science of -grammar was communicated to the Syrian Christians, these in turn roused -in their Jewish neighbors the spirit of emulation in the investigation -of the Scriptures, and this led to the adoption of vowel-points and -accents. - -The names of the immediate successors of Giza and Semuna have been -preserved neither by the chronicles nor by tradition; they were -forgotten in the persecution with which the academies were again -visited. In this century Magianism contended with Christianity for -the palm of intolerance. Judaism was an abomination to both, and the -priests of these two religions, of which the one preached the victory -of light, and the other the rule of brotherly love, used weak kings as -the instruments of horrible persecutions. - -Chosroes Nushirvan's son, Hormisdas (Ormuz) IV, was unlike his great -father in every respect. His tutor and counselor, Abuzurj-Mihir, the -Persian Seneca, is said to have invented the game of chess for this -weakly monarch, in order to teach him the dependence of the king on -the army and the people. During this philosopher's lifetime the true -character of Hormisdas was hidden, but immediately upon his retirement -the Nero-like nature of the king broke out, and overstepped the bounds -of prudence and moderation. - -Led by the Magi, who attempted to arrest the approaching dissolution -of their religion by persecuting the adherents of other beliefs, he -vented his wrath upon the Jews and the Christians of his empire. The -Talmudical academies in Sora and Pumbeditha were closed, and as under -Firuz and Kobad, many of the teachers of the Law again emigrated (about -581). They settled in Firuz-Shabur (near Nahardea), which was governed -by an Arabian chieftain, and was, therefore, less exposed to espionage. -They continued their labors in Firuz-Shabur, and new academies arose in -that town, the most distinguished being that of Mari. - -Hormisdas' cruel reign, however, was of short duration; the Persians -became dissatisfied and refractory, and the political enemies of Persia -entered its territory, and possessed themselves of the country. The -empire of the Sassanians would have become the prize of some successful -invader, had it not been saved by the efforts of the brave general -Bahram Tshubin. But when the foolish monarch went so far as to reward -the deliverer of his country with ingratitude and to dismiss him, -Bahram rose against the unworthy king, dethroned him, and threw him -into prison, in which he was afterwards murdered (589). At first, for -the sake of appearances, Bahram governed in the name of Prince Chosru, -but soon he threw off all disguise and ascended the Persian throne. The -Jews of Persia and Babylonia hailed Bahram as their deliverer. He was -for them what the Emperor Julian had been for the Jews of the Roman -empire two hundred years before; he put an end to their oppression and -favored their endeavors. For this reason they espoused his cause with -great devotion, assisted him with money and troops, and supported his -tottering throne. Without the aid of the Jews, it is probable that he -would have experienced great difficulty in retaining it for any length -of time, for after some hesitation the Persian nation turned towards -Chosru, the lawful heir to the throne. Only the army for the most part -remained faithful to Bahram, and the Jews, doubtless, provided for the -maintenance and the pay of the troops. The re-opening of the academies -in Sora and Pumbeditha is undoubtedly to be attributed to the favor of -Bahram in return for the devotion of the Persian Jews. Chanan of Iskia -returned from Firuz-Shabur to Pumbeditha, and restored the ancient -academic organization; it is also probable that the academy of Sora, -which enjoyed by far the greater repute, elected a president at this -time, although his name is not mentioned in the chronicles. - -Bahram's rule was brought to a sudden end. The Byzantine emperor -Mauritius, to whom the fugitive Prince Chosru had fled, sent an army to -his aid, with which the loyal Persians united to make war upon Bahram. -The Jews paid with their lives for their adherence to the usurper. At -the capture of Machuza, a town containing a large Jewish population, -the Persian general Mebodes put the greater part of the Jews to death. -They probably fared no better in the other cities into which Chosru's -victorious army penetrated. Bahram's army was vanquished, and he -himself compelled to take refuge with the Huns. Chosru II, surnamed -Firuz, ascended the throne of his ancestors. This prince, who was -both just and humane, resembled his grandfather Nushirvan rather than -Hormisdas, his father; he did not hold the Jews to account for their -participation in the revolt. Throughout his long reign (590-628), the -two academies enjoyed uninterrupted prosperity. Chanan was succeeded -by Mari bar Mar, who had founded an academy in Firuz-Shabur, and the -president of Sora during the same period was a teacher of similar -name, Mar bar Huna (609 to about 620), during whose administration the -fortunes of the Jews of Palestine alternated from victory to defeat. -The successors of these teachers were Chaninai in Pumbeditha and -Chananya in Sora; they lived to see the victorious advance of the Arabs -and the end of the Persian rule. The last of the Sassanian kings, of -whom there were ten in the short period of twelve years, had no leisure -to devote to the affairs of the Jewish population of their shattered -empire; the Jewish community in Babylonia continued, therefore, to -exist in its ancient order, with the Prince of the Captivity at its -head. During the half-century that elapsed between the re-opening of -the academies under Bahram and the Arab conquest of Persia (589-640), -three Resh-Galutas are mentioned by name: Kafnai, Chaninai, and -Bostanai. The last of these belongs to the ensuing epoch, in which, -aided by favorable circumstances, he succeeded in again investing the -dignity of Prince of the Captivity with substantial power. - -The position of the Jews in Judaea during the sixth century was so -terrible that a complete cessation of intellectual pursuits ensued. -Like their co-religionists of the Byzantine empire, they were without -political standing; the laws of the younger Theodosius were still in -force, and were applied with increased severity by Justin I. The Jews -were excluded from all posts of honor, and were forbidden to build new -synagogues. The successors of this emperor, as narrow-minded as he and -even harder of heart, enforced the anti-Jewish laws rigorously. The -spirit which animated the rulers of the Eastern Empire against the Jews -is shown by an utterance of the Emperor Zeno, the Isaurian upstart. In -Antioch, where, as in all the great cities of the Byzantine empire, -there existed the race-course (stadium) and the factions of the two -colors, blue and green, one of those disturbances which seldom ended -without bloodshed had been fomented by the latter party. Upon this -occasion the partisans of the green murdered many Jews, threw their -bodies into the flames, and burned their synagogues. When the Emperor -Zeno was informed of this occurrence, he exclaimed that the sole fault -of the partisans of the green was that they had burned only the dead -Jews, and not the living ones as well! The bigoted populace, whom the -disputes of the clergy and the color-factions had demoralized, saw in -their ruler's hatred of the Jews a tacit invitation to vent their rage -upon them. The inhabitants of Antioch had always been inimical towards -the Jews. When, therefore, a notorious charioteer of Constantinople, -Calliopas by name, came to Antioch, and joining the party of the green, -occasioned a riot, the Jews again felt the brutal barbarity of this -faction. Its partisans had repaired to Daphne, near Antioch, in order -to celebrate some festival, and there, without any sufficient motive, -they destroyed the synagogue and its sanctuaries, and brutally murdered -the worshipers (507). - -Meanwhile how much of the land of their fathers still remained in the -hands of the Jews? Christianity had made itself master of Judaea, and -had become the heir of Judaism. Churches and monasteries arose in -the Holy Land, but its former masters were subjected to all sorts of -persecution whenever they attempted to repair a dilapidated synagogue. -Bishops, abbots and monks lorded it over Palestine, and turned it -into a theater of dogmatic wranglings over the simple or dual nature -of Christ. Jerusalem had ceased to be a center for the Jews; it had -become a thoroughly Christian city, the seat of an archbishop, and -inaccessible to its own sons. The law forbidding Jews to enter the Holy -City, which had been revived by Constantine, was, after the death of -Julian, most rigorously enforced by the authorities. Tiberias, the -stately city on the lake, alone maintained its academical rank, and -under the presidency of Mar-Zutra III and his descendants, it became -a seat of authority for the Jews of other countries. Even the Jewish -king of Arabia voluntarily submitted to the exhortations addressed -to him from Tiberias. But Christianity had acquired a hold even -there, and Tiberias was also the seat of a bishopric. The mountain -cities of Galilee were inhabited by Jews, who probably followed the -same occupations as their forefathers, namely, agriculture and the -cultivation of the olive. - -Nazareth, the cradle of Christianity, where the most beautiful women in -all Palestine were to be found, seems to have been mostly populated by -Jews, as it had not been raised to the rank of a bishopric. Scythopolis -(Bethsan), which became the capital of Palaestina Secunda during this -century, and Neapolis (Shechem), the capital of the Samaritans since -Samaria had become Christian, had Jewish inhabitants. But in all these -cities, with the exception of Nazareth, the Jews seem to have been -in the minority, insignificant in comparison with the number of the -Christians. - -There probably existed an educational system among the Jews of -Palestine, but it must have been inadequate and unimportant, since, -with the exception of Mar-Zutra, not even the names of the teachers -are known. Until the time of Justinian the Jews of Palestine and the -Byzantine empire, whatever may have been their civil disabilities, -enjoyed complete religious liberty; the emperors did not interfere -in the affairs of the heart. Justinian was the emperor who, besides -imposing greater civil restrictions, first interfered in matters of -conscience. It was he who promulgated the disgraceful law that Jewish -witnesses were not to be allowed to testify against Christians, and -that they were to be considered competent witnesses only in their own -cases (532). Compared with the Samaritans, the Jews were a favored -class, for the evidence of the former had no validity whatever, and -they were not even allowed to dispose of their property by will. This -was an act of revenge against the Samaritans, who had several times -risen in revolt against the imperial power, and on one occasion had set -up a king in the person of Julian ben Sabar (about 530). As the Jews -had not taken part in this insurrection, they were favored to a certain -extent. Meanwhile, however, Justinian also published an anti-Jewish -law. Although the Jews and Samaritans were excluded, like all heretics, -from offices of honor, they were obliged by law to assume the onerous -and expensive decurionate (magisterial office), without being -permitted, however, to enjoy the privileges attached to it, namely, -exemption from exile and flogging. "They shall bear the yoke, although -they sigh under it; but they shall be deemed unworthy of every honor" -(537). - -Justinian was one of those rulers who, in spite of narrowness of mind -and wickedness, have their own opinions on religious matters, and -desire to assert them without regard for their subjects' peace of -mind. Justinian wished to carry out his views concerning the Christian -celebration of Easter, and he therefore forbade the Jews to celebrate -the Passover before the Easter of the Christians. The governors of the -provinces had strict orders to enforce this prohibition. Thus, whenever -the Jewish feast of the Passover preceded the Christian Easter, in the -year before leap-year, the Jews incurred heavy fines for holding divine -service and eating unleavened bread (about 540). - -Other invasions were made by Justinian on the territory of religious -affairs. A Jewish congregation, probably in Constantinople or Caesarea, -had been for some time divided against itself. One party wanted the -reading of the portions of the Pentateuch and the Prophets to be -followed by a translation into Greek, for the benefit of the illiterate -and the women. The pious members, on the other hand, especially the -teachers of the Law, entertained an aversion to the use of the language -of their tormentors and of the Church in divine service, probably also -on the ground that no time would be left for the Agadic exposition. -The dispute became so violent that the Grecian party laid the matter -before the emperor, and appealed to him, as judge, in the last -instance. Justinian of course pronounced judgment in favor of the Greek -translation, and recommended to the Jews the use of the Septuagint or -of Aquila's translation in their divine service. He also commanded that -in all the provinces of his empire the lessons from the Holy Scriptures -be translated into the vernacular. Thus far Justinian was in the right. -It is true that he also forbade, under threat of corporal punishment, -the excommunication of the Greek party or party of innovation by those -that clung to the old liturgical system; but even this may be regarded -as an act of justice, as the emperor desired to guarantee liberty in -matters connected with the liturgy. But another clause of the same -rescript proves unmistakably that in this matter he was consulting the -interests of the Church alone, laboring, as he did, under the delusion -that the use of a Greek translation in the synagogical services, -especially of the Septuagint, Christian in coloring, would win over -the Jews to the Christian faith. He decreed that all the Jewish -congregations of the Byzantine empire, naturally including those which -entertained no desire in this direction, should use a Greek or Latin -translation of the lessons for each Sabbath, and he forbade the use of -the Agadic exposition, which had been customary until then. Justinian -desired to suppress the national conceptions of the Holy Scripture in -favor of a translation which had been altered in many places to suit -the purposes of Christianity. - -It was probably Justinian who forbade the recital of the confession of -faith, "Hear, O Israel, the Lord is one," in the synagogues, because it -seemed a protest against the doctrine of the Trinity. He also forbade -the prayer, "Holy, holy, holy," because the Jews added an Aramaic -sentence, by way of explanation, in order that this prayer might not, -as the Christians held, be taken as a confirmation of the Trinity. -Finally, he forbade the reading of the prophet Isaiah on the Sabbath, -so that the Jews might be deprived of this source of comfort for their -present sorrows and of hope for future happiness. - -The service in the synagogue was to be a means of converting the Jews, -and the spirit of Judaism, manifesting itself in Agadic expositions -and homilies, was to be made to yield to Christian doctrines, the -path to which was to be leveled by a method of interpretation showing -Christ to be prefigured in the Old Testament. It appears, therefore, -that the despotic Justinian by no means proposed to grant liberties -to the synagogue, but that he desired, on the contrary, to impose a -species of restraint. He was very zealous in exacting obedience to this -decree, and he commanded his minister, Areobindus, to communicate the -edict concerning the translation of the lessons read in the synagogue -to all the officers of the provinces, and to enjoin upon them to watch -strictly over its rigorous execution (February 13th, 553). - -This malignant decree was, however, followed by no serious -consequences; the need of a translation of the Bible was not -sufficiently pressing among the Jews to oblige them to make use of one. -The party which desired to introduce a translation stood isolated, -and it was not difficult to conduct divine service in the customary -manner and to escape the notice of the authorities in those instances -in which the congregation was at peace. The preachers continued to -make use of the Agada, even introducing covert attacks upon anti-Jewish -Byzantium into their sermons. "'There are creeping things innumerable' -(Psalm civ) signifies the countless edicts which the Roman empire -(Byzantium) publishes against us; the 'small and great beasts' are -the dukes, governors, and captains; whosoever of the Jews associates -himself with them shall become an object of scorn." "As an arrow is not -perceived until it has pierced the heart, so it is with the decrees of -Esau (Byzantium). His shafts come suddenly, and are not felt until the -word is spoken for death or imprisonment. Their writings are 'the arrow -that flieth by day.'" In this strain the teachers of the Law preached -in Judaea. - -The Jews of Palestine had but little cause to be satisfied with -Justinian's rule, which oppressed them doubly with its extortionate -taxation and its religious hypocrisy. Stephanus, the governor of -Palaestina Prima, doubtless no better than the majority of officials -in Justinian's time, helped to irritate the Jews, by whom he was -thoroughly hated. The time was past, however, when the Jews could -angrily shake the galling yoke from their necks, and take up arms -against their oppressors. The Samaritans, who had been hard pressed -since the days of the Emperor Zeno, were more passionate and -venturesome, but their numerous insurrections resulted in forging new -chains for them, especially since the days of their short-lived king, -Julian, when they had so ruthlessly massacred their hated enemies, -the Christians. They were compelled, with even greater rigor than the -Jews, to embrace Christianity, and all who refused to submit forfeited -the right of disposing of their property. Although Sergius, bishop of -Caesarea, declared that the obstinacy of the Samaritans had decreased, -and that they embraced Christianity with ever-increasing sincerity, -and although he succeeded in inducing Justinian to mitigate the -severity of the harsh laws which had been promulgated against them, -they nevertheless concealed in their hearts the deepest hatred toward -their tormentors. - -On the occasion of a chariot-race in Caesarea, the capital, where the -jealousy of the color-factions against one another never allowed an -event of that kind to pass off without a riot, the Samaritans threw -off all restraint, and fell upon the Christians. The Jewish youth made -common cause with them, and together they massacred their Christian -opponents in Caesarea and destroyed their churches. Stephanus, the -governor, hastened to the aid of the Christians, but the Samaritans -pressed him and his military escort so hard that he was obliged to take -refuge in his official residence. Eventually they killed him in his -own house, and spread terror throughout the city and the surrounding -country (July, 556). The Samaritans probably counted upon the support -of one of their countrymen, Arsenios by name, the all-powerful favorite -of Empress Theodora, with whose secret commissions he was entrusted. -Stephanus' widow hurried to Constantinople to acquaint the emperor with -this disturbance and the death of her husband, whereupon Justinian -ordered Amantius, the governor of the East resident in Antioch, to -intervene with an armed force. - -Amantius found it easy to execute this command, as the movement was -not serious, but few of the Samaritans and Jews of Palestine being -concerned in it. Punishment was meted out only to the guilty, but was -in keeping with the spirit of the times, and consisted of beheading, -hanging, loss of the right hand, and confiscation of property. - -Justinian's successor, Justin the Younger, appears to have made no -change in the anti-Jewish laws. Although he renewed the oppressive -enactments of his predecessor against the Samaritans, whom he deprived -of the right to dispose of their property by testament or by deed, -there is no edict of his which was prejudicial to the Jews. Under the -two excellent emperors, Tiberius and Mauritius, no mention is made of -the Jews. It is not until the accession of the usurper Phocas, who -renewed the times of Caligula and Commodus, that a disturbance occurs, -in the course of which the Jews were carried away to a deed of brutal -violence, which proves that the arbitrariness of the officials and the -arrogance of the clergy must have caused intolerable suffering among -them. - -In Antioch, hatred had existed between Jews and Christians for -centuries, and had been intensified by constant friction. Suddenly the -Jews fell upon their Christian neighbors, perhaps at the races in the -circus, and retaliated for the injuries which they had suffered; they -killed all that fell into their hands, and threw their bodies into -the fire, as the Christians had done to them a century before. The -Patriarch Anastasius, surnamed the Sinaite, an object of special hate, -was shamefully abused by them, and his body dragged through the streets -before he was put to death. When the news of this rebellion reached -Phocas, he appointed Bonosus governor of the East, and Cotys, commander -of the troops, and charged them to bring the rebels to account. But -the Jews of Antioch fought so bravely that the Roman army could obtain -no advantage over them. It was only when the campaign was renewed -with numerous troops collected from the neighboring country that they -succumbed to the Roman generals, who killed part of them, mutilated -others, and sent the rest into exile (September and October, 608). - -The misdeeds of the Emperor Phocas afforded the Jews an unexpected -opportunity to give vent to their deep resentment. He had dispossessed -his predecessor Mauritius, and this provoked the Persian king, Chosru -II, the son-in-law of the latter, to attack the Roman possessions in -the East. A Persian host inundated Asia Minor and Syria, in spite of -the fact that Heraclius, the newly elected emperor, sent news to the -Persian king of Phocas' well-merited chastisement, and begged for peace. - -A division of the Persian army under the general Sharbarza descended -from the heights of Lebanon in order to wrest Palestine from the -Byzantine scepter. On hearing of the weakness of the Christian arms -and of the advance of the Persian troops, the Jews of Palestine felt -a fierce desire for battle. It seemed to them that the hour had come -for revenge upon their twofold enemy, Roman and Christian, for the -humiliations which they had borne for centuries. Tiberias was the -hotbed of this warlike movement, and it was started by a man named -Benjamin, who possessed a prodigious fortune, which he employed in -enlisting and arming Jewish troops. A call was issued to all the Jews -of Palestine to assemble and join the Persian army, and it met with a -ready response. The sturdy Jewish inhabitants of Tiberias, of Nazareth, -and of the mountain cities of Galilee, flocked to the Persian standard. -Filled with rage, they spared neither the Christians nor their churches -in Tiberias, and probably put an end to the bishopric. With Sharbarza's -army they marched on Jerusalem, in order to wrest the Holy City from -the Christians. The Jews of southern Palestine joined their countrymen, -and with the help of the Jews and a band of Saracens, the Persian -general took Jerusalem by storm (July, 614). Ninety thousand Christians -are said to have perished in Jerusalem; but the story that the Jews -bought the Christian prisoners from the Persians, and killed them in -cold blood is a pure fiction. - -In their rage, however, the Jews relentlessly destroyed the Christian -sanctuaries. All the churches and monasteries were burned, and the Jews -undoubtedly had a greater share in this deed than the Persians. Had -not Jerusalem--the original possession of the Jews--been torn from them -by violence and treachery? Did they not feel that the Holy City was as -foully desecrated by the adoration of the cross and of the bones of the -martyrs as by the idolatries of Antiochus Epiphanes and Hadrian? The -Jews seem to have deluded themselves with the hope that the Persians -would grant them Jerusalem and the surrounding territory whereon to -establish a commonwealth. - -With the Persians, the Jews swept through Palestine, destroyed the -monasteries which abounded in the country, and expelled or killed -the monks. A detachment of Jews from Jerusalem, Tiberias, Galilee, -Damascus, and even Cyprus, undertook an incursion against Tyre, having -been invited by the four thousand Jewish inhabitants of that city to -fall upon the Christians on Easter-night and to massacre them. The -Jewish host is said to have consisted of 20,000 men. The expedition, -however, miscarried, as the Christians of Tyre had been informed of -the impending danger. They anticipated their enemies, seizing their -Jewish fellow-citizens and throwing them into prison; then they awaited -the arrival of the Jewish troops, who found the gates closed and -fortified. The invading Jews revenged themselves by destroying the -churches around Tyre. As often, however, as the Christians of Tyre -heard of the destruction of a church, they killed a hundred of their -Jewish prisoners, and threw their heads over the walls. In this manner -2000 of the latter are said to have met their death. The besiegers, -disheartened by the death of their brethren, withdrew, and were pursued -by the Tyrians. - -The Palestinian Jews were relieved of the sight of their enemies for -about fourteen years, and the immediate result of these wars filled -them with joy. No doubt many a Christian became converted through -fear, or because he despaired of the continuance of Christianity. -The conversion of a monk who of his own free will embraced Judaism -was a great triumph for the Jews. This monk had spent many years in -the monastery on Mount Sinai in doing penance and reciting litanies. -Suddenly he was assailed by doubts as to the truth of Christianity. -He alleged that he had been led to this change by vivid dreams, -which showed him on one side Christ, the apostles, and the martyrs -enveloped in gloomy darkness, while on the other side were Moses, the -prophets, and the holy men of Judaism, bathed in light. Weary of this -internal struggle, he descended from Mount Sinai, crossed the desert to -Palestine, and finally went to Tiberias, where he declared his settled -determination to embrace Judaism. He offered himself for circumcision, -adopted the name of Abraham, married a Jewess, and henceforward became -a zealous advocate of Judaism and a vehement opponent of his former -religion. - -Meanwhile the hope which the Jews had placed in the Persian conquerors -had not been fulfilled. The Persians did not deliver up to them the -city of Jerusalem, and did nothing to promote the rise of a free Jewish -commonwealth, besides which they probably oppressed the Jews with -taxes. There thus arose great discord between the allies, which ended -in the Persian general's seizing many of the Jews of Palestine and -banishing them to Persia. This only served to increase the discontent -of the Jews, and induced them to change their opinions and to lean -more towards the Emperor Heraclius. This prince, who underwent the -rare transformation, by which a dull coward is in a night changed into -an enthusiastic hero, was anxious to conciliate his Jewish enemies in -order to use them against his chief opponent. He therefore entered -into a formal alliance with the Jews, the negotiations for which were -probably conducted by Benjamin of Tiberias. This treaty secured for -them immunity from punishment for the injuries which they had inflicted -on the Christians, and held out to them other advantages which have not -come down to us (about 627). - -Heraclius' victories, coupled with Chosru's incapacity, and the revolt -which Syroes, the son of the latter, had raised against his father, -won back for the Greek emperor all those provinces which were on the -point of being permanently constituted Persian satrapies. After the -conclusion of peace between Heraclius and Syroes, who dethroned and -killed his aged father, the Persians quitted Judaea, and again the -country fell under Byzantine rule (628). In the autumn of the same -year the emperor proceeded in triumph to Jerusalem. On his journey he -touched at Tiberias, where he was hospitably entertained by Benjamin, -who also furnished the Byzantine army with the means of subsistence. In -the course of conversation the emperor asked him why he had shown such -hatred towards the Christians, to which Benjamin ingenuously replied, -"Because they are the enemies of my religion." - -When Heraclius entered the Holy City he was met by the vehement demand -of the monks and the Patriarch Modestus for the extirpation of all -the Jews of Palestine, at once a measure of revenge for their past -treatment of the Christians, and a safeguard against the recurrence of -the outrage if similar incursions should happen. The emperor protested, -however, that he had solemnly and in writing promised immunity from -punishment to the Jews, and to violate this pledge would make him a -sinner before God and a traitor before men. The fanatical monks replied -that the assassination of the Jews, far from being a crime, was, on -the contrary, an offering acceptable to God. They offered to take the -entire responsibility for the sin upon their own shoulders, and to -appoint a special week of fasting by way of atonement. This argument -convinced the bigoted emperor and sufficed to quiet his conscience; -he instituted a persecution of the Jews throughout Palestine, and -massacred all that failed to conceal themselves in the mountains or -escape to Egypt. - -There still existed Jewish congregations in Egypt, even in Alexandria -itself, whence the Jews had been expelled by the fanatic Cyril in the -beginning of the fifth century. A certain Jew of Alexandria, Urbib by -name, celebrated for his wealth and generosity, during a pestilential -famine charitably fed the needy without distinction of religion. -The Jews of Alexandria, moved by warm sympathy for their suffering -co-religionists, fraternally welcomed the unhappy fugitives from Judaea, -the victims of monkish fanaticism. Heraclius seized upon this occasion -to renew the edicts of Hadrian and Constantine, by which the Jews were -forbidden to enter Jerusalem or its precincts (628). - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE JEWS IN EUROPE. - - Growth of the Jews in Europe--The Communities in - Constantinople and Italy--Theodoric--Isidore of Seville-- - Pope Gregory I.--The Jews of France--Chilperic and Dagobert - --Avitus--The Jews in Spain--Controversies between Jews - and Christians. - -510-640 C. E. - - -The Jews of Europe had no history, in the proper sense of the word, -until a conjunction of fortunate circumstances enabled them to develop -their powers, and to produce certain works whereby they wrested the -pre-eminence from their brethren in the East. Until then there are -only chronicles of martyrdom at the hands of the victorious Church, -monotonously repeated with but little variation in all countries. -"Dispersed and scattered throughout the world," says a celebrated -author of this period, "the Jews, though subject to the Roman yoke, -nevertheless live in accordance with their own laws." The only -point of interest is the manner in which the Jews settled in the -European states, and lived unmolested, in friendly intercourse with -their neighbors, until Christianity gradually encompassed them, and -deprived them of the very breath of life. In the Byzantine empire, -in Ostrogothic Italy, in Frankish and Burgundian Gaul, in Visigothic -Spain, everywhere we are confronted with the same phenomena. The -people, even the barons and the princes, were entirely free from -intolerance, felt no antipathy against the Jews, and associated with -them without prejudice; to the higher clergy, however, the prosperity -and comfort of the Jews appeared as a humiliation of Christianity. They -desired the fulfillment of the curse which the founder of Christianity -is said to have pronounced on the Jewish nation, and every anti-Jewish, -narrow-minded thought which the fathers of the Church had uttered -against them was to be literally fulfilled by embittering their life. -At the councils and synods, the Jewish question occupied the clerical -delegates quite as fully as dogmatic controversies and the prevailing -immorality, which was continually gaining ground among the clergy and -the laity, in spite, or perhaps in consequence of, ecclesiastical -severity and increased austerity in observances. - -It is remarkable, however, that the Roman bishops, the recognized -champions of Christianity, treated the Jews with the utmost toleration -and liberality. The occupants of the Papal throne shielded the Jews, -and exhorted the clergy and the princes against the use of force in -converting them to Christianity. This liberality was in truth an -inconsistency, for the Church, following the lines of development -prescribed by the Council of Nice, had to be exclusive, and therefore -hard-hearted and given to persecution. It could only say to Jew, -Samaritan, and heretic: "Believe as I believe, or die," the sword -supplying the lack of argument. But who would not prefer the benevolent -inconsistency of Gregory the Holy to the terrible consistency of -the bloodthirsty kings Sisebut and Dagobert, who, ecclesiastically -speaking, were more Catholic than the Pope? But the toleration of even -the most liberal of the bishops was not of much consequence. They -merely refrained from proselytizing by means of threats of banishment -or death, because they were convinced that in this manner the Church -would be peopled with false Christians, who would curse it in their -inmost hearts. But they did not hesitate to fetter and harass the -Jews, and to place them next to the serfs in the scale of society. -This course appeared absolutely just and pious to almost all the -representatives of Christianity during the centuries of barbarism. -Those nations, however, which were baptized in the Arian creed showed -less intolerance of the Jews. The more Arianism was driven out of -Europe, and the more it gave way before the Catholic religion, the more -the Jews were harassed by proselytizing zeal. Their valiant resistance -continually incited fresh attacks. Their heroic constancy in the face -of permanent degradation is, therefore, a noble trait which history -ought not to conceal. Nor were the Jews devoid of all knowledge in -those illiterate times. They were certainly better acquainted with the -records of their religion than the inferior clergy, for the latter were -not capable of reading their missal. - -Our survey of the settlement of the Jews in Europe begins, on our way -from Asia, with the Byzantine empire. They lived in its cities before -Christianity had begun its world-conquest. In Constantinople the Jewish -community inhabited a separate quarter, called the brass-market, where -there was also a large synagogue, from which they were, however, -expelled by one of the emperors, Theodosius II or Justinus II, and the -synagogue was converted into the "Church of the Mother of God." - -The holy vessels of the ruined Temple, after having been transported -from place to place, had at last been deposited at Carthage, where -they remained for nearly a century. It was with pain that the Jews of -the Byzantine capital witnessed their removal to Constantinople by -Belisarius, the conqueror of the empire of the Vandals. The Jewish -trophies were displayed in triumph along with Gelimer, the Prince -of the Vandals and grandson of Genseric, and the treasures of that -unfortunate monarch. A certain Jew, filled with profound grief on -seeing the living memorials of Judaea's former greatness in the hands -of her enemies, remarked to a courtier that it was not advisable to -deposit them in the imperial palace, for they might bring misfortune -in their train. They had brought misfortune to Rome, which had been -pillaged by Genseric, and they had brought down adversity upon his -successor, Gelimer, and his capital. It would therefore be better to -remove these holy relics to Jerusalem, where they had been wrought by -King Solomon. No sooner had the Emperor Justinian been informed of this -observation than his superstitious mind began to be fearful of the -consequences, and he accordingly removed the Temple vessels in haste to -Jerusalem, where they were deposited in a church. - -In Greece, Macedonia, and Illyria the Jews had been settled a long -time, and although the Christian emperors persecuted them, and laid -them under considerable restraint, they nevertheless allowed them -autonomy in communal affairs, and the application of their own -system of jurisprudence in civil suits. Every community had a Jewish -overseer (ephoros), who had the control of the market prices, weights -and measures. In Italy the Jews are known to have been domiciled as -early as the time of the Republic, and to have been in enjoyment of -full political rights until these were curtailed by the Christian -emperors. They probably looked with excusable pleasure on the fall of -Rome, and exulted to see the ruling city of the world become the prey -of the barbarians and the mockery of the whole world, and felt that -the lamentation over Jerusalem could be literally applied to Rome as -well: "She that was great among the nations, and princess among the -provinces, how is she become tributary?" After the Gepidae and the -Heruli, by whom Rome had been temporarily enslaved, came the Goths, who -threw the name of Rome into oblivion by founding the Ostrogothic empire -under Theodoric (Dioterich) of the house of the Amali. - -The Jews also had to bear a share of the calamities which the savage -swarms of barbarian tribes brought upon the Roman world. With the -adoption of Christianity the Germanic and Sclavonic hordes learnt also -intolerance from the Romans, their teachers, and in their rude minds -it assumed even more hateful forms. The Jewish preachers of this time -had to complain of new foes. "See, O Lord, how many are mine enemies! -If Esau (Rome) hateth Jacob," thus the Agadists expressed themselves, -"he hath at least some specious ground, for he was robbed of his -birthright; but what hath Israel done to the barbarians and the Goths?" -But of what could the barbarians rob the Jews? They had long since -forfeited their political independence, and their spiritual fortune was -secure against destruction. Rome, however, was robbed by the barbarians -of its crown, and clothed with the dress of the slave. - -Rome did not remain the political center of Italy, Ravenna, in -alternation with Verona, being the residence of the Ostrogothic -emperors. In these cities, as also in Rome, Milan, and Genoa, Jewish -communities existed at this period. The Jews were also well represented -in Lower Italy, especially in the beautiful town of Naples, in Palermo, -Messina, and Agrigentum, on the island of Sicily, and in Sardinia. In -Palermo there lived Jewish families of ancient nobility, who bore the -name of Nasas (Nassi). The laws governing the Italian Jews were the -decrees of Theodosius, which gave them autonomy in the management of -the internal affairs of their communities, but forbade the building of -new synagogues, the assumption of judicial offices and military rank, -and the possession of Christian slaves. The last point frequently led -to friction between the clergy and the Jews. The repeated invasions of -the barbarian tribes and the numerous wars had increased the number of -prisoners, and the Jews carried on a brisk trade in slaves, although -they were not the only slave merchants. The depopulated cities and -the desolate fields rendered the slave-market a necessity. Laborers -were thus obtained for agriculture and the business of daily life. -The Jewish slave-owners made a practice of converting their slaves to -Judaism, partly because there was a Talmudical ordinance which directed -that they should either be circumcised, or, if they resisted, be sold -again, and partly in order not to be hindered in the exercise of -religious duties by the presence of foreign elements in the house. The -slaves themselves preferred to remain with their Jewish masters, who, -with few exceptions, treated them humanely, regarded them as members of -the family, and shared their joys and sorrows. - -Although the restrictions of the Theodosian code had the force of law, -it may be questioned whether they were really carried into effect. -The bishops of the apostolic see, who had learnt political shrewdness -from the Roman statesmen, were too prudent to be fanatic. The Pope -Gelasius had a friend, a Jew of Telesina, who bore the title of "the -most illustrious" (clarissimus), and at his intercession his relative -Antoninus was warmly recommended by the Pope to the bishop Secundinus. -A charge having been brought against a Jew named Basilius, of selling -Christian slaves from Gaul, he pleaded that he only sold heathen -slaves, and that it was impossible to prevent a few Christians from -being included among a number of other slaves; this excuse was accepted -by Pope Gelasius. - -When Italy became Ostrogothic under Theodoric, the Jews of that -country were placed in a peculiar position. Hostile outbreaks were not -infrequent during this reign, but at bottom they were not directed -against the Jews, but against this hated Arian monarch. Theodoric, -although an Arian, was by no means favorably disposed towards the -Jews, whose conversion he desired. On a certain occasion, he had his -counselor and minister Cassiodorus write the following to the community -of Milan: "Why dost thou seek temporal peace, O Judah, when because -of thine obduracy thou art unable to find eternal peace?" The Jews of -Genoa having requested permission to put their synagogue into better -repair, Theodoric sent them the following reply: "Why do you desire -that which you should avoid? We accord you, indeed, the permission you -request, but we blame the wish, which is tainted with error. We cannot -command religion, however, nor compel any one to believe contrary to -his conscience." He permitted the Jews neither to erect new synagogues, -nor to decorate old ones, but simply allowed them to repair such as -were falling into decay. - -The Ostrogothic ruler was zealous in preserving internal peace and -in upholding the laws, and accordingly he was just to the Jews -whenever any undeserved injury was inflicted upon them. The Catholics -entertained a secret hate of the Arians, and with the deepest -resentment saw Arianism on the throne, while the Catholic Church was -merely magnanimously tolerated: they seized upon every opportunity -of thwarting Theodoric, when it could be done with impunity. On one -occasion, when a few slaves rose against their Jewish masters in -Rome, the mob gathered, burnt the synagogue, ill-treated the Jews, -and plundered their property, in order to laugh Theodoric's edicts to -scorn. Theodoric, having been informed of this, bitterly reproached -the Roman Senate, which was now but the shadow of its former self, for -permitting such misconduct, and imperiously charged it to discover -the culprits and oblige them to make compensation for the damage they -had done. As the leaders of the riot were not discovered, Theodoric -condemned the Roman commune to make compensation. This severity roused -the entire Catholic Church against him. - -It is creditable to the Italian Jews of this period that, in spite -of the general deterioration and demoralization, the political and -ecclesiastical literature of the times imputes no other crimes to -them than obduracy and unbelief. Their religion shielded them from -the prevailing wickedness. Cassiodorus, who became a monk after -resigning all his dignities, composed among other works a homiletic -exposition of the Psalms, in which he makes frequent reference to the -Jews, apostrophizing them, and endeavoring to convert them. It is -characteristic of this period that Cassiodorus,--who, besides Boethius, -was the only notability of the sixth century possessing a certain -philosophic culture--designated the Jews by the most opprobrious names. -It would be easy to compile a dictionary of abusive words from his -writings; he called them "scorpions and lions," "wild asses," "dogs and -unicorns." - -In spite of the antipathy of the leaders of opinion, the Jews of -Italy were happy in comparison with their brethren of the Byzantine -empire. Theodoric's successors, his beautiful and accomplished daughter -Amalasuntha, and her husband and murderer Theodatus, a weakling with -philosophical pretensions, followed his principles. The Jews supported -King Theodatus with tenacious fidelity, even when he himself had given -up all hope. The Jews of Naples risked their lives rather than come -under Justinian's scourge. Belisarius, the conqueror of the Vandal -empire, the laurel-crowned hero, trembled at Justinian's wrath, and -allowed himself to be used as the blind tool of the latter's tyranny; -he had already subjugated the whole of Sicily and the southern -extremity of the Italian peninsula, and now was swiftly approaching -Naples, the largest and most beautiful city of Lower Italy. On his -summons to the inhabitants to surrender, the Neapolitans divided into -two factions. But even the war party was not disposed to sacrifice -itself for the Ostrogoths, who were hated in Italy. The Jews alone, -and two lawyers, Pastor and Asclepiadotus, who had been raised to fame -through the influence of the Ostrogothic kings, opposed the surrender -of the city to the Byzantine general. The Jews, who were wealthy and -patriotic, offered their lives and their fortunes for the defense of -the city. In order to allay the fear of scarcity of provisions, they -promised to supply Naples with all necessaries during the siege. The -Jews, unaided, defended that part of the city which was nearest the -sea, and fought with such bravery, that the enemy did not venture to -direct their attacks against that quarter. A contemporary historian -(Procopius) has raised a glorious monument to the heroic bravery of the -Jews of Naples. - -Having one night, by means of treachery, penetrated into the city, -the enemy almost made themselves masters of it (536), but the Jews, -with the courage of lions, still continued the struggle. It was only -at break of day, when the enemy had overwhelmed them with numbers, -and many of their own side had been killed, that the Jews quitted -their posts. It is not related how the surviving Jewish combatants -fared--certainly no better than their confederates Asclepiadotus and -Pastor, who fell victims to the fury of the people. Now occurred that -which the Italian Jews had anticipated with horror; they came under the -rule of the Emperor Justinian, whose anti-Jewish ideas place him in a -class with Hadrian, Constantine, and Firuz. Italy, ruler of the world, -sank to the rank of a province (Exarchate) of the Byzantine empire, and -the Jews of Italy trembled before the exarch of Ravenna. - -This situation, however, did not continue long. Justinian's successors -were obliged to abandon a great part of Italy forever to the powerful -and uncouth Lombards (589), who, half heathen, half Arian, troubled -themselves but little about the Jews. At all events there are no -exceptional laws for the Jews to be met with in the Longobard code. -Even when the Lombards embraced the Catholic faith, the position of -the Jews in Italy remained bearable. The heads of the Catholic Church, -the Popes, were free from extreme intolerance. Gregory I (590-604), -called the Great and the Holy, who laid the foundation of the power of -Catholicism, gave utterance to the principle that the Jews should be -converted only by means of gentle persuasion and not by violence. He -conscientiously maintained their rights of Roman citizenship, which -had been recognized by various emperors. In the territory which was -subject to the papal sway in Rome, Lower Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, -he steadfastly persisted in this course, in the face of the fanatical -bishops, who regarded the oppression of the Jews as a pious work. -His pastoral letters are full of earnest exhortations, such as the -following: "We forbid you to molest the Jews or to lay upon them -restrictions not imposed by the established laws; we further permit -them to live as Romans and to dispose of their property as they will; -we only prohibit them from owning Christian slaves." - -But greatly as Gregory abhorred the forcible conversion of the Jews, -he exerted himself to win them for the Church by other means. He did -not hesitate to make an appeal to cupidity, and remitted a portion of -the land-tax to such of the Jewish farmers and peasants as embraced -Christianity. He did not, indeed, deceive himself with the belief that -the converts who were obtained in this manner were loyal Christians; -he counted, however, upon their descendants. "If we do not gain them -over," he wrote, "we at least gain their children." Having heard that a -Jew named Nasas had erected an altar to Elijah (probably a synagogue -known by this name) in the island of Sicily, and that Christians met -there to celebrate divine service, Gregory commanded the prefect -Libertinus to raze the building, and to inflict corporal punishment -on Nasas for his offense. Gregory vigorously persecuted such of the -Jews as purchased or possessed Christian slaves. In the Frankish -empire, where fanaticism had not yet made its way, the Jews were not -forbidden to carry on the slave trade. Gregory was indignant at this, -and wrote to King Theodoric (Dieterich) of Burgundy, Theodebert, king -of Austrasia, and also to Queen Brunhilde, expressing his astonishment -that they allowed the Jews to possess Christian slaves. He exhorted -them with great warmth to remove this evil, and to free the true -believers from the power of their enemy. Reccared, the king of the -Visigoths, who submitted to the papal see, was flattered beyond measure -by Gregory for promulgating an edict of intolerance. - -In the Byzantine empire and in Italy, Christianity had from the very -first shown more or less hostility to Judaism, but in the west of -Europe, in France and Spain, where the Church established itself -with difficulty, the situation of the Jews assumed a different and -much more favorable aspect. The invasions of the barbarians had -completely changed the social order existing in these countries. -Roman institutions, both political and ecclesiastical, were nearly -effaced, and the polity of the empires established by heathen or half -Christianized nations was not built up on the basis of Church law. It -was a long while before Catholicism gained a firm footing in the west -of Europe, and the Jews who had settled there enjoyed undisturbed peace -until the victorious Church gained the upper hand. - -The immigration of the Jews into these important and wealthy provinces -took place probably as early as the time of the Republic or of -Caesar. The Jewish merchants whose business pursuits brought them -from Alexandria or Asia Minor to Rome and Italy, the Jewish warriors -whom the emperors Vespasian and Titus, the conquerors of Judaea, had -dispersed as prisoners throughout the Roman provinces, found their way -voluntarily or involuntarily into Gaul and Iberia. The presence of the -Jews in the west of Europe is a certain fact only since the second -century. - -The Gallic Jews, whose first settlement was in the district of Arles, -enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship, whether they arrived in -Gaul as merchants or as fugitives, with the peddler's pack or in the -garb of slaves; they were treated as Romans also by the Frankish and -Burgundian conquerors. The most ancient legislation of the Franks and -Burgundians did not consider the Jews as a distinct race, subject to -peculiar laws. In the Frankish kingdom founded by Clovis, the Jews -dwelt in Auvergne (Arverna), in Carcassonne, Arles, Orleans, and as far -north as Paris and Belgium. Numbers of them resided in the old Greek -port of Marseilles, and in Beziers (Biterrae), and so many dwelt in the -province of Narbonne that a mountain near the city of that name was -called _Mons Judaicus_. The territory of Narbonne belonged for a long -time to Visigothic Spain, and for this reason the Jewish history of -this district reflects all the vicissitudes of the Jews on the further -side of the Pyrenees. - -The Jews of the Frankish and Burgundian kingdoms carried on -agriculture, trade, and commerce without restraint; they navigated the -seas and rivers in their own ships. They also practised medicine, and -the advice of the Jewish physicians was sought even by the clergy, who -probably did not care to rely entirely on the miraculous healing powers -of the saints and of relics. They were also skilled in the use of the -weapons of war, and took an active part in the battles between Clovis -and Theodoric's generals before Arles (508). - -Besides their Biblical names, the Jews of Gaul bore the appellations -which were common in the country, such as Armentarius, Gozolas, -Priscus, or Siderius. They lived on the best of terms with the people -of the country, and intermarriages even occurred between Jews and -Christians. The Christian clergy did not scruple to eat at Jewish -tables, and in turn often entertained the Jews. - -The higher ecclesiastics, however, took umbrage, because the Jews -refused, at Christian banquets, to eat of certain dishes, which the -precepts of their religion forbade them to enjoy. For this reason -the council of Vannes (465) prohibited the clergy from taking part -in Jewish banquets, "because they considered it undignified that -Christians should eat the viands of the Jews, while the latter refused -to eat of Christian dishes, thus making it appear as though the clergy -were inferior to the Jews." But this decision of the council was of -no avail; canonical severity was powerless to check this friendly -intercourse. It became necessary to re-enact this ecclesiastical -prohibition several times. Thus, in spite of their separation from -Judaea and Babylonia, the centers of Judaism, the Jews of Gaul lived in -strict accordance with the precepts of their religion. Wherever they -settled they built their synagogues, and constituted their communities -in exact agreement with the directions of the Talmud. - -The friendly relations existing between the Jews and the inhabitants of -Gaul underwent no change even when the country, by reason of Clovis' -conversion, came under the rule of the Catholic Church. Clovis was, -indeed, a bloodthirsty butcher, but not a fanatic. The clergy were -under obligations to him, because he had abandoned heathenism for -Christianity, and he did not need to yield to them in any way. As he -left an hereditary kingdom to his successors, they were not placed in -painful situations and dilemmas, as were the elective kings of the -Visigoths, and were not obliged to make concessions or sacrifices to -the Church. Among the Franks, therefore, heathen customs remained -long in vogue, and the Jews were permitted to live according to their -religion without molestation. It is true that many ecclesiastical -fanatics exerted themselves to convert the Jews by every means in their -power, even using ill-treatment, and many severe resolutions were -passed at their councils. But these persecutions remained isolated, -even when they were countenanced by one or another of the zealous -kings. Burgundy, however, ever since King Sigismund had embraced the -Catholic faith (516), and felt bound to elevate oppression of the -Arians and the Jews into the policy of the state, was more hostile to -the Jews than the rest of France. It was this king who first raised the -barrier between Jews and Christians. He confirmed the decision of the -council of Epaone, held under the presidency of the bloodthirsty bishop -Avitus, forbidding even laymen to take part in Jewish banquets (517). - -A spirit of hostility to the Jews gradually spread from Burgundy over -the Frankish countries. As early as the third and fourth councils -at Orleans (538 and 545), severe enactments were passed against -them. Not only were the Christians commanded not to take part in -Jewish banquets, and the Jews forbidden to make proselytes, but the -latter were even prohibited from appearing in the streets and public -squares during Easter, because "their appearance was an insult to -Christianity." Childebert I of Paris embodied this last point in his -constitution (554), and thus exalted the intolerance of the clergy -into a law of the state. This feeling of hostility, however, was not -prevalent among Childebert's contemporaries. The Frankish empire was -divided among several monarchs, who, although related, mortally hated -one another; this division had the effect of confining intolerant -practices to single provinces. Even ecclesiastical dignitaries of -high rank continued to maintain friendly intercourse with the Jews, -without fearing any danger to the Church. But fanaticism is naturally -contagious; when it has once gained a firm footing in a country, it -soon obtains ascendancy over all minds, and overcomes all scruples. In -the Frankish empire the persecution of the Jews proceeded from a man -who may be regarded as the very incarnation of Jew-hatred. This was -Avitus, Bishop of Arverna, whose see was at Clermont; what Cyril had -been to the Jews of Alexandria, Avitus was to the Jews of Gaul. - -The Jewish population of his bishopric was a thorn in his side, and he -accordingly roused the members of his flock against it. Again and again -he exhorted the Jews of Clermont to become converts, but his sermons -meeting with no response, he incited the mob to attack the synagogues, -and raze them to the ground. But even this did not content the fanatic; -he offered the Jews the choice between presenting themselves for -baptism and quitting the city. Only one Jew received baptism, thus -making himself an object of abhorrence to the whole community. As he -was going through the streets at Pentecost in his white baptismal robe, -he was sprinkled with rancid oil by a Jew. This seemed a challenge to -the fanatic mob, and they fell upon the Jews. The latter retreated to -their houses, where they were attacked, and many of them killed. The -sight of blood caused the faint hearts to waver, and five hundred of -the Jews besought Bishop Avitus to accord them the favor of baptism, -and implored him to put an end to the massacre at once. Such of them -as remained true to their religion fled to Marseilles (576). The -Christian population celebrated the day of the baptism of the five -hundred with wild rejoicing, as though the cross might pride itself on -a victory which had been won by the sword. The news of the occurrence -in Clermont caused great joy among the fanatics. Bishop Gregory of -Tours invited the pious poet Venantius Fortunatus to celebrate in -song the achievement of Avitus. But the Latin verses of this poet, -who had emigrated to France from Italy, instead of glorifying Avitus, -raised a monument of shame to his memory. They indicate quite clearly -that the Jews of Clermont suffered innocently, and became converts -to Christianity out of sheer desperation. Thus the effects of the -ever-growing fanaticism made themselves felt in many parts of France. -The Council of Macon (581) adopted several resolutions which aimed -at assigning an inferior position in society to the Jews. They were -neither to officiate as judges nor to be allowed to become tax-farmers, -"lest the Christian population appear to be subjected to them." The -Jews were further obliged to show profound reverence to the Christian -priests, and were to seat themselves in their presence only by express -permission. All who transgressed this law were to be severely punished. -The edict forbidding the Jews to appear in public during Easter was -re-enacted by this council. Even King Chilperic, although he bore no -particular good-will to the Catholic clergy, emulated the example set -by Avitus. He also compelled the Jews of his empire to receive baptism, -and himself stood sponsor to the Jewish neophytes at the baptismal -font. But he was content with the mere appearance of conversion, and -offered no opposition to the Jews, although they continued to celebrate -the Sabbath and to observe the laws of Judaism. - -The later Merovingian kings became more and more bigoted, and their -hatred of the Jews consequently increased. Clotaire II, on whom -had devolved the rule of the entire Frankish empire (613), was a -matricide, but was nevertheless considered a model of religious piety. -He sanctioned the decisions of the Council of Paris, which forbade the -Jews to hold magisterial power or to take military service (615). His -son Dagobert must be counted among the most anti-Jewish monarchs in the -whole history of the world. Many thousands of Jewish fugitives who had -fled to the Frankish empire to escape from the fanaticism of Sisebut, -king of the Visigoths, roused the jealousy of this sensual monarch, who -was ashamed of being considered inferior to his Visigothic contemporary -and of manifesting less religious zeal. He therefore issued a decree, -wherein he declared that the entire Jewish population of the Frankish -empire must either embrace Christianity before a certain day, or be -treated as enemies and be put to death (about 629). - -The more the authority of the Merovingian _faineants_, as they have -been called, declined, and the more the power of the politic and -cautious stewards, Pepin's descendants, rose, the greater was the -exemption from persecution and torture enjoyed by the Jews. The -predecessors of Charlemagne seem to have felt that the Jews were a -useful class of men, whose activity and intellectual capabilities could -not but be advantageous to the state. The slave trade alone remained a -standing subject of legislation in the Councils; but in spite of their -zeal they were unable to abolish the traffic in human beings, because -their condemnation applied to only one phase of the trade. - -The Jews of Germany are to be regarded merely as colonies of the -Frankish Jews, and such of them as lived in Austrasia, a province -subject to the Merovingian kings, shared the same fate as their -brethren in France. According to a chronicle, the most ancient Jews -in the Rhine district are said to have been the descendants of the -legionaries who took part in the destruction of the Temple. From the -vast horde of Jewish prisoners, the Vangioni had chosen the most -beautiful women, had brought them back to their stations on the shores -of the Rhine and the Main, and had compelled them to minister to the -satisfaction of their desires. The children thus begotten of Jewish and -Germanic parents were brought up by their mothers in the Jewish faith, -their fathers not troubling themselves about them. It is these children -who are said to have been the founders of the first Jewish communities -between Worms and Mayence. It is certain that a Jewish congregation -existed in the Roman colony, the city of Cologne, long before -Christianity had been raised to power by Constantine. The heads of the -community and its most respected members had obtained from the heathen -emperors the privilege of exemption from the onerous municipal offices. -The first Christian emperor, however, narrowed the limits of this -immunity, exempting only two or three families. The Jews of Cologne -enjoyed also the privilege of exercising their own jurisdiction, -which they were allowed to retain until the Middle Ages. A non-Jewish -plaintiff, even though he were a priest, was obliged to bring his suit -against a Jew before the Jewish judge (bishop of the Jews). - -While the history of the Jews in Byzantium, Italy, and France -possesses interest for special students, that of their brethren in -the Pyrenean peninsula rises to the height of universal importance. -The Jewish inhabitants of this happy peninsula contributed by their -hearty interest to the greatness of the country, which they loved as -only a fatherland can be loved, and in so doing achieved world-wide -reputation. Jewish Spain contributed almost as much to the development -of Judaism as Judaea and Babylonia, and as in these countries, so -every spot in this new home has become classic for the Jewish race. -Cordova, Granada, and Toledo are as familiar to the Jews as Jerusalem -and Tiberias, and almost more so than Nahardea and Sora. When Judaism -had come to a standstill in the East, and had grown weak with age, it -acquired new vigor in Spain, and extended its fruitful influence over a -wide sphere. Spain seemed to be destined by Providence to become a new -center for the members of the dispersed race, where their spirit could -revive, and to which they could point with pride. - -The first settlement of the Jews in beautiful Hesperia is buried in -dim obscurity. It is certain that they went thither as early as the -time of the Roman Republic, as free men, to take advantage of the rich -resources of this country. - -The victims of the unhappy insurrections under Vespasian, Titus, and -Hadrian were also dispersed to the extreme west, and an exaggerated -account relates that 80,000 of them were carried off to Spain as -prisoners. They probably did not remain long in slavery; the sympathy -of their free brethren undoubtedly hastened to ransom them, and thus -fulfil the most important of the duties prescribed by Talmudical -Judaism to its adherents. How numerously the Jews had settled in some -parts of Spain is shown by the names which they conferred upon these -localities. The city of Granada was called the city of the Jews in -former times, on account of its being entirely inhabited by them: the -same name was also borne by the ancient town of Tarragona (Tarracona), -before its conquest by the Arabs. In Cordova there existed a Jewish -gateway of ancient date, and near Saragossa there was a fortress which -at the time of the Arabs was called Ruta al Jahud. In the neighborhood -of Tortosa a gravestone was found with both a Hebrew and a national -name. This memorial was inscribed in three languages--Hebrew, Greek, -and Latin; the Jews must, therefore, have emigrated at an early period -from a Greek district to the north of Spain, and acquired the Latin -language, without forgetting that of the Holy Writings. - -Pride of ancestry, which was a characteristic of the Jews of this -country as of the other Spaniards, was not content with the fact that -the Jewish colony in Spain had possessed the right of citizenship -long before the Visigoths and other Germanic tribes had set their -tyrannous iron foot in the land, but desired to lay claim to even -higher antiquity for it. The Spanish Jews maintained that they had -been transported hither after the destruction of the Temple by the -Babylonian conqueror, Nebuchadnezzar. Certain Jewish families, the -Ibn-Dauds and the Abrabanels, boasted descent from the royal house of -David, and maintained that their ancestors had been settled since time -immemorial partly in the district of Lucena, and partly in the environs -of Toledo and Seville. The numerous Spanish-Jewish family of Nasi also -traced back its pedigree to King David, and proved it by means of a -genealogical table and seals. The family of the Ibn-Albalias was more -modest, and dated its immigration only from the destruction of the -Second Temple. A family tradition runs to the effect that the Roman -governor of Spain begged the conqueror of Jerusalem to send him some -noble families from the capital of Judaea, and that Titus complied with -his request. Among those thus transported was a man named Baruch, who -excelled in the art of weaving curtains for the Temple. This Baruch, -who settled in Merida, was the ancestor of the Ibn-Albalias. - -Christianity had early taken root in Spain. In fact a council of -bishops, priests, and the subordinate clergy met at Illiberis (Elvira, -near Granada) some time before Constantine's conversion. The Jews were -nevertheless held in high esteem by the Christian population as well -as by the heathens. The Iberians and Romans who had been converted -to Christianity had not yet discovered in the Jews a race repudiated -by God, a people whose presence was to be shunned. They associated -with their Jewish neighbors in perfect freedom. The newly-converted -inhabitants of the country, who often heard their apostle preach about -Jews and Judaism, had no conception of the wide gulf dividing Judaism -from Christianity, and as often had the produce of their fields blessed -by pious Jews as by their own clergy. Intermarriages between Jews and -Christians occurred quite as frequently in Spain as in Gaul. - -The higher Catholic clergy, however, could not suffer this friendly -intercourse between Jews and Christians to continue; they perceived it -to be dangerous to the newly-established Church. To the representatives -of the Church in Spain is due the honor--if honor it be--of first -having raised a barrier between Jew and Christian. The Council of -Illiberis (about 320), at whose head was Osius, Bishop of Cordova, -forbade the Christians, under pain of excommunication, to hold -friendly intercourse with the Jews, to contract marriages with them, -or to allow them to bless the produce of their fields. The seed of -malignant hatred of the Jews, which was thus first sown by the Synod -of Illiberis, did not, however, produce its poisonous fruit until much -later. When the migrating Germanic hordes of the Suevi, Vandals, and -Visigoths first laid waste this beautiful country, and then chose it -for their home, the Catholics of the land were obliged to bear the -yoke of political and religious dependence, for the Visigoths, who -had taken lasting possession of the peninsula, happened to have been -converted to the Arian faith. On the whole, the Visigothic Arians -were tolerably indifferent to the controversy of the creeds, as to -whether the Son of God was the same as, or similar to, the Father, and -whether Bishop Arius ought to be regarded as orthodox or heretical. -But they thoroughly hated the Catholic inhabitants of the country, -because in every Catholic they saw a Roman, and consequently an enemy. -The Jews, on the other hand, were unmolested under the Arian kings, -and besides enjoying civil and political equality, were admitted to -the public offices. Their skill and knowledge, which gave them the -advantage over the uncivilized Visigoths, specially fitted them for -these posts. The favorable condition of the Jews in Spain continued for -more than a century, beginning with the time when this country first -became a province of the Toletanic-Visigothic empire, and extending -over the later period, when, under Theudes (531), it became the center -of the same. The Jews who dwelt in the province of Narbonne, and in -that district of Africa which formed part of the Visigothic empire, -also enjoyed civil and political equality; some of them rendered -material service to the Visigothic kings. The Jews that lived at the -foot of the Pyrenees defended the passes leading from Gaul into Spain -against the invasions of the Franks and Burgundians, who longed to -possess the country. They were regarded as the most trusty guardians -of the frontier, and their martial courage gained for them special -distinction. The Visigothic Jews must have remained in communication, -either through Italy or through Africa, with Judaea or Babylonia, from -which countries they probably received their religious teachers. They -adhered strictly to the precepts of the Talmud, abstained from wine -made by non-Jews, and admitted their heathen and Christian slaves -into the covenant of Abraham, as ordained by the Talmud. While their -brethren on the other side of the Pyrenees were greatly oppressed, and -forcibly converted to Christianity, or compelled to emigrate, they -enjoyed complete liberty of religion, and were further granted the -privilege, which was denied the Jews in all the other countries of -Europe, of initiating their slaves into their religion. - -But as soon as the Catholic Church obtained the supremacy in Spain, -and Arianism began to be persecuted, the affairs of the Jews of this -country assumed an unfavorable aspect. King Reccared, who had abjured -the Arian creed at the Council of Toledo, was the first to unite with -the Synod in imposing restrictions on the Jews. They were prohibited -from contracting marriages with the Christians, from acquiring -Christian slaves, and from holding public offices; such of their -children as were born of intermarriages were to be forcibly baptized -(589). They were thus made to assume an isolated position, which pained -them all the more as they were animated by a sense of honor, and until -now had lived upon equal terms with their fellow-citizens, having, -in fact, been privileged more than the Catholics. Most oppressive of -all was the restraint touching the possession of slaves. Henceforward -the Jews were neither to purchase Christian slaves nor to accept them -as presents, and if they transgressed the order and initiated the -slaves into Judaism, they were to lose all rights in them. The whole -fortune of him that circumcised a slave was forfeited to the state. -All well-to-do people in the country possessed slaves and serfs, who -cultivated their land and provided for the wants of the house; the Jews -alone were to be deprived of this advantage. It is conceivable that the -wealthy Jews who owned slaves exerted themselves to obtain the repeal -of Reccared's law, and to this end they proffered a considerable sum -of money to the king. Reccared, however, refused their offer, and for -this deed was commended beyond measure by Pope Gregory, whose heart's -desire was fulfilled by this law (599). Gregory compared the Visigothic -monarch to David, king of Israel, "who refused to accept the water -which his warriors had brought him at the risk of their lives, and -poured it out before the Lord." In the same manner, he contended, -Reccared had sacrificed to God the gold which had been offered to -him. At the same time Reccared confirmed a decision of the Council -of Narbonne, forbidding the Jews to sing Psalms at their funeral -services,--a custom which they had probably adopted from the Church. - -Although Reccared desired to enforce these restrictive laws against the -Jews, it was nevertheless not very difficult for the latter to evade -them. The peculiar constitution of Visigothic Spain afforded them the -means of escaping their pressure. According to this constitution the -king was not an all-powerful ruler, for the Visigothic nobles, who -possessed the right of electing him, were absolutely independent in -their own provinces. Neither they nor the people at large shared the -fanaticism of the Church against the Jews. They accorded them, as in -the past, the right of purchasing slaves, and probably also bestowed -offices upon them. In twenty years Reccared's laws against the Jews had -fallen into complete disuse. His successors paid but little attention -to the matter, and were on the whole not unfavorably disposed towards -the Jews. - -At this period, however, a king of the Visigoths was elected, who, -liberal in other respects, and not uncultured, was a scourge for the -Jews of his dominions, and, in consequence, prepared a grievous destiny -for his empire. Sisebut, a contemporary of the Emperor Heraclius, was, -like the latter, a fanatical persecutor of the Jews. But while some -excuse may be found for Heraclius's conduct in the revolt of the Jews -of Palestine, and in the fact that he was compelled to adopt this -course by the blind fury of the monks, Sisebut acted thus without any -provocation, of his own free will, and almost contrary to the wish of -the Catholic clergy. At the very commencement of his reign (612), -the Jews engaged his attention. His conscience was troubled by the -fact, that in spite of Reccared's laws, Christian slaves still served -Jewish masters, and were initiated into Judaism, to which faith they -willingly adhered. He therefore renewed these laws, and commanded the -ecclesiastics and the judges, as well as the entire population of the -country, to see that in future no Christians stood in servile relations -to the Jews, but he went further in this direction than Reccared; the -Jews were not only prohibited from acquiring any slaves, but were -forbidden to retain those whom they possessed. Only those Jews who -embraced Christianity were permitted to own slaves, and they alone -were allowed to advance a claim to the slaves left by their Jewish -relatives. Sisebut solemnly exhorted his successors to maintain this -law. "May the king who dares abolish this law"--thus ran the formula of -Sisebut's curse--"incur the deepest disgrace in this world, and eternal -torments in the flames of hell." In spite of this severity and of -Sisebut's earnest exhortations, this law appears to have been as little -enforced at that period as under Reccared. The independent nobles of -the country extended their protection to the Jews, either for their -own interest or out of defiance to the king. Even many of the priests -and bishops seem to have supported the Jews, and to have concerned -themselves but little about the king's command. Sisebut therefore -enacted a still severer decree. Within a certain period all the Jews -of the land were either to receive baptism or to quit the territory -of the Visigothic empire. This order was strictly executed. The weak, -who clung to their property or loved the land which their fathers had -inhabited time out of mind, allowed themselves to be baptized. The -stronger-minded, on the other hand, whose conscience could approve of -no compromise, emigrated to France or to the neighboring continent -of Africa (612-613). The clergy, however, were by no means satisfied -with this forced conversion, and one of their principal representatives -reproached the king with having indeed "exhibited zeal for the faith, -but not conscientious zeal." With this fanatical persecution Sisebut -paved the way for the dissolution of the Visigothic empire. - -Sisebut's rigorous laws against the Jews lasted no longer than his -reign. They were repealed by his successor, Swintila, a just and -liberal monarch, whom the oppressed named the "father of his country." -The exiled Jews returned to their native land, and the proselytes -reverted to Judaism (621-631). In spite of their baptism the Jewish -converts had not abandoned their religion. The act of baptism was -deemed sufficient at this period, and no one inquired whether the -converts still retained their former customs and usages. The noble king -Swintila was, however, dethroned by a conspiracy of nobles and the -clergy, and a docile tool, Sisenand by name, raised to his place. Under -this monarch the clergy again acquired the ascendancy. Once again, at -the Council of Toledo (633), the Jews became the object of synodal -attention. At the head of this council stood Isidore, archbishop -of Hispalis (Seville), a well-informed and equitable prelate, but -infected with the prejudices of his time. The synod proclaimed the -principle that the Jews ought not to be made to embrace Christianity -by violence and threats of punishment; nevertheless Reccared's laws -against them were re-enacted. The full severity of the ecclesiastical -legislation was, however, directed against the Jews who had been -forcibly converted under Sisebut, and had reverted to their religion. -Although the clergy themselves had criticized the method of their -conversion, they nevertheless considered it a duty to keep within -the pale of Christianity the Jews that had once received the holy -sacrament, "in order that the faith may not be dishonored." Religion -was regarded at this period merely as a lip-confession. The synod which -sat under Sisenand decided, therefore, that the Jews who had been -baptized should be forcibly restrained from the observance of their -religion, and withdrawn from the society of their co-religionists, and -that the children of both sexes should be torn from their parents and -thrust into monasteries. Those discovered observing the Sabbath and -the Jewish festivals, contracting marriages according to the Jewish -rites, practising circumcision, or abstaining from certain foods, in -obedience to the precepts of Judaism, were to expiate their offenses -by forfeiting their freedom. They were to be reduced to slavery, and -presented to orthodox Christians chosen by the king. According to -this canonical legislation, the forcibly converted Jews and their -descendants were not to be admitted as witnesses, because "those -that have been untrue to God cannot be sincere to man"; this was the -conclusion reached by ignorance in session. In comparison with this -severity, the treatment of the Jews that had remained steadfast to -their faith appears quite merciful. - -Even these, however, the clergy exerted themselves to alienate from -Judaism. Isidore of Seville wrote two books against the Jews, wherein -he attempted to prove the doctrines of Christianity by means of -passages from the Old Testament, naturally in that tasteless, senseless -manner which had been employed since the commencement of the polemic -warfare against Judaism by the Fathers. The Spanish Jews, in order to -confirm themselves in their ancestral faith, were induced to take up -the controversy, and to refute this specious proof. The learned men -among them replied with counter treatises, written probably in Latin. -Their superior knowledge of the Biblical records made their victory -easy. In answer to the principal rejoinder, that the scepter had -departed from Judah, and that the Christians, who possessed kings, thus -formed the true people of Israel, the Jews pointed to a Jewish kingdom -in the extreme East, which they asserted was ruled over by a descendant -of David. They alluded to the Jewish-Himyarite empire in southern -Arabia, but this was governed by a dynasty which had been converted to -Judaism. - -These resolutions of the fourth Council of Toledo and Sisenand's -persecution of the Jewish converts do not appear to have been carried -out with all the proposed severity. The Visigothic-Spanish nobles -took the Jews more and more under their patronage, and against them -the royal authority was powerless. At this period, however, a king -resembling Sisebut ascended the Visigothic throne. Chintila assembled -a general council, and not only did he obtain from them a confirmation -of all anti-Jewish clauses contained in the existing laws, but enacted -that no one should be allowed to remain in the Visigothic empire who -did not embrace the Catholic religion. The ecclesiastical assembly -adopted these propositions with joy, and exulted over the fact that -"by the piety of the king, the unyielding infidelity of the Jews would -at last be destroyed." They appended the canonical law, that in future -every king, before his accession, should be compelled to take a solemn -oath not to allow the converted Jews to violate the Catholic faith, nor -to favor their unbelief, but strictly to enforce the ecclesiastical -decisions against them (638). - -A second time the Jews were obliged to emigrate, and the converts, who -still clung to Judaism in their secret hearts, were compelled to sign a -confession to the effect that they would observe and obey the Catholic -religion without reserve. But the confession thus signed by men whose -sacred convictions were outraged, was not and could not be sincere. -They hoped steadfastly for better times, when they might be able to -throw off the mask, and the elective constitution of the Visigothic -empire soon made this possible. The present situation lasted only -during the four years of Chintila's reign (638-642). - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE JEWS OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA. - - Happy condition of the Jews in Arabia--Traditions as to - their original settlements--Yathrib and Chaibar--The - Jewish-Arabic tribes--The Benu-Nadhir, the Benu-Kuraiza, - and Benu-Bachdal--The Benu-Kainukaa--The Jews of Yemen-- - Their power and influence--Conversion of Arabian tribes to - Judaism--Abu-Kariba the first Jewish-Himyarite king--Zorah - Dhu-Nowas--Samuel Ibn-Adija--Mahomet--His indebtedness - to Judaism--Mahomet's early friendliness to the Jews and - subsequent breach with them--His attacks on the Jewish tribes - --The War of the Fosse--The position of the Jews under the - Caliphs. - -500-662 C. E. - - -Wearied with contemplating the miserable plight of the Jews in their -ancient home and in the countries of Europe, and fatigued by the -constant sight of fanatical oppression, the eyes of the observer rest -with gladness upon their situation in the Arabian peninsula. Here the -sons of Judah were free to raise their heads, and did not need to look -about them with fear and humiliation, lest the ecclesiastical wrath -be discharged upon them, or the secular power overwhelm them. Here -they were not shut out from the paths of honor, nor excluded from the -privileges of the state, but, untrammeled, were allowed to develop -their powers in the midst of a free, simple, and talented people, -to show their manly courage, to compete for the gifts of fame, and -with practised hand to measure swords with their antagonists. Instead -of bearing the yoke, the Jews were not infrequently the leaders of -the Arabian tribes. Their intellectual superiority constituted them -a power, and they concluded offensive and defensive alliances, and -carried on feuds. Besides the sword and the lance, however, they -handled the ploughshare and the lyre, and in the end became the -teachers of the Arabian nation. The history of the Jews of Arabia in -the century which precedes Mahomet's appearance, and during the period -of his activity, forms a glorious page in the annals of the Jews. - -The first immigration of Jewish families into the free peninsula is -buried in misty tradition. According to one account, the Israelites -sent by Joshua to fight the Amalekites settled in the city of Yathrib -(afterwards Medina), and in the province of Chaibar; according to -another, the Israelite warriors, under Saul, who had spared the -beautiful young son of the Amalekite king, and had been repudiated by -the nation for their disobedience, returned to the Hejas (northern -Arabia), and settled there. An Israelite colony is also supposed to -have been formed in northern Arabia during the reign of David. It is -possible that under the powerful kings of Judah, seafaring Israelites, -who navigated the Red Sea on their way to Ophir--the land of -gold--established trading stations, for the trade with India, in Mariba -and Sanaa (Usal), the most important commercial towns of southern -Arabia (Yemen, Himyara, Sabea), and planted Jewish colonies there. -The later Arabian Jews said, however, that they had heard from their -forefathers that many Jewish fugitives had escaped to northern Arabia -on the destruction of the First Temple by Nebuchadnezzar. But there -can be no doubt that the persecution of the Jews by the Romans was the -means of establishing a Jewish population in the Arabian peninsula. -The death-defying zealots who, after the destruction of the Second -Temple, fled in part to Egypt and to Cyrene, in order to continue there -the desperate struggle against the thraldom of Rome, also passed in -straggling bands into Arabia, where they were not compelled to hide -their love of freedom or to abandon their warlike bearing. - -From these fugitives sprang three Jewish-Arabic tribes--the -Benu-Nadhir, the Benu-Kuraiza, and the Benu-Bachdal, the first two -of which were descended from Aaron, and therefore called themselves -Cohanim (Al-kahinani). Another Jewish family--the Benu-Kainukaa--were -established in northern Arabia, and their mode of living was different -from that of the Nadhir and Kuraiza. These tribes had their center in -the city of Yathrib, which was situated in a fruitful district, planted -with palms and rice, and watered by small streams. As the Jews were -often molested by Bedouins, they built castles on the elevated places -in the city and the surrounding country, whereby they guarded their -independence. Although originally the sole rulers of this district, -they were afterwards obliged to share their power and the possession of -the soil with the Arabs, for, about the year 300, two related families, -the Benu-Aus and the Chazraj (together forming the tribe of Kaila), -settled in the same neighborhood, and sometimes stood in friendly, -sometimes in hostile relations to the Jews. - -To the north of Yathrib was situated the district of Chaibar, which was -entirely inhabited by Jews, who constituted a separate commonwealth. -The Jews of Chaibar are supposed to have been descendants of the -Rechabites, who, in accordance with the command of their progenitor, -Jonadab, the son of Rechab, led a nomadic and Nazarite life; after the -destruction of the First Temple, they are said to have wandered as far -as the district of Chaibar, attracted by its abundance of palms and -grain. The Jews of Chaibar constructed a line of castles or fortresses, -like the castles of the Christian knights; the strongest of them was -Kamus, built upon a hill difficult of access. These castles protected -them from the predatory incursions of the warlike Bedouins, and enabled -them to offer an asylum to many a persecuted fugitive. Wadil-Kora (the -valley of the villages), a fertile plain a day's journey from Chaibar, -was also inhabited exclusively by Jews. In Mecca, where stood the -sanctuary of the Arabs, there probably lived but few Jews. - -They were numerously represented, however, in southern Arabia (Yemen), -"the land," its inhabitants boasted, "the very dust of which was gold, -which produced the healthiest men, and whose women brought forth -without pain." But unlike their brethren in Hejas, the Jews of Arabia -Felix lived without racial or political cohesion, scattered among -the Arabs. They nevertheless in time obtained so great an influence -over the Arab tribes and the kings of Yemen (Himyara), that they were -able to prevent the propagation of Christianity in this region. The -Byzantine Christian emperors had their desires fixed upon these markets -for Indian produce. Without actually meditating the subjection of the -brave Himyarites (Homerites), they desired to gain their friendship -by converting them to Christianity; the cross was to be the means of -effecting a commercial connection. It was not until the end of the -fifth or the beginning of the sixth century that the Christian envoys -succeeded in converting to Christianity an Arab prince and his tribe, -whose capital was the commercial town of Najara.--Arabia owned only -half the island of Yotabe (now Jijban), in the Red Sea (60 miles to -the south of the capital, Aila); a small Jewish free state had existed -there since time immemorial. - -In consequence of their Semitic descent, the Jews of Arabia possessed -many points of similarity with the primitive inhabitants of the -country. Their language was closely related to Arabic, and their -customs, except those that had been produced by their religion, were -not different from those of the sons of Arabia. The Jews became, -therefore, so thoroughly Arabic that they were distinguished from the -natives of the country only by their religious belief. Intermarriage -between the two nations tended to heighten the similarity of their -characters. Like the Himyarites, the Jews of southern Arabia applied -themselves more particularly to the trade between India, the Byzantine -empire, and Persia. The Jews of northern Arabia, on the contrary, -led the life of Bedouins; they occupied themselves with agriculture, -cattle breeding, transport by caravan, traffic in weapons, and probably -also the calling of robbers. The Arabian Jews likewise possessed a -patriarchal, tribal constitution. Several families were united under -one name, and led by a chieftain (shaich), who in times of peace -settled controversies and pronounced judgment, and in war commanded all -the men able to bear arms, and concluded alliances with neighboring -tribes. Like the Arabs, the Jews of the peninsula extended their -hospitality to every one who entered their tents, and held inviolable -faith with their allies; but they shared also the faults of the -original inhabitants of the peninsula, avenging the death of one of -their number with rigorous inflexibility, and hiding in ambush in order -to surprise and annihilate their enemy. It would sometimes happen that -a Jewish tribe, having entered into an alliance with an Arabian clan, -would find itself opposed to a kindred tribe which had espoused another -cause. But even though Jews were at feud with each other, their innate -qualities moderated in them Bedouin ferocity, which never extended -mercy to a foe. They ransomed the prisoners of a kindred tribe with -which they happened to be at war, from the hands of their own allies, -being unwilling to abandon them as slaves to heathens, "because," said -they, "the redemption of such of our co-religionists as are prisoners -is a religious duty." Besides being equal to the Arabs in bravery, the -Jews also contended with them for the palm in poetry. For in addition -to manliness and courage, poetry was cultivated among the Arab nobles; -it was fostered by the chieftains, and richly rewarded by the Arab -kings. Next to the warrior, the poet was the man most honored in -Arabia; for him all hearts and tents opened wide. The Jews of Arabia -were likewise able to speak with elegance the Arabic language, and to -adorn their poetry with rhymes. - -The knowledge of their religion, which the Arabian Jews had brought -with them in their flight from Judaea, and that which afterwards came -to them from the academies, conferred upon them superiority over the -heathen tribes, and soon made them their masters. While but few Arabs, -before the latter part of the seventh century, were familiar with the -art of writing, it was universally understood by the Jews, who made -use, however, of the square, the so-called Assyrian characters. As the -few Arabs that succeeded in learning to write generally employed the -Hebrew characters, it would appear that they first acquired the art of -writing from the Jews. Every Jew in Arabia was probably able to read -the Holy Scriptures, for which reason the Arabs called the Jews the -"nation of writing" (Ahl' ul kitab). - -In the form in which it was transmitted to them, that is to say, with -the character impressed upon it by the Tanaim and the Amoraim, Judaism -was most holy to the Arabian Jews. They strictly observed the dietary -laws, and solemnized the festivals, and the fast of Yom-Kippur, which -they called Ashura. They celebrated the Sabbath with such rigor that -in spite of their delight in war, and the opportunity for enjoying -it, their sword remained in its scabbard on that day. Although they -had nothing to complain of in this hospitable country, which they -were able to regard and love as their fatherland, they yearned -nevertheless to return to the holy land of their fathers, and daily -awaited the coming of the Messiah. Like all the Jews of the globe, -therefore, they turned their face in prayer towards Jerusalem. They -were in communication with the Jews of Palestine, and even after -the fall of the Patriarchate, willingly subordinated themselves to -the authorities in Tiberias, whence they received, as also from the -Babylonian academies probably, religious instruction and interpretation -of the Bible. Yathrib was the seat of Jewish learning, and possessed -teachers of the Law (Achbar, Chabar) who expounded the Scriptures in -an academy (Midras). But the knowledge of the Bible which the Arabian -Jews possessed was not considerable. They were acquainted with it only -through the medium of the Agadic exegesis, which had become familiar to -them in their travels or had been brought to them by immigrants. For -them the glorious history of the past coalesced so completely with the -Agadic additions that they were no longer able to separate the gold -from the dross. Endowed with poetical fancy, the Arabian Jews on their -side embellished the Biblical history with interesting legends, which -were afterwards circulated as actual facts. - -The Jews of Arabia, enjoying complete liberty, and being subjected to -no restraint, were able to defend their religious opinions without -fear, and to communicate them with impunity to their heathen neighbors. -The Arab mind, susceptible to intellectual promptings, was delighted -with the simple, sublime contents of the Bible, and by degrees certain -Jewish conceptions and religious ideas became familiar and current -in Arabia. The Arabian Jews made their neighbors acquainted with a -calendar-system, without which the latter were completely at sea in the -arrangement of their holy seasons; learned Jews from Yathrib taught the -Arabs to insert another month in their lunar year, which was far in -arrear of the solar year. The Arabs adopted the nineteen-years cycle of -the Jews (about 420), and called the intercalary month Nasi, doubtless -from the circumstance that the Jews were accustomed to receive their -calendar for the festivals from their Nasi (Patriarch). - -The Jews even succeeded in instructing the Arabs in regard to their -historical origin, concerning which their memories were void, and in -their credulity the latter accepted this genealogy as the true one. It -was of great consequence to the Jews to be regarded and acknowledged by -the Arabs as their kinsmen, and too many points of social interest were -bound up with this relationship for them to allow it to escape their -attention. The holy city of Mecca (Alcharam), the chief city of the -country, was built round an ancient temple (Kaaba, the Square), or more -properly, round a black stone; for all Arabs it was an asylum, in which -the sword durst not quit the sheath. The five fairs, the most important -of which was at Okaz, could be frequented only in the four holy -months of the year, when the truce of God prevailed. Whoever desired -to take advantage of these periods and to enjoy security of life in -the midst of a warlike people, not over-scrupulous in the matter of -shedding blood, was obliged to establish his relationship to the Arabs, -otherwise he was excluded from these privileges. - -Happily, the Arabian Jews bethought them of the genealogy of the Arabs -as set forth in the first book of the Pentateuch, and seized upon it as -the instrument by which to prove their kinship with them. The Jews were -convinced that they were related to the Arabs on two sides, through -Yoktan and through Ishmael. Under their instruction, therefore, the -two principal Arabian tribes traced back the line of their ancestors -to these two progenitors, the real Arabs (the Himyarites) supposing -themselves to be descended from Yoktan; the pseudo-Arabs in the north, -on the other hand, deriving their origin from Ishmael. These points -of contact granted, the Jews had ample opportunity to multiply the -proofs of their relationship. The Arabs loved genealogical tables, -and were delighted to be able to follow their descent and history -so far into hoary antiquity; accordingly, all this appeared to them -both evident and flattering. They consequently exerted themselves to -bring their genealogical records and traditions into unison with the -Biblical accounts. Although their traditions extended over less than -six centuries on the one side to their progenitor Yarob and his sons -or grandsons Himyar and Kachtan, and on the other, to Adnan, yet in -their utter disregard of historical accuracy, this fact constituted no -obstacle. Without a scruple, the southern Arabians called themselves -Kachtanites, and the northern Arabians Ishmaelites. They readily -accorded to the Jews the rights of relationship, that is to say, -equality and all the advantages attending it. - -The Arabs were thus in intimate intercourse with the Jews, and the -sons of the desert, whose unpoetical mythology afforded them no matter -for inspiration, derived much instruction from Judaism. Under these -circumstances many Arabs could not fail to develop peculiar affection -for Judaism, and some embraced this religion, though their conversion -had not been thought of by the Jews. As they had practised circumcision -while heathen, their conversion to Judaism was particularly easy. -The members of a family among the Arabs were indissolubly bound to -one another, and, according to their phylarchic constitution, the -individuals identified themselves with the tribe. This brought about, -that when a chieftain became a Jew, his whole clan at once followed -him, the wisest, into the fold of Judaism. It is expressly recorded -about several Arabian tribes that they were converted to Judaism; such -were the Benu-Kinanah, a warlike, quarrelsome clan, related to the -most respected Koraishites of Mecca, and several other families of the -tribes Aus and Chazraj in Yathrib. - -Especially memorable, however, in the history of the Arabs is the -conversion to Judaism of a powerful king of Yemen. The princes or kings -of Yemen bore the name of Tobba, and at times ruled over the whole -of Arabia; they traced their historical origin back to Himyar, their -legendary origin to Kachtan. One of these kings, who went by the name -of Abu-Kariba Assad-Tobban, was a man of judgment, knowledge, poetical -endowments, and of valor which incited him to conquest. Abu-Kariba -therefore undertook (about 500) an expedition against Persia and the -Arabian provinces of the Byzantine empire. On his march he passed -through Yathrib, the capital of northern Arabia, and not expecting -treachery from the inhabitants of the town, left his son there as -governor. Hardly, however, had he proceeded further, when he received -the sad intelligence that the people of Yathrib had killed his son. -Smitten with grief, he turned back in order to wreak bloody vengeance -on the perfidious city, and after cutting down the palm trees, from -which the inhabitants derived their principal sustenance, laid siege to -it with his numerous band of warriors. A Jewish poet composed an elegy -on the ruined palm trees, which the Arabs loved like living beings, -and the destruction of which they bewailed like the death of dear -relatives. The Jews rivaled the Chazraj Arabs in bravery in resisting -Abu-Kariba's attack, and finally succeeded in tiring out his troops. -During the siege, the Himyarite king was seized with a severe illness, -and no fresh water could be discovered in the neighborhood to quench -his burning thirst. Two Jewish teachers of the Law from Yathrib, Kaab -and Assad by name, took advantage of Abu-Kariba's exhaustion to betake -themselves to his tent, and persuade him to pardon the inhabitants of -Yathrib and raise the siege. The Arabs have woven a tissue of legend -about this interview, but it is certain that the Jewish sages found -opportunity to discourse to Abu-Kariba of Judaism, and succeeded in -inspiring him with a lively interest for it. The exhortations of Kaab -and Assad raised his sympathy to so high a pitch that he determined to -embrace the Jewish faith, and induced the Himyarite army to do likewise. - -At his desire the two Jewish sages of Yathrib accompanied him to Yemen, -in order to convert his people to Judaism. This conversion, however, -was not easy, for a nation does not cast off its opinions, usages and -bad habits at will. There remained as many heathens as Jews in the -land; they retained their temples, and were allowed to profess their -religion unmolested. Altogether the Judaism which the king of Yemen -professed must have been very superficial, and cannot have influenced -to an appreciable extent the customs or the mode of living of the -people. A prince of the noble tribe of the Kendites, a nephew of the -king of Yemen, Harith Ibn-Amru by name, also embraced the Jewish faith. -Abu-Kariba appointed him as viceroy of the Maaddites on the Red Sea, -and also gave him the government of Mecca and Yathrib. With Harith -a number of the Kendites went over to Judaism. The news of a Jewish -king and a Jewish empire in the most beautiful and fertile part of -Arabia was spread abroad by the numerous foreigners who visited the -country for the purpose of trade, and reached the Jews of the most -distant lands. It was asserted that they had settled there before the -destruction of the First Temple and the fall of the Israelite kingdom. - -Abu-Kariba's reign did not last long after his adoption of Judaism. -His warlike nature prevented him from maintaining peace, and prompted -him to engage in bold enterprises. It is said that in one of these -campaigns he was slain by his own soldiers, who were worn out with -fatigue and weary marches. He left three sons, Hassan, Amru, and -Zorah, all of whom were minors. - -Zorah, the youngest (520-530), was nicknamed Dhu-Nowas (curly-locks) on -account of his fine head of hair. He was a zealous disciple of Judaism, -and for that reason gave himself the Hebrew name Yussuf. But his zeal -for the religion of which his father had also been an enthusiastic -advocate continually involved him in difficulties, and brought -misfortune to him, his kingdom, and the Jews of Himyara. King Zorah -Yussuf Dhu-Nowas had heard how his co-religionists in the Byzantine -kingdom suffered from daily persecution. He felt deeply for them, and -wished therefore by retaliation to force the Byzantine emperors to -render justice to the Jews. When some Roman (Byzantine) merchants were -traveling on business through Himyara, the king had them seized and -put to death. This spread terror among the Christian merchants who -traded with the country whence come the sweet perfumes and the wealth -of India. It also caused the Indian and Arabian trade to decline. In -consequence of this, Dhu-Nowas involved his people in an exhausting war. - -A neighboring king, Aidug, who still adhered to heathenism, reproached -the Jewish king for his impolitic step in destroying the trade with -Europe. The excuse Dhu-Nowas made was that many notable Jews in -Byzantium were innocently put to death every year. This, however, -made no impression upon Aidug. He declared war against Dhu-Nowas and -defeated him in battle (521). As the outcome of his victory, Aidug is -said to have embraced Christianity. Dhu-Nowas was not killed in this -battle, as the Christian authorities relate, but made another effort, -and through his impetuosity entangled himself in new difficulties. -Najaran, in Yemen, was inhabited chiefly by Christians; it had, too, a -Christian chief, Harith (Aretas) Ibn-Kaleb, who was a feudatory of the -Jewish-Himyaritic kingdom. Harith probably did not perform his feudal -duties in the war against Aidug, or he may have committed other acts of -insubordination. One account relates that two young Jews were murdered -in Najaran, and that the chief Harith was cognizant thereof. The Jewish -king was therefore much displeased; at any rate, Dhu-Nowas had a -pretext for chastising the ruler of Najaran as a rebel. He besieged the -town, and reduced the inhabitants to such straits that they were forced -to capitulate. Three hundred and forty chosen men, with Harith at their -head, repaired to Dhu-Nowas's camp to sign the terms of peace (523). -There, it is said, the king of Himyara, although he had assured the men -of immunity from punishment, determined either to force them to accept -Judaism or to put them to death. As they refused to renounce their -faith, it is reported that they were executed, and their bodies thrown -into the river. The entire account is so completely legendary that it -is impossible to discover any historical fact. This much is certain: -Dhu-Nowas levied a heavy tribute on the Christians in the kingdom of -Himyara as a reprisal for the persecution of his co-religionists in -Christian countries. - -The news of the events in Najaran spread like wildfire; the number -of the victims was exaggerated, and the punishment of the rebels -was stigmatized as a persecution of the Christians on the part of a -Jewish king. An elegy was composed on the martyrs. Simeon, a Syrian -bishop, who was traveling to northern Arabia, did his utmost to rouse -up enemies against Dhu-Nowas. Simeon believed the exaggerated account -which had been circulated. He sent an incisive letter to another bishop -who lived near Arabia, imploring him to set the Christians against the -Jewish king, and to incite the Nejus (king) of Ethiopia to war against -him. He also proposed to imprison the teachers of Judaism in Tiberias, -and to compel them to write to Dhu-Nowas to put a stop for their sake -to the persecution of the Christians. The Emperor Justin the First, -a weak and foolish old man, was also asked to make war on the Jewish -king. But his people were engaged in a war against the Persians, and -he therefore replied, "Himyara is too far from us, and I cannot allow -my army to march through a sandy desert for so great a distance. But I -will write to the king of Ethiopia to send troops to Himyara." - -Thus, many enemies conspired to ruin one who had attempted to assist -his co-religionists in every way. Dhu-Nowas's most formidable enemy -was Elesbaa (Atzbaha), the Nejus of Ethiopia, a monarch full of -religious zeal. He beheld with jealousy the crown on the head of a -Jew, and required no persuasion to fight, for the Jewish kingdom had -long been a thorn in his side. Elesbaa equipped a powerful fleet, -which the Byzantine Emperor, or rather young Justinian, his co-regent, -re-inforced with ships from Egypt. A numerous army crossed the narrow -strait of the Red Sea to Yemen. The Christian soldiers were united with -this army. Dhu-Nowas, it is true, took measures to prevent the landing -of the Ethiopian army by barring the landing-places with chains, and -gathering an army on his side. The army of Himyara, however, was -inferior in numbers to that of Ethiopia, but the king relied on his -faithful and courageous cavalry. The first engagement terminated -disastrously for Dhu-Nowas. The town of Zafara (Thafar) fell into -the hands of the enemy, and with it the queen and the treasures. The -Himyaran soldiers lost all courage. Yussuf Dhu-Nowas, who saw that -there was no escape, and who was unwilling to fall into the hands of -his arrogant foe, plunged, with his steed, from a rock into the sea, -his body being carried far away (530). The victorious Ethiopians raged -in Himyara with fire and sword, plundering, massacring, and taking -the unarmed prisoners. They were so enraged at the Jews in Himyara -that they massacred thousands as an atoning sacrifice for the supposed -Christian martyrs of Najaran. Such was the end of the Jewish kingdom of -Himyara, which arose in a night and disappeared in a night. - -About this time the Jews of Yathrib fell into strife with the -neighboring tribes of Arabia. The Jews in Yathrib, on account of their -intimate relation with the king of Himyara, whose authority extended -over the province, ruled over the heathen, and a Jewish chief was -governor. The Arabians of the Kailan race (Aus and Chazraj) hated the -rule of the Jews, and seized the opportunity of rebelling when the -Jews could not rely on assistance from Himyara. An Arabian chief of -the Ghassanid race, Harith Ibn Abu Shammir, who was closely related -to the Kailan race, was invited to lead his troops towards Yathrib. -This brave and adventurous prince of Arabia, who was attached to the -Byzantine court, accepted the invitation. In order not to arouse the -suspicions of the Jews, Ibn Abu Shammir gave out that he intended -going to Himyara. He encamped near Yathrib, and invited the Jewish -chiefs to visit him. Many of them came, expecting to be welcomed with -the prince's usual generosity, and to be loaded with presents. But as -they entered the tent of the Ghassanid prince, they were one by one -murdered. Thereupon Ibn Abu Shammir exclaimed to the Arabs of Yathrib: -"I have freed you from a great part of your enemies; now it will be -easy for you to master the rest, if you have strength and courage." He -then departed. The Arabs, however, did not venture to engage openly -with the Jews, but had recourse to a stratagem. During a banquet, all -the Jewish chiefs were killed, as well as Alghitjun or Sherif, the -Jewish prince. Deprived of their leaders, the Jews of Yathrib were -easily conquered by the Arabians, and they were obliged to give up -their strongholds to them (530-535). It was a long time before they -could get over the loss of their power and the sense of defeat. The -insecurity of their lives taught them dissimulation, and they gradually -placed themselves under the protection of one or another tribe, and -so became dependents (Mawali) of Aus and Chazraj. They hoped for the -coming of the Messiah to crush their enemies. - -Harith Ibn Abu Shammir, the Ghassanid prince, on his return from -Yathrib, commenced a feud with a Jewish poet, who thereby became -renowned throughout Arabia. Samuel Ibn-Adiya (born about 500 and -died about 560), whose martial spirit was shown in the attacks of -the Ghassanids, won immortality through his friendship with the most -celebrated poet of Arabia in the time before Mahomet. His biography -gives an insight into the life of the Jews of Arabia of that time. -According to some, Samuel was descended from the heathen race of -the Ghassanids; according to others, he was of Jewish origin, or -to be more correct, he had an Arabian mother and a Jewish father. -Adiya, his father, had lived in Yathrib until he built a castle in -the neighborhood of Taima, which, from its many colors, was called -Al-ablak, and has been immortalized in Arabic poetry. Samuel, the chief -of a small tribe, was so respected in Hejas that the weaker tribes -placed themselves under his protection. Ablak was a refuge for the -persecuted and exiled, and the owner of the castle defended those under -his roof at the risk of his life. - -Imrulkais Ibn Hojr, the adventurous son of the Kendite prince, and -at the same time the most distinguished poet of Arabia, was hemmed -in on all sides by secret and open enemies, and could find shelter -nowhere except in Samuel's safe retreat. The Jewish poet, the lord of -the castle, was proud to afford a refuge to Arabia's most celebrated -writer, whose fame and adventures were known throughout the peninsula. -Imrulkais took his daughter and what remained of his retinue to Ablak, -and lived there for some time. As the Kendite prince had no prospect -of obtaining the assistance of the Arabs to avenge the murder of his -father, and to regain his paternal inheritance, he endeavored to -win over Justinian, the Byzantine Emperor. Before starting on his -journey, he charged Samuel with the care of his daughter, his cousin, -and of five valuable coats of mail and other arms. Samuel promised -to guard the persons and the goods entrusted to him as he would the -apple of his eye. But these arms brought misfortune on him. When the -Ghassanid prince was in Hejas he went to Ablak, Samuel's castle, -and demanded the surrender of Imrulkais' arms. Samuel refused to -surrender them according to his promise. Harith then laid siege to the -castle. Finding it impregnable, however, the tyrant had recourse to a -barbarous expedient to compel Samuel to submit. One of Samuel's sons -was taken outside the citadel by his nurse, and Harith captured him, -and threatened to kill him unless Samuel acceded to his request. The -unfortunate father hesitated for only a moment between duty to his -guest and affection for his son; his sense of duty prevailed, and he -said to the Ghassanid prince: "Do what you will; time always avenges -treachery, and my son has brothers." Unmoved by such magnanimity, the -despot slew the son before his father's eyes. Nevertheless, Harith -had to withdraw from Ablak without accomplishing his object. The -Arab proverb, "Faithful as Samuel," used to express undying faith, -originated from this circumstance. - -Many blamed him for the sacrifice of his son; but he defended himself -in a poem, full of noble sentiments, courage and chivalrous ideas:-- - - Oh, ye censurers, cease to blame the man - Who so oft has defied your censure. - You should, when erring, have guided me aright, - Instead of leading me astray with empty words. - I have preserved the Kendite coats of mail; - Another may betray the trust confided him! - Thus did Adiya, my father, counsel me in by-gone days: - "O Samuel, destroy not what I have built up!" - For me he built a strong and safe place, where - I ne'er feared to give defiance to my oppressor. - -Before his death (about 560) Samuel could look back with pride on his -chivalrous life and on the protection he had afforded the weak. His -swan-song runs:-- - - Oh, would that I knew, the day my loss is lamented, - What testimony my mourners would afford me; - Whether they will say "Stay with us! For - In many a trouble you have comforted us; - The rights you had you ne'er resigned, - Yet needed no reminder to give theirs to others." - -Shoraich, his son, followed in his father's footsteps. He was a brave -and noble man. On one occasion Maimun Asha, the celebrated Arabic -poet, whose ungovernable temper raised many enemies against him, was -pursued by an adversary, and having been captured, he was, by chance -and without being recognized, taken with other prisoners to Taima, the -castle of Shoraich. Here, in order to obtain his release, he sang a -poem in praise of Samuel:-- - - Be like Samuel, when the fierce warrior - Pressed heavily around him with his array; - "Choose between the loss of a child and faithlessness!" - Oh, evil choice which thou hadst to make! - But quickly and calmly did he reply: - "Kill thy captive, I fulfil my pledges." - -Towards the end of the sixth century, the Jews of Yathrib had nearly -recovered from the oppressive blows dealt them by their neighbors in -Arabia. Their rulers, the Aus and Chazraj, had exhausted themselves in -bloody feuds which lasted twenty years, whilst their allies suffered -less. In consequence of another war between the same tribes, the Jews -again rose to importance in Yathrib. - -Judaism not only won over to its side many tribes in Arabia, and taught -the sons of the desert certain indispensable arts, but it also inspired -the founder of a religion, who played an important part in the great -drama of the world's history, and whose influence survives to this -day. Mahomet, the prophet of Mecca and Yathrib, was, it is true, not -a loyal son of Judaism, but he appreciated its highest aims, and was -induced by it to give to the world a new faith, known as Islam, founded -on a lofty basis. This religion has exercised a wonderful influence on -the course of Jewish history and on the evolution of Judaism. In the -peaceful meetings in Mecca, his birthplace, at the public markets, and -on his travels, Abdallah's son heard much spoken of the religion which -acknowledges the belief in one God, who rules the world. He heard much -of Abraham, who devoted himself to the service of God, and of religion -and morality, which gave the disciples of Judaism the advantage -over infidels. Mahomet's mind, at once original and receptive, was -powerfully impressed by all this. Waraka Ibn-Naufal, a celebrated -Meccan, and a descendant of the noble Khoraish race, was a cousin of -Chadija, Mahomet's wife, and he had embraced Judaism and knew Hebrew -well. He certainly imbued Mahomet with a love for the religion of -Abraham. - -Mahomet's first doctrines were strongly tinged with Jewish coloring. He -first conceived them when suffering from epilepsy, and he communicated -them to his friends, pretending that they were revealed to him by -the angel Gabriel. First and foremost he proclaimed the simple but -fundamental principle of Judaism: "There is no God but Allah"; later -his pride led him to add as an integral part of the confession of -faith, "and Mahomet is his prophet." Judaism may justly consider -his teachings a victory of its own truths and a fulfilment of the -prophecy that "one day every knee will bend to the only God, and every -tongue will worship Him," for Mahomet taught the unity of God, that -there are no gods beside Him (anti-trinity), and that He may not be -represented by any image. He preached against the dissolute idolatry -which was practised with 300 idols in the Kaaba; he declaimed against -the immorality which was openly and shamelessly practised amongst the -Arabs; he condemned the revolting practice of parents who from fear -or in order to be rid of them drowned their new-born daughters, and -he declared that there was nothing new in all these changes, but that -they were commanded by the faith of the ancient religion of Abraham. A -similar thing had happened at the time when Paul of Tarsus first made -known to the Hellenes the history and principles of Judaism. - -The best teachings in the Koran are borrowed from the Bible or the -Talmud. In consequence of the difficulties which Mahomet for several -years (612-633) had to encounter in Mecca on account of these purified -doctrines, there grew around the sound kernel a loathsome husk. -Mahomet's connection with the Jews of Arabia assisted not a little in -determining and modifying the teachings of Islam. Portions of the Koran -are devoted to them, at times in a friendly, at times in a hostile -spirit. - -When Mahomet failed in obtaining a hearing in Mecca, the seat of -idolatrous worship in Arabia, and even ran the risk of losing his life -there, he addressed himself to some men from Yathrib, and urged them -to accept his doctrines. These men were more familiar with Jewish -doctrines than the Meccans; they found in Mahomet's revelations a close -analogy to what they had often heard from their Jewish neighbors. -They, therefore, showed themselves inclined to follow him, and caused -him to be invited to Yathrib, where his teachings were likely to be -favorably received on account of the numerous Jews residing there. As -soon as he came there (622, the year of expatriation--Hejira), Mahomet -took care to win over the Jews of Yathrib and to set forth his aims, as -though he desired to bring about the universal recognition of Judaism -in Arabia. When he saw the Jews fasting on the day of Atonement, he -said, "It becomes us more than Jews to fast on this day," and he -established a fast-day (Ashura). Mahomet entered into a formal alliance -for mutual defense with the Jewish tribes, and instituted the custom of -turning towards Jerusalem in prayer (Kiblah). In the disputes between -the Jews and his disciples (Moslems), which were submitted to his -judgment, he behaved leniently to the Jews. For this reason Mahomet's -disciples preferred to bring the matters in dispute before a Jewish -chief, because they expected more impartiality from him than from -Mahomet. Mahomet for a long time employed a Jewish scribe to do his -correspondence, he himself being unable to write. These advances on -the part of a man of so much promise were very flattering to the Jews -of Medina. They looked upon him to some extent as a Jewish proselyte, -and expected to see Judaism through him attain to power in Arabia. Some -of them followed him devotedly and were his faithful allies (Ansar); -amongst them was a learned youth, Abdallah Ibn-Salam, of the race of -Kainukaa. Abdallah and other Jews assisted Mahomet in propagating the -Koran. The unbelieving Arabs frequently reproached him, saying that -he was an ear (accepted anything as truth), that it was not the angel -Gabriel who was teaching him, but a mortal man. Nevertheless, though -Abdallah Ibn-Salam and other Jewish Ansars supported him, they were -far from abandoning Judaism on this account, and continued to observe -the Jewish commandments, and Mahomet was at first not offended by this -conduct. - -But only a small number of the Jews of Medina joined the band of -believers, particularly when they perceived his selfish efforts, his -haughtiness, and his insatiable love of women. They bore in their -hearts too high an ideal of their ancient prophets to place this -enthusiast, who longed after every beautiful woman, on an equal footing -with them. "See him," said the Jews, "he is not satisfied with food, -and has no other desire than that of being surrounded by women. If he -is a prophet, he should confine himself to his duties as a prophet, -and not turn to women." Other Jews said: "If Mahomet is a prophet, he -should appear in Palestine, for only in that place God appears unto his -elect." The Jews also objected to him, saying, "You pride yourself on -being of Abraham's faith, but Abraham did not use the flesh and milk -of camels." Mahomet's chief opponents on the Jewish side were Pinehas -Ibn-Azura, a man of caustic wit, who seized every opportunity to make -Mahomet appear ridiculous; furthermore, the far-famed Kaab Ibn-Asharaf, -the offspring of an Arab father and a Jewish mother; a poet, Abu-Afak, -an old man more than a hundred years old, who endeavored to arouse hate -against Mahomet amongst the ignorant Arabs; and Abdallah, the son of -Saura, who was looked upon as the most learned Jew in Hejas. Pinehas -is the author of a witty answer to Mahomet's invitation to the Jewish -tribe of Benu-Kainukaa to accept Islam. Mahomet, in his epistle, had -used the words: "Lend yourselves unto God as a beautiful pledge." -Pinehas answered, "God is so poor that He borrows from us!" Thus the -Jewish opponents of Mahomet placed a ridiculous meaning on his sayings -and revelations, and treated him contemptuously, not anticipating -that the fugitive from Mecca, who had come to Medina for assistance, -would shortly humble and in part destroy their tribes, and that he -would control the destiny of many of their co-religionists in times -to come. They relied too much on their own courage and strength, and -forgot that the most dangerous enemy is he whom one disregards too -much. Mahomet, indeed, with sly dissimulation, at first accepted the -contempt bestowed on him by the Jews with apparent equanimity. He -advised his disciples, "Fight only in a becoming manner with the people -who believe in the Holy Writ (Jews), and say: We believe in that which -has been revealed to us and to you. Our God is the same as yours, and -we are faithful to Him." But the mutual discontent made it difficult to -maintain peace permanently. On the one side, the Jews did their best to -alienate Mahomet's followers. They succeeded in prejudicing the first -man in Medina, the Chazrajite Abdallah Ibn-Ubey, against Mahomet, so -that he remained antagonistic to Mahomet to the end of his days. This -man was about to be elected king of his town, but through the arrival -of Mahomet he had been cast into the shade. On the other side, his -followers urged him to declare to what extent he held to Judaism. They -saw that his disciples amongst the Jews still continued to observe the -Jewish laws, and to abstain from camel's flesh, and they said to him, -"If the Torah be a divine book, then let us follow its teachings." -Since Mahomet was thoroughly an Arab, he could not join Judaism, and -he perceived that the Arabs would not conform to religious customs -which were quite strange to them. So it only remained for him to break -with the Jews definitely. He thereupon published a long Sura (called -the Sura of the Cow), full of invectives against the Jews. He altered -the position assumed in prayer, and decreed that the believers should -no longer turn their faces towards Jerusalem, but towards Mecca and -the Kaaba. He discarded fasting on the day of Atonement (Ashura), and -instituted instead the holy month Ramadhan, as had been customary -among the Arabs from very ancient times. He was obliged to withdraw -much of what he had in the beginning given out as God's revelation. -Mahomet now asserted that the Torah had contained many allusions to his -appearance and calling as a prophet, but that the Jews had expunged -the passages. At first he declared that the Jews were possessed of the -true faith; later on he said that they honored Ezra (Ozair) as the -son of God, just as the Christians did Jesus, and that the Jews were -consequently to be regarded as infidels. His hatred against the Jews, -who refused to accept his prophecies, and saw through his designs, -continually widened the breach between them and him. - -Although he hated the Jews in his innermost heart, yet he did not -venture to provoke them by acts of violence, because his authority -was not sufficiently great, and the Jews outnumbered his followers. -But after the battle at Bedr (in the winter of 624), when the small -body of Mahometans gained a victory over the numerous Koraishites, the -situation changed. Mahomet, whose power was greatly increased through -this victory, exchanged the attitude of a humble prophet for that of -a fanatical tyrant, to whom any measure, even assassination, was a -justifiable means of freeing himself from his enemies. However, he was -prudent enough to avoid becoming involved in disputes with the powerful -Jewish tribes; he began with the weak and defenseless. A poetess, Asma, -daughter of Merwan, who was of Jewish descent, and married to an Arab, -was murdered at night whilst asleep (because she had composed satires -against the false prophet), and he commended the murderer. Thereupon -the Jewish tribe Kainukaa experienced his religious wrath. It was the -weakest of the Jewish-Arabian tribes, and to it belonged that Pinehas -Ibn-Azura, whose sarcastic wit had made Mahomet appear in a ridiculous -light. The pretext was of the slightest kind. A Mahometan had killed a -Jew on account of a poor practical joke, and the Kainukaa avenged his -death. Mahomet thereupon challenged them to profess Islam, or to accept -war as the alternative. They replied: "We are, it is true, for peace, -and would gladly maintain our alliance with you; but since you desire -to make war upon us, we will show that we have no fear." They reckoned -upon the assistance of the tribes of Nadhir and Kuraiza, who were their -co-religionists, and withdrew to their fortresses at Medina. Mahomet -collected his troops, and besieged the Kainukaa. Had the numerous Jews -of northern Arabia, Nadhir, Kuraiza, and those of Chaibar, who, like -the Kainukaa, were threatened, come to their assistance, and had they, -before it was too late, made an offensive and defensive alliance, they -would have been able to crush Mahomet and his straggling followers, on -whose fidelity, moreover, he could not entirely rely. But the Jews, -like the Arabs, were divided, and each tribe had only its own interests -in view. The Kainukaa fought desperately for fifteen days, expecting -re-inforcements from their co-religionists. But as these did not come, -they surrendered to the enemy. Mahomet had all the Jews of Kainukaa put -in chains with the intention of killing them; but a word from Abdallah -Ibn-Ubey, their ally, made him draw back with alarm from his purpose. -Abdallah laid hold of his shirt of mail, and said: "I will not let you -go until you promise me to spare the captives; for they constitute my -strength; they have defended me against the black people and the red -people." To which Mahomet replied: "Let them be free; may God condemn -them, and Abdallah with them!" The Jews of Kainukaa, 700 in number, -were obliged to leave their possessions behind, and they set out for -Palestine in a most destitute condition (February, 624). They settled -in Batanea, whose chief town was Adraat, where they were probably -received in a fraternal manner by their co-religionists, who, at this -time, were free from the Byzantine yoke. - -After the victory over the Kainukaa, Mahomet communicated to the -Moslems a revelation against the Jews, which deprived them of every -protection: "O ye believers, choose ye not Jews and Christians as -allies; they may protect themselves. He who befriends them is one -of them; God tolerates no sinful people." This exclusion was less -harmful to the Christians, as they were not numerously represented in -northern Arabia, and generally kept themselves neutral. The Jews, on -the contrary, who were accustomed to independence, and who were full of -warlike courage, became involved in numerous disputes by this act of -outlawry. Their former allies for the most part renounced them, and at -Mahomet's bidding, took spiteful vengeance on them. - -With this mutual, deadly hatred existing between Mahomet and the Jews, -it is said that the Benu-Nadhir invited him one day to their castle -of Zuhara with the intention of hurling him from the terraces and -thus ending his life. At that time their chief was Hujej Ibn-Achtab. -Mahomet accepted the invitation, but watched the movements of the -Jews. Suspecting that they desired his death, he stole away and -hastened to Medina. The Jews of Nadhir paid dearly, it is said, for -this treacherous project. Mahomet gave them the choice of quitting -their homes within ten days, or of preparing for death. The Nadhir -were resolved at first to avoid war and to emigrate, but encouraged by -Abdallah, who promised them assistance, they accepted the challenge -which had been thrown down. They, however, waited in vain for the -assistance promised to them. Mahomet commenced operations against them, -and uprooted and burnt the date-trees which supplied them with food. -His own people rebelled at this proceeding, for to these unscrupulous -warriors a palm was holier than a man's life. After several days of -siege, the Nadhir were obliged to capitulate, and the terms were that -they should depart without arms, and that they should take only a -certain portion of their possessions--as much as a camel could carry. - -They thereupon emigrated to the number of six hundred, some of them -going to their countrymen in Chaibar, and some settling in Jericho and -Adraat (June-July, 625). The war against the Nadhirites was, later on, -justified by Mahomet through a revelation of the Koran, which read: -"All in the heavens and earth praise God; He is the most honored, the -most wise. He it is who drove out the unbelievers amongst the people of -the Book from their dwelling places (Kainukaa), to send them to those -who had already emigrated. You thought not that they would go forth, -they themselves thought that their strong places would protect them -from God himself, but God attacked them unexpectedly, and threw terror -into their hearts, so that their houses were destroyed with their own -hands, as well as laid waste by believers." The exiled Benu-Nadhir, who -had remained in Arabia, did not accept their misfortune quietly, but -exerted themselves to form a coalition with the enemies of Mahomet in -order to attack him with combined forces. Three respected Nadhirites, -Hujej, Kinanah Ibn-ol-Rabia, and Sallam Ibn Mishkam, incited the -Koraishites in Mecca, in alliance with the mighty tribe of the Ghatafan -and others, to make war against the haughty tyrannical prophet, who was -daily becoming more powerful and more cruel. The enemies of Mahomet in -Mecca, though filled with rage against him, were first incited by the -Jews to join battle with him. - -Through the activity of the Nadhirites the Arabian tribes were -induced to join in the war. They found it more difficult, however, -to induce their co-religionists, the Benu-Kuraiza, to take part. -Kaab-Ibn-Assad, the governor of Kuraiza, at first would not receive -the Nadhirite Hujej, who had desired his protection, because his -tribe had made an alliance with Mahomet and the Moslems, and he was -so guileless as to rely on Mahomet's word. Hujej managed to convince -him of the danger which threatened the Jews, and to persuade him that -the victory of so many allies over the less numerous Moslems was -certain. The Benu-Kuraiza yielded to his arguments. Ten thousand of -the allied troops took the field, and intended to surprise Medina. -Mahomet, forewarned by a deserter, would not allow his army, which was -inferior in numbers, to fight a pitched battle. He fortified Medina -by surrounding it with a deep ditch and other defenses. The Arabs, -accustomed to fight in single combat, vainly discharged their arrows -against the fortifications. Mahomet succeeded finally in sowing the -seeds of mutual distrust among the chief allies, viz., the Koraishites, -the Ghatafan and the Jews. - -The "War of the Fosse" terminated favorably for Mahomet, and very -unhappily for the Jews, upon whom the whole of his wrath now fell. On -the day after the departure of the allies, Mahomet, with 3000 men, -took the field against Kuraiza, announcing that he was thus obeying -an express revelation. His next step was to arouse the enthusiasm -of his followers in the cause of the war. "Let him that is obedient -offer up his prayers in the neighborhood of Kuraiza," was the formula -with which he exhorted them. The Jews, unable to resist in a battle, -retired to their fortresses, which they put into a state of defense. -Here they were besieged by Mahomet and his troops for twenty-five days -(February-March, 627). Food then began to fail the besieged, and it -became necessary to think of capitulation. They besought Mahomet to -treat them as he had treated their brethren, the Nadhirites, viz., -allow them to withdraw with their wives, their children, and a portion -of their property. The vindictive prophet, however, refused their -request, and demanded unconditional surrender. - -Nearly 700 Jews, amongst them the chiefs Kaab and Hujej, were -ruthlessly slaughtered in the market-place, and their bodies thrown -into a common grave. The market-place was thenceforth called the -Kuraiza Place. And all this was done in the name of God! The Koran -makes reference to it in the following verse: "God drove out of their -fortresses those of the people of the Book [the Jews] who assisted -the allies, and he cast into their hearts terror and dismay. Some of -them you put to flight, some you took captive; he has caused you to -inherit their land, their houses, and their wealth, and a land which -you have not trodden; for God is almighty." The women were bartered for -weapons and horses. Mahomet wished to retain one of the captives, a -beautiful girl, Rihana by name, as his concubine; she, however, proudly -rejected his advances. Only one of the Kuraiza remained alive, a -certain Zabir Ibn-Bata, and he only by the intercession of Thabit, one -of his friends. Full of joy, the latter hastened to the aged Zabir, to -tell him of his fortune. "I thank thee," said the Jewish sage, who lay -in fetters; "but tell me what has become of our leader Kaab?" "He is -dead," answered Thabit. "And Hujej Ibn-Achtab, the prince of the Jews?" -"He is dead," he again replied. "And Azzel Ibn-Samuel, the fearless -warrior?" "He, too, is dead," was his answer again. "Then I do not care -to live," said Zabir. The old man begged that he might die by the hands -of his friend. His wish was granted. - -A year later came the turn of the Jews in the district of Chaibar, a -confederacy of small Jewish states. This war, however, was protracted -into a long campaign, because the province had a number of fortresses -which were in a good state of repair, and were well defended. The -exiled Nadhirites in Chaibar roused their comrades to vigorous -resistance. The Arab races of Ghatafan and Fezara had promised -assistance. The leading spirit of the Chaibarites was the exiled -Nadhirite, Kinanah Ibn Rabia, a man who possessed indomitable firmness -and courage. He was called the King of the Jews, and was abetted by -Marhab, a giant of Himyarite extraction. Mahomet, before the beginning -of the war, turned in prayer to God, beseeching him to grant a victory -over the Jews of Chaibar. The war, in which Mahomet employed 14,000 -warriors, lasted almost two months (Spring 628). - -The war against Chaibar assumed the same character as that which was -waged against the other Jewish tribes. It was begun by the cutting -down of the palm trees, and the siege of the small fortresses, which -surrendered after a short resistance. Mahomet met the most vigorous -resistance at the fortress Kamus, which was built on a steep rock. -The Mahometans were several times beaten back by the Jews. Abu-Bekr -and Omar, Mahomet's two bravest generals, lost their distinction -as unconquered heroes before the walls of Kamus. Marhab performed -wonderful feats of valor, to avenge the death of his brother, who had -fallen earlier in the war. - -When Mahomet sent his third general, Ali, against him, the Jewish hero -addressed him thus: "Chaibar knows my valor, I am Marhab the hero, -well armed and tried in the field." He then challenged Ali to single -combat. But his time had come. He fell at the hands of his peer. After -many attempts, the enemy succeeded in effecting an entrance into the -fortress. How the captives fared is not known. Kinanah was captured -and put on the rack in order to force him to discover his hidden -treasures. But he bore pain and even death without uttering a word. -After the fortress had fallen, the Jews lost courage, and the other -fortresses surrendered on condition that the garrisons should be -allowed to withdraw. They were subsequently allowed to take possession -of their lands, and only had to pay as an annual tribute one half -of their produce. The Mahometan conquerors took possession of all -the movable property, and returned home laden with the spoils of the -Jews. Fadak, Wadil-Kora and Taima also submitted. Their inhabitants, -according to agreement, were allowed to remain in their land. The year -628 everywhere was distinguished by fatalities for the Jews. It marks -the victory of Mahomet over the Jews of Chaibar, the decay of the last -independent Jewish tribes, and the persecution of the Jews of Palestine -by the Emperor Heraclius, who had, for a short time, again taken up -arms. The sword which the Hasmoneans had wielded in defense of their -religion, and which was in turn used by the Zealots and the Arabian -Jews, was wrung from the hands of the last Jewish heroes of Chaibar, -and henceforth the Jews had to make use of another weapon for the -protection of their sanctuary. - -Mahomet had brought two pretty Jewish women with him from the war at -Chaibar: Safia, the daughter of his inveterate enemy, the Nadhirite -Hujej, and Zainab, the sister of Marhab. This courageous woman -bethought herself of an artifice, whereby she might avenge the murder -of her co-religionists and relatives. She pretended to be friendly -towards him, and prepared a repast for him. Mahomet unsuspectingly ate -of a poisoned dish which she had set before him and his companions. -One of them died from the effects. But Mahomet, who, not having found -the dish to his taste, had scarcely tasted it, was saved alive, but -suffered for a long time, and felt the effects of the poison to the -hour of his death. Questioned as to the reason of her action, Zainab -coolly replied, "You have persecuted my people with untold afflictions; -I therefore thought that if you were simply a warrior, I could procure -rest for them through poison, but if you were really a prophet, God -would warn you in time, and you would come to no harm." - -Mahomet thereupon ordered her to be put to death, and commanded his -troops to use none of the cooking utensils of the Jews before they -had been scalded. The rest of the Jews did not even now give up the -hope of freeing themselves of their arch-enemy. They intrigued against -him, and made common cause with some ill-disposed Arabs. The house -of a Jew, Suwailim, in Medina was the appointed meeting-place for -the malcontents, whom Mahomet and his fanatic followers named "the -hypocrites" (Munafikun). A traitor betrayed them, and Suwailim's -house was burnt to the ground. The Jews in Arabia felt real joy at -Mahomet's death (632), because they, like others, believed that the -Arabs would be cured of their false belief that he was a higher being -endowed with immortality. But fanaticism, together with the love of war -and conquest, had already taken possession of the Arabians, and they -accepted the Koran as a whole, alike its revolting features and the -truths borrowed from Judaism, as the irrefragable Word of God. Judaism -had reared in Islam a second unnatural child. The Koran became the -book of faith of a great part of humanity in three parts of the world, -and, being full of hostile expressions against the Jews, it naturally -urged on the Mahometans to acts of hostility against the Jews. This -is paralleled by the effect which the Apostles and the Evangelists -produced upon the Christians. So great was the fanaticism of the second -Caliph, Omar, a man of a wild and energetic nature, that he broke the -treaty made by Mahomet with the Jews of Chaibar and Wadil-Kora. He -drove them from their lands, as he did also the Christians of Najaran, -in order that the holy ground of Arabia might not be desecrated by Jews -and Christians. - -Omar assigned the landed property of the Jews to the Mahometan -warriors, and a strip of land near the town of Kufa, on the Euphrates, -was given them in return (about 640). But as no evil in history is -quite devoid of good consequences, the dominion of Islam furthered the -elevation of Judaism from its deepest degradation. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE AGE OF THE GEONIM. - - The Conquests of Islam--Omar's Intolerance--Condition - of the Jews in Babylonia--Bostanai--The Princes of the - Captivity and the Geonim--Dignity and Revenues of the Prince - --Communal Organization--Excommunication--Julian of Toledo - and the Jews--The Moslems in Spain--The Jews and Arabic - Literature--The Assyrian Vowel-system--The Neo-Hebraic - Poetry: Jose ben Jose--Simon ben Caipha--Employment of - Rhyme--Jannai--Eleazar Kaliri--Opposition to the Study of - the Talmud--The False Messiah Serenus, the Syrian--The Jews - in the Crimea and the Land of the Chazars--The False Messiah - Obadia Abu-Isa. - -640-760 C. E. - - -Scarcely ten years after Mahomet's death the fairest lands in the north -of Arabia and the northwest of Africa acknowledged the supremacy of the -Arabs who, with the sword in one hand and the Koran in the other, swept -across the borders of Arabia with the cry: "There is no God but Allah, -and Mahomet is his prophet." Although there was no distinguished man at -the head of the Arab troops, they conquered the world with far greater -speed than the hosts of Alexander of Macedon. The kingdom of Persia, -weakened by old age and dissension, succumbed to the first blow, and -the Byzantine provinces, Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, whose inhabitants -had but little sympathy with the intriguing court of Constantinople, -did not offer the slightest resistance to the Arabs. - -Medina, an oasis in the great desert, a spot unknown to the different -nations, became the lawgiver for millions, just as Rome had been in -olden times. The various peoples that had been conquered, had no choice -but to recognize Mahomet as a prophet and be converted to Islam, or -to pay tribute. The Emperor Heraclius had taken Palestine from the -Persians only ten years before it was again lost. Jews and Samaritans -both helped the Arabs to capture the land, in order that they might -be freed from the heavy yoke of the malignant Byzantine rule. A Jew -put into the hands of the Mussulmans the strongly-fortified town of -Caesarea, the political capital of the kingdom, which is said to have -contained 700,000 fighting men, amongst whom were 20,000 Jews. He -showed them a subterranean passage, which led the besiegers into the -heart of the town. The Holy City, too, after a short siege, had to -yield to the Mahometan arms. The second successor of Mahomet, the -Caliph Omar, took personal possession of Jerusalem (about 638), and -laid the foundation-stone of a mosque on the site of the Temple. Bishop -Sophronius, who had handed over the keys of Jerusalem to Omar, untaught -by the change of fate which he had himself experienced, is said to have -made arrangements with the Caliph, in capitulating, that the Jews be -forbidden to settle in the Holy City. It is true that Jerusalem was -looked upon by the Mussulmans as a holy place, and pilgrimages were -made thither by them. It was also called the Holy City (Alkuds) by -them, but it was to remain inaccessible to its sons. Omar is said to -have driven out both Jews and Christians from Tiberias. Thus ceased the -literary activity of the school of that place. They, however, received -permission to settle there again under the succeeding Caliphs. - -Rising Islam was as intolerant as Christianity. When Omar had driven -the Jews out of Chaibar and the Christians out of Najaran, he gave -instructions to his generals against the Jews and Christians. These -orders were called "the covenant of Omar," and contained many -restrictions against the "peoples of the Book" (Jews and Christians). -They were not allowed to build new houses of worship, nor to restore -those that were in ruins. They had to sing in subdued tones in the -synagogues and churches, and were compelled to pray silently for the -dead. - -They dared not hinder their followers from accepting Islam, and were -compelled to show marks of respect to Mussulmans whenever they met -them. Further, they were not allowed to fill judicial or administrative -offices. They were forbidden to ride on horses, and had to wear marks -whereby they could easily be distinguished from the Moslems. Jews and -Christians were not allowed to make use of a signet-ring, which was -considered a mark of honor. Whilst the Mahometans were exempt from -taxes, and at most only had to pay a slight contribution for the poor, -Jews and Christians had to pay a poll-tax and ground-rent. - -In spite of this fact, the Jews felt themselves freer under the new -rule of Islam than they did in the Christian lands. The restrictive -laws of Omar were not carried out even during Omar's lifetime, and -though the fanatic Mussulmans scorned the Jews for their religion, they -did not despise them as citizens, but showed great honor to worthy -Jews. The first Mahometans treated the Jews as their equals; they -respected them as friends and allies, and took an interest in them -even as enemies. The Asiatic and Egyptian Jews consequently treated -the Mahometans as their liberators from the yoke of the Christians. A -mystical apocalypse makes a distinct reference to the joy experienced -at the victory of Islam. Simeon bar Yochai, who was looked upon as -a mystic, foretells the rise of Islam, and bewails the same in the -prayer which runs as follows: "Have we not suffered enough through the -dominion of the wicked Edom (the Roman-Christian dominion), that the -dominion of Ishmael should now rise over us?" Metatoron, one of the -chief angels, answers him: "Fear not, son of man! God sets up the -kingdom of Ishmael only in order that it may free you from the dominion -of the wicked Edom. He raises up a prophet for them, he will conquer -countries for them, and there will be great hatred between them and the -sons of Esau" (the Christians). Such were the sentiments of the Jews -with regard to the conquests of the Mahometans. - -The Jews in the ancient Babylonian district (called Irak by the Arabs) -attained a great measure of freedom through the victories of the -Mahometans. During their campaigns against the last Persian kings, the -Jews and the Nestorian Christians, who had been persecuted under the -last Sassanian princes, had rendered them much assistance. The Jews -and the Chaldean Christians formed the bulk of the population near the -Euphrates and the Tigris. Their assistance must have been opportune, as -we find even the fanatical Caliph Omar bestowing rewards and privileges -upon them. It was, doubtless, in consequence of the services which -they had rendered that the Mahometan generals recognized Bostanai, the -descendant of the Exilarch of the house of David, as the chief of the -Jews. Omar respected Bostanai so highly that he gave him a daughter -of the Persian king Chosru in marriage. She had been taken prisoner, -together with her sisters (642)--a singular turn of fate! The grandson -of a race that boasted descent from the house of David married a -princess whose ancestors traced their descent from Darius, the founder -of the Persian dynasty. Bostanai was the first Exilarch who was the -vassal of the Mahometans. - -The Exilarch exercised both civil and judicial functions, and all the -Jews of Babylonia formed a separate community under him. Bostanai also -obtained the exceptional permission to wear a signet-ring (Gushpanka). -By this means he was able to give his documents and decrees an official -character. The seal, in reference to some unknown historical allusion, -bore the impress of a fly. Bostanai must have been an important -personage in other respects, since legends cluster about him, and would -make his birth itself appear a miraculous event. The Judaeo-Babylonian -community, which had acquired some importance through Bostanai, -obtained its real strength under Ali, the fourth Caliph, Mahomet's -comrade and son-in-law, the hero of Chaibar. - -Omar had died at the hands of an assassin (644), and his successor, -Othman, had been killed in an insurrection (655). Ali was nominated -Caliph by the conspirators, but he had to struggle against many bitter -opponents. Islam was divided into two camps. The one declared for Ali, -who resided in the newly-built town of Kufa; the other for Moawiyah, a -relative of the murdered Caliph Othman. - -The Babylonian Jews and Nestorian Christians sided with Ali, and -rendered him assistance. A Jew, Abdallah Ibn-Saba, was a spirited -partisan of Ali. He asserted that the succession to the Caliphate was -his by right, and that the divine spirit of Mahomet had passed to -him, as it had from Moses to Joshua. It is said that when Ali took -the town of Firuz-Shabur or Anbar, 90,000 Jews, under Mar-Isaac, the -head of a college, assembled to do homage to the Caliph, who was but -indifferently supported by his own followers (658). The unhappy Ali -valued this homage, and, doubtless, accorded privileges to the Jewish -principal. It is quite probable that from this time the head of the -school of Sora was invested with a certain dignity, and took the title -of Gaon. There were certain privileges connected with the Gaonate, upon -which even the Exilarch did not venture to encroach. Thus a peculiar -relation, leading to subsequent quarrels, grew up between the rival -offices--the Exilarchate and the Gaonate. With Bostanai and Mar-Isaac, -the Jewish officials recognized by the Caliph, there begins a new -period in Jewish history--the Epoch of the Geonim. After Bostanai's -death dissension arose among his sons. Bostanai had left several sons -by various wives, one of them the daughter of the Persian king. Perhaps -her son was his father's favorite, because royal blood flowed in his -veins, and he was probably destined to be his successor. His brothers -by the Jewish wives were consequently jealous of him, and treated him -as a slave, _i. e._, as one that had been born of a captive non-Jewess, -who, according to Talmudic law, was looked upon as a slave, so long as -he could not furnish proof that either his mother or himself had been -formally emancipated. This, however, he could not do. The brothers -then determined to sell the favorite, their own brother, as a slave. -Revolting as this proceeding was, it was approved by several members of -the college of Pumbeditha, partly from religious scruples, partly from -the desire to render a friendly service to Bostanai's legitimate sons. -Other authorities, however, maintained that Bostanai, who was a pious -man, would not have married the king's daughter before he had legally -freed her, and made her a proselyte. In order to protect her son from -humiliation, one of the chief judges, Chaninai, hastened to execute a -document attesting her emancipation, and thus the wicked design of the -brothers was frustrated; but the stain of illegitimacy still attached -to the son, and his descendants were never admitted to the rank of the -descendants of the Exilarch Bostanai. - -Bostanai's descendants in the Exilarchate arbitrarily deposed the -presidents of the colleges, and appointed their own partisans to -the vacant places. The religious leaders of the people thus bore -Bostanai's descendants a grudge. Even in later times, an authority -amongst the Jews had to defend himself with the words: "I am a member -of the house of the Exilarch, but not a descendant of the sons of -Bostanai, who were proud and oppressive." The vehement quarrels -about the Caliphate, between the house of Ali and the Ommiyyades, -were repeated on a small scale in Jewish Babylonia. The half-century -from Bostonai and the rise of the Gaonate till the Exilarchate of -Chasdai (670 to 730) is in consequence involved in obscurity. Few also -of the Geonim who held office and of the presidents of the colleges -during this period are known, and their chronological order cannot be -ascertained. After Mar-Isaac, probably the first Gaon of Sora, Hunai -held office, contemporaneously with Mar-Raba in Pumbeditha (670 to -680). These presidents issued an important decree with respect to the -law of divorce, whereby a Talmudical law was set aside. According to -the Talmud, the wife can seek a divorce only in very rare cases, _e. -g._, if the husband suffers from an incurable disease. Even if the -wife were seized with an unconquerable aversion to her husband, she -could be compelled by law to live with him, and to fulfil her duties, -on penalty of losing her marriage settlement, and even her dowry, in -case she insisted upon the separation. Through the domination of Islam -circumstances were now changed. The Koran had somewhat raised the -position of women, and empowered the wife to sue for a divorce. This -led many unhappy wives to appeal to the Mahometan courts, and they -compelled their husbands to give them a divorce without the aforesaid -penalties. It was in consequence of the events just related that Hunai -and Mar-Raba introduced a complete reform of the divorce laws. They -entirely abrogated the Talmudical law, and empowered the wife to sue -for a divorce without suffering any loss of her property-rights. Thus -the law established equality between husband and wife. For the space of -forty years (680 to 720), only the names of the Geonim and Exilarchs -are known to us; historical details, however, are entirely wanting. -During this time, as a result of quarrels and concessions, there arose -peculiar relations of the officials of the Jewish-Persian kingdom -towards one another, which developed into a kind of constitution. - -The Jewish community in Babylonia (Persia), which had the appearance of -a state, had a peculiar constitution. The Exilarch and the Gaon were -of equal rank. The Exilarch's office was political. He represented -Babylonian-Persian Judaism under the Caliphs. He collected the taxes -from the various communities, and paid them into the treasury. The -Exilarchs, both in bearing and mode of life, were princes. They drove -about in a state carriage; they had outriders and a kind of body-guard, -and received princely homage. - -The religious unity of Judaism, on the other hand, was embodied in the -Gaonate of Sora and Pumbeditha. The Geonim expounded the Talmud, with a -view to a practical application of its provisions; they made new laws -and regulations; administered them, and meted out punishment to those -that transgressed them. The Exilarch shared the judicial power with the -Gaon of Sora and the head of the college of Pumbeditha. - -The Exilarch had the right of nomination to offices, though not without -the acquiescence of the college. The head of the college of Sora, -however, was alone privileged to be styled "Gaon"; the head of the -college of Pumbeditha did not bear the title officially. The Gaon of -Sora together with his college, as a rule, was paid greater deference -than his colleague of Pumbeditha, partly out of respect to the memory -of its great founders, Rab and Ashi, partly on account of its proximity -to Kufa, the capital of Irak and of the kingdom of Islam in the East. -On festive occasions, the head of the college of Sora sat at the right -side of the Exilarch. He obtained two-thirds of certain revenues for -his school, and performed the duties of the Exilarch when the office -was vacant. For a long time, too, only a member of the school of Sora -was elected president of the school of Pumbeditha, this school not -being permitted to elect one from its own ranks. - -Now that the Exilarch everywhere met with the respect due a prince, -he was installed with a degree of ceremony and pomp. Although the -office was hereditary in the house of Bostanai, the acquiescence of -both colleges was required for the nomination of a new Exilarch, and -thus there came to be a fixed installation service. The officials of -both the colleges, together with their fellow-collegians, and the most -respected men in the land, betook themselves to the residence of the -designated Exilarch. In a large open place, which was lavishly adorned, -seats were erected for him and the presidents of the two schools. The -Gaon of Sora delivered an address to the future Exilarch, in which he -was reminded of the duties of his high office, and was warned against -haughty conduct toward his brethren. The installation always took -place in the synagogue, and on a Thursday. Both officials put their -hands upon the head of the nominee, and declared amidst the clang of -trumpets, "Long live our lord, the Prince of the Exile." - -The people, who were always present in great numbers on the occasion, -vociferously repeated the wish. All present then accompanied the new -Exilarch home from the synagogue, and presents flowed in from all -sides. On the following Saturday evening there was a special festive -service for the new prince. There was a platform in the shape of a -tower erected for him in the synagogue. This was decked with costly -ornaments that he might appear like the kings of the house of David in -the Temple, on a raised seat, apart from the people. He was conducted -to divine service by a numerous and honorable suite. The reader chanted -the prayers with the assistance of a well-appointed choir. - -When the Exilarch was seated on his high seat, the Gaon of Sora -approached the Exilarch, bent the knee before him, and sat at his right -hand. His colleague of Pumbeditha having made a similar obeisance, took -his seat on the left. When the Law was read, they brought the scroll -to the Exilarch, which was looked upon as a royal prerogative. He was -also the first one called to the reading of the Law, which on ordinary -occasions was the prerogative of the descendants of the house of Aaron. -In order to honor him, the president of the college of Sora acted as -interpreter (Meturgeman), expounding the passage that had been read. - -After the Law was read, it was customary for the Prince of the -Exile to deliver an address. But if the Exilarch was not learned, -he delegated this duty to the Gaon of Sora. In the final prayer for -the glorification of God's name (Kadish, Gloria), the name of the -Exilarch was mentioned: "May this happen in the lifetime of the -Prince." Thereupon followed a special blessing for him, the heads of -the colleges and its members (Yekum Purkan), and the names of the -countries, places and persons, far and near, that had advanced the -welfare of the colleges by their contributions. A festive procession -from the synagogue to the house or palace of the Exilarch, and a -sumptuous repast for the officials and prominent personages, which -often included state officers, formed the conclusion of this peculiar -act of homage to the Exilarch. - -Once a year, in the third week after the Feast of Tabernacles, a -kind of court was held at the house of the Exilarch. The heads of -the college, together with their colleagues, the presidents of the -community, and many people besides, came to see him at Sora, probably -with presents. On the following Sabbath the same ceremonial took place -as at the nomination. Lectures were delivered during this court week, -which was afterwards known as "the Great Assembly," or the "Feast of -the Exilarch." - -The Exilarch derived his income partly from certain districts and -towns, and partly from irregular receipts. The districts Naharowan -(east of the Tigris), Farsistan, Holwan--as far as the jurisdiction of -the Exilarch extended--even during the period of decadence, brought -him an income of 700 golden denarii ($1700). We can easily imagine how -great his revenue must have been in palmy days. The Exilarch also had -the right of imposing a compulsory tax upon the communities under his -jurisdiction, and the officials of the Caliph supported him in this -because they themselves had an interest in it. - -The president of the college of Sora was the second in rank in the -Judaeo-Babylonian community. He was the only one who held the title -of Gaon officially, and he had the precedence over his colleague of -Pumbeditha on all occasions, even though the former were a young man -and the latter an aged one. Meanwhile, the school of Pumbeditha enjoyed -perfect equality and independence with respect to its internal affairs, -except when one or another Exilarch, according to Oriental custom, made -illegal encroachments upon it. - -Next to the president came the chief judge, who discharged the judicial -duties, and was, as a rule, his successor in office. Below these -were seven presidents of the Assembly of Teachers, and three others -who bore the title of Associate or scholar, and who together seem to -have composed the Senate in a restricted sense. Then came a college -of a hundred members, which was divided into two unequal bodies, one -of seventy members representing the "great Synhedrion," the other of -thirty forming the "smaller Synhedrion." The seventy were ordained, and -consequently qualified for promotion; they bore the title of Teacher. -The thirty or "smaller Synhedrion" do not seem to have been entitled to -a seat and vote, they were simply candidates for the higher dignity. -The members of the college generally bequeathed their offices to their -sons, but the office of president was not hereditary. - -This peculiarly organized council of the two colleges by degrees lost -its strictly collegiate character, and acquired that of a deliberative -and legislative Parliament. Twice a year, in March and September -(Adar and Elul), in accordance with ancient usage, the college held -a general meeting, and sat for a whole month. During this period -the members occupied themselves also with theoretical questions, -discussing and explaining some portion of the Talmud, which had been -given out beforehand as the theme. But the attention of the meeting was -principally directed to practical matters. New laws and regulations -were considered and decreed, and points which had formed the subject -of inquiry by foreign communities, during the preceding months, were -discussed and answered. Little by little the replies to the numerous -inquiries addressed to them by foreign communities on points of -religion, morals, and civil law, came to occupy the greater part of -the session. At the end of the session all opinions expressed by the -meeting on the points submitted for their consideration were read over, -signed by the president, in the name of the whole council, confirmed -with the seal of the college (Chumrata), and forwarded by messenger to -each community with a ceremonious form of greeting from the college. -It was customary for the various congregations to accompany their -inquiries with valuable presents in money. If these presents were -sent specially to one of the two colleges, the other received no -share; but if they were remitted without any precise directions, the -Soranian school, being the more important, received two-thirds, and the -remainder went to the sister-college. These presents were divided by -the president among the members of the college and the students of the -Talmud. - -Over and above such irregular receipts, the two colleges derived a -regular income from the districts which were under their jurisdiction. -To Sora belonged the south of Irak, with the two important cities Wasit -and Bassora, and its jurisdiction extended as far as Ophir (India or -Yemen?). In later times the revenues of these countries still amounted -to 1500 gold denars (about $3700). The northern communities belonged to -Pumbeditha, whose jurisdiction extended as far as Khorasan. - -The appointment of the judges of a district was, in all probability, -the duty of the principal of the college, in conjunction with the chief -judge and the seven members of the Senate-council. Each of these three -heads of the Babylonian-Jewish commonwealth accordingly possessed the -power of appointing the judges of his province, and the communities -were thus either under the Prince of the Captivity or the Soranian -Gaonate, or were dependent on the college of Pumbeditha. When a judge -was appointed over a certain community he received a commission from -the authorities over him. He bore the title of Dayan, and had to decide -not only in civil but also in religious cases, and was therefore at the -same time a rabbi. He chose from amongst the members of the community -two associates (Zekenim), together with whom he formed a judicial and -rabbinical tribunal. All valid deeds, marriage contracts, letters of -divorce, bills of exchange, bills of sale, and deeds of gift, were also -confirmed by this rabbi-judge. He was, at the same time, the notary -of the community. For these various functions he received--first, a -certain contribution from every independent member of the community; -secondly, fees for drawing up deeds; and, thirdly, a weekly salary from -the vendors of meat. The children's schools, which were in connection -with the synagogue, were probably also under the supervision of this -rabbi-judge. - -The communal constitution in Jewish Babylonia has served as a -model for the whole Jewish people, partly until the present time. -At the head of the community stood a commission entrusted with the -public interests, and composed of seven members, who were called -Parnese-ha-Keneset (Maintainers of the Community). A delegate of a -Prince of the Captivity, or of one of the principals of the colleges, -was charged with the supervision of public business, and also possessed -the power of punishing refractory members. The punishments inflicted -were flogging and excommunication. The latter, the invisible weapon -of the Middle Ages, which changed its victims to living corpses, was, -however, neither so often nor so arbitrarily exercised by the Jews as -by the Christians; but even among them it fell with terrible force. -Those who refused to comply with religious or official regulations, -were punished with the lesser excommunication. It was mild in form, -and did not entail the total isolation of the person excommunicated, -and affected the members of his own family still less. But whosoever -failed to repent within the given respite of thirty days, and to -make application to have the excommunication annulled, incurred the -punishment of the greater ban. This punishment scared away a man's most -intimate friends, isolated him in the midst of society, and caused -him to be treated as an outcast from Judaism. No one was allowed to -hold social intercourse with him, under penalty of incurring similar -punishments. His children were expelled from school, and his wife from -the synagogue. All were forbidden to bury his dead, or even to receive -his new-born son into the covenant of Abraham. Every distinctive mark -of Judaism was denied him, and he was left branded as one accursed of -God. The proclamation of the ban was posted up outside the court of -justice, and communicated to the congregation. Although this punishment -of excommunication and its consequences were extremely horrible, it was -nevertheless, at a time when the multitude was not open to rational -conviction, the only means of preserving religious unity intact, of -administering justice, and of maintaining social order. - -The Jewish commonwealth of Babylonia, notwithstanding its dependence on -the humors of a Mahometan governor and the caprice of its own leaders, -seemed nevertheless to those at a distance surrounded with a halo of -power and greatness. The Prince of the Captivity appeared to the Jews -of distant lands, who heard only confused rumors, to have regained -the scepter of David; for them the Geonim of the two colleges were -the living upholders and the representatives of the ideal times of -the Talmud. The further the dominion of the Caliphate of the house of -Ommiyyah was extended, to the north beyond the Oxus, to the east to -India, in the west and the south to Africa and the Pyrenees, the more -adherents were gained for the Babylonian Jewish chiefs. Every conquest -of the Mahometan generals enlarged the boundaries of the dominion under -the rule of the Prince of the Captivity and the Geonim. Even Palestine, -deprived of its center, subordinated itself to Babylonia. The hearts -of all Jews turned towards the potentates on the Euphrates, and their -presents flowed in freely, to enable the house of David to make a -worthy appearance, and the Talmudical colleges to continue to exist in -splendor. The grief for their dispersion to all corners of the earth -was mitigated by the knowledge that by the rivers of Babylon, where the -flower of the Jewish nation in its full vigor had settled, and where -the great Amoraim had lived and worked, a Jewish commonwealth still -existed. It was universally believed by the Jews that in the original -seat of Jewish greatness the primitive spring of ancient Jewish wisdom -was still flowing. "God permitted the colleges of Sora and Pumbeditha -to come into existence twelve years before the destruction of the -Temple by Nebuchadnezzar, and vouchsafed them His special protection. -They never suffered persecution at the hands of the Romans or the -Byzantines, and have known neither coercion nor bondage. From thence -will proceed the deliverance of Israel, and the dwellers in this happy -corner of the earth will be spared the sufferings that are to usher in -the age of the Messiah." Such was the view held by all who had not seen -the Babylonian settlement with their own eyes. - -It was accounted an honor for a dead person to be mentioned at a -memorial service at the colleges. For this purpose a special day was -set apart in each month of assembly, during which no business was -transacted by the colleges; the members mourned for the benefactors of -the colleges that had died during the past year, and prayed for the -peace of their souls (Ashkaba). Later on it became customary to forward -lists of the dead, even from France and Spain, in order that they might -also be thus honored. - -The Jews of Spain, to whom so brilliant a part is allotted in Jewish -history, drained the cup of misery to the dregs, at the very time -when their brethren in Irak obtained almost perfect freedom and -independence. Some of them had been obliged to emigrate; others were -compelled to embrace Christianity, and were required by the king -Chintila, solemnly to declare in writing their sincere adherence -to the Catholic faith and their entire repudiation of Judaism. But -although they had been forcibly converted, the Jews of Visigothic -Spain nevertheless clung steadfastly to their prohibited religion. The -independent Visigothic nobles, to a certain extent, protected them -from the king's severity, and no sooner were the eyes of the fanatical -Chintila closed in death than the Jews openly reverted to Judaism under -Chindaswinth, his successor (642-652). This monarch was at open enmity -with the clergy, who desired to restrain the power of the throne in -favor of the Church, but was well affected towards the Jews. - -His son, Receswinth, however, who was altogether unlike him, adopted -an entirely different policy. Either from fanaticism, or in order to -ingratiate himself with the clergy, at that time hostile to the throne, -he proposed in an ecclesiastical council (which was at the same time -a parliament) to deal rigorously with the Jews, more especially with -such of them as had formerly feigned to be Christians. In his speech -from the throne, Receswinth made the following appeal to the members of -the council: "It is because I have learnt that my kingdom is polluted -by them as by an epidemic that I denounce the life and the behavior of -the Jews. For while the Almighty has entirely freed the country from -heresy, a disgraceful desecration of the churches still continues. This -shall either be reformed by our piety or rooted out by our severity. I -mean that many of the Jews still persist in their old unbelief, while -others, although purified by baptism, have relapsed so deeply into the -errors of apostasy that their blasphemy seems even more abominable than -the sin of those who have not been baptized. I adjure you, therefore, -to decree against the Jews, without favor or respect of persons, some -measure which shall be agreeable to God and to our faith." The Council -of Toledo (the eighth), however, passed no new law against the Jews, -but simply confirmed the canonical decisions of the fourth Council of -Toledo. The Jews were, it is true, allowed to remain in the country, -but could neither possess slaves, nor hold any office, nor appear as -witnesses against Christians. But far harder was the fate of those -who, during the persecutions, had pretended to embrace Christianity. -They were compelled to remain within the pale of the Church, and -to abjure Judaism once again. Flight was impossible, for severe -punishments were decreed against all who renounced Christianity, or -hid themselves anywhere, or attempted to leave the country. Even the -abettors of, or accessories to, the flight of converts incurred heavy -punishment. Those, however, who desired to continue outwardly in their -pretended faith, but who still clung to Judaism in their inmost hearts, -were required to subscribe anew to a renunciation of their religion -(placitum Judaeorum). - -On February 18th, 654, the Jews of the capital Toletum (Toledo) signed -a confession of the purport that they had already promised, it was -true, under king Chintila, to remain steadfast to the Catholic faith, -but that their unbelief and the erroneous opinions which they had -inherited from their fathers had prevented them from acknowledging -Christ as their Master. Now, however, they voluntarily promised for -themselves, their wives, and their children that, in future, they would -not observe the rites and ceremonies of Judaism. They would no longer -hold culpable intercourse with unconverted Jews, neither would they -intermarry with near relations (children of brothers and sisters), nor -take Jewish wives, nor observe Jewish marriage-customs, nor practice -circumcision, nor keep the Passover, the Sabbath, nor any other Jewish -festivals; they would no longer observe the dietary laws--in a word, -they would henceforward disregard the laws of the Jews and their -abominable customs. On the other hand, they would honestly and devoutly -profess a religion in conformity with the gospel and the apostolic -traditions, and observe the precepts of the Church without deceit or -pretense. One thing, however, was impossible, namely, that they should -partake of pork; they were entirely unable to overcome their abhorrence -of it. They promised, however, to partake freely of anything which -might have been cooked with pork. Whoever among them should be guilty -of a violation of this promise was to be put to death by fire or by -stoning at the hands of their companions or their sons. To all of this -they swore "by the Trinity." It is probable that the forced converts in -the other cities of the Visigothic-Spanish empire were obliged to give -similar written assurances. At the same time they were still compelled -to pay the tax levied on the Jews, for the Treasury could not afford to -lose by their change of faith. - -As king Receswinth was well aware, however, that the independent nobles -of the country afforded the Jews their protection, and allowed such -of them as had been converted by force to live according to their -convictions, he issued a decree forbidding all Christians to befriend -the secret Jews, under penalty of excommunication and exclusion from -the pale of the Church. But these measures and precautions by no means -accomplished the intended result. - -The secret Jews, or as they were officially termed, the Judaizing -Christians, could not tear Judaism out of their hearts. The Spanish -Jews, surrounded as they were by perils of death, early learnt the -art of remaining true in their inmost soul to their religion, and of -escaping their Argus-eyed foe. They continued to celebrate the Jewish -festivals in their homes, and to disregard the holy-days instituted by -the Church. Desirous of putting an end to such a state of things, the -representatives of the Church issued a decree, which aimed at depriving -this unfortunate people of their home life; they were henceforward -compelled to spend the Jewish and Christian holy-days under the eyes of -the clergy, in order that they might thereby be obliged to disregard -the former and to observe the latter (655). - -When, after a long reign, Receswinth died, the tormented Jewish -converts took part in a revolt against his successor, Wamba (672-680). -Count Hilderic, Governor of Septimania, a province of Spain, having -refused to recognize the newly-elected king, raised the standard -of revolt. In order to gain adherents and means, he promised the -converted Jews a safe refuge and religious liberty in his province, -and they, taking advantage of the invitation, emigrated in numbers. -The insurrection of Hilderic of Nismes assumed greater proportions, -and at first gave hopes of a successful issue, but the insurgents were -eventually defeated. Wamba appeared with an army before Narbonne, and -expelled the Jews from this city. At the council which he convened -(the eleventh) the Jews did not form the subject of any legislation; -they seem, on the contrary, to have enjoyed a certain amount of -freedom during his reign, and to have made some efforts towards their -self-preservation. - -In order, on the one hand, to prove that, although they were unable to -reconcile themselves to Christianity, they were not entirely bereft of -reason, as their enemies had declared at the councils and also in their -writings; and, on the other hand, in order to keep their ancestral -belief alive both in themselves and in such of their brethren as only -partly belonged to the Christian faith, certain talented Jews set -themselves to compose anti-Christian treatises, probably in Latin. -One point alone is known of the arguments advanced in these polemical -writings. The authors referred to a tradition relating that the Messiah -would not appear before the seventh cycle of a thousand years, counting -from the creation of the world; the first six cycles corresponded to -the six days of the creation, and the seventh would be the universal -Sabbath, the reign of the Messiah. But as, according to their method -of reckoning, hardly five thousand years had elapsed from the creation -to the birth of Jesus, it was impossible, they maintained, that the -Messiah had appeared. This objection must have been forcibly urged by -the Jewish writers, for many Christians were thereby made to waver in -their faith. - -This partial liberty of religion, thought, and speech, was suppressed -by Wamba's successor, who gained possession of the throne by -treacherous means. Erwig, who was of Byzantine origin, and who -possessed to the full the deceitfulness and unscrupulousness of the -degenerate Greeks, caused Wamba to assume the cowl, and proclaimed -himself king. In order to have his usurpation recognized as lawful -succession, Erwig found himself obliged to make some concessions to the -clergy, and accordingly he handed the Jews over to them as victims. -With assumed earnestness, he addressed the council which was assembled -to crown him, and in a fanatical speech, submitted for confirmation a -series of laws against the Jews. The portion of the royal speech which -was directed against the Jews ran as follows: "With tears streaming -from my eyes, I implore this honorable assembly to manifest its zeal, -and free the land from this plague of degeneracy. Arise, arise, I cry -unto you; put to the test the laws against the apostasy of the Jews -which we have just promulgated." - -Of the seven-and-twenty paragraphs which Erwig submitted to the council -for ratification, one alone related to the Jews; the rest were leveled -at those forced converts who, despite their promises to persist in the -Christian faith, and the severe punishment that followed in case of -detection, were still unable to abandon Judaism. Erwig's edict made but -short work of the Jews. They were commanded to offer themselves, their -children, and all persons under their control, for baptism within the -space of a year, otherwise their property would be confiscated, one -hundred lashes would be inflicted on them, the skin torn off their head -and forehead to their everlasting shame, and they themselves driven out -of the country. On the converted Jews, fresh hardships were imposed. -They were now not only obliged to spend the Christian and Jewish -holy-days under the eyes of the clergy, but were further subjected to -clerical control in all their movements. Whenever they set out upon -a journey, they had to present themselves before the ecclesiastical -authorities of the place, and obtain a certificate from them, setting -forth the time they had lived there, and attesting that their conduct -had been in rigorous conformity with Church law during that period. At -the same time, unless they could prove that they had led a blameless, -Christian life, they were incompetent to hold any office, even to act -as village bailiff (vilicus, actor) over Christian slaves. They always -had to carry about with them a copy of the laws which had been passed -against them, so that they might never be able to plead ignorance in -excuse. The ecclesiastical and royal judges were instructed to watch -strictly over the execution of these orders, and all Christians were -forbidden to accept any presents from converted Jews. - -The council, at the head of which was Julian, the Metropolitan of -Toledo, a man of Jewish descent, passed all Erwig's proposals, and -enacted that these laws, as ratified by the decision of the synod, -were by general acknowledgment inviolable for all time. Two days -after the prorogation of this council, the Jews, both those that had -remained true to their religion and those that had been converted, were -called together, the laws were read to them and their rigid observance -strictly enjoined (January 25th, 681). A third time the converted -Jews were compelled to abjure Judaism and to draw up a confession -of faith--with the same sincerity, of course, as under Chintila and -Receswinth. - -But the Visigothic-Spanish Jews fared still worse under Erwig's -successor, Egica. He did not drive them out of the country, it is true, -but he did what was worse, he restricted their rights. He prohibited -the Jews and the Judaizing Christians from possessing landed property -and houses; moreover, they were forbidden to repair to Africa, or to -trade with that continent, or to transact business with any Christians -whatever. They were compelled to surrender all their real estate to the -Treasury, and were indemnified, probably not too liberally, for the -same (693). Only those that were really converted were left unfettered -by these restrictions. - -The Jews were driven to despair by this new law, which it was -impossible to evade, as their real estate was actually confiscated; -they accordingly united in a perilous conspiracy against their -unrelenting foe. They entered into an alliance with their more -fortunate brethren in Africa, with the intention of overthrowing the -Visigothic empire, and were probably aided by the boldly-advancing -Mahometans and the malcontent nobles of the country (694). The attempt -might easily have succeeded, for, owing to dissension, unnatural -vices and weakness, the country was far advanced in a state of ruin -and dissolution. But the conspiracy of the Jews was discovered before -it had matured, and severe punishment was inflicted not only on the -culprits, but on the whole Jewish population of Spain, including that -of the province of Septimania (together with Narbonne). They were all -sentenced to slavery, presented to various masters, and distributed -throughout the country, their owners being prohibited from setting -them free again. Children of seven years of age and upwards were torn -from their parents and given to Christians to be educated. The only -exception made was in favor of the Jewish warriors of the narrow passes -of the Gallic province, who formed a bulwark against invasion. They -were indispensable, and their bravery protected them from degradation -and slavery, but even they were compelled to change their religion. - -The Spanish Jews continued in this state of degradation until Egica's -death. When his son Witiga followed him to the grave, the last hours -of this empire were evidently at hand. The Jews of Africa, who at -various times had emigrated thither from Spain, and their unlucky -co-religionists of the Peninsula, made common cause with the Mahometan -conqueror, Tarik, who brought over from Africa into Andalusia an army -eager for the fray. After the battle of Xeres (July, 711), and the -death of Roderic, the last of the Visigothic kings, the victorious -Arabs pushed onward, and were everywhere supported by the Jews. In -every city that they conquered the Moslem generals were able to leave -but a small garrison of their own troops, as they had need of every man -for the subjection of the country; they therefore confided them to the -safe-keeping of the Jews. In this manner the Jews, who but lately had -been serfs, now became the masters of the towns of Cordova, Granada, -Malaga, and many others. When Tarik appeared before the capital, -Toledo, he found it occupied by a small garrison only, the nobles -and clergy having found safety in flight. While the Christians were -in church, praying for the safety of their country and religion, the -Jews flung open the gates to the victorious Arabs (Palm-Sunday, 712), -receiving them with acclamations, and thus avenged themselves for the -many miseries which had befallen them in the course of a century since -the time of Reccared and Sisebut. The capital also was entrusted by -Tarik to the custody of the Jews, while he pushed on in pursuit of the -cowardly Visigoths, who had sought safety in flight, for the purpose of -recovering from them the treasure which they had carried off. - -Finally, when Muza Ibn-Nosair, the Governor of Africa, brought a second -army into Spain and conquered other cities, he also delivered them into -the custody of the Jews. It was under these favorable conditions that -the Spanish Jews came under the rule of the Mahometans, and like their -co-religionists in Babylonia and Persia, they were esteemed the allies -of their rulers. They were kindly treated, obtained religious liberty, -of which they had so long been deprived, were permitted to exercise -jurisdiction over their co-religionists, and were obliged, like the -conquered Christians, to pay only a poll-tax (Dsimma). Thus were they -received into that great alliance, which, to a certain extent, united -all the Jews of the Islamite empire into one commonwealth. - -As the Mahometan empire grew in size, the activity of its Jewish -inhabitants increased in proportion. The first Caliphs of the house -of Ommiyyah, by reason of their continual wars with the descendants -and comrades of Mahomet, with the fanatical upholders of the letter -of the Koran, and with the partisans of the spiritual Imamate -(high-priesthood), had become entirely free from that narrow-mindedness -and mania for persecution which characterized the founder and the -first two Caliphs. The following rulers of the Mahometans, Moawiyah, -Yezid I., Abdul-Malik, Walid I., and Suliman (656-717), were far more -worldly than spiritual; their political horizon was extensive, and they -fettered themselves but little with the narrow precepts of the Koran -and the traditions (Sunna). They loved Arabic poetry (Abdul-Malik was -himself a poet), held knowledge in esteem, and rewarded the author -quite as liberally as the soldier who fought for them. The Jewish -inhabitants of Mahometan countries soon adopted the Arabic language. -It is closely related, in many of its roots and forms, to Hebrew, -with which language all of them were more or less familiar, and they -needed a knowledge thereof, as it was the indispensable medium of -communication. The enthusiasm which the Arabs felt for their language -and its poetry, the care which they took to keep it pure, accurate -and sonorous, had their effect upon the Jews, and taught them to -employ correct forms of speech. During the six hundred years which -had elapsed since the fall of the Jewish nation, the Jews had lost -the sense of beauty and grace of expression; they were negligent in -their speech, careless of purity of form, and indifferent to the -clothing of their thoughts and emotions in suitable terms. A people -possessed of an imperfect delivery, using a medley of Hebrew, Chaldee, -and corrupt Greek, was not in a position to create a literature, -much less to enchain the wayward muse of poetry. But, as already -mentioned, the Jews of Arabia formed an exception. They acquired from -their neighbors correct taste, and the art of framing their speech -pleasantly and impressively. The Jewish tribes of Kainukaa and Nadhir, -which had emigrated to Palestine and Syria, the Jews of Chaibar and -Wadil-Kora, who had been transplanted to the region of Kufa and the -center of the Gaonate, brought with them to their new home this love -and taste for the poetical Arabic tongue, and gradually instilled -them into their co-religionists. Hardly half a century after the -occupation of Palestine and Persia by the Arabs, a Babylonian Jew was -able to handle the Arabic language for literary purposes: the Jewish -physician, Messer-Jawaih of Bassorah, translated a medical work from -the Syriac into Arabic. Henceforward the Jews, together with the Syrian -Christians, were the channels through which scientific literature -reached the Arabs. - -The enthusiasm of the Arabs for their language and the Koran evoked -in the hearts of the Jews a similar sentiment for the Hebrew tongue -and its holy records. Besides this, the Jews were now obliged to make -closer acquaintance with the Scriptures, in order that they might not -be put to the blush in their controversies with the Mahometans. Until -now the talented men among them had turned their attention exclusively -to the Talmud and the Agadic exposition, but necessity at last -compelled them to return to the source, the Bible. - -As soon, however, as it was desired to recover what had been lost -for centuries, and to return with ardor to the study of Biblical -literature, a need manifested itself which first had to be supplied. In -supplying the Biblical text with the vowel signs invented in Babylonia -or in Tiberias, it was necessary to proceed in such passages, as -had not become familiar by frequent reading in public, according to -grammatical rules. The Punctuators were obliged to be guided partly -by tradition and partly by their sense of language. In this manner -there arose the rudiments of two branches of knowledge: one treating -of the above-mentioned rules of the Hebrew language, the other of -the science of orthography, together with the exceptions as handed -down by tradition (Massora). This apparently unimportant invention -of adding certain strokes and points to the consonants thus led to -the comprehension of the Holy Scriptures by the general public and -the initiation of a more general knowledge of Judaism. By its help -the holy language could now celebrate its revival; it was no longer -a dead language employed only by scholars, but might become a means -of educating the people. The auxiliary signs tended to break down the -barrier between the learned (Chacham) and the unlearned (Am-ha-Arez). - -An immediate consequence of contact with the Arabs and the study of -the Holy Writ was the birth of neo-Hebraic poetry. Poetical natures -naturally felt themselves impelled to make use of the copious Hebrew -vocabulary in metrical compositions and polished verse, in the same -manner as the Arabs had done with their language. But while the -Arabic bards sang of the sword, of chivalry, of unbridled love, -bewailed the loss of worldly possessions, and attacked with their -satire such of their enemies as they could not reach with the sword, -the newly-awakened Hebrew poetry knew of but one subject worthy of -enthusiasm and adoration, God and His providence, of but one subject -worthy of lament, the destitution and sorrows of the Jewish nation. -The new-born Hebrew poetry, however different in form and matter from -that of the Bible, had a religious foundation in common with it. The -psalm of praise and the soul-afflicting dirge of lamentation were taken -by the neo-Hebraic poets as their models. But a third element also -claimed attention. Since the state had lost its independence, learning -had become the soul of Judaism; religious deeds, if not accompanied by -knowledge of the Law, were accounted of no worth. The main feature of -the Sabbath and festival services was the reading of portions of the -Law and the Prophets, the interpretation thereof by the Targumists and -the explanation of the text by the Agadists (preachers of homilies). -Neo-Hebraic poetry, if it was to reach the hearts of the people, could -not be entirely devoid of a didactic element. The poet's only scene of -action was the synagogue, his only audience, the congregation assembled -for prayer and instruction, and his poetry, therefore, necessarily -assumed a synagogical or liturgical character. - -The poetical impulse was strengthened by practical necessity. The -original divine service with its short and simple prayers was no longer -sufficient. It was extended, it is true, by the recitation of psalms -and appropriate liturgical compositions, but even this did not fill up -the time which the congregation would gladly have spent in the house -of God. This was especially felt on the New Year's festival and on the -Day of Atonement, which were dedicated to deep devotion, and during the -greater part of which the congregation remained in the house of prayer, -contrite, and imploring forgiveness and redemption. It was evident that -the divine service must be amplified, and more matter for meditation -provided. In this manner arose the synagogical, or, as it was also -called, the _poetanic_ composition. At the head of the succession of -neo-Hebraic poets stands Jose bar Jose Hayathom (or Haithom), whose -works are not without true poetic ring, although devoid of artistic -form. The date and nationality of this poet are entirely unknown, but -it appears probable that he was a native of Palestine, and that he -lived not earlier than the first Gaonic century. - -Jose b. Jose took as the subject of his poems the emotions and memories -which move a Jewish congregation on New Year's Day. On this occasion, -the birthday of a new division of time, on which, according to Jewish -ideas, the fate that the year has in store for men and communities is -decided, God is extolled in a sublime poem as the mighty Master, the -Creator of the world, the just Judge and the Redeemer of Israel. This -poem, which was attached to the old prayers for the prescribed blowing -of the cornet, and was intended to interpret them, embraces in a small -compass the story of Israel's glorious past, its oppressed present, -and promised future. Jose's poem is at once a psalm of triumph and of -lamentation, interwoven with penitential prayers and words of hope. The -resurrection is described in a few striking, picturesque lines. - -Another and longer of Jose's poems has for its theme the ancient -worship in the Temple on the Day of Atonement, which an attentive -nation had once followed in devotional mood, and the description of -which was well calculated to awaken the great memories of the glorious -times of national independence (Abodah). It is a sort of liturgical -epic, which describes simply, and without any lyrical strain, the -creation of the universe and of man, the ungodliness of the first -generation, Abraham's recognition of God, the election of his posterity -as God's peculiar people, and the calling of Aaron's family to the -service of the Temple. Arrived at the priesthood of Aaron, the poet, -following the account of the Mishna, goes on to describe the duties of -the high-priest in the Temple on the Day of Atonement, and concludes -with the moment when the high-priest, accompanied by the whole nation, -joyful and assured by visible signs of forgiveness, leaves the Temple -for his home,--a beautiful fragment of the past, which has always -awakened a powerful echo in the hearts of the Jewish people. - -Elevation of thought and beauty of language are the characteristics -of Jose b. Jose's poetry. His New Year's sonnets and Temple epic have -become parts of the divine service of certain congregations, and have -served as models for others. His verses are unrhymed and without -meter, a proof of their great antiquity. The only artificial feature -of his poetical works is the alphabetical or acrostic commencement -of verses, for which several of the Psalms, Jeremiah's Lamentations, -and the post-talmudical prayers served as models. In the first fruits -of the new Hebraic poetry, form is completely subservient to the -subject-matter. There has been preserved from ancient times another -Abodah, ascribed to a poet named Simon ben Caipha. It appears to have -been written in imitation of that of Jose b. Jose, but is greatly -inferior to its model. However, it was honored by being adopted by -the synagogue of the Gaonate. To the name of Simon Caipha, which -sounds like the Jewish name of the apostle Peter, a peculiar legend -is attached: The apostle, who supports the foundation of the Catholic -Church, is represented as having written this Abodah in order to -declare in the opening part his truly Jewish acknowledgment of God's -unity, and to renounce his adherence to Jesus, as though the disciple -who three times denied his Master had desired in this liturgical poem -to attest his unbelief. - -It was impossible that Jewish liturgical poetry could long remain -satisfied with this simplicity of form. Little by little the Jews -became acquainted with the poetry of the Arabs, the agreeable sound -of its rhymes captivated them, and they were led to regard rhyme as -the perfection of poetry. The _poetanists_, therefore, if they would -be well received, could not afford to neglect this artistic device, -and they assiduously devoted themselves to its cultivation. As far as -is known, the first poet who introduced rhyme into the neo-Hebraic -poetry was a certain Jannai, probably an inhabitant of Palestine. He -composed versified prayers for those special Sabbaths which, either by -reason of historical events connected with them, or of being a time of -preparation for the approaching festivals, were possessed of particular -importance. The Agadic discourses, which had been introduced on these -Sabbaths, do not seem to have pleased the congregations any longer, -because the preachers were unable to find new and attractive matter; -they seem, indeed, to have read out the same discourses in a given -order from year to year. - -The poems of Jannai and his fellow-workers aimed at giving the -substance of these Agadic expositions in the form of agreeable verse. -Hence, Jannai's productions are versified Agadas. But as he was not -enough of a poet to reproduce the elevated and striking passages of -Agadic literature, as his rhymes were heavy and labored, and as he -also burdened himself with the task of commencing his verses with -consecutive letters of the alphabet, and of interweaving his name into -them, his poems are dull, clumsy, and unwieldy. - -Altogether neo-Hebraic poetry gained nothing during its earlier -years by the introduction of rhyme. Eleazar ben Kalir or Kaliri (of -Kiriat-Sepher), one of the first and most prolific of the _poetanic_ -writers, and a disciple of Jannai, was just as clumsy and harsh as -his master, and his style was even more obscure. He wrote over 150 -liturgical pieces, including hymns for the festivals, penitential -prayers for the holy-days, songs of lamentation for the principal -fasts, and various other compositions which cannot be classed under -distinct heads. Kaliri put into most artificial verses a large portion -of the Agadic literature, but only a few of his compositions have any -poetical value, and none possesses beauty. In order to overcome the -difficulties which were presented by the allusions to the Agada, by -the use of rhyme, of the alphabetically arranged initial words and the -interweaving of his name, Kaliri was obliged to do violence to the -Hebrew language, to set at defiance the fixed rules which govern the -use of words, and to create unprecedented combinations. In place of -word-pictures, he often presents to his reader obscure riddles, which -it is impossible to solve without a thorough acquaintance with the -Agadic writings. Nevertheless, Kaliri's poetic compositions made their -way into the liturgies of the Babylonian, Italian, German, and French -Jews; the Spaniards alone, guided by delicate feeling for language, -refused to adopt them. Kaliri was honored as the greatest of the -_poetanic_ writers, and tradition has glorified his name. - -By the introduction of these compositions, the liturgy acquired -an altered character. The translation of the portions of the Law -which were read out to the congregation, and the Agadic expositions -thereof, which, as the Jews of the Islamic empire adopted the Arabic -language, had become unfamiliar to the multitude, gradually disappeared -from the divine service, and their places were filled by metrical -compositions (Piyutim) which answered the same purpose, and at the same -time possessed the advantage of a poetical character. By this means -considerable extension was given to the divine service. The reader -supplanted the preacher. Singing was introduced into the synagogue, as -the poetical prayers were not recited, but chanted (Chazanuth). Special -tunes were introduced for the various prayers. But the _poetanic_ -compositions were not adopted by all congregations as part of their -divine service. The Talmudical authorities were at first opposed to -their adoption, for the reason that they were usually interpolated -between the various divisions of the principal prayer, and in this -manner destroyed the continuity and coherence of its separate parts. - -The return to the source of the Bible had the result of kindling a -poetic flame in artistic natures; but, at the same time, it fanned -into existence a wild spirit which at first brought trouble, schism, -and malediction in its train, although afterwards it became a source -of purification, vigor, and blessing to the Jews. The origin of this -movement, which divided the Jewish commonwealth of the east and west -into two camps, dates from the first Gaonic century. - -The Babylonian Talmud held sway over the Jewish community in Babylonia; -it was not only a code, but also the constitution for the community -of which the Prince of the Captivity and the two presidents of the -Talmudical colleges were the chief dignitaries. By the expansion of -the Islamic dominion from India to Spain, from the Caucasus far down -into Africa, the authority of the Talmud was extended far beyond its -original bounds; for the most distant congregations placed themselves -into communication with the Geonim, submitted points of religion, -morals, and civil law to them for advice, and accepted in full faith -their decisions, which were based on the Talmud. The Babylonian-Persian -communities felt themselves in nowise hampered by the Talmudical -ordinances, which were of their own creation, and had sprung up in -their midst, the outcome of their views, morals, and customs, the work -of their authorities. The African and European communities were too -unlearned in the Bible and the Talmud to be able to express an opinion -on the matter. They accepted the decisions of the Geonim as law, -without greatly troubling themselves as to their agreement with the -Bible. - -Not so, however, with the Arabian Jews who had emigrated from Arabia to -Palestine, Syria and Irak, the Benu-Kainukaa, the Benu-Nadhir, and the -Chaibarites. They were sons of the desert, men of the sword, soldiers -and warriors, accustomed from their childhood to a free life and to the -development of their strength; men who cultivated social intercourse -with their former Arabic allies and fellow-soldiers, in whose midst -they again settled after the conquest of Persia and Syria. Judaism was -indeed dear to them, for they had sacrificed liberty, country, fame -and wealth in its cause, and had resisted Mahomet's importunities, and -had not allowed themselves to be converted to Islam. But between the -Judaism which they practised in Arabia, and the Judaism taught by the -Talmud, and set up as a standard by the colleges, there lay a deep -gulf. To conform to Talmudical precepts, it would have been necessary -for them to renounce their genial familiarity with their former -comrades, and to give up their drinking-bouts with the Arabs which, -despite their interdiction by the Koran, the latter greatly loved. In a -word, they felt themselves hampered by the Talmud. - -The Jews of Arabia, who came into close contact with the Mahometans, -and were, therefore, frequently involved in controversy as to whether -Judaism was still possessed of authority or had been superseded by -Islam, were obliged, so as not to be at a loss in such discussions, -to familiarize themselves with the Bible. They in that way probably -discovered that much of what the Talmud and the colleges declared to be -religious precept, was not confirmed by the Bible. But from whatever -cause this aversion to Talmudical precepts may have arisen, it is -certain that it first had its origin in the Arabian Jewish colony in -Syria or Irak. It is related, in an authentic source, that during the -first part of the eighth century, many Jews allowed themselves to be -persuaded to abandon Talmudical Judaism and to conform only to the -precepts of the Bible. - -The leader of this movement was a Syrian, Serene (Serenus) by name, -who called himself the Messiah (about 720). He promised the Jews to -put them into possession of the Holy Land, having first, of course, -expelled the Mahometans. This attempt to regain their long-lost -independence was perhaps occasioned by the fanatical Caliph Omar II -(717-720). That bigoted prince, who had been raised to the throne by -the intrigues of a zealous reader of the Koran, had re-enacted the -restrictive laws of his predecessor, Omar I (the covenant of Omar), -which had fallen into oblivion under the politic Ommiyyades. After -his accession to the throne, he wrote to his governors as follows: -"Do not pull down a church or a synagogue, but do not allow new ones -to be built within your provinces." Omar devoted himself to making -proselytes, holding out attractive promises to the new converts, -or unceremoniously compelling both Jews and Christians to embrace -Islam. It was probably for this reason that the Jews were disposed to -support the false Messiah, and to lend credence to his representations -that he would make them free again in the land of their fathers, and -exterminate their enemies. Upon his banner Serene inscribed the release -from Talmudical ordinances; he abolished the second day's celebration -of the festivals, the prescribed forms of prayer, and the laws of -the Talmud relating to food: he permitted the use of wine obtained -from non-Jews, and sanctioned marriage between persons of nearer -relationship than was allowed by the Talmud, as also celebration -of marriages without a marriage-contract. It is probable that this -hostility towards the Talmud gained him many adherents. - -Serene's fame spread as far as Spain, and the Jews of that country -resolved to abandon their property and to place themselves under the -leadership of the pseudo-Messiah. Hardly ten years after the Jews -of Spain had been delivered from the yoke of the Visigoths by the -conquests of the Mahometans, they, or at least many of them, were -desirous of again abandoning their newly-acquired fatherland. It -appears that they were dissatisfied with the rule and administration -of the Mahometan governors. As they had rendered signal services to -the Arabs in the conquest of the Peninsula, they probably expected -particular consideration and distinction, and instead of this they -were impoverished equally with the Christians. Serene's fate was -miserable, as indeed he deserved. He was captured and brought before -the Caliph Yezid, Omar II's successor, who put an end to his Messianic -pretensions by propounding insidious questions to him, which he was -unable to answer. Serene is said, however, to have denied before the -Caliph that he had had any serious designs, but that he only intended -to make game of the Jews; whereupon the Caliph handed him over to -the Jews for punishment. Many of his adherents, repenting of their -easy credulity, desired to rejoin the communities from which they -had severed themselves by infringement of the Talmudical ordinances. -The Syrian communities were doubtful, however, whether they ought to -re-admit their repentant brethren into their midst, or whether they -ought not to be treated as proselytes. They referred the matter, -therefore, to Natronai ben Nehemiah, surnamed Mar-Yanka, the principal -of the college at Pumbeditha, and successor of Mar-Raba (719-730). -Natronai's decision concerning the reception of Serene's adherents -was conceived in a liberal spirit, and ran as follows: According to -the laws of the Talmud, there is nothing to prevent them from being -re-admitted by the communities and being treated as Jews; but they are -to declare openly in the synagogues their sorrow and repentance, and -to promise that their future conduct shall be pious and in accordance -with the precepts of the Talmud, and in addition they are to suffer the -punishment of flogging. At that time there were also other apostates, -who went so far as to disregard the Biblical precepts concerning the -Sabbath, the ritual for slaughtering cattle, the eating of blood, and -the intermarrying of near relations. It is not known, however, in what -country these people lived. Without declaring either for Christianity -or Islam, they had entirely severed their connection with Judaism. When -some of these sought re-admission into the fold of Judaism, Natronai -was again asked for his opinion. He said, "It is better to take them -under the wings of God than to cast them out." - -At about this time the Jews of the Byzantine empire were subjected -to severe persecution, from the effects of which they did not for a -long time recover, and this, too, at the hands of a monarch from whom -they had least expected hostile treatment. Leo, the Isaurian, the -son of rude peasant parents, having had his attention drawn by the -Jews and the Arabs to the idolatrous character of the image-worship -which obtained in the churches, had undertaken a campaign with the -intention of destroying these images. Being denounced, however, before -the uncultivated mob as a heretic and a Jew by the image-worshiping -clergy, Leo proceeded to vindicate his orthodoxy by persecuting the -heretics and the Jews. He issued a decree commanding all the Jews of -the Byzantine empire and the remnant of the Montanists in Asia Minor -to embrace the Christianity of the Greek Church, under pain of severe -punishment (723). Many Jews submitted to this decree, and reluctantly -received baptism; they were thus less steadfast than the Montanists, -who, in order to remain faithful to their convictions, assembled in -their house of prayer, set fire to it, and perished in the flames. -Such of the Jews as had allowed themselves to be baptized were of -the opinion that the storm would soon blow over, and that they would -be permitted to return to Judaism. It was, therefore, only outwardly -that they embraced Christianity; for they observed the Jewish rites -in secret, thereby subjecting themselves to fresh persecutions. Thus -the Jews of the Byzantine empire pined away under unceasing petty -persecution, and for a time they are hidden from the view of history. - -Many Jews of the Byzantine empire, however, escaped compulsory baptism -by emigration. They quitted a country in which their forefathers had -settled long before the rise of that Church which had so persistently -persecuted them. The Jews of Asia Minor chose as their home the -neighboring Cimmerian or Tauric peninsula (the Crimea), whose -uncivilized inhabitants, of Scythian, Finnish and Sclavonian origin, -practised idolatry. These Alani, Bulgarians and Chazars were, however, -not jealous of men of other race and of a different belief who settled -in their vicinity. Thus, side by side with the Jewish communities -which had existed from early times, there arose new communities on the -shores of the Black Sea and the Straits of Theodosia (Kaffa), and in -the interior, in Sulchat (Solgat, now Eski-Crimea), in Phanagoria (now -Taman), and on the Bosporus (Kertch), which lies opposite. From the -Crimea the Greek Jews spread towards the Caucasus, and the hospitable -countries of the Chazars on the west coast of the Caspian Sea and at -the mouth of the Volga (Atel). Jewish communities settled in Berdaa -(Derbend), at the Albanian Gates, in Semender (Tarki), and finally in -Balanyiar, the capital of the land of the Chazars. By their energy, -ability and intelligence, the Greek-Jewish emigrants speedily acquired -power in the midst of these barbarian nations, and prepared the way for -an important historical event. - -Hardly thirty years after the fall of the false Messiah, Serene, an -anti-Talmudical movement, coupled with Messianic enthusiasm, was again -set on foot, but this time on a different scene. The prime mover was a -fantastic and warlike inhabitant of the Persian town of Ispahan, one -Obaiah Abu-Isa ben Ishak. He was not an ignorant man; he understood the -Bible and the Talmud, and was capable of expressing his thoughts in -writing. It is said that he was made aware of his call to an exalted -vocation by a sudden cure from leprosy. Abu-Isa did not proclaim -himself to be the Messiah, but asserted that he was the forerunner and -awakener (Dai) who was to prepare for the coming of the Messiah. His -views concerning the office of precursor of the Messiah were, indeed, -altogether peculiar. He taught that five forerunners would precede the -Messiah, and that each one would be more perfect than his predecessor. -He considered himself the last and most perfect of the five, and of -equal merit with the Messiah. He assumed his vocation in good earnest, -and announced that God had called him to free the Jewish race from the -yoke of the nations and of unjust rulers. - -The Messianic precursor of Ispahan found many partisans, 10,000 Jews, -it is said, gathering around him for the purpose of aiding him in -his work of deliverance. To them Abu-Isa expounded a form of Judaism -differing in some respects from that accepted at the time; the points -of difference, however, are not known. He entirely abolished divorce, -even in the case of adultery. He augmented the three daily periods -for prayer by four new periods, citing in support of this innovation -the verse of a psalm: "Seven times a day do I praise thee." Abu-Isa -retained the forms of prayer as prescribed by the Talmud, and in no -way disturbed the existing order of the calendar. He explained his -own peculiar system of religion in one of his works, in which he -prohibits the use of meat and wine by his followers, but pronounces the -abrogation of sacrificial worship. - -Abu-Isa desired to accomplish his Messianic task of liberation with -sword in hand. He accordingly made soldiers of his followers, and rode -at their head like a general. There could have been no more favorable -moment for an attempt to regain liberty by open force. In all the -provinces of the Mahometan empire the spirit of rebellion against -Mervan II, the last Caliph of the Ommiyyad dynasty, was aroused. -Ambitious governors, dissatisfied partisans, the Abassides, who laid -claim to the supreme power, all these antagonistic elements conspired -to overthrow the house of Ommiyyah, and turned the wide dominions of -the empire into a battlefield of fierce passions. During this period -of rebellion, Abu-Isa and his band seem to have begun their work of -deliverance in the neighborhood of Ispahan. They probably strengthened -their position during the disturbances consequent upon the severe -defeat sustained by Mervan's general on the Euphrates (at Kerbella, -August, 749). - -Finally, Abu-Isa fell in battle; his followers dispersed, and -the Jews of Ispahan had to suffer for his revolt. His adherents, -however, loyally cherished his memory; under the name of Isavites or -Ispahanites they continued to exist until the tenth century, forming -the first religious sect to which Judaism had given birth since the -fall of the Jewish state. The Isavites lived in accordance with their -master's teaching, observing some points of Talmudical Judaism, while -disregarding many others. - -During this time, however, no extraordinary movement occurred in the -center of Jewish religious life; everything continued on the old -lines, the principals of the colleges and the Geonim succeeded each -other without leaving any perceptible traces behind them. They had no -suspicion that a new spirit was abroad in Judaism, which would shake it -to its very foundations. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -RISE OF KARAISM AND ITS RESULTS. - - Anan ben David, the founder of Karaism--His life, writings, - and influence--Hostility to the Talmud--Anan's innovations - --Karaite reverence of Anan--The Exilarchate becomes - elective--Adoption of Judaism by the Chazars--King Bulan - and Isaac Sinjari--Bulan's Jewish successors--Charlemagne - and the Empire of the Franks--The Jews and Commerce-- - Jewish Envoy sent to the Caliph Haroun Alrashid--Spread - of the Jews in Europe--The Caliphs and the Jews--The - study of philosophy--Sahal--The Kalam--Mutazilists and - Anthropomorphists--Judah Judghan--The _Shiur Komah_--The - Akbarites--Moses the Persian. - -761-840 C. E. - - -It is as little possible for an historical event to be evolved, as for -a natural birth to occur without labor. For a new historical phenomenon -to struggle into existence, the comfortable aspect of things must be -destroyed, indolent repose in cherished custom disturbed, and the power -of habit broken. This destructive activity, although at first painful, -is eventually favorable to the growth of healthy institutions, for -thereby all vagueness is dissipated, all pretense destroyed, and dim -reality brought more clearly to light. Opposition, the salt of history, -which prevents corruption, had been wanting in Jewish history for -several centuries, and religious life had been molded in set forms, and -had there become petrified. Pauline and post-apostolic Christianity -in its day supplied just the opposition required. It abrogated the -standard of the Law, did away with knowledge, substituted faith, and -thus produced in the evolution of Judaism a disposition to cling firmly -to the Law, and to develop a system of religious teachings which should -deal with the minutest details. The Talmud resulted from this movement -of opposition; it was the sole prevailing authority in Judaism, and -succeeded in supplanting the Bible in the estimation of the people. -Even the study of the Talmud, which had possessed a refreshing and -enlightening influence in the time of the Amoraim, had degenerated in -the following century and in the first Gaonic period into a mere matter -of memory, entirely devoid of any power of intellectual fructification. -A free current of air was wanting to clear the heavy atmosphere. -Opposition to the Talmud, the password of the two heralds of the -Messiah, Serene and Abu-Isa, had left no lasting impression, partly -because the movement, accompanied by fanatical agitation in favor of -a pretended Messiah, led to no other result than the undeceiving of -its partisans, and partly because it had been set on foot by obscure -persons, possessed of neither importance nor authority. If this -one-sidedness was to be overcome, if the Bible was to be re-instated -in its rights, and religious life to regain its spirituality, it was -necessary that opposition to it, which up till then had been manifested -only in narrow circles, should be imparted to a more extended public -by some moderate reformer invested with official character. Until this -movement proceeded, not from some out-of-the-way corner, but from the -region which at that time formed the center of Jewish life, it was -impossible for it to be taken up by the multitude, or to produce any -regenerative effects. The required agitation was set on foot by a son -of the Prince of the Captivity, of the house of Bostanai, and produced -lasting effects. - -It appears that the Exilarch Solomon died (761-762) without issue, -and that the office ought to have been conferred on his nephew, Anan -ben David. The biography of this man, who exercised so profound an -influence upon Jewish history, and whose adherents exist at the present -day, is quite unknown, and the facts have been entirely distorted in -consequence of the schism which occurred later on. While his disciples -honor him as a pious and holy man, who, "if he had lived at the time -when the Temple was still standing, would have been vouchsafed the -gift of prophecy," his opponents cannot sufficiently disparage him. -But even they admit that Anan was exceedingly well read in the Talmud, -and that he employed its style with great ability. It is also certain -that the son of the Exilarch held that certain decisions of the Talmud -possessed no religious authority, and that his anti-Talmudical tendency -was known, at all events, to the representatives of the two academies, -who directed the election of the Exilarch. The Gaonic office was at -that time held by two brothers, sons of Nachman: that of Sora by -Judah the Blind (759-762), and that of Pumbeditha by Dudai (761-764). -These two brothers united with their colleges to prevent Anan from -succeeding to the dignity of Exilarch, and to choose in his stead his -younger brother Chananya (or Achunai). But Anan did not stand entirely -alone; of elevated rank, he naturally had friends. His expectation of -succeeding to a position of authority, whose sway was acknowledged -by all the Jewish communities of the East at least, had doubtless -attracted many ambitious, greedy and parasitical followers. But he also -possessed adherents among those who refused more or less openly to -regard the Judaism of the Talmud as true Judaism, and who welcomed Anan -as a powerful champion. The Ananite party were not sparing in their -efforts to obtain the nomination of their chief by the Caliph Abu Jafar -Almansur, who, they supposed, was favorably disposed towards them; but -their opponents gained the day. They are said to have attempted the -life of Anan, and to have accused him of planning a rebellion against -the Caliph, who thereupon threw him into prison, where, the legend goes -on to relate, a Mahometan was incarcerated. Both of them were to have -been hanged, but Anan's companion in misfortune advised him to explain -to the Caliph that he did not belong to the same sect as his brother -Chananya. Thereupon Almansur is said to have liberated him, because, -according to Anan's adherents, he regarded him with kindness, according -to his adversaries, in consequence of handsome presents of money, and -permitted him to emigrate with his followers to Palestine. - -One thing only among all these doubtful statements is certain, namely, -that Anan was obliged to leave his country and settle in Palestine. In -Jerusalem he built his own synagogue, which was still standing at the -time of the first crusade. It is likewise certain that, in consequence -of the mortifying slight cast upon him by the Gaons, Anan became -hostile to the Gaonate, and directed all his animosity against the -Talmud, the principal source of its importance. He displayed, in fact, -a fierce hostility to the Talmud and its supporters. He is reported to -have said that he wished that all the adherents of the Talmud were in -his body, so that by killing himself he might at the same time make -away with them. He considered everything in the Talmud reprehensible, -and was desirous of returning to the Bible in the ordering of religious -life. He reproached the Talmudists with having corrupted Judaism, and -accused them at the same time, not only of adding many things to the -Torah, but also of disregarding many of its commandments, which they -declared to be no longer obligatory. Many things which, according to -the text of the Bible, ought to have been binding for all time, they -set aside. The advice which he impressed on his followers was "to seek -industriously in the Scripture." On account of this return to the -letter of the Bible (Mikra), the system of religion which Anan founded -received the name of the Religion of the Text, or Karaism. - -Anan expounded his views concerning religious commandments and -prohibitions in three works, one of which was a commentary on the -Pentateuch, certainly the very first of all productions of this -class. Anan's works have not survived the lapse of time; the original -character of Karaism is thus enveloped in complete obscurity. This -only is clear, that in his hostility to the Talmud the founder of -the Karaite sect increased rather than lessened the religious duties -of life, enforced many observances which time and custom had long -abolished, and in his blind eagerness to change the Talmudical -exposition of the Law, often fell into ridiculous exaggerations. He -made use of the Talmudical, or more properly the Mishnaic rules of -interpretation, and with their help considered himself entitled, -equally with the old teachers (of the Mishna), to deduce new laws -of religion. The most important alterations were those made in the -dates of the festivals, the Sabbath, in the laws of marriage, and the -dietary regulations. Anan abolished the fixed calendar, which had been -established in the middle of the fourth century; but finding no grounds -in the Bible for this innovation, he was obliged to refer back to the -time of the Second Temple and the Tanaites. As in former times, the -beginning of every month was to be fixed by observation of the new -moon. The leap years were not to follow in a regular series, according -to the nineteen-years cycle, but were to be determined by repeated -examination of the condition of the crops, especially at the time of -the ripening of the barley. This was not so much an absolute innovation -as a renewal of a method of regulating the festivals, the untenableness -of which in the state of dispersion of the Jewish nation is evident. -This variability of the calendar offered but little difficulty to Anan -and his followers in Palestine, but it shows little foresight for the -future. As had been formerly done by the Sadducees, Anan fixed the -Feast of Pentecost fifty days after the Sabbath following the Passover. - -In the strict observance of the Sabbath, Anan far outstripped the -Talmud. He pronounced it unlawful to administer any medicines on the -Sabbath, even in the case of dangerous illness, or to perform the -operation of circumcision, or to leave the house in those cities where -the Jews did not live separate from the non-Jewish population; he -did not allow any warm food to be eaten, nor even a light or fire to -be kindled on the eve of the Sabbath by the Jews themselves, or by -others for their use. Anan introduced the custom among the Karaites -of spending the Sabbath-eve in entire darkness. All these alterations -and many others he pretended to deduce from the letter of the Bible. -He made the laws relating to food severe beyond all measure, and he -extended the prohibition of marriage to relatives who, according -to the Talmud, were allowed to intermarry, so that the marriage of -uncle and niece and of step-brothers and sisters, who were absolutely -unrelated to one another, was regarded by him as incest. Compared -with this exaggerated severity, of what importance was the abolition -of the phylacteries (Tephillin), of the festal plants at the Feast -of Tabernacles, and of the festival of Dedication, instituted in -remembrance of the time of the Hasmoneans, and of other trifles? As his -opponents rightly affirmed, he set up a new and much stricter Talmud. -Religious life was thus invested by Anan with a gloomy and unpoetical -character. The forms of prayer, which had been employed during many -centuries, some of which had been in use in the Temple, were forbidden -by the founder of this sect to be used in the synagogue, and they were -banished, together with the prayers of the _poetanim_. Instead of -them, only Biblical selections, made without taste, were to be read -out in the manner of a litany in the Karaite synagogues. As the Jews -of the Islamic empire were possessed of their own jurisdiction, Anan's -innovations dealt also with points of civil law. In opposition to the -text of the Bible, he placed the female heirs on an equal footing with -the males with reference to property inherited from parents, while on -the other hand he denied to the husband the right of succeeding to the -property of his deceased wife. - -But although Anan gave great impetus to the study of the Bible, the -system of vowel points having been already introduced, thus enabling -all men to read the Scriptures, nevertheless the age in which he lived -was neither ripe enough nor his mind sufficiently comprehensive to -enable him to produce a healthy, independent exposition of the text. -He himself was obliged, in order to establish his innovations, to -have recourse to forced interpretations, such as would hardly have -been proposed by the Talmudists whom he reviled. In rejecting the -Talmud, he broke the bridge connecting the Biblical past with the -present. The religion of the Karaites is thus no natural growth, but -an entirely artificial and labored creation. Anan had no regard for -the customs and sentiments of the people. As his system of religion -depended on the interpretation of the Scripture, Karaism naturally was -unsettled in character. A new explanation of the text might threaten -the very foundations of religious life, for what had been lawful might -become unlawful, and _vice versa_. Anan was as devoid of the power of -appreciating poetry as of understanding history. The sacred prophetic -and poetic literature was of no further use to him than to prove the -existence of some law or some religious command. He closed the gates of -the sanctuary on the newly-awakened poetical impulse. - -It is singular that Anan and his followers justified their opposition -to the Talmud by the example of the founder of Christianity. According -to their idea, Jesus was a God-fearing, holy man, who had not desired -to be recognized as a prophet, nor to set up a new religion in -opposition to Judaism, but simply to confirm the precepts of the Torah -and to abrogate laws imposed by human authority. Besides acknowledging -the founder of Christianity, Anan also recognized Mahomet as the -prophet of the Arabs. But he did not admit that the Torah had been -repealed either by Jesus or by Mahomet, but held it to be binding for -all time. - -It is impossible to ascertain the number of Anan's adherents who -followed him into exile. His disciples called themselves, after him, -Ananites and Karaites (Karaim, Bene Mikra), while to their adversaries -they gave the nickname of Rabbanites, which is equivalent to "Partisans -of Authority." At first the irritation existing between the two -parties was extremely violent. It is hardly necessary to say that the -representatives of the colleges placed the chief of the party and -his adherents under a ban of excommunication, and excluded them from -the pale of Judaism. But on their side, the Karaites renounced all -connection with the Rabbanites, entered into no marriage with them, -refused to eat at their table, and even abstained from visiting the -house of a Rabbanite on the Sabbath, because they considered that the -holy day was desecrated there. The Rabbanites pronounced the Karaites -heretics, preached against them from the pulpit, especially against -their custom of spending the Sabbath-eve in darkness, and refused to -allow the followers of Anan to take part in the prayers. The Karaites, -on the other hand, could not sufficiently abuse the two colleges and -their representatives. They applied to them the allegory of the prophet -Zachariah, of the two women who carried Sin in a bushel to Babylon, and -there founded a dwelling-place for her. "The two women are the Geonim -in Sora and Anbar (Pumbeditha)." This satire, which probably originated -with Anan, became current among the Karaites, and they never called -the two colleges otherwise than "the two women." - -Thus, for the third time, the Jewish race was divided into two -hostile camps. Like Israel and Judah, during the first period, -and the Pharisees and Sadducees in the time of the Second Temple, -the Rabbanites and Karaites were now in opposition to each other. -Jerusalem, the holy mother, who had witnessed so many wars between her -sons, again became the scene of a fratricidal struggle. The Karaite -community, which had withdrawn from the general union, acknowledged -Anan as the legitimate Prince of the Captivity, and conferred this -honorable title on him and his descendants. Both parties exerted -themselves as much as possible to widen the breach. - -After Anan's death, his followers, out of reverence, introduced -memorial prayers for him into the Sabbath service. They prayed for -him thus: "May God be merciful to the Prince Anan, the man of God, -who opened the way to the Torah, and opened the eyes of the Karaites; -who redeemed many from sin, and showed us the way to righteousness. -May God grant him a good place among the seven classes who enter into -Paradise." This service, in memory of Anan, is still in use with the -Karaites of the present day. - -It is impossible, however, for impartial judgment to endorse this -encomium, for it is impossible to discern in Anan any greatness of -mind. He was not a profound thinker, and was entirely devoid of -philosophical knowledge. He had so mean a conception of the soul that, -in painful adherence to the letter of the Bible, he designated the -blood as its seat. But he was also inconsistent in his opposition to -Talmudical Judaism, for he allowed not a few religious laws to continue -in force that could no more be traced to a Biblical origin than the -institutions which he rejected. - -After Anan's death the Karaite community conferred the leadership -on his son, Saul. Anan's disciples, who called themselves Ananites, -differed on various points with their master, especially with regard -to the prescribed mode of killing birds. Thus, immediately after -Anan's death, the enduring character which he had desired to impart -to religious life was destroyed, and there arose divisions which -increased with every generation. This schism caused the Karaites to -study the Bible more closely, and to support and strengthen their -position against one another, and against the Rabbanites, from Holy -Writ. It was for this reason that the study of the Bible was carried -on by the Karaites with great ardor. With this study went hand in hand -the knowledge of Hebrew grammar and of the Massora, the determination -of the manner of reading the Holy Scripture. There sprang up many -commentators on the Bible, and altogether a luxuriant literature was -produced, as each party, thinking it had discovered something new in -the Bible, desired to have its authority generally acknowledged. - -While the Karaites thus were extremely active, the Rabbanites were -most unfruitful in literary productions. A single work is all that -is known to have appeared in those times. Judah, the blind Gaon of -Sora, who has already been mentioned, and who had done much to oppose -Anan's claim, composed a Talmudical Compendium, under the title "Short -and Established Practice" (Halachoth Ketuoth). In this work Judah -collected and arranged, in an orderly manner, the subjects which were -scattered through the Talmud, and indicated briefly, omitting all -discussions, what still held good in practice. To judge from a few -fragments, Judah's Halachoth were written in Hebrew, by which means -he rendered the Talmud popular and intelligible. For this reason the -work penetrated to the most distant Jewish communities, and became the -model for later compositions of a similar description. - -The Karaite disturbances also contributed to lessen the authority -of the Exilarch. Until the time of Anan the academies and their -colleges had been subordinate to the Prince of the Captivity, and -to the principals of the schools chosen or confirmed by him; at the -same time, however, they had no direct influence over the appointment -to this office when it became vacant. But having once succeeded in -dispossessing Anan of the Exilarchate, the Gaons determined that this -power should not be wrested from their hands, and accordingly from -this time exercised it on the ground that they could not allow princes -of Karaite opinions to be at the head of the Jewish commonwealth. The -Exilarchate, which had been hereditary since the time of Bostanai, -became elective after Anan, and the presidents of the academies -directed the election. On the death of Chananya (Achunai), and hardly -ten years after Anan's defection from Rabbanism, a struggle for the -Exilarchate broke out afresh between two pretenders, Zaccai ben Achunai -and Natronai ben Chabibai. The latter was a member of the college under -Judah. The two heads of the schools at this period, Malka bar Acha, of -Pumbeditha (771-773), and Chaninai Kahana ben Huna, of Sora (765-775), -united to bring about the overthrow of Natronai, and succeeded in -procuring, through the Caliph's attendants, his banishment from -Babylonia. He emigrated to Maghreb (Kairuan), in which city there had -existed ever since its foundation a numerous Jewish population. Zaccai -was confirmed in the office of Exilarch. The Exilarchate continued to -become more and more dependent on the Gaonate, which often deposed -obnoxious princes, and not infrequently banished them. But as the -Exilarchs, when they arrived at power, attempted to free themselves -from this state of dependence, there occurred collisions which exerted -an evil influence on the Babylonian commonwealth. - -At about the same time as Karaism sprang into existence, an event -occurred which only slightly affected the development of Jewish -history, but which roused the spirits of the scattered race and -restored their courage. The heathen king of a barbarian people, living -in the north, together with all his court, adopted the Jewish religion. -The Chazars, or Khozars, a nation of Finnish origin, related to the -Bulgars, Avars, Ugurs or Hungarians, had settled, after the dissolution -of the empire of the Huns, on the frontier between Europe and Asia. -They had founded a kingdom on the Volga (which they called the Itil -or Atel) at the place near which it runs into the Caspian Sea, in the -neighborhood of Astrakhan, now the home of the Kalmucks. Their kings, -who bore the title of Chakan or Chagan, had led these warlike sons of -the steppe from victory to victory. The Chazars inspired the Persians -with so great a dread that Chosroes, one of their kings, found no -other way of protecting his dominions against their violent invasions -than by building a strong wall which blocked up the passes between the -Caucasus and the sea. But this "gate of gates" (Bab al abwab, near -Derbend) did not long serve as a barrier against the warlike courage -of the Chazars. After the fall of the Persian empire, they crossed the -Caucasus, invaded Armenia, and conquered the Crimean peninsula, which -bore the name Chazaria for some time. The Byzantine emperors trembled -at the name of the Chazars, flattered them, and paid them a tribute, -in order to restrain their lust after the booty of Constantinople. The -Bulgarians, and other tribes, were the vassals of the Chazars, and the -people of Kiev (Russians) on the Dnieper were obliged to pay them as an -annual tax a sword and a fine skin for every household. With the Arabs, -whose near neighbors they gradually became, they carried on terrible -wars. - -Like their neighbors, the Bulgarians and the Russians, the Chazars -professed a coarse religion, which was combined with sensuality and -lewdness. The Chazars became acquainted with Islam and Christianity -through the Arabs and Greeks, who came to the capital, Balanyiar, -on matters of business, in order to exchange the products of their -countries for fine furs. There were also Jews in the land of the -Chazars; they were some of the fugitives that had escaped (723) from -the mania for conversion which possessed the Byzantine Emperor Leo. It -was through these Greek Jews that the Chazars became acquainted with -Judaism. As interpreters or merchants, physicians or counselors, the -Jews were known and beloved by the Chazar court, and they inspired the -warlike king Bulan with a love of Judaism. - -In subsequent times, however, the Chazars had but a vague knowledge -of the motive which induced their forefathers to embrace Judaism. -One of their later Chagans gives the following account of their -conversion: The king Bulan conceived a horror of the foul idolatry -of his ancestors, and prohibited its exercise within his dominions, -without, however, adopting any other form of religion. He was -encouraged by a dream in his endeavors to discover the proper manner -of worshiping God. Having gained a great victory over the Arabs, and -conquered the Armenian fortress of Ardebil, Bulan determined to adopt -the Jewish religion openly. The Caliph and the Byzantine emperor -desired, however, to induce the king of the Chazars to embrace their -respective religions, and with this intention sent to Bulan deputations -with letters and valuable presents, and men well versed in religious -matters. The king thereupon arranged for a religious discussion to take -place before him between a Byzantine ecclesiastic, a Mahometan sage, -and a learned Jew. The champions of the three religions disputed the -whole question, however, without being able to convince one another -or the king of the superior excellence of their respective religions -as compared with the other two. But as Bulan had remarked that the -representatives of the religion of Christ and of Islam both referred to -Judaism as the foundation and point of departure of their faiths, he -declared to the ambassadors of the Caliph and the Emperor that, as he -had heard from the opponents of Judaism themselves an impartial avowal -of the excellence of that religion, he would carry out his intention -of professing Judaism as his religion. He thereupon immediately -offered himself for circumcision. The Jewish sage who was the means of -obtaining Bulan's conversion is supposed to have been Isaac Sanjari or -Sinjari. - -It is possible that the circumstances under which the Chazars embraced -Judaism have been embellished by legend, but the fact itself is too -definitely proved on all sides to allow any doubt as to its reality. -Besides Bulan, the nobles of his kingdom, numbering nearly four -thousand, adopted the Jewish religion. Little by little it made its -way among the people, so that most of the inhabitants of the towns -of the Chazar kingdom were Jews; the army, however, was composed of -Mahometan mercenaries. At first the Judaism of the Chazars must have -been rather superficial, and could have had but little influence on -their mind and manners. A successor of Bulan, who bore the Hebrew -name of Obadiah, was the first to make serious efforts to further -the Jewish religion. He invited Jewish sages to settle in his -dominions, rewarded them royally, founded synagogues and schools, -caused instruction to be given to himself and his people in the Bible -and the Talmud, and introduced a divine service modeled on that of -the ancient communities. So great was the influence which Judaism -exercised on the character of this uncivilized race, that while the -Chazars that remained heathens, without a twinge of conscience sold -their children as slaves, those of them that had become Jews abandoned -this barbarous custom. After Obadiah came a long series of Jewish -Chagans, for according to a fundamental law of the state only Jewish -rulers were permitted to ascend the throne. Neither Obadiah nor his -successors showed any intolerance towards the non-Jewish population of -the country; on the contrary, the non-Jews were placed on a footing -of complete equality with the other inhabitants. There was a supreme -court of justice, composed of seven judges, of whom two were Jews for -the Jewish population, two Mahometans and two Christians for those -who were of these religions, and one heathen for the Russians and -Bulgarians. For some time the Jews of other countries had no knowledge -of the conversion of this powerful kingdom to Judaism, and when at -last a vague rumor to this effect reached them, they were of opinion -that Chazaria was peopled by the remnant of the former ten tribes. -The legend runs thus: Far, far beyond the gloomy mountains, beyond -the Cimmerian darkness of the Caucasus, there live true worshipers of -God, holy men, descendants of Abraham, of the tribes of Simeon and -the half-tribe of Manasseh, who are so powerful that five-and-twenty -nations pay them tribute. - -At about this time--in the second half of the eighth century--the -Jews of Europe also emerged a little from the darkness which had -covered them for centuries. Favored by the rulers, or at least neither -ill-treated nor persecuted by them, they raised themselves to a -certain degree of culture. Charlemagne, the founder of the empire -of the Franks, to whom Europe owes its regeneration and partial -emancipation from barbarism, also contributed to the spiritual and -social advancement of the Jews in France and Germany. By the creation -of the German-Frankish empire--which extended from the ocean to the -further side of the Elbe, and from the Mediterranean to the North -Sea--Charlemagne transferred the focus of history to Western Europe, -whereas hitherto it had been at Constantinople, on the borderland -between Eastern Europe and Asia. Although Charlemagne was a protector -of the Church, and helped to found the supremacy of the papacy, and -Hadrian, the contemporary Pope, was anything but friendly to the Jews, -and repeatedly exhorted the Spanish bishops to prevent the Christians -from associating with Jews and heathens (Arabs), Charlemagne was too -far-seeing to share the prejudices of the clergy with respect to the -Jews. In opposition to all the precepts of the Church and decisions -of the councils, the first Frankish emperor favored the Jews of his -empire, and turned to account the knowledge of a learned man of this -race, who journeyed to Syria for him, and brought back to France the -products of the East. While other monarchs punished the Jews for -purchasing Church vessels or taking them as pledges from the clergy or -the servants of the Church, Charlemagne adopted the opposite course; -he inflicted heavy punishment on the sacrilegious ecclesiastics, and -absolved the Jews from all penalties. - -The Jews were at this period the principal representatives of the -commerce of the world. While the nobles devoted themselves to the -business of war, the commoners to trades, and the peasants and serfs to -agriculture, the Jews, who were not liable to be called upon to perform -military service, and possessed no feudal lands, turned their attention -to the exportation and importation of goods and slaves, so that the -favor extended to them by Charlemagne was, to a certain extent, a -privilege accorded to a commercial company. They experienced only -the restraint put upon all merchants in the corn and wine trade; the -Emperor considered it dishonest to make a profit on the necessaries -of life. This somewhat materialistic value set upon the Jews marks, -however, great progress from the narrow-mindedness of the Merovingian -monarchs, the Gunthrams and the Dagoberts, who saw nothing in the Jews -but murderers of God. But Charlemagne also manifested deep interest in -the spiritual advancement of the Jewish inhabitants of his empire. In -the same way as he had cared for the education of the Germans and the -French by inviting learned men from Italy, so also he earnestly desired -to place a higher culture within the reach of the German and the French -Jews. With this intention he removed a learned family, consisting of -Kalonymos, his son Moses, and his nephew, from Lucca to Mayence (787), -hoping besides to make the Jews independent of the academies of the -Levant. - -Charlemagne's embassy to the powerful Caliph Haroun Alrashid, to which -was attached a Jew named Isaac, is familiar to every student of history -(797). Although at first probably Isaac accompanied the two nobles, -Landfried and Sigismund, only in the character of interpreter, he was -nevertheless admitted into Charlemagne's diplomatic secrets. Thus, when -the two principal ambassadors died on the journey, the Caliph's reply -and the valuable presents which he had forwarded, fell into Isaac's -sole charge, and he was received in solemn audience by the Emperor at -Aix. The Emperor is also said to have requested the Caliph, through his -embassy, to send him from Babylonia a learned Jew for his country, and -Haroun is reported to have sent him a man answering his requirements. -This man was a certain Machir, whom Charlemagne placed at the head of -the Jewish congregation of Narbonne. Machir, who, like Kalonymos of -Lucca, became the ancestor of a learned posterity, founded a Talmudical -school at Narbonne. - -Owing to their favorable position in the Frankish-German Empire, in -which they held land, the Jews were permitted to undertake voyages -and carry on business, and were harassed neither by the people nor by -the really religious German ecclesiastics; they were also enabled to -abandon themselves to their inclination for travel, and thus spread -through many of the provinces of Germany. In the ninth century, numbers -of them dwelt in the towns of Magdeburg, Merseburg, and Ratisbon. -From these points, they penetrated further and further into the -countries inhabited by the Slavonians on the further side of the Oder -as far as Bohemia and Poland. Meanwhile, in spite of the favor which -Charlemagne extended to them, he, like the best men of the Middle -Ages, found it difficult to treat them on an entirely equal footing -with the Christians. The chasm, which the Fathers of the Church had -placed between Christianity and Judaism, and which had been widened -by individual ecclesiastics and the synods, was far too deep to be -overleapt by an emperor who was devotedly attached to the Church. -Charlemagne himself maintained, on one point, a difference between Jew -and Christian, and perpetuated it in the peculiar form of the oath -which was imposed on the Jews who were witnesses against, or accusers -of, a Christian. They were required, in taking an oath against a -Christian, to surround themselves with thorns, to take the Torah in -their right hand, and to call down upon themselves Naaman's leprosy -and the punishment of Korah's faction in witness of the truth of their -statement. If there was not a Hebrew copy of the Torah at hand, a -Latin Bible was held to be sufficient. It is impossible not to admit, -however, that to allow the Jews to testify against a Christian was in -itself a deviation from the ordinances of the Church. - -In the East, at the beginning of the ninth century, the Jews were also -reminded, in a disagreeable manner, that they had to expect scorn -and oppression even from the best rulers. The reigns of the Abassid -Caliphs, Haroun Alrashid and his sons, are regarded as the most -flourishing period of the Caliphate of the East, but it is at this -very time that Jewish complaints of oppression rise loudest. It is -possible that in re-enacting Omar's law against the Christians (807), -Haroun also made it applicable to the Jews; for they were compelled -to wear a distinctive badge of yellow on their dress, in the same way -as the Christians were obliged to wear blue, and they had to use a -rope instead of a girdle. When, after his death (809), his two sons, -Mahomet Alemin and Abdallah Almamun, for whom their father had divided -the Caliphate into two parts, engaged in a destructive civil war, -throughout the whole extent of the great empire, the Jews, especially -those in Palestine, experienced severe persecution. The Christians, -however, were their companions in misfortune. During the four years -(809-813) of this fratricidal struggle, robbery and massacre seem to -have been the order of the day. The sufferings were so terrible, it -seems, that a preacher of those times declared them to be a sign of the -speedy coming of the Messiah. "Israel can only be redeemed by means -of penitence, and true penitence can only be evoked by suffering, -affliction, wandering, and want," declared this orator by way of -consolation of his afflicted congregation. In the civil war raging -between the two Caliphs, he fancied he saw the approaching destruction -of the Ishmaelite rule and the approach of the Messianic empire. "Two -brothers will finally rule over the Ishmaelites (Mahometans); there -will then arise a descendant of David, and in the days of this king -the Lord of Heaven will found a kingdom which shall never perish." -"God will exterminate the sons of Esau (Byzantium), Israel's enemies, -and also the sons of Ishmael, its adversaries." But these, like many -others, were delusive hopes. The civil war, indeed, shook the Caliphate -to its foundations, but did not destroy it. Alemin was killed, and -Almamun became the sole ruler of this extensive empire. - -It was during Almamun's reign (813-833) that the Caliphate of the East -flourished most luxuriantly. As he was imbued with tolerance, it was -possible for the sciences and a certain form of philosophy to develop. -Bagdad, Kairuan in northern Africa, and Merv in Khorasan, became the -centers of science, such as Europe did not possess until many centuries -later. The genius of the Greeks celebrated its resurrection in Arabic -garb. Statesmen competed with men of leisure for the palm of erudition. -The Jews did not remain unaffected by this enthusiasm for science. -Investigation and subtle inquiry are indeed part of their innermost -nature. They took earnest interest in these intellectual activities, -and many of their achievements gained the approbation of the Arabs. -The history of Arab civilization has several Jewish names recorded in -its annals. Sahal, surnamed Rabban (the Rabbanite, the authority on -the Talmud), of Taberistan on the Caspian Sea (about the year 800), -was celebrated as a physician and a mathematician. He translated into -Arabic the Almagest of the Greek astronomer Ptolemy, the text-book -of astronomy during the Middle Ages, and was the first to note the -refraction of light. His son Abu-Sahal Ali (835-853) is placed among -those that advanced the study of medicine, and was the teacher of two -Arabic medical authorities, Razi and Anzarbi. - -With even more ardor than that with which they had applied themselves -to medicine, mathematics and astronomy, the Mussulmans prosecuted the -study of the science of religion, a sort of philosophy of religion -(Kalam). It was invested with as much importance as the affairs of -state, and exercised a certain influence on politics. The expounders -of the Koran, in trying to explain away the grossly sensual references -to God, and to reconcile the contradictions contained in that work, -developed ideas which projected far beyond the restricted horizon -of Islam. Many commentators, by reason of their rationalistic -explanations, came into conflict with the champions of the text, and -were branded by them as heretics. The Mutazilists (heretics) laid great -stress upon the unity of God, and desired that no definite attributes -should be ascribed to him; for thereby the essence of God appeared to -them to be divided into parts, and several beings to be included in the -idea of God, whose unity was thus negatived. They further asserted the -freedom of the human will, because the unconditional predetermination -by God, which the Oriental mind believes, and the Koran confirms, -was incompatible with divine justice, which rewards the good and -punishes the bad. They believed, however, that they still stood on -the same ground as the Koran, although, of course, going far beyond -it, and in order to bring their doctrine into harmony with the blunt -sayings of their religious book, they employed the same method as the -Alexandrian-Jewish philosophers of religion had used to reconcile the -Bible with Greek philosophy; they adopted an allegorical interpretation -of the text. This interpretation was employed for the purpose of -bridging over the gulf existing between the rationalistic idea of God -and the irrational idea as taught by the Koran. The rationalistic -Mutazilist theology of the Mahometans, although denounced at first -as heretical, steadily gained ascendancy; the schools of Bagdad and -Bassora rang with its doctrines. The Caliph Almamun exalted it into the -theology of the court, and condemned the old simple views of religion. - -The adherents of orthodoxy were horrified by this license of -interpretation, for the text of the Koran, in an underhand way, was -forced into conveying an opposite meaning, and simple faith lost all -support. They, therefore, adhered strictly to the letter and to the -natural meaning of the text. Some of them went still further. They -took, in their literal meaning, all the expressions concerning God, -however gross they might be, which occurred in the Koran, or were used -by tradition, and constructed a most vile theology. Mahomet expressed -a revelation thus: "My Lord came to meet me, gave me his hand in -greeting, looked into my face, laid his hand between my shoulders, so -that I felt his cold finger-tips," and the orthodox school accepted -all this in revolting literalness. This school (Anthropomorphists) -did not hesitate to declare that God was a body possessed of members -and a definite form; that he was seven spans high, measured by his -own span; that he was in a particular spot--upon his throne; that it -was permissible to affirm of him that he moves, mounts his throne and -descends from it, stops and rests. These and still more blasphemous -descriptions of the Supreme Being, in the same grossly materialistic -strain, were given by the orthodox Mahometan teachers of religion, -in order to show their adherence to the letter of the Koran in -contradistinction to the Rationalists. - -The Jews of the East lived in so close a connection with the Mussulmans -that they could not fail to be affected by these tendencies. The -same phenomena were repeated, therefore, in Jewish circles, and the -variance between Karaites and Rabbanites assisted in transferring the -Islamic controversies to Judaism. The official supporters of Judaism, -however, the colleges of Sora and Pumbeditha, held aloof from them. -Entirely absorbed in the Talmud, and its exposition, they either took -no notice at first of the violent agitation of mind prevailing, or else -refused to yield to it. But outside of the colleges men were actively -interested in these new methods, and Judaism was pushed through another -process of purification. - -The faint ray of philosophy which fell into this world of simple blind -faith, ignorant of its own beliefs, produced a dazzling illumination. -The Karaites for the most part were of Mutazilist (rationalistic) -tendency, while the Rabbanites, on the contrary, having to defend the -strange Agadic statements concerning God, were antagonistic to science. -But as the religious edifice of Karaism was not finished, there arose -new sects within its pale, with peculiar theories and varying religious -practices. - -The first person known to have imparted the Mutazilist tendency of -Islamic theology to Judaism was Judah Judghan, the Persian, of the -town of Hamadan (about 800). His adversaries relate of him that he was -originally a camel-herd. He himself pretended to be the herald of the -Messiah, and when he had gained adherents, unfolded to them a peculiar -doctrine, which he asserted had been made known to him in a vision. - -In opposition to the ancient traditional views, in accordance with -which the Biblical account of God's deeds and thoughts must be taken -literally, Judah Judghan asserted that we ought not to represent God -with material attributes or anthropomorphically, for he is elevated -above all created things. The expressions which the Torah employs in -this connection are to be taken in a wholly metaphorical sense. Nor may -we take for granted that, by virtue of His omnipotence and omniscience, -God predetermines the acts of man. Much rather ought we to proceed -from God's justice, and assume that man is master of his actions, and -possessed of free will, and that reward and punishment are meted out -to us according to our merit. While Judah of Hamadan was possessed of -liberal views concerning theoretical questions, he recommended the -severest asceticism in practice. His adherents abstained from meat and -wine, fasted and prayed frequently, but were less strict with respect -to the festivals. His followers, who long maintained themselves as a -peculiar sect under the name of Judghanites, believed so firmly in -him that they asserted that he was not dead, but would appear again, -in order to bring a new doctrine with him, as the Shiites believed -of Ali. One of his disciples, named Mushka, was desirous of imposing -the doctrine of his master on the Jews by force. He marched out of -Hamadan with a troop of comrades of similar sentiments, but, together -with nineteen of his followers, was killed, in the neighborhood of -Koom (east of Hamadan, southwest of Teheran), most probably by the -Mussulmans. - -Judah Judghan attached more importance to an ascetic mode of living -than to the establishing of the philosophical basis of Judaism, -and was therefore rather the founder of a sect than a religious -philosopher. A contemporary Karaite, Benjamin ben Moses of Nahavend -(about 800-820), spread the Mutazilist philosophy among the Karaites. -Benjamin Nahavendi is regarded by his fellow-Karaites as an authority, -and is honored by them as greatly as Anan, their founder, although -he differed from the latter on many points. Benjamin was entirely -permeated with the conceptions of the Mutazilists. He was scandalized, -not only by the physical and human characteristics of God contained in -the Scripture, but also by the revelation and the creation. He could -not rest satisfied with the idea that the spiritual Being had created -this earthly world, had come into contact with it, had circumscribed -himself in space for the purpose of the revelation on Sinai, and -uttered articulate sounds. In order not to abandon his elevated -idea of God, and at the same time to preserve the revelation of the -Torah, he adopted the following notion, as others had done before -him: God had himself created only the spiritual world and the angels; -the terrestrial universe, on the other hand, had been created by the -angels, so that God ought to be regarded only as the mediate creator -of the world. In the same way the revelation, the giving of the Law -on Sinai, and the inspiration of the prophets were all the work of an -angel only. Certain disciples adopted Benjamin's views, and formed a -peculiar sect, called (it is not known for what reason) the Makariyites -or Maghariyites. - -While Benjamin Nahavendi, as is generally acknowledged, deviated -widely from the Jewish system with respect to religious philosophy, -he approached the Rabbanites on the subject of morals; he adopted -many Talmudical ordinances, and left it to the free choice of the -Karaites to reject or adopt them as their standard. In order to enforce -obedience to the laws, Benjamin Nahavendi introduced a species of -excommunication, which differed only slightly from the excommunication -of the Rabbanites. When an accused person refused to obey the summons -served on him, and attempted to evade judgment, he was to be cursed on -each of seven successive days, and then excommunication pronounced on -him. The excommunication consisted in the prohibition of intercourse -with all the members of the community, who also were forbidden to -greet him, or to accept anything from him; he was to be treated in -all respects like one deceased, until he submitted. If he obstinately -disregarded the decree, it was lawful to hand him over to temporal -justice. Although Benjamin Nahavendi inclined to Rabbanism on certain -points, he adhered firmly, nevertheless, to the Karaite principle of -unrestrained research in the Bible. One ought not to tie one's self -down to the authorities, but to follow one's own conviction; the son -may differ from the father, the disciple from the master, as soon as -they have reasons for their different views. "Inquiry is a duty, and -errors occasioned by inquiry do not constitute a sin." - -In the same manner as the orthodox Mahometan teachers of religion -worked counter to the unrestrained subtlety of the Mutazilists, and, -falling into the opposite extreme, conceived the divinity as possessed -of a bodily form, so also did the Jewish adherents of the orthodox -doctrine go astray, and, regarding the rationalistic innovation as a -defection from Judaism, they conceived the most absurd ideas concerning -the materiality of God. They even desired to accept in their most -literal sense the Biblical expressions, "God's hand, God's foot, -his sitting down, or walking about." The Agadic exposition of the -Scripture, which occasionally made use of material, tangible figures, -adapted to the comprehension of the people, promoted the acceptance -of this anti-Jewish theory. This theory, the creation of an imbecile, -gained adherents by reason of its mysterious nature. It gives a minute, -corporeal description of the Deity, measures his height from head to -foot by the parasang-scale, speaks in blasphemous detail of God's -right and left eye, of his upper and lower lip, of his beard and of -other members, which it would be sacrilegious even to mention. In -order, however, not to prejudice the sublimity and majesty of God, -this theory enlarges each organ to enormous proportions, and considers -that justice has been done to the case when it adds that the scale by -which the members are measured considerably exceeds the whole world -(Shiur-Komah). To this God, whom it thus dissected and measured, the -theory assigned a special house in heaven with seven halls (Hechaloth). -In the uppermost hall, God is seated upon an elevated throne, the -proportions of which are measured by the same enormous scale. The halls -are populated by this materialistic theory with myriads of angels, to -some of whom are assigned names formed by the arbitrary combination -of Hebrew and foreign words into barbarous sounds. The chief angel, -however, is a certain Metatoron, and the theory adds, after the example -of the Christian and Mahometan authors, that he was Enoch or Henoch, -originally a man, but transported by God into heaven, and converted -into flames of fire. With evident pleasure the theory dwells upon the -description of this abortion of a morbid fancy. It even dared place him -at the side of the Divinity, and call him the "little God." - -This theory, which was a compound of misunderstood Agadas, and of -Jewish, Christian, and Mahometan fantastic notions, clothed itself in -mysterious obscurity, and pretended to be a revelation. In order to -answer the inquiry whence it had acquired this wisdom which enabled it -to scoff at Judaism, in other words, at the Bible and the Talmud, it -quotes alleged divine instructions. As there is no nonsense, however -apparent, which cannot find adherents when earnestly and impressively -enunciated, this doctrine of mystery, which was based upon a grossly -material conception of God, found many followers. Its adepts called -themselves "Men of Faith." They boasted of possessing the means -of obtaining a view of the divine household. By virtue of certain -incantations, invocations of the names of God and the angels, and -the recitation of certain prayer-like chants, combined with fasting -and an ascetic mode of living, they pretended to be able to perform -supernatural deeds. For this purpose they made use of amulets and -cameos (Kameoth), and wrote upon them the names of God or the angels -with certain signs. Miracle-working was a trifle to these mystics. They -asserted that every pious man had the power of performing miracles, -if he only employed the proper means. To this end they wrote a number -of works on the theory and practice of the esoteric doctrine; for -the most part they contained downright nonsense, but here and there -they rose to poetry. But this mystical literature only gave hints; -the adepts would surrender the real key to a knowledge of the divine -secrets and to the power of performing miracles only to certain -persons, in whose hand and forehead they pretended to discover lines -that proved them to be worthy of this favor. - -This mystical doctrine flourished chiefly in Palestine, where the real -study of the Talmud was languishing; little by little it made its way -into Babylonia. This became apparent on the occasion of the election -of a principal of the Pumbeditha academy (814). The best claim to -this office was that advanced by a certain Mar-Aaron (ben Samuel), by -reason of his erudition and on account of his having acted up till -then as chief judge. Nevertheless, preference was given to the claim -of a rival, the aged Joseph bar Abba, who was far inferior to him in -learning; the reason of this preference being that the latter was an -adept in mysticism, and was believed to be favored with the intimacy -of the prophet Elijah. One day when this same Joseph bar Abba was -presiding at a public meeting, he exclaimed with rapture, "Make room -for the old man who is just coming in." The eyes of all present were -immediately turned to the entrance, and those to the right of the -principal respectfully stepped aside. They saw no one enter, however, -and were therefore all the more positively convinced that the prophet -Elijah had entered invisible, had seated himself on the right of his -friend Joseph, and had been present during the whole of his discourse. -After that time no one dared occupy the place at the side of the -principal of the Pumbeditha academy, for it had been honored and -hallowed by Elijah, and it became the custom to leave it vacant. - -Joseph's successor, Mar-Abraham ben Sherira (816-828), was likewise a -mystic. It was said that he could foresee the future from the rustling -of palm leaves on a calm day. - -More liberal views, and even Karaism, found a way into the halls of -learning, just as mysticism had done before. Through these opposed -views quarrels naturally arose, which came to light when the office -of Exilarch was to be filled. In the year 825 there was to be the -election of a new Prince of the Exile. For this office there were two -candidates, David ben Judah and Daniel. The latter was inclined to -Karaism, and perhaps just on this account found in southern Babylonia -many supporters who gave him their votes. The Babylonians in the north, -who belonged to Pumbeditha (Anbar), decided in favor of David, as he -doubtless belonged to the orthodox party. The quarrel was carried on -with much virulence. The mystic Abraham ben Sherira was deposed in -consequence, and Joseph ben Chiya appointed in his place. It is not -known by which party this was brought about. But Abraham had followers -in Pumbeditha, who gave him their support, and refused allegiance -to the rival Gaon. The quarrel could not be decided by their own -authorities, and both parties appealed to the Caliph Almamun to confirm -the Exilarch of their choice. Almamun, however, at that time was -engaged in a dispute about the Eastern Church. He had been called upon -to decide between two claimants for the Chaldaeo-Christian Patriarchate, -and wanted to rid himself of such litigation. He therefore declined -to interfere in the internal affairs of the Jews and Christians, and -decreed that in future each party should be empowered to elect its -own religious chief. If ten Jews wished to elect an Exilarch, ten -Christians an Archbishop, or ten Fire-worshipers a Chief Priest, they -had the power to do so. This decree was unsatisfactory to both parties, -inasmuch as it left the quarrel undecided; it is not certain how -it ended. So much, however, is known: David ben Judah asserted his -authority, and filled the post for about ten years (till 840). - -In the school of Sora also quarrels broke out (827). The quarrel -between the chiefs lasted for a long time in the school of Pumbeditha. -Eventually a compromise was effected. There were to be two Gaons -holding office together, who should share equally the title and the -revenue. Abraham, however, was to have the privilege of delivering the -address at the general assemblies. - -One day both heads of the school at Pumbeditha met in Bagdad at -an installation ceremony, at which it was customary to give an -address. The capital of the Caliphate had at this time a numerous -Jewish community and several synagogues. Bagdad, which was nearer to -Pumbeditha than to Sora, belonged to the district of the School of -Pumbeditha. Its president was there given the preference to him of Sora. - -When the lecture was to begin, and it was proclaimed aloud, "Hear what -the heads of the schools are about to say," those present burst into -tears on account of the disunion in their midst. The tears of the -multitude had so mighty an effect upon Joseph ben Chiya that he arose, -and publicly tendered his resignation in favor of his opponent. - -He received an insulting blessing as the reward of his noble resolve. -"May God give you a share in the world to come," said his opponent, who -now assumed his position. It was only after Abraham's death (828), that -the noble Joseph was re-installed as Gaon of Pumbeditha (828-833). - -All disputes had ceased in the school of Sora, but they soon broke out -again, and created such confusion, that Sora was without a Gaon for two -years (837-839). We are in the dark as to the true reason of all this -discord, but it is probable that the rise of Karaism had something to -do with it. However much the Rabbanites hated the Karaite sect, and -though they declared it heretical, and kept away from it, yet they -adopted several of its teachings, and imitated it in others. - -But if Anan's sect had sown the seeds of dissension amongst the -followers of the more ancient sect, it was itself not by any means -free therefrom. The principal dogma of Karaism was unlimited freedom -in exegesis, and the regulation of religion according to the result -of honest inquiry. The result was that every Karaite constructed his -Judaism according to his own interpretation of the text. Religious -practice was regulated according to the clever or silly ideas of the -expositor. Moreover, exegesis was yet in its infancy. The knowledge of -the Hebrew language, the basis of a healthy, rational exegesis, was -still scanty, and arbitrariness had every opportunity of asserting -itself. Every one believed himself to be in possession of the truth, -and when he did not condemn them, pitied those who did not share his -views. We have a sad picture of the condition of Karaism scarcely a -century after Anan's death. New sects, too, arose from it, the founders -of which had strange ideas about some customs of Judaism. Musa (or -Mesvi) and Ishmael, from the town of Akbara (seven miles east of -Bagdad), are said to have held peculiar views about the observance -of the Sabbath. What these views were we do not now know, but they -approached the doctrines of the Samaritans. The two Akbarites further -declared that the Pentateuchal prohibition against eating certain parts -of the fat of an animal only referred to the sacrifices, and that it -was permissible to use them otherwise. Musa and Ishmael found followers -who lived according to their doctrines. These formed a sect within -Karaism, and called themselves Akbarites. - -Simultaneously with these there arose another false teacher, Abu-Amran -Moses, a Persian from the little town of Safran (near Kerman-Shah in -Persia), who had emigrated to the town of Tiflis in Armenia. Abu Amran -Altiflisi propounded other views, which he believed were based upon -the text of the Bible. He, like the other Karaites, wished to have the -marriage of an uncle with his niece considered among the prohibited -unions. He had peculiar views about the calendar, differing both from -those of the Karaites and those of the Rabbanites. There was to be no -fixed calendar, nor was the month to commence when the new moon became -visible, but at the moment of its eclipse. Moses, the Persian, denied -bodily resurrection, and introduced other innovations which are not -known in detail. His followers formed themselves into a peculiar sect, -under the name of Abu-Amranites or Tiflisites, and continued to exist -for several centuries. - -Another Moses (or Mesvi), from Baalbek in Syria, continued the schism, -and departed still more from Karaism. He affirmed that the Feast of -Passover must always happen on Thursday, and the Day of Atonement -on the Sabbath, because this day is designated in the Bible as "the -Sabbath of Sabbaths." In many points, Moses of Baalbek differed from -both the Karaites and the Rabbanites. He enacted amongst his sect that -in praying they should always turn to the west, instead of turning in -the direction of the Temple. He, too, formed a sect called by his name, -which continued to exist for a long time. - -As Karaism had no religious center, and no spiritual court to represent -its unity, it is quite natural that there could be no sympathy between -one Karaite community and another. And so it happened that the people -of Khorasan observed the festivals in a manner different from that of -the other Karaites. - -In the principles which the Karaites by and by were forced to lay -down, in order, in a measure, to put a stop to the individualistic -tendencies of their adherents, who were always forming new sects, they -recognized the authority of tradition. They accepted the laws for -slaughtering and the manner of fixing the beginning of each month, -under their rule that a great many customs, not prescribed in either -the Law, the Prophets or the Hagiographa, yet universally observed -among the members of the Jewish race, were obligatory as religious -practices. This rule of agreement or analogy was later called by them -tradition (Haatakah) or hereditary teaching (Sebel ha Yerusha). In -practice, however, they were arbitrary, inasmuch as they retained one -custom as traditional, while they rejected others possessed of equal -claims to be considered traditional. The rule of analogy led Karaism -into new difficulties, especially as regards the marriage of certain -blood-relations. They fell from one difficulty into another. They held -that the affinity between a man and his wife was, according to the -Bible, continuous. Consequently step-children should not be allowed to -intermarry. But they went still further. The affinity between a man and -his wife continues, they said, even if the marriage is dissolved. If in -such a case the husband or the wife marries again, the affinity extends -to the new families, although they are unknown to each other. Hence -the members of the family of the first husband cannot intermarry with -the members of the second husband's family. This affinity continues -to the third and fourth generations. Thus the circle of affinity -was considerably enlarged. The authors of this system of artificial -relationship called it "handing over" (Rikkub, Tarkib). Why they -should have stopped at the fourth generation it is difficult to see, -but it appears that they feared the ultimate consequences. Such was -the confusion in which Karaism had enveloped itself in its endeavor to -break with the past. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -FAVORABLE CONDITION OF THE JEWS IN THE FRANKISH DOMINIONS, AND THE -DECAY OF THE EXILARCHATE IN THE EAST. - - The Jews under Louis le Debonnaire--The Empress Judith and - her Veneration for Judaism--Agobard, Bishop of Lyons-- - Conversion of Bishop Bodo--Amolo's effort against the Jews-- - Charles the Bald--Troubles in Beziers and Toulouse--Decree - against the Jews in Italy--Boso of Burgundy--Basilius-- - Leo the Philosopher--Decline of the Exilarchate--The Geonim - acquire Additional Influence--The Prayer Book of Amram-- - Mar-Zemach--Literary and Scientific Activity of the Jews-- - Decay of Karaism--Dissensions at Pumbeditha. - -814-920 C. E. - - -The Jews of Europe had no knowledge of the split in Judaism in the -East, of the struggle between the Exilarchate and the Gaonate, or of -the rivalry of the heads of the schools. Babylonia, the seat of the -Gaonic schools, was looked upon by them almost in the light of a heaven -upon earth, as a place of eternal peace, and of the knowledge of God. -A decision from Pumbeditha was considered an important event, and -was read with the greatest respect. Such a decision was obeyed more -willingly than a papal bull among the Catholics, because it was given -without the assumption of authority. The western nations, as yet in -their childhood with respect to literature, were under guardianship as -regards religion--the Christians under the papal throne, the Jews under -the Gaonic schools. - -It is true, some prominent Jews in France and Italy occupied themselves -with the study of mysticism and the Agada, but they regarded themselves -as dependent upon the Eastern authorities. - -The favorable condition of the Jews in the Frankish dominions, under -Charles the Great, continued under his son Louis (814-840), and, under -these advantageous circumstances, an impulse towards intellectual -activity manifested itself. They showed so much zeal in the cause -of Judaism that they even inspired Christians with love for it. The -successor of Charles the Great, the generous but weak Louis, in spite -of his religious inclination, which obtained for him the name of "the -Pious," showed extraordinary favor to the Jews. He took them under his -special protection, shielding them from injustice, both on the part of -the barons and of the clergy. They enjoyed the right of settling in -any part of the kingdom. In spite of numerous decrees to the contrary, -they were not only allowed to employ Christian workmen, but they might -even import slaves. The clergy were forbidden to baptize the slaves of -Jews to enable them to regain their freedom. Out of regard for them the -market day was changed from the Sabbath day to Sunday. The Jews were -freed from the punishment of scourging, and had the jurisdiction over -Jewish offenders in their own hands. They were, moreover, not subject -to the barbarous ordeals of fire and water. They were allowed to carry -on their trades without let or hindrance, but they had to pay a tax to -the treasury, and to render account periodically of their income. Jews -also farmed the taxes, and obtained through this privilege a certain -power over the Christians, although this was distinctly contrary to the -provisions of canonic law. - -An officer (Magister Judaeorum) was appointed whose duty it was to watch -over the rights of the Jews, and not permit them to be encroached upon. -In the time of Louis this office was filled by a man named Eberard. One -is almost tempted to believe that the remarkable favor shown to the -Jews by the pious emperor was mainly due to commercial motives. The -international commerce which Charlemagne had established, and which the -counselors of Louis wished to develop, was mostly in the hands of Jews, -because they could more easily enter into commercial relations with -their brethren in other lands, as they were not hampered by military -service. But there was a deeper reason for the extraordinary favor -shown to the Jews, not only to the Jewish merchants, but also to the -Jews as such--the bearers of the purified knowledge of God. - -The empress Judith, Louis' second consort, was most friendly to -Judaism. This beautiful and clever queen, the admiration of whose -friends was equaled only by the hostility of her foes, had great -respect for the Jewish heroes of antiquity. When the learned abbot -of Fulda, Rhabanus Maurus, wished to win her favor, he could find no -more effectual means than to dedicate to her his work on the books of -Esther and Judith, and to compare her to both these Jewish heroines. -The empress and her friends, and probably also the treasurer Bernhard, -the real ruler of the kingdom, became patrons of the Jews, because of -their descent from the patriarchs and the prophets. "They ought to be -honored on this account," said their friends at court, and their view -was shared by the emperor. Cultured Christians refreshed themselves -with the writings of the Jewish historian Josephus and the Jewish -philosopher Philo, and read their works in preference to those of the -apostles. Educated ladies and courtiers openly confessed that they -esteemed the Jewish lawgiver more highly than they did their own. They -even went so far as to ask the Jews for their blessing. The Jews had -free access to court, and held direct intercourse with the emperor and -those near him. Relatives of the emperor presented Jewish ladies with -costly garments in order to show their appreciation and respect. - -As such favor was shown them in higher circles, it was only natural -that the Jews of the Frankish dominions (which also included Germany -and Italy) should enjoy wide toleration, perhaps more than at any -other period of their history. The hateful canonical laws were tacitly -annulled. The Jews were allowed to build synagogues, to speak freely -about the meaning of Judaism in the hearing of Christians, and even -to say that they were "descendants of the patriarchs," "the race of -the just," "the children of the prophets." They could fearlessly give -their candid opinion about Christianity, the miracles of the saints, -the relics, and image worship. Christians visited the synagogues, and -were edified by the Jewish method of conducting divine service, and, -strangely enough, were better pleased with the lectures of the Jewish -preachers (Darshanim) than with those of their own clergy, although -the Darshanim could hardly have been able to reveal the deep tenor of -Judaism. So much, however, is certain: the Jewish preachers delivered -their sermons in the vernacular. Clergymen in high station were not -ashamed to adopt their expositions of Holy Writ from the Jews. The -abbot Rhabanus Maurus of Fulda confessed that he had learnt several -things from the Jews which he made use of in his commentary to the -Bible, dedicated to Louis of Germany, who afterwards became emperor. - -In consequence of the favor shown to the Jews at court, some Christians -conceived a liking for Judaism, looked upon Judaism as the true -religion, found it more convincing than Christianity, respected the -Sabbath, and worked on Sunday. In short, the reign of Emperor Louis -the Pious was a golden era for the Jews of his kingdom, such as they -had never enjoyed, and were destined never again to enjoy in Europe. -But as the Jewish race has had enemies at all times, these were not -lacking to the French Jews of this epoch, especially as they were in -favor at court, were beloved by the people, and could openly declare -their religious views. The followers of strict Church discipline saw -in the violation of the canonical laws, in the favor shown to the -Jews and in the liberty which was then being vouchsafed to them, the -ruin of Christendom. Envy and hatred were concealed under the cloak -of orthodoxy. The patrons of the Jews at court, with the empress at -their head, were hated by the clerical party, which strove to rule the -emperor, and which now transferred its anger against the liberal court -party to the Jews. - -The exponent of clerical orthodoxy and of hatred against the Jews at -this time, was Agobard, Bishop of Lyons, whom the Church has canonized. -A restless and passionate man, he calumniated the empress Judith, -rebelled against the emperor, and incited the princes to revolt. He -supported the disloyal sons of the emperor, especially Lothaire, -against their father. He was called the Ahithophel who incited Absalom -against his father David. This bishop wished to limit the liberty of -the Jews, and to reduce them to the low position they had held under -the Merovingian kings. - -An insignificant occurrence gave him the desired opportunity. The -female slave of a respected Jew of Lyons ran away from her master, and -to regain her freedom she allowed herself to be baptized (about 827). -The Jews, who saw in this act an encroachment on their chartered rights -and on their property, demanded the surrender of the runaway slave. -On Agobard's refusal to grant this, the Jews turned to Eberard, the -Magister Judaeorum, who threatened to punish the bishop, if he persisted -in his refusal to restore her to her master. - -This was the beginning of a contest between Agobard and the Jews which -lasted for several years. It gave rise to many quarrels, and ended in -the deposition of Agobard. He did not care so much about this slave, -as about the maintenance and assertion of the canonical laws against -the Jews. But he now encountered a serious difficulty. Incited, on the -one hand, by his hatred of the Jews, restrained, on the other, by his -fear of punishment, he did not know how to act. Perplexed, he turned -to the representatives of the Church party at court, whom he knew to -be enemies of the empress and her favorites, the Jews. He urged them -to induce the emperor to restrict the liberty of the Jews. They appear -to have proposed something of the sort to the emperor. The friends of -the Jews at court, in the meantime, sought to frustrate the plans of -the clergy. The emperor summoned the bishops and the representatives -of Judaism to settle the points in dispute. Agobard, however, was so -full of rage at the meeting that, as he himself says, "he roared rather -than spoke." He then had an audience with the emperor. When the bishop -appeared before Louis, the latter looked at him so fiercely that he -could not utter a word, and heard nothing but the order to withdraw. -Ashamed and confused, the bishop returned to his diocese. However, he -soon recovered from his confusion, and plotted anew against the Jews. -Agobard delivered anti-Jewish speeches, and urged his parishioners to -break off all intercourse with the Jews, to do no business with them, -and to decline entering their service. Fortunately, their patrons at -court were active on their behalf, and did their best to frustrate -the designs of the fanatic priest. As soon as they were informed of -his action they obtained letters of protection (_indiculi_) from the -emperor, sealed with his seal, and these they sent to the Jews of Lyons. - -A letter was likewise sent to the bishop commanding him, under a severe -penalty, to discontinue his anti-Jewish sermons. Another letter was -sent to the governor of the Lyons district, bidding him render the -Jews all assistance (828). Agobard took no notice of these letters, -and spitefully alleged that the imperial decree was spurious--in -fact, could not possibly be genuine. Thereupon Eberard, the Magister -Judaeorum, sent to him, telling him of the emperor's displeasure on -account of his disobedience. But he remained so obstinate, that the -emperor had to send two commissioners, Gerrick and Frederick, men in -high standing at court, armed with full power to bring this stubborn -and seditious bishop to reason. What means they were empowered to -employ against him we do not know, but they must have been severe, -because the few priests who had taken part in Agobard's agitation did -not venture to show themselves. It is significant that the people of -Lyons did not at all side with their bishop against the Jews. - -The Jew-hater Agobard did not rest in his efforts against the Jews. -He determined to oppose the court party which favored the Jews, and -to win over the emperor by an appeal to his conscience. Perhaps he -was acquainted with the plans of the conspirators, Wala, Helisachar, -and Hilduin, who desired to incite the sons of the emperor's first -marriage against the empress and the chief chancellor Bernhard, because -these had induced the emperor to effect a new division of the kingdom -in favor of Judith's son. Agobard henceforth divested himself of all -timidity, and became quite resolute, as though he anticipated the -speedy downfall of the party that favored the Jews. He first appealed -to the bishops, and entreated them to reproach the king with his sin, -and persuade him to reduce the Jews to the humble position they had -occupied at the time of the Merovingians. Only one of Agobard's letters -to the prelates is extant, the one to Bishop Nibridius of Narbonne. It -is full of bitterness against the Jews, and is interesting on account -of the fanaticism of the writer, and the confession he makes therein. -Amongst other things he complains that the Christians, despite their -efforts, could not succeed in winning over to Christianity a single -Jewish soul, whilst the Christians, joining Jews at their meals, -partook also of their spiritual food. Although Agobard's bitter -hatred of the Jews is chiefly to be considered a manifestation of -his own feelings, it cannot be denied that it was in entire harmony -with the teachings of the Church. He justly appeals to the sayings of -the apostles and to the canonic laws. The inviolable decrees of the -councils, too, were on his side. Agobard, with his gloomy hatred, was -strictly orthodox, whilst Emperor Louis with his mildness was inclined -to heresy. But Agobard did not venture to spread this opinion openly. -He rather suggested it in his statement that he could not believe it to -be possible that the emperor had betrayed the Church to the Jews. His -complaint was echoed in the hearts of the princes of the Church. - -A number of bishops assembled at Lyons for the purpose of discussing -the best method of humbling the Jews, and disturbing their hitherto -peaceful existence. They also considered how the emperor might best -be influenced to adopt their resolutions. It was resolved at the -meeting that a letter should be handed to the emperor, setting forth -the wickedness and the danger of favoring the Jews, and specifying -the privileges which ought to be withdrawn (829). The letter of -the synod, as we have it now, is signed by three bishops, and is -entitled, "Concerning the Superstitions of the Jews." Agobard wrote -the preface, in which he explains his position in the quarrel. In it, -after accusing the Jews, he blamed their friends as being the cause of -all the evil. The Jews, he said, had become bold through the support -of the commissioners, who had given out that the Jews were not so bad -after all, but were very dear to the emperor. From the standpoint of -faith and of the canonic laws the argument of Agobard and the other -bishops was irrefutable, and had Emperor Louis the Pious set store by -this logic, he would have had to extirpate the Jews, root and branch. -Fortunately, however, he took no notice of it. This happened either -because he knew Agobard's character, or because the letter containing -the accusations against the Jews never reached him. Agobard's fear that -the letter would be intercepted by the friends of the Jews at court -may have proved well founded. The Jew-hating bishop of Lyons, however, -had his revenge. In the following year (830), he took part in the -conspiracy against the empress Judith, by joining the sons, who nearly -succeeded in dethroning their father. Agobard was thereupon deprived of -his office, and had to seek safety in Italy, but Louis soon restored -him to his office, after which Agobard left the Jews unmolested. - -Till the end of his life Louis remained well disposed toward the -Jews. This is the more surprising as he felt very much hurt when one -of his favorites became a convert to Judaism, which might easily -have embittered him against them. The conversion of Bishop Bodo, who -had hitherto occupied a high position, created a great sensation in -its time. The chronicles speak of this event as they would of some -extraordinary natural phenomenon. The event, indeed, was accompanied -by peculiar circumstances, and was a great shock to pious Christians. -Bodo, or Puoto, descended from an old Alemannic race, a man as -well informed in temporal as in spiritual affairs, had become an -ecclesiastic, and occupied the rank of a deacon. The emperor favored -him, and in order to have him constantly near him, made him his -spiritual adviser. Entertaining strict Catholic opinions, Bodo desired -to go to Rome in order to receive the blessing of the Pope, and to make -a pilgrimage to the graves of the apostles and the martyrs. He was -given leave of absence, but in Rome, the stronghold of Christianity, -Bodo conceived a strong liking for Judaism. Perhaps the favor shown to -the Jews and Judaism at Louis' court had suggested to him a comparison -of the two faiths, and his investigation may have led him to recognize -the merits of Judaism. Besides, the immoral life of the clergy in -the Christian capital, which had given rise to the satire about Pope -Joan, who had defiled the chair of Peter, filled him with disgust, and -attracted him to the purer religion of Judaism. - -He himself wrote later, that he, in company with other divines, had -used the churches for grossly immoral purposes. Christian orthodoxy, -without inquiring into the true reason for Bodo's change of faith, -had a ready answer, viz., that Satan, the enemy of mankind and of the -Church, had led him to it. Bodo, without stopping at the court or in -France, journeyed from Rome to Spain, and there formally became a Jew, -giving up for the new faith his fatherland, his position, and his -friends. He was circumcised in Saragossa, assumed the name of Eleazar, -and let his beard grow (August, 938). He married a Jewess in Saragossa, -and appears to have entered the military service of an Arab prince. -He now conceived such hatred against his former co-religionists, that -he persuaded the Mahometan conqueror not to tolerate Christians in -his dominions, but to compel them to adopt either Islam or Judaism. -Thereupon the Spanish Christians are said to have appealed to the -emperor of the Frankish empire and to the bishops to use their utmost -endeavors to get this dangerous apostate into their power. The emperor -Louis was deeply moved by Bodo's conversion. He did not, however, allow -the Jews to suffer on account of his grief, but continued to protect -them against injustice. Of this we have a clear proof in his action in -reference to a lawsuit which came under his notice some months after -Bodo's conversion. It is probable that with Louis the Pious originated -the theory, current throughout the later period of the Middle Ages, -and doubtless inspired by benevolent desires, that the emperor is -the natural patron of the Jews, and that they, being his wards, are -inviolable. - -With the death of the emperor Louis, the golden age of the Jews in -the Frankish dominions came to an end, and their good fortunes were -not renewed for a considerable time. Southern Europe, disturbed by -anarchy, and ruled by a fanatic clergy, did not offer a favorable field -for the development of Judaism. It is true that Charles the Bald, the -son of Louis by Judith, who caused so much confusion in the Frankish -dominions, that the subsequent division of the kingdom into France, -Germany, Lorraine, and Italy ensued, was not hostile to the Jews -(843). He appears, indeed, to have inherited from his mother a certain -preference for Judaism. He had a Jewish physician, Zedekiah, to whom -he was much attached, but whose skill in medicine was regarded, by the -ignorant and superstitious people, as magic and the work of the devil, -and also a Jewish favorite, whose political services won from his royal -master the praise, "My faithful Judah." - -Under Charles the Bald, as under his predecessor, the Jews enjoyed -equal rights with the Christians. They were allowed to carry on their -business unhindered, and also to possess landed property. Some of -them controlled the tolls. But they had implacable enemies among the -higher clergy. They had angered the dignitaries of the Church too much -by their humiliation of Agobard, and the clergy, though they spoke -constantly of love and kindness, would not allow the Jews to enjoy -their advantages. - -The bitterest enemy of the Jews was Agobard's disciple and successor, -Bishop Amolo of Lyons. He had imbibed hatred of the Jews from his -master; and he was not alone in this, for Hinkmar, the bishop of -Rheims, a favorite of Emperor Charles, the archbishop of Sens, the -archbishop of Bourges, and others of the clergy shared his anti-Jewish -sentiments. At a council held by these prelates at Meaux (not far from -Paris) in 845, for the purpose of exalting the spiritual power at the -expense of the royal authority, and of repressing the riotous living -of many clergymen, it was resolved to re-enact the old canonical laws -and anti-Jewish restrictions, and to have them confirmed by Charles. -The members of the council did not mark the limit of the revival of -old restrictions, but on the list, similar to Agobard's, containing -the spiteful ordinances from which the king was to select those to -be enforced anew, were included some that dated from the time of the -first Christian emperor Constantine. It also mentioned the decree of -Emperor Theodosius II, according to which no Jew was allowed to occupy -any office or position of honor. The decrees of the various councils -and the edict of the Merovingian king Childebert, were also cited, by -which the Jews were not permitted to occupy the positions of judges -and farmers of taxes, nor show themselves on the streets during Easter -week, and were required to pay the utmost respect to the clergy. They -even cited synodal decrees which had been passed outside of France, -and therefore had never been invested with the force of law, and also -the inhuman Visigothic synod decrees, which had been directed more -especially against baptized Jews who still clung to Judaism. The -members of the council also mentioned the Visigothic synodal decrees, -which prescribed that the children of converted Jews should be torn -from their parents and placed amongst Christians. In conclusion, they -laid stress upon the point that Jewish and Christian slave dealers -should be compelled to sell heathen slaves within Christian territory, -so that they might be converted to Christianity. - -The prelates thought that they could cajole Charles into yielding -to their wishes by representing to him that the Northmen's invasion -was divine chastisement for his sinfulness. But Charles was not so -humbled by state troubles as to allow laws to be dictated to him -by a fanatic and ambitious clergy. Although his favorite, Hinkmar, -took part in the council, he had the meeting dissolved. Later on, -however, he summoned the members again for a new session, under his -own supervision, at Paris (14 Feb., 846). The improvement of Church -affairs was to be considered. They had to omit three quarters of the -eighty decrees of the council of Meaux, amongst them the proposed -anti-Jewish regulations. Thus neither under the Carlovingians nor under -later rulers, was the degradation of the Jews in France decreed by law. -Charles imposed upon the Jewish merchants a tax of eleven per cent. on -the value of all merchandise sold, whilst the Christians had to pay -only ten per cent. - -Amolo and his colleagues could not forget the defeat they had suffered -at the council of Meaux, where their plan to humble the Jews had -been frustrated. Agobard's successor sent a letter to the spiritual -authorities, reminding them that they ought to use their influence -with the princes to deprive the Jews of all their privileges. Amolo's -letter, full of virulence and calumny against the Jewish race, is -a worthy appendix to Agobard's letter to Emperor Louis on the same -subject. Much therein is borrowed from the latter. Towards the end of -his letter, Amolo expresses his deep regret that the Jews in France -were enjoying the rights of free speech, and that many Christians -were well disposed toward them. The Jews were even allowed to have -Christian servants to work in their houses and fields. He complains, -too, that many Christians openly declare that the sermons of the -Jewish preachers please them better than those of the Christian clergy, -making it seem the fault of the Jews that the Christian clergy could -not attract audiences. He also reproached the Jews with the fact that -a noble Church official had gone over to Judaism, and now thoroughly -hated Christianity. Amolo invited all the bishops of the country to do -their utmost to re-introduce the old canonic restrictions against the -Jews. He enumerated a number of anti-Jewish princes and councils that -had insisted on the legal humiliation of the Jews, just as Agobard and -the members of the council of Meaux had done before. Amolo, above all, -reminded them of the pious Visigothic king, Sisebut, who had forced the -Jews to adopt Christianity. "We dare not," ends his malignant letter, -"either by our suavity, flattery, or defense, encourage the complacency -of the Jews, who are accursed, and yet blind to their own damnation." - -At the time, Amolo's virulent letter had as little effect as Agobard's -letter and the decree of the council of Meaux. But gradually the poison -spread from the clergy to the people and the princes. The division of -France into small independent states, which refused allegiance to the -king, was another unfavorable circumstance. Its effect was to leave -the Jews at the mercy of the fanatical clergy and the tyranny of petty -princes. - -How malicious was the spirit animating the French clergy, can be -judged from the fact that the successive bishops of Beziers were in -the habit of preaching vehement sermons from Palm Sunday until Easter -Monday, exhorting the Christians to avenge themselves on the Jews of -the town, because they had crucified Jesus. The fanatical mob thus -incited armed themselves with stones to attack the Jews. The mischief -was repeated year after year for centuries. The Jews of Beziers often -defended themselves, and on these occasions much damage was inflicted -on both sides. The Jews of Toulouse, too, for a long time had to suffer -numerous indignities. The counts of this town had the privilege of -publicly giving the president of the Jewish community a box on the ears -on Good Friday. This was no doubt meant as vengeance upon the Jews for -Jesus' death; no doubt too in fulfilment of the precept, "Thou shalt -love thine enemies." There is a story which tells of a chaplain called -Hugh, who begged that he might be allowed to perform the office, and -he dealt the victim so violent a blow, that he fell lifeless to the -ground. Those who wished to find a justification for this barbarity -alleged that the Jews on one occasion either had betrayed, or had -intended to betray the town of Toulouse to the Mahometans. Later, the -box on the ears was commuted to an annual money payment by the Jews. -The great grandson of Louis the Pious, Louis II, son of Lothaire, was -so influenced by the clergy, that as soon as he had the government of -Italy in his own hands (855), he decreed that all the Italian Jews -should quit the land where their ancestors had lived long before the -arrival of the Germans and Longobards. No Jew should dare show himself -after the 1st of October of that year. Any Jew that appeared in the -street might be seized, and peremptorily handed over for punishment. -Fortunately for the Jews this decree could not be carried out; for -Italy was then divided into small districts, whose rulers, for the -most part, refused obedience to the emperor of Italy. Mahometans made -frequent irruptions into the land, and were often called in to help the -Christian princes against each other, or against the king. This anarchy -was the safeguard of the Jews, and the decree remained in abeyance. - -Under Charles' successors, when the power of the king decreased -greatly, and the bigotry of the princes increased, things came to such -a pass that Charles the Simple granted all the lands and vineyards of -the Jews in the Duchy of Narbonne to the Church, in order to show his -great zeal for his religion (899-914). The French princes gradually -accustomed themselves to think that the protection which the emperors -Charles the Great and his son Louis had afforded the Jews, involved -the inference that the wards and their property belonged absolutely to -the guardian. This thought, at least, underlies the act by which the -usurper Boso, king of Burgundy and Provence, who was greatly influenced -by the clergy, presented the Jews as a gift to the Church, _i. e._, -he considered them in every respect as his bondmen. This arbitrary -treatment of the Jews came to an end only with the rule of the Capets. - -Like their brethren in Western Europe, the Jews in the East, in the -Byzantine dominion, had to suffer sad persecution. Despite forced -baptism, and the oppression of the Emperor Leo the Isaurian, the Jews -again spread over the whole Byzantine Empire, more especially over -Asia Minor and Greece. Many Greek Jews occupied themselves with the -cultivation of mulberry trees and with silk spinning. The Greek Jews -in other respects were subject to all the restrictions imposed by the -former rulers, and like the heathen and heretics, were not permitted to -hold office. They were, however, granted religious freedom. Basilius, -who ascended the throne in about 850, was comparatively a just and mild -ruler. Yet he was resolved to bring the Jews over to Christianity. He -therefore arranged that religious discussions should take place between -Jewish and Christian clergymen, and decreed that the Jews should either -prove by irrefutable arguments that their religion was the true one, or -confess that "Jesus was the culmination of the Law and the Prophets." - -Basilius, foreseeing that these discussions would probably lead to -no results, promised appointments of honor to those who should prove -themselves open to conversion. It is not known what punishment was -inflicted on those unwilling to be converted, but they doubtless had to -suffer severe persecution. Many Jews accepted or pretended to accept -Christianity. Scarcely was Basilius dead (886), when they threw off -the mask as they had done in Spain, France, and in other countries -where they had been oppressed, and returned to the religion to which in -reality they had never for a moment been unfaithful. But they had made -a mistake. Basilius' son and successor, Leo the Philosopher--a title -cheaply purchased in those times--excelled his father in intolerance. -He decreed that those who had re-adopted the Jewish customs should -be treated as apostates, that is, punished with death (about 900). -Nevertheless, after the death of this emperor, the Jews returned to -live in the Byzantine Empire, as they had done after the death of Leo -the Isaurian. - -In the lands of the Caliphate, especially in Babylonia (Irak), at that -time the center of Jewish life, the Jews gradually lost the favorable -position which they had hitherto enjoyed, although the intolerance -of the Mahometan rulers was mild compared with that of the Christian -princes. In the East, too, they were the prey of caprice, for the -Caliphs resigned their power in favor of the vizirs, and thus deprived -themselves of all power. The Caliphs after Al-Mamun became more and -more the tools of ambitious and greedy ministers and generals, and the -Oriental Jews frequently had to buy the favor of these ephemeral lords -at a high price. The Caliph Al-Mutavakkil, Al-Mamun's third successor, -renewed the laws of Omar against the Jews, Christians, and Magi, and -compelled them to wear a characteristic dress, a yellow scarf over -their dress, and a thick cord instead of a girdle. He, moreover, -changed the synagogues and churches into mosques, and forbade the -Mahometans to teach Jews and Christians, or to admit them to offices -(849-856). A tenth part of their property had to be given to the -Caliph; they were forbidden to ride upon horses, and were allowed to -make use only of asses and mules (853-854). The Exilarchs had lost a -part of their power, when Al-Mamun decreed that they should no longer -be officially recognized and supported, and they lost still more -through the fanaticism of Al-Mutavakkil. By and by they ceased to -be officials of the state, invested with certain powers, and had to -content themselves with the position which the Jewish communities gave -them out of respect for old and dear memories. - -As the Exilarchate declined, the respect increased for the school of -Pumbeditha, because it was near the capital of the Bagdad Caliphate, -whose Jewish community of influential men came under its jurisdiction. -Pumbeditha now rose from the subordinate position into which it had -been forced. It put itself on an equal footing with the sister academy -of Sora, and its presidents likewise assumed the title of Gaon. It -next made itself independent of the Exilarchate. Formerly the head -of the school and the faculty of Pumbeditha had to go once a year to -pay homage to the Exilarch, but now, if the Exilarch wished to hold -a public assembly, he had to repair to Pumbeditha. This was probably -brought about by the chief of the school, Paltoi ben Abayi (842-858), -who heads the list of important Geonim, and who was noted for his free -use of the Cherem (Excommunication). Dissensions about the succession -to the Gaonate were not wanting during this period, although the -Exilarchs could not make their influence felt. - -A Gaon of Sora, Natronai II, son of Hillai (859-869), kept up a -prolific correspondence with foreign communities in the Arabic -language. His predecessors had employed a mixture of Hebrew and Chaldee -as the medium of their communications. Natronai II also corresponded -with the Jewish-Spanish community at Lucena, whose members doubtless -understood Arabic better than Hebrew. He opposed the Karaites as -bitterly as the Geonim had done at the time of the rise of this sect, -"because they despised the words of the sages of the Talmud, and set -up for themselves an arbitrary Talmud of their own." His pupil and -successor, Mar-Amram ben Sheshna (869-881), was the compiler of the -liturgical order of prayers in use amongst European Jews. At the -request of a Spanish community, preferred by their religious leader, -Isaac ben Simeon, he collected everything that the Talmud and the -custom of the schools had ratified concerning prayer and divine service -(Siddur Rab Amram). The form which the prayers had assumed in the -course of time was by him declared to have the force of fixed law. -Every one that deviated from it was considered a heretic, and excluded -from the community of Israel. The poetical compositions for the -festivals were not yet in general use at this time, and Mar-Amram left -the selection to the taste of the individual. - -During Mar-Amram's Gaonate, there were two successive heads of the -schools in Pumbeditha, Rabba ben Ami (869-872), of whom nothing is -known, and Mar-Zemach I. ben Paltoi (872-890), who heads the list of -literary Geonim. Hitherto, the leaders of the school had occupied -themselves with the exposition of the Talmud, with the regulation of -the internal affairs of the communities, and with answering questions -which were submitted to them. The one or the other of them, it is true, -made a collection of Agadic sayings, but for literary activity, they -either had no leisure, or opportunity, or inclination. But when the -zeal for the study of the Talmud increased in the different communities -in Egypt, Africa, Spain and France, and students of the Talmud spent -their time in studying obscure and difficult passages, they often -had to appeal to the schools for the solution of their difficulties. -Their questions soon concerned only theoretical points, and the Geonim -found it necessary to write treatises on certain portions of the -Talmud, instead of simple and short answers. These books were used -by students as Talmudical handbooks. The Gaon Zemach ben Paltoi, of -Pumbeditha, arranged an alphabetical index of difficult words in the -Talmud, under the title of "Aruch." In it he shows acquaintance with -the Persian language. This dictionary forms the first contribution -to the constantly growing department of Talmudical lexicography. The -second literary Gaon was Nachshon ben Zadok of Sora (881-889), Zemach's -contemporary. He, too, wrote a book giving explanations of difficult -words in the Talmud. Nachshon made himself famous through his discovery -of a key to the Jewish calendar. He found that the order of the years -and festivals repeat themselves after a cycle of two hundred and -forty-seven years, and that the forms of the years can be arranged in -fourteen tables. This key bears his name; it is known as the cycle of -Rabbi Nachshon. - -The third author of this time was Rabbi Simon of Cairo, or Misr, in -Egypt, who, although not an official of the Babylonian school, was in -a position to compose a code embracing all religious and ceremonial -laws (about 900). This work, directed against the Karaites, bears -the title "The Great Halachas" (Halachoth gedoloth), and forms a -supplement to Jehudai's work of a similar nature. The history of the -post-exilic period till the destruction of the Temple was also written -at this time; its author is unknown. It is written in Arabic, and -is based partly upon Josephus, partly upon the Apocrypha, and partly -upon tradition. It is called "The History of the Maccabees" or "Joseph -ben Gorion." In later times an Italian translated it into Hebrew, and -in its expanded form it bears the title Josippon (Pseudo-Josephus), -and this work served to awaken in the Jews, who were ignorant of the -original sources of Jewish history, interest in their glorious past. - -The literary activity of the official heads of Judaism in the two -schools confined itself to Talmudical subjects. They had no idea of -scientific research, would have condemned it, in fact, as a leaning to -Karaite doctrine. Outside of the Gaonate, in Egypt and Kairuan, there -was a scientific movement among the Rabbanites, weak at first, but -increasing in strength every year. The Rabbanite thinkers must have -felt that so long as Talmudic Judaism maintained a hostile position -towards science, it could not hold its own against the Karaites. -Biblical exegesis and Hebrew philology formed the special studies of -the Karaites, and in connection with these was developed a kind of -philosophy, though only as an auxiliary science. It was in this branch -that, towards the end of the ninth century, several Rabbanites emulated -them. Famous amongst these was Isaac ben Suleiman Israeli (845-940). -He was a physician, philosopher, and Hebrew philologist. He was an -Egyptian, and was called to Kairuan about the year 904 as physician -to the last Aghlabite prince, Ziadeth-Allah. When the founder of the -Fatimide dynasty, Ubaid-Allah, the Messianic Imam (Al-Mahdi, who is -said to have been the son of a Jewess), conquered the Aghlabite prince, -and founded a great kingdom in Africa (909-933), Isaac Israeli entered -his service, and enjoyed his full favor. Israeli had a great reputation -as a physician, and had many pupils. At the request of the Caliph -Ubaid-Allah, he wrote eight medical works, the best of which is said -to be that on fever. His medical writings were translated into Hebrew, -Latin, and part of them into Spanish, and were zealously studied by -physicians. A Christian physician, the founder of the Salerno school -of medicine, made use of his researches, and even republished some -of his works without giving credit to Israeli for them. He was thus -an important contributor to the development of medical science, but -as a philosopher he did not do much. His work on "Definitions and -Descriptions" shows scarcely the rudiments of philosophical knowledge. - -His lectures must have made a greater impression than his writings. -He instructed two disciples, a Mahometan, Abu-Jafar Ibn-Aljezzar, -who is recognized as an authority in medicine; and a Jew, Dunash ben -Tamim, who continued the work of his master. Isaac Israeli lived to be -more than one hundred years old, and survived his patron the Caliph -Ubaid-Allah, whose death was hastened by his disregard of the advice of -his Jewish physician. When Isaac Israeli died, about 940, his example -had made a place in the Rabbanite studies for the scientific method -that shaped the activity of succeeding generations. - -Whilst the Rabbanites were making the first attempt to follow a -scientific method, the Karaites were disporting on the broad beaten -path of Mutazilist philosophy. Although young in years, Karaism showed -signs of advanced old age. All its strength was given to Biblical -exposition, combined with philology, but even here it made no progress. -In the central community of the Karaites, in Jerusalem, it assumed -an ascetic character. Sixty Karaites agreed to leave their homes, -their property and their families, live together, abstain from wine -and meat, go poorly clad, and spend their time in fasting and prayer. -They adopted this mode of living, as they said, with the object of -promoting Israel's redemption. They called themselves the mourners -of Zion and Jerusalem (Abele Zion), and every one of them added to -his signature the term "The Mourner." It was through them that the -religious life of the Karaites took on an ascetic tinge. They not only -observed the Levitical laws of purity in the strictest manner, but -they shunned intercourse with non-Jews. They would not buy bread from -them, nor eat anything they had touched. The more rigorous the Karaites -became, the more they looked upon the Rabbanites as reprobates and -sinners, whose houses it was a sin to visit. The Karaites gradually -spread from Babylonia and Judaea to Egypt on the one side and to -Syria on the other, and northwards as far as the Crimea. There were -large Karaite communities in Alexandria and Cairo, and also in the -Crimea, on the Bosporus (Kertch), Sulchat and Kaffa (Theodosia). The -zeal of individuals contributed much to spread Karaism. By means of -disputations, sermons, and letters, they endeavored to secure followers -amongst the Rabbanites. Like every other essentially weak sect the -Karaites relied upon propaganda, as though numbers could atone for -lack of real strength. There was amongst them a certain proselytizer, -a cunning man, Eldad by name, who related wonderful adventures, and -made a great stir in his day. Eldad's romantic travels throw a lurid -light upon the Jewish history of the time. He belongs to that class -of deceivers who have a pious end in view, know how to profit by -the credulity of the masses, and can easily catch men in a web of -falsehood. The Geonim themselves were almost deceived into believing -his pretended traditions, which he affirmed had been received direct -from Moses. - -Meanwhile, the institution to which the memories of the former -political independence of Judaism were attached was rapidly -approaching dissolution. The Exilarchate fell into disregard through -the rivalry of the school of Pumbeditha, and also lost the revenue -which was its mainstay. Even though questions from abroad continued to -be directed to the Geonim of Sora, the sister academy was considered -even in Babylonia to be the chief authority, and to have most -influence. This influence was increased still more through the choice -as Gaon of Pumbeditha of Hai ben David (890-897), who had hitherto held -the post of rabbi and judge in the capital of the Caliphate. It was -just at this time, at the end of the 9th century, that the Jews again -enjoyed a high position in the Caliphate, under the Caliph Al-Mutadhid -(892-902). His vizir and regent Ubaid-Allah Ibn-Suleiman appointed Jews -and Christians alike to state offices. - -The community of Bagdad gained most through the favor shown to the Jews -by the vizir. As Hai had occupied his post in the capital for a long -time, and had made himself popular in the community, he was elected -Gaon of Pumbeditha by the influential members. Their object was to make -the school of Pumbeditha of greater importance, and the academy at -Sora declined more and more. Hai's successors, who, like himself, had -commenced their career with the rabbinate of Bagdad, worked in the same -spirit, and were assisted by the powerful members of the community in -the effort to make Pumbeditha the center of the Babylonian community -and of Judaism generally, and to put an end to the Exilarchate as -well as to the school of Sora. One of them was Mar Kohen-Zedek II. b. -Joseph (held office 917-936). He was passionate and energetic, and -was one of those who are, indeed, free from personal selfishness, but -seek an increase of power for the community, regardless of every other -consideration. As soon as he entered upon his office, Kohen-Zedek -demanded that the school of Pumbeditha should have the greater share -of the revenue which was contributed by the various communities. -He based his demand upon the fact, that the pupils of the college -at Pumbeditha were more numerous than those at Sora, and therefore -deserved greater consideration. So many quarrels arose between the two -schools in consequence of this demand that several important people -found it necessary to interfere. A compromise was made, and it was -agreed that in future the money should be equally divided, whereby the -academy at Sora lost the last trace of its superiority. Kohen-Zedek -then endeavored to deprive the Exilarchate of its little remnant of -power. The Exilarch at the time was Ukba, a man of Arabic culture, -who wrote poems in Arabic. Kohen-Zedek demanded that the appointment -of judges in the communities of Khorasan should be vested in, and the -revenues derived from the same, should be devoted to, the school of -Pumbeditha. Ukba would not give up any portion of his dignity, and -appealed to the Caliph. But Kohen-Zedek had friends at Bagdad, who -had influence at court, and these succeeded in inducing the Caliph -Al-Muktadir (908-932), or rather the vizir Ibn Furat, since the Caliph -spent his time in riotous living, to deprive Mar-Ukba of his post, and -banish him from Bagdad. The Exilarch went to Karmisin (Kermanshah, -east of Bagdad), and Kohen-Zedek rejoiced that the Exilarchate was now -destroyed. The weak president of Sora, Jacob ben Natronai, permitted -all these usurpations without interfering. - -Meanwhile matters took a favorable turn for the banished Exilarch, by -which he was able to frustrate the plans of Kohen-Zedek. Just at this -time there came to Kermanshah the young and pleasure-seeking Caliph. -The banished Exilarch Ukba frequently met him, and greeted and praised -him in well-measured Arabic verses. His verses pleased Al-Muktadir's -secretary so well that he had them copied, and called to the attention -of the Caliph the many changes rung by the Jewish poet upon the one -simple theme, allegiance. - -Poetry was prized so much amongst the Arabs, that no conqueror, however -uncouth, was insensible to it. Al-Muktadir sent for the poetical -Exilarch, was pleased with him, and finally asked him what favor he -could confer upon him. Ukba wished for nothing more eagerly than -to be restored to his office. This the Caliph granted him. He now -returned, after a year's absence, to Bagdad, to the astonishment of -his opponent, and re-assumed his high position (918). Poetry had saved -him. Kohen-Zedek and his party, however, did not allow him to enjoy -his triumph long. Through bribery and intrigue they again effected -his deposition, and he was banished. In order that he might not again -be restored to favor, he was exiled beyond the limits of the Eastern -Caliphate to the recently founded kingdom of the Fatimides--to Kairuan -in Africa. Here, where the physician and philosopher, Isaac Israeli, -was greatly respected, he was received with open arms, and held in high -esteem. The community of Kairuan treated him as the Exilarch, set up -a raised place for him in the synagogue, and caused him to forget the -troubles he had suffered in the land of his fathers (919). - -Kohen-Zedek had opposed the Exilarchate rather than Ukba personally; he -now took care that no successor should be appointed to the Exilarchate, -which he desired to extinguish. His contemporary Gaon in Sora, Jacob -ben Natronai, was either too weak or too much hampered to interfere. -So the office of Exilarch was left vacant for a year or two. However, -hated as the Exilarchate was by the representatives of the Pumbeditha -college, the people were warmly attached to the house of David, about -which traditions and memories clustered. They clamored for the -restoration of the office. Thereupon the Gaon of Sora took courage, -and refused any longer to be a weak tool in the hands of Kohen-Zedek. -The people vehemently demanded that David ben Zaccai, a relative of -Ukba, be made Exilarch, and the whole college of the school of Sora -paid homage to him in Kasr, where he lived (921). Kohen-Zedek and -the college of Pumbeditha refused to recognize him. David ben Zaccai -was as resolute and ambitious as his opponent, and determined to -assert his authority. By virtue of his power, he deposed Kohen-Zedek, -and named his successor. Once more complications arose, this time -dividing the school of Pumbeditha against itself. This bickering -deeply pained the better class of the people; however, the disputes -between the Exilarchate and the Gaonate, affecting the whole of the -Jewish-Babylonian community, lasted nearly two years. - -Nissi Naharvani, a blind man, who was respected by everybody for -his piety, and who felt regret at this state of affairs, undertook -to effect a reconciliation. Late one night he groped about till he -found his way to the room of Kohen-Zedek, who was astonished at the -sudden appearance of the venerable blind man at such an hour, and -was persuaded by him to come to terms. Nissi then also induced the -Exilarch to yield. David and Kohen-Zedek met, with their respective -followers, in Sarsar (half-a-day's journey south of Bagdad), made -peace, and Kohen-Zedek accompanied the Exilarch as far as Bagdad -(Spring, 921). David in turn recognized Kohen-Zedek as the legitimate -Gaon of Pumbeditha. Kohen-Zedek, who had not succeeded in his plan to -extinguish the Exilarchate, lived to see the school of Sora, which had -been humbled by him, rise again from its low position, and have fresh -splendor shed upon it by a stranger from a foreign land, so that for -several years it cast the school of Pumbeditha into the shade. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE GOLDEN AGE OF JEWISH SCIENCE: SAADIAH AND CHASDAI. - - Judaism in the Tenth Century--Saadiah, the Founder of - Religious Philosophy--Translation of the Bible into Arabic - --Saadiah opposes Karaism--The Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham - --Saadiah and the School at Sora--Saadiah retires from Sora - --His Literary Activity--Extinction of the Exilarchate-- - Sahal and other Karaite writers--Jews in Spain--The School - at Cordova--Dunash ben Tamim--Chasdai--His services to - Judaism--Menachem ben Saruk--Chasdai and the King of the - Chazars. - -928-970 C. E. - - -With the decay of the Carlovingian rule, the last spark of spiritual -life was extinguished in Christian Europe. The darkness of the Middle -Ages became thicker and thicker, but the spiritual light of Judaism -shone forth in all its splendor. - -The Church was the seat of monastic ignorance and barbarity, the -Synagogue was the place of science and civilization. In Christianity -every scientific effort was condemned by the officials of the Church -as well as by the people, as the work of Satan; in Judaism the leaders -and teachers of religion themselves promoted science, and endeavored -to elevate the people. Far from condemning knowledge, the Geonim -considered it as an aid and supplement to religion. For three centuries -the teachers of Judaism were for the most part devotees of science, and -this position was first assumed during this epoch. Two men especially, -one in the east and the other in the west, made science a principle of -Judaism. They were the Gaon Saadiah and the statesman Chasdai. - -With them begins a new period of Jewish history, which we may -confidently call the scientific epoch. The spring-time of Israel's -history returned, and in its pure atmosphere the sweet voice of poetry -again made itself heard. Contemporary writers scarcely noticed that a -remnant of Jewish antiquity, the Exilarchate, was now at an end. It was -soon forgotten in the new life that had just made itself visible. Just -as the religious life had freed itself from the Temple of sacrifice, so -now it gradually withdrew from the influence of the temple of learning -on the banks of the Euphrates, and established a new center for itself. -The first half of the tenth century became, through the concurrence -of favorable circumstances, a turning-point in the progress of Jewish -history. - -Jewish history was gradually transferred to European ground. Judaism -assumed, so to speak, a European character, and deviated more and -more from its Oriental form. Saadiah was the last important link in -its development in the East; Chasdai and the scientific men whom he -influenced became the first representatives of a Judaeo-European culture. - -Saadiah (Arabic, Said) ben Joseph, from the town Fayum in Upper -Egypt (892-942), was the founder of scientific Judaism amongst the -Rabbanites, and the creator of religious philosophy in the Middle Ages. -He was a man of extensive knowledge who had absorbed the learning of -the Mahometans and Karaites, and impregnated it with Talmudic elements. -More remarkable even than his knowledge was his personality. His -was a religious spirit and deep moral earnestness. He had a decided -character, and belonged to those who know how to render account of -their actions, and who persevere in carrying out what they think right. -Little is known of his youth. There were few, if any, great Talmudical -scholars in Egypt at that time, and the fact that Saadiah became famous -in this branch of literature speaks well for his mental power. He was -more at home in the Karaite literature than previous Rabbanites had -been. In his twenty-third year (913) he made a fierce attack upon the -Karaites, which was felt by them for centuries afterwards. He wrote a -book "In Refutation of Anan." The contents of this book are unknown, -but it is probable that Saadiah attempted to prove in it the necessity -of tradition, and also to expose Anan's inconsistencies. He adduced -seven arguments in proof of the necessity of tradition, which, weak as -they are, were afterwards accepted for the most part by the Karaites. -He wrote another book in which he showed the absurdity of the boundless -extension of relationship in the Karaite law. He characterized Anan as -"an ambitious man, who possessed too much boldness and too little fear -of God," and who rejected Talmudic Judaism only in order to avenge a -personal slight. - -Before he had arrived at maturity, he undertook a more difficult task, -fraught with important consequences for Judaism. Hitherto, the Karaites -had devoted special attention to the Scriptural text, whereas the -Rabbanite teachers had, to a certain extent, neglected it, because the -Talmud satisfied all the needs of their religious life. - -The Karaites had composed numerous expositions of the Bible, the -Rabbanites but few. Saadiah, who felt this want, undertook to translate -the Bible into Arabic, the language understood, at this time, from -the extreme West to India. To this translation he added notes, for -three reasons. He wished to make the Bible accessible to the people. -He thought that thereby the influence of Karaism, which sought to -refute Talmudic Judaism through its exegesis, would be counteracted. -Finally, he wished to remove the misconceptions of the people, and -conquer the perversity of the mystics, who rendered the words of -the Bible literally, and thus gave an unworthy description of the -Godhead. He favored the philosophical idea which conceives God in -His exaltedness and holiness to be a spirit. His translation was to -satisfy both reason and Talmudical tradition. This was the basis of his -view of Judaism. Teachings of the Talmud are as divine as those of the -Bible, and neither the Bible nor tradition may be contrary to reason. -According to Saadiah, the contradictions are only on the surface, and -he sought by his translation and exposition to remove this illusion. To -carry out this aim, he adopted interpretations of the text which are -arbitrary and forced. - -Out of deference to his Mahometan readers, Saadiah made use of Arabic -characters, which were seldom employed by the Jews who wrote Arabic. -Although Saadiah shows great mental power and independence in his -translation, his renderings cannot be highly praised. The very fact -that he does not allow the text to speak its own language, and that -he wished to find at one time the Talmudical tradition, at another -a philosophical meaning in the words and the context, necessarily -prevented him from giving a true exposition. He impressed the exegesis -of Scripture into the service of tradition and of the philosophy of -the time, and made the text imply more than the meaning of the words -allowed. At the same time that he wrote his translation, Saadiah -composed a kind of Hebrew grammar in the Arabic language. He also -composed a Hebrew lexicon (in Hebrew, Iggaron). Even here he often -missed the truth as to the grammar and etymology of the words. His -exegetical and grammatical works are of importance in so far as they -broke fresh ground in Rabbanite studies, and introduced exegesis and -philology as new departments. Even his mistakes proved instructive in -later times. - -In his exposition of the first book of the Pentateuch, Saadiah again -challenged the Karaites. The dispute arose out of his endeavor to prove -that the Karaite calendar was not in accordance with Scripture. In -attacking Karaism, he had disturbed a hornets' nest, and aroused a -host of opponents. The Karaites had hitherto waged war against Talmudic -Judaism without meeting with opposition. They were, therefore, greatly -disturbed when a Rabbanite, endowed with intellect and knowledge, -entered the lists against them. A lively contest arose, which served -its purpose in awakening scientific interest. Saadiah's chief opponent -was the Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham (Ruchaim). This Karaite (born -in Fostat in 885, died in 960), who lived in Palestine, and was only -a few years older than Saadiah, did not rise above mediocrity. He -was of a violent and acrid nature, and imagined that he could settle -scientific questions by scoffing and abuse. When he returned from -Palestine to Egypt, and perceived the impression that Saadiah's written -and oral attacks upon Karaism had made even in Karaite circles, he -was filled with rage against the young and spirited Rabbanite author, -and determined to write a double refutation--in Hebrew for the -educated, and in Arabic for the masses generally. In his Hebrew reply, -which consists of eighteen doggerel verses alphabetically arranged -(Milchamoth), he treats Saadiah like a child. The whole work breathes -nothing but slander and coarseness. In fact, the Karaite polemic -writings generally deserve consideration more on account of the method -by means of which they seek to cover up their mistakes, than on account -of their contents or their form. Ben-Yerucham's composition took the -shape of a letter to the Karaite communities in Egypt. - -Ben-Yerucham was not the only Karaite who sought to defend the sect -against Saadiah's attacks. The various writers vied with one another in -the fierceness of their attacks upon the young Rabbanite by whom their -anti-Talmudic creed was threatened with destruction. If the Karaite -authors expected to silence Saadiah by means of abuse they were -mistaken. He refuted their arguments, substantiated his assertions, and -was always on the alert to take up arms. He wrote two other polemic -treatises against Karaism in Arabic, the one "Distinction" (Tamgiz), -and one against Ibn Sakviyah, who had entered the lists in defense of -the Karaites. Saadiah's works carried his fame to the communities of -the African and Eastern Caliphate. The venerable Isaac Israeli read his -writings with avidity, and his pupil, Dunash ben Tamim, fairly devoured -them. At the seat of the Gaonate, too, he was favorably known, and the -attention of the leaders was directed to him. - -The school of Sora was in a sad state of decadence, and was so -deficient in learned men, that the Exilarch David ben Zaccai found -it necessary to invest a weaver named Yom-Tob Kahana ben Jacob, with -the honor of the Gaonate, but he died in his second year of office -(926-928). The Gaon of Pumbeditha, Kohen-Zedek, who did his best to -establish his college as the exclusive authority, made an agreement -with the Exilarch, to whom he had become reconciled, to close the -school of Sora, to transplant the members to Pumbeditha, and to appoint -a titular Gaon of Sora, who should have his seat in Pumbeditha. The son -of a Gaon, named Nathan ben Yehudai, was invested with this titular -dignity, but he died suddenly. His sudden death seems to have been -taken as a condemnation of the intention to abolish the old college at -Sora. The Exilarch David then determined to fill up the vacancy and -to restore the ancient school of Sora. He had two candidates in view: -Saadiah, and Zemach ben Shahin, an obscure member of the old nobility. -The Exilarch appealed to the blind Nissi Naharvani to assist him in -his choice. His advice was the more disinterested as he himself had -declined the honor. Nissi voted for Zemach, but not because he had -any personal dislike to Saadiah; on the contrary, he manifested much -love for him. "Saadiah surpasses all his contemporaries in wisdom, -piety, and eloquence," he said of him, "but he is very independent, and -shrinks from nothing." Nissi justly feared that Saadiah's inflexible -spirit would be the cause of disputes and dissensions between him and -the Exilarch. Nevertheless, David decided for Saadiah. He was called -from Egypt to Sora, and formally installed as Gaon (May, 928). It was -an exceptional circumstance that a foreigner who had not studied in the -Talmudic schools, and had not passed step by step through the various -offices should, at a bound, attain to the highest honor next to the -Exilarchate. Besides, Saadiah was more known for his scientific work -than for his Talmudic scholarship. With his call to office, Babylonia -in a sense resigned the supremacy which for seven centuries it had -held over all other lands. This supremacy was now enjoyed by another -country, and philosophy was placed on a level with the Talmud. The -spirit of inquiry that had been banished from the halls of the schools -with Anan, the founder of Karaism, made a solemn return into those -halls with Saadiah. - -Saadiah invested the college of Sora with new splendor by his character -and fame. During his presidency Pumbeditha was thrown into the shade. -He sought to fill up the gaps that had arisen in the academy. He -appointed worthy young men to academic offices, and was faithful to -the duties of his position. What must have been his feelings when -he entered for the first time the halls of learning where the great -authorities, the Amoraim, had taught before him! Soon, however, he no -doubt became conscious of the fact that there existed but the smallest -remnant of that former greatness, and that the high-sounding titles -and dignities were mere semblances of things long since sunk into -oblivion. The Exilarchate, the head of the Judaeo-Babylonian community, -was without intrinsic excellence, and was constantly at variance with -the schools. Not being officially recognized at court, the Exilarchate -had to purchase its existence from courtiers and ephemeral rulers, -and was threatened with extinction, whenever its opponents should -offer a larger sum. The money needed to maintain the Exilarchate was -forcibly exacted from the people. Alike in the Exilarchate and in the -academic colleges, corruption and oppression were the order of the -day, the only object in view being to maintain the authority of the -chiefs. Eloquence, virtue, piety, were wanting in the hearts of the -leaders. The Exilarch David once sent his sons to levy an extraordinary -contribution from the different communities; and when the congregation -at Fars (Hamadan?) refused it, David excommunicated them, denounced -them to the vizir, who accused them before the Caliph, when a heavy -fine was imposed upon them. The Geonim had not a word to say against -all this! Saadiah himself had to be silent; he had not been in office -long enough to protest. His eminence had raised him many enemies who -were eager for his downfall. Not alone Kohen-Zedek was jealous of him, -because Pumbeditha was thrown into the shade, but a young man from -Bagdad, Aaron (Caleb) Ibn-Sarjadu, learned, rich, and influential, -distrusted and opposed him. Saadiah observed the great defects in -the Jewish communal life in Babylonia in silence. He wished first to -be on firmer footing. His sense of justice was, however, too deeply -wounded, when he was expected to take part in the iniquities of the -representative of the Jewish community. He could no longer restrain -himself, and now revealed his inflexible character. - -An unimportant circumstance revealed the moral corruption of the Jewish -Babylonian chiefs. There was a lawsuit about a large inheritance, -which had not been conscientiously decided by the Exilarch David. -His decision was influenced by the prospect of great gain. To make -his decree legal and unimpeachable, David demanded the signatures of -the two Geonim to the document prepared by him. Kohen-Zedek signed -without objection; Saadiah, however, would not countenance the -injustice. On being pressed by the parties, he gave the reason for -his refusal. The Exilarch David, who now was doubly interested in -obtaining his signature, sent his son Judah to ask him to sign the -document without delay. Saadiah calmly replied that the Law forbade -him to do such things, as it is said, "Ye shall not respect persons -in judgment." Once more David sent his son to Saadiah to threaten him -with deposition in case he still refused. Judah at first assumed a -quiet demeanor, and begged Saadiah not to be the cause of quarrels in -the community. When, however, he found him determined, he raised his -hand against Saadiah, and vehemently demanded his signature. Saadiah's -servants soon removed Judah, and locked the door of the meeting hall. -David ben Zaccai, who felt himself insulted, deprived the Gaon of his -office. He excommunicated him and appointed a young man, Joseph ben -Jacob ben Satia, as his successor. Saadiah, however, was not the man -to be terrified by force. He, in turn, declared David to be no longer -Exilarch, and named Josiah Hassan as Prince of the Captivity (930). Two -factions immediately arose in Babylonia, the one for Saadiah, the other -for David. On Saadiah's side were ranged the members of the academy -of Sora and many respected and learned men of Bagdad, amongst whom -were the sons of Netira. Opposed to him were Aaron Ibn-Sarjadu and his -party, and probably also Kohen-Zedek and the members of the college -of Pumbeditha. Both parties appealed to the Caliph Al-Muktadir, and -bribed his favorites and courtiers to gain him over to their side. -Ibn-Sarjadu spent 10,000 ducats to effect Saadiah's deposition. The -Caliph wished to hear both parties, and ordered a formal trial to take -place in Bagdad under the presidency of the vizir, who was assisted -by many important men. The dispute was not settled. This was probably -owing to the fact that the Caliph Al-Muktadir was constantly changing -his vizirs during the last two years of his reign, and to the disturbed -state of the capital during this time (930-932). Saadiah asserted his -authority as Gaon, though there was a rival Gaon in the person of -Joseph ben Satia. There were likewise rival Exilarchs, David and his -brother Josiah Hassan. - -It was only when Al-Muktadir was killed in a rebellion (October, 932), -and Kahir, who was so poor that he was obliged to borrow clothes for -the ceremony of installation, became Caliph, that David's party, -which could pour more money into the empty treasury, gained the -victory. In order to bring about the downfall of his opponent, the -Exilarch squandered the money that had been extorted from the various -communities. Saadiah was soon forbidden by the Caliph to continue in -office, perhaps also to stay in Sora (commencement of 933). The rival -Exilarch Hassan was banished to Khorasan, where he died. Saadiah now -lived in retirement in Bagdad for four years (933-937). His health had -suffered severely through the constant quarrels and the annoyance he -had received, and he became melancholy. But this did not interfere with -his intellectual activity. It was during his retirement that his best -works, bearing the stamp of freshness and originality, were written. - -He wrote Talmudic treatises, composed poetical pieces and prayers -in prose, full of religious fervor. He also arranged a prayer book -(Siddur), after the manner of Amram, collected the rules of the -calendar (Ibbur), wrote a polemic against the Massoret, Aaron ben -Asher, of Tiberias, and was in general particularly prolific in -literary composition during this period. The greatest of his works, -however, are his two philosophical writings, the one a commentary on -the "Book of the Creation" (Sefer Yezirah), the other his _magnum opus_ -on Faith and Creed. Both these works are in Arabic. Saadiah was the -first to set up a tolerably complete system of religious philosophy. -The Karaite teachers, it is true, were fond of lengthy philosophical -disputations, which they frequently introduced on most unsuitable -occasions, but they were never able to develop a complete and perfect -religious system, and the Arabs, too, had as yet no systematic -philosophy. Saadiah, by his own unaided intellectual power, built up -a Jewish philosophy of religion, although he borrowed his method of -treatment and his philosophical themes from the Arabic Mutazilist -school. His composition on the Ten Commandments, in which he strove to -bring them into relation with the Ten Categories of the Aristotelian -philosophy, belongs to his earlier and less excellent efforts. - -He wrote his work on the philosophy of religion, Emunoth we-Deoth, in -934. Its object was to oppose and correct the erroneous views of his -contemporaries as to the meaning of Judaism; on the one hand were the -opinions of the unbelievers, who degraded it; and on the other, those -of the ignorant people, who condemned all speculating on religious -subjects as involving a denial of God. "My heart is sad," he writes in -the introduction, "by reason of my people, who have an impure belief -and a confused idea of their religion. Some deny the truth, clear as -daylight though it be, and boast of their unbelief. Others are sunk in -the sea of doubt, and the waves of error close over their heads, and -there is no swimmer strong enough to stem the tide and rescue them. -As God has given me the capacity of being useful to them, I consider -it my duty to lead them to the right path. Should any one object and -ask, 'How can we attain a true belief through philosophic thought, when -many consider this as heresy and unbelief?' I would reply, 'Only the -stupid do so, such as believe that every one who goes to India will -become rich, or that the eclipse of the moon is caused by a dragon's -swallowing the disc of the moon, and similar things.' Such people need -not trouble us. Suppose, however, that one were to quote the warning of -the Talmud against philosophical speculation, 'If any one searches into -the mystery of eternity and space, such a person does not deserve to -live,' we should reply that the Talmud could not have discouraged right -thinking, since Scripture encourages us to it. The warning of the sages -was intended to keep us only from that one-sided speculation which does -not take into account the truth of Scripture. Limitless speculation -can give rise only to error, and should it even eventually lead to -truth, it has no firm foundation, because it rejects revelation, and -puts doubt into its place. But when philosophy works hand in hand -with faith, it cannot mislead us. It confirms revelation, and is in a -position to refute the objections that are made by unbelievers. The -truth of revealed Judaism may be premised, since it was confirmed -through visible signs and miracles. Should, however, some one object -that if speculation arrives at the same conviction as revelation, -the latter is superfluous, since human reason could arrive at the -truth without divine interposition, I should reply that revelation -is necessary, inasmuch as, without it, men would have to go a long -way round to reach clearness through their own thought. A thousand -accidents and doubts might hinder their progress. God, therefore, sent -His messengers to us in order to save us all this trouble. We thus have -a knowledge of Him direct, confirmed by miracles." - -Unbelief had already made such progress in the Eastern Caliphate, in -consequence of the teachings of the Mutazilist school of philosophy, -that an Arabic poet, Abul-Ala, a contemporary of Saadiah, who had -rebuked the weaknesses of his time, said, "Moslems, Jews, Christians -and Magi are steeped in error and superstition. The world is divided -into two classes, those that have intelligence but no belief, and those -that believe but have no understanding." In Jewish circles, many began -to criticise the responses of the Geonim, and no longer looked upon -them as oracular utterances. This criticism was not restricted to the -decisions of the Geonim or the Talmud, but went so far as to doubt the -trustworthiness of the Bible, and the very fact of revelation. - -The unbelief of this time was best illustrated by the Rabbanite Chivi -Albalchi, from the town of Balch in ancient Bactria. Chivi wrote a work -against the Bible and revelation, in which he propounded two hundred -objections against them. Some of these objections are of the same -kind as those used even now by opponents of the Bible. Chivi was the -first thoroughly consistent, rationalistic critic of the Bible. He had -followers in his time; and teachers of the young spread his heretical -views in the schools. In combating Chivi's unorthodox opinions, the -two opponents, Saadiah and Solomon ben Yerucham, met on common ground. -Saadiah, whilst yet in Egypt, had written a book in refutation of -Chivi's doctrines. In his philosophy of religion he especially kept in -view this tendency, hostile to revelation, and sought to expose its -weakness. He likewise did not lose sight of the objections made against -Judaism by Christianity and Islam. - -Whilst Saadiah was developing thoughts for the elevation of future -generations, he was still under the ban of excommunication. He -had, therefore, no sphere of action but that of an author. But -circumstances had changed meanwhile. The just Caliph Abradhi was now -on the throne, in the place of the cruel and avaricious Kahir, who -had decreed Saadiah's deposition. His vizir Ali Ibn-Isa was favorably -inclined towards Saadiah. The Gaon Kohen-Zedek, who had made common -cause with the Exilarch, had died in 936. His successor, Zemach ben -Kafnai, was a harmless man. So David had only Aaron Ibn-Sarjadu to -assist him in his quarrel; the people, however, in increasing numbers, -sided with Saadiah. It happened that an important lawsuit had to be -decided; one party proposed the banished and deposed Gaon as judge, -whilst the opposite party proposed the Exilarch. David, in his rage, -had personal violence done to the man that had appealed to Saadiah. -This act of violence caused the more ill-feeling, as the person so -maltreated was not under the jurisdiction of the Exilarch, and had -a perfect right to choose his judge without interference from the -Exilarch. - -Respected members of the community now took counsel as to the best -means of putting an end to the contention between the Prince of the -Exile and the Gaon. The peacemakers met at the house of an influential -man in Bagdad, Kasser ben Aaron, the father-in-law of Ibn-Sarjadu, -and impressed upon him the fact that the quarrel had already exceeded -all bounds, that the community had been split into two camps, and -that these things had been followed by the saddest consequences. -Kasser assured them of his co-operation in restoring peace, and -succeeded in overcoming the hostility of his son-in-law towards -Saadiah. The peacemakers thereupon went to David, and argued with him -till he yielded. When Kasser was sure that the Exilarch was inclined -to reconciliation, he hastened to inform Saadiah of it. The whole -community of Bagdad joined in the rejoicing. Some accompanied David, -others Saadiah, until they met. The enemies embraced each other, and -henceforward were the firmest of friends. The reconciliation was so -complete that Saadiah accepted David's hospitality for several days. -The latter restored him to his office, with many marks of honor. - -The academy of Sora regained some of its former glory through Saadiah, -and threw its sister academy into the shade. In the latter, two men, -otherwise unknown, successively filled the post of Gaon. The questions -from home and foreign communities were again sent to Sora, and Saadiah -answered them without delay, although his health was severely impaired, -and he was suffering from incurable melancholy. The responses which -have been preserved are numerous; they were probably composed in the -last year of his Gaonate. Many of them are in Hebrew, though most -of them are in Arabic. His magnanimity was displayed in his conduct -toward the family of his opponent, David. When the latter died, in -940, his son Judah, through Saadiah's influence, was elected in his -stead, though he filled the post for only seven months, leaving a son -twelve years old, whom Saadiah appointed his successor. He received -the grandson of his former enemy into his house, and adopted him. -Meanwhile a distant relative, a member of the Bene-Haiman family, from -Nisibis, was to fill the office. He had scarcely been appointed before -he had a quarrel with a Moslem. Witnesses testified that he had spoken -disparagingly of Mahomet. For this offense he was put to death. When -the last representative of the house of the Exilarch, who had been -brought up by Saadiah, was raised to the princedom, Moslem fanaticism -raged also against him. It was determined to assassinate him whilst he -was riding in his state carriage, because the mere shadow of princely -power among the Jews was disliked. The Caliph tried to prevent his -murder, but in vain. Thus died the last of the Exilarchs, and the -representatives of Judaism, in order to allay this fanatical hatred, -determined to leave the office vacant. - -Thus, after an existence of seven centuries, ended the Exilarchate, -which had been the sign of political independence for Judaism. Just -as the dignity of the Patriarchate had ceased in Judaea through the -intolerance of the Christian emperors, so the Exilarchate now ceased -through the fanaticism of the Mahometans. The two schools alone -remained to represent the unity of the Jews, but even these were soon -to vanish. With Saadiah's death (942), darkness settled upon the -academy of Sora. It is true that he left a son, Dossa, who was learned -both in the Talmud and in philosophy--the author of several works--but -he was not appointed his father's successor. Joseph ben Satia, who had -been deposed, was again made the chief of the school. He, however, was -not able to maintain its superiority over the sister academy, which -having at its head Aaron Ibn Sarjadu, the former opponent of Saadiah, -again rose to importance. - -Ibn Sarjadu, a rich merchant of Bagdad, had not gone through a regular -course of academic instruction. He was chosen on account of his riches, -as well as for his knowledge and energy. He occupied his position for -eighteen years (943-960). He possessed a good philosophical education, -wrote a philosophical work, and a commentary to the Pentateuch. Like -Kohen-Zedek, Ibn Sarjadu endeavored to exalt the school of Pumbeditha -at the expense of that of Sora. Questions were addressed to him from -foreign countries. The school of Sora consequently, neglected and -impoverished, received none of the revenue, and therefore could not -train new pupils, who turned to richer Pumbeditha. This decline and -decay of the school induced its chief, Joseph ben Satia, to abandon -it, and to emigrate to Bassora (about 948). The school that had been -founded by Rab was now closed, after it had continued in existence -for seven hundred years. The people of Sora felt this so much that -they made an energetic attempt to restore it. Four young men were sent -abroad to awaken interest in the school, and to get contributions for -it. But they did not attain their object. It seemed that fate was -against them. They were captured at Bari, on the coast of Italy, by -a Moorish-Spanish admiral, Ibn-Rumahis. They were transported, one -to Egypt, another to Africa, a third to Cordova, and the fourth to -Narbonne. Instead of assisting to raise the school of Sora, these four -Talmudists unwittingly contributed to the downfall of the Gaonate. - -The copies of the Talmud in Sora, which were now no longer used, were, -later on, transferred to Spain. Babylonia, so long the center of -Judaism, had to yield its supremacy in favor of a foreign place. The -decay of one of the Babylonian schools, and the decline of interest -that followed upon it, were utilized by the Karaites to make converts -amongst the Rabbanites. They did this with such zeal that they thought -they were about to strike the death-blow to Rabbanism. As long as -Saadiah, the mighty champion of Rabbanism, lived, they did not venture -to do anything to expose themselves to his criticism. But after his -death, when they perceived that there was no man of any importance to -stand in the breach, they hoped to obtain an easy victory. Saadiah's -opponent, Solomon ben Yerucham, immediately hastened from Palestine to -Babylonia, in order to prove to the followers of Saadiah, that he had -misrepresented facts in his defense of the Talmudists. Thus he expected -to bring over the Rabbanites to Karaism. - -But a more vehement, zealous and cunning proselytizer was Abulsari -Sahal ben Mazliach Kohen, an inhabitant of Jerusalem, who belonged -to the ascetic section of the Karaite community. Abulsari Sahal had -a thorough knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew, and wrote in a much more -elegant style than any of his contemporaries. He compiled a Hebrew -grammar, commentaries to several books of the Bible, and also a -compendium of religious duties under the title "Mizvoth." However, -he did not write anything of great consequence. The Karaites seem to -have had no ability to get beyond beginnings; certainly not Sahal, -who was possessed by sombre, monkish piety. To his co-religionists, -nevertheless, he appeared in the light of a great teacher. Sahal -also wrote a refutation of Saadiah's attacks upon Karaism. It was, -doubtless, considered an honorable thing amongst the Karaites, to win -one's spurs in combat with this great champion. Sahal appears to have -delivered his lectures against the Rabbanites in Bagdad. He called -upon the people to renounce tradition, and to refuse obedience to -the schools, "which were the two women of whom the prophet Zechariah -speaks, and who carried sin and left it in Babylon." Sahal implored -his hearers to renounce the indulgences that their Rabbanite teachers -allowed them, such as keeping oil in camel-skins, purchasing bread from -Christians and Mahometans, and leaving their houses on a Sabbath. - -Sahal's attacks upon the Rabbanites were too offensive to remain -unanswered. An influential Rabbanite seems to have forced him into -silence by aid of the government. Saadiah's pupil, Jacob ben Samuel, -stung to the quick by the abuse which Sahal and other Karaites had -heaped upon his master, took up the cudgels in his behalf. He delivered -speeches in the streets and in the public places against Karaism and -the proselytizer Sahal. The latter, however, did not remain silent. In -a passionate letter to Jacob, written in beautiful Hebrew, he continued -his attacks, and gave a faithful picture of the state of Karaism and -Rabbanism in his time, leaving out neither the light nor the shade of -both sides. After the versified attack and the reproaches for Jacob's -incorrect Hebrew and the injury done to Judaism by the Rabbanites, -Sahal proceeds: - - I am come from Jerusalem in order to warn the people, and to - bring them back to the fear of God. Would that I had the power - of going from town to town to awaken the people of the Lord. - You think that I came here for the sake of gain, as others - come who grind the faces of the poor; but I came in the name - of God, in order to bring back the thoughts of the people to - true piety, and to warn them not to rely on human institutions, - nor to listen to the sayings of the two evil women (the Gaonic - schools). How shall I not do it, since my heart is moved by - the irreligion of my brethren, who are walking in the wrong - path, who impose a heavy yoke upon the ignorant people, who - oppress them and rule over them through excommunication and - persecution, who call to their aid the power of the Mahometan - officials, who compel the poor to borrow money on interest, in - order to benefit by it and to be able to bribe the officials? - They feed themselves, but not their flocks, and they do not - teach the word of God in the proper way. If any one asks them - the reason for anything they do, they antagonize him. Far be it - from me that I should be silent, when I see that the leaders - of the community, who say that they constitute the Synhedrion, - eat without compunction with non-Jews. How shall I be silent, - when I perceive that many of my people make use of idolatrous - practices? They sit on the graves of the departed and invoke - the dead, and pray to Rabbi Jose the Galilean, saying, "O heal - me, and make me fruitful." They make pilgrimages to the shrines - of the pious dead, light candles there, and burn incense. They - also make vows that they may be cured of their diseases. O that - I had the power to go everywhere and to proclaim it aloud, to - admonish men in the name of the Lord, and to deter them from - their evil course. And now, O House of Israel, have mercy on - your souls, and choose the right path. Do not object and say - that the Karaites, too, differ among themselves as regards - religious duties, and that you are in doubt with whom to find - truth. Know, therefore, that the Karaites do not wish to - exercise authority; they only desire to stimulate research. You - ask, What should the ignorant do who is unable to search the - Holy Scriptures? I tell you that such a one has to rely upon - the results arrived at by the investigator and the expounder of - Holy Writ. - -At the end, Sahal prophesied that God would destroy the yoke of the two -women, as it is written in the prophets: "Then and then only will the -sons of Israel be reconciled and united, and the Messiah come." - -Another prolific Karaite author from Bassorah, Jephet Ibn-Ali Halevi -(950-990), wrote polemics against the same Jacob ben Samuel. Jephet -was considered a great teacher by the Karaites. He was a grammarian, -commentator and expounder of the Law, but he was not free from the -errors of the members of his creed. His style was bombastic and -diffuse, and like them, he was superficial and literal-minded. The -want of Talmudic dialectics is severely missed in the Karaite authors, -for it rendered them tedious talkers. Jephet's absurd polemic against -Saadiah's pupil bears this stamp of superficiality and insipidity, and -it never displays the beautiful Hebrew style of his contemporary and -friend Sahal. - -Solomon ben Yerucham, who continued to write till a very old age -(certainly till 957), composed commentaries to the Pentateuch and the -Hagiographa, and other works no longer known. He was a sworn enemy to -philosophical research. In his commentary on the Psalms, he bitterly -complains that Jews occupy themselves with heretical writings, whose -authors and teachers he curses severely. - - "Woe to him," he cries, "who leaves the Book of God and seeks - others! Woe to him who passes his time with strange sciences, - and who turns his back upon the pure truth of God! The wisdom - of philosophy is vain and worthless, for we do not find two - who agree upon a single point. They propound doctrines which - directly contradict the Law. Amongst them there are some who - study Arabic literature instead of always having the word of - God in their mouths." - -What a contrast there is between Saadiah and his Karaite opponent! The -one studied philosophy, and took it into the service of Judaism; the -other (without any knowledge of it) declared it heretical, and allowed -his Judaism to become petrified. The Rabbanites entered into the temple -of philosophy, and the Karaites shunned it as an infected house. - -The zeal with which the Karaites sought to exalt their creed over -Rabbanism had the desired effect of spreading it widely about the -middle of the tenth century. They penetrated to Spain, and attained -influence in Africa and Asia. We know that the Egyptian Rabbanites -accepted much from the Karaites. Moses and Aaron ben Asher, a father -and son of Tiberias, exercised a powerful influence at this period -(890-950). They were grammarians and Massorets. They wrote on the -Hebrew accents and Biblical orthography, but in so clumsy a style and -such miserable verse, that their observations are for the most part -incomprehensible. But these insignificant works were of no importance, -while considerable value attached to the copies of the Bible, which -were corrected by them with the greatest care and exactness according -to the Massoretic rules, which they had mastered completely. The -Ben-Asher copies of the Bible were looked upon as models both by the -Karaites and the Rabbanites, and treated as sacred. New copies were -afterwards made from these in Jerusalem and Egypt. The Massoretic texts -of the Bible now in use are largely derived from Ben-Asher's original -copies, because the Rabbanites afterwards overlooked the fact that the -scribe was a Karaite. - -Saadiah, on the contrary, who had known Ben-Asher, the son, was -dissatisfied with these Massoretic works, and wrote a very keen polemic -against him. In addition to Saadiah, Ben-Naphtali raised objections -against the results of Ben-Asher's Massoretic investigations, though -mostly on insignificant points. Nevertheless, the text of the Bible -according to the Massorets of Tiberias maintained its superiority. -The old Eastern signs for vowels and accents to the Bible text were -changed, extended and improved, by the Massoretic school of Ben-Asher. - -With the decay of the Exilarchate and of the school of Sora, Asia lost -the leadership of Judaism. If Pumbeditha, under Aaron Ibn-Sarjadu, -flattered itself that it possessed the supremacy, it was deceived. -After Ibn-Sarjadu's death, internal quarrels prepared for its -destruction. Nehemiah, the son of Kohen-Zedek, who had been the rival -of Ibn-Sarjadu, but had not met with success, obtained the post of head -of the school through cunning (960). The college, however, led by the -chief Judge Sherira ben Chananya, opposed him. There were a few members -and rich laymen who supported Nehemiah, but his opponents refused -to recognize him during the whole period of his office (960-968). -During the time that the two parties were contending for the Gaonate -of Pumbeditha, and with it for the religious authority over the Jews, -the four men who had been sent from Sora to collect contributions from -the various communities, and who had been taken captive, had founded -new schools in Egypt, Africa (Kairuan), Spain and France, and thereby -separated these communities from the Gaonate. These four men who caused -the seeds of the Talmudic spirit to blossom in various places were: -Shemaria ben Elchanan, who was sold by the admiral Ibn-Rumahis in -Alexandria, and then being ransomed by the Jewish community, finally -reached Misr (Cairo). The second was Chushiel, who was sold on the -coast of Africa, and came to Kairuan. The third was probably Nathan -ben Isaac Kohen, the Babylonian, who perhaps reached Narbonne. The -fourth was Moses ben Chanoch, who underwent more dangers than the other -three. He was the only one of the four who was married. His beautiful -and pious wife and his young son had accompanied him on his journey, -and were taken prisoners together with him. Ibn-Rumahis had set eyes -upon the beautiful woman, and designed to violate her. The wife, -however, asked her husband in Hebrew whether those that were drowned -could hope for resurrection, and when he answered in the affirmative, -and confirmed his answer by a verse from the Bible, she threw herself -into the sea and was drowned. In deep sorrow and in the garb of the -slave, Moses ben Chanoch with his little son was carried to Cordova, -where he was ransomed by the Jewish community. They did not imagine -that with him Spain obtained the supremacy over the Jews of all other -countries. Moses did not betray his deep knowledge of the Talmud to -the community into whose midst he had been cast, so that he might not -derive any advantage from his knowledge of the Law. He, therefore, at -first behaved like any ordinary captive. Moses soon made his way to -the school of Cordova, the president of which was Nathan. He was a -rabbi and also judge, and possessed but slight Talmudical knowledge, -but was regarded as a shining light in Spain. Moses sat near the door -in the corner like an ignorant listener. But when he perceived that -Nathan, in expounding a passage in the Talmud, made a childish mistake, -he modestly ventured to make some objections, in which he betrayed -his scholarship. The audience in the school was astounded to find so -thorough a Talmudist in the ill-clad captive who had just recovered his -freedom. - -Moses was called upon to explain the passage in question, and also -to solve other difficulties. He did this in a thorough manner, to -the intense delight of all present. On that very day Nathan declared -before those who were under his jurisdiction, "I can no longer be your -judge and rabbi. That stranger, who is now so miserably clothed, must -henceforth take my place." The rich community of Cordova immediately -chose Moses for their rabbinical chief, gave him rich presents and -a salary, and placed a carriage at his disposal. When the admiral -Ibn-Rumahis heard that his prisoner was so precious to the community -of Cordova, he wished to retract the sale in order to get a higher -ransom. The Jews appealed to the just Caliph, Abdul-Rahman III, through -the Jewish statesman Chasdai, and represented to him that they would -be able, through Rabbi Moses, to sever themselves from the Gaonate -of the eastern Caliphate. Abdul-Rahman, who, to his intense regret, -had seen considerable sums of money yearly taken out of his land for -the Gaonate, _i. e._, to the land which was hostile to him, was glad -that a place would now be founded in his own kingdom for the study of -the Talmud, and signified to the admiral the wish that he desist from -his demand. Thus Cordova became the seat of an important school that -was independent of the Gaonate. Moses' former fellow-prisoners also -were recognized by the communities of Kahira and Kairuan as eminent -scholars, and founded important Talmudical schools in Egypt and in -the land of the Fatimide Caliphate. These men undesignedly severed -the communities of Spain and of Mahometan Andalusia from the Gaonate. -The state of politics and culture eminently fitted Spain or Mahometan -(Moorish) Andalusia to become the center of united Judaism, and to -take the leadership which Babylon had lost. Egypt was no longer an -independent kingdom, but only a province of the Fatimide Caliphate, -which had conquered it through the policy of a Jewish renegade. In -addition to this, Egypt did not offer a favorable field for higher -civilization, but continued to be what nature had made it, the granary -of the world. The empire of the Fatimides in north Africa, whose chief -town was Kairuan (afterwards Mahadia), at least afforded the principal -conditions for the development of Judaism, and might well have become -one of its chief centers. The rich community of Kairuan took the -liveliest interest in the study of the Talmud, as well as in scientific -efforts. Even before Chushiel's arrival they had had schools, and -a chief who bore the title of Resh-Kalla or Rosh. Just as they had -befriended and honored the banished Exilarch Ukba, they now bestowed -the title Rosh on Chushiel, and enabled him to give a stronger impulse -to the study of the Talmud. The latter educated two pupils during his -office (950-980), and they were afterwards recognized as authorities. -These were his son Chananel and a native, Jacob ben Nissim Ibn-Shahin. -The physician and favorite of the first two Caliphs, Isaac Israeli, had -sown the seeds of Jewish science, which was developed by a pupil of his -who likewise obtained court favor. - -This pupil, Abusahal Dunash ben Tamim (900-960), the head of Jewish -science in the Fatimide dominions, was physician to the third Fatimide -Caliph, Ishmael Almansur Ibnul' Kaim, perhaps also to his father. -Dunash was held in such favor by this ruler that he dedicated to -him one of his works on astronomy. Dunash ben Tamim came from Irak, -perfected himself in his youth under Isaac Israeli in Kairuan, learning -from him medicine, languages, and metaphysics. Dunash ben Tamim was -accomplished in the whole circle of sciences then known, and wrote -books on medicine, astronomy and mathematics. He also classified the -sciences; in his opinion, mathematics, astronomy, and music rank -lowest; next come physics and medicine; highest of all is metaphysics, -the knowledge of God and the soul. The Arabs thought so highly of -Dunash that they said that he had became a convert to Islam, doubtless -in order that they might count him amongst their own, but he certainly -remained faithful to Judaism to the end of his life. He corresponded -with the Jewish statesman Chasdai, for whom he composed an astronomical -work on the Jewish calendar. - -Meanwhile, though Dunash was not a genius, he was able to give the -community of Kairuan, and through them to a wider circle, a more -scientific understanding of Judaism. The Fatimide Caliphate, however, -was not calculated to become a seat of culture for the Jews. The -fanatic Fatimide dynasty--raised to power through an enthusiastic -missionary, who saw in the Caliph of the house of Ali a kind of -embodied divinity, and founded by a deluded deceiver who considered -himself the true Imam and Mahdi (priest)--could not logically tolerate -Judaism. The successors of the first Fatimide Caliph used, just as the -successors of the first Christian Emperor had done, the sword as the -means of spreading religion. Soon there came to the throne a Fatimide -who repaired what his ancestors had in their indulgence neglected, and -preached the doctrines of the divine Imamate with bloody fanaticism. -In such surroundings Judaism could not flourish; it required a more -favorable situation. - -The European Christian countries were still less fit to become the -center of Judaism than were the Mahometan kingdoms of Egypt and -northern Africa. At that time the greatest barbarity prevailed there, -and circumstances were not at all favorable to the development of -science and literature. The literary status of the Jews was very -low, and the historical reports are therefore silent on the Jewish -communities of Europe. Here and there in Italy appeared Talmudical -scholars, as in Oria (near Otranto), but scarcely any of them rose -above mediocrity. Though the Italian Jews never attained superiority, -they were diligent and faithful disciples of foreign teachers. In -Babylonia they laughed at "the wise men" of Rome or Italy. Even -Sabbatai Donnolo, the head of Jewish science in Italy at the time of -Saadiah, could scarcely be described as a moderate scholar. This man -is known rather through his career than through his works. Sabbatai -Donnolo (913-970) of Oria was taken prisoner when the Mahometans of the -Fatimide kingdom pressed forward across the straits of Sicily, invaded -Apulia and Calabria, plundered the town of Oria, and either murdered -the inhabitants or took them away as captives (9th of Tammuz--4th -July, 925). Donnolo was twelve years old at this time. Ten of the chief -citizens were put to death, and Donnolo's parents and relations were -transported to Palermo and Africa. He himself was ransomed in Trani. -Orphaned and without friends, the young Donnolo was thrown upon his own -resources. He studied medicine and astrology, in both of which he made -himself proficient. He now became physician to the Byzantine viceroy -(Basilicus) Eupraxios, who ruled Calabria in the name of the emperor. -He became rich through his medical practice, and spent his money in -buying up works on astrology and in traveling. In his journeys Donnolo -went as far as Bagdad. He embodied the result of his researches in a -work published in 946. But little wisdom was contained in this book, if -we are to judge by the fragments that still remain to us. The author, -however, put so high a value upon it, that he thought that through it -the name Sabbatai Donnolo of Oria would be handed down to posterity. - -Meanwhile, unimportant though Donnolo was compared with his -contemporaries Saadiah and others, he appears to have been far superior -to the head of the Catholics at this time. This was his countryman, -Nilus the Younger, whom the Church has canonized. The relations of the -two Italians--the Jewish physician and the abbot of Rossana and Grotto -Ferrata--serve as a standard by which we can estimate the condition of -Judaism and Christianity in Italy in the middle of the tenth century. - -Donnolo had known Nilus from his youth; perhaps they had suffered -together when southern Italy was plundered. The Jewish physician once -noticed that the Christian ascetic was very ill, owing to excessive -mortification. He generously offered him a remedy. The holy Nilus, -however, declined his offer, remarking that he would not take the -medicine of a Jew, lest it be said that a Jew had cured him--the holy -one, the worker of miracles--for that would lead the simple-minded -Christians to place more confidence in the Jews. - -Judaism ever strove towards the light, whilst monastic Christianity -remained in the darkness. Thus in the tenth century there was only one -country that offered suitable soil for the development of Judaism, -where it could blossom and flourish--it was Mahometan Spain, which -comprised the greater part of the peninsula of the Pyrenees. - -Whilst Christian Europe sank into a state of barbarism, from which the -Carlovingians endeavored to free it, and the Eastern Caliphate was in -the final stage of its decay, the Spanish Caliphate, under the sons of -Ommiyya, was in so flourishing a condition, that it almost makes us -forget the Middle Ages. Under Abdul-Rahman III (An-Nasir), who was the -first to enjoy the full title of the Caliphs, "Prince of the Faithful" -(Emir-Al-Mumenin), Spain was the exclusive seat of science and art, -which were everywhere else proscribed or neglected. With him began the -classical period of Moslem culture, a period of prosperity and vigor, -which could be attained only under the rule of noble princes free from -prejudice against the votaries of other religions. - -Specially honored in Spain were the favorites of the Muses--the poets. -A successful poem was celebrated more than a victorious battle, which -itself became the subject of poetry. Every nobleman, from the Caliph -down to the lowest provincial Emir, was anxious and proud to number -learned men and poets among his friends, for whom he furnished the -means of a livelihood. Scientific men and poets were appointed to high -offices, and entrusted with the most important state affairs. - -This spiritual atmosphere could not fail to have its effect upon the -Jews, with their naturally emotional and responsive natures. Enthusiasm -for science and poetry seized them, and Jewish Spain became "the -home of civilization and of spiritual activity--a fragrant garden -of joyous, gay poetry, as well as the seat of earnest research and -clear thought." Like the Mozarabs, the Christians who lived amongst -the Mahometans, the Jews made themselves acquainted with the language -and literature of the people of the land, and often surpassed them in -knowledge. But whilst the Mozarabs gave up their own individuality, -forgot their own language--Gothic Latin--could not even read the -creeds, and were ashamed of Christianity, the Jews of Spain, through -this contact with Arabs, only increased their love and enthusiasm -for their mother-tongue, their holy law, and their religion. Through -favorable circumstances Jewish Spain was in a position at first to -rival Babylonia, then to supersede it, and finally to maintain its -superiority for nearly five hundred years. Three men were the founders -of the Judaeo-Spanish culture: (i) Moses ben Chanoch, the Talmudical -scholar, who had been carried captive to Cordova; (2) The first -Andalusian grammarian, Menachem ben Saruk; (3) and the creator of -the artistic form of Jewish poetry, Dunash Ibn-Labrat. This culture, -however, unfolded through one man, who by means of his high endowments, -his pure character and prominent position, was enabled to give it the -proper impulse. This man was Abu-Yussuf Chasdai ben Isaac Ibn-Shaprut -(915-970), a member of the noble family of Ibn-Ezra. He was the first -of a long succession of high-minded persons who made the protection and -furthering of Judaism the task of their lives. - -Chasdai was quite modern in his character, entirely different from the -type of his predecessors. His easy, pliant, and genial nature was free -both from the heaviness of the Orientals and the gloomy earnestness -of the Jews. His actions and expressions make us look upon him as a -European, and through him, so to speak, Jewish history receives a -European character. His ancestors came from Jaen; his father Isaac, who -probably lived at Cordova, was wealthy, liberal, and in a measure, a -Maecenas. The son inherited from him a love of science, and the worthy -application of riches. He attained only a theoretical knowledge of -medicine, but in literature, as well as in diplomacy, he was a master. -Not only did he know Hebrew and Arabic well, but he also knew Latin, -then understood only by the clergy amongst the Spanish Christians. - -The Caliph Abdul-Rahman III, who stood in diplomatic relations with the -small Christian courts of northern Spain, perceived Chasdai's value and -usefulness, and appointed him as interpreter and diplomatist (940). -At first Chasdai only had to accompany the principal ambassadors to -the Spanish Christian courts. But the more able he proved himself, the -more was he honored and advanced. On one occasion Chasdai's diplomacy -proved very useful. He once induced a king of Leon (Sancho Ramirez) and -a queen of Navarra (Toda), together with the clergy and other great -people, to visit Cordova, in order to conclude a lasting treaty of -peace with Abdul-Rahman. The Caliph rewarded his services by appointing -him to various offices. Chasdai was, in a certain sense, minister -of foreign affairs. He had to receive foreign ambassadors and their -presents, and to give them presents from the Caliph in return. He was, -at the same time, the minister of trade and finance, and the revenue -that arose from the various taxes and tolls that went to the treasury, -passed through his hands. In spite of all this Chasdai had no official -title. He was neither vizir (the Hagib of the Spanish Arabs) nor the -secretary of state (Katib). For the Arabs at first also had a strong -prejudice against the Jews, in consequence of which they did not allow -them to be included amongst the state officials. The dawning culture -of Mahometan Spain was not yet sufficiently advanced to overcome the -anti-Jewish sentiments of the Koran. - -Even the just and noble prince who in his time was the greatest -ornament of the throne, dared not throw off these inborn prejudices. -It remained for the Jews themselves to overcome them gradually through -their spiritual superiority. Chasdai inspired a favorable opinion of -his co-religionists amongst the Andalusian Moslems, and was able, -through his personal intercourse with the Caliphs, to shield them from -misrepresentation. And so a Jewish poet was able to say of him: - - "From off his people's neck he struck the heavy yoke; - To them his soul was given, he drew them to his heart; - The scourge that wounded them, he destroyed, - Drove from them in terror the cruel oppressor. - The Incomparable vouchsafed through him - Crumbs of comfort and salvation." - -This praise is by no means exaggerated. Chasdai was indeed a comforter -and deliverer to all the communities far and near. His high position -and wealth rendered him useful to his brethren. His deep religious -feeling caused him to see that he must thank God for the high -estimation in which he was held, and that it was not due to his own -deserts; he therefore felt a call to be active in the cause of his -religion and his race. He was, to some extent, the legal and political -head of the Jewish community of Cordova. The Babylonian school, which -received many contributions from him, gave him the title "Head of the -School" (Resh-Kallah), although he knew less of the Talmud than the -Nathan who had resigned his position in favor of Moses. He corresponded -with Dunash ben Tamim, whom he asked to work out some astronomical -calculations on the Jewish calendar. He also corresponded with -Saadiah's son Dossa, and requested him to send him a biography of his -father. The ambassadors of many nations, who either sought the favor or -the protection of the Caliph, brought him presents in order to secure -his interest in their cause. From them he always asked particulars as -to the condition of the Jews, and obtained favors for his brethren. - -Chasdai played an important part in two embassies from the mightiest -courts of Europe. The Byzantine empire, oppressed on all sides, had -remained lifeless for several centuries, and was now in need of foreign -assistance. The weak and pedantic Emperor Constantine VIII, the son and -brother of the emperors who had caused the Jews so much trouble, sought -a diplomatic alliance with the mighty Moslem conqueror of Spain, in -order to gain an ally against the Eastern Caliphate. He therefore sent -a magnificent embassy to Cordova (944-949) with rich presents, amongst -which was a beautiful copy of a Greek medical work by Dioscorides on -simple remedies, which the Caliph and his medical college greatly -desired to obtain. The ambassadors from the most anti-Jewish court -were received by the Jewish statesman and introduced to the Caliph. -But the work upon which the Arabic physicians and naturalists had set -so high a value was a sealed book to them. Abdul-Rahman, therefore, -begged the Byzantine emperor to send him a scholar who understood both -Greek and Latin. Constantine, who wished to show his good-will to the -Mahometan court, sent a monk named Nicholas as interpreter. Amongst -all the physicians of Cordova, Chasdai was the only one who understood -Latin, and he was, therefore, requested by the Caliph to take part in -the translation. Nicholas translated the original Greek into Latin, -and Chasdai re-translated it into Arabic. Abdul-Rahman was pleased -with the completion of a work which, according to his thinking, lent -great splendor to his reign. Chasdai also had a peculiar role to play -in the embassy which was sent by the powerful German emperor Otto I -to the court of Cordova. Abdul-Rahman had previously sent a messenger -to Otto, and in a letter had made use of certain unseemly expressions -against Christianity. The Andalusian ambassadors had to wait several -years before they were admitted to an audience with the emperor. After -they had been received, the German emperor sent an embassy, at whose -head was the abbot John of Gorze (Jean de Vendieres), and a letter, -in which there were harsh expressions against Islam. The Caliph, who -suspected something of the kind, asked Chasdai to find out for him the -contents of the diplomatic letter. Chasdai treated with John of Gorze -for several days, and although the latter was very clever, Chasdai -outwitted him, and learnt from him the purport of the letter. Thereupon -Abdul-Rahman kept the German envoys waiting for a whole year before -admitting them to an audience. He would have kept them waiting still -longer, had not Chasdai and the Mozarab Bishop of Cordova induced John -of Gorze to procure a new and unobjectionable document from the emperor -(956-959). - -Chasdai, who, from his elevated position, was accustomed to deal with -public affairs on a large scale, was deeply grieved when he thought -of the state of the Jews, of their dependent and suffering position, -their dispersion, and their want of unity. How often must he have heard -Mahometans and Christians pronounce that most powerful argument against -Judaism, "Inasmuch as the scepter hath departed from Judah, God hath -rejected it!" Even Chasdai shared the restricted view of the time, -viz., that a religion and a people without a country, a king, a court, -sovereignty, and subjects, has neither stableness nor vitality. - -The rumor of the existence of an independent Jewish community in -the land of the Chazars, which had penetrated to Spain, roused -his interest. Eldad's appearance in Spain, several decades before -Chasdai's birth, had given probability to the vague tradition, but, -on the other hand, rendered it improbable through the exaggeration -that the ten tribes were still in existence in all their strength. -Chasdai never failed to make inquiries about a Jewish kingdom or a -Jewish ruler when embassies came to him from far or near. The news of -a Jewish community in the land of the Chazars, which he received from -ambassadors from Khorasan, was very welcome to him, especially when -he learnt that a Jewish king was on the throne there. He now heartily -wished to enter into communication with this king. He rejoiced when -the news was confirmed by the Byzantine ambassadors, who gave him -the additional information that the reigning king of the Chazars was -called Joseph, and that they were a powerful and warlike nation. This -information served only to increase his desire to enter into close -communication with the Jewish kingdom and its ruler. He therefore -sought a trustworthy messenger who could take charge of his letter -of homage, and at the same time bring back further particulars. -After several vain attempts, he succeeded in effecting the desired -communication. In an embassy of the Slavonic king from the Lower Danube -there were two Jews who had to act as interpreters in Cordova. Chasdai -gave the Slavonic ambassadors a letter to the king of the Chazars. This -letter, in beautiful Hebrew prose, with introductory verses, written -by Menachem ben Saruk, is a priceless document for the history of -the time. The author, in his pious wishes and in his humble bearing, -skilfully permitted his statesmanship and a sense of his own worth to -be seen. Chasdai's letter fortunately reached the hands of King Joseph, -through the instrumentality of a man Jacob ben Eleazar from the land -of Nemes (Germany). Joseph was the eleventh Jewish prince since the -time of Obadiah, the founder of Judaism in that country. The country -of the Chazars even at that time (960) still possessed great power, -although it had already lost several districts or feudatory lands. The -residence of King Joseph was situated on an island in the Volga, and -included a golden tent-like palace having a golden gate. The kings -had to oppose the Russians, who had become more powerful since the -immigration of the Waragi, and who had always coveted the fruitful -country of the Chazars. They found it necessary to keep a standing army -so as to be able to attack the enemy at a moment's notice. In the tenth -century there were 12,000 regular soldiers, partly cavalry, provided -with helmets and coats of mail, and partly infantry armed only with -spears. The decaying Byzantine empire was forced to respect the kingdom -of the Chazars as a great power, and to recognize the Jewish ruler -as "the noble and illustrious king." Whilst the Byzantine emperors -used to seal their diplomatic letters to the Pope and to the Frankish -emperors with a golden bull of light weight (two solidi), they made it -one-third heavier when they wrote to the kings of the Chazars. Whoever -is acquainted with the pedantic etiquette of this unstable court will -at once recognize how much of fear was expressed by this mark of honor. -The Chazar kings took great interest in their foreign co-religionists, -and made reprisals for wrong done to the Jews. The king expressed his -joy at receiving Chasdai's letter, and corrected the false impression -that the land of the Chazars had always been inhabited by Jews. "The -Chazars were rather of heathen origin," he wrote in his answer, and -narrated how his great ancestor Bulan had been converted to Judaism. He -went on to enumerate the successors of Bulan, all of whom had Jewish -names. He then describes the extent of his dominions, and the various -peoples that were subject to him. As regards the hopes of a Messianic -redemption which he also cherished, he remarks that neither he nor his -people knew anything definite. "We set our eyes upon Jerusalem," he -says, "and also upon the Babylonian schools. May God speedily bring -about the redemption." "You write," he says, "that you long to see me. -I have the same longing to make the acquaintance of yourself and your -wisdom. If this wish could be fulfilled, and I might speak to you face -to face, you should be my father and I would be your son, and I would -entrust the government of my state to your hands." - -When Joseph wrote this letter, he could boast of the peaceful state of -his kingdom. But circumstances changed in the course of a few years. -One of Rurik's descendants, the Russian Prince Sviatislav of Kief, -formerly almost a subject of the Chazars, made a formidable attack -upon the country, and captured the fortress of Sarkel (965). The -conqueror grew more powerful, and, a few years later, in 969, the same -Sviatislav took the capital, Itil (Atel), and also captured Semender, -the second town of the Chazars. The Chazars took to flight, some going -to an island in the Caspian Sea, others to Derbend, and yet others to -the Crimea, in which many members of the same race lived, and which -henceforth received the name of "the Land of the Chazars." Its capital -was Bosporus (Kertch). Thus did the kingdom of the Chazars decline, and -Joseph was its last king who possessed any power. When Chasdai received -his letter, his patron, Abdul-Rahman, had died. His son Alhakem, a more -zealous patron of science and poetry even than his father, now sat -upon the throne. More peacefully disposed than his father, he honored -Chasdai, whom he made an important state official, and whose superior -talents he employed as freely as his father had done. - -Imitating the example of two Caliphs, who respected genius, Chasdai -protected the Jews, and to him is credit due for having given the -impulse to the Jewish-Andalusian culture. He gathered around him -at Cordova a band of talented philosophers and poets, who in turn -immortalized him in their works and poems. "In Spain far and wide, -wisdom was cherished in Chasdai's time. His praise was sung by eloquent -tongues." Only two of the philosophers and poets of this time became -famous, Menachem ben Saruk and Dunash ben Labrat. Both of these made -the Hebrew language, which they considerably enriched, the object of -deep research. They went far beyond all their predecessors that had -worked at philology, the Karaites and even Saadiah. - -Dunash ben Labrat in his works developed a symmetry and harmony of -expression in the holy language such as was scarcely conceivable by -his predecessors. He was the first to employ meter in Hebrew poesy, -which he made melodious through the introduction of the strophe. Dunash -was blamed by Saadiah for this as though he had made an unheard-of -innovation. Saadiah thought that violence was done to the Hebrew -language thereby. However, the new Hebrew poetry was enriched through -the efforts of the Jewish-Andalusian writers. Hitherto, poetical -compositions had been of a synagogal character, always gloomy, and -never assuming a joyful tone. Even hymnal poetry was not devoid of -this characteristic, and continued halting and rugged like Kaliri's. -In didactic and controversial poems a miserable doggerel was used, as -in the verses of Solomon ben Yerucham, of Abu-Ali Jephet, of Ben-Asher -and Sabbatai Donnolo. Chasdai, however, gave the poets an opportunity -of changing their subjects. His imposing person, his high position, -his deeds, and his princely liberality had an inspiring influence upon -the poets, and whilst they sang his praises in animated strains, -they breathed new life into the apparently dead Hebrew language, -rendering it harmonious and capable of development. Of course, the -Jewish-Andalusian poets took the Arabs as their model. They in truth do -not deny that "Arab became the teacher of Eber." But Dunash and others, -who imitated him, did not slavishly adhere to their Arab pattern, nor -adopt its unnatural meter, but they selected its beauties and imitated -them. The verses at the beginning of this flourishing period of poetry -were brisk and lively in their measure, and yet the Hebrew poetry of -the epoch of Chasdai did not entirely cast off its fetters, nor change -its high-flown style. "The poets in Chasdai's time first began to -chirp," as the inimitable critic of a later time remarks. The favorite -themes of the new Hebrew poesy now became panegyric and satire, but it -did not lose sight of liturgical poetry, which it also adorned with the -beauty of meter. - -Little is known of the life and character of the first two founders of -the Andalusian-Jewish culture. As far as can be gathered from existing -sources, Menachem ben Saruk, of Tortosa (born 910, died 970), was in -needy circumstances from his earliest years; at any rate, his patrimony -was too small to maintain him. Chasdai's father Isaac was interested -in him, and took care that pecuniary difficulties should not destroy -the germ of poetry which was latent in him. His favorite occupation -was the study of the Hebrew language; he made use of the works of -his predecessors, but he did not acquire his noble Hebrew style from -them--that was inborn. - -When Chasdai attained his high position, he invited the favorite of his -father, with flattering words and glowing promises, to come to Cordova. -Menachem became Chasdai's court poet, and was warmly attached to him, -praising him in every kind of verse, and, as he himself affirms, -"exhausted poetry in singing Chasdai's praises." Chasdai encouraged -him to write on the philology of the Hebrew language, and to endeavor -to ascertain its various forms, and to investigate the meanings of -words. Menachem in consequence wrote a complete Hebrew dictionary -(Machbereth), with some grammatical rules, in which he corrected his -predecessors in many respects. Brought up amidst surroundings by which -harmonious and impressive speech was prized, the grammarian of Tortosa -valued language in general very highly, and the Hebrew language in -particular, and it was the aim of his work to discover the peculiar -refinements of this language. Menachem ben Saruk was the first to -distinguish clearly the pure roots in the Hebrew language, and to -separate them from the formative prefixes and suffixes--a theory which -now appeared for the first time, and which had been misapprehended by -previous grammarians. This misapprehension, indeed, had led them into -using malformed and ill-sounding words in their verses. Menachem, in -his lexicographical work, puts the various forms under each root, and -often expounds their meanings with surprising clearness and nicety. -In cases where he gives a peculiar explanation according to his -understanding of the Biblical verse, he often shows healthy thought -and refined taste, and there is a marked step forward in exegesis -from Saadiah to Menachem. Now and again he gave explanations which -were opposed to Talmudic tradition and the ideas of the time. His -lexicographical work was much read and used, because it was written in -Hebrew. It found its way into France and Italy, supplanted the works -of Saadiah and the Karaites, and, for a long time, was the guide-book -for Bible expositors. But grand and flowing as Menachem's Hebrew prose -is, his verse is unattractive and awkward; he did not understand how to -handle Hebrew meter. He was, however, supplemented by his rival, Dunash -ben Labrat. - -This poet (also called Adonim) came from Bagdad, and was younger than -Menachem (born 920, died 970). He afterwards lived in Fez, and was -likewise invited to Cordova by Chasdai. Dunash appears to have been -wealthy, and was thus able to be freer and more independent than -the grammarian of Tortosa. He was a man of spirited and reckless -disposition, who did not weigh his words, and was well qualified for -literary controversy. He, too, possessed a deep knowledge of the Hebrew -language, and was a far more successful poet than Menachem. As has -been mentioned, he was the first of the Rabbanite circle in Spain to -introduce meter into the new Hebrew poetry, to which he thereby gave -a fresh charm. He was, however, bold and venturesome. He criticised -Saadiah's exegetical and grammatical works in a polemic (Teshuboth), -assuming rather a harsh tone, although he was personally acquainted -with the author, and was perhaps his pupil. As soon as Menachem's -dictionary reached him, Dunash determined to write an unsparing -criticism of it, and to bring its mistakes to light. His review was -witty but scornful. Dunash did not keep within the limits of scientific -discussion, but used it to promote his own interests. He dedicated -his critical works against Menachem to the Jewish statesman, whom he -flattered so abjectly in some prefatory verses, that we can hardly fail -to see that his object was to gain over the Jewish Maecenas to his side, -and to injure Menachem in the eyes of the latter. - -Dunash's flattery of the Jewish statesman and his coarse polemic -against Menachem are not wanting in power. The admiration of Chasdai -for Ben-Saruk was diminished when he perceived that Dunash was a better -poet, and at least as good a philologist. When various calumniators -who wished to ingratiate themselves with the Jewish prince, traduced -Menachem before him, Chasdai's favor was withdrawn from the latter, -and changed into direct hostility. In what their defamations consisted -is not known. - -Menachem appears to have died before his rival Dunash, and his pupils -undertook to justify him. Jehuda ben Daud, Isaac Ibn G'ikatilia, and -Ben-Kafren (Ephraim) were the most important of these. They, too, -dedicated their polemical writings to the Jewish minister, and sent -him a panegyric and a satire against Dunash. Chasdai seems to have -just returned from a diplomatic victory which he had won for the -Caliph Alhakem. The followers of Menachem celebrated his triumph: "The -mountains greet the protector of learning, the prince of Judah. All the -world rejoices at his return, for whenever he is absent, darkness sets -in, the haughty rule and fall upon Judah's sons. But Chasdai brings -back peace and order. God has appointed him prince, and granted him the -king's favor, whereby He exalted him above all the nobles." - -Menachem's defenders endeavored to appeal to Chasdai's love of truth, -and to make him the arbiter against Dunash, "who set himself up as the -chief of commentators, who knows neither law nor limit of change, and -who desecrates and spoils the holy language through his foreign meter." -The study of the Hebrew language was carried on in Spain by means of -severe contention and virulent satire. The pupils of Dunash continued -the quarrel. The followers of Menachem and Dunash hurled witty lampoons -against each other, which fact contributed largely towards making the -Hebrew language at once pliant and rich. - -As Chasdai Ibn-Shaprut had given an impulse to various poets and -writers by means of encouragements and rewards, so also he founded a -home in Spain for the study of the Talmud. Jewish science in Europe had -not yet attained a sufficiently firm footing to enable it to dispense -with the fostering care of a protector. Moses ben Chanoch, too, who -had been chosen to collect contributions for the school of Sora, -and who had been brought as a slave to Cordova and there redeemed, -found a patron in Chasdai, and the two Caliphs who were friendly to -science beheld with pleasure the study of the Talmud springing up in -their realms, because it would tend to sever their Jewish subjects -from the Caliphate of Bagdad. Moses could have come to Spain at no -more favorable time for establishing firmly the study of the Talmud, -without which the literary activity just springing up could not have -made progress. Just as the Spanish Moors had busied themselves with the -task of casting the Caliphate of Bagdad into the shade, in the hope of -monopolizing all political and literary distinctions, so the Spanish -Jews longed to obscure the Babylonian schools, and to transfer to the -school which Moses had opened in Cordova the supremacy which the former -had hitherto enjoyed, owing to the deeper knowledge of the Talmud there. - -They consequently treated Moses with great deference, surrounded him -with splendor, and recognized him as their head. Religious questions -which had hitherto been sent to the Babylonian schools, henceforth -were directed to Moses. From all parts of Africa, eager students -flocked to his school. There now arose a strong desire for thorough -Talmudical knowledge, which would enable them to dispense with the -Babylonian teachers. Chasdai gave orders for copies of the Talmud to be -bought at his expense in Sora, where many lay idle and unused. These -he distributed amongst the pupils, whom he doubtless furnished with -means of subsistence. Thus Cordova became the Andalusian Sora, and the -founder of the school there had the same significance for Spain as Rab -had for Babylon. Although he bore the modest title of judge (Dayan), -he yet performed the various functions of a Gaon. He ordained rabbis -for the various communities, as it appears, by the ceremony of laying -on the hands (Semicha); he expounded the Law, the highest appeal was -made to him in legal cases, and he could excommunicate rebellious -members of the community. All these functions devolved upon the rabbis -in later times. - -Thus Spain became in many ways the center of Judaism. Several -apparently accidental events contributed to this result, and the -aroused self-importance of the Spanish Jews did not allow this -supremacy to depart from their midst; in fact, they took the greatest -pains to assert and to deserve it. The prosperity of the Cordova Jewish -community made it possible for them to make the Andalusian capital -the center of all undertakings. Cordova numbered several thousand -rich families, well able to vie with the Arabs in display. They -clothed themselves in silk, wore costly turbans, and drove in splendid -carriages. They rode on horses, and adopted the manners of chivalrous -society, which distinguished them from the Jews of other lands. It -cannot be denied, however, that some of them owed their wealth to -their trade in Slavonian slaves. These they sold to the Caliphs, who -gradually formed their body-guard from them. - -After Moses' death (965) the community of Cordova was threatened with -a division on account of the succession. On the one side was Moses' -son Chanoch, who, when a child, had shared his parent's captivity, and -had seen his mother throw herself into the sea. His rival was Joseph -ben Isaac Ibn-Abitur, who was the distinguished pupil of Moses. He -possessed sound knowledge of Arabic literature, was a tolerable poet, -and a native of Spain. But Chanoch possessed no attainments except -knowledge of the Talmud, and the advantage of being the son of a man -who had been highly esteemed. - -The two rivals were equally distinguished for their piety and their -character. There were consequently two parties--the one siding with -the native, who was the representative of culture, the other with -Moses' son. Meanwhile, before the strife had taken a serious turn, -Chasdai exerted his powerful influence in favor of Chanoch. The latter -thus became rabbi of Cordova and the authority for the Jewish-Spanish -communities. As long as the Jewish minister of Alhakem lived, Chanoch's -right to the rabbinate remained unchallenged. Chasdai Ibn-Shaprut died -during the lifetime of the noble Caliph (970), and left behind him an -illustrious name, and both Jews and Mahometans vied with each other in -perpetuating it for posterity. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE RISE OF JEWISH-SPANISH CULTURE, AND THE DECAY OF THE GAONATE. - - The Gaon Sherira and his son Hai--Sherira's Historical Letter - --The Jewish Congregations in Spain--Jewish Culture in - Andalusia--The Disciples of Menachem and Dunash--Jehuda - Chayuj--Contest between Chanoch and Ibn Abitur--Jacob Ibn - Jau--The Jews of France--Nathan the Babylonian and Leontin - --The Jews of Germany--Gershom and his Ordinances--The - Emperor Henry II.--The Caliph Hakem--The Jewish Communities - of Northern Africa--Chananel, the Son of Chushiel, and Nissim - bar Jacob Ibn-Shahin--The Jerusalem Talmud--Hai Gaon--His - Character and Importance--Samuel bar Chofni--Chiskiya, the - last Gaon--Samuel Ibn-Nagrela--Jonah Ibn-Janach. - - -970-1050 C. E. - -When an institution of historic origin is doomed to sink into oblivion, -the most strenuous exertions of men cannot save it; and though they -succeed by generous sacrifices in deferring the time of its extinction, -its continuance is at best like that of a man in a trance. - -So it happened to the Babylonian Gaonate, once so full of life. After -the most cultured communities of Spain and Africa had withdrawn their -support, and had made themselves independent of it, its fate was -sealed. It was in vain that the two men who successively adorned the -school of Pumbeditha by their virtue and knowledge, made a strenuous -effort to give it new life. They only succeeded in staying the death -of the Gaonate for somewhat more than half a century, but they were -unable to restore its vitality. These two men--father and son, the last -distinguished presidents of the school of Pumbeditha--were Sherira and -Hai (Haaja), to whom later generations gave the name of "the fathers -and teachers of Israel." - -Sherira, son of the Gaon Chanina (born 920, died 1000), was of -distinguished parentage both on his father's and his mother's side, -several members of both families having filled the office of Gaon. He -boasted that he could trace his descent to the line of the Exilarchs -before Bostanai. The seal of the Sherira family bore the impress of a -lion, which is said to have been the coat-of-arms of the Jewish kings. - -Sherira was a Gaon of the old school, who valued the Talmud above -everything, and steered clear of philosophical ideas. He was -sufficiently acquainted with the Arabic language to use it in answering -questions which were directed to him by the Jewish communities in -Moslem countries. He preferred, however, to make use of the Hebrew and -Chaldee languages, and had no taste for Arabic literature. His literary -activity was entirely devoted to the Talmud and cognate subjects. He -did not trouble himself much about Biblical exegesis, but his moral -earnestness makes us overlook his lack of higher culture. As a judge, -he always endeavored to elicit the truth and to decide accordingly. -As head of the school, he spared no pains to spread instruction far -and near, hence his decisions are voluminous. But Sherira kept most -conscientiously to Talmudic precedents in framing his decisions; and on -one occasion severely criticised a master who taught his young slave -the Bible, and when he had grown up, allowed him to contract an illegal -marriage with another slave, because this was contrary to the decision -of several Talmudical teachers. Sherira was versed in theosophy, which -had but few followers at his time. - -Sherira is especially distinguished on account of his "Letter," -which is the main authority for the history of the Talmudical, -post-Talmudical, and Gaonic periods of Jewish history. Jacob ben Nissim -(Ibn-Shahin), a pupil of the Chushiel who had been taken captive -to Africa, and who taught the Talmud in Kairuan, sent a letter of -inquiry in the name of the community of Kairuan to Sherira. In it -the following questions were propounded: "In what way was the Mishna -written down? If the traditional law is of remote origin, how does -it happen that only authorities of a comparatively recent period are -known to us as bearers of the same? In what order were the various -books of the Mishna compiled?" Jacob also asked about the order of the -Saboraim and the Geonim, and about their respective terms of office. -Sherira wrote an answer (987) half in Hebrew and half in Chaldee, in -which he threw light upon several dark portions of Jewish history. The -chronicle of the Saboraim and Geonim as given by him is our guide for -this epoch. Sherira in this "Letter" answers the questions put to him -with the simple straightforwardness of the chronicler. But his opinions -about the Exilarchs of the line of Bostanai, and about some of his -contemporaries, _e. g._, about Aaron Ibn-Sarjadu, are not altogether -unbiased. We have to thank the Gaon Sherira for the preservation of the -facts of Jewish history from the period of the conclusion of the Talmud -till his own time. It was not in his power to produce an historical -work of a critical character, nor, indeed, was this possible for the -genius of the Middle Ages. - -In spite of his incessant activity as head of the school, he was -unable to prevent the decay of the school of Pumbeditha. The zeal for -the study of the Talmud and scientific activity had cooled in the -Babylonian countries. The academy had so few scholars at this time that -Sherira was compelled to promote his young son Hai, when only sixteen -years old, to the high office of chief judge. The respect for the Gaon -had vanished. Malicious persons had Sherira arraigned before the Caliph -Alkadir on some unknown charge, probably growing out of the rigor of -his administration (997). In consequence of this, father and son were -deprived of their liberty, all their property was confiscated, and -there was not enough left to them for a bare livelihood. They were, -however, liberated at the intercession of an influential man, and -restored to their dignity. Sherira soon after, on account of old age, -abdicated in favor of his son (998), and died a few years later. - -His son Hai, although he was only 30 years old, was so popular that -to the reading of the Law on Sabbath, as a mark of honor to him, the -portion of the Pentateuch was added in which Moses prays for a worthy -successor, and instead of the usual prophetic lesson, the story of -David anointing his successor was read, and in conclusion the words, -"And Hai sat on the throne of Sherira his father, and his kingdom was -firmly established." - -We turn gladly from the decay of the internal organization of the Jews -in the East to the vitality of the communities on the Guadalquiver and -the Guadiana. Vigorous forces and spiritual currents of most varied -character asserted themselves everywhere, and produced the brilliant -efflorescence of Jewish culture. There arose in the Jewish communities -of Andalusia intense zeal for the various branches of knowledge, and an -eager desire for creative activity. - -The seed which had been sown by Chasdai, the Jewish Maecenas, by the -study of the Talmud under Moses the Babylonian, and by the poetical -and philological works of Menachem and Dunash, produced the fairest -fruit. Many-sided knowledge was considered among the Spanish Jews, as -well as among the Andalusian Moslems, a man's most beautiful ornament, -and brought its possessor honor and riches. Following the example of -Abdul-Rahman the Great, the Moslems admitted Jews to state offices, -owing to their superior insight and business capacity; thus we find -both Jewish consuls and Jewish ministers at Mahometan and Christian -courts. These emulated the conduct of Chasdai in encouraging learning -and poetry. The knowledge of the period was neither one-sided nor -barren; on the contrary, it was full of healthy life, useful and -productive. The cultured Jews of Andalusia spoke and wrote the language -of the country as fluently as their Arab fellow-citizens, who were as -proud of the Jewish poets as the Jews themselves. - -The Andalusian Jews were equally active in Bible exegesis and grammar, -in the study of the Talmud, in philosophy and in poetry. But the -students in any one of these departments were not narrow specialists. -Those who studied the Talmud were indifferent neither to Biblical lore -nor to poetry, and if not poets themselves, they found pleasure in the -rhythmic compositions of the new Hebrew poesy. The philosophers strove -to become thoroughly versed in the Talmud, and in many instances rabbis -were at the same time teachers of philosophy. - -Nor were science and art looked upon by the Spanish Jews as mere -ornaments, but they exalted and ennobled their lives. Many of them -were filled with that enthusiasm and ideality which does not allow -the approach of any kind of meanness. The prominent men, who, either -through their political position or their merits stood at the head -of Jewish affairs in Spain, were for the most part noble characters -imbued with the highest sentiments. They were as chivalrous as the -Andalusian Arabs, and excelled them in magnanimity, a characteristic -which they retained long after the Arabs had become degenerate. Like -their neighbors, they had a keen appreciation of their own value, which -showed itself in a long string of names, but this self-consciousness -rested on a firm moral basis. They took great pride in their ancestry, -and certain families, as those of Ibn-Ezra, Alfachar, Alnakvah, -Ibn-Falyaj, Ibn-Giat, Benveniste, Ibn-Migash, Abulafia, and others -formed the nobility. They did not use their birth as a means to obtain -privileges, but saw therein an obligation to excel in knowledge and -nobility, so as to be worthy of their ancestors. The height of culture -which the nations of modern times are striving to attain, was reached -by the Jews of Spain in their most flourishing period. Their religious -life was elevated and idealized through this higher culture. They loved -their religion with all the fervor of conviction and enthusiasm. Every -ordinance of Judaism, as prescribed in the Bible and as explained in -the Talmud, was considered holy and inviolable by them; but they were -equally opposed to stolid bigotry and to senseless mysticism. Although -they often carried their investigation to the borders of unbelief, -yet there is scarcely one of the Jewish-Spanish thinkers who crossed -these bounds, nor did extravagant mysticism find favor with them during -the flourishing period. No wonder, then, that the Jews of Spain were -looked upon as superior beings by their uncultured brethren in other -lands--in France, Germany, and Italy--and that they gladly yielded -them the precedence which had formerly been enjoyed by the Babylonian -academies. Cordova, Lucena, and Granada soon took the place of Sora and -Pumbeditha. The official chief of the Jews in Andalusia was Chanoch, -of whom we have already spoken (940-1014). He succeeded his father in -the rabbinate. His rival, Joseph ben Isaac Ibn-Abitur (Ibn-Satanas or -Santas), a member of a respected Andalusian family, was as learned in -the Talmud, and excelled him in the extent of his secular knowledge. -Ibn-Abitur wrote in verse. Among other things he composed synagogue -poetry for the Day of Atonement, but his verse is harsh, awkward, and -altogether devoid of poetic charm. He had not profited by the poetry -of Dunash. Joseph Ibn-Abitur understood the Arabic language so well -that he was able to translate the Mishna into that language. The Caliph -Alhakem had expressed a wish to possess a translation of the work -containing the sources of Jewish tradition, and Ibn-Abitur gratified -that wish to his satisfaction. The refined Caliph probably only desired -to increase his library (which was of such proportions that the -catalogue took up twenty-four volumes) by the addition of the Mishna, -which was so highly valued by the Jews. The men most distinguished -in philology and Hebrew poetry during the period after Chasdai were -the pupils of Menachem and Dunash. They carried on a controversy in -epigrams, in prose and verse. Of these, Isaac Ibn-G'ikatilia was a -poet, and Jehuda Ibn-Daud a Hebrew grammarian. The latter, whose Arabic -name was Ibn-Zachariah Yachya Chayuj, descended from a family which -came from Fez, was the first to place Hebrew philology on a firm basis, -and may be regarded as the first scientific grammarian. Chayuj, too, -was the first to recognize that Biblical Hebrew roots consist of three -letters, and that several consonants (the liquids, semi-vowels, and -the sounds produced by the same organ) become assimilated and change -into vowels. He thereby made it possible to know the different forms -and their changes, and to apply this knowledge to poetry. Chayuj thus -brought about a complete reform in the Hebrew language, and illumined -the darkness wherein his predecessors, amongst them Saadiah, Menachem, -and Dunash, and to a greater extent the Karaites, had been lost. Chayuj -wrote his grammatical works in Arabic; on this account they remained -unknown to the Jews out of Spain, who retained the imperfect systems of -Menachem and Dunash in their philological studies. - -Although the rabbinate of Cordova was merely an honorary office, and -Chanoch derived no income from it, nevertheless it gave rise to -contention after Chasdai's death. The followers of Joseph Ibn-Abitur, -amongst whom were the numerous Ibn-Abitur family, and the brothers -Ibn-Jau, silk manufacturers, who were employed at court, endeavored to -put their favorite at the head of affairs. The greater portion of the -Jews of Cordova clung to Chanoch. The quarrel became too serious to -be peaceably settled, and each party appealed to the Caliph on behalf -of its favorite. Seven hundred influential men, partisans of Chanoch, -betook themselves, in festive apparel, several days in succession to -Az-Zahra, Alhakem's residence, not far from Cordova, in order to obtain -the Caliph's favor for their rabbi. - -The opposition party made up in zeal what it lacked in number. -Alhakem decided in favor of the majority, and confirmed Chanoch in -his rabbinate. But as Ibn-Abitur would not relinquish his claim, he -was excommunicated by the victorious party. In spite of this he did -not abandon hope. He appealed in person to the Caliph. He hoped to -gain him over through his knowledge of Arabic literature, and through -his service in translating the Mishna, and so effect a reversal of -the decree. But his hopes were vain. The Caliph addressed him in -the words: "If my subjects scorned me, as the community of Cordova -scorns you, I would abdicate my kingdom. My only advice to you is to -emigrate." The wish of the Caliph appeared to Ibn-Abitur a command, -and he left Cordova (975). When he saw that he could not gain any -followers in Spain, he set sail for Africa, traversed Maghreb, the -Fatimide dominion, and probably also Egypt, without finding favor -anywhere. Meanwhile, however, affairs suddenly took a favorable turn -for Ibn-Abitur. One of his chief supporters was raised to a high -position, and used his influence on his behalf. This was the silk -manufacturer, Jacob Ibn-Jau, whose checkered career bears witness to -the arbitrariness dominant in the Spanish Caliphate after the death of -the last just and cultured Caliph, Alhakem (976). - -The title of Caliph appears to have descended to his son Hisham, a -sickly youth, but the chief power lay in the hands of Mahomet Almansur, -the terror of the Christians in the mountains of northern Spain and of -the Africans in their fortresses. Under this Mahometan "Major Domus," -Jacob Ibn-Jau, the supporter of Ibn-Abitur, obtained great respect and -considerable power over the Jewish-Spanish community. The circumstances -of his good fortune are rather extraordinary. Jacob Ibn-Jau and his -brother Joseph supplied the court with costly embroidered silk. Their -goods were admired and sought after. Their business brought them into -contact with Almansur, and on one occasion they found a considerable -sum of money in the court of his palace, which had been lost by some -provincials who had been ill-treated. The brothers Ibn-Jau spent the -money in presents for the young Caliph and Almansur, so as to obtain -their favor, and procure the recall of the banished Ibn-Abitur. Their -attempt succeeded. In 985, Almansur appointed the elder brother Jacob -as prince and chief judge of the various Jewish communities in the -kingdom of the Andalusian Caliphate on both sides of the strait, from -Segelmessa in Africa as far as the Douro. He had the sole right to -appoint judges and rabbis in the communities, and to determine the -taxes for state purposes and for communal wants. Jacob Ibn-Jau held -court, as it were, had eighteen pages in his retinue, and drove about -in a state carriage. The community of Cordova, proud of the distinction -shown to one of its own members, recognized him as its chief, paid -homage to him, made his office hereditary, and the poets sang his -praises. - -As soon as Ibn-Jau was appointed chief of the Jews of the Andalusian -Caliphate, he tried to realize the purposes for which he had sought -the favor of the court. He gave Chanoch notice to discontinue his -rabbinical functions, threatening that, in case he disobeyed, he would -be set adrift at sea in a ship without a rudder, thus returning to the -place whence he had come. Ibn-Jau next made preparations to recall -his favorite, Ibn-Abitur, and to invest him with the dignity of the -rabbinate. But before he could do that, the ban of excommunication had -to be removed, and for this act the consent and approval of the whole -community were required. Out of regard for Ibn-Jau, who was respected -at court, all the members of the community, amongst whom were his -former opponents, sent a flattering letter to Ibn-Abitur, inviting -him to accept the rabbinate of Cordova. Chanoch was deposed. When the -community of Cordova, and especially his friends, had made preparations -to meet Ibn-Abitur in a worthy manner, they received a letter from -him which speedily undeceived them. He inveighed, in harsh terms, -against their reckless treatment of his opponent. He praised Chanoch -in unmeasured terms, saying that in all his wanderings he had never -met with a man like him in virtue and piety, and at the same time he -advised the community of Cordova to re-instate him in his office. - -Meanwhile Ibn-Jau could not maintain his authority. His patron, -Almansur, deposed him, and cast him into prison, the reason of his -condemnation being his probity and disinterestedness. The regent -(Hajib) had believed that the Jewish prince would use his power over -the communities of the western Caliphate for the purpose of extorting -money, and would make him the recipient of rich presents; but Ibn-Jau -did not burden the community, and, consequently, could not satisfy -Almansur's avarice. For this he was deprived of his liberty. After he -had been imprisoned for a year he was set free by the Caliph Hisham, -and restored to his former dignity (987). Since, however, Almansur was -unfavorable to him, he was practically powerless. When Ibn-Jau died, -one of Chanoch's relatives hastened to convey the news to him, thinking -that he would receive it with joy. But this noble rabbi wept at the -death of his enemy, and said, "Who will now care for the wants of the -poor like him who has just departed? I cannot take his place, for I -myself am poor." - -Chanoch lived to see the beginning of the decadence of Cordova, and the -first general persecution of his co-religionists in Germany, Africa, -and in the East. He was killed by the fall of the reading-desk in the -synagogue on the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles (September, 1014). - -The condition of the Jews in France and Germany at this time shows how -dependent their spiritual life was upon external circumstances. - -During the feeble rule of the last Carlovingians, and even under the -first Capets in France, when the temporal and spiritual vassals became -more powerful than the kings, and also under the Saxon emperors, the -Jews were oppressed, and their literary activity almost entirely -checked. The canonical laws had long before this debarred them from -filling offices. They did not seek honor, but only desired to be -allowed to live quietly, and to observe their religion. But the chiefs -of the Church disturbed their peaceful condition without any profit to -themselves. In the French territory, the chief power lay in the hands -of the barons and the clergy. The power of the kings was as yet limited -on all sides, and could not protect the Jews from tyrannical caprice. -Only the fanatical clergy had entertained prejudices of a theological -nature against the Jews, but their zeal aroused the hatred of the -people against the Jews. The people, uncouth, brutish, and slaves to -superstition, looked upon the sons of Israel as a cursed race, unworthy -of compassion. They accused the Jews of employing evil spells against -Christians. When the king, Hugh Capet, died of a dangerous illness -(996), after having been treated by a Jewish physician, the people gave -credence to the report that the Jews had murdered him. The chroniclers, -too, looked upon this as a fact, and entered it upon their annals. - -The Jews, it is true, had fields and vineyards, but they lacked -personal safety, which could be granted only by a strong government. -In the south of France, in Provence and Languedoc, where the king's -power was insignificant, the fate of the Jews was still more dependent -upon the caprice of the counts and viscounts. In one place they -possessed landed property and salt mines, and were even allowed to -become bailiffs (Bailli); in another they had to submit to be treated -as bondmen. The chief community was that of Narbonne. There had been -a Talmudical school there since the time of Charles the Great, but it -does not seem to have been well supported. There suddenly appeared on -the scene a Talmudist from the school of Sora, who instilled true zeal -for the study of the Talmud into the Jews of southern France. This may -have been Nathan bar Isaac, the Babylonian, but more probably it was -his pupil Leon or Leontin (Jehuda ben Meir), who, although he left no -works behind him, was yet the first founder of the scientific study -of the Talmud, which henceforth flourished in France and Germany. His -famous pupil, Gershom, confessed that he owed all his knowledge to Leon. - -The Jews in Germany at this time of the Saxon emperors did not suffer -oppression, though they were not specially favored. The feudal system -which existed in Germany forbade them to possess landed property, and -thus compelled them to be tradesmen. Jew and merchant were synonymous -in Germany. The rich were bankers, those of moderate means borrowed -money in order to visit the fair at Cologne, for which loan they had -to pay a low, reasonable interest. The German emperors continued the -custom, which had been introduced by the first Carlovingians, of -exacting a fixed tribute from the Jews. When Otto the Great wished to -grant a subsidy to the newly-built church at Magdeburg, he made it a -present of the revenue he derived from "the Jews and other merchants" -(965). Otto II likewise presented "the Jews of Merseburg" to the bishop -of that town in 981. In the retinue of this emperor was an Italian -Jew, Kalonymos, who was greatly attached to him, and on one occasion -assisted him at the risk of his own life (982). But the much praised -rule of the Ottos gave the Jews subject to them no chance of raising -themselves from their lowly position. The Christian peoples had learnt -much from the Arabs, but they had not learnt to encourage science -amongst members of religions different from their own. The German Jews -in consequence, although they led more moral and industrious lives -than their Christian brethren, were not more cultured. They had not -even any Talmudical teachers of note of their own, but got them from -abroad. Their first Talmudical authority was Gershom. He, together with -his brother Machir, spread the seeds of Talmudic knowledge from the -south of France to the Rhine, and gave it an importance that it had not -obtained even in the Gaonic schools. - -Gershom ben Jehuda (born 960, died 1028) was born in France, and -emigrated for some unknown reason to Mayence. As was mentioned, he -was a pupil of Leon. In Mayence, Gershom founded a school which soon -attracted numerous pupils from Germany and Italy. The respect for -Gershom was so great that he was named "The Light of the Exile." He -expounded the Talmud to his pupils with a lucidity unattained by -any of his predecessors, and his commentaries to the Talmud are also -distinguished for clearness and directness. - -Gershom was the first commentator of the vast Talmud, and he who -knows the difficulty of such a work will appreciate how much energy, -devotion, and patience were required for it. He was at once recognized -as an authority by the German, French, and Italian communities. -Questions were submitted to him, and unwittingly he became the rival -of the last Gaon Hai, although he looked upon him with the reverence -of a disciple. Through a peculiar combination of circumstances those -who respected the Gaonate most, contributed to its decay. Gershom's -commentaries on the Talmud, written in Hebrew, had the result that the -Gaonic school could be dispensed with, and thus severed the German -communities and those of northern France from it. Any one who chose to -do so could obtain a deep knowledge of the Talmud without first seeking -aid from Babylonia. Gershom also busied himself with the Massora, and -made a place for its study, which until then had been pursued only in -Mahometan countries, in Germany and in France. - -Gershom became even more famous through his decrees than through his -commentaries. They produced a very wholesome effect upon German and -French Judaism. Amongst other things he forbade polygamy, practiced -even among European Jews, allowing it in extreme cases only. He decreed -further that the consent of the wife was necessary for a divorce, -whilst, according to the Talmud, the husband could give her a bill of -divorce against her wish. He also made an important rule about the -carrying of letters, viz., that the bearer must not read a letter, even -though it be not sealed. In those times intercourse with one's friends -was carried on by means of travelers who happened to be going in the -direction required. Hence this regulation was of the utmost importance. -Those who transgressed this decree were to be laid under the ban of -excommunication. Although these and other institutions were without -synodal formality, and the author of them was in no way invested with -official authority, yet, so great was the respect felt for Gershom, -that they were received by the German and French communities like the -decrees of a synhedrion, and scrupulously obeyed. - -Contemporary with this authority of the German-French communities, -there lived in Mayence a man whose merits were, until recently, -unappreciated. This man was Simon ben Isaac ben Abun, of French -descent, from Le Mans. He was learned in the Talmud, and wrote an -original work (Yessod) on it. He was, besides, a versatile and prolific -Hebrew poet (Poetan), and wrote a number of liturgical compositions -in the style of Kaliri, as heavy and ungraceful as his, in which he -introduced the Agadic literature, often in an enigmatical way. Simon -ben Isaac was wealthy, and was thus able to avert the storm which had -gathered, and was threatening to break over the Jews of Germany. - -In the eleventh century occurred the first persecutions of the Jews in -Germany. It is possible that the conversion of a churchman to Judaism, -which the chroniclers mentioned in their annals as an unlucky event, -roused the anger of the clergy against the Jews. The convert, whose -name was Wecelinus, was chaplain to Duke Conrad, a relative of the -emperor. After his conversion to Judaism (1005), Wecelinus wrote a -lampoon on his former religion, bearing witness to his own great hatred -of Christianity, and to the coarseness of the taste of the time. The -emperor Henry, however, was so angry at the conversion of the chaplain, -that he commissioned one of his clergy to write a reply. This he -did, and it was couched in equally coarse and undignified language. -Some years later (1012), the emperor decreed that the Jews should -be expelled from Mayence, as a punishment for their refusal to be -baptized. The decree was probably not confined to Mayence, but applied -to other communities. The poet, Simon ben Isaac, composed dirges, -lamenting the expulsion, as though it were a terrible persecution, -intended to uproot Judaism from the hearts of its followers. - -Gershom, too, though by no means a poet, gave utterance to his grief -at the severe persecution of Henry II in penitential hymns. "Thou hast -made those who despise Thy Law," he says, "to have dominion over Thy -people; they bow down to senseless images, and would compel us, too, -to worship them. They urge Thine inheritance to change Thee for a God -of their own making. They are determined no longer to call Thee God, -and to overthrow Thy word. If I say, 'Far be it from me to forsake the -God of my fathers,' they gnash their teeth, put forth their hand for -plunder, and open their mouth in scoffing. Thy people are driven from -their homes, they raise their eyes in longing to Thee." During this -persecution many Jews became Christians, either to save their lives or -their possessions. Among them was Gershom's son. When the latter died a -Christian, his hapless father observed the mourning ceremonials for him -as for one who had died a Jew. - -Simon ben Isaac, by his zeal, and probably by bribing the officials -with large sums of money, succeeded in staying the persecution, and -even in obtaining permission for the Jews to settle again in Mayence. -Those Jews who had been compelled to submit to baptism now gladly -returned to their religion, and Gershom protected them from the -scorn of their brethren on account of their temporary apostasy, by -threatening to excommunicate any one who reproached them. - -The grateful community was anxious to perpetuate the memory of Simon. -It was done by mentioning his name in the synagogue every Sabbath, -and adding, "that he had exerted himself on behalf of his brethren, -and that through him persecutions had ceased." The name of Gershom -was likewise perpetuated, because "he had enlightened those in exile -through his decrees." - -The school that had been founded by Gershom in Mayence flourished for -more than eighty years, and became the center of Talmudic activity -for Germany, France and Italy. At the same time, about the end of the -fourth century of the Hejira, when the Karaites expected the coming of -the Messiah, persecution broke out against the Jews in the East and -in Egypt, and lasted longer than that in Germany. The German Jews had -been persecuted because they did not believe in Christ and the saints; -the Eastern Jews were now oppressed because they would not believe in -Mahomet and the immaculate Imam, in the heavenly guide (Mahdi). - -This persecution was originated by the mad Egyptian Caliph Hakim, a -Mahometan Caius Caligula, who believed that he was the incarnation of -the divine power, and the vicegerent of God on earth. Hakim persecuted -all who dared doubt his divinity--Mahometans, Jews, and Christians, -without distinction. At first he decreed that if the Jews of his -dominion did not become converts to the Shiitic Islam, they would have -to wear round their necks the picture of a calf in commemoration of -the golden calf of their ancestors in the wilderness. In addition, -they were to be distinguished from the believers by their external -appearance, as ordained by Omar. Those who transgressed were to be -punished by exile, and by the loss of all their possessions (1008). -A similar regulation was enacted against the Christians. When Hakim -heard that the Jews evaded his decree by wearing a golden image of -a calf, he added a further clause, viz., that they should wear in -addition a block of wood six pounds in weight, and have little bells -attached to their garments that they might be known at a distance as -unbelievers (1010). He afterwards ordered the churches and synagogues -to be destroyed, and drove both Jews and Christians out of his kingdom -(1014). The Fatimide dominions at that time were very extensive. They -embraced Egypt, northern Africa, Palestine and Syria, and since Hakim -had adherents also in the Caliphate of Bagdad, there were but few -places of refuge open to the Jews. Many, therefore, outwardly conformed -to Islam, while waiting for better times to come. The persecution -lasted till the Mahometans themselves grew tired of the half-witted -Caliph, and assassinated him (1020). - -Northern Africa, too, which had enjoyed a brief efflorescence under -Isaac Israeli, Dunash ben Tamim, and the alien R. Chushiel, produced -its last set of great men in the latter part of the eleventh century, -and then sank into oblivion. Its two great authorities were Chananel, -the son of Chushiel, the immigrant, and Nissim bar Jacob Ibn-Shahin -(1015-1055). They lived in the same place, and are usually named -together, but they do not appear to have been on friendly terms with -each other. On the contrary, there appears to have been the same -rivalry between them as there had been between Chanoch and Ibn-Abitur, -Nissim, like the latter, being a native, and Chananel, like the former, -the son of an alien. We are not even certain which of the two was the -official rabbi of Kairuan; both of them, however, presided over the -school. Chananel, in addition, had a large business; whilst Nissim was -so poor that he had to be supported by the Jewish minister in Granada. -They, however, showed remarkable similarity in their ideas; they -pursued the same studies, and wrote works on the same subjects, but -Chananel made use of the Hebrew language, and Nissim of Arabic. - -A new element in the study of the Talmud, which established it on a -firmer basis than that on which the Geonim had been able to place -it, was added by the labors of these two men. The Jerusalem Talmud, -although more ancient than the Babylonian, had suffered considerably -by the fate to which books as well as men are exposed. Whilst the -Babylonian Talmud was known and studied in the East to the boundaries -of Khorasan and India, and in the West to the end of the ancient -world, its companion remained for a long time unknown outside of its -birthplace. The former had commentators, who explained and expounded it -thoroughly; the latter was for a long time neglected. In consequence -of the connection of northern Africa with Palestine, brought about -through its conquest by the Fatimide Caliphs, the Jewish teachers of -the two lands came into contact with each other, and the Talmud of the -Holy Land (as it was called) became known in Kairuan. The two great -Talmudists, Chananel and Nissim, were the first in Talmudic circles to -busy themselves with it. In their Talmudical writings, which consisted -partly of commentaries, explanations of separate words and the -subject-matter, and partly of practical decisions, they gave prominence -to the Jerusalem Talmud. Both wrote commentaries to the Pentateuch, -in which they followed the path marked out by Saadiah for rational -exposition of difficult passages in the Pentateuch. - -They were both in constant communication with Babylonia on the one -hand and with Spain on the other, and formed, so to speak, the link -between the two lands. They lived to see the utter extinction of the -Gaonate, but after their death the school of Kairuan sank into complete -insignificance. One of its pupils, who afterwards became famous as a -rabbinical authority, owed his fame solely to his emigration to Spain. - -The institutions, too, and the traditions of Babylonian-Persian Judaism -showed manifest signs of decay at this time. They possessed, it is -true, two men of extraordinary ability, viz. Hai and Samuel ben Chofni, -but these were not in a position to stay its dissolution, and could -only throw a dim light upon the dying Gaonate. - -Hai (or Haya, born 969, died 1038), who had in his eighteenth year been -raised to the highest office next to the Gaon, at the age of thirty -years succeeded his father Sherira in the Gaonate of Pumbeditha. At -his installation the high honor was accorded him of having his name -mentioned when a portion from the Prophets was publicly read, and he -was compared to King Solomon. Foreign communities, as well as the -Babylonians, showed him the highest respect. His character was noble, -and he was a man of independent thought. He was versed in all branches -of science as they were then taught, and displayed great literary -activity. Hai reminds one of Saadiah, whom he took as his model, and -whom he defended from attacks, but he was essentially a Talmudist, -whereas Saadiah was a religious philosopher. Like him Hai was a -thorough Arabic scholar, and made use of that language in many of his -letters, and in numerous scientific treatises. Like the Gaon of Fayum -he was free from that narrow-minded exclusiveness which permits men to -see the truth only in their own religion, and causes them to look upon -everything outside as untrue. He was on friendly terms with the head -of the Eastern Christians of Bagdad, and on one occasion, when in his -exegetical lectures he chanced upon a difficult passage, he did not -hesitate to consult the Patriarch (Mar-Elia I.). - -In his explanation of rare and archaic words in the Bible, Hai -boldly sought assistance from the Koran and the old traditions -of the Mahometans in order to confirm their meaning. He was an -unprejudiced sage, who loved the light and avoided darkness. He -often had disputations with Mahometan theologians about the relation -between Judaism and Islam, and is said often to have silenced them by -his eloquence. His main study, however, was the Talmud. In this he -resembled his father Sherira, but his study was productive of better -results. He wrote a terse commentary, in which he explained the words -in the most difficult portions of the Mishna and the Talmud. - -Hai treated of the civil law of the Talmud, of contracts, loans, -boundaries and oaths, with systematic precision. He did this as no one -before him had done, and he therefore became the model and authority -for later generations. He did not enter upon the field of metaphysics, -but although he was not a philosopher, he had sound opinions on -mysticism. Surrounded with a halo of religion, a mystic belief often -appears reasonable to those of weak reasoning powers, but Hai perceived -its deceptive character. - -The belief in miracles has, in every country, at all times, and in -all creeds, befogged the intellect of unthinking men, and robbed them -of the ability to form a rational view of divine wisdom and of life. -This belief was fostered by the Jews in many ways, and took as firm a -hold on them, as it had on the Christian and the Mahometan world. It -was especially prevalent in Palestine and Italy. Its devotees believed -that any one who is truly pious can perform at will miracles as great -and surprising as those of the prophets of old. They thought, however, -that for this purpose it is necessary to pronounce certain magical -formulae, consisting of various combinations of the letters in the name -of God. Hai's true religious insight prompted him to write indignantly -against this belief, which, despite the fact that his father was not -free from it, he considered a desecration of religion. A pupil of Jacob -ben Nissim of Kairuan once asked Hai what he thought of the magical -power of the names of God, which, many boasted, they could use. Hai -answered briefly and sensibly:--"If any one by the mere use of formulae -could perform miracles, and thereby alter the course of nature, wherein -lay the distinction of the prophets?" God gave the prophets the power -of temporarily altering the laws of nature that they might prove -themselves His true messengers. Now, if pious persons could do the -same, and if there happened to be many of them, miracles would become -daily occurrences, and the motion of the sun from west to east would -appear no more extraordinary than its common motion in the opposite -direction--in short, miracles would cease to be miracles. "It is -wrong," said Hai, "to make use of the name of God for such purposes," -and he warned the people against this practice, in which there is much -doubt and little truth; and a man must be indeed foolish who believes -everything. - -Hai was universally acknowledged as an authority, and through his -influence the school of Pumbeditha somewhat recovered its prestige. -The great scholars Nissim and Chananel of Kairuan, the community of -Fez, the vizir Samuel Nagid, Gershom of Mayence, the authority of the -German Jews, and the other authorities of the communities of three -parts of the world, submitted questions to him, and honored him as -the chief representative of Judaism. He was called "the father of -Israel." The Exilarchate had been practically extinct since the death -of the grandson of David ben Zaccai, and Hai stood at the head of -Judaism. No fitter man could have been found to represent it. Unlike -the former Geonim of Pumbeditha, who all looked askance at the sister -academy, unlike his father, who felt a keen delight when Sora was -without a chief, Hai did his best to give it a leader in the person -of Samuel ben Chofni, who filled his office during Hai's Gaonate. -Samuel was his father-in-law, and his equal in learning and character. -He wrote several systematic works on the ritual, and a commentary on -the Pentateuch, in which he set forth the same philosophical views -about the unity of God as the followers of the Mutazilist school. His -commentary on the Pentateuch, indeed, is not very much praised. It -was, like the Karaite commentaries, diffuse, and contained discussions -on irrelevant questions. But although his exegetical works mark no -distinct progress, yet they show the important fact that the Geonim -followed the scientific lines laid down by Saadiah. Samuel ben Chofni's -interpretations of the Bible are all rationalistic. He always endeavors -to explain the miraculous events narrated in the Bible as if they were -natural. He explained the story of the witch of Endor, and of Balaam, -as dreams. Like Saadiah, he attacked Karaism, the occasion being a keen -controversy which broke out at that time between the Karaites and the -Rabbanites. Samuel ben Chofni died four years before his son-in-law Hai -(1034), and thus ended the line of the Geonim of Sora. - -This school does not appear to have made any effort to continue after -his death. The times were in every way unfavorable to the Gaonate, and -it was impossible for it to regain its pristine vigor. When Hai died, -in 1038, mourned by all the Jews, and eulogized by the greatest poet of -the time, Ibn-Gebirol, and by his admirer Chananel, in Africa, the time -for the dissolution of the school of Pumbeditha had also come. It is -true that the college immediately chose a successor, who acted at once -as Gaon and as Exilarch, it seems only in order to have the two offices -buried together in the same grave with his person. - -Chiskiya, the great grandson of the quarrelsome Exilarch David ben -Zaccai, was appointed head of the school. But the glory which it was -thought he would shed upon the school could not make itself visible. -Chiskiya had many implacable enemies who were jealous of his elevation. -They slandered him at court, for what reason or under what pretext -is unknown. The political power of the Eastern Caliphate was at that -time in the hands of Jelal Addaulah. He had wrested from the phantom -caliph the title of "King of kings," and exacted tribute from both -Jews and Christians. The great Sultan may have made use of the just or -unjust complaint against Chiskiya for his own profit. The last Gaon was -imprisoned, tortured probably, that he might discover his treasures, -robbed of all his property, and then executed (1040). Thus the Gaonate -came to an end through the oppression of the weak Caliphate. Babylonia -had played its part in Jewish history, and for a long time it sank into -complete oblivion. Chiskiya's two sons were also in danger of arrest, -but they escaped, and after traveling about for a long time, settled -in Spain, where they were respected as the last members of the House -of David, and under the name Ibn-Daudi, devoted themselves to the -cultivation of the muses. - -Jewish Spain thus became the heir of Judaea, Babylonia, and northern -Africa, and greatly increased its inheritance for succeeding -generations. There the exiled sons of the Jewish-Chazar princes, and -of the Exilarchs, found a refuge. At the head of the community of -Andalusia was Samuel Ibn-Nagrela (or Nagdela), a man distinguished for -wisdom, virtue and position, the first of the succession of Jewish -teachers coming after the Geonim. He united in his person all the -virtues of the three men who had made Jewish Spain famous. He was like -Chasdai, a generous chief and a patron of learning, like Moses ben -Chanoch, a thorough Talmudist, and like Dunash ben Labrat, a poet and -grammarian. - -The life of Samuel (Ishmael) Halevi Ibn-Nagrela was remarkable. He was -born in Cordova (in 993), whither his father had emigrated from Merida, -and studied the Talmud in the school of Chanoch. Jehuda Chayuj, the -father of Hebrew philology, instructed him in the subtleties of the -Hebrew language, and the Andalusian capital, which was then the center -of culture, offered him sufficient opportunity to make himself master -of Arabic. When he was 20 years old, in consequence of civil war, he -and many others were obliged to quit Cordova. The Barbary chieftain, -Suleiman, having defeated the Arabs and the Sclavonian body-guard of -the Caliphs in battle, destroyed the beautiful buildings of the capital -with African fury, permitted the women to be violated, and reduced the -richest families to beggary (April, 1013). - -The noble Jewish families emigrated to Granada, Toledo, and even to -Saragossa, to escape this persecution. Samuel Ibn-Nagrela settled in -the port of Malaga. - -He had a small business, and at the same time pursued Talmudic and -linguistic studies. Besides Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee, he understood -four languages, including Latin, Castilian and the Berber tongue. -Unlike most other Jews, who wrote Arabic in Hebrew characters, -Ibn-Nagrela was a master of Arabic calligraphy, an art highly esteemed -among the Arabs. To his knowledge of languages and calligraphy he owed -the high position which he held, and which had not been attained by any -Jew since the destruction of the Jewish state. - -Civil wars and the ambition of the Emirs had broken up the empire of -the Ommiyyade Caliphs into small principalities. Andalusia, after the -fall of the last Ommiyyades, was subdivided like Germany and Italy -of the past. The Arab historians call the regents of this period the -"Kings of Anarchy." One race of Berbers, the Sinhajas, founded a -kingdom of their own in the south of Spain, under a leader named Maksen -(1020). Granada, largely populated by Jews, became the capital of -this kingdom, and Malaga was also a part of it. In Malaga, Abulkasim -Ibn-Alarif, the vizir of Habus, the second king of Granada, had a -palace next to Samuel's little shop. This brought good fortune to the -poor scholar, and raised him above want, and ultimately exalted him to -a height worthy of his greatness. - -A slave of the vizir who frequently furnished information to her -master, regularly had her letters written by the poor Jew. These -letters displayed so much linguistic and calligraphic skill that the -vizir Ibn-Alarif became anxious to know the writer. He had Ibn-Nagrela -called into his presence, and took him into his service as his private -secretary (1025). The vizir soon discovered that Samuel possessed great -political insight, and consulted him on all important affairs of state, -and as his advice was always sound, the vizir at length undertook -nothing without Samuel's approval. - -When Ibn-Alarif fell ill, King Habus was in despair as to what to -do about his complicated relations with neighboring states. The -dying vizir referred him to his Jewish secretary, confessed that -his successful undertakings had been mainly due to Samuel's wise -suggestions, and advised Habus to employ him as a counselor. The Berber -king of Granada, who had fewer prejudices against the Jews than the -Arab Mussulmans, raised Samuel Ibn-Nagrela to the dignity of minister -(Katib), and put him in charge of the diplomatic and military affairs -(1027). Thus the shopkeeper of Malaga lived in the king's palace, and -had a voice in all matters concerning the Pyrenean peninsula. For a -Mahometan who chose a vizir ruled, but did not govern. This was the -affair of the chief minister, who was answerable to the king with his -life. Habus had no reason to regret his choice. His kingdom flourished -under the rule of the wise and active Jewish vizir. Samuel knew how to -occupy the king, and how to please him. He composed a poem of praise -to Habus in seven different languages. Diplomatic, wise, and always -master of himself, Ibn-Nagrela knew how to employ circumstances, and -had the art of disarming his opponents. He drew a masterly picture of -a worthy governor, which seems to have been his own guide: "He whose -counsel is as pure as sunlight, who is free from base desires, whose -eyes do not close in sleep, whose thoughts are firm as towers, whom -dignity encompasses like shining armor, who knows how to subdue the -will of others, and keeps aloof from what brings disgrace, is worthy -to rule." His wisdom and piety preserved him from the pride peculiar -to those that have risen from low estate, making them hateful. The -gentleness with which he opposed his enemies is shown by an anecdote. -Near the palace of Habus there lived a Mussulman seller of spices, -who no sooner beheld the Jewish minister in the company of the king, -than he overwhelmed him with curses and reproaches. Habus, indignant -at such conduct, commanded Samuel to punish this fanatic by cutting -out his tongue. The Jewish vizir, however, knew how to silence him who -cursed. He gave him money, and converted the curses into blessings. -When Habus again noticed the seller of spices, he was astonished at -the change, and questioned Samuel about it. He replied, "I have torn -out his angry tongue, and given him instead a kind one." The seller of -spices, however, was not his only enemy; there were several others, and -very dangerous ones. The fanatical Mahometans beheld in the elevation -of an unbeliever to so high a rank a mockery of their religion. It -aroused their displeasure to see the numerous Jews of the kingdom -of Granada hold their heads aloft as though on an equality with the -Moslems. Two officers of state, Ibn-Abbas and Ibn-Abi Musa, plotted to -depose him. But their plots failed, and they were condemned to death. -Fortune ever smiled on this Jewish vizir, although he was at one time -in danger of losing his position and his life. When King Habus died in -1037 there arose two parties in Granada, who rallied round two princes. -Most of the Barbary grandees, and some of the influential Jews, Joseph -Ibn-Migash, Isaac ben Leon, and Nehemia Ashkafa, sided with the younger -son, Balkin (or Bologgin); a smaller party (amongst them Samuel) -desired that the elder son, named Badis, should be the successor. The -influential party were ready to hail Balkin as king, when he abdicated -in favor of his brother. Badis became king (October, 1037), and Samuel -not only retained his former position, but became the actual king of -Granada, as the pleasure-loving Badis gave but little attention to -affairs of government. Later on Balkin repented of his generosity to -his brother, and put obstacles in the way of his government. Badis -therefore hinted to the physician of Balkin to refrain from giving -him medicine during an illness, and this led to his death. After his -death the government of Badis and the position of Ibn-Nagrela remained -undisturbed. Balkin's partisans were forced to leave Granada, and -amongst them the three Jews mentioned above. They emigrated to Seville, -and were there received in a friendly manner by the king of that -country, Mahomet Aljafer, who was an opponent of the king of Granada. -One of the fugitives, Joseph Ibn-Migash, was raised by the king of -Seville to a high position, and became the ancestor of a prominent -personage. It is interesting to see in the writings of a contemporary -historian the form used by the Jewish minister in the royal decrees -addressed to the Mahometan people. Samuel, or as he was called, Ismael -Ibn-Nagrela, did not shrink from using the formulae of Moslem rulers. -He opened with the words, Chamdu-l-Illahi (praised be God), and added, -when mentioning the name of Mahomet, the sentence, "May God pray over -him and bless him." He exhorted those to whom the circulars were -addressed to live according to the principles of Islam; and in general -his ordinances were couched in the Mahometan style. - -Without doubt both Habus and Badis permitted the Jewish vizir to -exercise authority over the Jewish congregations of Granada, similar -to that which Chasdai and Ibn-Jau had possessed in Cordova. Samuel -was named chief and prince (Nagid) of the Jews, and this title is -used by Jewish authors. The minister of state was also the rabbi; he -presided over the school, where he delivered lectures on the Talmud -to his disciples. He gave judicial decisions on religious questions, -and in fact completely filled the functions of a rabbi of the time. -The same pen which wrote the decrees of the government was used -for treatises and discourses on the Talmud. Samuel Nagid compiled -a methodology of the Talmud (Mebo ha-Talmud), in which he clearly -explained the technical expressions of the Talmud. As an introduction, -he added a list of the bearers of tradition from the men of the Great -Assembly through the successive authorities of the Tanaite, Amoraite, -Saburaite, and Gaonic schools down to Moses and Chanoch, his teachers. -He afterwards composed a commentary to the whole Talmud for religious -practices, which was afterwards highly prized, and was recognized as -the standard authority (Hilchetha Gabriatha). Samuel Ibn-Nagrela was -also a neo-Hebraic poet, and employed both rhyme and meter skilfully. -He composed prayers in the form of psalms, full of religious depth and -submission, and called the collection the Young Psalter (Ben Tehillim). -He wrote thoughtful aphorisms and parables, the fruit of his deep -observation of men and manners, and called this composition the younger -book of Proverbs (Ben Mishle). Last he compiled a book of philosophy -modeled on that of the Preacher (Ben Kohelet). The latter, written when -he had attained an advanced age, was the most successful of his works, -and is full of deep thought and eloquence. He also composed epigrams -and songs of praise, but his poetic compositions, both secular and -spiritual, are heavy and dull, full of thought, but devoid of beauty of -form. It became proverbial to say, "Cold as the snow of Hermon, or as -the songs of the Levite Samuel." - -It is not remarkable that a man of such pure integrity and deep -appreciation of wisdom and religion should spread blessings around -him, should advance science and poetry, and should support learning -with princely generosity. Samuel was in communication with the -most prominent men of his time, in Irak, Syria, Egypt, and Africa, -especially with the last of the great Geonim, Hai and with Nissim. -He gave rich gifts to the learned, he had copies of books made to be -presented to poor students, arousing dormant talents and becoming -the protector of his countrymen, far and near. The greatest poet of -the time, Ibn-Gebirol, he comforted in his distress. A writer of the -following generation aptly describes him in the words, "In Samuel's -time the kingdom of science was raised from its lowliness, and the star -of knowledge once more shone forth; God gave unto him a great mind -which reached to the spheres and touched the heavens, so that he might -love knowledge and those that pursued her, and that he might glorify -religion and her followers." - -The position of the Jews in a country in which one of them held the -reins of government was naturally high. In no country of the world did -they enjoy so complete an equality as in the city of Granada. It was as -a ray of sunshine after days of gloom. They were, in fact, more highly -favored by the ruling race, the Berbers, than the Arab population, who -bore the yoke of the Sinhajas with silent anger, and whose glances were -always directed to the neighboring city of Seville, in which a king of -pure Arab race wore the crown. - -The minister of state and rabbi, Ibn-Nagrela, also occupied himself -with researches into the structure of the holy language, but this was -his weak point. He did not get beyond the rules laid down by Chayuj. -He was so partial to this master that he could not appreciate new -efforts. Samuel composed twenty-two theses on Hebrew grammar. Only -one, however, Sefer-ha Osher, the "Book of Riches," is worthy of -mention. The rest were only polemic treatises directed against the -great Hebrew linguist, Ibn Janach, towards whom Samuel was unfriendly. -Ibn Janach, the greatest Hebraist of his time--no less an ornament of -Spanish Judaism than the vizir Ibn-Nagrela--deserves a special page -in Jewish history, more especially because for a long time he was -unknown and then misunderstood. Jonah Marinus (in Arabic, Abulvalid -Mervan Ibn-Janach, born about 995, died 1050), was educated in -Cordova, where after the death of Chasdai all hearts were filled with -enthusiasm for knowledge and a devoted love for the holy language. -Isaac Ibn-G'ikatilia, of the school of Menachem, taught him Hebrew -grammar, and Isaac Ibn-Sahal was his teacher in prosody. He studied -medicine in the high school of Cordova, founded by the Caliph Alhakem. -In his youth Ibn-Janach, like everybody at that period, made verses, -which even later on, when his taste was developed, did not appear to -him entirely bad. But he gave up versifying in order to devote himself -entirely to the study of the Hebrew language in all its ramifications. -He lived entirely for this study, and obtained such mastery of it that -up to the present day he has not been surpassed. Posterity has learnt -much from Ibn-Janach, but students of the Hebrew language can yet -learn much more. Like his opponent Ibn-Nagrela, he also was compelled -to leave Cordova after its destruction by Suleiman of Barbary (1013), -when he settled in Saragossa. The Jews of Saragossa were for the most -part still laboring under the delusion that rabbinical Judaism would -be injured by research, and especially by grammatical investigations. -Ibn-Janach nevertheless devoted himself to the study of the structure -of the Hebrew language and to the explanation of the text of the -Bible. He also pursued the study of medicine both theoretically and -practically; but his chief attention was directed to a thorough -exegesis of the Bible, and grammatical research with him was not an -end in itself, but simply the means for a better comprehension of Holy -Writ. Ibn-Janach, in his researches, reached conclusions not discovered -by Chayuj. The alterations which on this account he necessarily had to -make in the grammatical system of Chayuj, were made modestly and with -due recognition of its merits. He had the greatest admiration for the -founder of Hebrew philology, but like Aristotle, "his love of truth was -greater than his love of Plato." This independence of Chayuj's teaching -aroused the anger of the latter's followers, chief amongst whom was -Samuel Ibn-Nagrela, and the disputes that arose ended in bitter -personalities. The two chief exponents of the Jewish culture of this -period, the noble-minded prince and the master of the Hebrew language, -thus became bitter, irreconcilable enemies. - -Feeling the approach of old age, which with Plato he calls "the mother -of forgetfulness," Ibn-Janach devoted himself to his greatest work, -wherein he summed up his researches, and deposited the treasures of his -soul life. Ibn-Janach was not only the creator of the science of Hebrew -syntax, but he also developed it almost to perfection. None before -him, and but few since his time, have entered into all the niceties of -the holy language with so much discrimination as Ibn-Janach. He first -drew attention to the ellipses, and to the misplacement of letters -and verses in the Holy Scriptures, and he was sufficiently daring to -explain that various dark and apparently inexplicable expressions -were due to the change of a letter or a syllable. He explained over -two hundred obscure passages by means of the supposition that the -writer had substituted an inappropriate word for a more fitting one. -By the insertion of the correct word, Ibn-Janach often gives the -intended meaning to a number of verses which up to his time had been -interpreted in a childish way. He was the first rational Bible critic. -Although convinced of the divinity of Holy Writ, he did not, like -others, rate the language so highly as to accept sheer nonsense; but -he assumed that, even though inspired, words addressed to mankind must -be interpreted according to the rules of human language. Ibn-Janach -did not, indeed, assert that the copyists and punctuators had altered -or corrupted the holy literature from want of understanding, but that -being human they had erred. He justly called his chief work (which with -five others he wrote in Arabic) "Critique" (Al Tanchik), and divided it -into two parts--into grammar with exegesis ("Al-Luma', Rikmah"), and -lexicon ("Kitab Al-Assval"). - -Although Ibn-Janach had many enemies amongst those who belittled him, -and amongst those who condemned him as a heretic on account of his -scientific treatment of the Bible, yet in his work he never mentions -them in anger, and, in fact, had he been the only one concerned, the -world would never have known of the enmity of Samuel Ibn-Nagrela -towards him. Ibn-Janach was not unacquainted with philosophy. He refers -to Plato and Aristotle in a scholarly manner. He also wrote a book on -logic in the Aristotelian spirit. But he was opposed to metaphysical -researches into the relation of God to the world, and first principles, -speculations with which his countrymen, and especially Ibn-Gebirol, -concerned themselves, because he considered that such matters did -not lead to any definite knowledge, and that they undermine belief. -Ibn-Janach was a clear thinker, and opposed to any extravagant or -eccentric tendency. He was the opposite of the third of the triumvirate -of this period, his townsman Ibn-Gebirol, with whom his relations -apparently were not of the pleasantest kind. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -IBN-GEBIROL AND HIS EPOCH. - - Solomon Ibn-Gebirol--His early life--His poems--The - statesman Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan befriends him--Murder of - Yekutiel--Bachya Ibn-Pakuda and his moral philosophy--The - Biblical critic Yizchaki ben Yasus--Joseph ben Chasdai, the - Poet--Death of Samuel Ibn-Nagrela--Character of his son - Joseph and his tragic fate--Death of Ibn-Gebirol--The - French and German communities--Alfassi--Life and works of - Rashi--Jewish scholars in Spain--King Alfonso. - -1027-1070 C. E. - - -An ideal personage, richly endowed, a poet, and at the same time a -great thinker, was Solomon Ibn-Gebirol (Jebirol), in Arabic, Abu Ayub -Sulaiman Ibn-Yachya (born 1021, died 1070). His father, Judah, who -lived in Cordova, appears to have emigrated with Ibn-Nagrela, during -the disturbances that befell the city, to Malaga. In this place was -born and bred the Jewish Plato, by whom many hearts have been warmed, -and from whom many minds have gained light. It appears that Ibn-Gebirol -lost his parents early, and that they left him without means. His -tender, poetical soul grew sad in his loneliness; he withdrew from the -outer world, and became absorbed in self-contemplation. Poetry and a -faith resting upon a philosophical basis seem, like two angels, to have -shadowed him with their wings, and to have saved him from despair. But -they could not bring joy to his heart; his thoughts remained serious, -and his songs have a mournful strain. - -At an age when other men still indulge in the frivolities of youth, -Ibn-Gebirol was a finished poet, outshining all his predecessors. His -poems show that words and rhymes, thoughts and metaphors, readily and -exuberantly came to him. He improved the Hebrew meter and softened its -tones. The poetic muse, which had been personified neither in Biblical -nor in neo-Hebraic poetry, he depicted as a dove with golden wings and -a sweet voice. In his desolation and distress the young poet found a -comforter and protector in a man whom his poems have immortalized. -Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan or Alhassan appears to have had a high position -in Saragossa, under King Yachya Ibn-Mondhir, similar to that held by -Samuel Ibn-Nagrela in Granada. This distinguished man kindly protected -the desolate poet, supported him and soothed him with his friendship. -Ibn-Gebirol poured forth the praises of his patron, under whose -protection his heart was taught a more cheerful philosophy of life. At -this time his muse sang the praises of his patrons and friends, and his -pictures of nature are bright, graphic and spirited. - -But fate did not long permit him to enjoy these privileges, and before -he had begun to feel the joy of living, his protector was snatched away -from him. Abdallah Ibn-Hakam plotted against the king, his cousin, -attacked and murdered him in his palace, and took possession of the -treasures. The king's favorites were not spared by the conspirators, -and Yekutiel Ibn-Alhassan was imprisoned and afterwards killed. -Northern Spain was plunged into grief over the tragic end of the -well-beloved Yekutiel. Ibn-Gebirol's grief was without bounds, and his -elegy on his benefactor is touching, withal a model of lofty poetry. -The poem numbers more than two hundred verses, and is a memorial both -of the departed and of the poet. Ibn-Gebirol again fell a prey to -melancholy after this incident, and his poetry henceforth reflects the -gloom in which his mind was shrouded. But what would have borne down -another, stimulated him to fresh flights, and he now approached the -summit of his poetic and literary greatness. Versifying was so easy to -him that in his nineteenth year (1040) he wrote a Hebrew grammar with -all its dry rules in four hundred verses, hampering himself, moreover, -by acrostic tricks, and the repetition of the same rhyme throughout -(Anak). In the introduction to this poem Ibn-Gebirol describes the holy -language as one favored by God, "in which the angel choirs daily praise -their Creator, in which God revealed the Sinaitic Law, the prophets -prophesied and the psalmists sung." He blamed his countrymen, the men -of Saragossa, the blind community, for their indifference to pure -Hebrew. "Some speak Idumaean (Romance), and some the language of Kedar" -(Arabic). His versified Hebrew Grammar was intended to awaken love for -the language of the Bible, and at the same time to teach the laws of -the language. - -In Saragossa, Ibn-Gebirol composed a work on moral philosophy (1045), -which, without possessing the depth of his later philosophical works, -is remarkable for the peculiar spirit which pervades it, and for -the intimate acquaintance with the masters of philosophy evinced by -this young man. By the side of the sayings of Holy Writ and ethical -sentences from the Talmud, Ibn-Gebirol put the favorite sayings of -the "divine Socrates," of his disciple Plato, of Aristotle, of Arabic -philosophers, and more especially those of a Jewish philosopher, -Alkuti (perhaps Chepez Alkuti). It is surprising how so young a writer -could have had so deep an insight into the condition of the human soul -and into worldly affairs. Ibn-Gebirol's writings contained scornful -criticism of various personages in the community of Saragossa, whom -he no doubt desired to offend. They must have felt his castigation -the more keenly, as he said, "I need not mention names, for they are -sufficiently well known." He describes the haughty, who look down upon -their fellow-citizens, and always consider their own counsel the best, -and those who, filled with hate, bear words of love on their lips. The -pamphlet seems, in fact, to have been a challenge to his opponents -in Saragossa. Ibn-Gebirol, in consequence of its publication, was -turned out of Saragossa (in 1045) by the influential men whom he had -embittered. - -In return, he describes the town as a second Gomorrha in a mournful, -heart-rending lamentation, the beautifully rhythmical cry of distress -uttered by despair. Whither he next went is not known. The unfortunate -young poet was so inconsolable that he determined, in his indignation, -to leave Spain altogether, and to go to Egypt, Palestine and Babylonia. -In a poem he encourages his soul in the resolve to shake off the dust -of Spain. He calls to memory the example of the patriarchs and of the -greatest prophet, who left their native lands and went to foreign -climes. He thus apostrophizes Spain: - - "Woe to thee, land of my foes, - In thee I have no portion, - Whether joy or sorrow be thy lot." - -He did not, however, carry out his determination to emigrate, but -wandered about in Spain, meeting with real or imaginary misfortunes. -He complained of the inconstancy of the times and of his friends, and -poured forth his plaints in beautiful verses: - - "Blame me not for my heavy-flowing tears, - But for them were my heart consumed, - My wanderings have bereft me of all strength, - A fly could now with ease bear me up." - -The tutelary genius of the Spanish Jews, Samuel Ibn-Nagrela, appears -to have taken an interest in Ibn-Gebirol, and to have found a refuge -for him. For this kindness Ibn-Gebirol extolled Nagrela in melodious -lines. Under the powerful protection of the Jewish minister he occupied -himself with philosophical studies, which held the place next to -poetry in his heart. If poetry was his beloved, philosophy was a mother -to him. He thus sings: - - "How shall I forsake wisdom? - I have made a covenant with her. - She is my mother, I her dearest child; - She hath clasped her jewel about my neck. - Shall I cast aside the glorious ornament? - While life is mine, my spirit shall aspire - Unto her heavenly heights. - I will not rest until I find her source." - -As Ibn-Gebirol, whilst yet a child, created the most difficult artistic -forms of Hebrew poetry, and handled them with sportive ease; so while -still a youth, he built up a system attempting to solve the deepest -problems which concern the human understanding. What is the highest aim -of man? What is the nature and origin of the soul, and whither does -it go when it leaves its earthly dwelling? How is the highest Being -to be conceived, and how did He, being One and perfect, bring forth -the manifold, corrupt and defective things of a visible world? These -and many other questions Ibn-Gebirol attempted to answer, to satisfy -not the believing heart, but the critical human mind, to show it its -true place in the universe, to direct its attention to the invisible -spirit-world above, and to the world of matter beneath, and induce it -to seek the link binding them together. In the exposition of his system -Ibn-Gebirol reveals a superabundant wealth of ideas, and a depth of -subtle thought, so that the thinker must concentrate all his attention -in order to be able to follow out his reasoning. To him, however, these -extremely complicated thoughts, encircling the whole world from its -very origin, and the whole range of beings down to lifeless stone, were -so comprehensible that for everything he found the most fitting word -and the most suitable image. Indeed, one portion of these thoughts he -poured forth in a poem in the form of a prayer (Kether Malchuth), -which for sublimity, elevated tone, and truth has no equal. It is true -that the leading ideas of Ibn-Gebirol's system had been expressed by -earlier philosophers, but he formed into one organic whole a confused -mass of scattered thoughts. He developed his system in a work entitled, -"The Fountain of Life" (Mekor Chayim, Fons Vitae), written in Arabic, -which he handled with as much ease as Hebrew. A Christian emperor -destroyed the temple of philosophy in Athens, and exiled its last -priests. Since that time philosophy had been outlawed in Europe; at -least, it was little known there, and had been compelled to find a home -in Asia. The Jewish thinker, Ibn-Gebirol, was the first to transplant -it again to Europe, and he built an altar to it in Spain, where it -found a permanent habitation. - -Like Plato of a poetical nature, Ibn-Gebirol borrowed the dialogue form -of composition from the Greek philosopher. His system is developed in -the course of a lively conversation between a master and his disciple. -He thereby avoided the usual dryness of metaphysical studies, which -makes them unenjoyable. He paid so little attention to Judaism in -his system, that unless the reader knows that he was a sincere Jew, -thoroughly devoted to his faith, he cannot discover it in his writings. -The philosophy of Ibn-Gebirol, therefore, found little favor in Jewish -circles, and exercised very little influence. Jewish thinkers found -the tenor of his philosophy foreign to their own mode of thinking, and -the form of demonstration too involved, the explanations too fitful, -the method of presentation too lacking in system, and the whole not -satisfying. Ibn-Gebirol's system aroused all the more attention among -the Arabs and the Christian schoolmen. A century after its appearance, -his chief work was translated into Latin by the combined labor of a -Christian priest and a baptized Jew. Several prominent scholastic -writers subscribed to the views of Ibn-Gebirol, whom they called -Avicebrol or Avicebron. Others opposed them, but all considered them. -In later times, the Kabbala borrowed some formulae from him. - -Another Jewish philosopher of this time, which was so rich in great -men, pursued a course different from Ibn-Gebirol's. He stood entirely -upon Jewish ground, but he also introduced foreign elements into his -system. Bachya (Bechaya) ben Joseph Ibn-Pakuda (Bakuda) was a model -of earnest piety and altruistic morality. He established an entirely -original moral theology of Judaism. Bachya was one of those natures -whose energy of spirit and powerful moral force, if favored by the -circumstances of the time, effect reformations. Of the details of the -life of this moral philosopher absolutely nothing is known, not even -the part of Spain in which he lived. We identify him wholly with his -work, "Guide to the Duties of the Heart," which he wrote in Arabic. -The sum and substance of its teachings is that nothing is of so much -importance as that our conduct be ruled entirely by most serious -religious convictions and godlike holiness of purpose. Biblical -exegesis, grammar, poetry, speculative philosophy, all the pursuits -with which the scholars of the age busied themselves are, according to -Bachya, subordinate branches, hardly worthy of serious attention. The -study of the Talmud even has no very great merit in his eyes. Bachya -Ibn-Pakuda's aim was the spiritualization of Judaism. The duties which -conscience demands are of infinitely greater importance to him than the -ritual duties prescribed by the legal code. Like the Christian teachers -of the first century, he distinguished in Judaism between the purely -religious and moral injunctions and the ceremonial laws, attaching -greater importance to the first than to the second. - -The complete surrender to the demands of a godly, self-denying, -holy life, which is the _summum bonum_ of Bachya, remained no -abstract theory with him, but was exemplified in his whole being, -changing conscientiousness in him to overscrupulousness. Too subtle -spiritualization of religion led Bachya to practise rigid asceticism, -which appeared to him to be the highest degree of wisdom attainable -by man. Judaism, according to his view, inculcates frugality and -abstemiousness. The patriarchs, from Enoch to Jacob, received no laws -setting limits to their pleasure, as they were unnecessary, their souls -being able to overcome the lusts of the flesh. But their descendants, -the Jewish nation, were commanded to be abstemious, because they had -become corrupt by their intercourse with the Egyptians, and conceived -a desire for luxury, when they obtained an accession of wealth at the -time of the capture of the land of Canaan. For this reason the law of -the Nazarite was instituted. The more degenerate the Jewish nation -became, the more certain individuals, especially the prophets, felt -themselves impelled to withdraw from communion with society and from -worldly affairs, and to retire into seclusion and lead a contemplative -life. This example men ought to follow. It is indeed impossible that -all men should relinquish the world and its activity, because utter -desolation would ensue, which was never intended by God. There must, -however, be a class of exemplary persons, who shall deny themselves -intercourse with the world (Perushim), and who shall serve as patterns -to mankind to show how the passions can be curbed and controlled. -Bachya came near extolling monasticism, toward which the Middle Ages, -both in the Mahometan and in the Christian world, markedly inclined. -Although well versed in philosophy, he would have passed his days, a -Jewish hermit, in retirement from the world and in a contemplative -life of meditation, like his younger contemporary, the Mahometan -philosopher Alghazali, or he would have imitated the "Mourners -for Zion" among the Karaites, were it not that the basis for such -extravagant excesses was wanting in rabbinical Judaism. - -The first rabbinical epoch was fertile in original minds, also -producing a character whose course tended to shake violently the firm -basis of Judaism. Abu Ibraham Isaac Ibn-Kastar (or Saktar) ben Yasus, -with the literary title Yizchaki, was a man whose profound knowledge -of philosophy and medicine was also celebrated among the Arabs. Born -at Toledo (982, died 1057), he was appointed physician to Mujahid, the -Prince of Denia, and his son Ali Ikbal Addaula. Ben Yasus composed a -Hebrew grammar, under the name of "Compositions," and another work -with the title of "Sefer Yizchaki," in which he displayed remarkable -boldness in his Biblical explanations. He asserted especially that the -portion of the Pentateuch in Genesis which treats of the kings of Edom -was not written by Moses, but was interpolated some centuries later, a -critical statement unique in the Middle Ages, and not advanced until -very recently. - -It would be wrong to pass over in silence a poet, who, for flight of -fancy, depth of thought, and beauty of expression, may claim equality -with Solomon Ibn-Gebirol, but of whose poems only a single one is -extant, "an orphaned song," as he himself called it. Abu Amr Joseph -ben Chasdai was probably born in Cordova. His two brothers, who were -compelled by the troubles of the wars in Spain to leave home, dwelt -under the protection of the statesman, Samuel Ibn-Nagrela. Respect and -thankfulness towards their noble patron induced Joseph ben Chasdai to -write an elevated, artistic, and highly imaginative poem, in which he -eulogized Samuel and his young son Joseph with enthusiastic warmth -(about 1044-1046). Samuel, who would never accept anything, not even a -gift of praise, without making some return, wrote, in praise of Joseph -ben Chasdai, a similar poem in the same meter, but not possessing the -same poetical beauty. Joseph ben Chasdai left a son, who later obtained -in Saragossa a position similar to that of Ibn-Nagrela in Granada. - -Samuel, the pride of the Spanish Jews, who, as his biographer says, -bore four crowns, the crown of the Law, of the priesthood, of renown, -and pre-eminently that of magnanimity, was the soul of the Jewish -congregation for over a quarter of a century, and died deeply lamented -by his contemporaries (1055). He was buried at the gate of Elvira, in -Granada, and his son erected a magnificent monument to him. A still -finer monument was built for him by Solomon Ibn-Gebirol in a few -pregnant lines: - - "Thy home is now within my heart, - Whence ne'er shall thy firm tent depart. - There I seek thee, there I find thee, - Near as my soul art thou to me." - -Samuel's noble son, Abu Hussain Joseph Ibn-Nagrela (born 1031), was -a worthy successor to all the honors and titles of his father. King -Badis appointed him his vizir, and the Jewish community in Granada -acknowledged him, although but twenty-four years of age, as their rabbi -and chief (Nagid). His father had placed him under learned tutors -from different countries, and in his youth he displayed extraordinary -maturity of mind. Joseph, who, like his father, was well acquainted -with Arabic literature, became during his father's lifetime secretary -to the heir-apparent Balkin. When he was eighteen years old, his father -chose a wife for him, and he did not seek her among the wealthy and -noble families of Andalusia. She was the learned and virtuous daughter -of the poor Nissim of Kairuan. Joseph was heir to all the greatness -of his father, and though rich and surpassingly handsome, he lived, -in the prime of his youth, with a moderation that presented a marked -contrast to the debauchery of the Mahometan nobles. In his capacity -as minister, Joseph worked for the welfare of the state, and ruled as -independently as his father. He supported science and its votaries, -and so great was his liberality and so lofty his nobility of soul, -that even Arab poets sang his praises. "Greet his countenance," said a -Mahometan of him, "for in it wilt thou find happiness and hope. Never -has a friend found a flaw in him." When the sons of the last Gaon, -descended from the Prince of the Captivity, fled to Spain, Joseph -Ibn-Nagrela received them hospitably, and assisted them in finding a -new home in Granada. The young Jewish vizir, like his father, was the -head of a college, and delivered lectures on the Talmud. - -In two things only did Joseph's conduct differ from his father's; he -promoted his co-religionists too conspicuously to positions of state, -and behaved haughtily to his subordinates. A near kinsman of his was -installed in the office next beneath his own. By these acts Joseph -aroused the hatred of the Berbers, the ruling population in Granada, -against himself and the Jews. They envied his truly princely splendor. -He had a palace which was paved with marble. Certain occurrences -during his administration transformed the hatred into fierce anger. -Between the heir-apparent Balkin and his former secretary Joseph -there was mutual antipathy. Suddenly Balkin died, it was thought by -poisoning. King Badis thereupon had some of the servants and wives of -the prince executed as guilty of his death. The remainder fled in fear -of a similar punishment (1064). It was popularly believed, however, -that Joseph had administered the poison to the prince. An incident, -in which Joseph revealed himself at once as a humane man, and as a -diplomatist devoted to his master, appears to have lost him the favor -of Badis. Between the Berbers who held the sovereign power in Granada -and other places in Spain and the original Arabs, there raged so fierce -a racial hatred that every town of mixed population was divided into -two camps. On one occasion King Badis learnt that the Berber ruler -in Ronda had been slain in consequence of a conspiracy of the Arabs -organized by the king of Seville, and on this account he was filled -with mistrust towards the Arabs of his capital. He feared at every -moment that he, like his kinsman, would fall a victim to a conspiracy. -He thereupon concocted a fiendish plot; he ordered his army to massacre -all the Arabs of his capital during divine service on a Friday. This -plan he communicated to his Jewish minister, without whose advice he -did nothing, adding that his determination was so firmly made that -no objections would avail to cause him to desist from his purpose, -and that he expected Joseph to maintain the deepest silence about his -project. Joseph, however, considered this murderous plan as a baleful -political mistake, and omitted nothing whereby he might persuade the -bloodthirsty monarch to abandon his design. He asked the king to -consider that the plot might miscarry, and the Arabs of the town and -of the suburbs might rush to arms in self-defense, and that, even if -the whole Arab population were destroyed without resistance, the danger -would not disappear, but rather become magnified; for the neighboring -states, which, like Seville, were wholly Arab, would be excited to -deadly fury, and enter upon a war of revenge against the murderers of -their kinsmen. "I see them even now," said Joseph with energy; "even -now do I behold them hurrying towards us, burning with rage, each one -brandishing his sword over thy head, O king. Foes, countless as the -waves of the sea, hurl themselves against thee, and thou and thine -army are powerless." Thus spake the Jewish statesman. - -Badis, nevertheless, persisted in his resolve, and issued his commands -to the generals of his army. Joseph alone deemed it his duty to abstain -from taking part in the mischievous design of the king against his Arab -subjects, and determined to frustrate the plot even at the risk of his -own life. Through the medium of certain women, on whom he could rely, -he sent secret instructions to the chief Arabs of the capital, warning -them not to attend the mosque on the following Friday, but to keep -themselves concealed. They understood the hint and obeyed it. On the -appointed Friday the troops were drawn up in readiness near the palace. -The spies of Badis found in the mosque only Berbers and a few Arabs of -the lower classes. Badis was thus obliged to abandon his plan; but his -anger turned against his minister, whom he suspected of betraying his -trust, and he reproached him bitterly for it. Joseph denied the charge -of having warned the Arabs, and maintained that the plan had been -revealed by the mysterious, unnecessary military preparations. Finally, -he remarked that the king ought to thank God that he had protected him -from impending danger. "The time will come when thou wilt approve of my -view of the matter, and wilt readily follow the advice I give thee." A -Berber sheik came to the support of the vizir, and Badis was appeased. -But dislike lingered in his heart against his Jewish minister, and he -was full of suspicion of him. Joseph could maintain his position only -by the aid of spies, who reported to him every utterance of the king. -The Berber population, however, noticed that the Jewish vizir was now -no longer in high favor with their sovereign, and dared enter into -plots against him, and follow the dictates of their hatred against -him and the Jews. Damaging rumors were continually circulated about -him. His enemies gained the upper hand. A fanatical Mahometan poet, -Abu Ishak al-Elviri, in an inflammatory poem, stimulated the fierce -enmity of the Mahometans of Granada against the Jews into energetic -action. A passage in it ran as follows:--"Say unto the Sinhajas, to -the mighty men of the time, and the lions of the desert, 'Your lord -has committed a disgraceful deed, he has given honor to the infidels. -He appointed as minister (Katib) a Jew, when he was well able to find -one among the Faithful. The Jews buoy themselves up with foolish -hopes, make themselves lords, and treat the Moslems with haughtiness. -When I entered Granada, I perceived that the Jews possessed the sole -authority, and divided the capital and the provinces among themselves. -Everywhere one of this accursed tribe is in power.'" This seditious -poem was soon in the mouth of all Mahometans; it was the raven's -croaking for Joseph's death. - -At length, a certain incident unchained the fury of his opponents. The -troops of a neighboring prince, Almotassem of Almeria, had invaded -the territory of Granada, and they declared that Joseph was in league -with their king, and that the army had appeared because he intended to -surrender the country to Almotassem. The truth of the matter cannot -be discovered now. As soon as the statements of the Almerian soldiery -had spread abroad, the Berbers, accompanied by a crowd of the common -rabble, hastened on the same day, on a Saturday, to the palace of -Joseph. On receiving news of the rising, he concealed himself, and -blackened his face, so as to escape recognition. His furious enemies -nevertheless recognized him, slew him, and crucified him at the gates -of Granada. The young minister met his sad end in the thirty-fifth year -of his life (9 Tebet, 30 December, 1066). The rage of the infuriated -assassins also spent itself on all the Jews in Granada that had not -saved themselves by flight. Over one thousand five hundred Jewish -families were massacred on that day, and their houses destroyed. Only -a few escaped the slaughter, among whom were Joseph's wife, with her -young son, Azaria. They fled to Lucena, but so little of their enormous -wealth had they been able to save that they were compelled to rely for -their support on the congregation of Lucena. Joseph's valuable library -was partly destroyed and partly sold. Great was the mourning for the -Jewish martyrs of Granada and for the noble Jewish prince. Even an -Arabic poet, Ibn-Alfara, who had celebrated Joseph during his lifetime, -dedicated an elegy to him, in which these words occur: "Faithfulness is -my religion, and this bids me shed a tear for the Jew." His sympathy -caused calumnies to be spread against the Mahometan poet at the court -of the king of Almeria, who was admonished against extending the hand -of friendship to him. The prince, however, replied, "This poet must -have a noble heart, since he laments a Jew after his death. I know -Moslems who pay no attention to their living co-religionists." - -The revolt against Joseph Ibn-Nagrela in Granada was the first -persecution of the Jews in the Pyrenean peninsula since its conquest -by Islam. It appears to have lasted some time, for the Jews throughout -the kingdom of Granada were exiled, and compelled to sell their landed -property. It had no effect, however, upon the Jewish inhabitants of -other parts of Spain. The princes or kings of each district, who -had made themselves independent on the downfall of the caliphate -of Cordova, were so hostile towards each other, that the people -who were persecuted by one prince were protected by his enemy. The -three distinguished Jews who had been banished from Granada were -received in a friendly spirit by Almuthadid, king of Seville, and -Joseph Ibn-Migash I was given a high office. The king of Saragossa, -Al-muktadir Billah, a patron of science and poetry, also had a Jewish -vizir, Abu Fadhl, a son of the poet Joseph Ibn-Chasdai who contended -with Ibn-Gebirol for the laurels of poetry. This Abu Fadhl Chasdai -(born about 1040) was likewise a poet, but, although acquainted with -Hebrew, he wrote only in Arabic verse. The following opinion of him -was expressed by an Arabic critic: "When Abu Fadhl wrote poetry one -was ready to believe in witchcraft; he did not compose verses, but -miracles." Abu Fadhl was also distinguished in other branches of -science. He understood the theory and practice of music, but his -favorite study appears to have been speculative philosophy. The -remarkable qualities of his mind attracted the attention of the king of -Saragossa, who made him his vizir (1066). - -Not long after these events, Solomon Ibn-Gebirol, the noble -philosopher-poet, ended his days on earth. His gloomy spirit appears -to have become still more somber through the tragic events in Granada. -His last poems were therefore elegiac laments over the cruel fate of -Israel: "Wherefore does the slave rule over the sons of princes? My -exile has lasted a thousand years, and I am like the howling bird -of the desert. Where is the high-priest who will show me the end of -all this?" (1068). In the last year of his life, Solomon Ibn-Gebirol -complained similarly: "Our years pass in distress and misery; we look -for the light, but darkness and humiliation overtake us: slaves rule -over us. Till she fell, Babylon held sway over me; Rome, Javan, and -Persia then hemmed me in, and scattered me far and wide; and these 461 -years (from the time of Hejira) doth Ishmael despoil me." This probably -was Ibn-Gebirol's last poem. He spent the last years of his life, after -many wanderings, in Valencia, and there he died, not yet fifty years -old (1069 or 1070). A legend relates that an Arab poet slew him from -envy of his masterly powers of song, and buried his body beneath a -fig-tree. The tree produced extraordinary blossoms, the attention of -passers-by was drawn to it, and thus the murder of the noble poet was -discovered. - -At the time when Spain showed such an abundance of distinguished -men, France and Germany were lacking in great creative minds, and -the history of the Jews of these countries presents few interesting -features. They lived entirely undisturbed, were landowners, cultivated -the vine, occupied themselves with handicrafts and trade, and only had -to pay to the prince, in whose territory they dwelt, a kind of Jew-tax. - -The French and German Jews doubtless lacked energy and chivalry, but -theirs was not a lower grade of culture than that of their Christian -compatriots. Their chief occupation on both sides of the Rhine was the -study of the Talmud, into which Gershom had initiated them. "They drive -away sleep to absorb themselves in the Talmud." - -The first Jewish persecution on Andalusian soil by the Mahometan -fanatics of Granada alarmed all the communities of Spain, but it did -not have the effect of discouraging them, or producing stagnation. The -pursuit of science and poetry had become second nature to the Jews -of southern Spain, and only frequent and crushing disasters could -repress their love. The persecution was neither repeated nor imitated. -The people of Granada had murdered the Jewish vizir and several of -his nation, which, however, did not hinder other kings or emirs from -attracting gifted Jews to their courts, entrusting them with important -affairs, and placing the Jews on an equality with the ruling population -of the state. - -An Arab historian complained that the princes of the Faithful abandoned -themselves to sensual enjoyments, placed their power in the hands of -the Jews, and made them Hayibs, vizirs and private secretaries. The -example of the Mahometan courts was followed even by Christian states. -They also began to employ Jews in affairs of state, and their ability -and faithfulness added greatly to the growth of their power. Thus the -position of the Spanish Jews remained for a time wholly unaffected -by the success of Christian arms and the gradual dissolution of the -Mahometan principalities. They felt as much at home under the dominion -of the Cross in Spain, as under that of the Crescent, and were able, -unfettered, to satisfy their love of investigation. Their ardor in -the domain of science and of poetry, far from cooling, increased, if -possible, more and more, and the number of students grew from year -to year. Yet it appears that in the period after Ibn-Nagrela and -Ibn-Gebirol, poetry, philology, exegesis, and philosophy, although -eagerly followed, were superseded by the study of the Talmud, which -became, as it were, the central study. The dialectics of the Talmud -were revived and cultivated simultaneously in Spain, Africa, and -France. The study of the Talmud was so thoroughly prosecuted that the -achievements of the Geonim were thrown into the shade. Six men, of -whom five bear the name of Isaac, and the other, that of Yizchaki, may -be regarded as the principal figures of the second rabbinical age: -Isaac Ibn-Albalia, distinguished also for his political position; -Isaac Ibn-Giat and Isaac ben Reuben, who were at once Talmudists and -writers of liturgical poems; Isaac Ibn-Sakni; Isaac Alfassi and Solomon -Yizchaki, the two creators of an independent method of Talmudic study, -far surpassing that used by the Geonim. - -Isaac ben Baruch Albalia, by means of documents, traced his origin to -Baruch, a noble exile from Jerusalem, who is supposed to have been -sent by Titus to a proconsul at Merida, in order to carry on in Spain -the silk culture, in which his family was skilled. Later the Albalias -removed to Cordova, and became one of the most distinguished families -of the Andalusian capital. Isaac (born 1035, died 1094) early betrayed -a gifted mind and a burning thirst for knowledge. His inclinations led -him equally to astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and the Talmud. -Samuel Ibn-Nagrela encouraged him in his studies by gifts and books, -and his son Joseph endowed him with abundant means. Isaac Ibn-Albalia -lived alternately in Cordova and with his noble patron in Granada. He -only trifled with poetry, and turned his mind to deeper studies. Isaac -Ibn-Albalia had scarcely attained his thirtieth year, when he began a -commentary to elucidate the most difficult portions of the Talmud. At -the same time (1065) he was writing an astronomical work called Ibbur, -on the principles of the Jewish calendar, which he dedicated to his -patron, Joseph Ibn-Nagrela. Isaac Ibn-Albalia, who was at the time -visiting his friend Joseph, luckily was not injured in the massacre at -Granada (1066), and he afterwards made Cordova his permanent abode. -Here he became acquainted with the noble prince, Abulkassim Mahomet, -a lover of science and poetry. When the latter ascended the throne -of Seville, under the name of Al-Mutamed (May, 1069), he summoned -Ibn-Albalia to his court at Seville, and made him his astronomer, -whose duty it was not so much to observe the motions of the stars as -to foretell future events from the position of the constellations. He -also appointed Isaac Albalia as chief over all the Jewish communities -of his kingdom, which fortunate conquests had made the mightiest -in Mahometan Spain. It extended northward as far as Cordova, and -eastward to Murcia. Isaac, therefore, like Ibn-Chasdai, Ibn-Jau, and -Ibn-Nagrela, took the rank of prince (Nassi). He was at the same time -rabbi over the communities of the realm of Seville, and his authority -was acknowledged abroad. As his master, Al-Mutamed, was the most -illustrious prince in Spain, so Isaac was the most illustrious and -learned man among the Spanish Jews. Beautiful Seville became through -him the center of Jewish Spain, as Cordova and Granada had been in the -past. Al-Mutamed, the last noble ruler of the Arab race in Spain, had -another Jewish functionary at his court, Ibn-Misha'l, whom he employed -on diplomatic missions. - -Of Albalia's contemporary, Isaac ben Jehuda Ibn-Giat (b. 1030, d. -1089), little is known. He belonged to a rich and illustrious family -of Lucena (not far from Cordova). Both the Ibn-Nagrelas gave him in -his youth many proofs of their respect, and he was devoted to them -heart and soul. After the tragic end of Joseph Ibn-Nagrela, Ibn-Giat -gave himself much trouble to raise Joseph's son, Abu-nassar Azaria, to -the rank of rabbi of Lucena. But death deprived this noble house of -its last scion. The community selected Isaac Ibn-Giat as its spiritual -chief, on account of his learning and virtues. Liturgical poetry, -philosophy, and the Talmud were the three domains sedulously cultivated -by him. - -Isaac ben Reuben Albergeloni, in his old age, compiled an original -work treating of the civil jurisprudence of the Talmud in a systematic -way. He also was an earnest religious poet. He composed new "Azharoth" -in pithy but awkward language, and adorned his verses with Biblical -quotations aptly applied. Isaac Albergeloni is the first Hebrew writer -to make use of this mosaic of Biblical verses, which are not quoted for -their usual meaning, but woven together in ingenious and unexpected -combinations. - -Albergeloni in early youth had gone from Barcelona to Denia; at the -same time the fourth Isaac (ben Moses) Ibn-Sakni was departing thence, -probably because a slight had been put upon him. He wended his way to -the Orient, and in Pumbeditha was made a teacher of the Law under the -title of Gaon. So greatly had the times changed! Whilst the Occident -had formerly lent a willing ear to the utterances of the Geonim in -the Orient, it was now, scarcely half a century after the death of -Gaon Hai, able to send teachers to the country in which had stood the -cradle of the Talmud, and a man who found no recognition in Spain was -considered an authority by the once proud Pumbeditha. - -In knowledge and sharp-witted understanding of the Talmud, these four -Isaacs were outstripped by the fifth, Isaac ben Jacob Alfassi, or -Alkalai. Born in Kala-Ibn-Hammad, in the neighborhood of Fez (1013), he -was instructed by the last African authorities, Nissim and Chananel, -and after their death in 1056 he became the representative of Talmud -studies in western Africa. Indifferent to the scientific pursuits which -their taste as well as consideration for their material advancement -prompted the gifted Jews of Spain and Africa to cultivate, Alfassi -devoted all his acumen to a profound study of the Talmud. His was a -deeply earnest, independent nature, not content to keep to the beaten -track of time-honored customs, but desirous of striking out into new -paths. It had hitherto been the custom to follow in practice the -rulings of the Geonim, whenever, as frequently occurs, the Talmud -records conflicting opinions on a given subject, and to accept their -explanations and decisions as norms. Alfassi, however, proceeded from -the commentaries to the text itself, and sought with his peculiar -acuteness to distinguish all that was incontestable and durable, and of -real import, in the Talmud, from that which was doubtful, superficial, -and expedient. The opinions of the Gaonic authorities were not final -for him. In this spirit he compiled a work, which, in spite of the -attacks leveled at it at the time, became a standard book for the -entire Jewish community. His "Halachoth" abstract from the Talmud only -whatever affects conduct, but fix the practical bearings of the laws -thus classified with absolute certainty. Alfassi's work consigned to -oblivion all similar works compiled in the course of three centuries, -since Jehudai Gaon's time. His name was borne by this work far beyond -the straits into Spain where he counted still more admirers than in his -native land. - -A complete match for Alfassi, however, in knowledge of the Talmud was -the Frenchman, Solomon Yizchaki, a man as acute and independent as -himself, only less bold and impetuous, but more versatile. - -Solomon Yizchaki, known under the name of Rashi, was born in 1040 -(died in 1105), at Troyes, in Champagne, in the year in which the -last Gaon suffered martyrdom, as if to intimate that the new spirit -infused by Rashi would fully compensate for the downfall of the old -institution. Rashi's mother was the sister of Simon ben Isaac, highly -respected on account of his services to the community of Mayence and -his liturgic poetry, and his father was well versed in the Talmud. -Thus Rashi had, as it were, drawn his nourishment from the Talmud, and -in it he lived and had his being. In order to perfect himself in the -study of the Talmud, he frequented the Talmudical school of Mayence, -but also attended the lectures of the Talmud teachers in Worms, and of -Eliakim in Speyer. Like Akiba he left his home and his wife to devote -himself to the study of the Law in foreign parts. He tells in what -needy circumstances he pursued this study, "in want of bread, denuded -of clothing and fettered by matrimony." Now and then, probably on the -festivals, he visited his wife, but he always returned to the German, -or as they were then called, Lotharingian centers of learning. At the -age of twenty-five (1064) he settled permanently at Troyes. - -In his modesty he did not suspect that at that early time he was -honored as a master of Talmudic lore. In Rashi's earliest decisions -which he delivered when a youth, there is no trace of the groping -novice, they reveal the hand of the skilful adept, the master of his -subject. His teachers, in their letters, lavished on him the most -flattering praise. Isaac Halevi, of Worms, wrote to Rashi, "We owe it -to you that this age is not orphaned, and may many like unto you arise -in Israel." - -Undoubtedly the community of Troyes and its vicinity selected him as -their rabbi, though we have no proof thereof; but he drew no emoluments -from the office. In a time, about which a dispassionate author, in -speaking of the prelates under Pope Hildebrand, can say, "No one -could become a bishop or an abbot of the empire unless he either was -rich or addicted to vice; amongst the priests, he was praised most -highly who had the most splendid garments, the most sumptuous table, -and the handsomest concubines"--in that time, and also for a long -while afterwards, it was considered in Jewish circles a sin and a -disgrace for rabbis to accept remuneration for the performance of -their duties. The rabbinate in Christian and Moslem countries was an -honorary office to be given only to the most worthy; and the rabbi -was to be a shining light to the community, not only intellectually, -but also in moral character. Sobriety, frugality, indifference to -Mammon, were as a matter of course expected of every rabbi. Rashi was -the most perfect embodiment of this conception of a rabbi, and Jewish -posterity has beheld in him a spotless personification of its ideal. -His contemporaries also revered him as the highest authority. From -all parts of France and Germany doubtful cases were sent to him to be -decided, and his answers testified to his profound knowledge and to his -mildness of temper. - -After the death of the Talmudical scholars in Lorraine, about 1070, -the German and French students flocked to Rashi's lecture-room at -Troyes; he was looked upon as their worthy successor. He lectured on -the Bible and the Talmud. Rashi was so imbued with the spirit of the -Talmud that for him it contained nothing obscure. In its elucidation -he surpassed all his predecessors, so that it was rightly said that -without him the Babylonian Talmud would have been neglected like that -of Jerusalem. His explanations of a large number of the Talmudic -tractates, which he called "Commentary" (conteros), are models of their -kind, simple, concise and lucid. He wrote in the clear idiom of the -Talmud, and neither used an unnecessary, nor omitted a necessary word. -The explanations of words and things are intended for the beginner -as well as for the learned specialist. Rashi gave clearness to the -text by placing himself in the position of the reader; by a skilfully -chosen expression, he prevented misunderstanding, met objections and -anticipated questions. Rashi, as commentator, may be called an artist. -He soon supplanted the commentaries of Gershom and his own masters. -Rashi also wrote a commentary of equal originality on most of the books -of Holy Writ. His tact and his love of truth led him to seize the true -meaning of words and passages. But he allowed himself frequently to be -guided by the Agadic opinions, on the supposition that the elucidation -of verses occurring in the Talmud and in Agadic works was to be taken -seriously. Yet he was, to a certain extent, conscious that the simple -text (peshat) was opposed to the Agadic mode of explanation (the -derasha). In his old age this consciousness deepened, and he told his -learned grandson (Rashbam) that he meant to revise his commentaries of -the Bible in the spirit of a sober and literal explanation of the text. -Rashi towered above the contemporaneous Christian expositors of the -Bible, who all believed that Holy Writ contained a fourfold meaning. -Rashi's skill in exposition appears the more surprising as he was -not acquainted with the important achievements of the Spanish school. -He was acquainted only with the first part of the Hebrew grammar by -Menachem ben Saruk and that by Dunash, and these he took as his guides. -Chayuj's and Ibn-Janach's works, however, being written in Arabic, -remained unknown to him. Therefore, his grammatical nomenclature is -clumsy and frequently obscure. Nevertheless, no commentary of Holy Writ -has been so popular as Rashi's, so that at one time many considered -his commentary part and parcel of the text, and every one of his words -was in turn commented upon and expounded. His mantle fell upon his -grandsons and sons-in-law, who were his greatest disciples. For he had -no sons, only three daughters, of whom the one was so deeply versed in -the Talmud that during her father's illness she read to him all the -questions concerning the Talmud that had been sent to him, and wrote -down the answers dictated to her. His three daughters were married -to men of learning, and gave birth to sons worthy of their ancestry. -One of these sons-in-law, Meir of Rameru, not far from Troyes, was -the father of three distinguished sons. Through Rashi and his school, -the north of France, Champagne, became the home of Talmudic lore as -Babylonia had been of old. It laid down the law for the rest of Europe. -The French Talmudical students were in request even in Spain, and were -liberally remunerated for their instruction. The leadership, which -Jewish Spain had taken from Babylonia, from Rashi's time had to be -shared with France. Whilst Spain remained classic ground with respect -to Hebrew poetry, linguistic attainments, exegesis and philosophy, it -had to yield the palm to France in the study of the Talmud. - -At this time there were two men in Spain who occupied themselves -exclusively with grammar and the study of the Bible, and although they -did not particularly enrich these studies, yet they undoubtedly imbued -them with fresh vitality. They were Moses ben Samuel Ibn-G'ikatilia, -of Cordova, and Jehuda Ibn-Balam, of Toledo (about 1070 to 1100). The -former, the disciple of Ibn-Janach, in his exposition of Holy Writ -occupied his master's liberal point of view. Some of the Psalms were -attributed by Ibn-G'ikatilia to a later period, whilst the common -opinion prevailed amongst Jews as well as Christians that the whole -psalter was the work of the royal bard. He did not think well of the -division of verses by the Massora, and contrary to its directions, -joined consecutive verses. - -The representatives of the Spanish Jews thus distinguished themselves -in science and poetry, while in France great impetus was given to the -study of the Talmud. The Jews of the Italian peninsula, however, occupy -a very low position in the history of culture at this period. Their -poetic effusions, in harsh and barbaric language, whether liturgical -or secular in character, lack the true charm of poetry, and their -Talmud lore was obtained from foreign parts. Nathan ben Yechiel, of -Rome, is the only Italian of that time whose name figures in Jewish -literature. He compiled a Talmudic lexicon, under the title of "Aruch," -in about 1001 or 1002; it was more complete than the earlier works of -similar purpose, but was compiled, with little originality, from these -older works, principally from the writings of Chananel, of Kairuan. -This lexicon became the key to the Talmud. Kalonymos, of Rome, is -also mentioned as a Talmudic authority. Rashi spoke of him with great -respect; the community of Worms elected him as rabbi after the year -1096. However, he has left nothing in writing, and seems to have -exerted no influence. The historical works of this period are silent -respecting the political position of the Italian Jews, a proof that it -was not unfavorable. - -Events of world-wide importance in western Europe, the extensive -invasion by Christians of Mahometan Spain, and the first crusade -against the Mahometans in the East, brought about important changes for -the Jews of western Europe. The changes were chiefly of a deplorable -kind, and interrupted their peaceful occupation with the Law. In the -fortunes of Spain the Jews played no insignificant part, although -their active interference is not conspicuously visible. They were -helpful in digging the pit into which their great grandsons were to -fall. The first powerful blow at the Islam dominion in the peninsula -south of the Pyrenees was dealt by the Castilian king Alfonso VI, who -was as brave in combat as he was clever in state affairs, and who -placed more reliance on the sword and on diplomatic art, than on the -cross and prayer. His purpose, to conquer the Mahometan kingdoms and -principalities, was only attainable by fomenting dissensions among -the rulers, stimulating rivalry between them, and playing off one -against the other, thus weakening them all. To that end he required -clever diplomatists, and among his subjects the Jews were the ones -best prepared for the work. His knights were too clumsy, and his -citizens too ignorant to be fitted for missions of a delicate nature. -At the Mahometan courts of Toledo, Seville, Granada, there reigned a -refined, cultured, intellectual tone, and frequent allusions were made -in conversation to the brilliant history and literature of the Arabs. -If an ambassador at these courts wanted to accomplish anything, he was -obliged, not only to be acquainted with all the niceties of the Arabic -language, but also to be familiar with its literature and the manners -of the court. In these respects the Jews were particularly useful. -Therefore Alfonso employed Jews on diplomatic missions to the courts -of the Mahometan princes. One of them, the Jewish diplomatist at the -court of King Alfonso, was Amram ben Isaac Ibn-Shalbib, originally -Alfonso's private physician. As Ibn-Shalbib was well versed in Arabic, -and possessed insight into the political circumstances of that period, -the king of Castile appointed him private secretary, and entrusted him -with important affairs. Alfonso had another Jewish adviser, Cidellus, -who was on such intimate terms with the king, that the latter's reserve -was overcome, and he permitted him to speak more freely than any of the -Spanish noblemen and grandees of the empire. Alfonso, who was far from -being a religious bigot, and who had acquired liberal views from his -contact with the Mahometan princes, not only conferred distinctions on -certain individuals among the Jews, but cleared the way to dignities -and honors for all the sons of Jacob dwelling in his dominions. -Alfonso had, indeed, found a certain equality in citizenship existing -in many parts of Christian Spain, where custom had superseded the old -Visigothic laws. According to the Visigothic code, the Jews were to be -treated as outcasts, to be subjected to regulations applying to them -alone, and were not to be allowed to act as witnesses. On the other -hand, according to the law of custom (fueros), Christians, Jews, and -Mahometans of the same town and the same country came under the same -law. The Jew had to testify against the Christian on the "Torah." If -Jews and Christians had a lawsuit, they had to select a Christian and -a Jew as arbitrators (Alkalde). If a man wished to sell his house, two -Christians and the same number of Jews had to appraise it. According -to another law established by custom (fuero de Najera), the Jews were -treated on an equality with the nobles and the clergy; the same sum -was fixed as compensation for the murder of a Jew, a nobleman, and -a priest. Down to the smallest details of daily life, the equality -between Jews and Christians before the law was made manifest. As -Alfonso now confirmed these municipal laws, the civil equality of the -Jews was legally acknowledged, and the ignominy of the Visigothic -legislation against the Jews was effaced. Jews, under certain -circumstances, were permitted to enjoy the privilege of duelling, and -admitted into military service. Light seemed to be dawning upon the -Middle Ages, and Roman-Christian narrow-mindedness, emanating from -Theodosius II, seemed about to vanish. - -However, the Church, whose foundation was intolerance, was not -likely to countenance the promotion of Jews to honorable offices -in a Christian land. The head of the Church, Pope Hildebrand, who, -under the name of Gregory VII, through his legates and the shafts -of excommunication plunged Europe into a condition of ferment and -disruption, protested against this state of things. He, the mightiest -of the mighty, before whom kings and nations groveled in the dust, -wished also to humble the defenseless Jews, and to rob them of the -respect and honors which they had acquired by their merit. - -Emperor Henry IV had granted the same privileges to the Jews of Worms -as to the other citizens of that town. When princes and priests, towns -and villages, unmindful of their oath, and excited by the Pope, broke -faith with him, and treated him as one under the ban, the town of Worms -remained faithful to him. A year later, when Pope Gregory had treated -the emperor as a boy, making him do penance in his shirt, he also -became eager to humble the Jews. At the Church congress in Rome, in -1078, when the Pope issued for the second time his interdict against -the enemies of the papacy, he promulgated a canonical law to the effect -that the Jews should hold no office in Christendom, and exercise no -supremacy whatever over the Christians. This canonical decision was -directed principally against Spain, where, owing to the peculiar -position caused by continual strife with the Arabs, the Roman Church -had asserted a degree of independence. As Gregory wished to force upon -King Alfonso foreign bishops, pliant tools in the execution of his -will, so he endeavored to arrest the influence of the Jews at the court -of Castile. He therefore addressed a vigorous epistle to Alfonso in -1080, in which the following words occur: - - "As we feel impelled to congratulate you on the progress of - your fame, so at the same time must we deprecate the harm you - do. We admonish your Highness that you must cease to suffer - the Jews to rule over the Christians and exercise authority - over them. For to allow the Christians to be subordinate to the - Jews, and to subject them to their judgment, is the same as - oppressing God's Church and exalting Satan's synagogue. To wish - to please Christ's enemies means to treat Christ himself with - contumely." - -On the other hand, the Pope was well satisfied with William the -Conqueror, King of England and Duke of Normandy, who ratified the -decision of the congress in Rouen, that the Jews were not only -prohibited from keeping Christian bondmen, but also from having -Christian nurses. - -But Alfonso had to give his attention to other affairs besides the -intolerance of the Church. He troubled himself but little about the -decision of the great council in Rome and the autograph letter of the -Pope, and retained his Jewish advisers. He was just then revolving -in his mind a plan of invading the kingdom of Toledo. In order to -accomplish this he had to isolate its governor from the neighboring -princes of his faith and race, and to be assured of their neutrality -or their co-operation with himself. For that, however, he required his -Jewish diplomatists, and could not entertain the idea of satisfying the -importunities of the Pope. By an alliance with the noble and valiant -king of Seville, Al-Mutamed Ibn-Abbad, in all probability effected -by Jewish agents, Alfonso conquered the old and important town of -Toledo (1085), the first bulwark of the Spanish Mahometans against -the aggressive power of the Christians. The victor of Toledo assured -to the Jews of this town and the territory appertaining to it, all the -liberties which they had enjoyed under the Mahometan rulers. The last -unfortunate Mahometan king of Toledo, Yachya Alkader, who had to take -refuge in Valencia, had a Jewish confidant in his suite, who remained -faithful to him long after his death, whilst his nearest friends -betrayed him. - -Alfonso did not rest satisfied with the possession of Toledo, which was -again elevated to the rank of capital, but wished to make use of the -disagreements and petty jealousies of the Mahometan princes for the -purpose of making fresh conquests. First of all he determined to attack -the territory of the king of Seville, who also ruled over Cordova. He -therefore suddenly dropped the mask of friendship, and made demands -of Al-Mutamed, such as this noble prince could not in honor concede. -With the perilous mission of revealing the true state of affairs to -the king of Seville, and of facing him in a firm and defiant attitude, -Alfonso entrusted his Jewish councillor of state, Isaac Ibn-Shalbib, -instructing him not to pay any regard to the requirements of courtesy. -Five hundred Christian knights accompanied Alfonso's Jewish messenger -to the court of Seville, in order to lend dignity to his embassy. This -commission cost Ibn-Shalbib his life. Acting in the spirit of his -master, he spoke in terms so positive, and insisted so unflinchingly on -the fulfilment of the demand he was charged to make, that Al-Mutamed -fell into a violent passion, and transgressed the law protecting the -person of an ambassador, had Ibn-Shalbib killed, nailed to a gibbet, -and his followers imprisoned. - -The breach which in consequence occurred between Alfonso and the -king of Seville induced the latter to join the league of the rest -of the Mahometan princes, and send for the conqueror of northern -Africa, the Almoravide Prince Yussuf Ibn-Teshufin, to aid them against -Alfonso. Al-Mutamed spoke the deciding word in favor of this plan. The -African hero appeared in response to the invitation, and his presence -eventually caused the servitude and downfall of the Andalusian princes. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE FIRST CRUSADE. - - The position of the Jews in Germany previous to the Crusades-- - The community of Speyer and Henry IV--The Martyrs of Treves - and Speyer--Emmerich of Leiningen and the Martyrs of Mayence - --Cruel persecutions at Cologne--Suffering of the Jews in - Bohemia--Pitiful death of the Jews of Jerusalem--Emperor - Henry's justice towards the Jews--Return of Converts to - Judaism--Death of Alfassi and Rashi. - -1096-1105 C. E. - - -Towards the end of the eleventh century there arose the first contest -between Christianity and Islam on other ground than that of Spain. This -contest turned the history of the world into new paths, and inserted -in the history of the Jews pages dripping with blood. Peter of Amiens' -lament about the ill-treatment of pilgrims in Jerusalem, which found -a thousandfold echo at the Church congress in Clermont, had aroused -piety, chivalry, ambition, and a number of other noble and ignoble -passions, expressing themselves in a crusade. A terrible time ensued; -but the greatest suffering fell on the German Jews, who had to seal -their confession of faith with blood. Before the crusades, the Jews of -Germany had dwelt in peace; they were not excluded from the possession -of land, nor were they despised and humiliated. When Bishop Ruediger -Huozmann, of Speyer, extended the limits of the town by including the -village Old Speyer, he knew no better way of improving the new portion -than by allowing the Jews to have privileges and dwellings therein. -He allowed the Jews to live under their own laws, and their secular -head or their rabbin (Archisynagogus), like the burgomasters, decided -lawsuits. The Jews could buy slaves, and hire male and female servants -from Christians, in opposition to the canonical laws and against the -will of Pope Gregory VII. In order to protect them from the mob, -Ruediger gave them a special quarter surrounded by a wall, which they -might fortify and defend. These privileges, for which they annually -paid 3-1/2 lbs. of gold, were guaranteed to them for all time. Ruediger -adds in the charter that he was granting to the Jews the same favorable -conditions that they enjoyed in other German towns. Emperor Henry IV -confirmed these privileges, and added other more favorable clauses. -This emperor, who, in spite of his thoughtlessness and fickleness, was -never unjust, issued a decree (6th February, 1095) in favor of the -Jews. No one was permitted to compel either the Jews or their slaves to -be baptized. In a lawsuit between Jews and Christians, the process was -to be conducted and the oaths administered according to Jewish law, and -Jews could not be compelled to undergo ordeals by fire and water. Yet, -not long after this, they were mocked at by the holy combatants in the -sacred war. The German Jews and those of northern France were just then -full of the hope of the coming of the Messiah. A mystic had calculated -that the son of David would appear towards the end of the 250th cycle -of the moon, between the years 1096 and 1104, and would lead back the -sons of Judah to the Holy Land. But instead of the trumpet-blast of the -Messianic redemption they heard only the wild cries of the crusaders: -"The Jews have crucified our Saviour, therefore they must acknowledge -him or die." - -The first armies of the crusaders, one led by the pious Peter of -Amiens and his eight knights, the other by Gottschalk, did no special -harm to the Jews; they plundered Christians and Jews alike. But the -hordes that followed, the scum of the French, English, and Flemish, -in the absence of Mahometans, began the holy work of plundering and -murdering with the Jews. It was a shameless mob of men and women, who -indulged in every sort of excess. But these blasphemous crusaders were -sanctified warriors; their sins, past and future, had been absolved. -A monk threw out the inflammatory suggestion that the Jews should be -brought to Christianity by force, an inscription, found on the grave -of Jesus, having made their conversion the duty of all believers. This -plan seemed to the wild crusaders alike profitable, easy to fulfil, and -pleasing to God. They reasoned that the Jews were infidels like the -Saracens, both deadly enemies of Christianity, and that the crusade -could begin on the spot, if the beginning were made with the Jews. When -the troops assembled in France and Germany, they were marked by the -cross on their garments and by the blood of the Jews. The massacres in -France, however, were few in number, although the first gathering of -crusaders occurred there. In Germany security reigned at that time, and -the Jews of the Rhine district had no suspicion of the sad fate which -was about to befall them. However, at the bidding of the head of their -congregation, they assembled to pray for their imperiled brethren in -France. But these fortunately escaped with but little damage, because -the princes and priests energetically took the part of the Jews. Only -in Rouen, which belonged to England, the crusaders drove the Jews into -a church, and, placing their swords at their breasts, gave them the -choice between death and baptism. The persecutions first received a -tragic character on German ground. - -The hordes which moved through France and Flanders into German -territory were led by a French knight, named William the Carpenter, -who had begun by plundering his peasants in order to fit out his -soldiers. The spirit animating William's troops is shown by one -instance. They placed a goose and a herd of goats in the van, firmly -believing that they would show them the way to Jerusalem. To such -the Jewish communities of the Moselle and the Rhine were given over. -The emperor Henry was at that time occupied in war with Italy, and -the wildest anarchy prevailed in Germany. At the first news of the -approach of William, the congregation of Treves was seized with such -terror that some of its members killed their own children. Women and -girls loaded themselves with stones, and threw themselves into the -Moselle in order to escape baptism or disgrace at the hands of the holy -murderers. The rest of the community entreated the bishop, Egilbert, -for his protection. But this hard-hearted prince of the Church, who -perhaps sought to cancel by zeal the imputation of heresy resting -upon him, replied: "If you apostatize, I will give you peace and the -enjoyment of your property. If you remain hardened, your soul and -body shall be destroyed together." The Jews thereupon assembled in -council, and determined, on the advice of Micah, one of the learned -members of the congregation, to conform outwardly to Christianity. He -said to the bishop: "Tell us quickly what to believe, and deliver us -from the men that watch at the gate, ready to kill us." The priest -recited the Catholic confession of faith, which the Jews repeated, and -then baptized them. It was a disgraceful victory which Christianity -celebrated over the congregation of Treves, but it did not last long. -Thereupon the crusaders went to Speyer, where the congregation had -lately had documentary promises of liberty and security. Here some Jews -were dragged to the church, and commanded to undergo baptism. They -resolutely refused, and were murdered (8th Iyar--3d May, 1096). The -remaining Jews fled to the palace of the bishop Johannsen and to the -emperor's castle. The bishop, more humane and pious than Egilbert, -would not countenance such baptism by main force, and opposed the -furious mob. The Jews also defended themselves vigorously, and no -more of them fell victims to fanaticism. Johannsen caused some of the -crusaders to be executed, an act strongly reproved by the monkish -chroniclers. They asserted that he was bribed by the Jews. It is -not to be wondered at that the Jews shuddered at baptism, and held -themselves disgraced if they were borne off unconscious to the font. -The Christianity of the eleventh century they could regard only as a -terrible form of paganism. The worship of relics and pictures; the -conduct of the head of the Church, who absolved nations from a sacred -oath, and incited them to regicide; the immoral, dissipated life of -the priesthood; the horrible practices of the crusaders--all these -things reminded them much more of the practices of idolaters than of -the followers of a holy God. As in the days of the Maccabees their -ancestors had revolted against the enforced worship of Zeus and its -attendant practices, so the German Jews felt towards the Christianity -of the times. - -The mob which undertook the attack on the congregation of Speyer -does not appear to have been very powerful, and could therefore be -repulsed. It now awaited re-inforcements, and two weeks later a large -body of crusaders--"wolves of the forest," as the Jewish chronicler -calls them--entered Worms. The Bishop Allebrandus could not, or would -not, give the Jews sufficient protection. It seems, however, that he -disapproved of the massacre of the Jews, for he sheltered a part of -the community, probably its richest and most respected members, in -the palace. The others, left to themselves, at first attempted to -resist, but, overcome by numbers, they fell under the blows of their -murderers, crying, "The Lord our God is one." Only a few submitted to -baptism, but the greater number committed suicide. Women killed their -tender babes. The fanatics destroyed the houses of the Jews, plundered -their goods, and burnt the Scriptures found in the synagogues and -houses (on Sunday, 23d Iyar--18th May). Seven days later those that -had found protection in the bishop's palace were also attacked. The -fanatics either made a raid on the palace, and demanded the surrender -of their victims, or Allebrandus himself had offered to the Jews an -asylum only in order to convert them through kindness. At any rate, the -bishop informed the Jews that he would not shelter them any longer, -unless they consented to be baptized. The chief amongst them begged -for a short interval for consideration. The fanatics remained outside -the palace, ready to lead the Jews to the font or to death. After the -appointed time the bishop caused the door to be opened, and found the -Jews in their own blood; they had preferred death at the hands of their -brethren. On hearing this, the furious mob fell on the survivors, and -murdered them, dragging the corpses through the streets. Only a few -saved themselves by ostensible conversion to Christianity (Sunday, -1st Sivan--25th May). A youth, Simcha Cohen, whose father and seven -brothers had been murdered, desired to avenge himself. He was taken -to the church, and when about to receive the sacrament he drew forth -a knife, and stabbed the nephew of the bishop. As he had expected, he -was murdered in the church. It was only when the crusaders had left the -town that the Jewish martyrs, who numbered nearly 800, were buried by -Jewish hands. The congregation, which was formed later on, cherished -their memory as of martyrs, or saints (Kedoshim), to be venerated and -held up as patterns of steadfast faith. - -The day after the massacre of the remnant in Worms, the crusaders -arrived in Mayence. Here their leader was a Count Emmerich, or Emicho, -of Leiningen, a close relation of Archbishop Ruthard, an unprincipled, -bloodthirsty man. He desired the riches of the Jews of Mayence as much -as their blood, and together with the archbishop, an opponent of Henry -IV, devised a fiendish plan of extermination. The archbishop invited -all the Jews to take shelter in his palace, until the danger had -passed. Over 1300 Jews took refuge in the cellars of the building, with -anxious hearts and prayers on their lips. But at break of day (Tuesday, -Sivan 3d--27th May), Emmerich of Leiningen led the crusaders to the -bishop's palace, and demanded the surrender of the Jews. The archbishop -had indeed appointed a guard, but the soldiers refused to bear arms -against the fanatical pilgrims, who easily penetrated into the palace, -and the terrible scene of Worms was repeated. Men, young and old, women -and children, fell by the sword of their brethren or their foes. The -corpses of thirteen hundred martyrs were eventually conveyed from the -palace. The treasures of the Jews were divided between the archbishop -and Emmerich. Ruthard had kept sixty Jews hidden in the church, and -they were conveyed to the Rhine district; but on the way they also -were seized and murdered. Only a few were baptized; two men and two -girls--Uriah and Isaac, with his two daughters--were induced by fear to -accept baptism, but their repentance drove them to a terrible act of -heroism. Isaac killed his two daughters on the eve of Pentecost, in his -own house, and then set fire to the dwelling; then he and his friend -Uriah went to the synagogue, set fire to it, and died in the flames. A -great part of Mayence was destroyed by this fire. - -Meanwhile, crusaders, under Hermann the Carpenter, assembled at Cologne -on the eve of Pentecost. The members of this oldest congregation of -Germany prepared for the worst; but they entreated the protection -of the citizens and the bishop. Touched with pity for their Jewish -fellow-citizens, humane burghers of Cologne received the Jews into -their houses. When the furious mob, at break of day on Pentecost -(Friday, May 30th), entered the houses of the Jews, they found them -empty, and had to spend their fury on stones and wood. They destroyed -the dwellings, pillaging the contents and crushing the scrolls of the -Law on the very day when the giving of the Law was celebrated. An -earthquake which occurred on the day incited the madmen to fresh fury; -they considered it as a sign of heaven's approval. One man and his -wife fell victims to their rage on this day. The pious man, Mar-Isaac, -willingly accepted a martyr's death. He did not desire to escape, and -remained in his house, engaged in prayer. He was dragged to the church, -and spitting on the crucifix that was held up before him, was killed. -The rest of the Jews of Cologne remained unhurt in the houses of the -citizens and in the bishop's palace. The noble bishop, Hermann III, -whose name deserves to be immortalized, assisted the Jews to depart -secretly from the city, and to be safely housed in seven neighboring -towns and villages belonging to his diocese. Here they passed three -weeks in anxiety, praying and fasting day after day, and when they -heard that the pilgrims had come to Neus, one of their cities of -refuge, for the feast of St. John (1st Tamuz, 24th June), they fasted -on two days in succession. The pilgrims had prepared themselves for -renewed massacres by a mass on the day of St. John, and killed all the -Jews who had taken refuge in Neus, according to one authority, not -indeed very reliable, two hundred in number. One Samuel ben Asher, -who had exhorted his brethren to remain firm, and his two sons, were -brutally murdered, and their bodies hung to the door of their house. - -The pilgrims had at last discovered the refuge of the Jews of Cologne, -and now hunted them out of their hiding-places. Many ended their lives -in the lakes and bogs, following the example of Samuel ben Yechiel, -a learned and pious man. Standing in the water, and pronouncing a -blessing, he killed his son, a handsome and strong youth, and as -the victim said "Amen," all those looking on intoned their "Hear, O -Israel," and threw themselves into the water. - -The pilgrims continued their work of destruction, and in two months -(May-July) twelve thousand Jews are said to have been killed in the -Rhenish towns. The rest outwardly accepted Christianity, in the -expectation that the just emperor, on his return from Italy, would -listen to their complaints. Wherever the savage pilgrims met with -Jews the tragic scenes were repeated. The large community of the town -of Ratisbon suffered greatly. In connection with the crusades the -Jews of Bohemia enter into history; until then they had not felt the -pressure of the yoke, Christianity not having as yet attained to power -in Slavonic countries. Many amongst them were wealthy, and occupied -themselves in the slave-trade, chiefly dealing in Slavs, who were -exported to the west of Europe and to Spain. In this way the Jews -came into conflict with the priesthood, and Bishop Adalbert of Prague -strove against this practice, and collected large sums of money in -order to buy the slaves from the Jews. Then the crusades commenced, -and transplanted into Bohemian soil the poisonous seed of fanaticism. -When the crusaders traversed Bohemia, its powerful duke, Wratislaw II, -was occupied in a foreign war, and could do nothing to stem the evil. -The miscreant crusaders were, therefore, at liberty to gratify their -fanaticism, and drag off the Jews of Prague to baptism or death. Bishop -Cosmas preached in vain against such excesses; the crusaders understood -Christianity better than the prince of the Church. - -Fortunately for the Jews of western Europe, and especially of Germany, -those filled with this bloodthirsty fanaticism were the mere scum of -the people. The princes and citizens were horrified at such deeds of -crime, and the higher priesthood, with the exception of Archbishops -Ruthard of Mayence and Egilbert of Treves, were on the side of the -Jews. The time had not yet arrived when the three powers--the nobility, -priesthood, and people--were united in their hatred and persecution of -the Jews. When the news came that 200,000 crusaders, under Emmerich -and Hermann, had met with a disgraceful end--most of them having been -killed in Hungary, whilst a miserable remnant only had returned to -Germany--both Jews and Christians felt it to be a judgment of God. -Meanwhile Emperor Henry IV had returned from Italy, and at the news -of the atrocities perpetrated against the Jews by the crusaders, he -gave public expression to his horror, and at the request of the head -of the congregation of Speyer, Moses ben Guthiel, he permitted those -that had been forcibly baptized to return to Judaism. This was a gleam -of joy for the Jews of Germany. The converts did not fail to make use -of their liberty to throw off the mask of Christianity (1097). The -representatives of the Church, however, were by no means pleased at -this proceeding. Even Pope Clement III, who was upheld by the emperor, -declaimed against his humanity, which was contrary to the teachings of -the Church. "We have heard," he wrote to Henry IV, "that the baptized -Jews have been permitted to leave the Church. This is unexampled and -sinful; and we demand of all our brethren that they take care that the -sacrament of the Church be not desecrated by the Jews." The emperor -cared but little about the unholy zeal of the priesthood. Far from -forbidding the Jews to return to their religion, he even permitted -proceedings to be instituted against the kinsmen of Archbishop -Ruthard, of Mayence, on account of the theft of the property of the -Jewish congregation. The Jews of Mayence in a petition had informed -the emperor that Emmerich of Leiningen and his kinsmen, together with -the archbishop, had appropriated the treasures deposited by the Jews -in the archbishop's palace. None of the accused appeared in answer to -this citation to defend himself. Ruthard, whose conscience was not -clear, feared the disgrace of exposure, and, as he was in disfavor -with the emperor, he fled to Erfurt. Thereupon the emperor confiscated -the revenues of the archbishopric (1098). Ruthard revenged himself by -joining the enemies of the emperor, who plotted to humiliate him. - -The Jews of Bohemia were very unfortunate in this year. Hearing that -the emperor had permitted return to Judaism, they abandoned their -pretended faith, but feared to remain in a country where they could not -obtain justice. They gathered together their property and possessions -in order to send them on to a place of safety, and determined to -emigrate to Poland or to Pannonia (Austria and Hungary). Wratislaw, -the ruler of Bohemia, now returned from his campaign, and heard that -the Jews intended sending their riches out of the country. Thereupon -he placed them under military surveillance. The elders were called -together, and the duke's treasurer announced to them in his lord's -name that everything they possessed belonged to him, and that they -were endeavoring to rob him: "Ye brought none of Jerusalem's treasures -to Bohemia. Conquered by Vespasian, and sold for a mere nothing, ye -have been scattered over the globe. Naked ye have entered the land, -and naked ye can depart. For your secession from the Church, Bishop -Cosmas may judge you." There was nothing to be said against this logic; -it was the argument of brutality. The Bohemian Jews were plundered, -only enough being left to them to stay for the moment the cravings of -hunger. With malicious pleasure a contemporary chronicler relates that -the Jews were despoiled of more gold than the Greeks had taken from -Troy. Still more dreadful was the fate of the Jews of Jerusalem. When -the crusading army, under Godfrey of Bouillon, after many attempts had -taken the city by storm, and massacred the Mahometans, they drove the -Jews, Rabbanites and Karaites, into a synagogue, set fire to it, and -burnt all within its walls (July 15, 1099). - -Emperor Henry, however, seriously desired to protect the Jews of his -empire. Having heard of the horrible scenes of murder in Mayence which -had occurred during his absence, he caused his princes and citizens to -swear an oath that they would keep the peace with the Jews, and that -they would not ill-treat them (1103). The protection thus granted by -the emperor to the Jews was of temporary benefit to them, but brought -evil results after awhile. They thus became dependent upon the ruler of -the land, almost his slaves. - -This circumstance was not the only evil result of the first crusade -for the German Jews. On the one hand Pope Clement III claimed the -converts who had joined the Church to save themselves from death, -forgetting that their whole being turned against the Church, and that -they regarded their enforced Christianity with contempt and hate. -On the other hand, those that had remained Jews kept aloof from the -renegades, and would not intermarry nor associate with them, although -they had shown their attachment to Judaism by a prompt return to it. -These unhappy people were thus regarded as renegades by both sides. -When, however, Rashi heard of this narrowness, his true piety protested -against it. "Far be it from us," he said, "to reject those that have -returned. They acted through fear of the sword, and lost no time in -returning to Judaism." - -Other results of the first crusade were still worse. The German -Jews, already inclined to extravagant piety, became yet more bigoted -in consequence of their unexampled sufferings. All merriment died -out amongst them, and they clothed themselves only in sackcloth and -ashes. Though they hated the Catholic Church, they adopted its custom -of visiting the graves of martyrs, whom they also called saints -(Kedoshim), offered up prayers for the dead, and entreated their -intercession with heaven. The Judaism of Germany from that time on -assumed a gloomy aspect. The so-called poets, in their penitential -prayers and lamentations, rang the changes on only one theme, the -fearful troubles and the desolation of Israel. The study of the Talmud -formed a counterpoise to the growing tendency of the German Jews to -give a penitential character to their religion. This study, as pursued -by Rashi, was a protection against unthinking, brooding monasticism. -He who desired to find his way through the intricate mazes of the -Talmud had to keep his eyes open to facts, and could not permit his -mind to grow rusty. The study of the Talmud became balm for the -wounds inflicted by the crusading mob on the communities of the Rhine -district. The pleasure resulting from creative thought ruled in the -schools, and subdued sorrow and despair; and the House of Learning -became the refuge of the unfortunate oppressed. The two men who gave -the great impulse to Talmudical studies died at the commencement of the -twelfth century. They were Isaac Alfassi (died 1103), and Rashi, who -died two years later (1105, 29th Tamuz--13th July). Both left a large -number of disciples, who spread the study of the Talmud, and both were -highly honored by their contemporaries and by posterity. The admiration -of the Spaniards for Alfassi was expressed, as befitted their high -culture, in verses, whilst the German Jews and those of northern -France, who occupied a lower stage of culture, commemorated Rashi by -extravagant legends. Two young poets, Moses Ibn-Ezra and Jehuda Halevi, -composed touching elegies on the death of Alfassi. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ZENITH OF THE SPANISH-JEWISH CULTURE: JEHUDA HALEVI. - - The Jews under the Almoravides--Joseph Ibn-Sahal, Joseph - Ibn-Zadik--Joseph Ibn-Migash--The Poets Ibn-Giat, - Ibn-Abbas, Ibn-Sakbel and Ibn-Ezra--Abulhassan Jehuda Halevi - --His Poems and Philosophy--The Chozari--Incidents of his - Life--Prince Samuel Almansur--Jehuda Halevi's Pilgrimage to - Jerusalem--His Death. - -1105-1148 C. E. - - -The Jews of Spain, even those of Andalusia, could still consider this -land of culture as their home. Even under the barbarous Almoravides, -who had become masters of the south, they lived in security and peace, -for these people were no fanatics. Only on one occasion did a prince -of the Almoravides, named Yussuf Ibn-Teshufin, attempt to compel the -Jews of his district to accept Islam. He was traveling through Lucena, -and noted the populous Jewish community, which through Alfassi had -become the most influential in Spain. The prince called together the -representatives of the Jews, and announced to them that he had read -that Mahomet had bestowed religious liberty on the Jews on condition -that their expected Messiah should arrive within 500 years, and that -if this space of time after the Hejira passed without his appearance, -the Jews must, without opposition, accept Mahometanism; that the Jews -of Mahomet's age had accepted the condition, and the time having now -elapsed, he (Yussuf Ibn-Teshufin), the leader of the Faithful, expected -them to fulfil the condition, or his protection would be withdrawn from -them, and they would be outlawed. The Jews of Lucena, however, by gifts -of money and through the intercession of his wise vizir, Abdallah -Ibn-Allah, induced Yussuf to alter his intention. - -Under the second ruler of the Almoravide dynasty, Ali (1106-1143), the -Jews not only lived in peace, but some of them were entrusted with the -collection of the poll-tax from Jewish and Christian inhabitants, and -distinguished men received posts of honor at the court. Science and -poetry were the qualifications for high dignities. A Jewish physician -and poet, Abu Ayub (Solomon Ibn-Almuallem), of Seville, was the -court-physician of the Caliph Ali, and bore the titles of prince and -vizir. Alcharizi says that his verses rendered eloquent the lips of the -dumb, and illuminated the eyes of the blind. The physician Abulhassan -Abraham ben Meir Ibn-Kamnial, of Saragossa, likewise occupied a high -post at Ali's court, and also bore the title of vizir. The greatest -poets of the time celebrated his nobility of soul, his generosity and -his interest in the welfare of his co-religionists: "A prince who -treads the earth, but whose aim is in the stars. He hastens like the -lightning to do good, whilst others only creep along. The gates of his -generosity are open to his compatriots and to strangers. Through his -fortune he saved those doomed to death, and rescued the lives of those -doomed to destruction. The prince (Ibn-Kamnial) is a protection and -a guard unto his people; he dwells in Spain, but his loving-kindness -reaches unto Babylon and Egypt." Abu Ishak Ibn-Mohajar also bore the -title of vizir, and was similarly immortalized by the poets. The prince -Solomon Ibn-Farussal, likewise praised by his contemporaries, appears -to have been in the service of a Christian prince, and was entrusted -with an embassy to the court of Murcia. Shortly before the battle -of Ucles, at which the Mahometan forces obtained a signal victory -over those of the Christians, Ibn-Farussal was murdered (1108, 20th -Iyar--2nd May). The young Jehuda Halevi, who had composed a song of -praise for the reception of the vizir, had to change it into an elegy -on the mournful news of the vizir's murder. - -An astronomical writer, Abraham ben Chiya Albargeloni (b. 1065, d. -1136), occupied a high position under another Mahometan prince. He was -a sort of minister of police (Zachib as-Schorta), and bore the title of -prince. He was held in high consideration by several rulers on account -of his astronomical knowledge, and he debated with learned priests, to -whom he demonstrated the accuracy of the Jewish calendar. But he also -practised the pseudo-science of astrology, and drew a horoscope of -favorable and unfavorable hours of the day. He calculated in the same -way that the Messiah would appear in the year 5118 of the world (1358 -C. E.). - -Thus men of influence and knowledge were not wanting at this period in -Spain, but none of them acted as a center, like Chasdai Ibn-Shaprut and -Samuel Ibn-Nagrela, from which might go forth the impetus that would -rouse to activity slumbering talents, or mark out the road for literary -efforts. The first half of the twelfth century produced a vast number -of clever men in Jewish circles, poets, philosophers, Talmudists, -and almost all their labors bore the stamp of perfection. The Jewish -culture of this period resembled a garden, rich in odorous blossoms and -luscious fruits, whose productions, though varied in color and taste, -have their root in the same earth. The petty jealousy that rendered -Menachem ben Saruk and Ibn-Gebirol unhappy, the inimical feelings -existing between Ibn-Janach and Samuel Ibn-Nagrela, between Alfassi and -Ibn-Albalia, were banished from this circle. The poets eulogized each -other, and cordially praised the men that devoted their powers to other -intellectual work. They took the greatest interest in one another's -successes, consoled one another in misfortune, and regarded one another -as members of one family. The cordial feeling which Jewish poets and -men of learning entertained for one another is the completest testimony -to their nobility of mind. - -It is difficult in a history of these times to record and describe all -the important personages. There were seven distinguished rabbis in this -period, almost all disciples of Alfassi, who, besides studying Talmud, -showed taste for poetry and science, and in part devoted themselves -to these pursuits. In Cordova, Joseph ben Jacob Ibn-Sahal (born 1070, -died 1124), a disciple of Ibn-Giat, was the rabbi. He appears to -have met with trouble in his youth, and in his verses he complains -that his own efforts have lacked appreciation, and that poetry in -general is not honored. To Moses Ibn-Ezra, who was his bosom friend, -he wrote a versified letter of lamentation. Ibn-Ezra, who also craved -sympathy, consoled him in a poem written in the same rhyme and meter as -Ibn-Sahal's. The verses are easy, flowing and smooth, though without -much depth. - -His successor in the rabbinate of Cordova, Abu-Amr Joseph ben Zadik -Ibn-Zadik (born in 1080, died 1148-49), was even more celebrated. -Although Ibn-Zadik is known as an expert Talmudist, his works -are not Talmudic, but consist of philosophical treatises in the -Arabic language. Ibn-Zadik dedicated his religio-philosophical work -(Microcosmos) to a disciple who had asked to be instructed about -the greatest good for which man can strive. The thoughts developed -by Ibn-Zadik are by no means new, they were current in the Arabic -philosophy of the times, but were modified by him so as to fit into the -system of Judaism. Knowledge of self leads to knowledge of God, to a -pure conception of the God-idea, and to the recognition that the world -was created out of nothing by the divine will. This will is contained -in Revelation, in the Torah; God revealed it to man, not on His own -account, for He is rich, sufficient unto Himself, and without wants, -but to promote man's happiness in the world beyond. The first duty -of man, of the Jew, the servant of God, is to cultivate his mind and -acquire wisdom and understanding, so that he may honor God in a worthy -and spiritual manner, and gain the bliss of future happiness. Ibn-Zadik -also remarks that the rites of Judaism, such as the observance of -the Sabbath, are consonant with sense and divine wisdom. Man having -free will, it is natural that God should mete out to him reward and -punishment for his actions. The reward of the soul is its return to -its source, the universal soul, and the only conceivable punishment is -the sinful soul's failure to attain this end. The soul of the sinner, -stained with earthly failings, cannot wing its flight to heaven, but -flutters without rest about the world; and this is its punishment. -Ibn-Zadik's philosophical work, bearing the stamp of mediocrity, was -but little noticed by his contemporaries and successors. His fame as a -poet was not great, although his liturgical and other verses are light -and pleasing. They are not the outpourings of a poetic soul, but are to -some extent a tribute to fashion. - -Joseph ben Meir Ibn-Migash Halevi (born 1077, died 1141) surpassed -his contemporaries in mastery of the Talmud. Grandson of an important -man at the court of the Abbadides in Seville, and son of a learned -father, he became in his twelfth year a disciple of the school of -Alfassi, whose lectures he attended uninterruptedly for fourteen years. -When Ibn-Migash married (in 1100), Jehuda Halevi composed a glowing -epithalamium for the young couple. Before his death Alfassi chose him -as his successor, and by that act showed the nobility of his character; -for although he left behind him a learned son, he preferred as his -successor his gifted disciple. The wisdom of choosing a young man of -six-and-twenty seems to have been questioned by some of the members of -the congregation (Sivan, May, 1103). Joseph Ibn-Migash deserved the -praise lavished on him for his intellectual and moral qualities. His -descent from an ancient and noble family, his high position as chief -of the most respected community, did not affect his modesty, nor did -the dignity of his important office strip him of his humility. Mild, -however, as was his character, he employed the utmost severity when the -welfare of Judaism was in question. - -Spain was at this time in an excited state, and split up into -parties. In Andalusia the native Arabs were opposed to the victorious -Almoravide Berbers, and they attacked each other in secret and in -open war; the Christians (the Mozarabs) settled in the neighborhood -of Granada conspired secretly against their Mahometan landlords, and -summoning the conqueror of Saragossa, Alfonso of Aragon, promised to -hand Granada over to him. Christian Spain was no less divided, though -Castile and Aragon ought to have been united through the marriage of -Alfonso of Aragon and Urraca, Queen of Castile. This unhappy marriage -was the cause of anarchy. One party sided with the king, another -with the queen, and a third with the young prince Alfonso VII, whose -teacher had incited him against his mother and stepfather. Christians -and Mahometans were frequently seen fighting under one standard, -sometimes against a Christian prince, sometimes against a Mahometan -emir. The making and breaking of treaties followed each other in quick -succession. Deception and treachery occurred continually, and even the -clergy of high position passed from party to party, and fought their -former allies, or assisted their former enemies. - -The Jews of Spain did not remain neutral, and either willingly or -perforce joined the one or the other party, as their interests or -political opinions dictated. When Mahometans or Christians conspired, -they could, in case of discovery, take refuge with their powerful -co-religionists. The Jews, however, did not enjoy such protection, -and could only hold together for safety. Treachery in their midst -was, therefore, most disastrous for them, as the anger of the enraged -rulers not only struck the conspirators or their congregation, but the -entire Jewish population of the country. When, therefore, a member of -the congregation of Lucena on one occasion threatened to betray his -co-religionists, the rabbi and judge, Joseph Ibn-Migash, determined to -make an example of him. He condemned the traitor to be stoned to death -at twilight on the Day of Atonement. Joseph Ibn-Migash left a learned -son, Meir (1144), and a large circle of disciples, amongst whom was -Maimun of Cordova, whose son was destined to begin a new era in Jewish -history. - -In the measure in which the study of the Talmud in Spain grew, Bible -exegesis and the study of Hebrew grammar declined. These branches were -arrested in their development. But on the other hand, this period was -rich in poets. The Hebrew language, during the two centuries since -Ben-Labrat, had become smooth and pliable, so that it was no difficult -matter to make verses, and employ rhyme and meter. The involved forms -developed especially by Solomon Ibn-Gebirol found many imitators. The -Arabic custom of writing letters of friendship in verses, adopted by -the Spanish Jews, made a knowledge of prosody a necessity: he who did -not desire to appear illiterate had to learn how to versify. The number -of poems which at this period saw the light of day was legion. Amongst -poets worthy of record, who also occupied themselves with matters -other than poetry, were Judah Ibn-Giat, Judah Ibn-Abbas, Solomon -Ibn-Sakbel, and the brothers Ibn-Ezra. They were all surpassed by the -prince of poets, Jehuda Halevi, recognized even by his contemporaries -as a master of song. - -Solomon ben Sakbel, a relative of Rabbi Joseph Ibn-Sahal, unlike -Ibn-Giat and Ibn-Abbas, whose muse was serious, used the Hebrew -language for light love-verses. The new form of poetry introduced by -the Arabic poet, Hariri of Basra, induced Ibn-Sakbel to make a similar -attempt in the Hebrew language; he wrote a kind of satirical romance, -called Tachkemoni, the hero of which, Asher ben Jehuda, is exposed to -disappointments and vicissitudes. The hero tells his adventures in -rhymed prose, interspersed with verses; he relates how, together with -his love, he had passed a long time in the forest depths, until, tired -of the monotony, he longed to join a circle of friends who passed their -time in feasting. Attracted by the letter of some unknown fair one, -he set out to find her, and was introduced into a harem, the master -of which, with grim "Berber mien," threatened him with death. This, -however, was only a mask assumed by the maid of his lady-love in order -to frighten him. At length he had hopes of attaining his end, but when -he meets the supposed mistress, he finds the entire affair to have been -the joke of a friend. This poem has no artistic merit, and is only an -imitation of his Arab model. The ease with which Ibn-Sakbel employs -the Hebrew language, and the skill with which he combines profoundly -serious reflections with the lightest banter, are the only features to -be admired. - -The four brothers Ibn-Ezra, of Granada, were richly endowed; they -were noble, learned, and wealthy. Their names were Abu-Ibrahim -Isaac, Abu-Harun Moses, Abulhassan Jehuda, and Abuhajaj Joseph, the -youngest. Their father Jacob had occupied an office under King Habus, -or rather under his vizir, Ibn-Nagrela. One might know by their noble -character, said a contemporary historian, that these four princely sons -of Ibn-Ezra were of David's blood and of ancient lineage. The most -celebrated amongst them was Abu-Harun Moses (born 1070, died 1139), who -boasted that he was the pupil of his eldest brother. He was the most -prolific poet of his time. - -A misfortune seems to have aroused his muse. He loved his niece, by -whom he was loved in return. The brother, however, refused to give him -his daughter, and the other brothers approved the decision. Moses fled -from his father's house, and wandered to Portugal and Castile (1100). -He was tortured by pangs of love, and time did not heal his wounds. -False friends seem to have widened the breach between him and his -brothers. His love found expression in verses, and the muse became his -comforter. He sought to drown his sorrow in earnest study and to find -in knowledge a solace for the loss of his brothers and his beloved. -He indeed won friends and admirers who remained true to him until -death. A man of high position in Christian Spain, who is represented -as a benefactor of the Jews, took an interest in the unhappy Moses, -on whom he bestowed his friendship. Moses Ibn-Ezra in many respects -resembled Solomon Ibn-Gebirol. He also complained of deception and -jealousy and of the hardships and faithlessness of the times. Like the -poet of Malaga, his own emotions inspire him; there is no great aim -in his poetic effusions. But Moses Ibn-Ezra was neither so tender nor -so impressionable as Ibn-Gebirol, nor was he so sad or complaining, -but at times sang lively songs, and dallied with the muse. He was far -behind Ibn-Gebirol as a poet. His poetry was labored and stilted, -his verses often hard, without sweetness and freshness, and neither -rhythmical nor harmonious. Moses Ibn-Ezra was especially fond of using -words of the same sound, with different and often opposite meaning, a -habit which he had adopted from the Arabic poets. His command of the -Hebrew language, the abundance of his poetical works, and the variety -of meters with which he enriched Hebrew poetry are alike admirable. He -composed a song-cycle, which he called a string of pearls, composed -of 1210 verses in ten divisions; they were dedicated to his patron -Ibn-Kamnial. These verses are as varied in form as in contents. The -poet in this collection alternately sings the praise of wine, love, -and joy, of voluptuous life amidst leafy bowers and the song of birds, -complains of the separation from friends, of faithlessness and the -approach of old age, incidentally recommends trust in God, and lastly, -praises the art of poetry. Moses Ibn-Ezra also composed three hundred -poems, in more than ten thousand verses, for special occasions, and -also two hundred prayers for New Year and the Day of Atonement, -portions of which were incorporated in the ritual of many congregations -(of the communities of Spain, Montpellier, Avignon, and of the -Romagnoles). But few of his religious poems have true poetic fervor; -they are all composed according to the rules of the art, but true -beauty is wanting. Moses Ibn-Ezra wrote, in Arabic, a dissertation on -the rules of the poetic art, called "Conversations and Recollections," -which at the same time is a sort of history of Spanish-Jewish poetry -from its first beginnings. This work, dealing also with Arabic and -Castilian poetry, is a treasure for the literary history of Spain. The -poorest work of Moses Ibn-Ezra is his so-called philosophical treatise, -written in Hebrew, wherein he expounds the barren philosophy of the -times according to Arabic models. - -Notwithstanding his comparative insignificance as a philosopher and -his mediocrity as a poet, Moses Ibn-Ezra was held in high honor by his -contemporaries on account of his facility in writing. He stood on a -friendly footing with all important personages of the time, and they -praised him in prose and verse, and he likewise praised them. He became -reconciled to his brothers, when the love of his youth died in giving -birth to a boy (1114). On her deathbed she spoke of him, and her words, -which became a holy remembrance to him, inspired him to write an elegy -which, imbued with true feeling, was far more poetical than his other -works. This elegy Moses Ibn-Ezra sent to his eldest brother, and it was -the first step toward their reconciliation. As his brothers departed -this earth one by one, the survivor was overwhelmed with grief, and -dedicated to their memory verses full of feeling. Moses Ibn-Ezra -retained his poetic gift until a great age. Jehuda Halevi wrote a -touching tribute to his memory. - -The brilliant luminary of this period and its chief exponent was -Abulhassan Jehuda ben Samuel Halevi (Ibn-Allevi), born in Old Castile -in 1086. In the annals of mankind his name deserves a separate page -with a golden border. To describe him worthily, history would need to -borrow from poetry her most glowing colors and her sweetest tones. -Jehuda Halevi was one of the chosen, to whom the expression, "an image -of God," may be applied without exaggeration. He was a perfect poet, a -perfect thinker, a worthy son of Judaism, which, through his poetry and -thought, was ennobled and idealized. - -When Spain shall have discarded its prejudices, and shall no longer -estimate the greatness of its historical personages by the standard -of the Church, then Jehuda Halevi will occupy a place of honor in -its Pantheon. The Jewish nation has long since crowned him with the -laurel-wreath of poetry, and recognized the wealth of piety and pure -morality that he possessed. - - "Pure and faithful, ever spotless - Was his song, even as his soul was: - Soul, that when the Maker fashioned, - With his handiwork delighted, - - Straight he kissed the beauteous spirit; - And that kiss, in sweetest music - Echoing, thrills through all the singing - Of the poet consecrated."[1] - -His deep moral earnestness was closely united with a cheerful, serene -philosophy of life. The admiration which was showered upon him did not -destroy his modesty, and despite his devotion to his friends, he still -preserved his own peculiar characteristics and the independence of his -views. His rich store of knowledge clustered about one center, and -however great a poet, in the best sense of the word, he may have been, -he was keenly conscious of his own feelings, thoughts, and actions. He -prescribed rules for himself, and remained true to them. Deep as were -his sentiments, he was far from excess of feeling, or sentimentality. - -Jehuda Halevi's biography contains little that is extraordinary. Born -in Christian Spain, he attended the college of Alfassi at Lucena, -because Castile and the north of Spain were still wanting in Talmudical -scholars. When but a youth, as in the case of Ibn-Gebirol, the muse -aroused him; not, however, as the latter, with mournful tones, but with -pure, joyous strains. He celebrated in song the happy experiences of -his friends and comrades, the nuptials of Ibn-Migash, the birth of the -first-born in the house of Baruch Ibn-Albalia (about 1100). Fortune -smiled upon this favorite of the muses from his youth, and no harsh -discord ever issued from his poetical heart. In the south of Spain -he became acquainted with the noble and cultured family of Ibn-Ezra. -When he learnt that Moses Ibn-Ezra had met with a disappointment in -love, and had exiled himself, the young poet sought out his older -brother-poet to comfort and soothe him with his songs. The latter, -struck with surprise at Jehuda's beautiful verses and overflowing -sentiments, answered him in poetic productions. - -Jehuda Halevi appears to have been in Lucena when Alfassi died, and -Joseph Ibn-Migash succeeded him in the office of rabbi (1103). On the -occasion of his death Halevi composed a beautiful elegy, and celebrated -the accession of his successor in a poem expressing his homage and deep -respect. The young man also experienced the pleasure and the pain of -love; he sang of the gazelle-like eyes of his beloved, her rosy lips, -her raven hair. He complained of her unfaithfulness and of the wounds -which rent his heart. His amatory poems breathe the fire of youth, -and display rash impetuousness. The southern skies were portrayed in -his verses, the green meadows and the blue streams. His early poetry -even bears the stamp of artistic polish, of rich fancy and beautiful -symmetry, of warmth and loveliness. There is no mere jingle of words, -no thoughtless utterance--all manifests harmony and firmness of touch. -Jehuda Halevi appears to have completely suppressed the pangs of love, -for no traces whatever are to be found thereof in his later life and -poems. - -Jehuda Halevi not only completely mastered the Hebrew language and -the artistic forms of the neo-Hebraic poetry, but he also obtained -a thorough knowledge of the Talmud, studied the natural sciences, -penetrated even to the depths of metaphysics, and was skilled in all -branches of learning. He wrote Arabic elegantly, and was conversant -with the new-born Castilian poetry. He obtained a livelihood as a -physician, practising medicine on his return to his native place. He -appears to have been highly esteemed for his medical skill, for on -one occasion he wrote to a friend that, living in a large town, he -was busily engaged in the practice of his art. But, in spite of his -constant care for the bodies of the sick and the dying, he did not -forget his own soul, but ever maintained the ideals of his life. The -following letter which, when advanced in years (about 1130), he wrote -to a friend, is interesting: - - "I occupy myself in the hours which belong neither to the day - nor to the night, with the vanity of medical science, although - I am unable to heal. The city in which I dwell is large, the - inhabitants are giants, but they are cruel rulers. Wherewith - could I conciliate them better than by spending my days in - curing their illness! I physic Babel, but it continues infirm. - I cry to God that He may quickly send deliverance unto me, and - give me freedom, to enjoy rest, that I may repair to some place - of living knowledge, to the fountain of wisdom." - -The city of which Jehuda here speaks is Toledo, where he passed the -years of his manhood. He longed, however, to depart thence, as Toledo -had not yet become a center of Jewish learning. - -The whole power of his creative genius was bestowed upon the art -of poetry and a thoughtful investigation of Judaism. He had a more -correct conception of poetry, which he valued as something holy and -God-given, than had his Arab and Jewish contemporaries. He distinctly -enunciated the view that the faculty for composing poetry must be -innate, original, not acquired. He mocked at those who laid down laws -about meter and rhyme, and were very precise on those points. The truly -inspired poet carries the laws within him, and will never be guilty of -any blunders or inaccuracies. As long as he was young, he dissipated -the gold of his rich poetry on light, flimsy themes, and following the -example of others, wrote sparkling lyrics, in which he glorified his -numerous friends. He sang of wine and pleasure, and composed riddles. -When his friends rebuked him for this conduct (about 1110), he retorted -in youthful insolence, - - "Shall one whose years scarce number twenty-four, - Turn foe to pleasure and drink wine no more?" - -In these poetic trifles, it delighted him to display his skill in -overcoming the difficulties of elaborate and involved meters. Very -often he concluded a poem with an Arabic or a Castilian verse. One -recognizes in the words and the structure the great master who had -the power of presenting a complete picture by a few bold strokes of -the pen. His delineations of nature may be placed side by side with -the best poetical productions of all languages. We see the flowers -bursting forth and blooming; we inhale in deep draughts the balm with -which his verse is impregnated. The boughs bend beneath the burden of -their golden fruit; we hear the songsters of the air pouring forth -their sweet strains of love; he paints sunshine and the pure air with a -masterly hand. When he is describing the turbulence of a tempest-tossed -sea, he communicates to the reader all the emotions of sublimity and -anxiety which he himself felt. But in all this the working of his great -soul is not revealed; it was, in a measure, only the tribute which he -paid to its human part and to the fashion of the time. Not even his -religious poems, which in number were not exceeded by those of his -older fellow-poet, Moses Ibn-Ezra, for they amount to three hundred, -but which in depth, heartfelt fervor and polish, surpass his as well -as those of other predecessors, disclose the true greatness of his -poetical genius. - -The importance of Jehuda Halevi as a poet lies in those poems that -breathe a national-religious spirit. In these his ideas burst from the -depths of his heart, his whole being rises upwards in ecstasy, and -when he sings of Zion and its past and future glory, when he veils his -head in mourning over its present slavery, we find the true spirit -of his poetry, nothing artificial or simulated, but all pervaded by -strong feeling. In all neo-Hebraic poetry Jehuda Halevi's songs of -Zion may best be compared with the Psalms. When he is breathing forth -his laments for Zion's widowhood, or dreaming of her future splendor, -and depicts how she will again be united to her God and her children, -we fancy that we are listening to one of the sons of Korah. The muse -of Jehuda Halevi, in her maturity, had a lofty purpose; it was to -sing of Israel, his God and the sanctuary, his past and his future, -and to lament his humiliation. He was a national poet, and hence it -is that his songs seize upon the reader with irresistible force. The -complaints of Ibn-Gebirol about his own deserted condition can arouse -only faint interest; the sufferings of Moses Ibn-Ezra on account of -his unfortunate love leave us unaffected; but the affliction of Jehuda -Halevi on account of his dearly beloved Zion cannot fail to move every -susceptible heart. - -The national poetry of Jehuda Halevi is of higher value, since it -has its source not in mere poetical sentiments, but in earnest and -impassioned conviction. He was not only the perfect poet, he was also -the brilliant thinker; in him feeling and thought were completely -blended. Poetry and philosophy were intimately united within him, -neither being strange, borrowed, or artificially acquired, but each -being an innate possession. Just as he gave expression to the national -feelings of Israel in his songs of Zion, so he interpreted, if one may -say so, the national thoughts of Judaism in an ingenious and spiritual -manner. Poetry and philosophy were employed by him only to glorify and -spiritualize the inheritance of Israel. He propounded original ideas on -the relation of God and the world, of man to his Creator, on the value -of metaphysical speculation, of its connection with Judaism, and on the -importance of this religion as contrasted with Christianity and Islam. -All these problems he solved not in a dry, scholastic fashion, but in -a lively, interesting, and convincing manner. If in his lyrics we may -liken him to a son of Korah, in the development of his thoughts he -resembles the author of Job, but he is richer in matter, more profound, -more comprehensive. From Job or from Plato, Jehuda Halevi borrowed -the form in which his religious philosophical system is presented. He -expounds his thoughts in the form of a dialogue, and like the author -of Job, combines them with an historic fact, thus giving more intense -interest to the theme, and conveying a lasting impression. When certain -of his disciples asked him how he could defend rabbinical Judaism, -and how reply to the objections hurled against it by philosophy, -Christianity, Islam and the Karaites, he produced his answer in -a comprehensive, erudite work in the form of a dialogue written -in elegant Arabic. As its title denotes, the book was intended to -demonstrate the truth of Judaism and to justify the despised religion. - -A heathen, who knew nothing of the wisdom of the schoolmen, nor of -the three existing religions, but who felt the necessity of uniting -himself in a spiritual, affectionate union with his Creator, becomes -convinced of the truth of Judaism. This heathen is Bulan, the king of -the Chazars, who himself embraced the Jewish faith. Him the Castilian -philosopher makes use of to give an historical character to his work, -and hence it bears the name of Chozari (wrongly spelt Kusari). The -clever preface, written in an appropriate style, stirs the interest of -the reader. - -An angel repeatedly appeared in a dream to the king of the Chazars, -who was a zealous adherent of his idolatrous cult, but a man of pious -mind, and addressed him in these very significant words: "Thy intention -is good, but not the manner in which thou servest God." In order to -ascertain with certainty in what manner the Deity should be worshiped, -the king applied to a philosopher. The sage, a follower partly of -the Aristotelian and partly of the neo-Platonic system, fostered in -the king more of disbelief than belief. He told him that God was too -exalted to come into any relation whatsoever with man, or to demand any -reverential worship. - -The king of the Chazars did not feel at all satisfied with this -comfortless exposition. He felt that acts intended to honor God must -be of absolute value in themselves, and without these, pious and moral -thoughts could be of but little merit. It was impossible to understand -why, if the form of worshiping God was to be an altogether indifferent -matter, Christianity and Islam, which had divided the world between -them, should war against each other, and even consider mutual slaughter -as holy work whereby paradise might be attained. Both religions, -moreover, appeal to divine manifestations and wise prophets, through -whose agency the Deity has worked miracles. God must then, in some way, -be in relation to mankind. There must exist something mysterious of -which the philosophers have no notion. Thereupon the king determined to -apply to a representative of the Christian faith and to a Mahometan, in -order to learn from them the true religion. He did not think of asking -the counsel of the Jews at first, because from their abject condition -and the universal contempt in which they were held, the degraded state -of their religion was sufficiently apparent. - -A priest acted as the exponent of the tenets of the Christian belief -to the king. Christianity, he said, believes in the eternity of God -and the creation of the world out of nothing, and that all men are -descended from Adam; it accepts as true all that the Torah and the -Scriptures of Judaism teach, but holds as its fundamental dogma, the -incarnation of the Deity through a virgin of the Jewish royal house. -The Son of God, the Father and the Holy Ghost form a unit. This trinity -is venerated by the Christians as a unity, even though the phrase -appears to indicate a threefold personality. Christians are to be -considered as the real Israelites, and the twelve apostles take the -place of the twelve tribes. - -The mind of the king was as little gratified by the answer of the -Christian as by that of the Philosopher, the reply not being in -accordance with the dictates of reason. The Christian, he thought, -should have adduced positive, incontrovertible proofs, which would -satisfy the human intellect. He, therefore, felt it his duty to seek -further for true religion. - -Thereupon he inquired of a Mahometan theologian as to the basis of -the faith of Islam. The Moslem believe, as he affirmed, in the unity -and eternity of God, and in the _creatio ex nihilo_; but reject -anthropomorphic conceptions. Mahomet was the last and most important -among the prophets, who summoned all people to the faith, and -promised to the faithful a paradise with all the delights of eating, -drinking, and voluptuous love, but to the infidels, the eternal fire -of damnation. The truth of Islam depends upon the fact that no man -is capable of producing so remarkable a book as the Koran, or even a -single one of its Suras. To him also the king replied that the fact of -the intimate intercourse of God with mortals must rest upon undeniable -proofs, which the internal evidence for the divine origin of the Koran -does not afford, for even if its diction is able to convince an Arab, -it has no power over those who are unacquainted with Arabic. - -As both the Christian and the Moslem had referred their religions -to Judaism in order to verify the historic basis of each, the -truth-seeking king at length determined to overcome his prejudice -against Judaism, and to make inquiries of a Jewish sage. The latter -made the following statement of the tenets of his creed, in reply -to the request of the king: "The Jews believe in the God of their -ancestors, who delivered the Israelites from Egypt, performed miracles -for their sake, led them into the Holy Land, and raised up prophets in -their midst--in short, in all that is taught in the Holy Scriptures." -Thereupon the king of the Chazars replied, "I was right, then, in not -asking of the Jews, because their wretched, low condition has destroyed -every reasonable idea in them. You, O Jew, should have premised that -you believe in the Creator and Ruler of the world, instead of giving -me so dry and unattractive a mass of facts, which are of significance -only to you." The Jewish sage replied: "This notion that God is the -Creator and Ruler of the universe requires a lengthy demonstration, and -the philosophers have different opinions on the matter. The belief, -however, that God performed miracles for us Israelites demands no -proof, as it depends upon the evidence of undoubted eye-witnesses." -Starting from this point, the religious philosopher, Jehuda Halevi, -has an easy task to unfold proofs of the truth and divine character of -Judaism. Philosophy discards God and religion entirely, not knowing -what place to assign to them in the world. Christianity and Islam -turn their backs on reason, for they find reason in opposition to -the cardinal doctrines of their religions. Judaism, on the contrary, -starts from a statement of observed facts, which reason cannot possibly -explain away. It is quite compatible with reason, but assigns to reason -its limits, and does not accept the conclusions of reason, often -degenerating into sophistry, when certainty can be attained in another -way. - -In his correct view of the value of speculative thought, Jehuda Halevi -stood alone in his own time, and anticipated many centuries. The -thinkers of his time, Jewish, Mahometan and Christian, Rabbi, Ulema and -Churchman, bowed the knee to Aristotle, whose philosophical judgments -upon God and His relation to the world they placed above Holy Writ, -or at least they strained and subtilized the Biblical verses until -they expressed a philosophical idea, and thus they became at once -believers and sceptics. Jehuda Halevi alone had the courage to point -out the limits set by nature to human thought, and to proclaim, "Thus -far shalt thou go, and no further." Philosophy has no right to attack -well-accredited facts, but must accept them as undeniable truths; -it must start with them for bases, bringing to bear its power of -co-ordinating the facts and illuminating them by the aid of reason. -Just as in the realm of nature the intellect dare not deny actual -phenomena when they present themselves, however striking and contrary -to reason they may appear, but must strive to comprehend them, so -must it act when touching on the question of the knowledge of God. -This excellent and irrefutable idea, which of late years, after many -wanderings in the labyrinth of philosophy, has at length discovered a -way for itself, was first enunciated by Jehuda Halevi. In a poem, which -is as beautiful as its matter is true, he thus expresses his opinion -of the Greek spirit which studious disciples of philosophy so eagerly -affected: - - "Do not be enticed by the wisdom of the Greeks, - Which only bears fair blossoms, but no fruit. - What is its essence? That God created not the world, - Which, ever from the first, was enshrouded in myths. - If to its words you lend a ready ear, you - Return with chattering mouth, heart void, unsatisfied." - -Judaism cannot, according to this system, be assailed by philosophy -at all, because it stands on a firm basis, which the thinker must -respect, the basis of historical facts. The Jewish religion entered the -world not gradually, little by little, but suddenly, like something -newly created. It was revealed to a vast multitude--to millions of -men--who had sufficient means of inquiring and investigating whether -they were deceived by some trickery. Moreover, all the miracles that -preceded the revelation on Sinai, and continued to occur during the -wandering in the desert, took place in the presence of many people. Not -only on one occasion, the beginning of Israel's nationality, was the -evident interference of God manifested, but it revealed itself often, -in the course of five hundred years, in the outpouring of the spirit -of prophecy upon certain individuals and classes. By virtue of this -character, of the confirmed authenticity of these facts, Judaism is -invested with a certainty greater than that established by philosophy. -The existence of God is demonstrated more powerfully by the revelation -of Sinai than by the conclusions of the intellect. Jehuda Halevi -believed that he had not only cut away the ground from beneath the -philosophical views of his time, but that he had also undermined the -foundations both of Christianity and Islam, and laid down the criterion -by which the true could be distinguished from the false religion. -Judaism does not feed its adherents with the hope of a future world -full of bliss, but grants them here on earth a glimpse of the heavenly -kingdom, and raises, through an enduring chain of indisputable facts, -the hope of the immortality of the soul to the plane of absolute -certainty. - -Whilst thus giving the general principles of Judaism, he had so far not -justified it in all its details. In order to do this, Jehuda Halevi -propounded a view which is certainly original and ingenious. The truth -of the creation, as related in the Torah, being pre-supposed, he starts -from the fact that Adam was in soul and body completely perfect when -he came from the hand of the Creator, without any disturbing ancestral -influences, and the ideal, after which man should strive, was set -forth in all its purity. All truths which are accessible to the human -soul might have been known to Adam without any wearisome study, by -his innate consciousness, and he possessed, so to speak, a prophetic -nature, and was therefore called the son of God. This perfection, -this spiritual and moral endowment, he bequeathed to those of his -descendants who, by virtue of their spiritual fitness, were capable -of receiving it. Through a long chain of ancestors, with some slight -interruptions, this innate virtue passed to Abraham, the founder of -the family of the Israelites, and thence to the ancestors of the -twelve tribes. The people of Israel thus forms the heart and kernel -of the human race, and through divine grace, and especially through -the gift of prophecy, it was peculiarly fitted for this position. This -ideal nature elevates the possessor; it may be said to constitute the -intermediate step between man and the angels. In order to attain and -preserve this divine gift, it is necessary to have some place which, -by reason of the circumstances of the climate, is of help in promoting -a higher spiritual life. For this purpose God selected the land of -Canaan. Like Israel, so the Holy Land was specially chosen; it was -selected because it lies at the center of the earth. There the rule -of God was made manifest by the rise of prophets and by extraordinary -blessings and curses, which were supernatural. The precepts and -prohibitions which Judaism ordains are means whereby the divinely -prophetic nature in the Israelite nation may be nurtured and preserved. -To this end the priests of the house of Aaron were appointed, the -Temple erected, the sacrificial laws and the whole code established. -God alone, from whom all these laws emanated, knows in how far they -aid in furthering this great aim. Human wisdom durst not find fault -with or change them, because the most unimportant alteration might -easily cause the grand end to be lost sight of, even as nature brings -forth varied productions by slight changes of the soil and climate. -The duties of morality, or the laws of reason, do not constitute the -peculiarity of Judaism, as many imagine. These are rather the bases on -which the commonwealth was established, as even a robber band cannot -dispense with justice and fairness if it wishes to hold together. -The religious duties are the true essentials of Judaism, and are -intended to preserve in the people of Israel divine light and grace and -permanent prophetic inspiration. - -Though the exact significance of the religious laws is rightly withheld -from human understanding, the wisdom of their originator is yet -reflected in them. Judaism involves neither the life of a hermit nor -ascetic mortification; and, the opponent of brooding melancholy, it -desires to see in its followers a joyful disposition. It indicates the -limits of the soul's activity and the promptings of the heart, and thus -maintains the individual and communal life of the nation in harmonious -equipoise. A man deserving to be called pious from a Jewish point of -view, does not flee from the world, nor despise life, and desire death -in order more quickly to obtain eternal life; he does not deny himself -the pleasures of life, but is an upright guardian of his own territory, -that is, of his body and soul. He assigns to all the faculties of the -body and the soul what is due to each, protects them against want and -superfluity, thereby making them docile, and employs them as willing -instruments, enabling him to rise to the higher life which emanates -directly from the Deity. - -After Jehuda Halevi had discovered the great value of religious deeds, -it was an easy task for him to prove the superiority of Talmudical -Judaism over Karaism, and also to invest it with more resplendent -virtues than those distinguishing Islam and Christianity. The -condition of slavery into which Israel had fallen, whilst scattered -among the nations of the earth, is, according to the view of the -poet-philosopher, no evidence of its decay, nor a reason for abandoning -hope. In the same manner, the temporal power, on which Christians -and Moslems equally pride themselves, is no proof of the divinity of -their doctrines. Poverty and misery, despised in the eyes of man, -are of higher merit with God than inflated pride and greatness. The -Christians themselves are not so proud of their mighty princes as of -humble men, such as Jesus, who commanded that "whosoever shall smite -thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also," and of their -apostles who suffered the martyrdom of humiliation and contumely. The -Moslems also take pride in the followers of their Prophet, who endured -much suffering on his account. The greatest sufferer, however, is -Israel, since he is among men what the heart is in the human organism. -Just as the heart sympathetically suffers with every part of the body, -so the Jewish nation suffers most keenly for every wrongdoing among -the nations, whether consciously or unconsciously perpetrated. The -words which the great prophet represents the nations of the world as -saying apply to Israel: "He hath borne our griefs, and carried our -sorrows." The Jewish people, in spite of the unspeakable agonies it -has gone through, has not perished; it may be likened to a person who -is dangerously ill, whom the skill of the physician has entirely given -up, but who expects to be saved by some miracle. The picture of the -scattered, lifeless bones, which at the word of the prophet unite, are -clothed with flesh and skin, have new breath breathed into them, and -again stand erect, also applies to Israel; it is a complete description -of Israel in its despoiled and low condition. The dispersion of Israel -is a miraculous, divine plan, devised to impart to the nations of -the earth the spirit with which Israel is endowed. The race of Israel -resembles a grain of seed which, placed in the ground, apparently -rots away, and appears to have been absorbed into the elements of its -surroundings. But when it buds and blossoms forth, it again assumes its -original nature, and throws off the disfiguring husk which envelops -it, and finally displays its own vital force according to its kind, -till it, step by step, attains its highest development. As soon as -mankind, prepared for it by Christianity and Islam, recognizes the true -importance of the Jewish nation as the bearer of the divine light, -it will also pay due honor to the root, hitherto looked upon with -contempt. All mankind will adhere to Israel, and having developed into -glorious fruit, will finally enter the Messianic kingdom, which is the -true fruit of the tree. - -Certainly the exalted significance of Judaism and the people that -confess it was never more eloquently preached. Thought and feelings, -philosophy and poetry, all combined in this original system of Jehuda -of Castile, in order to set up a sublime ideal, the point of union -between heaven and earth. - -Abulhassan Jehuda did not belong to that class of men who form noble -conceptions, and lead a contemptible life. In him thought and deed -were identical. As soon as he had come to the conclusion that the -Hebrew language and the land of Canaan possessed a peculiarly divine -character, that they were consecrated means for a holy purpose, this -conviction governed his conduct. The treasures of his poetical genius -were left uncultivated for a long time, because he considered it a -profanation to employ the Hebrew language in imitating the Arabic -measures. The philosopher-poet was firmly convinced, moreover, that the -Holy Land bore traces of the divine grace. His poetic soul was filled -with the spiritual glory of Palestine. From the decayed splendor of -its desolate condition there still breathed a higher inspiration. The -bitterest pangs of sorrow penetrated his heart at the thought of the -sacred ruins. For him the gates of heaven were to be found now as ever -at the doors of Jerusalem, and thence poured forth that divine grace -which enabled the appreciative mind to attain to happiness and a higher -state of repose. Thither would he go, there live according to the -dictates of his innermost heart, and there would he be animated by the -divine breath. When he began his work on the philosophy of religion, -he spoke in mournful tones of the fact that he, like many others, was -so insensible to the merits of the Holy Land, that, whilst with his -lips he expressed a longing for it, he never attempted to realize this -desire. The more, however, he meditated upon the importance of the Holy -Land as a place where the divine gift of grace could be obtained, the -stronger his determination grew to journey thither and there spend his -last days. - -This irresistible impulse towards Zion, the favored city, gave birth to -a series of deeply impassioned songs, which are as full of true feeling -as they are beautiful in form. The songs of Zion, composed by Jehuda -Halevi, represent the most excellent fruits of neo-Hebraic poetry, and -they may well be compared with the Psalms: - - "O city of the world, with sacred splendor blest, - My spirit yearns to thee from out the far-off West; - Had I an eagle's wings, straight would I fly to thee, - Moisten thy holy dust with wet cheeks streaming free."[2] - - - "In the East, in the East, is my heart, and I dwell at the - end of the West; - How shall I join in your feasting, how shall I share in - your jest, - How shall my offerings be paid, my vows with performance be - crowned, - While Zion pineth in Edom's bonds, and I am pent in the Arab's - bound! - All the beauties and treasures of Spain are worthless as dust, - in mine eyes; - But the dust of the Lord's ruined house, as a treasure of - beauty I prize." - -This is the keynote of all the songs of Zion. But in how many and in -what various ways does the poet skilfully manipulate his subject! -What a wealth of sentiments, images and devices does he develop! The -ancient days of Israel are idealized in his verses; the people of -his own age at one time appear invested with the thorny crown of a -thousand sufferings, and at another with the glittering diadem of a -glorious hope. The contents of his lyrics unwittingly penetrate into -the soul of the reader, and hurry him to and fro, from pain and woe to -hope and rejoicing, and for a long time the deep impression remains, -intermingled with feelings of enthusiasm and conviction. - -The bard, who was thus inspired by the cause of his nation, busied -himself in communicating to his brethren this deep longing for -Jerusalem, and in arousing them to arrange some plan of return. One -poem, in elevated and lovely strains, encouraged the people, "The -Distant Dove," to leave the fields of Edom and Arab (Christendom and -Mahometan countries), and to seek its native nest in Zion. But no -answering echo was awakened. It was a sublime, ideal conception that -enabled the pious poet-philosopher even to dream of so daring a flight. - -The soul of Jehuda Halevi was drawn by invisible cords to Israel's -ancient home, and he could not detach it from them. When he had -concluded his immortal work, the dialogue of the Chozari (about 1141), -he entertained serious thoughts of starting on his holy journey. He -made no slight sacrifices to this remarkable, if somewhat adventurous, -resolve. He exchanged a peaceful, comfortable life for one of -disquietude and uncertainty, and left behind his only daughter and his -grandson, whom he loved most dearly. He gave up his college which he -had established in Toledo, and parted from a circle of disciples whom -he loved as sons, and who in turn revered him as a father. He bade -farewell to his numerous friends, who, without envy, praised him as a -distinguished scholar. All this in his estimation was of little value -in comparison with his love of God and the Holy Land. He desired to -bring his heart as an offering to the sacred place, and to find his -grave in sanctified earth. - -Provided with ample means, Jehuda Halevi started on his journey, and -his passage through Spain resembled a triumph. His numerous admirers in -the towns through which he passed outvied each other in attentions to -him. With a few faithful companions he took passage on board a vessel -bound for Egypt. Confined in the narrow wooden cabins, where there -was no room either to sit or to lie down, a mark for the coarse jests -of the rough mariners, sea-sick and in weak health, his soul yet lost -none of its power to elevate itself into a brighter sphere. His ideals -were his most trusty companions. The storm which tossed the ships -about on the waves like a plaything, when "between him and death there -intervened only a board," unlocked the store of song within his breast. -Of the sea he sang songs which for faithfulness of description and -depth of feeling have few equals: - - "The billows rage--exult, oh soul of mine, - Soon shalt thou enter the Lord's sacred shrine!"[3] - -Delayed by adverse winds, the ship arrived at Alexandria at the time -of the Feast of Tabernacles (September), and Jehuda betook himself to -his co-religionists, with the firm determination to spend but a short -time with them, and never to forget the aim of his journey. But as soon -as his name became known, all hearts were drawn towards him. The most -distinguished man of the Alexandrian congregation, the physician and -rabbi Aaron Ben-Zion Ibn-Alamani, who was blessed with prosperity and -children, and was himself a liturgical poet, hastened to receive him as -a noble guest, showed him the highest honor, and placed his hospitable -mansion at the disposal of Halevi and his comrades. Under the careful -treatment of cordial friends, he recovered from the effects of his -sea-voyage, and expressed his gratitude in beautiful Hebrew verses. The -family of Ibn-Alamani were so urgent in their desire to keep him with -them, that in spite of his great longing for Jerusalem, he remained -for nearly three months at Alexandria, till the Feast of Dedication. -He tore himself away by force from such dear friends, and meant to go -to the port of Damietta, where dwelt one of his best friends, Abu Said -ben Chalfon Halevi, whose acquaintance he had made in Spain. He was, -however, compelled to alter the course of his journey, for the Jewish -prince Abu Mansur Samuel ben Chananya, who held a high post at the -court of the Egyptian Caliph, sent him a pressing letter of invitation. - -Abu Mansur, who dwelt in the palace of the Caliph, appears to have -been the head of the Jewish congregations in Egypt, bearing the title -of Prince (Nagid). Jehuda Halevi was the less able to decline this -flattering invitation, as it was important for him to obtain from the -Jewish prince, whose fame was wide-spread, letters of recommendation, -facilitating the continuance of his pilgrimage to Palestine. Abu -Mansur's hint that he was willing to aid him with large supplies of -money, he delicately put aside in a letter, saying, that "God had -blessed him so munificently with benefits that he had brought much -with him from home, and had still left plenty behind." Soon after, -he traveled to Cairo in a Nile boat. The wonderful river awoke in -him memories of the Jewish past, and reminded him of his vow. He -immortalized his reminiscences in two beautiful poems. He was warmly -received by the Prince Abu Mansur in Cairo, and basked in the sunshine -of his splendor, and sang of his liberality, renown, and of his three -noble sons. He made but a brief stay in Cairo, and hastened to the -port of Damietta, which he reached on the Fast of Tebeth (December, -about 1141, 1142). Here he was well received by many friends, and -especially by his old friend Abu Said Chalfon Halevi, a man of great -distinction. He dedicated some beautiful poems of thanks to him and -his other friends. These friends also attempted to dissuade him from -proceeding to Palestine; they pictured to him the dangers which he -would encounter, and reminded him that memories of the Divine grace -in the early days of the history of the Jews were connected also with -Egypt. He, however, replied, "In Egypt Providence manifested itself as -if in haste, but it took up a permanent residence for the first time -in the Holy Land." At length he parted from his friends and admirers, -determined to carry his project into effect. It is not known at what -place he next stopped. - -In Palestine, at this time, Christian kings and princes, the kinsmen -of the hero Godfrey of Bouillon, were the rulers, and these permitted -the Jews again to dwell in the Holy Land, and in the capital, which -had now become Christian. The country, at the time of Jehuda's -pilgrimage, was undisturbed by war; for the Christians who had settled -in Palestine a generation ago, the effeminate Pullani, loved peace, -and purchased it at any price from their enemies, the Mahometan emirs. -The Jews were also in favor at the petty courts of the Christian -princes of Palestine, and a Christian bishop complained that owing to -the influence of their wives, the princes placed greater confidence -in Jewish, Samaritan, and Saracen physicians than in Latin (that is, -Christian) ones. Probably the reason was because the latter were -quacks. - -Jehuda Halevi appears to have reached the goal of his desire, and -to have visited Jerusalem, but only for a short time. The Christian -inhabitants of the Holy City seem to have been very hostile to him, and -to have inspired him with disgust for life in the capital. It is to -this, probably, that his earnest, religious poem refers, in the middle -verses of which he laments as follows: - - "To see Thy glory long mine eye had yearned; - But when at last I sought Thy Holy Place, - As though I were a thing unclean and base, - Back from Thy threshold was I rudely spurned. - - The burden of my folk I, too, must bear, - And meekly bow beneath oppression's rod, - Because I will not worship a false god, - Nor, save to Thee, stretch forth my hands in prayer." - -The closing adventures of his life, beyond the fact that he was at Tyre -and at Damascus, are not known. The Jewish community at Tyre rendered -great honor to him, and the memory of this treatment was impressed on -his grateful heart. In a poem to his Tyrian friend he grieves over -his faded hopes, his misspent youth, and his present wretchedness, -in verses which cannot be read without stirring up emotions at -the despondency of this valorous soldier. In Damascus he sang his -swan-song, the glorious song of Zion, which, like the Psalms of Asaph, -awake a longing for Jerusalem. The year of his death and the site of -his grave are both unknown. A legend has it that a Mahometan horseman -rode over him as he was chanting his mournful Lay of Zion. Thus reads a -short epitaph which an unknown admirer wrote for him: - - "Honor, Faith, and Gentleness, whither have ye flown? - Vainly do I seek you; Learning, too, is gone! - 'Hither are we gathered,' they reply as one, - 'Here we rest with Judah.'" - -This, however, does not convey the smallest portion of what this -ethereal and yet powerful character was. Jehuda Halevi was the -spiritualized image of the race of Israel, conscious of itself, seeking -to display itself, in its past and in its future, in an intellectual -and artistic form. - -In Spain Jewish culture had arrived at its zenith, and had reached its -highest perfection in the greatest of the neo-Hebraic poets. In France -the beginnings of culture now became manifest. The reigns of the two -kings of the house of Capet, Louis VI and VII (1108-1180), were as -favorable to the Jews as that of Louis the Pious. The congregations in -the north of France lived in the comfort and prosperity that arouses -envy, their granaries were filled with corn, their cellars with -wine, their warehouses with merchandise, and their coffers with gold -and silver. They owned houses and fields and vineyards, cultivated -either by themselves or by Christian servants. It is said that -half of Paris, which at that time was not yet a city of very great -importance, belonged to Jews. The Jewish congregations were recognized -as independent corporations, and had their own mayor, with the title -of Provost (praepositus), who was invested with authority to guard the -interests of his people, and to arrest Christian debtors and compel -them to pay their Jewish creditors. The Jewish provost was chosen by -the community, and his election was ratified by the king or the baron -to whom the town was tributary; Jews frequented the court, and held -office. Jacob Tam, the greatest rabbinical authority of this time, was -highly respected by the king. Jewish theologians freely disputed with -the clergy upon religious questions, and openly expressed their honest -opinions about the Trinity, the Virgin Mary, the worship of saints, -about auricular confession and the miracle-working powers of relics. - -Under these favorable circumstances of unrestricted tolerance, the -Jewish sages of the north of France were able to follow in the path -which Rashi had marked out for them. To understand and explain the -Talmud in its entirety became a passion with the French Jews. Death had -snatched away the commentator on the Talmud in the midst of his labors -at Troyes; his pupils exerted themselves to complete whatever had -been left unfinished by him. He had bequeathed to his school a spirit -of indefatigable research and close inquiry, of acute dialectics, -and the art of fine discrimination, and they richly increased their -inheritance. The correct and precise understanding of the Talmud was -so sacred a matter to the pupils of Rashi, that they did not hesitate -to subject the interpretations of their master to a severe critical -revision. But, on the other hand, their veneration for him was so -great that they did not venture to offer their opinions independently, -but attached them to the commentaries of Rashi as "Supplements" -(Tossafoth). From this circumstance they were called the Tossafists. -They supplied the omissions of Rashi, and also emended and expanded -the explanations given by him. The chief characteristic of the method -of the Tossafists is their independence of the authorities, they -subjected all opinions to the scrutiny of their own reason. Their -profound scholarship and great erudition comprehended the immense -Talmudic literature and its maze of learned discussions and arguments -with clearness and precision. Their penetrating intellect displayed -remarkable ingenuity in resolving every argument and every idea into -its original elements, distinguishing thoughts that appeared to be -similar, and reconciling such as seemed to conflict. It is almost -impossible to convey to the mind of the uninitiated any satisfactory -notion of the critical acumen of the Tossafists. They solved the -most difficult logical problems with the greatest ease, as if they -were the simple examples set to children. The unyielding material -of the Talmud became quite malleable under their hands, and they -fashioned surprising Halachic (legal) shapes and substances. For the -circumstances of modern times they found numerous analogies on record, -which a superficial examination would never have discovered. - -The circle of the earliest Tossafists was composed chiefly of the -relatives of Rashi, viz.: his two sons-in-law, Meir ben Samuel of -Rameru, a small town near Troyes, and Jehuda ben Nathan (Riban); later, -his three grandsons, Isaac, Samuel and Jacob Tam, the sons of Meir; -and finally a German, Isaac ben Asher Halevi (Riba) of Speyer, also -connected with the family of Rashi. - -The school of the Tossafists divided the study of the Talmud into two -branches: theoretical discussion leading to a thorough comprehension -of the text of the Talmud (Chiddushim), and practical application of -the results of such study in the civil laws, in the laws of marriage, -and in the religious ritual (Pesakim, Responsa). This ingenious method -revealed new legal ordinances. - -The study of the Talmud fully occupied the intellectual powers of -the Jews of the north of France and the Rhine, and prevented the -cultivation of other studies. Poetry did not thrive in a region where -logic wielded the scepter, and where the imagination was brought into -play only in order to invent new complications and hypothetical cases. -The interpretation of Scripture was also treated in a Talmudical -manner. Most of the Tossafists were Bible exegetes, but they did not -pay much attention to the exact meaning of the text, studying it by -means of Agadic interpretations. Tossafoth were written to elucidate -the Pentateuch as well as the Talmud. Only two men can be recorded -as famous exceptions, who returned from exegesis according to the -Agadic method (Derush) to the strict and rational elucidation of -the text (Peshat); these are Joseph Kara and Samuel ben Meir (about -1100-1160). Both of these have the greater importance, since they were -in opposition to their fathers, who adhered to the Midrashic system of -interpretation. Joseph Kara was the son of Simon Kara, a compiler of -Agadic pieces, the author of the Yalkut; and Samuel ben Meir had been -taught by his grandfather Rashi to pay great respect to the Agada. Both -of them forsook the old way, and sought an explanation of the text in -strict accordance with rules of grammar. Samuel, who completed Rashi's -commentary to Job and to some of the treatises of the Talmud, had so -thoroughly convinced his grandfather of the correctness of rational -exegesis, that he had declared that if strength were granted him, -he would alter his commentary to the Pentateuch in accordance with -other exegetical principles. Samuel, called Rashbam, wrote, in this -temperate style, a commentary to the Pentateuch and the Five Megilloth; -and Joseph Kara wrote commentaries on the books of the Prophets and -the Hagiographa. Samuel ben Meir, in his interpretation of Holy Writ, -sought for the sense and the connection of the text, and did not shrink -from explanations at variance with the Talmud, or in harmony with the -views of the Karaites. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -PERSECUTIONS DURING THE SECOND CRUSADE AND UNDER THE ALMOHADES. - - Condition of the Jews in France--The Second Crusade--Peter - the Venerable and the Monk Rudolph--Bernard of Clairvaux and - the Emperor Conrad--Protectors of the Jews--Persecutions - under the Almohades--Abdulmumen and his Edict--The Prince - Jehuda Ibn-Ezra--The Karaites in Spain--Jehuda Hadassi-- - The historian Abraham Ibn-Daud and his Philosophy--Abraham - Ibn-Ezra--Rabbenu Tam. - -1143-1170 C. E. - - -When the greatest neo-Hebraic poet complained, "Have we a home in -the West or in the East?" his sensitive heart was probably filled -with foreboding concerning the insecurity of his co-religionists. -Only too soon was the Jewish race to realize the awful truth that it -possessed no home on earth, and that it was only tolerated in the -lands of its exile. As long as the intolerant religious principles of -the Church and of the Mosque remained inoperative, either by reason -of the indifference, or the inertia, or the selfish pursuits of their -adherents, the Jews lived in comparative happiness; but when religious -hatred was aroused, torture and martyrdom fell upon Israel, and again -he was compelled to grasp the wanderer's staff, and with bleeding heart -depart from his dearly beloved home. Although the Jews in general, -and especially their leaders, the rabbis and sages, were, as a rule, -superior to the Christian and Mahometan peoples in devotion to God, -in morality, in refinement and knowledge, yet those to whom the earth -belonged imagined themselves on a higher level, and with lordly -haughtiness looked down upon the Jews as common slaves. In Christian -countries they were declared outlaws, because they would not believe -in the Son of God and many other things; and in a Mahometan realm they -were persecuted because they would not acknowledge Mahomet as the -prophet. In one land they were expected to do violence to their reason -and to accept fables as sober truths, and in another they were asked -to renounce their faith and take in its stead dry formulae, tinged with -philosophy. Both held out the cheerless choice between death and the -renunciation of their ancient religion. The French and the Germans -rivaled the savage Moors in the energy with which they strove to -enfeeble still more the weakest of the peoples. On the banks of the -Seine, the Rhine and the Danube, on the shores of Africa and in the -south of Spain, there arose simultaneously, as though preconcerted, -bloody persecutions against the Jews, in the name of religion, despite -the fact that all that was good and divine in the oppressors' creeds -owed its origin to this people. Hitherto persecutions of the Jews had -been few and far between; but from the year 1146 they became more -frequent, more severe, and more persistent. It seemed as if the age in -which the light of intelligence had begun to dawn upon mankind desired -to exceed in inhumanity the epochs of darkest barbarism. This period -of suffering imprinted on the features of the Jewish race that air of -suffering, that martyr's look, which even the present age of freedom -has not effaced. "The meaning of the prophet," said Ibn-Ezra, "when -he cries, 'He was oppressed, and he was afflicted, yet he opened not -his mouth,' requires no commentary, for every Jew in exile illustrates -it. When he is afflicted he does not open his mouth to protest that he -is more righteous than his tormentor. He keeps his look directed only -towards God, and neither prince nor noble assists him in his distress." - -The persecutions that spread simultaneously over Europe and Africa -had their sources in catastrophes that occurred in Asia and Africa. -Whilst the Christian knights in the new kingdom of Jerusalem and in -the neighboring princedoms were sinking into inactivity, the Turkish -warrior, Nureddin, who had determined to drive the Christians from -Asia, began his attacks upon them. The important city of Edessa fell -into his hands, and the crusaders, now at their wits' end, were -compelled to implore help from Europe. The second crusade was now -preached in France and Germany, and bloodthirsty fanaticism was again -aroused against the Jews. - -King Louis VII of France, conscience-stricken, took the cross, and -with him went the young and frivolous Queen Eleanora, together with -the dames of the court, who transformed the camp of the warriors of -God into a court of gallantry. The Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux, a truly -pious man, of apostolic simplicity of heart, and renowned for his -powerful eloquence, energetically exhorted Christians to take part -in this crusade, and owing to his influence the troops of pilgrims -marching against the infidels increased day by day. This time it was -Pope Eugenius III who turned the attention of the crusaders towards -the Jews. He issued a bull announcing that all those who joined in the -holy war were absolved from the payment of interest on debts owing to -Jews. This was an inducement for the numerous debtors of the Jews to -participate in the crusade, and was in reality only a veiled permission -to repudiate their indebtedness to the Jews. The Abbot Bernard, who at -other times disdained to employ unholy means to compass a holy end, -was obliged, at the command of the Pope, to preach this repudiation -of debts. Another abbot, Peter the Venerable, of Clugny, desired to -push the matter still further. He roused King Louis and the army of -the crusaders directly against the Jews. He heaped charges upon them, -exaggerating their offenses so as to incite the prejudiced monarch -to persecute or at least plunder them. In a letter to Louis VII he -repeated the sophistries and falsehoods which the marauding mobs of the -first crusade had invented in order to palliate their plundering of the -Jews in the name of religion. - -"Of what use is it," wrote Peter of Clugny, "to go forth to seek the -enemies of Christendom in distant lands, if the blasphemous Jews, who -are much worse than the Saracens, are permitted in our very midst to -scoff with impunity at Christ and the sacrament! The Saracen at least -believes as we do that Christ was born of a virgin, and yet he is -execrable, since he denies the incarnation. How much more these Jews -who disbelieve everything, and mock at everything! Yet I do not require -you to put to death these accursed beings, because it is written, -'Do not slay them.' God does not wish to annihilate them, but like -Cain, the fratricide, they must be made to suffer fearful torments, -and be preserved for greater ignominy, for an existence more bitter -than death. They are dependent, miserable and terror-stricken, and -must remain in that state until they are converted to the Saviour. -You ought not to kill them, but to afflict them in a manner befitting -their baseness." The holy man besought the king to deprive the Jews -either altogether or in part of their possessions, since the crusading -army, which was marching against the Saracens, did not spare its own -property and lands, and certainly should not spare the ill-gotten -treasures of the Jews. Only their bare life should be left to them, -but their money forfeited, for the audacity of the Saracens would be -more easily subdued if the hands of the Christians were strengthened -by the wealth of the blasphemous Jews. This method of reasoning is -certainly consistent; it is the logic of the Middle Ages. King Louis, -though well-disposed towards the Jews, could not do less in obedience -to the papal bull than allow the crusaders to absolve themselves from -their Jewish debts. For the moment the persecution limited itself to -the plundering of the rich Jews, who were reduced to the state of their -poorer brethren. The friendly monarch and his wise ministers, together -with the Abbot Suger, and especially the pious Bernard, who knew how to -control men's minds, would not permit a universal bloody persecution. - -Affairs took a different course in Germany, and particularly in the -cities along the Rhine, whose congregations had scarcely recovered from -the wounds of the first crusade. Emperor Conrad III was powerless; the -citizens who had as a rule taken the part of the Jews during the first -crusade, and had afforded them protection, were now, at the beginning -of the second crusade, prejudiced against them. A French monk, named -Rudolph, left his monastery without the permission of his superior, -and his fiery eloquence kindled the fanaticism of the German people -against the Jews. He believed that he was accomplishing a holy work in -securing the conversion or annihilation of the infidels. From town to -town, from village to village, Rudolph traveled preaching the crusade, -and he inserted in his addresses an exhortation that the crusade should -begin with the Jews. Matters would have been much worse for the German -Jews on this occasion, had not Emperor Conrad, who at first felt an -antipathy to the extravagant feeling engendered by the crusade, looked -after their safety. In the lands which were his by inheritance, he set -aside the city of Nuremburg and certain other fortresses as cities of -refuge for them, where the hand of the infuriated crusaders could not -reach them. He had no jurisdiction over the territories of the princes -and prelates, but he appears to have urged them all to extend their -powerful protection to the Jews. But the word of the emperor had but -little weight. In August, 1146, were sacrificed the first victims of -the persecution stirred up by Rudolph. Simon the Pious, of Treves, -whilst on his way home from England, tarried in Cologne. He was seized -by the crusaders as he was about to go on board a ship, and refusing -to be baptized, he was murdered and his body mutilated. Also a woman -named Minna, of Speyer, who had suffered the terrible tortures of the -rack, remained steadfast to her faith. These occurrences prompted the -Jews dwelling by the Rhine to look round for protection. They paid -immense sums to the princes, to be permitted to live in the fortresses -and castles for safety. The Cardinal Bishop Arnold of Cologne gave -them the castle of Wolkenburg, near Koenigswinter, and allowed them to -defend themselves with arms. Wolkenburg became a refuge for many of the -congregations of the district. As long as the Jews remained in their -places of refuge they were safe; but as soon as they ventured forth, -the Christian pilgrims, who lay in ambush for them, dragged them away -to be baptized, killing those that resisted, after subjecting them to -inhuman treatment. The prelates of the Rhine were, however, disgusted -with the preaching of the crusade as carried on by the monk Rudolph, -nor did they approve of the massacres of the Jews, particularly as -these gave rise to dissensions and feuds, and Rudolph even emboldened -the populace to disobey the bishops. The Archbishop of Mayence, Henry -I, who was at the same time chancellor and prime minister to the -emperor, had admitted into his house some of the Jews who were pursued -by the mob. The riotous crowd forced its way in, and murdered them -before his very eyes. The archbishop then addressed himself to the most -distinguished representative of Christianity of that time, Bernard of -Clairvaux, who had more power than the Pope. He depicted to him the -outrages that Rudolph had fomented in the Rhine country, and prayed -him to exercise his authority. Bernard, who strongly disapproved of -the doings of Rudolph, willingly gave the archbishop his support. He -despatched a letter to the Archbishop of Mayence, intended to be read -in public. In this letter he energetically condemned the agitator; -he called Rudolph an outlawed son of the Church, who had fled from -his cloister, had been faithless to the rules of his order, maligned -the bishops, and who, in opposition to the principles of the Church, -preached to simple-minded Christians, murder and massacre of the Jews. -The Jews ought, on the contrary, to be carefully spared. The Church -hoped that at a certain time they would be converted _en masse_, and a -prayer for that especial purpose had been instituted for Good Friday. -Could the hope of the Church be fulfilled if the Jews were altogether -annihilated? Bernard sent another letter written in the same spirit -to the clergy and people of France and Bavaria, wherein he expressly -admonished them to spare the Jews. - -But the letters of Bernard made no impression upon Rudolph and the -misguided mob; they were bent upon the complete destruction of the -Jews, and on all sides lay in wait for them. The Abbot of Clairvaux -accordingly found it necessary to protest in person against the -slaughter of the Jews. When at about this time he made a journey -into Germany in order to induce Emperor Conrad to take part in the -crusade, he tarried in the towns on the Rhine in order to counteract -the fiendish plans of Rudolph. He addressed him in very severe terms, -and prevailed on him to desist from preaching the massacre of the Jews, -and to return to his monastery. The deluded people murmured against -the actions of Bernard, and had he not been protected by his sacred -calling, they would have attacked him. Rudolph disappeared from the -scene, but the poisonous seeds scattered abroad by him worked the -destruction of the Jews. As the bulk of the people became inflamed -by the sermons of Bernard on behalf of the crusade, its fury against -the Jews increased. The people were more consistent than the saint -of Clairvaux and the bishops, and their logic could not be shaken. -They said, "If it is a godly deed to slay unbelieving Turks, it -surely cannot be a sin to massacre unbelieving Jews." At about this -time the lacerated limbs of a Christian were discovered at Wuerzburg, -and the crusaders who were assembled there believed, or pretended to -believe that the Jews had butchered the man. They took this pretext to -attack the congregation at Wuerzburg. The Jews of this city were under -the protection of Bishop Embicho, and dwelt in tranquillity in the -city, not deeming it necessary to seek a place of refuge. The terror -which seized them was therefore the greater, when they were suddenly -attacked by a crowd of crusaders (22 Adar, 24 Feb., 1147). More than -twenty met martyrs' deaths, among them the distinguished and gentle -Rabbi Isaac ben Eliakim, who was slain whilst reading a holy book. -Some were cruelly maltreated, and left as dead, but were afterwards -restored to life, and carefully tended by compassionate Christians. -The humane Bishop of Wuerzburg assigned a burial-place in his own -garden for the bodies of the martyrs, and sent the survivors into a -castle near Wuerzburg. The lot of the German Jews became still more -lamentable when the emperor Conrad with his knights and army joined the -crusading expedition, and the mobs who were left behind, unchecked by -the presence of the emperor, were at liberty to commit fearful outrages -(May, 1147). - -The savage spirit of murder in the name of piety was rapidly -communicated from Germany to France, on the assembling of the crusaders -in the spring. In Carenton (Department de la Manche) there was a -determined battle between the Christian pilgrims and the Jews. The -latter had gathered in a house, and defended themselves against -invasion. Two brothers, with the true courage of Frenchmen, fought like -heroes, dealing wounds right and left, and slew many crusaders, until -their foes, infuriated by the loss of so many men, found an entrance -into the court, attacked the Jews in the rear, and massacred them all. -Among the martyrs of this time in France was a young scholar named -Peter, a pupil of Samuel ben Meir and Tam, who, in spite of his youth, -had already distinguished himself among the Tossafists. At no great -distance from the monastery of Clairvaux, under the eyes of the Abbot -Bernard, the savage bands of the crusaders continued undismayed to -carry on their bloody work. They fell upon the Jewish congregation at -Rameru on the second day of Pentecost, forced their way into the house -of Jacob Tam, who was the most distinguished man among the European -Jews on account of his virtues and his learning, robbed him of all -his possessions, tore to pieces a scroll of the Law, and dragged him -into a field, intending to put him to death by torture. As Tam was -the most famous man among the Jews, the crusaders desired to avenge -on him the wounds and death of Jesus. They had already inflicted five -wounds on his head, and he was about to succumb, when fortunately a -knight with whom he was acquainted happened to pass along the road. Tam -still retained sufficient consciousness to implore his help, which the -knight promised to afford, on condition that he receive a fine horse -as a reward. The knight then told the band of assassins to hand the -victim over to him, and he would either prevail on him to be baptized, -or else return him to their hands. Thus was saved the man who was the -leader and model of the German and French Jews (8 May, 1147). Through -the influence of Bernard no Jew hunts took place in France, except at -Carenton, Rameru and Sully. In England, where since the time of William -the Conqueror many Jews had settled, who were in communication with -the French congregations, there were no persecutions, as King Stephen -vigorously protected them. The Jews of Bohemia, however, again suffered -severely when the crusaders marched through their country, 150 of them -meeting with martyrs' deaths. Directly the French army of the crusaders -had marched through Germany, and had advanced beyond its borders, the -Jews were able to leave their places of refuge in the castles, and -were not molested. Even those Jews who had weakly submitted to forced -baptism could now return to their ancient faith. A certain priest who -was as pious as he was humane, but whose name unfortunately has been -lost, gave them very great assistance. He led those Jews who had been -forcibly baptized into France and other countries, where they remained -till their former adhesion to the Church was forgotten. They then -returned to their homes and their religion. - -On the whole, the fanaticism of the second crusade claimed fewer -Jewish victims than the first. This was partly owing to the protection -afforded to the Jews by the spiritual and temporal dignitaries, and -also because the participation of the German Emperor and the King -of France did not permit such crowds of crusading marauders as had -accompanied the expedition of William the Carpenter and Emicho of -Leiningen. But the Jews were compelled to pay a high price for the -shelter which was granted them, the price being their whole future. The -German Emperor from this time forward was regarded by the Jews as their -protector, and he considered himself as such, demanding in return the -fulfilment of certain duties. The German Jews, who had hitherto been as -free as the Germans or Romans, henceforth became the "servants of the -chamber" (servi camerae) of the Holy Roman empire. This hateful name at -first only signified that the Jews enjoyed immunity from all attacks -like the imperial servants, and had to pay a certain tax to the emperor -for the protection thus granted to them, and that they had to perform -extraordinary services. But in later times the word was employed in -its original, odious sense, and the Jews were looked upon as bondmen -and dependent slaves. The German Jews who were on the point of raising -themselves from a state of barbarism, were thus hurled into the depths -of an abyss of degradation, from which they were enabled to raise -themselves only after a lapse of six hundred years. For this reason, -their intellectual efforts bore the stamp of degeneracy, their poems -consisted only of elegies and lamentations, which, like their speech, -were tasteless and barbaric, and even in the study of the Talmud very -little work of note was accomplished. The German Jews were pariahs in -history till the end of the eighteenth century. In France, on the other -hand, where other political and social conditions prevailed, Jewish -culture was vigorous enough to put forth blossoms. - -Whilst the Jews of France and Germany still stood in dread of the -crusaders, a persecution broke out in the north of Africa, which was -of longer duration, and produced different results. It was stirred -up by a man who combined the characters of philosopher, reformer -and conqueror, and manifested a peculiar political and religious -enthusiasm. Abdallah Ibn-Tumart, who came from the northwest of -Africa, while living in Bagdad, was inspired by the moral enthusiasm -of the mystic philosopher Alghazali. On his return home to Africa, he -preached to the simple Moorish tribes simplicity of living and dress, -hatred of poetry, music and painting, and war against the Almoravide -kings, who were devoted to a life of refinement. On the other hand, -Ibn-Tumart rejected the Sunnite teachings of Mahometan orthodoxy, and -the literal interpretation of the verses of the Koran, which affirmed -that God had the feelings of man, and was affected by the same emotions -as man. He obtained a large following among the Moors, and founded -a sect, whose members, from the fact that they maintained the true -unity of God without any corporeal representations (Tauchid), were -termed Almovachides or Almohades (Unitarians). This sect acknowledged -Ibn-Tumart as the Mahdi, the heaven-sent Imam of Islam. With the tocsin -of rebellion and the sword of war against the reigning Almoravides, -Ibn-Tumart spread his religious and moral reformation in the northwest -of Africa. After his death, his disciple Abdulmumen succeeded to the -leadership of the Almohades, and was recognized as the Prince of the -Faithful (Emir al-Mumenin). He achieved victory after victory, and in -his onward progress he destroyed the dynasty of the Almoravides, and -became monarch of the whole of northern Africa. Abdulmumen, however, -was a fanatic, and as he had extirpated the Almoravides with fire and -sword, not only for political reasons, but also because they professed -another belief, he would not suffer any other religion in his kingdom. - -When the capital, Morocco, after a long and obstinate siege, fell into -the hands of Abdulmumen, the new ruler summoned the numerous Jews -of the town, and addressed them in the following terms: "You do not -believe in the mission of the prophet Mahomet, and you think that the -Messiah, who has been announced to you, will confirm your law, and -strengthen your religion. Your forefathers, however, asserted that -the Messiah would appear at the latest about half a century after the -coming of Mahomet. Behold! that half a century has long passed, and -no prophet has arisen in your midst. The patience with which you -have been treated has come to an end. We can no longer permit you to -continue in your state of unbelief. We no longer desire any tribute -from you. You have only the choice between Islam and death." The -despair of the Jews at this stern proclamation was very great. It was -the second time, since they had come under Mahometan rule, that the -mournful alternative was offered to them, either to surrender their -life or their faith. Moved by the representations that were made to -him, Abdulmumen modified the edict by allowing the Jews to emigrate. -He also allowed them a certain time to dispose of such property as -they could not take with them. Those who preferred to remain in the -African kingdom were obliged to accept Islam under penalty of death. -Those, however, to whom Judaism was precious left Africa, and emigrated -to Spain, Italy and other places. The majority of them, however, -ostensibly yielded, and took the disguise of Islam whilst hoping for -more favorable times (1146). - -The persecution was directed not only against the Jews of Morocco, but -against all who lived in northern Africa, and as often as the Almohades -captured a city, the same edict was promulgated. The Christians also -suffered through this persecution, but as Christian Spain stood open to -receive them, and they might expect to be received with open arms by -their co-religionists, they were more steadfast, and departed from the -country in large bodies. Synagogues and churches alike were destroyed -throughout the land of the Almohades, which extended by degrees from -the Atlas mountains to the boundary of Egypt, and no traces remained of -the former Jewish and Christian residents. - -Although many north-African Jews had accepted Islam, there were but -few who became real converts. Nothing was demanded of them except to -profess belief in the prophetic mission of Mahomet, and occasionally -to attend the mosque. In private, however, they scrupulously practised -the Jewish rites, for the Almohades employed no police spies to observe -the actions of the converts. Not only the common people, but also pious -rabbis maintained this outward semblance of belief, soothing their -conscience with the reflection that idolatry and denial of Judaism -were not demanded of them, as they were simply required to utter the -formula that Mahomet was a prophet, which in no way suggested idolatry. -Some consoled themselves with the hope that this state would not long -continue, and that the Messiah would soon appear, and deliver them from -their misery. - -Under the disguise of Moslems, the Maghreb Jewish scholars even pursued -the study of the Talmud with their usual zeal, and assembled at their -colleges the studious youth, who at the same time were compelled to -engage in the study of the Koran. But truly conscientious and pious -men were unable to play this double part for any length of time. They -threw off the hateful mask, and openly professing Judaism, suffered -martyrdom, as happened in Fez, Segelmessa, Drai and other towns. - -The victorious Abdulmumen was not content with the possession of -all Barbary; he cast longing eyes upon the fair land of Andalusia, -thinking it an easy task to wrest it from the power of the Almoravide -and Christian rulers, and annex it to his realm. The conquest of -the Mahometan territory in southern Spain proved easy on account of -internal dissensions. Cordova, the capital of Andalusia, fell into the -power of the fanatical Almohades in June, 1148, and before the end of -a year the greater part of Andalusia was in their hands. The beautiful -synagogues which the piety, the love of splendor, and the refined -taste of the Andalusian Jews had built, fell a prey to the destructive -frenzy of fanaticism. The aged rabbi of Cordova, the philosopher -Joseph Ibn-Zadik, witnessed this sad downfall of the oldest and most -distinguished congregation, but died soon after (at the end of 1148 or -the commencement of 1149). The renowned Jewish academies at Seville and -Lucena were closed. Meir, the son and successor of Joseph Ibn-Migash, -went from Lucena to Toledo, and with him all those able to escape. -The remainder followed the example of the African Jews, yielding for -the moment to coercion and pretending to acknowledge Islam, though -in private they observed their ancient faith, till they found an -opportunity of openly professing Judaism. Women and children, together -with the property of the exiles, fell into the hands of the conquerors, -who treated feeble captives as slaves. - -In this dark epoch, when the center of Judaism was destroyed, a -favorable change of fortune created a new center. Christian Spain, -which had developed great power under the emperor Alfonso Raimundez -(1126-1157), became a refuge for the persecuted Andalusian Jews, and -Toledo, which had been made the capital of the realm, became a new -focus, whence the rays of Jewish science emanated. This favorable -change was due to the work of a man who deserves to be ranked with -Ibn-Shaprut and Ibn-Nagrela. The wise and philanthropic Emperor Alfonso -Raimundez had a Jewish favorite in the person of the still youthful -Jehuda Ibn-Ezra, the son of that Joseph Ibn-Ezra, who, together with -his three brothers, is celebrated in Judaeo-Spanish literature. On -taking possession of the border fortress of Calatrava, between Toledo -and Cordova (1146), the emperor, probably as a reward for his bravery, -appointed Ibn-Ezra commander of the place, and invested him with the -dignity of a prince (Nasi). - -Jehuda Ibn-Ezra was the guardian-angel of his unfortunate -co-religionists, who were fleeing before the fury of the victorious -Almohades. He assisted them to find homes and employment in Christian -Spain, and used his riches in ransoming captives, in clothing the -naked and feeding the hungry. The congregation of Toledo was very much -increased by the immigrant Jews. Meir Ibn-Migash opened an academy -for the study of the Talmud, and numerous pupils attended it. Jewish -learning under the protection of the Christian king, now flourished in -Toledo after its expulsion from the Mahometan kingdom. - -Jehuda Ibn-Ezra rose still higher in the favor of the Spanish emperor, -and was appointed steward of the imperial palace (about 1149). This -Jewish prince, in his zeal for Rabbanism, hurried into a persecution -which forms a blot on his fair fame. The Karaites who had settled in -Christian Spain, and who towards the end of the eleventh century had -suffered persecution at the hands of a Rabbanite, Joseph Al-Kabri, -had since that time again become a numerous body, and strove to -regain their ancient splendor. They brought the large literature of -their Eastern and Egyptian leaders into Castile, and were thereby -strengthened in their deep antipathy to Rabbinical Judaism. At this -time a Karaite of Constantinople, Jehuda ben Elia Hadassi, who styled -himself "a mourner for Zion" (ha-Abel), renewed the battle against the -Rabbanites, and wrote a comprehensive book under the name of "Eshkol -ha-Kofer," in which he discussed with great warmth the oft-disputed -differences between the two Jewish schools (1149), and rekindled the -flame of hostility. Jehuda Hadassi wrote with intense passion, but -employed harsh language, alphabetical acrostics, and a wretched, -monotonous rhyme. This hostile work was probably introduced into -Castile, and re-opened the conflict. Instead of having this polemical -book confuted by some able Rabbanite, Jehuda Ibn-Ezra called in the aid -of the secular arm, and besought the permission of the emperor Alfonso -to persecute the Karaites. He did not consider that the dormant fire of -persecution, if once rekindled, would sooner or later blaze around the -head of the persecutors. With the emperor's permission, Jehuda Ibn-Ezra -humbled the Karaites so sorely that they were never again able to raise -their heads. Their fate is not known, but they were probably banished -from the towns wherein Rabbanites dwelt (1150-1157). The favorable -condition of the Jews in Castile did not last long. After the death of -the emperor and of his eldest son, the King of Castile (1158), Jehuda -Ibn-Ezra lived to see troublous times. During the minority of the -Infante Alfonso a bitter civil war broke out between the noble houses -of De Castro and De Lara, in which the other Christian kings took -part; the fair land was devastated, and the capital, Toledo, became -the scene of bloody fights. The Christian monarchs were not powerful -enough to defend their borders against the continual irruptions of -the Almohades, and were obliged to leave this task to the fanatical -orders of knights, which were now again called into active service. The -Spanish Jews, unlike their German and French brethren, did not remain -mere indifferent spectators during these political struggles and wars, -but took the liveliest interest in all that was going on, joining one -or the other of the opposing sides. - -Meanwhile Jewish learning was in nowise impaired by the unfavorable -conditions which existed in almost every land of the exile, but still -took its place in the vanguard of culture. Two men, both from Toledo, -added to its luster; these were Abraham Ibn-Daud and Abraham Ibn-Ezra, -who, dissimilar in character, aims, and in their life's history, were -yet alike in their love for Judaism and for learning. Abraham Ibn-Daud -Halevi (born about 1110, died a martyr 1180), who was a descendant -on the maternal side of Prince Isaac Ibn-Albalia, was not only well -versed in the Talmud, but was also conversant with all the branches of -learning then cultivated. He also engaged in the study of history, both -Jewish and general, as far as in its neglected state during the Middle -Ages it was accessible to him. This branch of learning was but lightly -esteemed by the Spanish Jews. He was a physician, and was a diligent -explorer of the realm of science. Ibn-Daud possessed an intelligent, -clear mind, which enabled him to penetrate with precision into the -knowable, and to illumine the obscure. With brilliant perspicuity -he gave expression to the most difficult ideas, and made them -comprehensible. He centered all his attention upon the highest problems -of the human intellect, and was at a loss to conceive how any one could -spend his life in trifling pursuits or in the study of philology, -mathematics, theoretical medicine, or law, instead of directing his -mind to the holiest task of life. This task, according to the view of -Ibn-Daud, consists in philosophical study, because its object is the -knowledge of God, and herein lies man's superiority over the world of -created things. He emphasized this point strongly in opposition to -a certain class of his co-religionists in Spain who had a positive -dislike for philosophy. Ibn-Daud was well acquainted with the reason -for their mistrust of independent research. "There are many in our -time," he remarked, "who have dabbled a little in science, and who are -not able to hold both lights, the light of belief in their right hand -and the light of knowledge in their left. Since in such men the light -of investigation has extinguished the light of belief, the multitude -think it dangerous, and shrink from it. In Judaism, however, knowledge -is a duty, and it is wrong to reject it." - -The aim of all philosophical theory is the practical realization of -moral ideals. Such ideals Judaism presents. None of his predecessors -had so definitely and clearly expressed this important thought. -Morality produces positive virtues, a healthy family life, and based -upon this, a sound constitution of the state. According to this -view, all the religious duties of Judaism may be divided into five -classes. The first class inculcates the true knowledge and the love -of the One God and a purified belief in Him. The second class treats -especially of justice and conscientiousness, the chief of all virtues, -of forgiveness, kindness, and the love of enemies, all of which have -their origin in humility. The third class of precepts treats of the -relation of the head of the family to his wife, children, and servants, -according to the principles of right and affection. The fourth -division, which comprises a large group, prescribes the relation of -the citizen to the state and to his fellow-citizens; it inculcates the -necessity of loving one's neighbor, of honesty in commerce, and care -for the weak and suffering. There is, finally, a fifth class of laws, -such as the sacrificial and dietary laws (laws of the ritual), whose -purpose is not easily comprehended. These five groups of duties are -not equal in importance, faith taking the highest position and the -ceremonial laws the lowest, and therefore the prophets also often gave -greater prominence to the former. Starting from different premises, -Ibn-Daud arrived at a conclusion differing from that of Jehuda Halevi. -According to the latter, the pure ritual ordinances constitute the -essence of Judaism, whereby the prophetic nature of man is to be kept -alive, but for Ibn-Daud they are only of second-rate importance. - -Abraham Ibn-Daud was, however, not only a religious philosopher, -but also a conscientious historian, and his historical labors have -proved of greater service to Jewish literature than his philosophical -studies. The newly-aroused conflict with the Karaites of Spain led -him to inquire into their history. After the death of the emperor -Alfonso, and the subsequent downfall of his favorite, Jehuda Ibn-Ezra, -these people again raised their heads, and re-commenced issuing their -polemical writings. Thereupon Ibn-Daud undertook to prove historically -that rabbinical Judaism was based on an unbroken chain of traditions -which began with Moses, and extended to Joseph Ibn-Migash. To this -end he compiled the history of Biblical, post-exilic, Talmudical, -Saburaic, Gaonic, and rabbinical times in a chronological order -(1161). He entitled this work, which was written in Hebrew, "The Order -of Tradition" (Seder ha-Kabbalah). The information which he imparts -concerning the Spanish congregations is of the greatest value; he -obtained his knowledge from the original labors of Samuel Ibn-Nagrela, -and from independent historical researches. His account is brief, but -accurate and authentic, and much may be read between the lines. His -Hebrew style is flowing, and not altogether wanting in poetic coloring. - -A still more erudite, comprehensive, and profound mind was that of -Abraham ben Meir Ibn-Ezra of Toledo (born about 1088, died 1167). -He was a man of remarkable ability, conquering with equal skill -the greatest and the smallest things in science; he was energetic, -ingenious, full of wit, but lacking in warmth of feeling. His extensive -reading in all branches of divine and human knowledge was astonishing; -he was also thoroughly acquainted with the literature of the Karaites. -His, however, was not a symmetrically developed, strong personality, -but was full of contradictions, and given to frivolity; at one time -he fought against the Karaites, at another, he made great concessions -to them. His polemical method was merciless, and he aimed less at -discovering the truth than at dealing a sharp blow to an antagonist. -His was a spirit of negation, and he forms the completest contrast -to Jehuda Halevi, to whom he is said to have been closely related. -Ibn-Ezra (as he is called) combined in his person irreconcilable -contrasts. His clear vision, his sharp, analytical perception, his -bold research, which was so far advanced as almost to bring him to -Pantheism, existed side by side with a veneration for authority, which -led him, with fanatical ardor, to accuse independent thinkers of -heresy. His temperate mind, which examined into the origin of every -phenomenon, did not prevent him from wandering in the twilight of -mysticism. Though filled with trust in God, into whose hands he quietly -resigned his lot, he believed in the influence of the stars, from which -no man could possibly withdraw. Thus Ibn-Ezra was at once an inexorable -critic and a slave of the letter of the Law, a rationalist and a -mystic, a deeply religious man, and an astrologer. These contradictions -did not mark successive stages in his life, but they controlled the -whole course of his existence. In his youth he toyed with the muses, -sang the praises of distinguished persons, and feasted with Moses -Ibn-Ezra. He was likewise acquainted with Jehuda Halevi; they often -conversed brilliantly upon philosophical problems, and it is clear that -they did not agree in their methods of thought. - -Although Ibn-Ezra was acquainted with the artistic forms of Arabic -and neo-Hebraic poetry, he was, nevertheless, no poet. His verses -are artificial, pedantic, uninteresting, and devoid of feeling. His -liturgical poetry, produced at all periods of his life, bears the -same impress of sober contemplation. It consists of wise maxims or -censorious admonitions; there is no outpouring of religious feelings -which absorb the soul, and which characterize fervent prayer. In the -religious poetry of Ibn-Ezra there is lacking what is so manifest -in the compositions of Ibn-Gebirol and Jehuda Halevi; the spirit -of sublime joyousness which expresses itself in inspired hymns, the -exalted majesty which aspires to the highest, and attains it. He was, -however, inimitable in wit and pointed epigrams, in riddles and satire. -His prose is, moreover, exemplary, and it may even be said that he -created it. He abstains from over-embellishment and empty phraseology. - -Though Ibn-Ezra holds no high place in poetry, he is entitled to the -first rank as a thorough expositor of the Holy Scriptures. As such, he -displayed great tact, since he was guided by the strictly grammatical -construing of the text. He was a born exegetist. He was able to bring -to bear his wide knowledge and brilliant ideas upon the verses of Holy -Writ without being compelled to connect them logically. His restless, -inconstant mind was not capable of creating a complete and systematic -whole. He had not the power of methodizing Hebrew philology, and of -synoptically arranging his material. In Biblical exegesis, however, -he was thoroughly original. He raised it to the degree of a science, -with fixed principles, so that he was for a long time without a rival -in this department of learning. It is worthy of remark, that he never -felt called upon to cultivate the field of Biblical interpretation -whilst at home, although he possessed most remarkable talent for this -work. As long as he remained in Spain he was only known as a clever -mathematician and astronomer, not as an exegete. In general, he -produced nothing of a literary character in his native land, except -perhaps some Hebrew poems of a religious or satirical character. - -Ibn-Ezra was induced by straitened circumstances to leave the -war-stricken and impoverished city of Toledo. He was never possessed -of much wealth. In his epigrammatic way, he made merry over his -misfortunes, which condemned him to poverty: "I strive to become -wealthy, but the stars are opposed to me. If I were to engage in -shroud-making, men would cease dying; or if I made candles, the sun -would never set unto the hour of my death." - -As he was unable to earn his livelihood at home, he started on his -travels (about 1138-1139) accompanied by his adult son Isaac. He -visited Africa, Egypt, and Palestine, and communed with the learned -men of Tiberias, who prided themselves on the possession of carefully -written copies of the Torah. As he could find no rest anywhere, he -journeyed further, towards Babylonia, visiting the city of Bagdad, -where a Prince of the Captivity, with the consent of the Caliph, again -exercised a sort of supremacy over all Eastern congregations. During -the course of this extensive journey, Ibn-Ezra made many careful -observations, and enriched the vast stores of his mind. - -It is difficult to understand why, on his turning homewards from the -East, he did not again visit his native land. In Rome, he at length -found the long-desired rest (1140). His appearance in Italy marks an -epoch in the development of culture among the Italian Jews. Although -they enjoyed freedom to such a degree that the Roman community was -not bound to pay any taxes, the Jews of Italy still remained in a low -condition of culture. They studied the Talmud in a mechanical, lifeless -manner. They had no knowledge of Biblical exegesis, and neo-Hebraic -poetry for them consisted of wretched rhymes. Their model of poetry was -the clumsy verse of Eleazar Kalir, which they considered inimitable. -Their sluggish minds were prone to all the superstition of the Middle -Ages. What a contrast to them did the Spanish traveler present, with -his refined taste for art, his healthy ideas, and his philosophical -education! The time of his arrival in Rome was favorable to the revival -of the higher culture. Just at this time there arose a bold priest, -Arnold of Brescia, who asserted that the popes did not rule according -to the spirit of the Gospel: that they ought not to hold temporal -sovereignty, but should live as true servants of the Church, and act -with proper humility. - -An earnest spirit of inquiry and a striving after freedom arose in -the home of the papacy. The people listened eagerly to the inspired -words of the young reformer, threw off their allegiance to the papacy, -and declared their state a republic (1139-1143). Just at this time, -Ibn-Ezra lived at Rome. It is most probable that youths and men -gathered in large numbers in order to hear the great traveler, the -deeply learned Spanish scholar, who knew well how to enchant them by -his terse, lively, striking, and witty conversation. - -In Rome the first production of Ibn-Ezra, who had now reached his -fiftieth year, appeared, an exposition of the Five Megilloth. His -exegetical principles were made evident in his earliest efforts. -Everything that was obscure disappeared before his clear vision, unless -he purposely shut his eyes so that he might not see what was right, or -else pretended not to see at all. Was it the doubt that was agitating -his mind, or was it his weakness of character which made him shrink -from rudely dispelling the dreams of the multitude? It cannot be -gainsaid that Ibn-Ezra often denies the truth, or conceals it in such a -manner that it is recognizable only by men of equal intellect. - -Great as were Ibn-Ezra's exegetical talents, they did not enable him -to comprehend and thoroughly to analyze doubtful Biblical passages so -as to bring them into some sort of connection as an organic whole, or -as a beautifully constructed work of art. His mind was more directed -to individual, detached questions, his restless thought was never -concentrated on one thing, but always had a tendency to digress to -other subjects only slightly connected with the original matter. -Ibn-Ezra was the first to convey to the Roman Jews a conception of the -importance of Hebrew grammar, of which they were completely ignorant. -He translated the grammatical works of Chayuj, from Arabic into Hebrew, -and wrote a work under the title of "The Balance" (Moznaim), the only -interesting part of which is the well-written historical introduction -reviewing the labors of his predecessors in the sphere of Hebrew -philology. - -In the summer of 1145 he was at Mantua, and here he composed a new -grammatical work upon the niceties of the Hebrew style (Zachot). In -this book he charged those with heresy who deviated from the Massoretic -authorities. This conduct appears the more incongruous, since he -himself, though secretly, took still greater liberties with the text of -the Bible. He remarks of the grammatical works of Ibn-Janach, that they -ought to be thrown into the fire, because the author suggests that more -than a hundred words in the Bible ought to be read or understood in -another than the accepted manner. His condemnatory judgment was of such -effect that the important productions of Ibn-Janach remained unknown to -the following generations, and inquirers were compelled to quench their -thirst at broken cisterns. - -He does not appear to have stayed long in Mantua, but to have betaken -himself thence to Lucca, where he dwelt for several years, and gathered -a circle of disciples about him. Here he occupied himself very much -with the study of astronomy, drew up astronomical tables, and paid -great attention also to the pseudo-science of astrology, which was -diligently studied by Mahometans and Christians. He wrote many books -under different titles on this subject (1148). - -After recovering from a severe illness, he determined to write a -commentary on the Pentateuch, a self-appointed task from which -he shrank on account of its great difficulty. He was now in the -sixty-fourth year of his age (1152-1153). But there are no signs of -old age to be found in the work, which bears the stamp of freshness -and youthful vigor. The exposition of the Pentateuch by Ibn-Ezra is an -artistic piece of work, both in contents and in form. The language is -vigorous, flowing and witty, the interpretation profound, temperate, -and bearing the impress of devoted work. His rich store of knowledge, -his extensive reading and experience enabled him to make the Book of -books more intelligible, and to scatter the misty clouds in which -ignorance and prejudice had enshrouded it. - -In his introduction he describes in a very striking and clever manner -the four customary and unsuitable methods of interpretation which he -desires to avoid. Confident of success, he puts himself above his -predecessors, and completes the task which he had set himself, to fix -the natural meaning of the text. Ibn-Ezra, by means of his commentary -to the Pentateuch, became the leader of the school of temperate, -careful, and scientific expositors of the Bible, and held the first -place among the few enlightened minds opposed to the obscurity of -Agadic explanation, of which Rashi was the leading exponent. For -although he denounced as heretical every interpretation that differed -from the Massora, yet rationalists considered him their leading -authority, and even unbelief looked to him for support. In fact, -Ibn-Ezra gives us abundant reason for reckoning him among such men as -Chivi Albalchi, Yitzchaki, and others, who called the authority of the -Pentateuch into question. In a vague and mysterious way, he suggested -that several verses in the Torah had been added by a later hand, and -that whole passages belonged to a later period. It is difficult to know -whether he was in earnest in his scepticism or in his firm belief. In -Lucca, Ibn-Ezra wrote his brilliant commentary on Isaiah (1154-1155), -and other less important works. After the completion of his commentary -on the Pentateuch (1155), Ibn-Ezra left Italy, and went to the south of -France, which, on account of its connection with Catalonia, possessed -more of the Spanish-Jewish culture than the north of France, Italy, or -Germany. In Jewish history Provence forms the dividing line between -two methods, the strictly Talmudical, and the scientific and artistic. -The Jewish Provencals worked actively according to both methods, but -did not attain any degree of excellence in either, merely remaining -admirers and imitators. Ibn-Ezra introduced a new element into this -circle. In the town of Rhodez he lived several years (1155-1157), and -wrote his commentaries to the book of Daniel, the Psalms, and the -Twelve Prophets. His fame became wide-spread, and attracted admirers. -The greatest rabbinical authority of the time, Jacob Tam, sent him a -poem of homage. Ibn-Ezra was very much surprised, and replied with an -epigram, half complimentary, half insulting. His love of travel led -him, now in his seventieth year, to foggy London, where he found a -liberal Maecenas, who treated him with affection. Here he composed a -kind of philosophy of religion, written, however, with such extreme -carelessness and haste, that it is absolutely impossible to follow his -train of thought. On the whole, Ibn-Ezra accomplished as little in this -branch of learning as in general philosophy. - -After this work on the philosophy of religion, while still in London, -he wrote a defense of the Sabbath, which is interesting on account of -its introduction. He begins by telling a dream which he had had, and -in which the Sabbath in person handed him a letter. Herein the Sabbath -complains that a disciple of Ibn-Ezra had brought writings into his -house in which the Biblical day was said to begin in the morning, and -that consequently the evening before the Sabbath possessed no sanctity. -The apparition thereupon commanded him to take up the defense of the -Sabbath. He awoke from his dream, and by the light of the moon read the -impious writings which had been brought to him, and, in truth, found -therein an assertion that the Biblical day began in the morning and not -in the evening. This unorthodox doctrine, which, it may be remarked, -was propounded by the grandson of Rashi, the pious Samuel ben Meir, -aroused Ibn-Ezra; and he felt himself in duty bound to controvert it -with all his might, "lest Israel be led into error." In pious wrath -he writes, "May the hand of him who wrote this wither, and may his -eyes be darkened." The defense, which consists of the interpretation -of Biblical verses and of astronomical explanations, bears the name -of "The Sabbath Epistle." Although he was in prosperous circumstances -whilst in London, and had many pupils, he left that city after a short -stay. In the autumn of 1160 he visited Narbonne, and later on (1165 -or 1166) he was again at Rhodez, where in his old age he revised his -commentary to the Pentateuch, and abridged it, retaining the most -essential portions, and finally composed his last book, a grammatical -work (Safah Berurah). His vigor and freshness of intellect, which -he retained even to the end of his life, are wonderful; his last -productions, like his first, bear the imprint of vivacity, confidence, -and youthful power. Besides his exegetical, grammatical, astronomical, -and astrological writings, he was also the author of several works -on mathematics. It appears that in his closing years Ibn-Ezra longed -to return to his native land, and began his homeward journey. When, -however, he reached Calahorra, on the borders of Navarre and Aragon, he -died, and it is said that on his death-bed he wittily applied a Bible -verse to himself: "Abraham was 78 years old when he escaped from the -curse of this world." He died on Monday, 1st Adar (22d January), 1167. -He left many pupils and a talented son, who, however, did not add glory -to his name. - -The Jewish community in France at this time also possessed a highly -gifted man, who not only concentrated within himself the chief -characteristics of the French school, and thus became an authority -for several centuries, but who also partook of the spirit of the -Jewish-Spanish school. Jacob Tam of Rameru (born about 1100, died 1171) -was the most distinguished disciple of the school of Rashi. Being the -youngest of the three learned grandchildren of the great teacher of -Troyes, Tam could not have acquired anything from his grandfather, -whom he knew only in the early years of his childhood. However, he -attained so high a degree of excellence in the study of the Talmud that -he outshone his contemporaries, and even his elder brothers, Isaac and -Samuel (Rashbam). The interminable paths and the winding roads of the -Talmudical labyrinth were familiar to him, and he had a rare knowledge -of the whole region. He united clearness of intellect with acuteness in -reasoning, and was the chief founder of the school of the Tossafists. -None of his predecessors had revealed such profound knowledge and so -marvelous a dialectical ingenuity in the sphere of the Talmud. Although -not in office, and engaged in business, he was esteemed the most famous -rabbi of his time, and his renown traveled as far as Spain and Italy. -Questions upon difficult points were sent to him exclusively, not only -from his own land, but also from southern France and Germany; and all -the rabbinical authorities of the period bowed to him with the deepest -reverence. In his youth he was surrounded by pupils who regarded him -with veneration as their ideal. He was so overwhelmed with the task -of answering questions sent to him that he sometimes succumbed. The -fanatics of the second crusade, who almost deprived him of life, robbed -him of all his possessions, and left him nothing more than his life and -his library. Nevertheless, he composed his commentary to the Talmud -just at this troubled period. He was a man of thoroughly firm religious -and moral character, in which there was only one blemish: he took usury -from Christians. Indeed, he, to a certain extent, disregarded the -rigid Talmudic laws on usury, in contravention of the practice of his -grandfather. - -Jacob Tam is almost the only member of the school of northern France -who overcame the partiality for Talmudical study, and displayed -great taste for the diversified studies of the Spanish Jews. He -studied their art of Hebrew versification, and wrote liturgical -prayers and secular poems in a metrical form. He corresponded with -Ibn-Ezra, the representative of Jewish-Spanish culture, and, as -related above, exchanged poems with him. Poetry led Tam, who did -nothing superficially, to a thorough course of inquiry into the Hebrew -language, and he became so far advanced in the knowledge of grammar -that he was able to act as arbiter in the grammatical controversy -between Menachem ben Saruk and his opponent Dunash. - -The large numbers of learned rabbis in northern France and in Germany, -and the universally acknowledged authority of Tam, brought about a -new departure, which for the first time made its appearance in the -post-Talmudical period. Under the presidency of the Rabbi of Rameru, -the first rabbinical synod assembled for the purpose of deciding -important questions of the day. Probably the councils which had -been convened in France by the fugitive popes, Pascal, Innocent II, -Calixtus, and Alexander III, gave this suggestion to the rabbis. The -rabbinical synods were not attended with that pomp which transformed -such councils into theaters in which vanity and ambition are fostered. -Those who took part in the proceedings met at some appointed place -frequented by Jews, such as Troyes and Rheims, without any splendor -or ceremony, and without ulterior motives or political intrigue. The -decisions of the rabbinical synods included not only religious and -communal matters, but also questions of civil laws, as the Jews still -possessed their own jurisdiction. - -It is most probable that it was at one of these synods of the rabbis, -in whose minds the persecution of the second crusade was still fresh, -that it was decreed that no Jew should purchase a crucifix, church -appurtenances, vestments of the mass, church ornaments or missals, -because such an act might involve the whole community of Jews in -great danger. At a great synod, in which took part one hundred and -fifty rabbis from Troyes, Auxerre, Rheims, Paris, Sens, Drome, Lyons, -Carpentras, from Normandy, Aquitania, Anjou, Poitou, and Lorraine, -headed by the brothers Samuel and Tam, and by Menachem ben Perez of -Joigny, Eleazer ben Nathan of Mayence, and Eleazer ben Samson of -Cologne, the following resolutions were passed: (1) That no Jew should -summon one of his co-religionists before the courts of the country -unless both parties agreed to it, or unless the accused refused to -appear before a Jewish court of law. (2) Any damages which might accrue -to the defendant through this _ex parte_ litigation at a non-Jewish -court of law should be paid by the complainant, according to the -assessment of seven elders of the congregation. (3) That no person -should apply to the secular authorities for the office of president or -provost, or obtain the office by stealth, but that the president shall -be elected in an open manner by the majority of the members of the -congregation. A ban of excommunication was pronounced against all who -transgressed these and other decisions of the synod; no Jew should hold -intercourse with such transgressors, nor partake of their food, nor use -their books or utensils, and not even accept alms from them. The edict -of excommunication against informers and traitors was also revived at -this synod. - -At a synod held in Troyes, over which Tam presided, all those were -threatened with excommunication who dared find fault with any bill -of divorce after it had been delivered to the wife. Hyper-critical -or wicked men often criticised a bill of divorce after it had been -granted, causing the divorced parties much annoyance. Other decisions -were made by the synods, and these possessed the force of law among -the French and German Jews. Thus it was decided that the ordinance -of Gershom for the prevention of polygamy could only be abrogated by -a hundred rabbis from three different provinces, such as Francia, -Normandy, and Anjou, and only for the most weighty motives. The rabbis -did not, like the Catholic prelates, use this power of the synod -against the people, but in accordance with the feeling of the nation -and for the welfare of the community. Hence their decisions once made -did not require frequent renewal. - -In his old age, Tam witnessed a bloody persecution of the Jews in -his vicinity, in Blois, which is memorable not only on account of -the severity with which the martyrs were treated, but especially for -the lying accusation, then for the first time brought against them, -that they used the blood of Christians at the Passover. It was a base -intrigue which kindled the fire at the stake for the innocent. - -A Jew of Blois was riding at dusk towards the Loire in order to water -his horse. He there met a Christian groom, whose horse shied at a white -fleece which the Jew wore beneath his cloak, and growing restive, -refused to go to the water. The servant, who was well aware of the -Jew-hating character of his master, the mayor of the town, concocted -a story which served as ground for an accusation. He asserted that he -had seen the Jewish horseman throw a murdered Christian child into the -water. The mayor bore a grudge against an influential Jewish woman -named Pulcelina, who was a favorite of his lord, Count Theobald, of -Chartres, and took this opportunity of revenging himself. He repeated -the lie about the murder of a Christian child, and the charge read: -"The Jews crucified it for the Passover, and then threw it into the -Loire." Count Theobald thereupon commanded that all the Jews should -be put into chains, and thrown into prison. Pulcelina alone, for whom -Theobald entertained a particular affection, remained unharmed. Relying -upon this, she quieted the fears of her suffering co-religionists with -the assurance that she would prevail on the Count to release them. But -soon the imprisoned Jews learned that there was no hope of human aid. - -Pulcelina, on account of the affection shown for her, had incurred -the bitter enmity of Isabelle, the wife of the Count, and she planned -the destruction of the Jews. She had a watch set over Pulcelina, and -prevented her from meeting the Count. The Jews had but one glimmer of -hope: an appeal to the notorious avarice of the Count. He had sent -a Jew of Chartres to ask what sum they were willing to pay in order -to be acquitted of this charge of murder. Thereupon they consulted -with friendly Christians, and it was arranged that one hundred pounds -of ready money, and one hundred and eighty pounds of outstanding -debts--probably the whole wealth of the small community--would -be sufficient. At this point, however, a priest took part in the -proceedings, and addressing the Count with warmth, besought him not -to treat the matter lightly, but to punish the Jews severely in case -the accusation against them was well founded. But how could any one -ascertain the truth, seeing that the whole charge rested merely upon -the statement of the groom, who could be said to have seen no more -than a body thrown into the river? In the Middle Ages such doubts were -readily solved. The water test was applied. The servant was conveyed -to the river in a boat filled with water, and as he did not sink, the -Count and the whole of the Christian population were firmly convinced -that his statements were really true. Count Theobald issued an order -condemning the entire Jewish congregation at Blois to death by fire. -When they were brought out to a wooden tower, and the fagots around -them were about to be kindled, the priest begged them to acknowledge -Christianity, and thus preserve their lives. They nevertheless remained -steadfast to their faith, and were first tortured, and then dragged to -the stake. Thirty-four men and seventeen women died amid the flames -whilst chanting the prayer which contains the confession of faith in -One God (Wednesday, 20 Sivan--26 May, 1171), Pulcelina dying with -them. A few Jews only, through fear of death, accepted Christianity. -The Christians, relying on the water test, were firmly convinced that -the Jews had rightly deserved death at the stake, and the chronicle -narrates in terse fashion: "Theobald, Count of Chartres, caused several -Jews of Blois to be burnt, because they had crucified a Christian child -at the celebration of their Passover, and had thrown its body into the -Loire." - -When the news of the martyrdom of the Jews reached Tam, he decreed that -the day should be observed as a strict fast and a day of mourning. -The congregations of France, Anjou, and the Rhine country, to whom -the great teacher sent letters of request, willingly obeyed his -decrees. This fast day, in memory of the martyrs of Blois, at the same -time commemorates the beginning of the utterly false and groundless -fabrication that the Jews use blood on their Passover, which in the -course of half a century was the cause of the death of hecatombs of -victims. This decree was the last public act of Tam, for a few days -afterwards he died (Wednesday, 4th Tamuz--9th June). One of his pupils, -Chayim Cohen, remarked that if he had been at the burial, he would have -assisted in the final disposition of the body in spite of the law that -a descendant of Aaron may not touch a corpse, because for so holy a man -the sanctity of a priest may be laid aside. Rabbi Tam concludes the -series of creative minds of the French school, just as Ibn-Ezra marks -the end of the original element in the Spanish school. There now arose -a personage who completely reconciled both schools, and with whom a -clearly marked transformation in Jewish history commenced. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -SURVEY OF THE EPOCH OF MAIMUNI (MAIMONIDES). - - The Jews of Toledo--Ibn-Shoshan, Ibn-Alfachar--The Poet - Charisi--Sheshet Benveniste--Benjamin of Tudela--The - Jews of Provence--The Kimchis--The Communities of Beziers, - Montpellier, Luenel, and Toulouse--Persecutions of Jews in - Northern France--The Jews of England--Richard I--The - Jews of York--The Jews of Germany--Ephraim ben Jacob-- - Suesskind--Petachya the Traveler--The Jews of Italy and of - the Byzantine Empire--Communities in Syria and Palestine-- - The Jews of Bagdad--Mosul--The Pseudo-Messiah, David Alroy - --The Jews of India--Conversion to Judaism of Tartars--The - Jews of Egypt. - -1171-1205 C. E. - - -Before the thick clouds of deadly hatred had begun to gather from all -sides over the house of Jacob, darkening the horizon without leaving -even one span of the blue heaven; before the elements, pregnant with -destruction, had been let loose on the head of the community of Israel, -crushing it to the earth; before evil in the name of the Deity roused -princes and nations, freemen and slaves, great and small, against the -weak sons of Judah, and urged men with all the weapons of murder and -the stings of scorn against them, to destroy this small body of men; -before the haughty Popes, seated on the throne of God as judges over -the living and the dead, fastened a badge of scorn upon the garments -of Jewish men and women, and exposed them to persecution and mockery -from all who encountered them; before fanaticism prepared instruments -of torture for the most innocent of men, who were accused of crimes at -which they shuddered more than their accusers, the charges being mere -pretexts for torture and ill-treatment; before the gross lies about -murdered children, poisoned wells, and witchcraft, became generally -accepted; before all the nations of Christian Europe excelled -the savage Mongolians in barbarity towards the Jews; before their -thousandfold sufferings drove the blood from their hearts, the marrow -from their bones, and the spirit from their brains, enfeebling them and -dragging down their aspirations to grovel upon the earth; in short, -before that life of hell began for the Jews, which, in the days of -Pope Innocent III, reached its climax under Ferdinand the Catholic of -Spain, it is well to glance around upon the circle of scattered Jewish -congregations on the face of the globe, and to note their condition in -different countries, in order to see what they still possessed, and -of what this devilish fanaticism afterwards robbed them. The cruelty -which, in the names of two religions, was preached against the Jews, -had not yet succeeded in stamping them altogether as outcasts. Whilst -in one place they were despised and hated and execrated, in another -they were looked upon with respect as citizens and men; whilst in one -country they were servants of the imperial chamber, in another they -were appointed by princes and municipalities to important offices; -whilst in one place they were reduced to the miserable position of -bondmen, in another they still wielded the sword, and fought for their -independence. - -The number of Jews in Asia far exceeded that in Europe, but the general -standard of the latter made them superior, so that Europe must be -regarded as the chief seat of Judaism. Here true self-consciousness was -aroused; here Jewish thinkers strove to solve the difficult problem -connected with the position of Judaism and the Jews among the other -religions and nations, and of the task allotted to each member of a -community. The heart of Judaism still beat in the Pyrenean peninsula. -Jewish Spain still held the highest rank, as the intellect had here -reached its fullest development. Jews lived in all the five Christian -kingdoms which had been formed in this prosperous peninsula, in -Castile, Leon, Aragon, Portugal, and Navarre. Only in southern Spain, -in Mahometan Andalusia, since its conquest by the intolerant Almohades, -there were no Jews, at least none who openly professed their religion. -The former seats of Jewish learning, Cordova, Seville, Granada, and -Lucena had been devastated; Toledo, the capital of Castile and of the -whole country, had taken their place. The Toledo congregation at this -time led the van; it numbered more than twelve thousand Jews. The town, -resplendent with magnificent buildings, possessed also many splendid -synagogues, "with whose beauty none other could compare." Among the -Jews of Toledo there were wealthy and cultured men and brave warriors, -who were skilled in the use of weapons. Jewish youths practised the -art of war, that they might become distinguished knights. Under -Alfonso VIII called the Noble (1166-1214), many talented Jews obtained -high positions, were appointed officers of state, and worked for the -greatness of their beloved fatherland. Joseph ben Solomon Ibn-Shoshan, -called "the Prince," was a distinguished personage at the court of -Alfonso (born about 1135, died 1204-1205). Learned, pious, wealthy -and charitable, Ibn-Shoshan enjoyed the favor of the king, and was -probably active in affairs of state. "Favor was bestowed upon him, and -goodwill manifested towards him by the king and the grandees." With -great liberality he encouraged the study of the Talmud, and erected, -in princely magnificence, a new synagogue in Toledo. His son Solomon -equaled him in many virtues. - -Another highly honored man at Alfonso's court was Abraham Ibn-Alfachar -(born about 1160, died after 1223), "crowned with noble qualities and -magnanimous deeds. He was exalted in word and deed, an ornament to the -king, and the pride of princes." Thoroughly proficient in the Arabic -language, Ibn-Alfachar wrote choice prose, and composed well-sounding -verses, whose high merit induced an Arab author to make a collection of -them; amongst them was a panegyric upon King Alfonso. This noble king -once despatched Ibn-Alfachar on an embassy to the court of Morocco, -where ruled the Prince of the Faithful, Abu Jacob Yussuff Almostansir. -Although this prince of the Almohades continued the intolerant policy -of his predecessors, did not permit any Jew to dwell in his kingdom, -and even desired to distinguish the Jews who had embraced Islam from -the native Mahometans by a prescribed dress, he was obliged to receive -the Jewish ambassador of Alfonso with friendliness. When Ibn-Alfachar -presented himself for an audience before the vizir of Almostansir, -in order to present his credentials, he was conducted through the -charming gardens of the palace, the splendor and fragrancy of which -delighted the senses. The gardener was, however, as ugly as the gardens -were beautiful. To the inquiry of the vizir, how the garden pleased -him, Ibn-Alfachar replied, "I would positively have thought it to -be Paradise, were it not that I know that Paradise is guarded by a -beautiful angel (Redvan), whilst this has as its guardian an ugly demon -(Malek), showing the way to the gates of hell." The vizir laughed -at this witty comparison, and thought it worthy of being imparted -to Almostansir. The latter remarked to the Jewish ambassador, "The -ugly doorkeeper was intentionally chosen, in order to facilitate the -entrance of a Jew into this Paradise, because a Redvan would certainly -never have admitted an infidel." - -A kinsman of this favorite of Alfonso, named Juda ben Joseph -Ibn-Alfachar, also bore the title of "Prince." - -Although the two patrons of Toledo at this period, Ibn-Shoshan and -Ibn-Alfachar, were themselves proficient in the Talmud, and encouraged -Talmudical learning, yet this study did not flourish in the Spanish -capital to the same degree as with Alfassi, his disciples, and in -the school of Rashi. Toledo produced no Talmudists of renown. The -congregation was compelled for several centuries to obtain its rabbis -elsewhere. The Toledans had a greater inclination for science and -poetry. They preferred philosophy, meditated deeply upon religion, and -defended their belief against doubt. They were the most enlightened of -the Spanish Jews. - -The aged historian and religious philosopher, Abraham Ibn-Daud, was -still alive, and was an ornament to the congregation of Toledo. -At length in the year 1180 he fell a martyr in a riot against the -Jews, the origin and extent of which are not quite ascertained. It -is possible that the very warm friendship displayed by King Alfonso -towards the Jews had caused the riot. This prince, who had married an -English princess, had an open liaison with a beautiful Jewish maiden, -Rachel, who on account of her beauty was called Formosa. This intimacy -was not a passing fancy, but lasted for seven years. Concerning this -love, a poet sang: - - "For her the king forgot his queen, - His kingdom and his people." - -A band of conspirators attacked the fair Jewess on her richly decorated -dais, and, in the presence of the king, slew both her and her -companions, probably at the instigation of the queen and the clergy. On -this occasion, a riot may have broken out against the Jews, in which -Abraham Ibn-Daud met his death. - -This did not prevent the Jews of Toledo, however, from giving great -assistance to Alfonso in his wars against the Moors. When he assembled -his immense army in order to subdue the great power of the Almohades, -who under Jacob Almansur were again trying to penetrate into the heart -of Spain, the Jews poured forth their riches into the coffers of the -impoverished monarch so as to enable him to equip his forces. In the -battle of Alarcos (19th July, 1195) he was defeated, and the flower of -Christian chivalry lay upon the battle-field. The Almohades ravaged -fair Castile, and Alfonso was compelled to shut himself up in his -capital, where the Jews fought with the other inhabitants, in order to -repel the onslaughts of the enemy. They rendered material assistance in -compelling the retreat of the foe. The Jews of Castile had a special -interest in opposing the Almohades in their attempts to gain possession -of the capital, lest they should become subjected to the fanaticism of -Islam. They witnessed with joy the withdrawal of the Almohades before -the kings of Castile and Aragon, who had entered into a confederacy -against them. Through this union, however, the Jews of the kingdom of -Leon suffered severely, when the allied forces, ravaging the land, -marched through their territory. In this campaign, the oldest Hebrew -copy of the Bible in Spain, which had hitherto, under the name Hillali, -served as a model for copyists (said to have been written in about the -year 600) fell into the hands of the enemy (9 Ab, 1197). - -In Aragon, of which Catalonia was a part since the time of Ramon -Berengar IV, the Jews lived under favorable conditions, and were -able to develop their minds. Alfonso II (1162-1196), a promoter and -patron of the Provencal poetry, favored men gifted with word and -thought, and amongst such the Jews at this time took a foremost place. -Although Saragossa was the capital of Aragon, and since ancient times -had a Jewish congregation, yet at this time the city of Barcelona -was considered the center of northern Spain, owing to its favorable -position by the sea, and the flourishing state of its commerce. -Barcelona was pompously termed by the poet Charisi "the congregation -of princes and nobles." At its head stood Sheshet Benveniste, -philosopher, physician, diplomatist, Talmudist, and poet (b. 1131, d. -about 1210). Well acquainted with the Arabic language, he was employed -by the king of Aragon in diplomatic services, obtained honors and -wealth, and like Samuel Ibn-Nagrela, owed his prosperity to his pen. -Like this Jewish prince, Sheshet Benveniste supported men of science -and students of the Talmud. The poets laud his noble mind and his -liberality in excessive terms. Sheshet Benveniste himself, when in -his seventy-second year, composed a song of praise of one hundred and -forty-two verses in honor of Joseph Ibn-Shoshan of Toledo. - -Next to him in importance in Barcelona stood Samuel ben Abraham -Ibn-Chasdai Halevi (1165-1216), "the fountain of wisdom and the sea -of thought," as the poet Charisi extravagantly calls him. He had five -learned sons, among whom was Abraham Ibn-Chasdai, who as the author of -a moral romance, "The Prince and the Dervish," and as a translator of -philosophical writings, has made a name in the history of literature. - -The community of Tudela, a small town on the Ebro, which was the bone -of contention between the kings of Aragon and Navarre, had on two -occasions courageously fought for equal privileges with the Christian -and Mahometan inhabitants, and won them. They possessed a castle of -their own for their security. Tudela produced a learned traveler, -Benjamin ben Jonah, to whom, not alone Jewish history, but also general -history, is indebted for his interesting and authentic information. -He traveled through a great portion of southern Europe, Asia and -Africa (1165-1173). The object of this journey is not quite known. -He was either an itinerant merchant, or a pious man of an inquiring -turn of mind in search of traces of a Messianic redemption. He made -observations on the peculiarities of each town he visited, and his -record of observations has been translated into many modern languages. - -Serachya Halevi Gerundi was born (1125, died 1186) in the little town -of Gerona in Catalonia. He appears to have possessed considerable -knowledge of philosophy, and was probably one of the first in his -country to occupy himself with this subject. He devoted himself -especially to the Talmud, and being acquainted with the labors of -the French and Spanish schools, he united in himself the methods of -Alfassi, Rashi, Joseph Ibn-Migash, and Tam. He was a thorough and -critical scholar, his mind being at once analytic and synthetic. In -his youth, at the age of nineteen, he composed Talmudical works, and -annotated the commentaries of Alfassi. Serachya Gerundi appears to -have suffered persecution at the hands of the community of Gerona, for -which he avenged himself by a satire. He left Gerona, and settled in -Luenel, where he possessed many friends, and where he was maintained -by a patron of learning. Here he composed various writings against a -Talmudical authority of the south of France--Abraham ben David--and -here also, at an advanced age, he finished his acute annotations of -Alfassi's work on the greater part of the Talmud. These he published -under the name of Maor. In this critical work, Serachya displayed his -independence of spirit, and everywhere he insists upon a thorough -understanding of the Talmud. But this very independence was displeasing -to his contemporaries, who were accustomed to hedge themselves in with -the decisions of the old authorities. Serachya was far in advance of -his age in his view of the Talmud, and accordingly his conclusions were -strenuously opposed. Of his life and position nothing further is known. - -In the district on the other side of the Pyrenees, in Languedoc or in -Provence, the Jews towards the end of the twelfth century lived most -happily. Southern France partook of the northern Spanish character in -respect of culture and morals. The country was divided into a number -of small states, a circumstance which brought out the versatility of -its genius, and produced a period of literary excellence, which it -never afterwards surpassed. The province belonged at first partly to -the French crown and partly it was a fief of the German empire; then it -belonged to the King of Aragon as Count of Provence, and later to the -Count of Toulouse and St. Gilles; and, lastly, to different vassals, -counts, viscounts, and barons. - -These were nearly all actuated by broad views of life; they were -patrons of the flourishing Provencal poetry, they encouraged -learning, and were not bigoted servants of the Church. Besides the -nobility, a free and wealthy middle class had arisen, which guarded -its independence as its dearest treasure. The intimate relations -between the inhabitants and the Moslems and Jews had weakened -western prejudices against the Orientals. The breadth of mind of the -Provencals, which prompted them to resist the Catholic Church, to -disregard papal bulls, to condemn the arrogant clergy, to apply the -scourge to the vices of the Roman court, and which gave rise to the -sect of the Albigenses, also rendered them capable of appreciating -Judaism, and the adherents of that religion. Among the Provencal -free-thinkers whom the stern, unbending Catholic Church branded as -heretics, there were many who secretly and openly acknowledged that the -law of the Jews was better than that of the Christians. Many of the -great and minor lords of southern France appointed Jewish officers, -and entrusted them with the high office of Chief Bailiff (Bailli), -with which, in the absence of the regent, were united the police and -judicial powers. The Jews of this country, which was so highly blessed -by nature, felt themselves favored, carried their heads high, took -the most lively interest in the welfare of the country, and exerted -themselves in spiritual concerns with untiring zeal. As the Christians -showed themselves ready to adopt innovations, so the Jews of southern -France did not accept all tradition with unquestioning faith, but -sought to comprehend its import, and test it before the judgment-seat -of reason. Although the Jews of Provence manifested great interest in -science, they cannot be considered as independent thinkers, able to -strike out into new lines of thought within the limits of Judaism. -Jewish Provence did not produce a single original mind, not one -profound thinker, not one genuine poet, not one distinguished scholar -in any branch of knowledge. The Jewish Provencals were faithful -disciples of foreign masters, whose conclusions they appropriated, -and steadfastly maintained; they were humble workers in science, -translators and propagators of foreign intellectual productions. -Judaism they loved with all their hearts, although ready to pursue the -free investigation of truth. Jewish virtues flourished among them, -their houses were hospitably opened to all strangers; they secretly -assisted the needy, and practised beneficence at all times. The rich -assisted the children of poor parents to receive higher instruction, -and gave them books, which were at that time very costly. Especially -noteworthy is the loyalty with which the congregations stood by one -another, and interested themselves in one another's most intimate -concerns. When danger threatened any particular congregation, the -others immediately took measures to assist, and avert the impending -danger. Their general prosperity was attained partly by agriculture -and partly by commerce, which at that time was carried on with Spain, -Italy, England, Egypt, and the East, and was in a most flourishing -condition. - -The principal congregation of southern France was Narbonne; at that -time it contained 300 members. Under the rule of the sensible and -masculine Princess Ermengarde, the head of the congregation was -Kalonymos ben Todros, of an old family, whose ancestor, Machir, was -said to have immigrated in the time of Charlemagne. Kalonymos possessed -many estates, which were secured to him by absolute grants. At the -head of the college was Abraham ben Isaac, who was recognized as an -authority, and bore the title of Chief Justice (Ab-beth-din, died, -autumn, 1172). He was a man of strictly Talmudical pursuits, and -was scarcely affected by general culture. His Talmudical learning, -moreover, was wide rather than deep; his disciples, Serachya and -Abraham ben David, excelled him even in his lifetime. In Narbonne -there lived at this time the Kimchi family, whose achievements cannot -be said to correspond to their fame, but who, directly for Narbonne -and indirectly for posterity, effected more than the greatest masters. -The founder of the family, Joseph ben Isaac Kimchi (flourished -1150-1170), had emigrated from southern Spain to Narbonne, probably -on account of the religious persecution of the Almohades. Having a -knowledge of Arabic, he translated Bachya's work on moral philosophy, -and many others, into pure, fluent Hebrew; composed a Hebrew grammar; -wrote a commentary on Holy Writ, the nature of the extant fragments -of which precludes regret for the loss of the rest, and composed -many liturgical poems, artistic in form, according to the models of -neo-Hebraic poetry, then brought to perfection in Spain, but of little -poetic value. Joseph Kimchi's merit consists solely in the fact that -he introduced the Jewish culture of Spain into southern France, and -permanently established the results of Ibn-Ezra's fugitive activity. A -polemical work against Christianity, in the form of a dialogue between -a believer and an apostate, is also ascribed to him. Whether this work -be genuine or not, in any case it belongs to this time and country, -and throws a favorable light on the state of morality among the Jews -as contrasted with that of the Christian population. The believer -maintains that the true religion of the Jews is attested by the -morality of its adherents. The Ten Commandments, at least, are observed -with the utmost conscientiousness. They adore no being but God, and -they take no false oaths. Among them are no murderers, adulterers, -nor robbers; whilst Christian highwaymen often rob the weak, hang, -or blind them. Jewish children are brought up in purity and fear of -God, and no improper word is allowed to escape them. Jewish girls sit -modestly at home, while Christians are careless of their self-respect. -A Jew practises hospitality towards his brother Jew, ransoms prisoners, -clothes the naked, and feeds the hungry. All these virtues of the Jews -the Christian antagonist admits as generally known, and only blames -the Jews for taking exorbitant interest from Christians. This offense -the Jewish speaker palliates by pointing out that Christians also take -usury even from their co-religionists, whilst Jews lend to the members -of their race without interest. - -Joseph's two sons, Moses and David Kimchi, followed in the footsteps -of their father. The first, who flourished 1170-1190, was still more -mediocre than his father, and this character of insignificance is borne -out by his grammatical and exegetical works. The younger brother, David -Kimchi (born 1160, died about 1235), was, in truth, the teacher of the -Hebrew language to the Jews and Christians of Europe; but if any value -is to be set on his grammatical, lexicographical and exegetical works, -we must ignore the fact that Ibn-Janach, Moses Ibn-G'ikatilia and -Ibn-Ezra lived before him, for with these he cannot bear comparison. -David Kimchi did not establish one original point of view. In the -introduction to his grammatical work (Michlol) he is honest enough -to confess that he only sought to arrange the manifold and detailed -results of the labors of his predecessors. At most, it can be said -in his favor that he discovered the difference between the long and -the short vowels, and thereby threw light on the vowel changes, and, -finally, that he preserved in Jewish circles a faint recollection of -a simple, sober, literal exegesis in opposition to the extravagant, -Agadic, pseudo-philosophical method of exposition. - -The old community of Beziers, which had received Ibn-Ezra so honorably, -was at this time, under Viscount Raymond Trencaval and his son Roger, -in a still more fortunate condition than that of Narbonne. The Jews and -Christians of this city did homage to the spirit of free thought. Many -of the citizens were Albigenses, and renounced their allegiance to the -Pope and the Catholic Church. Nevertheless, following the old custom, -the bishop, on Palm Sunday, incited the parishioners against the Jews -as murderers of God, and the people, armed with stones, attacked the -Jewish houses. But as the Jews, who lived together in one quarter, -surrounded by a wall, always took precautions to defend themselves, -there was usually a number of broken heads. The chiefs of the Jewish -community now moved to abolish this custom, more discreditable to -Christianity than to Judaism, and received the consent of the viscount. -Bishop William, who was ashamed of so brutal a practice, also agreed -that it should be discontinued. On May 2d, 1160, an agreement was -concluded according to which every priest who stirred up the people -against the Jews should be excommunicated. The Jews in return pledged -themselves to pay four pounds of silver every year on Palm Sunday. The -assassination of Raymond Trencaval by several conspirators in church -on Sunday (5th Oct., 1167), involved the Jews of Beziers in trouble, -probably on account of their known attachment to the viscount. Certain -citizens preferred accusations against them, and the directors of -the congregation were arrested. Not long after, terrible retribution -overtook the murderers of the viscount and the accusers of the Jews. -Roger procured auxiliary troops from Alfonso, the king of Aragon. -These troops suddenly fell upon the citizens, put the men to death, -and hanged the ringleaders. Roger spared the Jews on account of their -faithful adherence to his father, and besides them only the women and -children (Feb. 1170). The viscount Roger, who favored the Albigenses, -had Jewish sheriffs, Moses de Cavarite and Nathan. Through this -partiality towards the heretics and the Jews, he provoked the anger of -the clergy and the Pope, and in consequence suffered a tragic end. - -An important Provencal congregation existed in the flourishing -commercial city Montpellier, which was the capital of southern France; -it had very rich members whose beneficence was much extolled. Like -their co-religionists in Beziers, they had a predilection for learning, -fostered by the existence of a medical academy in the town and the -prevailing freedom of education. The lords of this city were by no -means so friendly to the Jews as their neighbors of Beziers. William -VIII and his son expressly enjoined in their wills that no Jew should -be admitted to the office of sheriff (1178-1201), although the latter -owed a Jew, Bonet, a large sum of money. It is not known who was then -at the head of the congregation of Montpellier, which produced no -men of celebrity, although it possessed learned Talmudists in such -plentiful abundance, that people compared its rabbinical school with -the Synhedrion of the Temple-Mount (Har). - -What is now the little town of Luenel, not far from Montpellier, -was, under the lords De Gaucelin, an important city, and the Jewish -congregation, consisting of nearly three hundred members, was -considered, together with Narbonne, the most important outpost of -Jewish Provence. Its Talmudical school, which rivaled that in Narbonne, -educated numerous foreign students, who, if needy, were provided with -all necessaries by the congregation. At the head of the congregation -stood a man who was extravagantly praised by his contemporaries, -Meshullam ben Jacob (died 1170), a scholar and wealthy man, whose -opinion was held to be decisive in all matters of learning and law. -To win his approval was an incentive to an author. "His soul adhered -to the religion of his God; wisdom was his inheritance. He illumined -our darkness, and showed us the right path." Thus, and still more -extravagantly does an independent contemporary describe him. Meshullam -encouraged learned men to turn their attention to various branches, -especially to translating Arabic works of Jewish authors into Hebrew. -He was the first to awaken, among the Jews of Provence, a taste for -learning. He occupied the same influential position in southern France -that Chasdai Ibn-Shaprut had occupied in Spain. Meshullam had five -learned sons, who illustrated within a small circle the two currents -which were to meet in the next generation in keen conflict. One of the -sons, Aaron, who flourished from 1170 to 1210, although conversant with -the Talmud, had a special predilection for viewing Judaism from its -philosophical side; two others, Jacob and Asher, on the other hand, -paid homage to that teaching which abhorred the light of reason. Jacob, -although rich, led an ascetic life, drank no wine, and on that account -received the name of Nazarite. He is described as the first promoter -of the new Kabbala. His brother, Asher of Luenel, lived, if possible, a -life even more austere, and although equally affluent, he fasted much, -and ate no meat. - -On the whole, the scientific tendency prevailed in the community -of Luenel. It was represented by two men, who have made themselves -famous in the history of Jewish literature, viz., the founder of the -family of Tibbon, and Jonathan of Luenel. The latter was an important -Talmudical authority, who wrote a commentary on Alfassi's Talmudical -work. He was none the less fond of science, and was one of the first -who insisted that it should take a high place in Jewish studies. Judah -ben Saul Ibn-Tibbon (born about 1120, died about 1190) originally -came from Granada, and had emigrated to southern France on account of -the persecution of the Jews by the Almohades. In Luenel he pursued the -profession of physician, and in that capacity made himself so popular, -that his services were sought by princes, knights, and bishops, and -he was even sent for from across the sea. He knew Arabic thoroughly, -and he studied Hebrew with enthusiasm. His learning, however, made -him a pedant, he carefully measured every step, and cogitated deeply -whether he should take it or abandon it. At regular intervals he -examined his important collection of books, which he kept in most -perfect order, and was unhappy if he noticed any confusion in them. -He set great value upon elegant handwriting and other unessential -matters. Ibn-Tibbon was thus, as it were, created for translating. At -the instigation of friends, particularly Meshullam of Luenel--with whom, -as with Serachya of Gerona and Abraham ben David, he lived on friendly -terms--he translated in succession from Arabic into Hebrew, Bachya's -"Duties of the Heart," Ibn-Gebirol's "Ethics" and "Necklace of Pearls," -Jehuda Halevi's religious philosophical work, Ibn-Janach's important -grammatical and lexicographical work, and, lastly, Saadiah's "Religious -Philosophy" (1161-1186). His translations, however, show his pedantic -character; they are absolutely literal and clumsy; they slavishly -follow the Arabic original, and do violence to the Hebrew language. -Jehuda Ibn-Tibbon, who knew perfectly well that a conscientious -translator must thoroughly understand both languages, as well as the -subject-matter of the work, pleaded as an excuse for the stiffness of -his translation, the poverty of the Hebrew language. - -The second Tibbonid, Samuel, son of Judah (1160-1239), formed a strong -contrast to the character of his father; though more gifted than the -latter, he was thoughtless, prodigal, and of phlegmatic nonchalance. -His father had spent the utmost care on his education, had himself -instructed him, and put him under highly-salaried masters. Thus Samuel -Ibn-Tibbon studied medicine, the Arabic language, the Talmud, and -other cognate departments of knowledge. His fond father also provided -him at an early age with a wife, and tried to subject his son to -his guardianship and to the rule of his pedantic nature. The latter -revolted against his father's despotic rule, cast his exhortations and -teachings to the winds, and having asserted his independence, became -estranged from his father. He made foolhardy business speculations -instead of applying himself to his profession, losing all his money, -so that he was finally obliged to appeal to his father for means to -keep himself and his family from starvation. His father thought that he -was ruined, but Samuel quietly finished his education, and ultimately -excelled his father both in skill of translating and in philosophical -grasp. He rendered into Hebrew not only works of Jewish authors, but -also some of the works of Aristotle; he also wrote a philosophical -exposition of Ecclesiastes and a treatise on portions of Genesis. -Generally speaking, the chief claim of the Tibbonides to distinction -rests on their skill as translators, as that of the Kimchis on their -grammatical acumen. - -Not far from Luenel, in Posquieres, there existed at that time a -congregation of forty members. Here was born one of the greatest -Talmudists, Abraham ben David (about 1125, died 1198), son-in-law of -Abraham ben Isaac of Narbonne. Having been educated under excellent -teachers, and being very rich, Abraham (Rabed II) supported a college -of his own, which attracted many students from far and near. He -provided for the material as well as the intellectual needs of his -disciples. Whilst still a youth, he composed Talmudical works of great -importance, and at the instigation of Meshullam ben Jacob he wrote -a commentary on a part of the Mishna. By nature inconsiderate, and -having little respect for the rules of courtesy, he treated those -whose writings he refuted in a contemptuous manner. He was a dangerous -antagonist. Of the sciences he had no knowledge, nor did he seem -capable of grasping the higher conception of Judaism; he even boasted -of his ignorance of such things; it was quite sufficient in his eyes -for one to be thoroughly conversant with the Talmud. Abraham ben David -and Serachya Halevi were the profoundest Talmudists since the death of -Tam. - -Bourg de St. Gilles, the second capital of Duke Raymond V of Toulouse, -had a congregation of a hundred members. This congregation, as well -as the others under Count Raymond, whom the troubadours called the -Good Duke, lived under most happy conditions, and were promoted to -offices of state. Abba-Mari ben Isaac, of St. Gilles, better known -through his learned son, was the sheriff of the town. This son, Isaac -ben Abba-Mari, who was probably a pupil of Tam, had acquired, from the -celebrated master of Rameru, a thorough rather than an ingenious method -of studying the Talmud. In his seventeenth year he composed, at the -instance of his father, a compendium of certain ritual laws, and later -in life summed up all the results of his investigations in the Talmud -in a work, entitled "Ittur," upon the rabbinical civil laws and rites. - -Raymond VI of Toulouse favored the Jews even more than his father, and -promoted them to offices (1192-1222). On this account, and for other -like sins, he was virulently persecuted by Pope Innocent III, and -ultimately had to take a solemn oath that he would deprive the Jews of -their offices, and that he would never appoint any Jews, nor favor them -in any way. - -Beaucaire (Belcaire), which belonged to the county of Toulouse, also -had a large congregation, at the head of which stood Kalonymos, "the -Prince." In the flourishing commercial town of Marseilles, which at -that time formed an independent state, there lived three hundred Jewish -families belonging to two congregations. The minor congregation, -the members of which dwelt near the harbor, and probably carried on -navigation, or at least engaged in foreign business, had at their head -a noble man, Jacob Perpignano (died 1170). The larger congregation -had a Talmudical college, over which Simon ben Anatolio presided. In -Marseilles also, the Jews were admitted to offices. - -The beginning of the last two decades of the twelfth century -constituted the boundary line between fortune and misfortune for the -Jews of northern France, who were partly subject to the king and partly -to the more or less dependent barons. As long as the friendly king, -Louis VII, lived, they continued in their happy condition, and were -protected from the malevolent attacks of the clergy. Louis would not -enforce the resolution of the Lateran Council, that no Jew should keep -any Christian nurses or domestics. He asked the Pope, at the request -of the Jews, whether this resolution must be strictly construed, and -whether the Jews might be allowed to build synagogues. In spite of -the papal decision, he exercised so little energy in enforcing this -canonical law, that even his son Philip Augustus, in whose favor he -abdicated (1169) on account of feebleness, did not feel bound by it. -When the Archbishop of Sens insisted on its enforcement, and endeavored -to bring into effect several other decisions of the Church, which -encroached on the prerogatives of the crown, the young king sent -him into banishment. By and by, however, other considerations, not -different influences, gained the ascendancy over the not very noble -nature of Philip Augustus, at that time only twenty-five years old, -prompting him to change his mind about the Jews, and transforming him -into one of the greatest Jew-hating kings in history. - -Although lord of the whole of France, and feudal suzerain of the -mighty king of England, the French king at that time had little -land of his own. The small tract of land, Isle de France, with a -few scattered provinces, constituted his only inheritance, and the -rest of the land was under the dominion of powerful barons. The -policy of Philip Augustus aimed at enriching the French crown by the -acquisition of landed estates, and by transforming the ostensible -vassalage of the barons into a reality. To accomplish this he needed -money, above all things, in order to raise troops and to support -them. The wealth of the French Jews appeared to him a ready resource, -and prompted him to devise a scheme to appropriate it. He had no -need for lengthy consideration, for he had only to give ear to the -prejudice that prevailed against them, in order to obtain the right -to plunder and oppress them. Although the Jews of France were not -the only persons who practised usury--for Christians also, in spite -of canonical prohibitions, took exorbitant interest--and although it -was perhaps only the rich Jews of that country that were usurers, -Philip Augustus nevertheless made the Jews one and all responsible -for the impoverishment of reckless debtors; and although personally -he did not believe that monstrous lie which somehow arose in the -twelfth century--whence and on what ground we know not--that the Jews -slaughtered Christian children on the Passover festival, and drank -their blood, he nevertheless acted as if they were incarnate murderers, -so as to have a convenient pretext for exacting and extorting money -from them. Even before the death of the old king, Philip Augustus -caused all the Jews living on his estates to be seized whilst they -were praying in their synagogues, and cast into prison (19th January, -1180). He calculated that the Jews would offer a large ransom for their -liberation. When they had collected fifteen hundred marks of silver -they were set at liberty. This extortion was only a prelude to further -demands. Before the end of the year 1180, the king declared all claims -of Jews against Christians to be null and void; but, nevertheless, took -care to appropriate a fifth part of the debts of the Christians to the -exchequer. A hermit of Vincennes encouraged him, by explaining to him -that it was godly work to rob the Jews of their wealth. Philip Augustus -was not yet satisfied that he had made the rich Jews beggars, and -shortly afterwards published an edict commanding all the Jews in his -province to leave it between April and St. John's Day (1181). They were -allowed to sell their movable property. Their fields, vineyards, barns -and wine-presses, which must have yielded a fine revenue, escheated to -the king, and the deserted synagogues were used as churches. That it is -untrue that the Jews of France were hated by the people on account of -their usury, alleged child-slaying, and other crimes, is proved most -decisively by the circumstance that counts, barons, and even bishops -strenuously endeavored to turn the king from his purpose, and to induce -him to repeal the edict of banishment against the Jews. All their -efforts, however, were in vain; young Philip Augustus, who had much -of Louis XIV in him, was, in spite of his youth, so obstinate that -(as his biographer says) a rock could be shaken more easily than his -resolution. And so the Jews of Paris and its environs once more had to -take the wanderer's staff, and leave the places where they had lived -for many centuries. The offer that they might retain possession of -their property if they would submit to baptism, they held as opposed to -their profession of faith in the unity of God. Only a few went over to -Christianity. - -Fortunately for the Jews, the hereditary estate of the king, as -mentioned above, was at that time not very large, and the vassals -were still independent enough to refuse obedience to the order to -expel all Jews from their provinces. They dwelt in the greatest part -of France, and even those who had been driven out of the territory -of Philip Augustus were allowed to settle among them. The Talmudical -College of Paris was closed, but those in the Champagne, where the -Tossafists pursued their work, still flourished. The small town of -Rameru continued to be the center of study. Here Isaac ben Samuel, of -Dampierre (Ri), a great-grandson of Rashi, held his school. He was -the chief authority after the death of his uncle Tam. Learned and -acute, like his ancestors, Isaac occupied himself with completing -Rashi's commentary, with collecting and arranging his notes on the -whole Talmud, and supplementing the questions on knotty Talmudic -points presented to the Tossafists, and their decisions. It required a -profound knowledge of the enormous material of the Talmud to undertake -this work, to adjust the most irreconcilable opinions, to discover an -inconsistency here, and explain one away there. The story is told that -in the college of Isaac the Elder there were sixty learned members, -all of whom not only were proficient in the whole of the Talmud, but -each one of whom knew by heart and could explain in a masterly manner -one of its sixty treatises. Isaac's first collection of the glosses was -called "the old Tossafoth." In consequence of the hostile spirit which -began to prevail in northern France, through the persecution of Philip -Augustus, Isaac's son, named Elchanan, who, although young, had gained -renown among the Tossafists, fell a martyr to his religion, in the -lifetime of his father (1184). - -Some years later (1191) Philip Augustus sent fresh victims to the -martyr's grave. In the little town of Bray (on the Seine, north of -Sens), which belonged to the county of Champagne, a Christian subject -of the king murdered a Jew. The relatives of the murdered man appealed -to the countess, and obtained her permission, through rich presents of -money, to hang the murderer. By design or accident, the execution took -place on the Purim festival, and this circumstance reminded the people -of Haman's gallows, and perhaps of something else. As soon as the king -had received news of the execution of his subject, in a distorted -report, moreover, saying that the Jews had bound the hands of the -murderer, crowned him with a crown of thorns, and dragged him through -the streets, he hastened to Bray with a force of men, and surrounding -the houses of the Jews with guards, offered them the alternative -between death and conversion. The congregation did not hesitate a -moment, its members bravely determined to kill one another rather than -die by the hand of the executioner. Philip caused nearly one hundred to -be burnt, and spared only the children under thirteen years. A few days -later the king, with blood-imbrued hands, was consecrated as champion -of the Cross, and sailed to Syria, to the crusade. The so-called Holy -War improved him but little. - -All efforts to dislodge that really great hero, Saladin, from -Jerusalem and the district belonging to it, had hitherto proved -fruitless. Richard the Lion-hearted was compelled to patch up a truce -discreditable to the Christians, and the only favor that he obtained -was that Christian pilgrims were to be allowed to visit at any time the -Church of the Sepulchre in Jerusalem. - -A new crusade had to be preached; the dying embers of fanaticism once -more had to be rekindled, and naturally the Jews again were the first -to suffer. Pope Innocent III, the most thoughtless and arbitrary of all -princes of the Church, took the cause in hand with frantic energy. He -commissioned a preacher, Fulko de Neuilly, who had till then lived a -reckless, sinful life, to preach the crusade in towns and villages; and -this agent, a second Rudolph, used the unpopularity of the Jews and the -prospect of plundering them as convenient means for enlisting soldiers -for the armies of the Cross. He preached that Christian debtors, -having taken the Cross, were absolved from their debts to their Jewish -creditors. Many barons of northern France inspired, or pretending to -be inspired by Fulko's fanatical harangues, enrolled themselves as -crusaders. Now that their hatred of the Jews was once more inflamed, -they drove them out of their provinces; for, having been impoverished -by the canceling of their debts, the Jews had nothing left which the -barons could extort from them. - -Contrary to all expectations, Philip Augustus, the arch-enemy of the -Jews, received the exiles in his own territory, and allowed those who -had formerly been expelled by him to return again to their hearths -(July, 1198). This inconsistent and tolerant action of the king, who -had been hitherto invariably severe, occasioned much surprise. It seems -that Philip Augustus had taken this step for the purpose of mortifying -the clergy and Pope Innocent III, because they had declared against -his second marriage, he having divorced his first wife without the -sanction of the Pope. - -At first glance it appears as if the French king and the barons were -filled with solicitude for the Jews, as if the latter were so dear to -them that they could not exist without them. They looked jealously -at one another if Jews emigrated from one province to another; they -reclaimed them, and entered into compacts whereby any Jews who had -changed their places of abode were to be delivered over to their -original lord; and they went so far as to place the Jews under oath not -to pass beyond their borders. But behind this apparent solicitude there -lurked the most contemptible greed for money. The Jews of northern -France were considered by the kings and barons as convenient sources -whence to obtain gold. As early as the year 1198, Philip Augustus -entered into an agreement with Thibaut of Champagne, that neither -should detain any Jews who had emigrated from the territory of the one, -and settled in that of the other, but that the Jews should be sent back -to the province whence they had come. Philip Augustus, however, like -most of the kings of France, was not a man of his word; he refused to -give up the Jews who had, on account of excessive oppression, moved to -Francia from Champagne, which was thickly populated with Jews. - -Thus, from the time of Philip Augustus, the Jews of northern France -lost one of the most precious privileges of mankind, freedom of motion. -Whilst formerly they were able to move about at will from place to -place, they were now compelled to remain in their native place like -serfs. If they ventured to move from it, the lord of the land seized -their real property, and confiscated it. At first the Jews did not know -what to make of this state of affairs, and the rabbinical authority of -the time, Isaac of Dampierre, decided that no Jew should buy property -that had been confiscated; and if he did buy such property, he was to -return it to its original owner. Gradually this robbery became law. -Not only freedom of motion, but even the right to possess property was -denied them. "The property of the Jews belongs to the baron" was the -leading principle of the legislation of northern France concerning the -Jews. The king and the barons, indeed, allowed the Jews to take a high -rate of interest (two deniers a week on a livre), because it served -their purposes. The bonds had to be drawn up by a notary, sealed with -the public seal, and witnessed by two notables. In this manner the lord -of the province could obtain information of all money transactions. -On every settled account the lord levied a large tax (cens). The Jews -of northern France were valued only for their possessions; they were -treated as revenue-producing bondmen. A nobleman sold to the Duchess -of Champagne all his "chattels and Jews." The Jews were thus secure -from expulsion and persecution, because they were needed, but they -suffered from innumerable annoyances, and their moral sense was thereby -blunted. They were restricted to the business of money getting, and -they acquired as much as possible in order to be able to satisfy -their tormentors. The clergy did not fail to add fuel to the fire of -hatred against the Jews, and shut them out of the Christian world -like lepers. Bishop Odo, of Paris, who issued canonical constitutions -(1197), forbade Christians to buy meat of Jews, to hold discussions -with them, and generally to have any intercourse with them. Those who -disobeyed were subject to the sentence of excommunication. If the Jews -of northern France had not then been possessed of a burning passion for -the study of the Talmud, they would certainly have become as degenerate -as their enemies pictured, and wished them to be. The Talmud alone -saved them from brutalized selfishness and moral decay. - -After the death of Isaac, the compiler of the Tossafoth (about 1200), -the study of the Talmud in northern France was furthered by three -men of his school: Judah Sir Leon ben Isaac, the Pious (ha-Chasid), -in Paris (born 1166, died 1224), Samson ben Abraham in Sens (died -before 1226), and the latter's brother, Isaac the Younger (Rizba), in -Dampierre. All three expounded the Talmud in their schools in the usual -manner, decided religious questions that were submitted to them, and -wrote Tossafoth, those of Samson existing in a separate form under the -name of Sens Tossafoth. - -These three rabbis of northern France did not lead the way to new -developments in any branch of learning. They had no taste for science -or poetry, and they studied Holy Writ, only in the light of the Agadic -method of exposition. They were not destitute of acuteness, but they -wanted breadth of view. Samson was so incapable of doing justice to -the sincerity of religious feeling in the Karaites, who, if possible, -were over-scrupulous in the discharge of their religious duties, that -he not only held it illegal to intermarry with them, but wished them -to be regarded as idolaters, whose wine a Rabbanite might not drink. -Judah Sir Leon wrote a book in which he endeavors to hold up the -higher ideals towards which the truly pious should strive. This work -is, indeed, instinct with religious feeling, and of singularly pure -morality; but it is also full of perverted ideas of the world, and of -crass superstition. It mirrors faithfully the spirit of that time: -that religious scrupulousness which fearfully considers at every step -whether it does not commit or occasion a sin; that gloomy disposition -which detects in every natural impulse the incitement of Satan; that -paltry spirit which treats every trifling occurrence as full of -significance. Side by side with sentences of which philosophers need -not be ashamed, in this "Book of the Pious," there occur absurdities -which could have been produced only by the decline in all conditions of -life, which the Jews had experienced since the reign of Philip Augustus. - -Judah Sir Leon, the Pious, became the master of many pupils, who -afterwards acquired renown: Solomon of Montpellier, Moses of Coucy, -Isaac of Vienna, and others became rabbis, and promoters of the study -of the Talmud in Spain, France, and Germany. All were guided by his -spirit, beheld Judaism only as through a thick layer of fog, and were -opponents of free investigation. The disciples of his school later on -arrayed themselves against the Spanish exponents of a higher conception -of Judaism. - -In England, and in those French provinces which at that time belonged -to England (Normandy, Bretagne, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, Guienne, -Poitou and Gascony), the Jews lived under Henry II, for a long time, -in undisturbed and happy quiet. They inhabited the large towns, and -in London many of them attained to such wealth that their houses -had the appearance of royal palaces. The summons to the first and -second crusades found no response among the stolid islanders, and in -consequence no martyrs were found among the Jews of England at that -time. Many Englishmen had conceived such a predilection for Judaism -that they entered into the covenant. There existed a congregation which -consisted entirely of proselytes. Their communal and intellectual life -was like that of France, which at that time stood in close connection -with England. In London, Jacob of Orleans, a pupil of Tam, a famous -Tossafist, founded his school. Benjamin of Canterbury was likewise a -disciple of the teacher of Rameru. The knightly son of Henry, Richard -the Lion-hearted, was equally averse to persecution, and the Jewish -community of England might have developed peacefully under him, had -not the fanaticism kindled by Thomas a Becket included them among -its victims. At Richard's coronation (3d September, 1189), the first -persecution broke out against the Jews, culminating a century later in -their general expulsion. Richard's coronation ceremony was the first -scene of a bloody drama for the Jews. - -When Richard had returned to his palace from his coronation in the -church, there entered, among others who came to do homage to the -king, a deputation of the richest and most prominent members of -the congregations of England to hand in their presents. On their -appearance, Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury, a fanatical church -dignitary, remarked fiercely, that no presents ought to be accepted -from Jews, and that they ought to be dismissed from the palace, for -on account of their religion they had forfeited the privilege to -rank among other nations. Richard, who did not think of the evil -consequences that might follow, innocently obeyed the instruction of -the archbishop. The palace menials, who showed the Jews out of the -palace, thought themselves privileged to abuse them. The gaping crowd -likewise fell to, and pursued the Jewish deputies with blows of the -fist, with stones and clubs. Soon there spread about in all parts of -London the false report that the king desired the humiliation and -destruction of the Jews, and immediately the mob and the crusading -rabble banded together to enrich themselves with the possessions of -the Jews. The pillagers made an attack upon the houses in which the -Jews had sought refuge, and set fire to them. Meanwhile night had -come, and covered with her shadows the ghastly butchery of the Jews. -It was in vain that the newly-crowned king sent one of his courtiers, -Ranulph de Granville, to make inquiries about the uproar, and put a -stop to it. At first he could not make himself heard, and was moreover -assailed with jeers by the raging mob. Many Jews were murdered; -others killed themselves, because they were called upon to submit to -baptism, among them Jacob of Orleans. Most of the Jewish houses were -burnt, and the synagogues destroyed. The fire, which had been applied -in order to destroy the records of the debts of Christians to Jews, -spread, and consumed a part of the city. Only one Jew apostatized to -Christianity, the wealthy Benedict of York, who with his fellow-deputy -had been ejected from the palace, and dragged into a church, where -he had pretended to submit to baptism. When Richard, however, learnt -the real circumstances of the affair, he ordered those implicated to -be executed. Richard was so careful of the welfare of the Jews of -his realm that, fearing that the persecution in London might spread -through England and his French dominions, he promulgated edicts that -the Jews were to be inviolate, and even sent deputies to Normandy and -Poitou to suppress any outbreaks against the Jews that might occur. -He, moreover, allowed Benedict of York to return to Judaism, when he -learnt that he had been baptized under compulsion, and heard from him -the confession that he had remained a Jew at heart, and wanted to -die as such. The fanatical Archbishop of Canterbury, who was present -at the interview, being asked his opinion, answered, "If he will not -remain a son of God, let him be a son of the devil." As long as Richard -remained in London, the Jews were at peace; but as soon as he crossed -the Channel, in order to inaugurate a new crusade together with Philip -Augustus, the scenes of London were repeated all over England. It -was not only religious zeal which incited the Christians against the -Jews of England, but rather envy of their prosperity, and, above all, -desire for their property. The first to suffer was the wealthy and -notable congregation in the flourishing commercial city of Lynn. If we -may believe Christian writers, it would appear that the Jews first -provoked the fury of the Christians against themselves. They are said -to have attacked a baptized Jew, and when he fled for refuge into a -church, they captured it by storm. Thereupon the Christians are said to -have been called to arms. At the time there happened to be crusaders in -the city. The Jews, being defeated by the latter, took refuge in their -houses, and there were assaulted with fire and sword, but few escaping -with their lives. It is impossible, however, that the Jews should have -been the first to attack, for the citizens themselves, when called upon -by royal commissioners to explain these disturbances, fixed the blame -on the crusaders, who, in the meantime, had decamped with the booty of -the Jews. A Jewish physician, who, by his modesty and skill, had won -popularity even among the Christians, was murdered by these ruffians -for mourning too much for his people, and invoking the justice of -heaven upon their murderers. - -Soon after the Lynn massacre, the Jews of Norwich were surprised in -their houses, and butchered (6th February, 1190). A month later (7th -March), the Jews of Stamford were severely maltreated, because on the -market day many crusaders and strangers happened to be in the city, -who were sure to be in stronger force than their opponents, in case -the Jews, assisted by the citizens, should offer them resistance. They -believed that they were performing a godly act if they treated as -enemies those whose property they were lusting after, and they hoped to -extort from the Jews their traveling expenses for the crusade. Without -the least provocation, they fell upon the Jews, murdered some, forcing -others to flee to the royal castle, broke into the houses, and carried -away everything valuable. The robber crusaders absconded from the town -with their booty, so that none of it might fall into the hands of the -royal judges. One of these brigands was all but declared a saint; he -deposited his plunder at the house of a friend, who murdered him to -get possession of his ill-gotten gains. The Jews of Lincoln nearly -shared the fate of their brethren of Lynn, Norwich, and Stamford; but -on getting wind of the danger threatening them, they betook themselves -with their property to the royal castle for protection. - -But most tragic of all was the lot of the Jews of York, because among -them were two men, who enjoyed princely fortunes, had built magnificent -palaces, and had accordingly aroused the envy of the Christian -inhabitants. One of these was Joceus, the other was Benedict, who had -been so brutally ill-treated at Richard's coronation. The latter, who -had reverted to Judaism after his compulsory baptism, died from the -wounds which had been inflicted on him in London. Crusaders who wanted -to obtain wealth, citizens who were chagrined at the prosperity of the -Jews, noblemen who owed money to them, and priests who were animated -by a bloodthirsty fanaticism, all entered into a conspiracy to destroy -the Jews of York. In the dead of night, during a conflagration which -had either broken out by accident or been kindled by design, the -conspirators broke into the house of Benedict, which was inhabited only -by his wife and daughters, carried away all the valuables, and set the -house on fire. Joceus, who had foreseen the danger threatening him, -repaired with his family and most of the members of the congregation -to the citadel, and demanded protection. But few Jews remained in the -town, and these were attacked by the conspirators, who appeared openly -on the day following their successful experiment, and offered the Jews -the choice between baptism and death. The Jews in the tower, however, -were besieged, by an immense multitude of people of all classes, and -were called upon to embrace Christianity. One day the governor of the -citadel sauntered out of the fortress, and as the Jews feared that he -would betray them, and hand them over to their enemies, they refused -him re-admittance into the fortress. The latter made complaint before a -high royal official, the lord-lieutenant of the province, who happened -to be present at the time, that the Jews had had the audacity to shut -him out of the fortress which had been entrusted to him. Infuriated in -the highest degree, the lord-lieutenant gave orders to the besieging -multitude to demolish the fortress, and take vengeance on the Jews. He -even brought up re-inforcements in order to ensure victory. The siege -lasted six days; the Jews repulsed all attacks bravely. The governor -was beginning to repent of having given orders to storm the place, and -many noblemen and prudent citizens were withdrawing from an enterprise -which promised so many evil consequences to them, if it became known -to the king, when up rose a monk in a white robe, who exhorted the -besiegers by voice and example to continue their work. He held a -special, solemn service, read mass, and took the Host to assure himself -that divine assistance would be rendered them in conquering the weak -little troop of Jews in the castle. He was nevertheless struck to the -ground by a stone hurled by a Jewish hand, and yielded up his fanatical -spirit. - -The Jews had, in the meantime, exhausted their provisions, and death -stared them in the face. When the men were deliberating what to do, one -learned in the Law, who had come over from France, Yom Tob, of Joigny, -counseled them to slay one another, saying, "God, whose decisions are -inscrutable, desires that we should die for our holy religion. Death is -at hand, unless you prefer, for a short span of life, to be unfaithful -to your religion. As we must prefer a glorious death to a shameful -life, it is advisable that we take our choice of the most honorable -and the noblest mode of death. The life which our Creator has given -us we will render back to Him with our own hands. This example many -pious men and congregations have given us in ancient and modern times." -Many were of the same way of thinking; the timid, however, would not -abandon the hope of being able to save their lives. In the meantime, -the heroic rabbi made preparations for the sacrifice. All valuables -were burnt, fire was applied to the doors, and the men with the courage -of zealots passed the knife across the throats of those dearest to -them. Joceus, the leader of the congregation, first slew his beloved -wife Anna, and to him was allotted the honor of being sacrificed by -the rabbi. Thus most of them perished at one another's hands, on the -day before that great Sabbath which forms the introductory festival in -celebration of the redemption from Egyptian bondage, at about the same -time when the last Zealots had put themselves to death in a similar -manner after the destruction of the Temple, to avoid falling into the -hands of the Romans. The few survivors had to contend during the night -with the spreading fire, and secure for themselves some sheltered -places. On the Sabbath (17 March, 1190), when the enemy advanced to the -attack, the survivors declared their willingness to open the gate, and -receive baptism; and to convince their foes of the shocking sacrifice -that had been made, they threw the corpses of the suicides from the -wall. Scarcely were the gates opened, when the leader of the Christian -conspirators, together with his guardsmen, cut down the Jews, who were -begging with tears in their eyes to be baptized; thus not a single -member of the Jewish congregation of York survived; altogether about -500 Jews perished. On the following day, Palm Sunday (18th March), -750 Jews were butchered by crusaders in Bury St. Edmunds. Throughout -England, wherever Jews were to be found, unless protected by the -citizens, they met with the death of martyrs. A congregation of twenty -families, consisting only of Jewish proselytes, likewise suffered -martyrdom. King Richard was greatly enraged at these cruelties, and -commissioned his chancellor to institute inquiries, and punish the -guilty. But the crusaders had decamped, the guilty citizens and -noblemen fled to Scotland, and the rest escaped punishment. Only the -governor of York was deposed from his office. - -But on the accession of Richard's brother, King John, who by his -unprincipled conduct degraded England into a vassalage of the papal -chair, the Jews were robbed even of the help of generous citizens. If -John behaved ruthlessly towards all the world, the Jews certainly could -not expect to be well treated by him. - -Somewhat more fortunately placed than their co-religionists in France -and England were the Jews of the German empire, which at that time -was very extensive. The German nations, by nature more religious, and -therefore more fanatical than the French and the other Romance nations, -often indeed made existence for the Jews a veritable hell upon earth; -but as emperors and princes protected them, the hatred against them -could not produce any material effect. As Henry IV, during the first, -and Conrad III, during the second crusade, protected the Jews, the -notion arose that the German emperors had constituted themselves the -guardians of the Jews, that any one who harmed them committed high -treason, and that in return for his protection they became his "servi -camerae," the serfs of the imperial chamber. Frederick Barbarossa, the -most powerful German emperor, who took Charlemagne for a model, was -the first to begin the conversion of free Jews into "servi camerae." -The legend is interesting which characterizes the connection of the -German emperor with the Jews in history. After the destruction of -Jerusalem by Titus, a third of the Jews is said to have been sold -as slaves at the rate of thirty for a bad penny. These, scattered -throughout the Roman empire, were the property of the Roman emperor, -and became his "servi camerae." The emperor, however, had taken upon -himself the duty of protecting them, as a reward for Josephus' service -to Titus, whom he had cured of gout. The rights and obligations of the -Roman emperors towards the Jews passed over, through Charlemagne, to -the German emperors, and hence the latter were similarly constituted -the protectors of the Jews, and the Jews became their "servi camerae." -The Jews had, in all essentials, been "servi camerae" before, in France -and England; that is, they were half-and-half the property of the king -or the barons, and under one or another title they constantly had to -hold their purses in readiness to replenish the empty coffers of their -lords. In Germany, however, they had in return the protection of the -emperor. It was certainly not to be expected that the successors of -Vespasian, of the house of Teut, should fulfil this office of champion -of the Jews quite disinterestedly. On the contrary, they needed more -revenue than other princes, as they had no land, and received but -little money from their vassals. It seemed, therefore, only right that -the Jews should, in return for his imperial support, supply the emperor -with pocket-money. - -Although the Jews of Germany were "servi camerae," they were not robbed -wholly of their personal rights in the twelfth century. They were -allowed to carry weapons, and even to fight single combats. During the -siege of Worms, Jews fought side by side with Christians, and the rabbi -even permitted them to use weapons on the Sabbath for the purpose of -defense. They had their own jurisdiction, and were not compelled to -appear before an alien judge. Now and again some of them attained a -higher position. The brave Duke Leopold of Austria, renowned in history -for his capture of King Richard of England, had a Jewish treasurer, -who, in spite of the canonical resolution of the Lateran council, was -allowed to keep Christian servants. In Silesia, in the neighborhood -of Breslau, Jews owned several villages with the bondmen appertaining -to them. But as the prohibition to keep Christian domestics gained -ground, the Jews were obliged to sell their landed estates, to remove -to the towns, and there to engage in business and money-lending. -In spite of the imperial protection, they were often exposed to -ill-treatment. The infamous invention that the Jews used Christian -blood found credence also in Germany, and here more than in any other -place, and wherever the dead body of a Christian was found, princes -and people immediately laid the murder at the door of the Jews. A ship -containing Jews was proceeding from Cologne to Boppard, and after it -there sailed another with Christian passengers. The latter found the -dead body of a Christian woman in Boppard, and forthwith they jumped -to the conclusion that the Jews of the first ship had slain her; the -Christians immediately pursued and overtook them, and called upon them -to submit to baptism, and on their refusal hurled them into the Rhine. -In the general peace which the emperor decreed before his expedition to -the Orient, the Jews were also included. He warned priest and monk not -to stir up the people against them; but they had to supply funds for -the crusade. - -Under Frederick's successor, Henry VI, a horrible massacre of the -Jews took place, the fanatics breaking loose upon them at different -places from the district of the Rhine to Vienna. Under such afflicting -circumstances, when they were not sure of their lives for one moment, -it was impossible for them to advance to a high degree of culture. They -were deeply religious and beneficent, and they assisted one another, -and foreign immigrants, with everything that they possessed. Religion -and the cohesion of the members of the community were the pillars on -which they had to lean for support; but they were without enthusiasm or -taste for any branch of knowledge. The study of the Talmud continued -to be the only occupation of the more intellectual among them; but -even in this they only followed the road marked out by Rashi and the -Tossafists, without ever diverging from it. Those who desired to give -spiritual nourishment to their mind, as well as acquire intellectual -acuteness, absorbed themselves in a kind of mystic lore, the import and -significance of which is lost to us. - -Ephraim ben Jacob, of Bonn (1132-1200), made a name for himself at -about this time. He was not, indeed, a rabbi by profession, but -was none the less adept in Talmudical lore, and in addition was an -extraordinary linguist. At the age of thirteen he was shut up with -his relatives in the tower of Wolkenburg during the persecution -that attended the second crusade; there he saw the sufferings of -his brethren in faith, and described them later on in an impartial, -enthusiastic and vividly written martyrology, which he brought down -to the year 1196-97. Ephraim was also a skilful versifier, and he -composed many liturgical poems, particularly lamentations on the -sufferings of his time. His verses possess no poetical beauty, but they -are characterized by a certain wit, which is displayed in ingenious -allusions to Biblical verses and Talmudical passages. - -It seems scarcely credible that Germany, hostile as it was towards the -Jews at that time, should have given birth to a Jewish poet who was -able to sing in beautiful strains, knew how to handle rhyme, meter, -strophes in the vernacular, and was so warmly appreciated that he was -received into the circle of poets. Suesskind (Suezkint) of Trimberg, -a small town on the Saale in Franconia, adopted the poetic style of -Walter von der Vogelweide and Wolfram of Eschenbach. He was probably -a physician by profession, but nothing is known of the events of his -life. In the castle of the lords of Trimberg, which stood on the ridge -of a vine-covered hill, and was reflected in the winding Saale, or in -the neighboring castle, Bodenlaube, in the company of noble knights -and beautiful dames, he poured forth, lute in hand, his melodious -strains, and the largesses which were showered on him formed his sole -means of support. Suesskind sang of the high worth of the pure woman, -and pictured to the knights his ideal of a nobleman: "Who acts nobly, -him will I account noble." He speaks of the freedom of thought, not -yielding to force: - - "No man can bid a fool or sage from thought refrain, - A thought can glide through stone, and steel, and iron chain." - -Suesskind also composed a German psalm. He describes the awesome thought -of death and dissolution, mocks at his own poverty, and prescribes a -virtue-electuary. Once the noblemen, whose bread he ate, appear to have -given him a bitter reminder that he, as a Jew, did not belong to their -select circle. His despondency arising from this reminder he embodied -in beautiful verses, wherein he bids farewell to poetry. With the -best of intentions, the Jews could not cultivate German poetry, since -the Jewish poets received kicks instead of the laurel crown, as their -reward. Being shut up in their own circle, their sense for the euphony -of language became blunted, and it is probable that German poetry has -lost considerably by it. - -Bohemia also must be enumerated in the list of Talmudical centers, for -it produced some men famous for Jewish knowledge. Isaac ben Jacob -Halaban of Prague takes an important place among the Tossafists; he -wrote a profound commentary on several Talmudical treatises. His -brother Petachya made distant journeys (about 1175-1190) through -Poland, Russia, the land of the Chazars, Armenia, Media, Persia, -Babylonia, and Palestine. His abridged description of his journeys -gives interesting notices on the Jews in the East. Even the Jews living -in Poland and Russia began to take part in Talmudical learning, which -in later times they were to possess as a monopoly. - -It is remarkable that the Italian Jews of this period seem more -destitute of intellectual productions than the Bohemian or Polish -Jews. They did not produce a single authority on the Talmud. When it -was said in Tam's time, "The law goes forth from Bari, and the word of -God from Otranto," it was meant ironically, for they did not advance -the study of the Talmud in any way. The times were most favorable to -them; certainly as favorable as to the Jews of southern France. With -the exception of a single case, the expulsion of the Jews from Bologna -(1171), the Jews in Italy were about this time remarkably free from -persecution. The clever Pope Alexander III was well-disposed to them, -and entrusted the management of his finances to a Jew, named Yechiel -ben Abraham, a member of the family dei Mansi, and nephew of Nathan, -the famous author of the Aruch. On the entrance of this pope into -Rome, whence he had been banished for many years by a rival pope, -the Jews among others came to meet him with a scroll of the Law and -with banners, an honor to the pope shown by Jews which the chronicles -do not fail to record. They were treated with respect, and were not -obliged to pay any imposts or Jew-taxes. The favorable feeling of -Alexander is proved in the resolutions of the great council in the -Lateran Church (1179), at which more than three hundred princes of -the Church were present. Several anti-Jewish prelates endeavored to -pass certain mischievous laws against the house of Jacob. The Jews, who -received information of their hostile intentions, lived in tormenting -anxiety, and in many congregations a fast of three days and special -prayers were ordained, that Heaven might frustrate the wickedness of -men. History has not recorded the discussions of the great Church -assembly, but the final decrees bear witness that the gentle spirit of -tolerance prevailed over the mania for persecution. The council only -forbade the Jews to keep Christian servants, or in other words, an old -Church prohibition was renewed. On the other hand, it was particularly -insisted upon that they were not to be forcibly baptized, nor to be -apprehended without a judicial warrant, nor robbed, nor disturbed on -their religious festivals. The limitation of a privilege of the Jews, -that henceforth Christians were also to be competent witnesses against -Jews, was justly decreed. It was said in explanation that the evidence -of a Jew was valid against Christians, and it was surely not equitable -that the Jews, who in reality were subject to the Christians, and were -tolerated only out of pure humanity, should in this respect enjoy an -advantage over the Christians. What a contrast to that old Byzantine -law and the resolution of the Visigothic council, that Jews could -not act as witnesses against Christians! Not that the spirit of the -Church had grown milder during these five centuries; but the Jews had -earned respect for themselves, and accordingly the representatives of -Christianity durst not repeat that old charge, "He cannot be true to -men who denies God," _i. e._, the Christian God. - -In southern Italy, in Naples, and the island of Sicily, under the -Norman dominion, Jews were still less fettered. Roger II and William -II expressly confirmed the privilege of trial according to their own -laws, equally with the Greeks and Saracens. In Messina they enjoyed -equal rights with the Christians, and were eligible to office. A -favorite minister and admiral of King Roger of Sicily had a leaning -towards Judaism, frequently visited the synagogues, donated oil for -their illumination, and in general subscribed money to meet the -requirements of the community. Seeds of a higher culture were scattered -in profusion at that time in Italy, in consequence of its close -intercourse with the East during the crusades, and of the immigration -of the Greeks and Arabs into the kingdom of Naples. The Jews, who -have special facility in mastering foreign languages, spoke Arabic -and Greek, in addition to the vernacular and Hebrew. The versatile -Ibn-Ezra, during his residence in Rome, Lucca, Mantua, and elsewhere, -was the means of spreading among them a loftier conception of the holy -Scriptures and of Judaism. His disciple, Solomon ben Abraham Parchon, -of Calatayud, stayed in the university town of Salerno for a long time, -and endeavored to make the Italians acquainted with the science of the -Hebrew language and Bible exegesis, they being very ignorant in these -departments, and for this purpose he composed a Hebrew lexicon (1160). -But all these incitements had no effect on the Italian Jews. They -remained ignorant, and the history of Jewish literature is unable to -mention even an insignificant literary production by an Italian till -the second half of the thirteenth century. The land which in later -times gave rise to a new style of Hebrew poetry, cannot at this period -show one Hebrew poet. - -In the circumstance that the northern and central Italian cities were -mostly engaged in trade, is to be found the true reason why they were -not so numerously populated with Jews as the southern Italian cities. -The great commercial houses, which had a determining voice in the -municipal council, would not suffer the competition of the Jews. In -Genoa there lived only two Jewish families, who had emigrated to that -place from Ceuta, on account of the oppression of the Almohades. Pisa, -Lucca, and Mantua had only small congregations. The two largest, -which consisted of 1300 and 200 families, dwelt in Venice and Rome -respectively. On the other hand there were 500 families in Naples, -and 300 in Capua, who were well treated and respected. The chief of -the Neapolitan congregation was David, who bore the title of prince -(principino). In Benevento there was a congregation of 200 Jews, in -Salerno 600, in Trani 200, in Tarentum 300, and in Otranto 500. The -Jewish congregations in the island of Sicily were still more numerous. -In Messina there lived 200 families, and in the capital, Palermo, 1500. -This congregation had been strengthened by the arrival of Greek Jews, -whom King Roger, after his conquests, had transplanted to that place, -in order to establish the breeding of silk-worms. - -If one sailed from Brundisium across the Adriatic Sea, he landed in the -Byzantine empire. Here were numerous and populous Jewish communities, -especially in Greece proper, Thessaly, Macedonia, and Thrace. In -Arta (or Larta) there dwelt 100 families, whose president, curiously -enough, was named Hercules; in Lepanto the same number; in Crissa, at -the foot of Mount Parnassus, 200, who pursued agriculture. In Corinth -there were 300 families, in Negropont 200, in Jabustrissa 100, in -Saloniki 500, who had a Jewish mayor of their own (Ephoros), appointed -by the Greek emperor. In Rodosto there lived 400 Jewish families, in -Gallipoli 200, in the island of Mytilene there were 10 congregations, -in Chios 400 families, in Samos 300, in Rhodes the same number, and -in Cyprus several congregations, among which was one that had the -custom of commencing the Sabbath in the morning, not in the evening, -and continuing it till Sunday morning. The most important congregations -in the Graeco-Byzantine empire were those of Thebes and Constantinople, -in both of which were nearly 2000 families, the latter containing 500 -Karaites besides. The Theban Jews were the most skilful manufacturers -of silk and purple in the whole of Greece. They had among them also -rich merchants, silk manufacturers, and learned Talmudists. A wall -separated the rabbinical from the Karaite community in Constantinople. - -If the Byzantine empire in the time of its glory under Justinian and -Alexius oppressed the Jews, we may be sure that it was not better -disposed towards them in the time of its decline, when it lay in the -throes of death. The principle that Jews and heretics were not to be -admitted to any military post, or office, but were to be thoroughly -despised, was, of all the enactments of this most erratic of states, -the one most strictly and consistently adhered to. - -The rich and the poor, the good and the bad Jews were, without -distinction, hated most bitterly by the Greeks. No Jew was allowed -to ride on a horse, the privilege of freemen; it was only by way -of exception that the emperor Emanuel vouchsafed this privilege to -Solomon, the Egyptian, his physician in ordinary. Any Greek might -molest the Jews publicly, and in general treat them as slaves; the -law did not protect them. Byzantium, from time immemorial celebrated -for its avarice, imposed burdensome taxes on them. They endured this -insolent brutality with the resignation of martyrs; nor did it make -them forget to practise virtue, and extend charity to the poor. But -the Greek Jews were unable to pay any attention to the cultivation -of their minds. Not one of their Talmudists has immortalized his -name by a work. There were indeed many skilful Hebrew versifiers -among them, but their poems are ungainly, "hard as granite, without -taste and fragrance." Charisi concedes merit to the verse of only -one Jewish poet, Michael ben Kaleb, of Thebes, and he explains this -circumstance by the fact that the poet had learned his art in Spain. In -Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine, the size of the Jewish congregation -at a given place might have been taken as the criterion by which -to compare Christian with Mahometan tolerance. Where the cross was -supreme, there were but few and poorly populated Jewish communities -to be found, but where Islam had the ascendancy, there were many and -populous Jewish communities. In Antioch, which belonged to a Christian -prince, there lived only 10 families, nearly all glass-workers. In -Leda (Laodicea), 200; in Jebile, which belonged to the Genoese, 150; -in Bairut (Berytus), 50; in Saida (Sidon), 10; only in Tyre was there -a congregation containing 400 members, and there the Jews possessed -farms, and were even allowed to pursue navigation. At their head stood -Ephraim of Cairo. On the other hand, in Haleb (Aleppo), which had been -raised, through the great Mahometan prince, Nureddin, to the position -of second capital after Bagdad, there lived 1500 Jewish families, -among whom were many opulent men, respected at court. Here dwelt the -Hebrew poet, Jehuda ben Abbas, the friend of the prince of poets, -Jehuda Halevi. He had emigrated to this place from Fez on account of -the religious persecution. In the neighborhood of ancient Palmyra -there lived nearly 2000 Jewish families, whose men were warlike, -and often carried on feuds with the Christians and Mahometans. The -congregation of Damascus counted 3000 members, among whom were many -learned Talmudists, one of them being the famous Joseph ben Pilat, who -originally came from France. In Damascus there was also a Karaite -congregation of some 200 families, and a Samaritan congregation of -400 families, who, although they did not intermarry, nevertheless -carried on a peaceful intercourse with the Rabbanites. In the whole -of that part of Palestine in the hands of the Christians, there lived -scarcely more than 1000 families. The largest congregations, each -of 300 members, existed at that time in Toron de los Caballeros, in -Jerusalem and Askalon; in each of the most important towns of Judaea, on -the other hand, there lived only about 200 Jews. The Jewish inhabitants -of Jerusalem were mostly dyers, having bought the exclusive right to -exercise this trade from the Christian king; they lived at the end of -the town to the west of Mount Zion. Between the years 1169 and 1175 -they were all, except one, expelled from that city (probably under -the youthful and leprous phantom king, Baldwin IV), and he had to pay -a high price for the privilege of carrying on the dyer's trade. The -Christians, deeply sunk in vice, believed the holy city to be polluted -by the continent Jews. In Askalon there lived, at about this time, -300 Samaritan and 40 Karaite families. In Caesarea, which had before -harbored many thousands of Jews, there lived then only 10 families and -200 Samaritans. Of this sect there were many also in their aboriginal -seat, Samaria and Neapolis (Shechem), with not one Rabbanite Jew among -them. Minor congregations of 50 there were in Tiberias and Ulamma, -20 in Gischala, 22 in Bethlehem, and in each of the other towns from -one to three families. Thus was the heritage of Israel given away to -strangers. The Jewish inhabitants of Judaea vegetated rather than lived; -not even the study of the Talmud was cultivated by them. Accho alone -possessed Talmudists, one Zadok, and another Japhet ben Elia, and -these were foreigners. About this time many emigrants from Europe, and -particularly from southern France, settled in Palestine; and these -enjoyed such recognition among the Jewish natives, by reason of their -intellectual superiority, that they were able to move them to celebrate -the New Year's festival for two days, which, till then, and from time -immemorial, the Palestinians had been accustomed to solemnize, like the -other festivals, for only one day. - -From the point of view of number and material importance, we must -consider the district between the twin rivers, Euphrates and Tigris, -as the chief seat of Judaism. Here there were congregations which -numbered thousands. The former academical cities, Nahardea, Sora, -and Pumbeditha, had certainly disappeared; but in their stead the -congregations of Bagdad and Mosul (called New Nineveh) had gained an -ascendancy over all Asia. The Bagdad congregation contained 1000 Jewish -families with four synagogues, and lived in undisturbed quiet as in the -best days of the Caliphate. So free did the Jews of this part feel that -they even dared try to hinder the Mahometan crier in his business in -a mosque in Madain (near Bagdad), because he disturbed their service -in the synagogue. The caliph, Mahomet Almuktafi, had conceived an -affection for an estimable and wealthy Jew, Solomon (Chasdai?), and -bestowed on him the office of Exilarch, and created him prince over -all the Jews in the caliphate. The Prince of the Captivity was once -more allowed to be surrounded by a retinue, to ride on a horse, to -wear silk clothes and a turban; to be accompanied by a guard of honor, -and to use an official seal. If he appeared in public, or repaired to -court for an audience, both Jews and Mahometans were bound to rise -before him, on penalty of being bastinadoed; a herald went before -him, crying, "Make way for our lord, the son of David." The Exilarch -appointed and confirmed rabbis, judges, and readers, in all parts of -the caliphate, from Persia to Khorasan and the Caucasus, and as far as -Yemen, India and Thibet. He appointed these officials by commission, -for which he expected gifts. Thus the exilarchate was once more raised -to the splendor of the time of Bostanai. There also arose in Bagdad -an important Talmudical college, whose principal assumed the title of -Gaon. Isaac Ibn-Sakni, who had emigrated from Spain to the East towards -the end of the eleventh century, appears to have once more awakened, in -these circles, an interest for Talmudical learning. The Exilarch was -himself a learned Talmudist. Ali Halevi was at that time the principal -of the college, which was once more numerously attended by students. -The city of Akbara, in the neighborhood of Bagdad, contained 10,000 -Jews, but it had no special importance. - -The congregation of Mosul was still more considerable than that of -Bagdad. It numbered nearly 7000 families. This city was elevated to -the position of capital through the hero Zenki, father of the great -Nureddin, and like him the terror of the Christians, and as Zenki -was not ill-disposed to the Jews, they enjoyed extensive liberties -under him. The Arabic historians relate the following story. Once he -came with his army to the city Jesirat-ul-Amar (on the upper Tigris), -where there dwelt 4000 Jewish families. They had a synagogue which -they believed had been built in the time of Ezra, and Zenki took up -his quarters in the house of a Jew. His host complained to him of the -impoverishment of the city through these constant military expeditions, -and Zenki thereupon left the city, and ordered his army to encamp in -tents before the gates. His successor, Saif-Eddin Ghasi (1146-1149), -observed the same friendly attitude towards the Jews. At the head of -the Mosul congregation was a man named Zaccai, who also proclaimed -himself to be a scion of the house of David, in consequence of which he -bore the title of "Prince." He divided his authority with another, who -was considered a distinguished astronomer, and bore the honorable title -"Profound Connoisseur of the Sphere of Heaven," and was in the service -of the Prince of Mosul. - -The Jewish inhabitants of New Nineveh were regarded as the most -ignorant among the Jews, and were not even conversant with the Talmud. -North of Mosul, among the Carduchian mountains, or among the mountains -of Chaftan, there were many large congregations, some of which were -oppressed under the Sultans and the Persians, but others were free -and wild as the mountains on which they dwelt. These free Jews in the -land of Adher-Baijan (Aserbeidsan) used weapons, lived in friendly -intercourse with the fanatical assassins who dwelt in that part, were -the enemies of every one who was not one of their co-religionists or -allies, and often made descents into the valley for booty. They were -themselves inaccessible, and lived in primitive ignorance, without -knowledge of the sources of their religion. They accepted the rabbi -whom the Exilarch sent to them, and acted according to his directions. -There suddenly appeared amongst them (about 1160) an ambitious and -versatile man, who thought to profit by the military ability, the -bravery and ignorance of these Jews for a purpose which is now unknown. -This man, named David Alrui (Alroy) or Ibn-Alruchi (Arruchi), achieved -considerable notoriety in his time, and in our own days became the -hero of a brilliant novel. This young man, an inhabitant of Amadia, -of handsome appearance, clear mind and high courage, had attained -to deep knowledge of the Bible and the Talmud, as well as of Arabic -literature. On his return to Amadia, which appears to have been his -birthplace, the Jews were not the only persons who were amazed at -his vast acquirements, but others also, among whom was the commander -of the town, named Zain-Eddin. At this time violent tumults arose in -consequence of the crusades, and of the weakness of the Caliphate, -and made the whole of the country as far as Asia Minor a veritable -pandemonium. The government was divided among the weak Caliph, his -vizirs and generals, the Seljuk Sultan, and the Emirs, every one of -whom played a distinct part, and sought only conquest and increase -of power; and subordinate persons like Nureddin and Saladin obtained -mighty conquests. All these circumstances combined in encouraging -David Alrui to play a political part. He wanted, however, to gain as -confederates his countrymen and co-religionists, many of whom were -efficient warriors. This he could only accomplish if he were able to -awaken their national sentiment. David Alrui, or as he was sometimes -called, Menahem ben Solomon, accordingly issued a spirited appeal to -the Jews of Asia, saying that he was appointed by God to deliver them -from the yoke of the Mahometans, and to bring them back to Jerusalem. -For this purpose they were to assist him in waging war against the -nations. The first place to which David Alrui turned his eyes was the -strong castle of Amadia, which he thought would serve as an excellent -base of operations for his enterprises. To get possession of it, he -wrote to the Jews of Adher-Baijan, Mosul, and Bagdad, to come in great -numbers to Amadia, and bring swords and other weapons under their -cloaks. In response to this summons, many Jews who believed Alrui to -be the promised Messiah, met in the town at an appointed time, with -sharpened weapons concealed about their person, and the commandant at -first entertained no suspicion, as he thought that this great crowd was -attracted to the town by Alrui's fame as a scholar. - -At this point history abandons us, and we can only have recourse to -legend, which continues the thread of the story as follows: At the -invitation of the Persian Sultan, David Alrui is said to have appeared -before him, unattended by his retinue; he then boldly declared himself -to be the Messiah, and was thrown into prison in Taberistan. Whilst -the Sultan was deliberating what punishment he should mete out to him -and his adherents, Alrui suddenly entered the council chamber, and -informed him and his astonished counselors that he had set himself free -from prison by the aid of occult arts, adding that he feared neither -the Sultan nor his ministers. The Sultan ordered Alrui to be seized, -but the latter, it is said, made himself invisible, and in this manner -crossed a river, defying capture, and traveled in one day to Amadia, -a journey which ordinarily took ten days. When he suddenly made his -appearance among his credulous followers, and related to them his -adventures, the authorities were seized with a panic. The Sultan gave -orders to the Caliph that he should inform the Jewish representatives -in Bagdad, that, if they did not turn David Alrui from his purpose, he -would put all the Jews of his empire to the sword. - -The enthusiasm for David Alrui had spread, especially among the Jews -of Bagdad, and afforded two knaves an opportunity for defrauding the -ignorant populace of their property. They produced letters, which they -gave out were written by the hero of Amadia, in which the redemption -was fixed for a certain night. The two impostors now practised on the -credulity of the enthusiasts; they were all to fly from Bagdad to -Jerusalem on the appointed night, and for this purpose they were to -mount their roofs, put on green robes, and await the hour. In their -confidence that the hour of redemption was about to arrive, they -committed their property into the hands of the two impostors for proper -distribution. The night came, the crowd was assembled on the roofs of -their houses in eager expectation; women wept, children shouted, every -one was on tiptoe of anxiety to try to fly, until daybreak opened their -eyes to the imposition practised on them. The rogues had decamped with -the property entrusted to them. The people of Bagdad called this time -"the year of flying," and thereafter reckoned time from this event. - -The Exilarch and the principal of the college in Bagdad conceived it -their duty, partly on account of the enthusiasm, which was passing all -bounds, and partly on account of the punishment with which they had -been threatened, to address themselves to David Alrui, and try to turn -him from his purpose by threats of excommunication. The representatives -of the congregation of Mosul, Zaccai and Joseph Barihan Alfalach, wrote -to him in the same strain; until at last the Mahometan commandant -of Amadia, who was most of all eager to be rid of him, persuaded -the father-in-law of Alrui to put him out of the way. He killed his -son-in-law whilst asleep, and thus put an end to the disturbance. -The Sultan nevertheless decreed a persecution of the Jews of those -provinces which had adhered to Alrui, and the Prince of the Captivity -with difficulty appeased his wrath with a present of a hundred talents -of gold. It is only after his death that a Messiah is actually believed -in and revered; many Jews of the congregations in Adher-Baijan -continued to venerate the murdered Alrui for a considerable time; they -called themselves Menachemists, and swore by his name. - -There dwelt an independent, warlike Jewish tribe, at that time, east of -Taberistan, in the province of Khorasan, on the highlands by Nishabur. -This tribe numbered 4000 families, and was governed by a Jewish prince -named Joseph Amarkala Halevi. These Jews around Nishabur believed -that they were descendants of the tribes of Dan, Zebulon, Asher, and -Naphtali. They bred cattle in the valleys and on the mountain slopes, -were good archers, had in their midst learned Talmudists, and stood in -friendly relation with the Turkish hordes called Ghuzz. The latter, -who lived on the banks of the river Oxus, between Balch and Bokhara, -were accustomed to make incursions in the surrounding countries, and -were the terror of the civilized nations. Once, when the Ghuzz had been -on a ravaging tour, the Seljuk Sultan Sinjar Shahin-Shah undertook an -expedition against them (1153). His army, however, lost its way in the -desert, and many of the men perished through hunger and exhaustion. At -length he came to the country of the free Jews, and demanded of them -provisions and a free passage to the province of the Ghuzz. The Jews -objected that they owed no one any allegiance beyond their own prince -and his allies, adding that they would treat their friends' enemies as -their own. Immediately they prepared for battle, but Sinjar sent them -a message that, if they refused to satisfy his demands, he would on -his return order the execution of all the Jews in his dominions. This -threat had effect; the leaders of the Jews met in council, and decided -that they would consider the safety of their distant brethren, and give -the Seljuk army provisions; but at the same time they warned the Ghuzz -of the danger menacing them, and bade them be prepared. In consequence, -Sinjar's army, which pressed forward, was routed by the Turkish hordes, -and their leaders were taken prisoners. - -The congregation of Ispahan in Persia numbered at that time 15,000 -Jews, and at their head stood Sar Shalom, who had been appointed by -the Exilarch rabbi over all the congregations of Persia. In the second -Persian town, Hamadan, there are said to have been 50,000 Jews, and in -Shiraz 10,000. In the city of Tuster, formerly called Susa, there were -still 7000 Jews, who lived on the banks of the river. The community had -fourteen synagogues, and near one of them was supposed to be the grave -of Daniel. As the markets of the town lay on one side of the river, and -the Jews of the other side were thus shut out from all commerce, those -on the one side were more affluent than the others. The latter ascribed -their poverty to the circumstance that they had not Daniel's grave in -their midst; and they requested that the coffin should be allowed to be -in their possession. The others, however, were not prepared to give it -up, and the consequence was that feuds and bloody fights arose between -the two congregations, until they came to an agreement that each side -of the town, in turn, should enjoy possession of the coffin each time -for the space of one year. The removal of the coffin was effected -every time with great pomp, and it was accompanied by crowds of Jews -and Mahometans. When the Sultan Sinjar once came to Susa, and saw -this procession in honor of the removal, he thought it shameful that -the bones of the pious Daniel should be disturbed in this manner, and -commanded that the coffin should be deposited at a spot midway between -the two parts of the town. As the river was at an equal distance from -both, the coffin was hung on chains over the river, and under it no one -dared fish. The bier of Daniel nevertheless proved unable to protect -the congregation. At the time when Petachya of Ratisbon was there -(about 1180), only two Jews, who were dyers, lived in Susa. The cause -of this decrease is not known. - -North of the Black Sea and in the Crimea there were only Karaite Jews; -these lived in the most primitive ignorance, and had no knowledge of -their rival doctrine, the Rabbanite law; they even cut their bread -before the Sabbath, and on the evening of the Sabbath remained in total -darkness. The Rabbanite Jews, however, had spread to Khiva, where there -was a congregation of 8000 families, and to Samarkand, which had as -many as 50,000 Jews, at whose head was Obadiah. About the community in -India, Petachya mentions that there existed Jews with dark skins, that -they lived according to the precepts of their religion, but had very -little knowledge of the Talmud. Many Jews knew nothing more of Judaism -than the celebration of the Sabbath and the circumcision. In the island -of Kandy (Ceylon) there are said to have been at this time 23,000 Jews, -who stood on an equality with the rest of the inhabitants. The king of -this island had sixteen vizirs, four of his own nation, and the same -number of Jews, Mahometans, and Christians. - -In Aden, the key to the Arabian and Indian seas, there was a large -Jewish congregation, which was independent, and had several castles; it -carried on war with the Christians of Nubia, and was in communication -with Egypt and Persia. - -In Arabia there were likewise Jewish congregations, although the first -Caliph banished them from the country. It is true they were not allowed -to dwell in Mecca and Medinah, cities sacred to the Mahometans, and it -may be that there was nothing specially attractive for them in those -cities, for they had become quite insignificant during the five hundred -years since Mahomet. But in the fruitful and commercial city of Yemen, -and in the desert tracts of northern Arabia, on the other hand, there -were Jewish congregations. In Yemen there dwelt, it is true, only about -3000 Jews, who, on account of their busy commercial relations with -the neighboring countries, were by no means uncultured, and numbered -learned Talmudists in their midst. The most learned among them was -Jacob ben Nathaniel Ibn-Alfayumi. The Yemen Jews were known for their -benevolence: "Their hand is stretched out towards every traveler, -they keep open house for strangers, and every weary person finds rest -among them." The Jews of northern Arabia, on the other hand, were more -numerous, and, as in the time before Mahomet, they formed independent, -warlike tribes, possessed castles, pursued agriculture, and to some -extent also cattle-breeding, and journeyed in caravans to transport -goods, or, after the fashion of Bedouins, to attack travelers and -plunder them. Their number is said to have amounted to 300,000 souls, -but this is certainly exaggerated. A large portion dwelt in Taima, and -had a Jewish prince named Chanan, who boasted of Davidic descent. They -had among them ascetics, who had borrowed from the Karaites gloomy -principles; they refrained from wine and flesh, and generally fasted -the whole week, with the exception of Sabbaths and festivals; lived -in caves or rickety houses, clothed themselves in black, and called -themselves "the Mourners of Zion." The farmers and cattle-owners -allotted to these pious men, and also to those who occupied themselves -with the Talmud, a tenth part of their yearly produce. A second group -of Arabian Jews lived in the neighborhood of Talmas, and likewise had -a prince named Solomon, brother of Chanan, of Taima. This prince lived -in the old capital Sanaa (Tana), in a strongly fortified castle. Among -these, too, there were ascetics who fasted forty days every year, in -order to bring about redemption from the dispersion. A third group, -some 50,000, inhabited the province of Chaibar; they were most warlike, -but also possessed some Talmudical scholars. Even at that time the -legend was spread about that the Chaibar Jews were remnants of ancient -Iraelitish tribes, Gad, Reuben, and half Manasseh. The semi-Arabian -cities Wasit, Bassra and Kufa, also had numerous Jewish inhabitants, -the first 10,000, the second 2000, and the third 7000. - -As a large part of Asia, from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus, -acknowledged the supremacy of the Abbassid Caliphs of Bagdad, the Jews -of this dominion were subject to the Exilarch of Bagdad. The second -Prince of the Captivity, who was surrounded with pomp, was Daniel, -the son of Solomon (Chasdai), who held office about 1165-1175. He was -as much respected by the Caliphs Almustanjid and Almustadhi as his -father had been by Almuktafi. Under Daniel, the Talmudical college of -Bagdad was raised to such a height that it recalled the old times of -the Amoraim and Geonim. It owed its rise to a man who, at the end of -the twelfth century, was called upon to play an important part. Samuel, -son of Ali Halevi, the rabbi of Bagdad, who traced back his genealogy -to the prophet Samuel, possessed profound knowledge of the Talmud, -such as but few in Asia equaled. But as he was unacquainted with the -advance of the study of the Talmud in Spain and France, he continued -to maintain the letter of the Talmud, and had not the ability to form -an independent opinion. Samuel ben Ali had also a thin varnish of -philosophical culture, but in that branch he was three centuries behind -his time, being a disciple of the school of the Mutazilites. He knew -nothing of the new discoveries of Ibn-Sina and Alghazali, nor of the -later development of the philosophy of his Spanish co-religionists, of -Ibn-Gebirol, Jehuda Halevi, and Abraham Ibn-Daud. Despite his limited -range of vision, he deemed his own attainments very considerable, and -was extremely proud of them. He was an arrogant and ambitious man. It -appears that Samuel ben Ali assumed the pompous title of Gaon, that his -college might obtain supremacy over the whole of Judaism. Two thousand -students attended his Talmudical discourses; but before they were -admitted to his lectures, they had to complete a preparatory course -under another Talmudist. Samuel ben Ali delivered his lectures from a -kind of throne, and clothed in gold and embroidery; he re-introduced -the old custom of not personally addressing the audience, but of -expounding the Law to an interpreter (Meturgeman), who repeated in a -loud voice what he heard from the master. Besides him, there were nine -men, who likewise delivered lectures, and decided questions of law. But -Samuel ben Ali was regarded as judge of appeal, and every Monday he sat -in court surrounded by the nine men who occupied subordinate positions. - -When the Exilarch Daniel died (1175), Samuel thought the time -propitious for obtaining the highest dignity and authority over the -Asiatic congregations. Daniel left no male heir, and two of his -nephews, David and Samuel, both of Mosul, were now contending for -the Exilarchate. But whilst each of them was endeavoring to win over -the political leaders and the congregations to his cause, Samuel ben -Ali assumed all religious and judicial power. He appointed rabbis, -judges, and other functionaries on his own authority, appropriated -the revenues of the congregation, and delivered the specified portion -to the state. His seal was more respected than that of the pretenders -for the Exilarchate; his name was a protection to travelers, and -through it they obtained access to all curiosities. The political and -religious officials acknowledged only Samuel ben Ali, the principal -of the college, and the Gaon of Bagdad. He, moreover, maintained his -dignity by rigorous measures. Sixty slaves were continually at his -call to bastinado any one pointed out by their lord. He had a palatial -mansion in Bagdad, and magnificent pleasure gardens in the neighborhood -of the capital. Thus Samuel ben Ali ruled at that time over all the -Asiatic congregations from Damascus to India, and from the Caspian Sea -to Arabia. His daughter was looked upon as a marvel, being so learned -in the Bible and Talmud that she used to deliver lectures to young -men, but in such a manner that she could not be seen by her audience. -Ambassadors from a heathen nation, from the Moshic hills in Armenia -(Tartars?), came to him to obtain Jewish religious teachers for their -country, to instruct the people in the tenets of Judaism, seven of -their chiefs having resolved to embrace that faith (about 1180-1185). -The traveler Petachya, who has recorded these facts, and is a -trustworthy witness, saw the ambassadors from the Caucasian hills with -his own eyes. Many poor students from Babylonia and Egypt determined to -repair to this remote nation of proselytes, and instruct them in the -Bible and Talmud. - -The condition of Judaism in Asia was at that time very low indeed. -Without higher knowledge, without spirit or enthusiasm, the Jews of -Asia, learned as well as unlearned, discharged their religious duties -in a perfunctory, mechanical way. Even Talmudical scholars thought of -the divine essence as a bodily form, with limbs, eyes, and motion. -The Agada had so far perverted their understanding that they could -not comprehend what was purely spiritual; and so saturated were these -literalists with these perverted notions, that they looked upon those -who upheld the belief in a spiritual God as heretics and atheists. - -The Asiatic Jews had borrowed from the Mahometans and Christians the -custom of making pilgrimages to the graves of pious men. A chief resort -of pilgrims was the grave of the prophet Ezekiel in the neighborhood -of Kufa. Seventy thousand to eighty thousand Jews came annually from -New Year till the Day of Atonement, or Feast of Tabernacles, to pray -at the supposed grave of the prophet of the exiles, among them also -the Exilarch and the principal of the college at Bagdad. The tomb was -protected by a vault of cedar wood, overlaid with gold and adorned -with beautiful tapestry. Thirty lamps burned there day and night. -Beside the tomb there was a handsome synagogue, which was regarded as -a temple in miniature, and alleged to have been built by King Joachin -and the prophet. In this synagogue a scroll of the Law of considerable -size was shown, which was believed to have been written by the hand of -the prophet himself. A separate room (Ginze) was set aside for books. -Sepulcher and synagogue were enclosed by a turreted wall, the entrance -to which was through a low narrow gate, which, however, according to -popular belief, became higher and wider at the time of the pilgrimage. -In the space inside the wall the pilgrims used to erect their booths -for the Feast of Tabernacles. At this sepulcher they were not only -devout, but also merry. The period after the Day of Atonement was -dedicated to gaiety and feasting. As the Mahometans also reverenced -the tomb, and even the wild Karmates, who lived nearby, swore by the -God of Ezekiel, the region became a peaceful asylum, and later on an -annual market (Pera) was held there, and a city (Kabur Kesil) sprang -up. The offerings for the maintenance of this mausoleum proved so rich -that the surplus was used for the support of Talmudical students and -marriageable orphans. - -Another resort of pilgrims was the supposed mausoleum of Ezra the -scribe. Although this great regenerator of Judaism exercised his -activity only in Judaea, legend nevertheless fixes his grave at -Nahar-Samara, in the neighborhood of the Tigris. The Mahometans, as -well as the Jews, reverenced this tomb, offered presents for its -maintenance, and made pilgrimages to it. Like the Catholic Church, -the Jews of Asia also showed sacred relics: the tree, separating into -three parts, against which the angels who visited Abraham leaned, and -the stone with which Abraham circumcised himself. All these mythical -stories arose during the period of degeneration which followed the -dissolution of the Gaonate. - -It is possible that it was owing in part to this decay that many -educated Jews apostatized to Islam. One apostate was a celebrated -physician of Bagdad--Nathaniel, with the Arabic name of Abul-Barkat -Hibat-Allah ben Malka, one of the three leading medical men of like -name, but different creeds. The Jewish Hibat-Allah was surnamed -"The only one of his time" (Wachid-al-Zeman), on account of his -extraordinary accomplishments. In addition to a knowledge of medicine, -he was versed in philosophy and Hebrew philology, and, whilst still -a Jew, wrote a commentary on Ecclesiastes. A son of the itinerant -Ibn-Ezra, named Isaac, who had accompanied his father in his travels, -and remained in Bagdad, was assisted by the rich Hibat-Allah, and wrote -spirited verses in praise of his benefactor and his commentary. At the -end of his poem, Isaac Ibn-Ezra expressed a wish that his life might -extend to the time of the Messianic redemption, and that he might yet -behold the majesty of new Jerusalem. Neither, however, waited for this -time, but renounced Judaism, and embraced Islam (1160-1170). - -A third apostate of this time was Samuel Ibn-Abbas, son of the poet -Jehuda, of Fez. A poet using beautiful Hebrew, a profound mathematician -and philosopher, Samuel had emigrated to the East on account of the -religious coercion exercised by the Almohades. His father settled -at Haleb, and Samuel took up his residence in Adher-Baijan, entered -into the service of the ruler of that place, and ultimately became a -convert to Mahometanism. The old Jehuda Ibn-Abbas, on hearing of his -son's change of religion, hastened to him full of grief, in the hope of -bringing him back to his hereditary faith, but was suddenly seized with -illness in Mosul, and died there. Samuel became a rancorous enemy of -Judaism and his former co-religionists. He wrote a polemical work, "To -the confusion of the Jews" (about 1165-1175), in which he lays bare and -exaggerates their faults, and affirms that the Jews had eliminated all -passages alluding to Mahomet in their holy writings. - -If the Rabbanites in Asia were degenerate, the Karaites of this time -were still more so. The Karaites, after an existence of 400 years, had -failed to establish Judaism on a purely Biblical basis, but had of -necessity been compelled to adopt many precepts of the Talmud, in spite -of all their endeavors to steer clear of Talmudical tradition. - -As the Mahometans of Egypt, under the dynasty of the Fatimides, were -separated from those of the Abbasid Caliphate in Asia, the Egyptian -Jewish community likewise had no connection with the Asiatic community. -They had a chief of their own, recognized by the Caliph, who exercised -spiritual and judicial functions, bore the title Nagid (Arabic, -Reis), and was, in a sense, the Egyptian Exilarch. The Nagid had -authority to appoint or confirm rabbis and precentors, and to impose -fines, scourgings, and imprisonment, for transgressions and crimes. -He received a regular salary from the congregations and fees for the -drawing up of legal documents. There is a legend that the institution -of the Nagid was introduced into Egypt at the instance of a Bagdad -Caliph's daughter, who was married to a Fatimide Caliph. About this -time Nathaniel, succeeding Samuel Abu-Mansur, was invested with this -dignity. His Arabic name was Hibat-Allah Ibn-Aljami, and he served as -physician in ordinary to Aladhid, the last Fatimide Caliph of Egypt, -and later on to Saladin. Ibn-Aljami was a man of considerable culture -and learning. He spoke Arabic with great fluency, wrote several -medical treatises, among others a guide for the soul and the body, -and a treatise on the climatic character of Alexandria. He was much -praised for having cleverly discovered life in a man who was about to -be interred. This accomplished man was also chief of the college in the -Egyptian capital, but he had no reputation as a Talmudist. - -The chief congregation was in Cairo (New Misr), and it consisted of -2000 Jewish families, including many men of great wealth. The city had -two synagogues, one following the Palestinian ritual and the other the -Babylonian. According to the first the reading of the Pentateuch on -Sabbaths extended over a cycle of three years. The adherents of the -Babylonian system, on the other hand, completed it in a cycle of one -year. Only on the Feast of Weeks and on the Festival of the Rejoicing -of the Law the two congregations had a common service. In Cairo there -existed also a Karaite congregation which is said to have been still -more numerous than that of the Rabbanites. It also had a Chief Rabbi -who possessed plenary power in religious and judicial matters, and bore -the title Prince (Nasi, Reis). About this time, Chiskiya and Solomon I, -who believed themselves to be descendants of Anan, successively held -this office (about 1160-1200). Many Karaites in Egypt enjoyed favor at -court, and were in general superior to the Rabbanites. - -The congregation next in importance was that of Alexandria, numbering -3000 families; they had a rabbi from Provence, Phineas ben Meshullam. -So poor were the Jews of Egypt in Talmudical authorities at this time -that they were obliged to import a Talmud instructor from France. A -Karaite congregation existed also in Alexandria. In Bilbeis (east of -the Nile) there was a large congregation, consisting of 3000 members, -which suffered much during the campaign of Amalrich, the Christian king -of Jerusalem. In Fayum, the native city of Saadiah, there lived at that -period only twenty Jewish families. - -The state of culture of the Egyptian Jews about this time was not more -brilliant than that of their Asiatic brethren. They added nothing to -the wealth of Jewish literature. The lower classes were so ignorant of -the principles of their own religion that they borrowed customs from -the neighboring Karaites, even such as stood in glaring contradiction -to Talmudical Judaism. The Egyptian congregations also had a pilgrims' -shrine of their own. In Dimuh, not far from Fostat, in the neighborhood -of the Pyramids, they showed the synagogue of Moses, which they -believed the greatest of the prophets had built; they admitted that it -had been rebuilt after the destruction of the Temple by Titus. Near -this synagogue there was a tree of stupendous height, with evergreen -leaves and slender stem. This tree, according to the belief of the -Egyptian Jews, had shot up from the rod of Moses. On the Feast of Weeks -the Jews of Egypt used to make a pilgrimage to Dimuh, and pray in the -hallowed synagogue. And it was out of this land of ignorance that there -went forth a second Moses for the deliverance of the Jewish race, -whose mission it was to promulgate a more refined Judaism, to declare -relentless war against superstition, and put an end to ignorance. Egypt -became, through Moses Maimuni, the center of Judaism. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -MAIMUNI (MAIMONIDES). - - Early years of Maimuni (Maimonides)--His journey to Fez-- - Letter of Consolation of Maimun (father of Maimonides)-- - Maimuni and the Jewish Converts to Islam--The Maimun Family - in Palestine and Egypt--Maimuni's Commentary on the Mishna - --Saladin and the Jews--Letter of Maimonides to Yemen-- - The _Mishne-Torah_ of Maimuni--Controversies with reference - to this Work--Joseph Ibn-Aknin--Maimuni as a Physician-- - Maimuni attacked by Samuel ben Ali--Maimuni and the Jews of - Provence--The _More Nebuchim_ and its importance--Death of - Maimonides. - -1171-1205 C. E. - - -In the last part of the twelfth century, Judaism appeared to have lost -its center of gravity, to be about to fall into utter dissolution. On -the decay of the Gaonate, the south of Spain, with the congregations -of Cordova, Granada, Seville and Lucena, assumed the leadership; -but, through the intolerance of the Almohades, these places were now -without any Jewish congregations, and at the utmost saw Jews under -the mask of Mahometanism. The community of Toledo, the new capital of -Christian Spain, as well as those of the northern Spanish towns, had -not yet succeeded in gaining any extensive influence. The communities -of southern France were still in the first stage of their infancy; the -northern French Jews were too exclusively absorbed in the Talmud, and -oppressed by anxiety for what the morrow would bring. The German Jews -were "servi camerae" of the Germano-Roman empire; the Jews of the other -countries of Europe had scarcely extricated themselves from barbarism. -The restored Exilarchate, the offspring of the caprice of a Caliph, -was not rooted firmly enough, even in Asia, to be able to exercise any -ascendancy over the more highly endowed European Jews. Thus there was -nowhere a center to which the widely dispersed nation might converge. -Moreover, since the death of Joseph Ibn-Migash and Jacob Tam there had -arisen no men of commanding authority able to mark out a path, or even -to stimulate inquiry. - -About this time, when dissolution seemed imminent, Maimuni appeared, -and became the prop of the unity of Judaism, the focus for all the -communities in the East and the West, a man whose decisions as a -rabbinical authority were final, although he was not invested with any -official dignity. He was spiritual king of the Jews, to whom the most -important leaders cheerfully submitted. So memorable did everything -connected with this great personage appear in the eyes of his -contemporaries, that even the day and the hour of his birth have been -recorded. - -Moses Ibn-Maimun (with the long Arabic name Abu-Amran Musa ben Maimun -Obaid Allah) was born on the Eve of Passover (30th March, 1135, at one -o'clock p. m.), in Cordova. The early training of Maimonides (as he is -often called), the man who was destined to bear the future of Judaism -on his strong shoulders, was calculated to strengthen his character -in a most emphatic manner. His father, Maimun ben Joseph, a pupil of -Ibn-Migash, was, like his ancestors for eight generations back, as far -as his progenitor Obadiah, a learned Talmudist and a member of the -rabbinical college of Cordova. Maimun also took an interest in the -sciences, knew mathematics and astronomy, and wrote books on those -subjects, as well as on Talmudical topics. It was he who imbued his -son with an enthusiastic love for learning, and awakened his feeling -for an ideal life. Maimuni had scarcely passed his thirteenth year -when great misfortune broke over the community of Cordova. The city -was captured by the Almohades (May or June, 1148), who forthwith -promulgated fanatical edicts against Jews and Christians, giving them -the alternatives of conversion to Islam, expulsion, or death. Maimun -and his family went into exile with the great majority of the Cordovan -congregation. They are said to have established themselves at Port -Almeria, which a year before had been conquered by the Christians. In -the year 1151, Almeria also fell into the power of the Almohades, whose -fanatical king, of course, did not fail to impose on the Jewish and -Christian inhabitants of the city a change of religion, as he had done -in the other conquered cities of southern Spain. From that time the -family of Maimun was obliged to lead a wandering life for many years, -without being able to find a permanent residence anywhere. - -From his father, Maimuni learnt the Bible, the Talmud, the Jewish -branches of learning, mathematics and astronomy; he attended lectures -on science and medicine by Mahometan professors, and was introduced -into the temple of philosophy. Through reading and intercourse, he -obtained a fund of solid information, and his clear intellect, which -ever sought to penetrate the phenomena of the visible and the invisible -world, and to make them transparent, regulated his knowledge, however -various and diverse it was. Maimuni developed into one of those rare -personalities, who cannot tolerate hidden, secret, and mystical things, -who struggle everywhere for light and clearness, and will not yield -to deception. His was a thoroughly logical and systematic mind, which -had the power of grouping and arranging the greatest and smallest -things, and he was a sworn enemy of disorder and chaotic confusion. -In this respect he may justly be called the Jewish Aristotle, and his -intellectual character made him capable of cherishing the greatest -admiration for the philosopher of Stagira. Aristotle had many disciples -among Jews and Mahometans. Christian thinkers of that time were still -unable to scale the height of his mind; but no one before Maimuni -had so thoroughly absorbed and assimilated Aristotle's philosophical -system. He made it a part of his own intellectual possession, and thus -also perceived its occasional defects. - -It was, however, not only his wide and deep knowledge, but his -character, which constituted Maimuni's distinction. He was a perfect -sage, in the most beautiful and venerable sense of the word. -Well-digested knowledge, calm deliberation, mature conviction, -and mighty performance, were harmoniously combined in him. He was -possessed of the deepest and most refined sense of religion, of the -most conscientious morality, and of philosophical wisdom; or rather -these three elements, which are generally hostile to one another, had -in him come to a complete reconciliation. That which he recognized -as truth was to him inviolable law; from it he never lapsed for a -moment, but sought to realize it by his actions throughout his whole -life, unconcerned about the disadvantages that might accrue. From the -point of view of learning, he occupied the first place of his time, in -religion and morality he was rivaled by but few of his compeers, but in -his strongly-marked individuality he surpassed all his contemporaries. -His actions corresponded to his mind. Maimuni was imbued with a most -profound earnestness, which considered life not as an opportunity -for pleasure, but as a serious mission to labor nobly and to confirm -by deeds the great truth, that man is an image of God. The mean, the -false, and the impure were abhorred by him, and were not permitted to -approach him. Hence he had no taste for poetry, for according to the -view of the time, "the best of it is false," and rests on invention -and untruth. He considered it a slothful killing of time to occupy -one's self with it; he would not tolerate at weddings any verse-making -except of a religious character, and it made no difference to him -whether it was composed in Hebrew or in a profane language. Every -moment of his life was spent profitably, he never frittered away his -time, even in his youth, like Jehuda Halevi, certainly not all his life -long, like Ibn-Ezra. With all his severity towards himself, he was of -a most gentle amiability in dealing with and criticising others. Never -did he allow a bitter word to escape him against his living opponents, -and he certainly never imitated the practice of Ibn-Ezra, who mocked -at guileless men, nor shrank from satirizing the dead; only against -false notions and theories did he pour out the vials of his scorn, but -towards persons themselves, even when they had irritated him, he was -indulgent and forbearing. Modesty and humility were his characteristics -in a high degree, the characteristics of every divinely endowed nature. - -All these rare qualities of mind and heart were governed by an -extraordinary determination to develop and promulgate the principles -and convictions that lived within him, to counteract apathy and feeble -reasoning, to cut the ground from under irreligion, and to force light -through the opacity of ignorance. Adversity, physical sufferings, -misrepresentation, could not turn him from the purpose upon which -he had set his mind. This purpose was nothing less than to exhibit -Judaism, the whole of Judaism, both Biblical and Talmudical, the -ceremonies as well as the dogmas, in such a light that professors of -other creeds, and even philosophers, might be convinced of its truth. -This design had hovered before his mind in his youth, and ripened in -him with age. To this end he mastered thoroughly all those departments -of learning which might serve him as a guide. He declared once that he -had read all the writings on the religion and worship of idolatrous -nations, which were accessible to him through Arabic translations, -and we may well believe this statement, made unostentatiously, for a -thorough knowledge of heathenism appeared to him indispensable to the -proper understanding of Judaism. - -Although he was attracted by many branches of learning, which -cohered in his mind as a united whole, still there were four special -subjects on which he centered most of his attention: the whole range -of Biblical and Talmudical writings, philosophy, medicine, and -mathematics, together with astronomy. In his twenty-third year, he -prepared in Hebrew for a friend a thesis on the Jewish calendar based -on astronomical principles (1158). Although this little book has no -special importance in itself, it is yet interesting, as it reveals to -us that his love of methodical regularity, and his power of clear, -systematic survey, dominated him even in his earliest youth. In the -same year he commenced a work, the undertaking of which in itself -gives evidence of greatness and boldness of intellect. He began to -explain the Mishna independently and in a new light, at an age when -most men have scarcely finished their college career--a gigantic task -in which he had no model to guide him. He worked at it amidst continual -wanderings and while battling with hardships; but so thoroughly was -the whole compass of the Talmud before him, that he could manage -to dispense with books. A year or two later (1159-1160) his father -emigrated with him, his younger brother, David, and his sister, from -Spain to Fez. What led Maimun's family to remove to the land of the -greatest intolerance is a matter that has not yet been cleared up. -In Fez, as in the whole of northern Africa, wherever the bigoted -Abdulmumen ruled, no Jews were allowed to profess their faith, but had -to declare their belief in the first article of the Mahometan faith, -that Mahomet, its founder, was a prophet; and even the family of -Maimun had to assume the mask of Islam. As the religious persecution -had now lasted for a decade, the African communities had begun to -waver in their religious convictions. Only the strongest minds could -continue to practise a religion which was forced upon them, and still -inwardly remain faithful to their hereditary religion. The thoughtless -multitude gradually became accustomed to the enforced religion, saw -in the merciless oppression of Judaism its dissolution, and changing -pretence into reality, came near to lending themselves to the notion -that God had, through Mahomet, superseded His revelation on Mount Sinai -by another in Mecca, and almost believed that He had chosen the Arabs -instead of the Jews. This self-abandonment and overwhelming despair -filled Maimun the elder with pain, and he sought to counteract their -apathy as much as lay in his power, and to confirm the belief in -Judaism in the hearts of the pseudo-Mahometan Jews. With this object -he wrote in Arabic an exhortation to the community (1160), which is -full of mournfulness, and instinct with a deep sense of religion. It -warns the community to reflect that their sufferings did not arise -from a feeling of revenge on the part of God, but from a desire to -chasten the sinners. Moses in his Law had promised Israel a dazzling -future which would assuredly not fail. It was accordingly the duty of -the sons of his race to adhere firmly to their God and His Torah. The -occupation with religion and the practice of what it enjoined were the -ropes to which those who were sinking in the sea of trouble should -cling. Every one should, as far as he was able, observe the religious -precepts of Judaism, and turn himself in prayer to his God, and whoever -was prevented from praying in the prescribed form should, at least, -say a short prayer in Hebrew three times a day. Like the Jews who had -been forced to baptism under the Spanish Visigothic kings, those who -had been converted under compulsion to Islam now exhorted one another -to remain faithful to their ancient religion. Soon Maimun's son found -an opportunity to enter the arena, to give expression to his original -views on Judaism, to offer encouragement to his comrades in affliction, -and to point out to them the course which they should pursue. - -A Jewish writer of excessive piety had declared that all Jews who -pretended to have adopted Mahometanism were to be treated as apostates -and idolaters. He who publicly acknowledged Mahomet's mission as a -prophet was to be regarded as a non-Jew, even though he privately -fulfilled all the duties of Judaism, and he belonged to that class -whose testimony had no validity in a Jewish court, particularly in -affairs of marriage. He who visited a mosque, pretending to be a -Mahometan, made himself guilty of blasphemy, even though he did not -take part in prayer; and he only accentuated his offense, when, in the -privacy of his own chamber, he recited the Jewish prayers. This zealot, -in fine, asserted that every true Jew was bound to sacrifice his own -life and that of his children rather than embrace the faith of Islam, -even ostensibly. His theory rested on the assumption that Mahometanism -is nothing more nor less than idolatry, for in Mecca, the holy city of -the Mahometans, an idol was worshiped in the temple of the Kaaba. If -Islam is so reprehensible--so continued the zealot, whose name has not -come down to us--then the Talmudical precept, that every Jew should -suffer martyrdom rather than be forced to idolatry, would apply to that -creed, and he who in such circumstances shrank from death was to be -considered an apostate. - -This document appears to have produced considerable excitement among -the secret Jews in Africa. The conscientious felt themselves crushed -down by a burden of sin, the multitude became still more uncertain -whether they should not secede to Islam altogether, since, however -strictly they observed the ordinances of their religion, they were -still considered idolaters and sinners, and could expect no pardon. - -Moses Maimuni, who felt the whole weight of the accusation against -himself and his brethren in suffering, and was apprehensive of evil -consequences, thought that it behooved him to write a letter in -refutation of the arguments of their assailant, and to justify the -conduct of the pseudo-Mahometans. It was his first step into publicity, -but this maiden effort bore the impress of his clear, comprehensive -mind, which mastered a subject in all its aspects. He argued from new -points of view, which had escaped the zealot, and the whole letter was -so striking that it brought conviction to all minds. Maimuni, in this -vindication, which he wrote in Arabic, that all men might be able to -read it, took up a Talmudical standpoint, equally with the zealot, -but he proved contrary results from the very passages adduced by his -adversary. - -He first of all showed that partial transgression of the duties of -Judaism did not constitute absolute departure from it. The idolatrous -Israelites in the times of the prophets were always considered as -members of the people of the Lord. Meir, a highly esteemed doctor -of the Mishna, had feigned heathenism during a time of persecution, -and when put to the test, had even partaken of forbidden food. "We, -however," continues Maimuni, "in no wise pay homage to heathenism by -our actions, but only repeat an empty formula, which the Mahometans -themselves know is not uttered by us in sincerity, but only from -a wish to circumvent the bigoted ruler." Then he enters deeper -into the matter. The Talmud ordains that all Jews should suffer -martyrdom rather than let themselves be compelled to commit three -capital sins--idolatry, unchastity, and murder. It was indeed highly -meritorious to suffer death rather than violate any commandment of the -Law, so as to keep the name of God holy. But he who does not possess -the resolution of a martyr, even in regard to committing the three -capital sins, does not render himself liable to the punishment attached -to idolatry, and moreover is in no wise regarded as a transgressor -of the Law. For in the case of compulsion, the Torah has revoked all -obligations. He, then, who lacks the courage to sacrifice himself -for Judaism has transgressed only one precept, that of sanctifying -the name of the Lord, but he still does not belong to those whose -testimony has no validity in a law court. Even if any one should, by -compulsion, actually worship an idol, he would by no means be exposed -to punishment for idolatry, for how could the involuntary transgressor -be compared with the wilful violator of his religion? "Then there is -something else to consider," said Maimuni. "We must make a distinction -between a transgression by mere word, and one by deed. The Mahometan -authorities by no means demand of Jews a denial of Judaism, but a mere -lip utterance of a profession of faith that Mahomet was a prophet, and -this having been done, they do not offer much objection if the Jews -conform to their own laws. Such compulsion, where nothing more than a -word is demanded, is, in reality, without parallel. He who sacrifices -himself as a martyr, rather than acknowledge Mahomet as the messenger -of God, certainly performs a most meritorious action. But if a person -puts the question whether he is bound to give up his life in a case -of that kind, then we must answer conscientiously according to the -precepts of Judaism, 'No.' But we ought to and must advise him to leave -a country where such religious coercion prevails. This advice I give -also to myself and my friends, to remove to some place where there -exists religious freedom. Those, however, who have been compelled to -stay, should consider themselves as exiles from whom God has turned -His face, and should strive to discharge their religious duties; but -we should not despise those who, out of necessity, have been obliged -to violate the Sabbath, but must gently admonish them not to forsake -the Law. Those are in error who believe that they need not make any -preparations for a departure on the ground that the Messiah will soon -appear, and redeem them, and lead them back to Jerusalem. The coming of -the Messiah has nothing to do with religious obligations; his advent -has no absolving power." - -This reply of Maimuni, which was in reality an apology for his conduct -and that of his friends (written about 1160-1164), displays the germs -of his original conception of Judaism. Moses Maimuni appears to have -zealously endeavored to induce the Jewish pseudo-Mahometans to retain -their ancient religion, to combat their lukewarmness, and to urge them -to abandon their equivocal life. On this account he exposed himself -to extreme danger, and might have been put to death, if a Mahometan -theologian and poet, named Abul-Arab Ibn-Moisha, had not interceded -for him, and saved him. The feeling of insecurity, together with the -pricks of conscience, when compelled publicly to deny Judaism, which -they held as their most precious treasure, induced the family of -Maimun to leave Fez, and travel to Palestine. In the depth of night -they embarked (4th Iyar--18th April, 1165). After they had sailed for -six days on the Mediterranean, there arose a terrible storm, gigantic -waves tossed the vessel about like a shuttlecock, and rescue seemed -impossible. But the storm abated, and, after a journey of one month, -the ship sailed into the harbor of Accho (3rd Sivan--16th May). This -day Maimun dedicated as a family festival, for having escaped religious -intolerance and the dangers of the sea. The emigrants from Spain were -received in a friendly manner by the congregation of Accho. After a -residence of nearly half a year in this town, the family traveled amid -dangers to Jerusalem to pray at the ancient site of the Temple (4th -Marcheshvan--14th October). They remained in Jerusalem for three days, -then journeyed to Hebron, and from that place to Egypt, which at that -time bade fair, through the Ajubides, to become the center of Islam. -Some months after their arrival in Egypt the head of the family died -(beginning of 1166). So highly esteemed were both father and son by all -who knew them, that letters of consolation were sent to the latter by -his friends in Africa and Christian Spain. - -On the other hand, in Egypt, in old Cairo (Fostat), where the family -of Maimun had settled, Maimuni's name had not as yet become famous. -The two brothers lived quietly, and carried on the jewelry trade, -the younger brother taking a far more active share, and traveling on -business as far as India. Moses Maimuni, on the other hand, devoted -himself to study. Severe misfortunes, which would have brought a -mind less strong than his to despair, tore him from this quiet life. -Physical sufferings threw him on a bed of sickness; heavy losses -diminished his fortune, and informers appeared against him, and brought -him to the brink of death. Lastly, his brother David perished in the -Indian Ocean, and with him not only their fortunes, but also the money -which had been entrusted to them by others for business purposes. These -accumulated misfortunes aggravated his sufferings, and filled him with -melancholy. The death of his brother afflicted him most. His unbounded -trust in God, his enthusiastic love for learning, and his anxiety for -his family, and for the widow and daughter of his brother, roused his -courage once more, and moved him to enter on an active life. Maimuni -appears from this time to have gained a livelihood by the practice -of medicine. Nevertheless, as he was still unknown, his practice at -first did not prove very lucrative. About this time he also gave public -lectures on philosophical subjects. His whole mind, however, was bent -on the completion of the gigantic work with which he had been occupied -since his twenty-third year, during all his travels, in Mahometan -disguises, on sea voyages, and in the midst of numerous adversities. He -finished this his first great work in the year 1168, in Arabic, under -the title of "Siraj" ("Illumination"). The object of this work was to -facilitate the study of the Talmud, which had become difficult through -its diffuse discussions, through the interpolated explanations of the -Geonim, and through the commentaries of his predecessors, which were -not always pertinent to the subject; to determine the right practice -(Halacha) from the confusion of diverse arguments, and to define his -position by short but comprehensive explanations of words and things. - -Maimuni's commentary on the Mishna arose out of the author's mental -organization, which ever strove for clearness, method and symmetry. It -was the first scientific treatment of the Talmud, and only so clear -and systematic a thinker as Maimuni could have originated it, for the -construction of the Talmud seems to be directly opposed to an orderly -arrangement. The luminous introductions to the several parts of the -commentary especially give evidence of its scientific character. In -them he reveals complete command over the material, as well as a -logical conception of the method to be pursued. - -Maimuni treated, with special predilection, those points of the Mishna -which have a scientific coloring, and into the treatment of which the -principles of mathematics, astronomy, physics, anatomy, ethics and -philosophy could be introduced. Here he was in his element. In such -parts he could show that the doctors of the Mishna, the upholders -of tradition, knew science also, and based their works upon it. -Especially did he aim at establishing that the Mishna contains a sound -ethical and a deep philosophical conception of God. To this end he -turned his attention with particular interest and thoroughness to the -Agadic elements in the Mishna, which till then had been little or only -occasionally noticed. He further explained the nature of tradition, -maintaining that not all that is contained in the Mishna is tradition. -For a traditional doctrine must be positive, and ought not to be open -to doubt or uncertainty. Unconsciously Maimuni by this theory put -himself in opposition to the Talmud, and undermined its firm position. - -The tractate of the Mishna, which combines, like a string of pearls, -the sayings of the fathers (Aboth), appeared in the eyes of Maimuni -a veritable treasure-trove. In explaining these he could display the -whole wealth of his world of thought, and he thus saturated Talmudical -Judaism with philosophical ideas. But he thereby became the victim of -self-delusion. It was important for the future that Maimuni, in his -unconscious self-deception, undertook for the first time to develop a -Jewish system of belief. Since Judaism, according to his views, was -nothing more than revealed philosophy, it ought to dominate the beliefs -and opinions of men as well as their religious and moral conduct; ay, -the one more than the other, as morality has no value in itself, and is -only the fruit of right knowledge. He, accordingly, assumed as certain -and positive that Judaism defines for us not only what we must do, but -what we must believe; that it asserts certain ideas as irrefragable -truth. Maimonides drew up thirteen of such doctrines or articles of -belief:--The belief in the existence of God; in His indivisible unity; -in His incorporeality and insusceptibility of change; in His eternity -and existence before the world; in His absolute claim to our adoration -(Monotheism); in the prophetic inspiration of chosen men; in Moses as -the greatest prophet, with whom no other prophet can be compared; in -the divinity of the Torah; in its unalterability; in God's providence; -in His just reward and punishment; in the future appearance of the -Messiah; and, finally, in the resurrection of the dead. Although these -articles of faith rest on investigation, and therefore cannot claim -unquestioning acceptance, yet, according to Maimuni, no one can be -considered a true Israelite or Jew who does not acknowledge them all as -true; he who denies a single one of them is a heretic (Min, Epicoros), -he does not belong to the community of Judaism, and cuts himself off -from the hope of future bliss. - -Maimuni thus, on the one hand, raised the Jewish creed to the height -of rational knowledge, and, on the other, set bounds to the free -development of thought. Hitherto religious action only was valued as -the characteristic of Jewish life. Maimuni now called a halt to free -thought, marked the boundary line between belief and heresy, not in -the firm province of religious practice, but in the shifting ground of -religious belief, and brought the ethereal element of thought under -rigid formulae. - -Great as the work of Maimuni in his commentary on the Mishna -undoubtedly is, although he applied to it infinite learning, wealth -of intellect, and systematic arrangement, yet he did not obtain -a reputation corresponding to its merit. The reason of this was -that among the Jews of Egypt and the East, to whom the work, being -in Arabic, was most of all accessible, there was but the faintest -appreciation of scientific treatment. The great work was at first -scarcely noticed in the East. His pupils, to whom he gave lectures -on the same plan, and who revered him as the incarnation of wisdom, -spread his reputation abroad. One of his earliest disciples, Solomon -Kohen, who traveled to southern Arabia (Yemen), was full of his praise, -and impressed on the congregation there that, in time of need, they -should apply to Maimuni for consolation and support. - -In Egypt far-reaching changes had crept in, which produced a favorable -turn in the fortunes of the Jews of that empire and the neighboring -countries. The Fatimide Caliph died, or was deposed, and the great -Saladin, the model of royal magnanimity and chivalry in that barbarous -age, succeeded to the government (September, 1171). At first the -celebrated Ajubide only held the office of Vice-Field-Marshal of -Nureddin; gradually he acquired absolute supremacy over Egypt and a -part of Palestine, Syria, and even the districts about the Euphrates, -and the Caliphate of Bagdad obeyed his rule. His empire became a safe -asylum to the oppressed Jews. Saladin was just to the Jews, as indeed -towards every one, even his bitterest enemies. Under him the Jews rose -to great prosperity and distinction. - -At first the fall of the Fatimide Caliphate, and the subjection of the -surrounding countries belonging to it, under the Abbasid or Sunnite -Caliphs of Bagdad, set loose fanaticism which was felt by the Jewish -congregations of Yemen. In that place two Shiites had seized upon the -government, and they compelled the Jews to embrace Islam under threat -of great suffering. Here also, as in Africa and southern Spain, the -Jews outwardly pretended to adopt the Mahometan religion (about 1172). -But as the grossest ignorance prevailed among them, there was danger -that the unthinking multitude would proceed from pretence to reality, -and fall away from Judaism altogether. This fear became real when a -Jewish apostate preached to the congregation that Mahomet is mentioned -in the Torah, and that Islam was a new, divinely announced revelation, -which was intended to supersede Judaism. In addition, at just about -this time, there appeared a Jewish enthusiast in Yemen, who proclaimed -himself to be the forerunner of the Messiah, endeavored to instil in -the Jews the belief that their affliction was the harbinger of the -speedy approach of the Messianic empire, and bade them hold themselves -in readiness for that event, and divide their property with the poor. -This enthusiastic hope, to which many clung as drowning men to a straw, -threatened to bring the direst misfortune on the heads of the Yemen -Jews. The pious abandoned themselves to despair in the contemplation of -these proceedings, altogether lost their heads, and knew not what plan -they should adopt. At this point, Jacob Alfayumi, the most learned and -most respected man among them, turned to Maimuni, of whom he had heard -through his disciples, for counsel and consolation, described to him -their sufferings and apprehensions, and begged him to send a reply. - -Maimuni accordingly sent a letter of consolation, in Arabic, to the -congregation of Yemen, directed personally to his correspondent, but -having reference to all the members (Iggeret Teman). In spite of its -small compass, it contains valuable matter, and bears witness to the -writer's lofty soul and spiritual refinement. He sought in it to -elevate the sufferers to the height of spiritual consciousness, on -which suffering for religion's sake loses its sting, and darkness -appears as the inevitable antecedent of the break of day. He expressed -himself on the relation of Judaism to Christianity and Islam with an -acuteness and precision which reflect his profound conviction. It -was certainly sad to reflect, remarks the sage of Cairo, that there -should have occurred cruel persecutions of the Jews in two opposite -directions; in the West by the Almohades, and in the East by the -Mahometans of Yemen. Nevertheless they were not unexpected, for -the prophets had announced them quite distinctly. "Because God has -specially distinguished us, sons of Israel, through His grace, and has -appointed us the upholders of the true religion and the true creed, -the nations hate us, not only on our own account, but on account of -the divinity which lives in our midst, in order to thwart in some -measure the divine will." Since the revelation on Sinai there had never -been a time when Judaism and its professors had not been exposed to -sufferings and persecutions. The nations had manifested their hate in -three different forms; either with the sword, like Amalek, Sennacherib, -Nebuchadnezzar, Titus, and Hadrian, in order utterly to root out from -the earth the nation that possessed the truth; or with the false tricks -of sophistical persuasion, like the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, with -a view to refute and falsify the doctrines of Judaism; or finally under -the mask of revelation, as it were, in the garb of Judaism, in order -to juggle it out of existence. The principle inimical to Judaism had -at length discovered that it was unable to annihilate the upholders of -God's religion, or to tear it out of their hearts; and now it hoped to -destroy them by a crafty device. It pretended also to have received a -revelation acknowledging that on Sinai to have been authorized for a -time, but declared that it now had no further validity. This hostile -principle, which sought the banishment of the divine from earth, -attempted to substitute a stuffed figure for a godly child, and falsify -Judaism. The new revelations of Nazareth and Mecca, compared with -Judaism, were like well-executed statues of a man, compared with a real -man full of life and energy. All this bitter enmity of the nations of -the earth against Israel and its divine religion had been foreseen by -the prophets, especially by Daniel, who at the same time foretold the -victory of Judaism over superstition. "And now, brethren," so Maimuni -addressed the congregation of Yemen in his letter, "consider well these -truths, and do not let yourselves be discouraged by the superabundance -of your woe. Its purpose is to test you, and to show that the posterity -of Jacob, the descendants of those who received the Law on Sinai, are -in possession of the true Law." Furthermore, he pointed out that it -was wrong to calculate the Messianic period, as the Yemen enthusiast -thought he had succeeded in doing; for it can never be exactly -determined, it having been purposely concealed as a deep secret by the -prophets. - -Lastly, Maimuni exhorted Jacob Alfayumi to circulate his letter -among the congregations of Yemen, that it might strengthen them in -their faith, but to take great precautions when reading it that no -traitor might be given the opportunity of making it the pretext for -an accusation. He himself, said Maimuni, wrote in anxiety as to the -evil consequences which might ensue for him; but he considered that -he who wished to work for the general good must not be deterred by -apprehensions of danger. This interesting letter of consolation, which -was written with much warmth, made so favorable an impression on the -Jews of southern Arabia, that they, far from growing indifferent to -their religion, were strengthened in it, and were moved to take an -energetic share in all the events affecting the welfare of the whole -body of Jews. In later times, when Maimuni attained greater importance, -he found the means of putting a stop to the political oppression and -bigoted persecution suffered by the Jews. For this the congregation of -Yemen clove to him with enthusiastic love and veneration. They included -his name in their daily prayer, a demonstration of honor which had been -accorded only to the Exilarchs at their zenith. - -Maimuni's greatness only gradually obtained acknowledgment. As early as -the year 1175, he was looked upon as an authority in the determination -of rabbinical laws; and religious-legal questions were addressed to him -from all parts, a circumstance from which we may infer the universal -recognition of his authority. Maimuni appears to have been officially -recognized in 1177 as rabbi of Cairo, on account of his profound -knowledge of the Talmud, his character, and his fame. He, with nine -colleagues, formed an ecclesiastical board. His office he regarded as a -holy priesthood, and exercised it with characteristic conscientiousness -and circumspection. Where he perceived any abuses, he placed himself -boldly in the breach. Although Maimuni worked hard in eliminating -from the rabbinical world all Karaite customs which had crept in, he, -nevertheless, always showed great tolerance toward the followers of -Anan. Being asked how Rabbanites should behave towards Karaites, he -replied that as long as they kept within the bounds of decency, and -did not scoff at the Talmud, they were to be treated respectfully, -and to be approached with friendliness, humility, and in a pacific -spirit. Rabbanites might visit them in their houses, bury their dead, -comfort their mourners, and initiate their children into the covenant -of Abraham. The Talmud enjoins that we must observe a friendly demeanor -towards heathens and idolaters, how much more so towards those who -spring from the seed of Jacob, and acknowledge only one God. By virtue -of his office, Maimuni tried hard to secure decorum in the synagogue, -and also to remove many long-continued abuses. He noticed, for -instance, that when the congregation had finished saying the silent -prayer, thinking that they had performed their duty, they did not -listen to its audible repetition by the reader, but chatted with one -another, and generally behaved in an unbecoming manner. The Mahometans -mocked at them, and with justice too, for they were accustomed to -conduct their own divine service with concentrated devotion. Maimuni, -who always felt deeply mortified when Judaism was exposed to ridicule, -was anxious to put a stop to such offensive behavior in the synagogues, -and with this motive abrogated the silent prayer altogether, without -considering that it is expressly prescribed by the Talmud. Sincere -prayer was to him of higher importance than mere mechanical fulfilment -of precept. This practice, instituted by Maimuni, according to which -the reader alone said the chief prayer, was followed, not only in the -whole of Egypt, but even in several congregations of Palestine, in -Damascus, and Haleb, and was continued among the native congregations -for three centuries. - -In the midst of his energetic activity in communal affairs, practising -as a physician, and devoting himself to the constant study of -philosophy and science, Maimuni completed his second great work -(8 Kislev--7 November, 1180), his epoch-making "Mishne-Torah," or -Religious Code. If, as he states, he labored at it continuously for ten -successive years, the time stands in no relation to the magnitude of -the performance. It is impossible to give the uninitiated an idea of -this gigantic work, in which he collected the most remote things from -the vast mine of the Talmud, extracting the fine metal from the dross, -classifying all details under their appropriate heads, showing how -the Talmud was based on the Bible, bringing its details under general -rules, combining apparently unconnected parts into one organized -whole, and cementing it into a work of art. He justly laid special -emphasis, in the Mishne-Torah, on the necessity of skilful grouping, -the difficulties of which can be estimated only by a specialist -deeply versed in the subject. The Talmud resembles a Daedalian maze, -in which one can scarcely find his way even with Ariadne's thread, -but Maimuni designed a well-contrived ground-plan, with wings, halls, -apartments, chambers, and closets, through which a stranger might -easily pass without a guide, and thereby obtain a survey of all that is -contained in the Talmud. Only a mind accustomed to think clearly and -systematically, and filled with the genius of order, could have planned -and built a structure like this. - -Apart from the technical excellences, and the incomparably well -proportioned architecture, the work had, as far as the contents are -concerned, a most important influence on the development of Jewish -history. All the various lines which his predecessors had partially -traced out on the ground of Judaism, Maimuni united in the greatest -harmony. Nothing therein is given undue prominence, and nothing is -neglected. The philosophical, the ethical and the ceremonial sides, -and, so to speak, the emotional side of Judaism which the aspiration -for a Messianic period of redemption expresses, are treated in this -work as of equal worth and prominence. Maimuni united the divergent -roads on which Judaism had been led, and made them meet together in one -point. He worked out to final perfection all the efforts which, since -Saadiah had tried to give a philosophical basis to Judaism, and to -make clear its import, had been embodied in writing. His work was the -necessary center of gravity of the tremendous intellectual structure of -three centuries. - -It may almost be said that Maimuni created a new Talmud. The old -elements are certainly there; we know their source, their occurrence, -and their original application, but under his treatment, grouping, -and elaboration they assume a new shape. The rust is removed, the -confusing non-essential matter is taken out, and everything appears -newly cast, polished, fresh, and original. The Mishna, the groundwork -of the Talmud, begins with the question, "At what time is the Shema to -be said in the evening?" and concludes with a discussion as to what -things are unclean according to Levitical law. Maimuni, on the other -hand, thus commences his Talmudical Code, "The foundation and pillar of -all wisdom is to recognize that there is an original Being, who called -all creatures into existence," and ends with the words, "The earth -shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the -sea." This work breathes the spirit of true wisdom, calm reflection, -and deep morality. Maimuni, so to speak, talmudized Philosophy, and -philosophized the Talmud. He admitted philosophy into his religious -Code, and conceded it a place of equal importance with the Halacha. -From the time of Philo till Abraham Ibn-Daud, philosophy had always -been treated as something secondary, which had nothing to do with -practical Judaism, as it is daily and hourly practised. Maimuni, on -the other hand, introduced it into the holiest place in Judaism, and -as it were gave Aristotle a place next to the doctors of the Law. A -great portion of the first book of his work (Sepher Madda) is of a -philosophical character. The object of his work was to simplify the -knowledge of the whole of Judaism, both Biblical and Talmudical, -which in his judgment were of equal value. He wanted to clear up the -diffuseness and obscurity, which arise from Talmudical idiom, the -discussions, the incomplete explanations of the Geonim, and render the -study of the Talmud so difficult; to illumine chaos, and put confusion -into order. The rabbi who had to determine questions of a religious or -legal character, the pious man who desired to discharge his religious -duty of knowing the Law, the student who desired to obtain knowledge of -the Talmud, had no more need to struggle through the thorny underbrush -of Halachic discussions, but in addition to Holy Writ had simply to -refer to the Code of the Mishne-Torah, in order to acquire complete -information. He hinted rather broadly that his work was intended to -render the Talmud less necessary, if not to supersede it. For this -reason he wrote it in the neo-Hebrew language (Mishna idiom), which -was easily understood, so as to make it accessible to all people, and -thus spread the knowledge of the Law, and the principles of Judaism -generally. It is true that he came into collision with the views of -his rabbinical contemporaries, who expected the Talmud to be treated -with the same respect as the Holy Scriptures, wherein no word is -superfluous, and which, therefore, must be studied in the original text. - -In consistently carrying out his principle that all details should -be brought under comprehensive heads, and that nothing should be -admitted without conclusive grounds, Maimuni could not help deviating -occasionally in his decisions from the Talmudical method of determining -the case, and striking out into a path peculiar to himself. In one -particular point he stepped beyond the bounds of the Talmud. The Talmud -treats as Biblical many decisions which were inferred from verses of -Scripture by an application of the accepted rules of interpretation. -Maimuni, however, advanced the principle that only those laws were -Biblical which the Talmud distinctly claimed to be so without recording -any difference of opinion on the subject. - -In this bold view Maimuni was manifestly influenced by the objection of -the Karaites against the Oral Law. Without being himself clearly aware -of it, he conceded that a genuine tradition could not be amenable to -differences of opinion, and must never, during its transmission from -generation to generation, be exposed to doubt. - -Although Maimuni's theory, consistently followed out, is calculated -to undermine Talmudical Judaism, that Judaism, nevertheless, was -in practice held by him in such estimation that he regarded nothing -to be of higher importance. The Talmudical sages were, in his eyes, -authorities who occupied a position only a step lower than the -prophets. He regarded them as ideals, to emulate whom would lead to a -virtuous, religious, and perfect life. The legal decisions proceeding -from them, whether mandatory or prohibitory, could be abrogated only -under circumstances specified in the Talmud itself. In practice, -accordingly, it made no difference whether a law was Biblical or -rabbinical; both were to be observed with equal conscientiousness. - -Maimuni, through his religious Code, gave rabbinical Judaism a strong -hold, and on the other hand he helped to ossify it. Much in the Talmud -that was still unsettled and open to explanation he crystallized -into unchangeable law. As he introduced into Judaism articles of -belief, which were to limit thought by thought, so by his codified -determinations of the laws, he robbed it of its mobility. Without -considering the condition of the times in which the Talmudical -decisions had arisen, he laid them down as binding for all times and -circumstances. In this respect he was much stricter than the Tossafist -school, who took the sting out of a too burdensome law by proving -after elaborate examination that it was not applicable to changed -circumstances and times. If Maimuni's Code had acquired absolute -supremacy, as it at first seemed likely to do, and had dislodged the -Talmud from the schools, from the hands of the religious authorities, -and from the Jewish courts of law, Talmudical Judaism would have -succumbed to petrifaction, notwithstanding the rich thought and the -scientific treatment which Maimuni bestowed on it. - -However, as soon as the Jews obtained possession of Maimuni's Code, -which was accessible to them by reason of its simple language and -arrangement, they began to see clearly its high importance. In Spain, -it was said, every one copied it for himself; the Jewish mind was -absorbed in it, young and old gathered together in order to master -its contents. There were now many doctors of the Law who could pass -an original opinion on any controversial point of law, and check the -decision of the judge. And as in Spain, so it was in all countries, -even in the East, where the study of the Talmud was more energetically -pursued. The reverence for the great master increased every day, -especially when it became known that his private life corresponded to -the ideal which he had delineated of a Jewish sage. His people lavished -on him the most enthusiastic of praises. "The only one of his time," -"The banner of the rabbis," "The enlightener of the eyes of Israel," -were modest titles. It required all Maimuni's moral force not to be -overpowered by the incense burned before him. Maimuni's name rang from -Spain to India, and from the sources of the Euphrates and the Tigris to -southern Arabia, and eclipsed all contemporary celebrities. The most -learned men subordinated themselves to his judgment, and solicited -his instruction in the most humble manner; he was regarded as chief -authority for the whole Jewish world, which revered him as its noblest -representative. - -He did not escape the attack of petty opponents, who were jealous of -his towering greatness, insignificant rabbis, who, being superficially -familiar with the text of the Talmud, thought themselves in possession -of all wisdom, and were unpleasantly awakened from their dream by -Maimuni's work. In Cairo itself some Talmudists would not deign to -bestow a glance on the Code, lest it might be said that they had learnt -something out of it. Others argued that the College of Bagdad was the -only seat of Talmudical knowledge, and that he who had not studied -in this school could not be recognized as thoroughly initiated, -and, consequently, Maimuni's decisions did not deserve unconditional -acceptance. Such little minds persuaded themselves that it lay in -their power to compose a like or even a better work on all the laws -of Judaism. The head of this petty opposition was Samuel ben Ali, of -Bagdad, who, on his richly embellished Gaonate throne, surrounded by -his slaves armed with scourges, would not acknowledge any one his -equal, much less his superior. Maimonides opposed a contemptuous -silence to detractors of this class. However, he also had honorable -adversaries, who feeling that Maimuni's conception of Talmudical -Judaism was not flesh of their flesh, scented heresy in the Code, and -perceived danger therein to the practice of the religion. But wherein -the strange and inconsistent elements lay only the more learned -understood; the simple, on the other hand, lit upon secondary and -quite unessential points, and excited themselves about them, as if the -fundamental principles of the religion were in danger. - -Thus, in Alexandria, after the publication of Maimuni's work, there -broke out against it a popular insurrection, because it was taught -therein that bathing before prayer, which the Eastern Jews had adopted -from their Mahometan neighbors, was not essential. Members of the -congregation combined, and threatened to lay information against it -before the Mahometan authorities, on the ground that those who had -adopted Maimuni's Code as law wished to introduce innovations into the -religion. - -It was only after a residence in Egypt of more than twenty years that -Maimuni obtained an appointment as physician at the court of Saladin; -up to that time he had acquired only a slight practice. He was not -Saladin's physician in ordinary, for the Sultan, on account of the -constant wars with the adherents of Nureddin and with the Christians, -could not visit his capital for a long time. But the favor of the noble -vizir, the wise and mighty Alfadhel, who was also a great promoter -of learning, and of whom a contemporary said, "he was entirely head -and heart," was of as much value as the distinguished recognition of -the sovereign. Alfadhel caused Maimuni to be placed on the list of -physicians, settled upon him a yearly salary, and loaded him with -favors. Inspired by his example, the great men of the country who lived -in Cairo likewise bestowed upon him their patronage, so that Maimuni's -time was so fully occupied that he was obliged to neglect his studies. -Maimuni was indebted for his elevation more to his medical learning -than to his skill as a physician; for he pursued this profession as a -learned science, and prescribed no recipe for whose efficacy he could -not cite the judgment of medical authorities. He treated the facts of -scientific medicine in the same spirit as he had treated the Talmud. -In this manner he elaborated the writings of Galen, the medical oracle -in the Middle Ages; he abridged and arranged them, without permitting -himself to deviate from the original in the slightest particular. -The same character is borne also by his medical aphorisms, which -are nothing further than extracts from and classifications of older -theories. In spite of his almost absolute lack of originality in the -province of medicine, Maimuni nevertheless enjoyed a wide reputation as -a medical author. The celebrated Mahometan physician and theologian, -Abdel-latif, of Bagdad, who enjoyed the favor of Saladin in a high -degree, confessed that his wish to visit Cairo was prompted by the -desire to make the acquaintance of three men, among whom was Musa ben -Maimun. The poet and kadhi, Alsaid Ibn-Sina Almulk, sang of Maimuni's -greatness as a physician in ecstatic verse: - - "Galen's art heals only the body, - But Abu-Amran's (Maimuni's) the body and soul. - With his wisdom he could heal the sickness of ignorance. - If the moon would submit to his art, - He would deliver her of her spots at the time of full moon, - Cure her of her periodic defects, - And at the time of her conjunction save her from waning." - -Maimuni's reputation was so great that the English king, Richard -Coeur-de-Lion, the soul of the third crusade, wanted to appoint him his -physician in ordinary, but Maimuni refused the offer. - -His patron, the chief judge and vizir Alfadhel, acquitted him at about -this time of a grave charge, for which, under a less mild Mahometan, -or even a Christian judge, he would have incurred the penalty of -death. The same Abulalarab Ibn-Moisha who had befriended Maimuni in -Fez, had come from Maghreb to Egypt, and when he saw Maimuni, whom -he had known as a Mahometan, at the head of the Jewish community as -spiritual chief, he appeared against him as an accuser, and averred -that Maimuni had for a long time professed the religion of Islam, and -consequently ought to be punished as a renegade. Alfadhel, before -whose tribunal the accusation was preferred, decided rightly that the -compulsory adoption of a creed could have no value, and, therefore, -could involve no penalties (about 1187). In consequence of his favor -with the vizir, Maimuni was appointed supreme head of all the Egyptian -congregations, and this dignity descended in his family from father to -son and grandson. It is certain that Maimuni drew no salary for this -office, for nothing appeared to him more discreditable and sinful than -to receive payment for the discharge of spiritual duties, or to degrade -knowledge into a money-making business. He sought this prominent -position not for himself, but for the sake of his co-religionists, -in order to save them from injustice. It was through him that the -heavy yoke of persecution was removed from the congregation of Yemen. -When Saladin had once more wrested Jerusalem from the hands of the -Christians, who had held it for nearly a century, he allowed the -Jews to settle in the city of their fathers (October, 1187). And -from all sides there came devoted sons to visit their mourning and -forsaken mother. Possibly Maimuni was not unconnected with this act -of noble-minded tolerance. Lastly, he endeavored to obtain for his -brethren in faith precedence in the state over the Karaites, and -gradually to oust the latter from their favorable position at court, so -that many of them reverted to Rabbanism. This was accounted to Maimuni -as a most meritorious deed in his time. - -The higher Maimuni advanced in the esteem of his contemporaries, the -more his extraordinary ability was acknowledged, and the louder his -fame resounded, the more did the arrogant Samuel ben Ali, of Bagdad, -feel himself belittled, and the more did he become filled with envy. -Samuel accordingly took every opportunity to depreciate Maimuni's -merit, and rob him of his fame. Samuel and his friends whispered to -one another that Maimuni was by no means a strictly religious Jew, nor -a true follower of the Talmud, and they spread many calumnies about -him. Some mistakes which he had made in his youthful work, the Mishna -Commentary, were used by these malevolent people with a view to brand -him as ignorant of the Talmud, and without claim to authority in this -province. Their idea of religion, as Maimuni said of them, consisted -in guarding against the violation of precepts; but according to their -view, good morals, humility, merely human virtues, in short, do not -belong to religion. As the seed which Maimuni had scattered began to -bear fruit, Samuel ben Ali and his allies took advantage thereof to -lower the author in the eyes of his contemporaries. - -In Damascus and Yemen there appeared religious teachers, who drew from -Maimuni's writings logical conclusions which he himself did not care to -deduce. As he strongly affirmed, and repeatedly insisted, that by the -immortality of the soul a purely spiritual existence in another world -was to be understood, whereas he passed over the resurrection of the -dead as of only secondary importance, his disciples concluded that he -was not thoroughly convinced of the resurrection, and forthwith began -to teach that after death the body sinks into dissolution and decay, -and that only the soul becomes elevated to a purely spiritual life. -This liberal view clashed with explicit declarations in the Talmud, and -consequently aroused general opposition. Samuel ben Ali was requested -by some one in Yemen to give his opinion on this question of the belief -in the resurrection. Samuel wrote a whole treatise upon it, with -philosophical flourishes, in order to appear a worthy rival of Maimuni, -and seized the opportunity of criticising the latter's writings, hoping -to heighten the effect of the criticism by according partial praise -to Maimuni. On another occasion, Samuel ben Ali directed a letter to -Maimuni, in which, amid much flattery and fawning, he reproached him -with having committed an error in interpreting the Talmud, which could -scarcely have been made by a beginner, kindly adding that Maimuni -must not fret himself about it. At the same time, he did not forget -to promise graciously to take him under his protection against the -congregation in Yemen. Maimuni replied with a heated letter, in which -he showed his malicious opponent that it was he who had erred in the -deeper conception of the Talmud. He also touched upon the secret -attacks made against his great work from this quarter, some asserting -that the book contained mistakes, others that it was superfluous, -others, again, that it was dangerous. "You seem," Maimuni observed -to him, "to reckon me among those who are sensitive to every word of -blame. You make a mistake. God has protected me against this weakness, -and I protest to you, in His name, that if the most insignificant -scholar, whether friend or foe, would point out to me an error, I would -be grateful for the correction and instruction." Although Samuel ben -Ali was readily refuted by Maimuni, he still continued to spread the -report that the latter was no Talmudist, and that his codex did not -deserve the respect which it enjoyed. From another side, from Haleb, -Mar Sacharya, a man of limited range of vision, and with a superficial -knowledge of the Talmud, thinking himself eclipsed by Maimuni's -pupil, Joseph Ibn-Aknin, worked with equal hostility against master -and disciple. But, as the sage of Fostat had warm and disinterested -adherents everywhere, Samuel ben Ali and his ally of Haleb were -constrained to act cautiously. They organized an intrigue against him, -into which they drew one of the two Exilarchs. Towards this cabal, -Maimuni assumed an attitude of contemptuous indifference and unconcern, -which altogether disarmed his opponents. - -In spite of his collisions with the party of Samuel ben Ali, and his -prodigious activity as a physician, which scarcely gave him time for -study, he completed his religious philosophical work, "Guide of the -Perplexed" (Moreh Nebuchim, Dalalat al Hairin) in about 1190. This -treatise became of extraordinary importance, not only for Judaism, but -for the history of philosophy in the Middle Ages generally. Maimuni -appears at the summit of his intellectual power in this work, and it -contains the vindication of his profoundest convictions. The questions -which the human mind starts ever anew, about the existence of a higher -world, the destiny of our being, and the imperfection and evil of the -earthly world, Maimuni sought to answer in a manner which was at that -time considered convincing. The doubts which the thinking Jew may -conceive of the truth of his hereditary religion, he endeavored to -remove in a persuasive manner. He, whose thoughts were ever directed -to the loftiest subjects, could with justice assume the character -of guide to the perplexed and wavering. The external form of this -epoch-making work would make it appear that the author had elaborated, -for his favorite disciple, Joseph Ibn-Aknin, of Fez, separate treatises -on important points which had disquieted and tortured the latter. -But it was actually dictated by the desire to express clearly his -philosophical conception of the world, and his views of the place which -Judaism finds in it, and thoroughly to analyze their mutual relation. - -Maimuni was, on the one hand, firmly convinced of the truth of the -Aristotelian philosophy, as the Mahometan philosopher Ibn-Sina and -others had formulated it. On the other hand, Judaism was to him a -body of truths not less irrefragable. Both seemed to him to have -the same conclusion and a common aim. Philosophy recognizes as the -principal of all essences one indivisible God, the governor of the -world. Judaism likewise teaches with emphatic asseveration the unity of -God, and abhors nothing more thoroughly than polytheism. Metaphysics -knows no higher aim for man than that he should perfect himself -intellectually, and work his way up to the highest knowledge. Judaism -also, even Talmudical Judaism, places understanding and knowledge, the -understanding of God, at the head of its precepts. If the truth which -the human mind in the fulness of its power evolves from itself, and -the revelation which the Deity vouchsafed to the Israelitish nation on -Sinai, resemble each other in beginning and end, then their separate -parts must correspond with each other, and be as one and the same -truth, arrived at in different ways. Judaism cannot be in contradiction -with philosophy, as both are emanations from the divine spirit. The -truth which God has revealed must also agree with that which lies -in the human reason, since the latter is a power originating from -God, and similarly all truths which metaphysical thinking can bring -to light must exist in the revelation--that is, in Judaism. Hence, -Maimuni believed that originally, besides the written revelation in the -Pentateuch, there were also communicated to the greatest of prophets -oral doctrines of a philosophical character, which were transmitted by -tradition to posterity, and which were lost only in consequence of the -troubles and afflictions which the Israelites experienced in the course -of ages. Traces of this old Israelitish wisdom are found, according -to Maimuni, in the scattered utterances of the prophets, and in the -reflections of the Agada. When, therefore, the thinking Jew borrows -the truths of Greek philosophy, and adopts the theories of Plato and -Aristotle, they are not altogether strange elements to him, but only a -reminder of his own forgotten treasure. - -The whole universe, which must be considered as a single organic whole, -consisting of spheres suspended over one another working in harmony, -is nothing more than the realized thoughts of God, or rather than the -ideas of God ever tending to realization. He continually imparts to it -new forms and shapes, and implants order and regularity in the world. -Everything is arranged therein in accordance with a final purpose. The -Greek philosophy, it is true, assumes that the universe shares in the -eternity of God; but it can neither irrefutably prove the eternity -of the world, nor remove any of the difficulties which oppose the -acceptation of the original existence of the universe. The doctrine -of Judaism is much more reasonable, that the world had a positive -beginning, and that time itself, which, indeed, is a form of the world -and its motion, is not without beginning, but was called into being by -the determining will of God. - -The organically formed universe, created and made to cohere by God, -consists of a series of entities of different degrees. Next to the -Deity are the pure spirits, which are simple, and not composed of -matter and form, and consequently partake most of the divine nature. -Their necessary existence is proved philosophically, because many -phenomena in the universe best admit of explanation through them. These -pure spirits, these "forms free of matter," Judaism and Holy Writ call -"angels." Among them must be assumed a spirit or angel who is the -originator of thoughts or ideas, the active world-spirit or creative -reason (Sechel ha-Poel). - -In the degree next to the pure spirits are entities which must -certainly be considered as composed of matter and form, whose matter, -however, is not heavy and coarse, but of an ethereal nature. These -ethereal entities are the heavens and the brilliant world of stars, -which possess an ever uniform motion, and are therefore not subject to -the change of genesis and dissolution, but revolve in the firmament -in constant brightness and with unbroken regularity. These form and -influence the lower circle of entities. The stars are divided into -four spheres--into the sphere of the fixed stars, of the moving stars -(planets), of the sun and the moon. These spheres must be considered -as endowed with life and intellectual power. Below the sphere of the -moon there exists a grade of entities which are generated from coarser -matter, but are susceptible of form, shape, and motion. This is the -world of the four elements, which are in their turn fashioned into -four spheres, one above the other. Within these spheres are formed, -through manifold evolutions, influenced by the world of stars, lifeless -minerals, plants, self-moving animals, and men capable of intelligence. - -But how is the influence of God upon this multiform universe to be -understood? The changes cannot proceed immediately through Him. The -animated orbs of stars, which are the cause of all transformations -on earth, are not set in motion by God, but are impelled towards -Him in longing and love, in order to partake of His perfection, His -light, and His goodness. Through this ardent striving of the heavenly -bodies to God comes their regular revolution, and in this manner -they cause all changes in the world below the moon, in the circle of -genesis and dissolution, through the reception and loss of peculiar -forms and shapes. This theory of God, of the universe, and the various -motions of the different beings, Maimuni found indicated in Holy Writ -and in many utterances of the Agada, but only in obscure allusions, -as these writings, being designed for every one, not solely for the -philosopher, could not and durst not, at the risk of occasioning gross -misunderstanding, unveil the complete image of truth. - -More important than the analysis of this conception of the world is -Maimuni's presentation of his ideas on matters more nearly concerning -mankind. Since God, the creator of the world, is perfect and all-good, -the world cannot have been made otherwise than good, and in accordance -with a purpose. "God saw that all was good," "From on high there comes -no evil." The evils which exist in the world are not to be looked upon -as the work of God, but merely as the absence of the good and the -perfect, since gross matter is incapable of partaking of the good and -the divine. God did not create sin, but sin arises from the nature of -the coarse matter, which is defective in its constitution, and which -can only receive and retain defectively that which is good. But this -evil must be overcome. God has implanted in the soul of man, who is -superior to all entities composed of gross matter, the capacity and -instinct for knowledge. If the soul follows this instinct, it is -assisted by the active reason which has been specially created for the -purpose of opening up to the soul the source of the divine spirit, in -order that it may understand the structure of the world and God's -influence upon it, and that it may be enabled to lead a worthy life. -Man can thereby raise himself to the higher degree of the angels, and -can conquer the frailties which arise out of his material body. Through -this elevation to the higher abode of thought and to moral purity, and -through mastery of his animal nature, man by his own will acquires a -soul; he makes himself a super-earthly being, he wins for himself the -immortality of the soul, and becomes united with the all-governing -world-soul. The possibility of gaining this highest degree is -vouchsafed to man with his freedom of will. - -And man can acquire and in a manner win God's special providence in -the same way as he can acquire and win immortality through the action -of his soul. For God's care extends only to what remains and endures. -Even in the lower world of the four elements, this is felt in the -preservation of the species, which by reason of their form and purpose -are of a spiritual nature. If man raises himself to the degree of a -spirit, if he becomes master over matter, the providential eye of God -will not pass him over. And as man can gain for himself, through moral -and intellectual discipline, an immortal soul, so he incurs the highest -penalty if his spiritual light is quenched through a sinful life, and -is crushed by his material nature. - -Man has the power of acquiring still more; he can, through an ideal -life, come to possess the prophetic faculty, if he opens his mind by -constant communion with God to the influences of the active reason. But -it requires on the part of man cultivation and concentration of the -imagination, and on the part of God the emanation of His spirit. Since -a lively, continually active imagination is the chief qualification for -prophecy, it can develop only in a state similar to a dream, when the -disturbing activity of the senses is relaxed, and the mind may freely -resign itself to the influences from above. The prophesying of the -prophets always occurred in a kind of dream. The Scriptural accounts -of the actions and experiences of the prophets during their ecstatic -condition, are not to be understood as being accounts of actual -occurrences, but only of processes of the soul, as visions of the -imagination. There are also different degrees of prophecy, according to -the greater or less capacity requisite for them. Thus many miraculous -tales in the Bible cease to appear supernatural and surprising, just -as the hyperbolical style of the prophets is explicable on this -theory. All this arises from the rule of the imagination and dream -visions. Miracles are certainly not impossible. The same Creator who -has established the laws of nature can also suspend them, but He does -so only temporarily, that the old order may soon return, as when the -waters of the Nile were changed into blood only for a short time, and -the sea divided itself for the Israelites but for a few hours. The -number of miracles in the Bible is, however, limited. Wonders are -not, generally speaking, the means of verifying and confirming the -declarations of the prophets; they must be proved by the prophecies -themselves, and the fulfilment of what they predict. Miracles do not -prove them true. - -The most perfect of all prophets was that man of God with shining -countenance, who brought to the world a religion which has exercised -the profoundest sway over men's minds. The prophecy of Moses differed -from that of later prophets in four essential points. He received the -revelation without the mediation of another spiritual being, that is, -without the influence of the active reason or of an angel, but communed -with the Deity "face to face and mouth to mouth." Secondly, Moses -communed with God, not in a dream, when all activity of the senses -ceases, but the higher teaching was granted to him whilst he was in -an ordinary frame of mind. Moreover, his being was not disturbed or -dissolved by it, as in the case of other prophets when the spirit of -God came upon them, but he could maintain himself under it. Finally, -Moses was continually in the prophetic mood, whereas this power came -upon other men of God only after longer or shorter intervals, and -then only after careful preparation. Moses possessed this prophetic -perfection only because, through the elevation of his mind, he had -liberated himself from the tyranny of his senses, from desire, and even -from his imagination, and had won for himself the degree of an angel, -or of a pure spirit. All coverings which blindfold the eye of the -human mind, and disturb its view, he tore off, and penetrated to the -fountain-head of truth. He attained to a degree such as no other mortal -has reached, and therefore he was able also to recognize the Deity and -His will with the undisturbed gaze of a pure spirit. The truth of the -highest Being irradiated him without intermediation, and in transparent -clearness, without word or speech. That which he perceived at such a -height he brought to his people as a religion, as a revelation, and -this truth, radiating immediately from the divinity, is the Torah. - -This revealed religion, originating from God, is unique, just as the -mediator, through whom the truth was conveyed to man, is the only one -of his kind. Being a divine doctrine it is perfect, and consequently -there can be none which can abrogate its authority, and supersede it, -just as there was none previous to it. - -The divinity of the Torah is proved by its contents as by its origin. -It contains not only laws and precepts, but also dogmas upon questions -most important for man, and this two-fold character is likewise a mark -to distinguish it at once from other codes and from other religions. -Besides, the laws of the Torah all aim at a higher purpose, so that -there is nothing in it superfluous, nothing unnecessary, nothing -gratuitous. The design of the revelation brought down by Moses can be -thus summarized: it was to promote the spiritual and physical welfare -of those who received it, the one by inculcating correct ideas of God -and His government of the world, the other by enjoining principles -of virtue and morality. Maimuni made an attempt to show that the -six hundred and thirteen laws of the Torah, or of Judaism, tend to -establish a true theory as to the Deity and His relation to the world, -to oppose false and pernicious opinions, to uproot false ideas, to -remove wrong and violence, to accustom men to virtue, and finally to -eliminate immorality and vice. Maimuni arranged all the obligations of -Judaism under fourteen groups according to his scheme. - -Maimuni's ideal labor, to raise Judaism to the height of a -philosophical system, was of the most wide-spread effect. For the -thinkers of his time, Maimuni's religious philosophy was, indeed, a -"Guide of the Perplexed." For to these men, who were dominated by the -same principles, whose thinking, on the one hand, was Aristotelian, and -whose feeling, on the other hand, was Jewish, but who, nevertheless, -were conscious of a deep gulf between their thinking and their feeling, -nothing could have been more welcome than the discovery of a bridge -which led from the one to the other. Many things which had appeared to -them offensive, or at least trivial, in the Bible, received through -Maimuni's ingenious manner of interpretation a higher importance, a -deeper sense, and became clear to their understanding. To posterity his -philosophical work was both stimulating and suggestive. Judaism, viewed -in the light of Maimuni's philosophy, no longer appeared to Jewish -students as something strange, belonging to the past, an extinct and -mere mechanical system, but as something which belonged to themselves, -a part of their consciousness, existing in the present, living in -their thoughts and animating them. Jewish thinkers of all times after -Maimuni have consequently had recourse to Maimuni's "Guide," have -derived fruitful ideas from this source, and have even learnt from him -to advance beyond his standpoint, and to combat him. And since in the -end thinkers will always remain the guides and leaders of men, and the -designers of their future, it can be said with justice, that Judaism is -indebted to Maimuni for its rejuvenescence. So exclusively did he hold -sway over men of intellect, that for a long time his work completely -supplanted the systems of his predecessors from Saadiah to Ibn-Daud. - -Maimuni's philosophical work, being written in Arabic, also exercised -considerable influence beyond the Jewish world. He had, it is true, -composed it entirely for Jews, and it is said, moreover, that he -strictly enjoined that it be copied entirely in Hebrew characters, so -that it might not fall into the hands of the Mahometans, and provoke -animosity against his own people. He even cautioned his favorite -disciple to use the utmost care in handling the chapters sent to him, -so that they might not be misused by Mahometans and wicked Jews; but -nevertheless this work became known to the Arabs, even in Maimuni's -lifetime. A Mahometan wrote a profound exposition of the premises -established by Maimuni to prove the existence of God. The chief -founders of the Christian scholastic philosophy not only used Maimuni's -work, which was translated into Latin at an early period, but for the -first time learnt from it how to reconcile the diverging tendencies of -belief and philosophy. - -It ought scarcely to be urged against Maimuni, as a reproach, that, -led by the philosophy of his time, he introduced strange and even -incompatible elements into his system; that he raised, instead of the -God of Revelation, who is in complete sympathy with the human race, -with the Israelites, and with every individual, a metaphysical entity, -who exists in cold seclusion and elevation, and who dare not concern -Himself about His creatures, if His existence is not to evaporate as -that of a mere phantasm. To this metaphysical God, he could attribute -free-will only in a limited sense, whilst he practically denied Him -altogether the possession of a complete personality. Judaism, however -much Maimuni had its interests at heart, must be a loser by his system. -As he could not accept the revelation of the Torah in the fullest sense -as a communication of the Deity to His people, he had to consider the -greatest prophet in the light of a demi-god above mankind. The ideal of -a perfectly pious man, according to Maimuni's conception, is attainable -by very few, and only by disciplined thinkers, who have the power of -raising themselves to that rank through the long succession of degrees -of knowledge, which are not within the grasp of every one. A merely -moral and religious course of life is not sufficient, since God can -be adored only by a soul endowed with philosophical intuition, and -consequently only the few can arrive at immortality and future bliss, -and have divine care vouchsafed them. Thus, according to Maimuni's -theory, there are but very few elect. Lastly, Maimuni had to put a -forced interpretation on verses of Scripture, in order to make them -harmonize with the results of philosophical thought. - -Maimuni's intelligent contemporaries, and even his favorite pupil, -Joseph Ibn-Aknin, felt that his theory was not quite consistent with -Judaism. This feeling made itself especially noticeable in regard to -the belief in the resurrection. Maimuni had certainly reckoned it among -the articles of belief, but he had laid no stress upon it; there was -no place for it in his philosophical system. From many sides, it was -charged against him that, while he had made an exhaustive examination -of the question of immortality, he had dismissed the doctrine of -resurrection with a few words. Maimuni now felt that he owed it to -himself to compose a vindication in the form of a treatise on the -resurrection of the dead, which he wrote in Arabic in 1191. Therein he -affirms that he firmly believes in the resurrection, and that it is a -miracle whose possibility is assumed with the belief in a creation in -time. He complains in the book of being misunderstood. This composition -is written in an irritable mood, which contrasts greatly with the -calmness of his former works. He was annoyed that he had to justify -himself to "fools and women." - -Among the learned Mahometans, Maimuni's "Guide" made much stir, but was -severely condemned by them, partly on account of his covert attacks -upon Islam and the barren but orthodox philosophy which reigned at -that time, and partly on account of his broad views. Abdel-latif, the -representative of orthodoxy in the Islam world of the East, who had -been patronized by Saladin, and had come to Egypt in order to make -the acquaintance of Maimuni (probably early in 1192), speaks of him, -it is true, with respect, but animadverts strongly upon his work. He -expressed himself about him in the following manner: "Moses, the son of -Maimun, visited me, and I found him to be a man of very high merit, but -governed by an ambition to take the first place, and to make himself -acceptable to men in power. Besides medical works, he has written a -philosophical book for the Jews, which I have read; I consider it a -bad book, which is calculated to undermine the principles of religion -through the very means which are apparently designed to strengthen -them." - -Nowhere did Maimuni's ideas find more fruitful ground, and nowhere were -they adopted with more readiness than in the Jewish congregations of -southern France, where prosperity, the free form of government, and the -agitation of the Albigenses against austere clericalism, had awakened a -taste for scientific investigation, and where Ibn-Ezra, the Tibbon and -the Kimchi families, had scattered seeds of Jewish culture. The less -the men of southern France were able of themselves to reconcile Judaism -with the results of science, the more did they occupy themselves with -the writings of the sage who in so convincing a manner showed that -pure and earnest devotion to religion was compatible with a taste for -free research, and whose works revealed circumspection, clearness, -deliberation and depth. Not only laymen, but even profound Talmudists, -like Jonathan Cohen, of Luenel, idolized him, eagerly absorbed his every -word, and paid him profound homage. "Since the death of the last rabbis -of the Talmud, there has not been such a man in Israel." - -Among the rules of health which Maimuni drew up for Alafdhal, who -had become ruler of Egypt, he threw in the observation that the -strengthening of the soul through moral living and philosophical -reflection was requisite for the preservation of a strong body; that -immoderate enjoyment of wine and love destroyed vitality. He had the -boldness to say to a wayward prince something that no courtier of the -age had the courage to tell him. He was determined not to be unfaithful -to his calling as a physician of the soul. Maimuni himself fell sick, -and was much worn out by his medical practice, and much affected by -political changes. As soon as he had recovered, and calm was restored, -he answered certain questions which had some time before been directed -to him from Luenel. In his missive he excuses himself on the ground -that his senses were disturbed, his mental power weakened, and his -capacities blunted, yet his arguments testify against him, for they -display perfect clearness and freshness of mind. - -The great veneration which the congregations of southern France -felt for Maimuni's writings, and especially for his code, aroused -against him a violent antagonist in the person of Abraham ben David, -of Posquieres, whose inconsiderate manner of dealing with those who -represented an opposite line of thought to himself had been experienced -by Serachya Halevi Gerundi. This profound Talmudist subjected Maimuni's -Mishne-Torah to scathing criticism, and treated him in a contemptuous -manner. He maintained that the author had not thoroughly grasped -many Talmudical passages, had misconstrued their sense, and had thus -drawn many false conclusions. He reproached him for desiring to bring -Talmudical authorities into oblivion by reducing the Talmud to a code, -and lastly for smuggling philosophical notions into Judaism. But he -by no means treated Maimuni as an innovator and a heretic; on the -contrary, he did justice to his opinions and his noble aim. Abraham ben -David's strictures (Hassagoth) upon Maimuni's work gave occasion to the -Talmudists of a later time to indulge their casuistical tendencies, and -gave a great impulse to the taste for disputation. The rich, learned, -and impulsive rabbi of Posquieres also had his admirers. When he died -(Friday, 26th Kislev--27th Nov., 1198), descendants of Aaron, who are -not allowed to enter a cemetery, made his grave, since before such -greatness as his the priesthood may sink its sacred character. - -The polemic of Abraham ben David against Maimuni in no way prejudiced -the latter's consideration among the congregations of Provence; he -remained for them an infallible authority. The chief representative of -Jewish-Provencal culture, Samuel Ibn-Tibbon, wrote to Maimuni that he -was busying himself with the rendering of the "Guide" from Arabic into -Hebrew, and that he longed to see the greatest man in the Jewish world -face to face. Ibn-Tibbon thereby anticipated a wish of Maimuni's, -for the latter contemplated translating his work into Hebrew. Full of -joy he replied to Ibn-Tibbon, and gave him some advice how to handle -so difficult a theme (8th Tishri--10th September, 1199). He dissuaded -him, however, from making the perilous voyage from France to Egypt -on his account, as he would scarcely be able to devote to him an -hour of his time. He took the occasion to inform him of his manifold -occupations, which allowed him scarcely a moment's rest: "The Sultan -(Alafdhal) lives in Cairo, and I in Fostat; the two towns lie at a -distance of two Sabbath journeys (about a mile and a third) from each -other. With the Sultan I have a hard time; I must visit him daily in -the morning, and when he, or any of his children, or one of the women -of his harem is suffering, I may not leave Cairo. Even when nothing -particular happens, I cannot come home till after mid-day. When I enter -my house, dying of hunger, I find the hall thronged with people--Jews, -Mahometans, illustrious and otherwise, friends and foes, a motley -crowd--who await my advice as a physician. There scarcely remains time -for me to alight from my horse, wash myself, and take some refreshment. -Thus it continues till night, and then, worn out with weakness, I must -retire to bed. Only on Sabbath have I time to occupy myself with the -congregation and with the Law. I am accustomed on this day to dispose -of the affairs of the community for the following week, and to hold a -discourse. Thus my days glide away." - -It may be that the congregation of Luenel was not aware that Samuel -Ibn-Tibbon was engaged with the translation of the "Guide," or did not -give him credit for ability in that direction; however it was, some of -its members applied to Maimuni to translate this work for them into -Hebrew. Maimuni pleaded want of time in excuse, and referred them to -Ibn-Tibbon (about 1200). He seized the opportunity also to exhort the -Provencal Jews to grapple with the scientific treatment of the Talmud. -"You, members of the congregation of Luenel and of the neighboring -towns, are the only ones who raise aloft the banner of Moses. You -apply yourselves to the study of the Talmud, and also cherish wisdom. -But in the East the Jews are dead to spiritual labors. In the whole -of Syria only a few in Haleb occupy themselves with the study of the -Torah, but even they have it not much at heart. In Irak there are only -two or three grapes (men of insight); in Yemen and the rest of Arabia -they know little of the Talmud, and are acquainted only with the Agadic -exposition. Only just lately have they purchased copies of my Code, and -distributed them in a few circles. The Jews of India know little of -the Bible, much less of the Talmud. Those who live among the Turks and -Tartars have the Bible only, and live according to it alone. In Maghreb -you know what is the position of the Jews (that they must affect the -profession of Islam). Thus it remains with you alone to be a strong -support to our religion. Therefore, be firm, and of good courage, and -be united in your work." Maimuni felt that enlightened Judaism would -have its chief advocacy in Provence. The congregation of Marseilles -requested the poet Charisi to translate Maimuni's Commentary to the -Mishna into Hebrew. The Provencals took this great man and his writings -as a guide in all their actions. - -When Maimuni despatched his last missive to the congregation of Luenel, -he felt the decadence of his powers: "I feel old, not in years, but on -account of feebleness." He died from weakness at the age of seventy -years (20th Tebet--13th Dec., 1204), mourned by many congregations -in all lands. In Fostat, both Jews and Mahometans publicly mourned -for him for three days. In Jerusalem the congregation held a special -funeral service for him. A general fast was appointed, and the chapter -containing the penalties for breaking God's commandments was read -from the Torah, and from the Prophets the story of the capture of -the Ark of the Covenant by the Philistines. His earthly remains were -conveyed to Tiberias. Maimuni left only one son, Abulmeni Abraham, who -inherited his father's character, his mildness, his sincere piety, his -medical knowledge, his place as physician in ordinary, his dignity -as chief (Nagid) of the Egyptian community, but not his intellect. -His descendants, who can be traced till the fifteenth century, were -distinguished for their piety and their knowledge of the Talmud. On the -lips of all his reverers there hovered the brief but suggestive praise: -"From Moses, the prophet, till Moses (Maimuni) there has not appeared -his equal." An unknown person placed on his grave a short, almost -idolatrous inscription: - - "Here lies a man, and still no man; - If thou wert a man, angels of heaven - Must have overshadowed thy mother." - -These lines were afterwards effaced, and the following substituted: - - "Here lies Moses Maimuni, the excommunicated heretic." - -These two inscriptions shadow forth the bitter differences which broke -out after Maimuni's death, and divided Judaism into two camps. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -NEW POSITION OF THE JEWS IN CHRISTIAN LANDS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE -THIRTEENTH CENTURY. - - Effects of the Death of Maimuni--Abraham Maimuni, the son - of Maimuni--Hostility of the Papacy against the Jews-- - Pope Innocent III--The Albigenses--Emigration of Rabbis - to Palestine--The Lateran Council and the Jewish Badges-- - Synod of Rabbis at Mayence--The Dominicans and the Rise of - the Inquisition--King Jayme of Aragon and his Physician - Benveniste--Stephen Langton and the Jews of England-- - Gregory IX and Louis IX of France--The Jews of Hungary. - -1205-1232 C. E. - - -Maimuni, the most intellectual rabbi and the deep religious -philosopher, constitutes the zenith in mediaeval Jewish history, and -soon after his death the shadows begin to incline. Gradually the -sunshine lessens, and gives way to dismal gloom. His intellectual -bequest produced a far-reaching cleavage, which divided Judaism, -or its leaders, into two hostile camps, and aroused a weakening, -factional spirit which presented points of attack to deadly foes. The -Church, whose arrogance was constantly gaining ground, interfered in -the disputes of Judaism, and brought into play against the refractory -Synagogue seductive allurements, terrifying punishments, secret poison, -or blazing fire. Maimuni's death and the ascendancy of the papacy were -two misfortunes for Judaism which removed it from its lofty position to -the deepest degradation. - -Maimuni's death not only produced a gap and a standstill in the -spiritual aspirations of the Jews, but deprived them of a dignified and -mighty leader, who had been able to bring together under one standard -a people scattered all over the world. To him the congregations in the -East and West had freely submitted, he had had prudent counsel for -every contingency; but after his departure the Jews stood without a -leader, and Judaism without a guide. His son, Abulmeni Abraham Maimuni -(born 1185, died 1254), certainly inherited his deep sense of religion, -his amiable, peace-loving character, his high dignity as supreme head -(Nagid) of the Egyptian Jews, and his position as court physician to -Saladin's successors; but his intellect and energy were not transmitted -to him. Abraham Maimuni was skilled in medicine, was physician in -ordinary of the Sultan Alkamel--a brother of Saladin--and presided -over the hospital at Cairo, together with the physician and Arabic -historian Ibn-Abi Obsaibiya. He was likewise a Talmudical scholar, -defended the learning of his father with Talmudical weapons, and -delivered rabbinical judgments. He was also well versed in philosophy, -and composed a work to reconcile the Agada with the philosophical -ideas of the time. But Abraham Maimuni was a man of learning, not of -original, intellectual power. He followed with slavish fidelity in -the footsteps of his great father, and appropriated his method of -thought, surrendering his own intellectual independence. Abraham made -the Maimunist system of teaching his own. Hence it happens, that what -is striking originality in the father, appears in the son as a copy -and an insignificant commonplace. Abraham Maimuni, it is true, enjoyed -wide-spread esteem, but he was by no means an authority compelling -attention and claiming submission. - -In Europe, too, there were no men of commanding influence after the -death of Maimuni. There appeared local, but not generally recognized -authorities. There existed no man who could step into the breach to -pronounce the right word at the proper moment, and point out the right -way to wavering minds. If Maimuni had had a successor of his own -spirit and character, the dissensions between the faithful and those -who interpreted the Bible literally would not have effected such great -disasters, nor would mysticism have been able to lure men's minds into -its web. - -Whilst Judaism was thus left without a leader, there sprang up against -it, in the early part of the thirteenth century, a power, exercising -ruthless, inexorable oppression, such as had not been practised against -it since the time of Hadrian. The pope Innocent III, who was the father -of all the evils experienced by the European nations up to the time of -the Lutheran reformation: the tyrannical domination of the Roman Church -over princes and peoples, the enslaving and abasing of the human mind, -the persecution of free thought, the institution of the Inquisition, -the _auto-da-fe_ against heretics, _i. e._, against those who dared -doubt the infallibility of the Roman Bishop;--he was also the pope -Innocent III who was an embittered enemy of Jews and Judaism, and dealt -severer blows against them than any of his predecessors. - -The little band of Jews was like a thorn in the side of the mighty -potentate of the Church, who enthroned and dethroned kings, distributed -crowns and countries, and who, through his army of papal legates, -spies, Dominican and Franciscan monks, with their bloodthirsty -piety, had subjugated the whole of Europe, from the Atlantic ocean -to Constantinople, and from the Mediterranean to the Arctic regions. -This handful of human beings, with their clear intellect, their -purified faith, their moral force and their superior culture, was a -silent protest against Roman arrogance. At the beginning of his reign, -Innocent, although not exactly well-disposed to the Jews, was at least -ready, like his predecessors, to protect them from unjust treatment. -New crusades were now being preached against the Sultanate of Egypt, -which had declined in power since the death of Saladin, in order to -wrest from its control the Holy City. The crusaders, now that they -had obtained a remission of sins, might say, "We may commit offenses, -since the taking up of the Cross has absolved us from all sins, ay, -and even enables us to redeem the souls of sinners from purgatory." -Jew-baiting, compulsory baptism, plundering and assassination, were -once more the order of the day. The Jews, seeing that they needed -special protection, appealed to Innocent to curb the violence of the -crusaders. Most graciously did he vouchsafe them that which the leader -of any respectably organized band of brigands would not have refused. -The Jews were not to be dragged by force to be converted, neither -were they to be robbed, injured, or killed without judicial sanction. -They were not to be molested during their festivals by being whipped, -and having stones thrown at them; and, lastly, their cemeteries were -to be respected, and their dead were neither to be disinterred nor -dishonored. So much had Christianity degenerated, that decrees like -these, and a constitution (Constitutio Judaeorum) like this, had to be -promulgated for the sake of the Jews. So deluded were its leaders, that -the head of the Church passed these resolutions, not from the simple -motive of humanity, but from a perverse notion that the Jews must be -preserved, so that the miracle of their general conversion to Jesus -might have an opportunity of being accomplished. - -The Jews, who by the experience of a thousand years had learnt the art -of recognizing foes and friends behind their masks, were by no means -mistaken as to the real sentiments of Innocent towards them. When -Don Pedro II, King of Aragon, returned home from his journey to Rome -(Dec., 1204), where he had caused himself to be anointed and crowned -by the Pope, receiving at the same time his territory as tributary to -Peter's chair, the Aragonian congregations were in great anxiety as -to what might befall them. Don Pedro had taken an oath, that he would -persecute all heretics then in his country, defend the liberties and -rights of the Church, and faithfully obey the Pope. What if the liberty -of the Church should be interpreted thus: That the Jews were either to -be driven out of the land, or degraded to the position of bondmen! The -Aragonian Jews, apprehending something of the sort, appealed to their -God in fervent prayer, appointed a general fast, and, with a scroll of -the Torah, assembled to meet the king on his return. Their fear on this -occasion, however, was groundless. Don Pedro, who was not very warm -in his allegiance to the Pope, and was intent only on strengthening -his own power, had no thought of persecuting the Jews. Besides, owing -to his periodic money difficulties, he could not do without them; he -had become their debtor. Innocent, however, watched the princes with a -jealous eye, lest they should concede to the Jews anything beyond the -bare right to live. The French king, Philip Augustus--the arch-enemy -of the Jews, who, having tortured and plundered them, had driven them -out of his country, and recalled them only because of his pecuniary -embarrassments--was reprimanded by the Pope for favoring the Jews. The -Pope wrote that it offended his sight that some princes should prefer -the descendants of the crucifiers to the heirs of the crucified Christ, -as if the son of the bond-woman could ever be the heir of the son of -the free-woman; that it had reached his ears that in France the Jews -had obtained possession, through usury, of the property of the Church -and of the Christians, and that, in spite of the resolution of the -Lateran Council, under Alexander III, they kept Christian servants -and nurses in their houses; and further, that Christians were not -admitted as witnesses against the Jews, which was also contrary to -the resolution of that assembly; and again, that the community of Sens -had built a new synagogue which was situated higher than the church -of that neighborhood, and in which prayers were read, not quietly, -as before the expulsion, but so loudly as to interrupt the divine -service in the church. Lastly, Innocent censured the king of France -for allowing the Jews too much liberty. They had the audacity during -the Easter week to appear in the streets and villages, scoffing at the -faithful for worshiping a crucified God, and thus turning them away -from their faith. He vehemently repeated the diabolical calumny that -the Jews secretly assassinated Christians. As to the public and daily -murders of Jews, the chief of the Church had little to say. He exhorted -Philip Augustus to maintain true Christian zeal in oppressing the Jews, -and did not fail to mention at the same time that the heretics in his -country ought to be exterminated. The spiritual ruler of Europe could -find no rest while Jews and heretics remained. In the same year (May, -1205), Innocent wrote a sharp pastoral letter to the king of Castile, -Alfonso the Noble, a protector of the Jews, because he would not suffer -the priests to deprive the Jews of their Mahometan slaves by causing -them to be baptized, or to collect tithes from the farms of Jews -and Mahometans. The Pope threatened the proud Spanish king with the -displeasure of the Church, if he should continue to allow the Synagogue -to thrive, and the Church to be reduced. Innocent insisted upon the -Jews' paying tithes to the clergy on all lands which they had acquired -from the Christians, so that the Church, whose power depended so much -on money, should suffer no loss. His plan of coercion, to give force to -his directions, was indirect excommunication. As he could not punish -Jews with excommunication, he threatened to inflict that penalty on -Christians who carried on any intercourse with such Jews as would not -humor his apostolic caprice. - -The deep prejudice of Innocent against the Jewish race was made still -more evident by a denunciatory letter which he wrote to Count Nevers, -who was favorably disposed to the Jews. Because this count did not -embitter the lives of the latter, and abstained from molesting them, -the Pope wrote to him thus (1208): "The Jews, like the fratricide Cain, -are doomed to wander about the earth as fugitives and vagabonds, and -their faces must be covered with shame. They are under no circumstances -to be protected by Christian princes, but, on the contrary, to be -condemned to serfdom. It is, therefore, discreditable for Christian -princes to receive Jews into their towns and villages, and to employ -them as usurers in order to extort money from Christians. They (the -princes) arrest Christians who are indebted to Jews, and allow the -Jews to take Christian castles and villages in pledge; and the worst -of the matter is that the Church in this manner loses its tithes. It -is scandalous that Christians should have their cattle slaughtered, -and their grapes pressed by Jews, who are thus enabled to take their -portion, prepared according to their religious precepts, and hand over -the leavings to the Christians. A still greater sin is it that this -wine prepared by Jews should be used in the church for the sacrament -of the Lord's Supper. Whilst the Christians are excommunicated for -favoring the Jews, and their land is laid under the ban, the Jews are -all the time laughing in their sleeves at the fact that, on their -account, the harps of the Church are hung on willows, and that the -priests are deprived of their revenues." Innocent in his pastoral -letter threatened Count de Nevers, as well as his supporters, with the -severest punishment which the Church was capable of inflicting in the -event of their continuing to favor the Jews. He was the first pope who -directed against the Jews the burning fury and inhuman severity of -the Church. Everything provoked his wrath against them; he begrudged -them the very air and light, and only a delusive hope restrained him -from openly preaching a crusade and a war of annihilation against -them. Innocent was well aware why he so thoroughly abhorred Jews and -Judaism. He hated those among them who indirectly agitated against -the rotten form of Christianity, upon which the papacy had built its -power. The aversion of the truly God-fearing and moral Christians to -the arrogance, unchastity, and insatiable covetousness of the hierarchy -had in some measure been prompted by the Jews. The Albigenses in -southern France, who were branded as heretics, and who were the most -resolute opponents of the papacy, had imbibed their hostility from -intercourse with educated Jews. Amongst the Albigenses there was a -sect which unhesitatingly declared the Jewish Law preferable to that -of the Christians. The eye of Innocent was, therefore, directed to the -Jews of the south of France, as well as to the Albigenses, in order to -check their influence on the minds of the Christians. Count Raymund VI -of Toulouse and St. Gilles, styled by the troubadours and singers of -that time "Raymund the Good," who was looked upon as a friend of the -Albigenses, and consequently cruelly harassed, was also credited by -the Pope with favoring the Jews. In the list of transgressions which -he drew up against the count, Innocent charged him with the crime of -employing Jewish officials in his state, and of generally favoring the -Jews. In the bloody crusade which the Pope opened against him and the -Albigenses, the Jewish communities of southern France necessarily came -in for their share of suffering. Raymund was humbled, and had to submit -to being dragged into the church naked, and scourged by the papal -legate, Milo. He was also forced to confess that, amongst other sins, -he had committed the gross crime of entrusting public offices to Jews. -Thereupon the legate ordered him, under penalty of losing his dignity, -to humbly take an oath that he would discharge all Jewish officials -in his country, that he would never again appoint them, and never -admit any Jews to either public or private offices. The unfortunate -prince was compelled, the sword being pointed at his breast, to make -and to repeat this declaration (June, 1209). Thirteen barons who -were connected with Raymund, and were regarded as protectors of the -Albigenses, were similarly forced by Milo to give an assurance on oath -that they would depose their Jewish officers, and that they would -never again place any public trust in their hands. In the meantime, a -fanatical crusading army was organized against the Albigenses at the -instigation of the Pope and the bloodthirsty monk, Arnold of Citeaux. -It was led by the ambitious and rapacious Count Simon de Montfort, and -it marched against the Viscount Raymund Roger and his capital Beziers. -Roger was doubly hated by the Pope and his legate as the secret friend -of the Albigensian heretics, and as the protector of the Jews. On the -22d July (1209) the beautiful city of Beziers was stormed, and its -inhabitants were massacred in the name of God. "We spared neither -dignity, nor sex, nor age," wrote Arnold, the man of blood, to the -Pope, "nearly 20,000 human beings have perished by the sword. After -the massacre the town was plundered and burnt, and the revenge of God -seemed to rage upon it in a wonderful manner." Even orthodox Catholics -were not spared, and to the question of the crusaders as to how the -orthodox were to be distinguished from the heretics, Arnold answered, -"Strike down; God will recognize His own." Under these circumstances, -the flourishing and cultured Jewish communities of Beziers had still -less reason to hope for any indulgence. The result was that two hundred -Jews were cut down, and a large number thrown into captivity. The -Jews, on their side, marked this year of the Albigensian crusade as a -"year of mourning." - -In consequence of the diplomatic victory over Raymund of Toulouse, and -the military victory over Raymund Roger of Beziers, the intolerant -Church had acquired supremacy not only in the south of France, but -everywhere else. The audacity of free-thinkers, who claimed the right -to form their own opinion upon religion, the Holy Scripture, or -upon the position of the clergy, was punished by bloodshed. In the -Church language of that epoch, the Pope had to wield the spiritual -and the secular sword. Those who thought rationally were killed, and -independent thinking was branded as a crime. The disciples of the -philosopher, Amalarich of Bena, who maintained that Rome was licentious -Babylon, and the Pope, the Antichrist; that he dwelt on the Mount of -Olives, _i. e._, in the luxury of power, and that intelligent men, who -considered that to build altars for saints, and to worship the bones of -martyrs was idolatry, were burnt as blasphemers in Paris. Philosophical -writings which were brought over to France from Spain, and which might -have enriched or fertilized Christian theology, amongst others the -works of the great Jewish philosopher, Solomon Gebirol, which had been -translated by order of an archbishop, were interdicted, and forbidden -to be read by the Parisian synod. The light which was just dawning on -the nations of Europe was extinguished by the representatives of the -Church. - -The Jews of southern France and of Spain were the only apostles of -higher learning. But the Church begrudged them even this glory, and -worked with all its might to degrade them. The Council of Avignon -(Sept. 1209), presided over by the papal legate, Milo, at which Count -Raymund was again laid under the ban, and at which the severest -measures were passed against heretics, resolved that all barons of -free cities should take an oath that they would entrust no office -whatever to Jews, nor allow Christian servants to be employed in Jewish -houses. One of the ordinances of this council prohibited the Jews from -working on Sunday and all Christian holidays, and also forbade them to -eat meat on Christian fast-days. Everywhere the Jews felt the heavy -hand of the Romish Church, which stretched forth unhindered to degrade -them to the dust. - -In England, the Jews had at that time three enemies: the licentious, -unprincipled John Lackland, who shrank from no expedient to extort -money from them; the hostile barons, who saw in them the source of the -king's wealth, by depriving them of which they thought to gain the -means of damaging the power of the king; and, lastly, Stephen Langton, -whom the Pope had appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, and who had -introduced the tyrannical spirit of the Church into England. At the -beginning of his reign, King John assumed the appearance of friendship -towards them, for as he had usurped the crown of his nephew, and in -consequence had France and a part of the English nobility against him, -he naturally sought to win over to his side the moneyed classes of the -people. He appointed a Talmudical scholar, Jacob of London, as chief -rabbi over all the English communities (presbyteratus omnium Judaeorum -totius Angliae), and all his subjects were warned against attacking -either his property or his dignity. The king called this chief rabbi -his "dear friend." Every outrage that was offered to the latter was -looked upon by the king as a personal insult to himself. He further -renewed and confirmed the privileges and liberties of the Jews which -they had received from Henry I, including the remarkable provision that -a Christian was bound to prefer his complaint against a Jew before a -Jewish tribunal. The Jews, it is true, had to pay much money--4000 -silver marks--for these generous concessions. But it was a great boon -that they received protection and freedom of movement in return for -their money. When the Jews were in peril from a London mob, John wrote -a threatening letter to the authorities of the capital, reproaching -them with the fact that, whilst the Jews in other parts of England were -unmolested, those of London were exposed to injury, and stating that he -would hold them responsible for all bodily and material damage suffered -by the Jews. As, however, John proceeded to quarrel more and more with -his barons, and became involved in oppressive money difficulties, he -gradually abandoned his mild demeanor, which had never been genuine, -and adopted a totally different attitude towards the Jews. On one -occasion he imprisoned all the English Jews in order to extort money -from them (1210), and he demanded from one Jew of Bristol alone the sum -of 10,000 marks of silver. As the latter could not, or would not pay, -John had his teeth extracted one by one. - -The crushing antipathy against them from all sides, and their yearning -for the Holy Land, which the poet Jehuda Halevi had aroused, induced -more than 300 rabbis of France and England to emigrate to Jerusalem -(1211). The most renowned of them were Jonathan Cohen of Luenel, who -had been in correspondence with Maimuni, and was one of his admirers, -and Samson ben Abraham, an opponent of the school of Maimonides. Many -of the emigrants stopped on their way at Cairo in order to make the -acquaintance of Maimuni's son, who received them with great respect -and joy. Only Samson ben Abraham, the exponent of a one-sided Judaism, -avoided meeting the son of the man whom he considered almost a heretic. - -The French and English emigrants, who were honorably received, and -provided with privileges by the Sultan Aladil, Saladin's able brother, -lost no time in building houses of prayer and learning in Jerusalem, -and transplanted the Tossafists' method of exposition to the East. -Intellectual activity, even in the field of the Talmud, did not, -however, thrive in the Holy City. It seemed as if the curse of heaven -had fallen upon this once glorious, and now distressed city, for since -the Roman legions, under Titus and Hadrian, had struck down her noblest -sons, she had become altogether barren. Not a single man of importance -had sprung up in the city since the destruction of the Synhedrion. -Jerusalem, like the whole of Palestine, was notable only on account -of its illustrious dead. Pious men, who yearned for the home of their -ancestors, searched only for their graves, for living fountains were -no longer there. Jonathan Cohen and his associates conscientiously -visited the spot upon which the Temple had once stood, the graves of -the patriarchs, kings, prophets and doctors of the Mishna, and wept, -and prayed upon the ruins of departed glory. They met the Exilarch -David, of Mosul, who bore a letter of recommendation from the Caliph -Alnasir Ledin Allah, which secured him free access to every place of -interest. In the East the Jews were still allowed to maintain a certain -show of dignity; caliphs and sultans, the wielders of the spiritual and -the worldly might, granted them so much--for money. In Europe, however, -the very lives of the Jews were continually in peril from a fanaticism -which was ever being goaded into activity. - -The Almohade Prince of the Faithful, Mahomet Alnasir, of northern -Africa, had called to arms the entire male population at his disposal -for a holy war against the increasing power of the Christians in -Mahometan Spain, and led at least half a million warriors across the -sea into Andalusia. The strong city of Salvatierra, in spite of the -gallant defense of the knightly order of Calatrava, fell into the -hands of the Mahometans (September, 1211). In this long siege, the -Jewish community of Salvatierra was destroyed, and a remnant fled -to Toledo. The Christian kings of Spain, terrified by this danger, -laid aside their mutual hostilities in order to oppose the powerful -enemy with united forces. But as the Christian population of Spain -did not feel itself strong enough to undertake a war against the -Mahometans, Alfonso the Noble, King of Castile, appealed to Innocent -to decree a general crusade against the Crescent, and the Pope very -readily consented. Thus it was that many European warriors crossed the -Pyrenees, amongst them the bloodthirsty Cistercian monk, Arnold, with -his troops, who had assured themselves of future bliss by all sorts -of barbarities practised on the Albigenses and the Jews of the south -of France. The wrath of the Ultramontanes, as they were called, in -contradistinction to the Spanish warriors, against everything that was -not Roman Catholic had risen to the point of frenzy; they took umbrage -at the comparatively happy state of the Jews in the Spanish capital, -at their wealth, their freedom, and their importance at court. These -foreign crusaders, animated by Arnold's violent fanaticism, suddenly -attacked the Jews of Toledo, and killed many of them (June, 1212), and -all the Jews would have fared very badly, had not the noble Alfonso -interfered in their behalf, and had not the Christian knights and -citizens of Toledo, animated by a sense of honor, repelled the attacks -of the fanatics. This was the first persecution of the Jews in Castile, -the attack, however, being made by foreigners, and disapproved by the -natives. - -The Church, however, soon educated the Spanish kings and the people to -become the enemies of the Jews. The extraordinary change of sentiment -towards the Jews which had set in since Innocent's pontificate was -shown by a resolution of the Synod of Paris of the same year. King -Louis VII, and even his son Philip, had stoutly resisted the canonical -institute which provided that the Jews were not to employ Christian -servants. But now the French councils, under the presidency of the -papal legates, and with the consent of the king, sought to extend -this narrow-minded provision, so that not only was a Christian woman -prohibited from nursing a Jewish child, but a Christian midwife was -not even allowed to attend upon a Jewish woman in confinement, because -Christians, who stayed with Jews, took a liking to Judaism. It was -with reason, therefore, that the Jews, on hearing of the formation of -a new council, were greatly alarmed lest they should be subjected to -a new species of tyranny. When, therefore, the papal legate, Peter, -of Benevento, convened a synod in Montpellier (beginning of 1214), to -which he invited priests and laymen, in order completely to divest the -Count of Toulouse of his dominions, and hand them over to Simon de -Montfort, and to adopt the severest measures against the remnant of the -Albigenses, the Jews of the south of France felt that a great danger -was menacing them, and at once took steps to avert it. At the instance -of the illustrious Don Isaac (Zag) Benveniste, physician in ordinary to -the king of Aragon, many Jewish congregations sent each two deputies to -use their influence with clergymen and laymen, that no new restrictions -might be imposed upon the Jews. And it seems that they succeeded in -warding off the danger; for the council of Montpellier omitted all -mention of the Jews in its deliberations. - -Hardly had this local danger been averted, when another and more -general one appeared to be advancing. This threw all those Jews who -received tidings of it into the greatest consternation. Innocent -III had, through an encyclical, pastoral letter, convoked to Rome -the representatives of entire Christendom for a general OEcumenical -Council, at which the energetic prosecution of the crusades against -the Mahometans in the Holy Land, in the Pyrenean peninsula, and -against the heretics of the south of France, was to be decided upon; -the deposition of the Count of Toulouse, and the transference of his -estates to Simon de Montfort were to be ratified, and the reformation -of the Church, _i. e._, the extension of her power in the states, was -to be promoted. The congregations of the south of France, who had been -informed that a severe blow was about to be dealt the Jews at the -meeting of this council, were completely staggered. Isaac Benveniste -accordingly invited Jewish deputies to the town Bourg de St. Gilles, -in order to select certain influential and able men as deputies to -Rome, who should endeavor to prevent the enactment of resolutions -against the Jews. The names of the delegates chosen for this purpose -are unknown, because their labors proved fruitless. The great Fourth -Lateran Council was presided over by Pope Innocent III, and comprised -over 1200 deputies from many Christian states, both churchmen and -laymen. At this council, the papacy was permitted to make the greatest -demands ever preferred by it. To its action is due the founding of -the two orders of the Dominicans and Franciscans, distinguished by -their hatred of freedom and their bloodthirstiness. This council, -which wrapped round Christian Europe the ignominious coil of spiritual -servitude, and threw it back into the ignorance of barbarism, inflicted -deep wounds on Judaism. On the feast of the Maccabees, during which the -children of Jacob celebrated their deliverance from Syrian tyranny, -this council, which placed the yoke of the deepest degradation on -the posterity of the Maccabean heroes, brought its deliberations to -a conclusion (30th November, 1215). Though in the midst of gigantic -undertakings, the Pope and the Elders of the Council nevertheless did -not forget the Jews. Four of the seventy canonical decrees then passed -dealt with the Jews. One canon set forth that Christian princes should -keep strict watch over the Jews, lest they exact too high an interest -from their Christian debtors. This restriction is not altogether -unjustifiable--although, indeed, the Christian clergy and laity -promoted Jewish usury, and profited by it; and Christian companies, -like the Lombards and the Caorsini (called also Ultramontanes), -practised usury on an enormous scale. The Church did not take any -notice of the financial needs of the time, and kept to the strict -letter of the Bible. The council, from its point of view, was also in a -measure justified in forbidding baptized Jews to retain Jewish customs, -because it would have been suicidal to the Church to allow freedom of -conscience. If the accusation was true that some Jews at that time -mocked at the Christian processions at Easter, then the authorities -of the Church were partly right in forbidding them to show themselves -openly on that day; although equitable legislation would not place -restrictions on a whole community on account of the transgressions of a -few indecorous members. Still more unjust was the canon which not only -decreed that the Jews should give tithes of their houses and property, -but also that the head of every Jewish family should pay a yearly tax -at the Easter festival. The Catholic clergy considered themselves -lords, to whom the Jews, their subjects, were to bring tribute. But -it was characteristic of the spirit of Innocent, the persecutor of -the Albigenses, that the law was renewed, that "no Christian prince -shall bestow any office on a Jew." The transgressor of this rule was -to be punished with excommunication, and every Jewish official was -to be excluded from the society of Christians until he resigned his -office in disgrace. The council, however, was unable to bring forward -even a show of reason for this canonical decree; neither the New -Testament, nor the Fathers of the Church, however much they hated the -Jews, had offered a precedent for it. The Lateran Synod was compelled -to go back to the Provincial Council of Toledo, under Recared, king -of the Catholic Visigoths, in order to find a precedent for this -scandalous law. The depth of the degradation of the Jews, however, -was reached by the decision of the council that Jews in all Christian -countries and at all times should wear a dress differing from that -of the Christians. The reason urged was that in many countries where -Jews (and Mahometans) wore the ordinary costume, intermarriages took -place between the Jews and the Christians. By a sophistical argument -it was shown that this law was contained in the Bible, and that Moses -had commanded the Jews to wear a peculiar dress. Therefore it was -decreed that, from the twelfth year of their age, Jews were to wear a -peculiar color as a badge of their race, the men, on their hats, and -the women, on their veils. This stigma on the Jews was an invention of -Pope Innocent and of the Fourth Council assembled at Rome. It cannot, -however, be strictly called an invention, because the pope borrowed the -idea of forcing the Jews to wear a peculiar badge from the fanatical -Mahometans. The Almohade Prince of the Faithful of Africa and southern -Spain, Abu-Yussuff Almansur, had forced those Jews who had adopted -the Mahometan faith through compulsion to wear a hideous dress, heavy -clothes with long sleeves, which almost reached the feet, and instead -of turbans, large bonnets of the ugliest shape. Said this fanatic: -"If I knew that the converted Jews had adopted the Mahometan belief -with an upright heart, then I would allow them to intermarry with the -Mussulmans. If, on the other hand, I were convinced that they are still -sceptics, I would put the men to the sword, enslave their children, -and confiscate their goods. But I am doubtful about this point; -therefore they shall appear distinguished by a hateful uniform." His -successor, Abu-Abdullah Mahomet Alnasir, allowed them to change this -mean apparel for yellow garments and turbans. By this color the class -of people who were outwardly Moslems, yet in their heart of hearts -still Jews, was characterized in the first decade of the thirteenth -century in the kingdom of Morocco. This barbarous treatment of the -Jews, Pope Innocent III now imitated, and their greatest humiliation -during six centuries of European life dates from November 30th, 1215. - -Provincial councils, assemblies of estates and royal cabinets -thenceforward, in addition to their deliberations on the exclusion of -the Jews from all honors and offices, determined on the color, form, -length and breadth of the Jew-badge, with pedantic thoroughness. The -Jew-badge, square or round in form, of saffron yellow or some other -color, on the hat or on the mantle, was an invitation to the gamin to -insult the wearers, and to bespatter them with mud; it was a suggestion -to stupid mobs to fall on them, to maltreat, and even kill them; and -it afforded the higher class an opportunity to ostracize the Jews, to -plunder them, or to exile them. - -Worse than this outward dishonor was the influence of the badge on -the Jews themselves. They became more and more accustomed to their -ignominious position, and lost all feeling of self-respect. They -neglected their outward appearance, because they were nothing but a -despised, dishonored race, which could not have even the least claim -to honor. They became more and more careless of their speech, because -they were not admitted to cultured circles, and in their own midst they -could make themselves understood by means of a jargon. They lost all -taste and sense of beauty, and to some extent became as despicable -as their enemies desired them to be. They lost their manliness and -courage, and a child could place them in terror. The punishment which -Isaiah had prophesied for the house of Jacob was fulfilled to the -letter: "Thou shalt speak out of the ground, and thy speech shall be -low out of the dust." The great misery of the Jews during the Middle -Ages began with Pope Innocent III. In comparison with their subsequent -sufferings, all foregoing persecutions from the beginning of the -Christian domination seemed like innocent bantering. But the Jews did -not readily comply with the decree which forced them to wear the mark -of shame. This was especially the case with the communities in Spain -and southern France, which, having held an honorable position, would -not suffer themselves to be humiliated without a struggle. Besides, -there were influential Jews at the courts of Toledo and Saragossa, -either as ambassadors to foreign courts or as treasurers of the royal -coffers, who exerted their utmost efforts to prevent the enforcement -of the decree. When Pope Innocent III died (1216), and Pope Honorius -III, who was of a mild temperament compared with Innocent, ascended -the papal throne, the Jews hoped for a repeal of this canonical law. -Isaac Benveniste seems to have been particularly active in this -direction, as he had been in trying to ward off the disgrace when -first contemplated. They were successful in delaying the enforcement -of the canonical decree. At least, King Alfonso IX of Leon did not -compel the Jews of his land to wear the badge, and Pope Honorius was -compelled to exhort the bishop of Valencia and two brother bishops -to see that the decree was duly enforced, and that all Jews were -excluded from offices of honor. The communities of southern France -viewed with joy the victorious progress of the army of the repeatedly -excommunicated Raymund VII of Toulouse against the crusading army -and Simon de Montfort, because their security depended on the victory -of the Albigenses. The Duke of Toulouse and his barons, in spite of -their oaths, continued to promote Jews to offices, for they saw that -their administrative policy would lead to their advantage. It may be -that it was on account of the secret and open devotion of the Jews for -Raymund that Simon de Montfort's wife Alice of Montmorency, ordered all -the Jews of Toulouse--of which town she had charge--to be arrested, -offering them the choice between death and conversion, although her -husband, as well as his brother, had sworn to the Jews that their lives -would be safe, and that freedom should be allowed them for the due -exercise of their religion. At the same time, Alice ordered that Jewish -children under the age of six should be torn from their parents, and -given over to the priests in order to be baptized and brought up as -Christians. The heartless woman had no feeling for the pangs that the -Jewish mothers suffered. In spite of this, the majority of the members -of the Toulouse community refused to become Christians. - -When, however, Simon de Montfort heard of this cruel persecution of the -Jews by his wife, he ordered the prisoners to be released, and to be -allowed to practise their religion in freedom. The joy of the unhappy -people when they were told of this deliverance (1 Ab--7th July, 1217) -was great, but it was mixed with sadness, for the Cardinal-Legate -Bertrand had decided that the children that had been baptized should -not be allowed to return to their parents. The legate also insisted -upon the Jews' wearing the distinctive badge. In the meantime, there -came a counter-command from the Pope, that the decree should not be -too strictly enforced, but the cause of this change in the papal -policy is unknown. In Aragon the Jews obtained the same immunity from -the indignity of the Jew-badge through the untiring efforts of Isaac -Benveniste, physician in ordinary to the king, Jayme I (Jacob). This -illustrious man had rendered the king such important services that the -latter, with the consent of the bishops of the country, recommended -him to the Pope, and strove to obtain for him recognition from the -papal chair. Wonderful to relate, Honorius took up the matter, and, in -recognition of his merits in eschewing usury, and zealously assisting -Catholics, sent Isaac Benveniste a diploma that he should in nowise be -molested. For his sake also the Jews were exempted from wearing the -badge (1220). - -However friendly Honorius affected to be in this matter, he was -nevertheless far from being disposed to countenance the appointment -of Jews to posts of dignity. In an autograph letter of the same year, -he exhorted King Jayme of Aragon not to entrust any Jew with the -office of ambassador to a Mahometan court, for it was not probable -"that those who abhorred Christianity would prove themselves faithful -to its professors." In this spirit the pope wrote to the archbishop -of Tarragona, to the bishops of Barcelona and Ilerda, to prevail on -the king of Aragon to employ no Jews in diplomatic legations, and to -abolish a practice so perilous to Christendom. The pope also exhorted -the Church dignitaries of Toledo, Valencia, Burgos, Leon, and Zamora, -to use their influence with the kings of Castile, Leon, and Navarre -for the same purpose. How little did the pope know the incorruptible -fidelity of the Jews towards their sovereigns, and their love for the -land of their birth! So far from abusing the trust reposed in them, -the Jewish ambassadors applied the utmost zeal in executing their -commission successfully. But since Innocent III, it had become a fixed -principle of the Church to degrade and humiliate the Jews. Although -Honorius had exempted the Jews of Aragon from wearing the badge of -disgrace, he insisted that those of England should not be released from -it. - -In that country, Stephen Langton, who had been appointed archbishop -by the Pope, held the reins of government, after the death of the mad -tyrant John Lackland, and during the minority of his son Henry III. -This prelate exercised his power as if he were the wearer of the crown. -At the council of Oxford, which he summoned in 1222, several decrees -with reference to the oppression of the Jews were promulgated. They -were not to keep any Christian servants, and were not to build any -new synagogues. They were to be held to the payment of the tithe of -their produce and the Church taxes, according to the decision of the -Lateran council. Above all things they were to be compelled to wear on -the breast the disgraceful badge, a woolen stripe four fingers long -and two broad, of a color different from the dress. They might not -enter the churches, and still less, as had hitherto been their custom, -might they place their treasures there for security from the attacks -of the brigand nobles. These restrictions were imposed on the English -Jews because they had been guilty of monstrous crimes, and had proved -themselves ungrateful; but the nature of their crime is not mentioned. -Was perhaps the fact that a deacon had in the same year gone over -to Judaism, laid to their charge? In after years such an occurrence -caused the expulsion of the Jews from England. This time the deacon was -summarily burnt at the stake for his apostasy. The Church knew no more -effective means of refuting a heresy than the blazing fire. - -It is remarkable that the hostile measures of the Pope against the -Jews at that time had least effect in Germany, and that under Emperor -Frederick II they enjoyed a comparatively favorable position. It is -true that they were "servi camerae" of the empire and the emperor, and -were even so called; but nevertheless princes, especially the archdukes -of Austria, now and again entrusted into their hands important -offices. Those Jews who had access to the courts of the princes -always labored to free themselves from the Jew-tax, and to obtain -privileges from their patrons. As, however, it was the custom in the -German congregations to distribute the tax among all the members of -the congregation in proportion to their means, it happened that if the -richer and more influential men obtained exemption from it, the poorer -members found themselves greatly encumbered, and accordingly complaints -were made about it to the rabbinical authorities of that time. A synod -of rabbis, which met at Mayence (Tammuz--July, 1223), discussed this -question, for the purpose of adjusting it. There were at this synod, -which numbered more than twenty members, the most influential rabbis -in Germany: David ben Kalonymos, of Muenzenburg (in Hesse-Darmstadt), -a famous Tossafist; Baruch ben Samuel, of Mayence, composer of a -Talmudical work; Chiskiya ben Reuben, of Boppard, the courageous -champion of his persecuted co-religionists; Simcha ben Samuel, of -Speyer, likewise a Talmudical author; Eleazar ben Joel Halevi, called -Abi-Ezri, from his Talmudical works; lastly, the German Kabbalist, -Eleazar ben Jehuda of Worms, called Rokeach, a prolific author, who, -through his mysticism, helped to obscure the light of thought in -Judaism. - -This rabbinical synod of Mayence renewed many ordinances of the times -of Rabbenu Tam, and established others besides. Its decisions mark -the condition of the German Jews in the beginning of the thirteenth -century. The synod enacted that Jews should on no account incur blame -by dishonorable dealings with Christians, or by the counterfeiting of -coin. An informer was to be compelled to make good the loss which he -had caused by his information. Those who had freedom of access to the -king (emperor), were none the less under the obligation to bear the -communal burden in raising the tax. He who received a religious office -through Christian authorities incurred the penalty of excommunication. -In the synagogues, devotion and decorum were to prevail. The -brother-in-law was to complete the release of his widowed sister-in-law -from her levirate marriage without extortion of money and without -trickery, and he was not to keep her in suspense. He who would not -submit to the regulations of the synod, or did not respect a sentence -of excommunication, was to be delivered over to the secular power. -The determination of disputed cases was left to the rabbinate and the -congregations of Mayence, Worms, and Speyer, as the oldest German -Jewish communities. - -In spite of the many exertions of the cultured Jews to avert the -disgrace of wearing the badge, papal intolerance gradually gained the -ascendancy, and the edict of the Lateran Council of 1215 henceforth had -sway. Even Emperor Frederick II, the most intelligent and enlightened -prince that Germany ever had, whose orthodoxy was more than doubtful, -had at length to bow to the will of the papacy, and introduce the -Jew-badge by law in his hereditary provinces of Naples and Sicily. - -In southern France, where, in consequence of the war against the -Albigenses, the spirit of persecution had been intensified among the -clergy more perhaps than in other Christian countries, the edicts of -Innocent III for the degradation and humiliation of the Jews found -only too zealous supporters. At a council at Narbonne (1227), not only -were the canonical ordinances against them confirmed, the prohibition -of taking interest, the wearing of the Jew-badge, the payment of a tax -to the Church, but even the long-forgotten decrees of the ancient time -of the Merovingian kings were renewed against them. The Jews were not -allowed to be seen in the streets at Easter, and they were prohibited -from leaving their houses during the festival. - -In the next year the Albigensian war came to an end, and the horrors of -a blind, revengeful, bloodthirsty reaction began. The preacher-monks, -the disciples of Domingo, glorified Christianity through the agonies -of the rack and the stake. Whoever was in possession of a Bible in -the Romance (Provencal) language incurred the charge of heresy at the -court of the Dominicans, who had the exclusive right to bloodthirsty -persecutions. Their allies, the Franciscans or Minorites, energetically -seconded them. It was not long before these destroying angels in monks' -cowls placed their clutches upon the sons of Jacob. - -Four men appeared simultaneously on the stage of history, who were -thoroughly pervaded with the spirit of Christianity, and especially -with its oppressive, unlovely, inhuman form, and they rendered the -life of the Jews in many countries an inconceivable torture. The first -was Pope Gregory IX, a passionate old man, the deadly enemy of Emperor -Frederick II, whose sole ambition was the extension of the power of -the Church and the destruction of his opponents, who cast the torch -of discord into the German Empire, and annihilated its unity and -greatness. The second was King Louis IX of France, who had acquired -the name of "the Saint," from the simplicity of his heart and the -narrowness of his head; he was a most pliant tool for crafty monks, a -worshiper of relics, who was strongly inclined to adopt a monk's cowl, -and most readily assisted in the persecution of heretics, and who -hated the Jews so thoroughly that he would not look at them. Similar -to him was his contemporary Ferdinand III of Castile, who inherited -also the crown of Leon, and was likewise recognized by the Church as -a saint, because he burnt heretics with his own hand. Lastly, the -Dominican-General Raymond de Penyaforte (Penaforte), the most frantic -oppressor of the heretics, who applied all his efforts to convert -Jews and Mahometans to Christianity. In this spirit he exercised his -influence upon the kings of Aragon and Castile, and caused seminaries -to be established, where instruction in Hebrew and Arabic was given, -in order that these languages might be employed for the conversion of -Jews and Saracens. These tyrannical, pitiless enemies, furnished with -every resource, were let loose upon the Jews. Gregory IX exhorted the -bishop of Valencia (1229) to crush the arrogance of the Jews towards -the Christians, as if the Church were hovering in the greatest peril. -Consequently, under Jayme I, of Aragon, the position of the Jews of -Aragon and of the provinces belonging to it took an evil turn. Spurred -on by clerical fanaticism and by greed for gold, this king declared the -Jews to be his clients, _i. e._ in a manner, his "servi camerae." - -Everywhere the hostile spirit which first proceeded from Innocent, -and was spread by the Dominicans, assumed the form of severe laws -against the Jews. At two Church assemblies, in Rouen and Tours (1231), -the hostile decrees of the Lateran Council against the Jews were -re-enacted, and at the latter meeting another restriction was added, -the Jews were not to be admitted as witnesses against Christians, -because much evil might arise from the testimony of Jews. - -The narrow-minded disposition of the Church towards the Jews was felt, -through the increased power of the papacy after Innocent, even by -the Jews dwelling on the banks of the Lower Danube and the Theiss. -In Hungary they had settled at a very early date, having immigrated -thither from the Byzantine and Chazar empires. Since there were many -heathen and Mahometans among the dominant Magyars, the kings had to -be very tolerant towards them; besides this, the Christianity of the -Magyars was only superficial, and had not yet affected their feeling -and mode of thought. Consequently, the Jews of Hungary from time -immemorial had had the right of coinage, and were in friendly relations -with their German brethren. Till the thirteenth century, Jews as well -as Mahometans were farmers of salt mines, and of the taxes, and filled -various royal offices. Mixed marriages between Jews and Christians -also occurred frequently, as the Church had not yet established itself -in the country. This enjoyment of dignities by the Jews in a country -only half Christian, could not be tolerated by the Church: it was a -thorn in its side. Accordingly when King Andreas, who had quarreled -with the magnates of the country, and had been compelled to issue a -charter of liberty, applied to Pope Gregory IX for help, the latter, in -a letter to Robert, Archbishop of Gran, ordered him to compel the king -to deprive both Jews and Mahometans of their public offices. Andreas -at first submitted to the papal will, but did not carry out the orders -of the Pope zealously, because he could not well dispense with his -Jewish officials and farmers. On this account and for other grounds of -complaint, the archbishop of Gran passed sentence of excommunication on -the king and his followers by order of the Pope (beginning of 1232). By -various strong measures, Andreas was at last compelled to obey, and, -like Raymund, of Toulouse, solemnly to promise (1232) that he would -not admit Jews or Saracens to offices, nor suffer any Christian slaves -to continue in their possession, nor allow mixed marriages, and lastly -that he would compel them to wear a badge. The same oath had to be -taken, by order of the papal legate, by the crown prince, the king of -Slavonia, and all the magnates and dignitaries of the kingdom. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE MAIMUNIST CONTROVERSY AND THE RISE OF THE KABBALA. - - The Opposition against Maimuni--Maimunists and - anti-Maimunists--Meir Abulafia--Samson of Sens--Solomon - of Montpellier--Excommunication of the Maimunists--David - Kimchi's energetic Advocacy of Maimuni--Nachmani--His - Character and Work--His Relations to Maimuni, Ibn-Ezra, and - the Kabbala--Solomon of Montpellier calls in the aid of the - Dominicans--Moses of Coucy--Modern date of the Kabbala - --Azriel and Ezra--Doctrines of the Kabbala--Jacob ben - Sheshet Gerundi--The Bahir--Three Parties in Judaism - --Last flicker of the Neo-Hebraic Poetry--The Satirical - Romance: Al-Charisi and Joseph ben Sabara. - -1232-1236 C. E. - - -As misfortunes never come singly, but draw others after them, so -besides the insults and humiliations which the Jews suffered from -without, there now arose alarming disunion within their ranks. -Remarkably enough, this intestine war was associated with Maimuni, -whose aim, during his whole life, had been to effect union and complete -finality in Judaism. But in undertaking to explain philosophically the -intellectual side of Judaism, he established principles which did not -by any means bear a Jewish stamp on them, nor were they in consonance -with the Bible, and still less with the Talmud. Those scholars whose -learning was entirely confined to the Talmud ignored the philosophical -discussion of Judaism, considered it sinful to be occupied with other -branches of knowledge, even when applied to the service of Judaism, and -took their stand, right or wrong, on the Talmudical saying, "Withhold -your children from excessive reflection." Even intelligent men, and -such as were philosophically trained, recognized that Maimuni, in his -endeavor to reconcile religion with the philosophy of the age, had made -the former subservient to the latter, and had made the mistress over -the mind a slave. Articles of belief and Scriptural verses, which do -not admit of philosophical justification, have no value according to -Maimuni's system. Miracles were not inevitable in Maimuni's philosophy; -but attempts were made to reduce them as far as possible to natural -causes, and to interpret in a rationalistic manner the Biblical -verses which contain them. Prophecy and direct communication with the -Deity, as it is taught in the Bible, Maimuni refused to accept, but -explained them as subjective occurrences, as effects of an over-heated -imagination, or as dream-phenomena. His doctrine of immortality was -not less in contradiction with the belief of Talmudical Judaism. It -denies the existence of a paradise and a hell, and represents the -purified soul as becoming fused with the original spirit. His method -of explaining many ceremonial laws especially provoked contradiction, -because, if accepted, these laws would lose their permanent value, -and have only temporary importance. And the manner in which Maimuni -expressed himself on the Agada, a constituent part of the Talmud--which -he either explained away or rejected--was in the eyes, not only of -the strict Talmudists, but also of more educated men, an heretical -attack upon Judaism, which they believed it was their duty to -energetically repel. Thus, besides enthusiastic worshipers of Maimuni, -who religiously adopted his doctrine as a new revelation, there was -formed a party, which assailed his writings, and combated particularly -the "Guide of the Perplexed" (More), and the first part of his Code -(Madda). The rabbis and the representatives of the Jewish congregations -in Europe and Asia, consequently became divided into Maimunists and -opponents to Maimuni (Anti-Maimunists). Such of the latter as were his -contemporaries, still full of the powerful impression which Maimuni's -individuality and activity had produced, fully acknowledged his genius -and piety, and blamed or criticised his views only, and the writings -which contained them. - -The opposition to his philosophical doctrines had begun during -Maimuni's life, but it remained quiet and timid, unable to assert -itself against the enthusiasm of his admirers. A young, intellectual, -and learned man, Meir ben Todros Halevi Abulafia, of Toledo (born about -1180, died 1244), had, at an early period, expressed his religious -objections to Maimuni's theory in a letter to the "wise men of Luenel," -which was intended for publication. Maimuni's doctrine of immortality -forms the central point of Abulafia's attack. He made, however, but -little impression by this letter, for although Meir Abulafia was -descended from a highly respectable family, and enjoyed considerable -authority, still his hostile attitude towards science, and his -tendency towards an ossified Judaism, isolated him even in his own -circle. Apart from this, he was possessed of overweening arrogance, -a quality not calculated to win adherents and organize a party. -Instead of finding supporters, Meir met with a sharp rebuff from the -learned Aaron ben Meshullam, of Luenel, who was master of the sciences -and the Talmud, and a warm adherent of Maimuni. He charged him with -presumption in venturing, though unripe in years and wisdom, to pass -an opinion on the greatest man of his time. The Talmudists of northern -France, led by Samson of Sens, to whom every letter of the Talmud was -an embodiment of the highest truths, and who would not countenance -any new interpretations, thoroughly concurred with the inquisitor -Meir Abulafia. Meir was looked upon in his time as chief of the -Obscurantists. The aged Sheshet Benveniste, of Barcelona, ever a warm -friend of free research, composed a sarcastic epigram upon him: - - "You ask me, friends, why this man's name, - Seeing he walks in darkness, should be Meir.[4] - I answer, the sages have called the night 'light,' - This, too, is an example of the rule of contraries." - -Another poet directed the arrows of his wit against Abulafia, but -its points are untranslatable. The Maimunists were generally vastly -superior to their adversaries in knowledge and speech, and they could -expose the enemies of light to ridicule. - -The hostility against Maimuni appeared also in the East, but not so -strongly. A learned Talmudist, Daniel ben Saadiah, a disciple of the -Samuel ben Ali who had conducted himself so maliciously against the -sage of Fostat, had settled in Damascus, and animated by the spirit of -his master against the Maimunist tendency, he conceived it his duty to -continue to make it the target of his hostility. Daniel, in the first -place, impugned Maimuni's Talmudical decisions in order to weaken the -position on which his commanding influence rested, for it was through -Maimuni's acknowledged rabbinical authority that his philosophical, -or according to his opponents, his heretical, doctrines found such -dangerous and general acceptance. Daniel, however, thought it advisable -to maintain a respectful tone towards him; he even sent his polemic to -Abraham Maimuni for examination. Afterwards Daniel, in an exegetical -work, allowed himself to make veiled attacks upon Maimuni's orthodoxy, -and curiously enough reproached him with not believing in the existence -of evil spirits. His main argument, however, was not strictly -concerned with the existence or non-existence of demons, but sought -to demonstrate that Maimuni was a heretic, because he had refused -to acknowledge unconditionally, as correct and true, utterances -which occur in the Talmud. Maimuni's admirers, however, were greatly -exasperated at these attacks of Daniel, and Joseph Ibn-Aknin, -Maimuni's favorite pupil, urged Abraham Maimuni to pass sentence of -excommunication on Daniel ben Saadiah. Abraham, however, who had -inherited his father's disinterestedness and love of justice, would -not hear of it. He expressed himself on the subject with meritorious -impartiality, saying that he did not think it right to excommunicate -Daniel, whom he considered a religious man of pure belief, who had -only made a mistake in one point; moreover, that as he was a party in -this controversy, he did not feel himself empowered to excommunicate -an antagonist in a matter that was to some extent personal. Maimuni's -admirers, and especially Joseph Ibn-Aknin, were not, however, disposed -to take the same view. They labored to induce the Exilarch David of -Mosul to exclude from the community the blameless and esteemed scholar -of Damascus, until he should humbly recant his strictures upon Maimuni. -Daniel was excommunicated, and died of grief, and all opposition to -Maimuni in the East was silenced for a long time. The Asiatic Jews were -still so overpowered by the glamour of his name, that they could not -think of him as a heretic. Nor were they learned enough to grasp the -range of Maimuni's ideas, and to perceive their incompatibility with -the spirit of the Talmud. It may also be that his admirer, Jonathan -Cohen, who had emigrated to Palestine, had won the pious to his side, -and had defeated the party of Samson of Sens, which was inimical to him. - -Very different was the state of affairs in Europe, especially in the -south of France and in Spain. Here Maimuni's theories had taken root, -and dominated the minds of the learned and of most of the influential -leaders of congregations; henceforth they regarded the Bible and the -Talmud only in the Maimunist light. The pious Jews of Spain and -Provence endeavored to reconcile the contradictions between Talmudical -Judaism and Maimuni's system, by a method of interpretation. The less -religious used his system as a support for their lukewarmness in the -performance of their religious duties; they expressed themselves more -freely about the Bible and the Talmud, practically neglected many -precepts, and were bent on re-organizing Judaism on a rationalistic -basis. Among the Jews of southern Spain, this lukewarmness towards the -Law went so far that not a few contracted marriages with Christian -and Mahometan women. The excessively pious, whose whole life was -absorbed by the Talmud, mistaking cause for effect, considered these -distressing occurrences as a poisonous fruit of the philosophical seed, -and prophesied the decay of Judaism, if Maimuni's theories should gain -the ascendancy. Nevertheless considerable time elapsed before any one -ventured to make a decisive stand against them. The rabbis of northern -France, who were of the same way of thinking as Samson of Sens, knew -little of Maimuni's philosophical writings and their effects, while the -rabbis of southern France and of Spain, who were guided absolutely by -the Talmud, may have thought it dangerous and useless to try to stem -the overwhelming flood of free thought. - -It was, therefore, looked upon as a most audacious step, when a rabbi -of the school which followed the Talmud with unquestioning faith, -openly and recklessly declared war against the Maimunists. This was -Solomon ben Abraham, of Montpellier, a pious, honorable man, learned -in the Talmud, but of perverted notions, whose whole world was the -Talmud, beyond which nothing was worthy of credence. Not only the -legal decisions of the Talmud were accepted by him as irrefutable -truths, but also the Agadic portions in their naked literalness. He -and his friends conceived the Deity as furnished with eyes, ears, and -other human organs, sitting in heaven upon a throne, surrounded by -darkness and clouds. Paradise and Hell they painted in Agadic colors; -the righteous were to enjoy, in the heavenly garden of Eden, the flesh -of the Leviathan and old wine, stored up from the beginning of the -world in celestial flasks, and the godless, the heretics, and the -transgressors of the Law were to be scourged, tortured, and burnt in -the hell-fire of Gehenna. The rabbis of this school believed in the -existence of evil spirits; it was in a manner an article of faith with -them, for the Talmudical Agada recognizes them as existing. - -Adopting a theory so gross and anthropomorphic, Solomon of Montpellier -could not help finding nearly every word in Maimuni's compositions -un-Jewish and heretical. He felt it incumbent on him to make reply; -he saw in the toleration of the Maimunist views the dissolution -of Judaism, and he entered the lists against their exponents and -champions. But with what weapons? The Middle Ages knew of no more -effective instrument than excommunication to destroy ideas apparently -pernicious. He attempted to compel men, who towered head and -shoulders above their contemporaries, and held different opinions -on religion from the thoughtless crowd, to seal up their ideas in -themselves, or to recant them as vicious errors, by shutting them -off from all intercourse with their co-religionists. At about the -same time Pope Gregory directed the University of Paris, the upholder -of the free philosophical spirit till the rise of the Dominicans -and Franciscans, to adhere strictly in its curriculum to the canon -of the Lateran Council, and on peril of excommunication, to avoid -using those philosophical writings which had been interdicted by it. -This precedent, together with his bigoted, passionate nature, may -have induced Solomon of Montpellier to introduce a censorship of -thought into the Jewish world, and to crush the Maimunist heresy by -excommunication. But to appear single-handed against the Maimunists, -whose number was large, and who ruled public opinion, could but ruin -his cause. Solomon sought for allies, but could not find a single rabbi -in southern France who was ready to take part in the denunciation of -the Maimunist school. Only two of his pupils came to his aid--Jonah -ben Abraham Gerundi (the elder) of Gerona, a blind zealot like his -master, and David ben Saul. These three pronounced the ban (beginning -of 1232) against all those who read Maimuni's compositions, especially -the philosophical parts (More and Madda), against those who studied -anything except the Bible and the Talmud, against those who distorted -the plain literal sense of Holy Writ, or, in general, expounded the -Agada differently from Rashi. Solomon and his allies explained the -reasons for their sentence of excommunication in a letter to the -public, and laid special stress on the point that Maimuni's line of -argument undermined Talmudical Judaism. They did not hesitate even to -vilify the venerated sage: it might be true, they said, that he had -once lived strictly in accordance with the Talmud, yet instances were -known in which still greater men had become renegades from the Law in -their old age. Solomon at first thought of invoking the secular power -of the Christian authorities to aid him in oppressing free thought. -For the present, however, he looked for supporters among the rabbis of -northern France. These, belonging to the acute but one-sided Tossafist -school, and having grown hoary in the Talmud, did not for a moment -appreciate the necessity of establishing Judaism on a rational and -scientific basis, and nearly all of them adopted Solomon's opinion, and -took sides against the Maimunists. - -The sentence of excommunication, the proscription of science, and the -defamation of Maimuni, excited the violent indignation of his admirers. -It seemed to them unheard-of audacity, unparalleled impudence. The -three chief congregations of Provence, Luenel, Beziers, and Narbonne, -in which the Maimunists were in power, rose against this presumption -of the Obscurantists, and on their side excommunicated Solomon and -his two disciples, and hastened to urge the other congregations -of Provence to unite in rescuing the honor of the great Moses. In -Montpellier the congregation was divided into two parties; whilst the -ignorant multitude remained by their rabbi, the learned renounced -their allegiance, and violent frays between them were not infrequent. -The flame of discord blazed up, and spread over the congregations of -Provence, Catalonia, Aragon, and Castile. The contest was carried on -by both sides with intense passion, and not entirely with honorable -weapons. Simple faith and a philosophical apprehension of religion, -which had till then maintained friendly relations, now met in a -conflict, which threatened to lead to a complete rupture and to schism. -The worst of it was, that the parties were both justified, each -from its own point of view; both could appeal to old and respected -authorities, some of whom maintained that the Bible and the Talmud must -be believed in without investigation and strained interpretation, while -others held that reason also had a voice in religious matters. - -Two men, whose names are celebrated in Jewish literature, took part -in this passionate quarrel: David Kimchi and Nachmani. The former, -already an old man and at the zenith of his fame as a grammarian and -expositor of the Bible, was an enthusiastic admirer of Maimuni, and -a friend of free investigation. He was consequently an object of -suspicion to the Obscurantists, and the rabbis of northern France -appear to have excommunicated him, because he had explained the vision -of Ezekiel concerning the throne-chariot of God in a Maimunist sense, -_i. e._, philosophically, and because he had maintained that Talmudical -controversies would have no significance in the Messianic period, or -in other words, that the Talmud has no right to advance pretensions -to perpetual authority. Kimchi accordingly took up the cudgels for -Maimuni all the more promptly, as he had at the same time to defend his -own cause. Old and weak as he was, he nevertheless did not hesitate -to undertake a journey to Spain, in order personally to bring the -congregations of that country over to the side of the Provencals -against Solomon of Montpellier. - -Another man of commanding influence in this struggle was Moses ben -Nachman, or Nachmani (Ramban) Gerundi, a fellow-citizen and relative -of Jonah Gerundi (born about 1195, died about 1270). Nachmani, or as -he was called in the language of the country, Bonastruc de Porta, -was a man of sharply-defined and strongly-marked individuality, with -all the strength and weakness of such a character. Whilst of pure -moral temperament and conscientious piety, mild disposition and -acute understanding, he was completely governed by the belief in -authority. The "wisdom of the sages" appeared to him unsurpassed and -unsurpassable, and their clear utterances were neither to be doubted -nor criticised. "He who occupies himself with the teachings of the -sages, drinks old wine," was Nachmani's firm conviction. The whole -wisdom of the later generations, according to his view, consisted -entirely in fathoming the meaning of their great ancestors, to acquire -a knowledge of it, and derive precedents from it. Not only the Holy -Writ in its entire scope, and the Talmud in its entire range, but -even the Geonim and their immediate disciples till Alfassi, were for -him infallible authorities, and their conduct worthy of emulation. -Within this compass he had intelligent notions, correct judgments -and a clear mind, but beyond it he could not proceed, nor could -he start from an original position. Nachmani was a physician, and -had, therefore, studied science a little; he was learned in other -branches, and familiar with philosophical literature. But metaphysical -speculation, to which he would not or could not apply himself, remained -strange to him. The Talmud was for him all in all; in its light he -regarded the world, the events of the past and the shaping of the -future. In his youth, the study of the Talmud and the vindication of -assailed authorities were Nachmani's favorite occupations. In about -his fifteenth year (1210), he elaborated several Talmudical treatises, -following the style and method of Alfassi. - -In these works he shows so astounding an intimacy with the Talmud that -no one would recognize them as the productions of a youth. They bear -the stamp of complete maturity, show command over the subject, and -reveal profound acumen. Not less splendid in its way was the second -work of his youth, in which he sought to justify Alfassi's Talmudical -decisions on questions of civil and marriage laws against the attack of -Serachya Halevi Gerundi. - -Nachmani had already commented upon several Talmudical treatises, -and he continued this labor indefatigably, till he had furnished the -greatest portion of the Talmud with explanations (Chidushim). Important -as Nachmani's contributions may be in this province, they are in nowise -original. The Talmud had been investigated too thoroughly during the -centuries since Rashi and Alfassi, for Nachmani, or indeed any one -else, to be able to establish anything absolutely new. Maimuni had -seen clearly, with the insight of a comprehensive mind, that it was -at length time to close accounts with commentaries on the Talmud, to -declare for or against, and bring the whole to a conclusion. Nachmani -did not pay attention to this result; Maimuni's gigantic religious code -did not exist for him. - -If he did not sympathize with Maimuni in his treatment of the Talmud, -still less did he agree with him in his philosophical views on -religion. Maimuni proceeded from a philosophical basis, and everywhere -applied reason as the test of Judaism. Nachmani, on the other hand, -like Jehuda Halevi, took as his starting-point the facts of Judaism, -including even the narratives of the Talmud. For Maimuni the miracles -of the Bible were inconvenient facts, and he endeavored as much as -possible to reduce them to natural causes; the Talmudical miracle-tales -he refused to consider. For Nachmani, on the other hand, the belief -in miracles was the foundation of Judaism, on which its three pillars -rested: the creation from nothing, the omniscience of God, and divine -providence. But, although Nachmani shunned philosophy, he nevertheless -advanced new ideas which, though not demonstrated by logical formulae, -deserve recognition. The ethical philosophy of Maimuni sought to -elevate man above the accidents of life, by reminding him of his -higher origin and his future bliss, and arming him with equanimity in -order to render him insensible to pleasure and to pain. Nachmani, from -his Talmudical point of view, strongly combated this philosophical -or stoical indifference and apathy, and opposed to it the doctrine -of Judaism, that "man should rejoice on the day of joy, and weep on -the day of sorrow." Maimuni assumed, with the philosophers, that -the sensual instincts are a disgrace to man, who is destined for -a spiritual life. Nachmani was a strenuous opponent of this view. -Since God, who is perfect, has created the world, it must all be good -as it is, and nothing in it should be regarded as intrinsically -objectionable and hateful. - -Nachmani, who started from quite different principles, had consequently -but very few points of agreement with Maimuni. Had they been -contemporaries, they might have been attracted to each other by this -very dissimilarity. If Judaism was for Maimuni a cult of the intellect, -for Nachmani it was a religion of the feelings. According to the -former, there was no secret in Judaism which could not be disclosed to -thought; according to the latter, the mystical and the unknown were the -holiest elements of Judaism, and were not to be profaned by reflection. -The difference in their method is well illustrated by their views on -the belief in demons. According to Maimuni, it is not only superstition -but even heathenism to ascribe power to evil spirits. Nachmani, on the -other hand, was firmly attached to this theory, and allowed the demons -considerable place in his system of the world. Whilst he occasionally -expressed his disapproval of Maimuni's views, paying him at the same -time the greatest respect, he had a decided antipathy towards Ibn-Ezra. -This exegetist, with his sceptical smile, his biting wit, and his scorn -for mystery, was calculated to repel Nachmani. In his attacks upon -Ibn-Ezra, Nachmani could not preserve the serenity of his temper, but -used violent expressions against him, regarding him as the supporter -of unbelief. But though Nachmani waged war against the philosophy of -his age, as destructive of revealed Judaism, and denounced Aristotle -as the teacher of error, he nevertheless looked with disfavor on blind -belief and the exclusion of every rationalistic conception in religious -matters. On this point he diverged from the teaching of the rabbis -of northern France, whose strictly Talmudical tendency he otherwise -followed. He was too much a son of Spain, in a manner enveloped by an -atmosphere of philosophy, to be able to dismiss metaphysical research -with contempt. His clear mind and his Spanish education would not -permit Nachmani to follow the rabbis of northern France through thick -and thin, nor to accept the Agadas in their literal sense, with all -their anthropomorphic and offensive utterances. But on this point he -became involved in self-contradiction. He could not reject the Agadic -statements _in toto_, for he was too strongly dominated by belief -in authority, and respect for the Talmud. If, when constrained by -necessity, he here and there conceded that many Agadic sayings were -to be considered only as rhetorical metaphors, as homiletic material, -and that it was not a religious obligation to believe in them, he must -not be supposed to be in full earnest. But, if the Agada is not to -be believed in literally, it must be interpreted. This, however, was -to make concessions to the Maimunist school. Accordingly, there was -no escape from this dilemma except to admit that the Agada must be -explained, but deny that Maimuni's mode of explanation was correct. -There came to his aid the Kabbala, a new secret lore which claimed to -be a primitive divine tradition, and it relieved his embarrassment in -respect of the obnoxious Agadas. By means of this mystical theory, that -which, from the point of view of the literalists, appears blasphemous, -or meaningless and childish, was invested with deep, mysterious, and -transcendental sense. Nachmani did not even shrink from justifying -the perverse notion that the whole text of the Torah was simply the -material made up of letters, out of which mystical names of God might -be composed. - -At the time when the sentence of excommunication was uttered against -Maimuni's philosophical writings, Nachmani was not yet forty years old, -but he even then was of such importance that even the haughty Meir -Abulafia paid him the tribute of his respect. He could, therefore, as -rabbi of the congregation of Gerona, support either the one party or -the other. He decided in favor of his friend Solomon and his nephew -Jonah. As soon as he learnt that the former was excommunicated by the -congregations of Provence, he hastened, without waiting to be properly -informed of the whole affair, to send a missive to the communities of -Aragon, Navarre, and Castile, saying, in substance, that they should -not be carried away by the "hypocritical, false" Maimunists; but that -they should wait till the opposite party had spoken its mind. Nachmani -indeed regretted, in this letter, that the unity of Judaism, which -from time immemorial had been maintained in all countries of the -dispersion, should, through this controversy, threaten to be destroyed, -and he recommended, on that account, prudence and calm deliberation. -He himself, however, did not maintain this impartial attitude, but -inclined more to the side of the party hostile to science. "If the -French masters, at whose feet we sit, obscure the sunlight at mid-day, -and cover the moon, they may not be contradicted"; thus he expresses -himself at the very commencement. - -But the majority of the congregations of Spain refused to be led -into darkness. The chief congregation of Aragon, with its leader, -the physician in ordinary and favorite of King Jayme, Bachiel -Ibn-Alkonstantini, declared itself decisively in favor of Maimuni, -and laid Solomon and his two allies under the ban, as long as they -continued in their perverseness. Bachiel, his brother Solomon, and ten -other influential men and leaders, sent a letter (Ab--August, 1232) -to the congregations of Aragon, urging them to join their party, and -repudiate those men "who have dared appear against that great power -which has rescued us from the floods of ignorance, error and folly." -The Maimunists in Saragossa pointed out that the opponents of science -had put themselves in opposition to the Talmud. "Our sages teach us -that we should philosophically explain to ourselves the unity of God. -We ought to be acquainted with profane sciences, in order to know how -to reply to the enemies of religion. Astronomy, geometry, and other -branches which are so important to religion, cannot be learned out of -the Talmud. The great doctor of the Talmud, Samuel, said of himself, -'that he knew the courses of the stars as well as the streets of his -native place.' From these remarks it is evident that it was deemed a -religious duty to acquire general knowledge. And now there appear three -corrupters and misleaders of the people, who stain the reputation of -the great Maimuni, wish to lead the communities into darkness, and -forbid the reading of his philosophical writings, and the study of -science generally." Bachiel Ibn-Alkonstantini, as the most influential -man in Aragon, in a letter, summoned the congregations to strenuously -oppose those who do not believe in God and his servant Moses -(Maimuni). In consequence of this action, the four great congregations -of Aragon--Huesca, Monzon, Calatayud, and Lerida--agreed with the -Saragossa congregation to pass the sentence of excommunication upon -Solomon and his two supporters. The eyes of the Maimunists and their -adversaries were, however, turned to the congregation of Toledo, which -was the largest, richest, most important and most educated in Spain. -Its decision was able to incline the balance in favor of either the one -side or the other. Here Jehuda bar Joseph, of the highly influential -family of Ibn-Alfachar, who was probably physician in ordinary of King -Ferdinand III, possessed the greatest authority. Hitherto he had not -expressed his opinion either for or against Maimuni, but had observed -a discreet silence. But the zealous rabbi of Toledo, Meir Abulafia -Halevi, the old antagonist of the Maimunist tendency, loudly raised -his voice. He replied to the letters of Nachmani and of the Gerona -congregation that they might make their minds easy, that neither he -nor his friends would follow the "law-defiers of Provence," that there -were certainly many in the congregation of Toledo who were infatuated -by Maimuni and his philosophical writings, that he could not alter -their mind, but if they should declare themselves against Solomon of -Montpellier, he would repudiate them altogether, and acknowledge no -community with them. For he considered Solomon's action a meritorious -one. He himself had long recognized the dangerous character of the -doctrines laid down in Maimuni's "Guide of the Perplexed"; they -certainly strengthen the ground of religion, but destroy its branches; -they repair the breaches of the building, but tear down the enclosures. -"The exalting of God's name is on their lips, but also poison and death -lurk on their tongues." He had always kept himself remote from this -bottomless heresy, and had sent a letter to the Luenel community more -than thirty years since, to counteract the enthusiasm for Maimuni, but -his effort had been fruitless. - -Besides this heavy-armed conflict of the two parties, with mutual -denunciations of heresy and thunders of excommunication, there was -carried on a light skirmish with sarcastic verses. An opponent of -Maimuni's "Guide" and its adherents threw off the following satire: - - "Thou Guide to doubt, be silent evermore; - Thy sinful folly shall remain unheard, - That makes of Bible-fact but metaphor, - And to a dream degrades the prophet's word." - -Whereupon a Maimunist retorted: - - "Thou fool profane, be silent! Nevermore - Dare, sandaled, upon holy ground to stand; - What dost thou know of fact or metaphor? - Nor dream, nor prophet canst thou understand." - -Another epigram condemns Maimuni himself: - - "Forgive us, son of Amram, be not wroth - That we should call this fool by thy great name; - _Prophet_ the Bible calls God's messengers, - The servants of false Baal it calls the same." - -The Maimunists, however, were much more energetic than their opponents; -they used all their efforts to alienate the French rabbis from Solomon, -and to bring the chief congregation of Spain over to their side. A -young scholar, Samuel ben Abraham Saporta, addressed a letter to the -French rabbis, and tried to convince them that in their eagerness -to support Solomon, they had taken a precipitate step in denouncing -Maimuni and the followers of his views as heretics. "Before you passed -a judgment upon them, you ought to have examined the contents of his -writings properly; but it appears that you know nothing about the -writings which you have condemned. Your business is the Halacha, to -determine what actions are forbidden or permitted by religion. Why do -you venture beyond your province to express an opinion on questions -about which you know nothing at all? In your worship of the letter, -like the heathen, you imagine the Deity in human form. What right have -you to call us heretics who cling as firmly as you to the Torah and -tradition?" Saporta's letter, in addition to other influences, made so -deep an impression upon some of the French rabbis that they renounced -Solomon. They soon notified the Provencal congregations of their change -of opinion. This change was undoubtedly due in great measure to Moses, -of Coucy (born about 1200, died about 1260), one of the youngest -Tossafists, who, although a brother-in-law of Samson of Sens, and a -pupil of the over-pious Sir Leon, of Paris, nevertheless cherished -great reverence for Maimuni, and made his Halachic works the subject -of study. Nachmani was extremely vexed at this change of opinion, and, -sorely distressed at the widening of the breach, he elaborated a scheme -of reconciliation, which seemed to him calculated to restore peace. He -wrote a well-meant, but bombastic letter to the French rabbis, wherein -he first of all expressed his dissatisfaction with them for having -put the readers of Maimuni's compositions under the ban: "If you were -of the opinion that it was incumbent on you to denounce as heresy the -works of Maimuni, why does a portion of your flock now recede from this -decision as if they regretted the step? Is it right in such important -matters to act capriciously, to applaud the one to-day, and the other -to-morrow?" - -Finally, Nachmani explained his plan of compromise. The ban against -the philosophical portion of Maimuni's Code was to be revoked; but, -on the other hand, the condemnation of the study of the "Guide," and -the excommunication of the rejectors of the Talmudical exposition of -the Bible was to be strengthened. This sentence of excommunication was -not to be passed by the one party only, but the Provencal rabbis, and -even Maimuni's son, the pious Abraham, were to be invited to support -it with their authority. In this manner the gate would be closed to -disaffection and unbelief. Nachmani, however, ignored the fact that the -assailed compositions were all of one cast, so that it was not possible -to anathematize the one and canonize the other. Nachmani fell into the -mistake of thinking that it was possible to check free philosophical -inquiry. The two tendencies, each legitimate in its way, could not but -conflict with each other, and the struggle had to be protracted, and -could not be ended by a compromise. Consequently, the fight continued -on both sides, and Nachmani's proposal was utterly disregarded. The -longer it lasted, the more the controversy inflamed men's feelings, the -more participants were drawn into the arena. - -The aged David Kimchi wished to undertake a journey to Toledo, in -order to induce that great congregation to join his party against -Solomon and his adherents, and through their weight completely to crush -their opponents. When he arrived at Avila, he became so ill that he -had to abandon the journey, but on his bed of sickness he wrote with -trembling hand to the chief representative of the Toledo congregation, -Jehuda Ibn-Alfachar. He blamed him for his obstinate silence in an -affair which concerned the French and Spanish communities so deeply, -and importuned him to persuade his congregation to make common cause -with the Maimunists. Unfortunately, however, he had approached the -wrong man; for Jehuda Alfachar had made up his mind decisively against -the Maimunists. He had thoroughly mastered Maimuni's system, and had -concluded that, if carried to its logical conclusion, it was calculated -to subvert Judaism. Ibn-Alfachar was a thoughtful man, and of more -penetration than Nachmani. The defects of Maimuni's theory were quite -palpable to him, but even he was misled by the thought that it was -possible to exorcise the spirit of free-thought by anathemas. Alfachar -paid such deference to the sentence of excommunication uttered by the -French rabbis, that at first he would not reply to Kimchi at all, but -when ultimately he decided to do so, he treated him in his answer in so -contemptuous a manner, that the Maimunists who expected the support of -Toledo were quite disconcerted at the result. - -In the meantime, the sympathy of such influential personages as -Alfachar, Nachmani, and Meir Abulafia, proved to be of little value -to Solomon's cause. The feeling of the people in his native place -and in Spain was against him. The French rabbis, on whose support -he had reckoned, gradually withdrew from a controversy, the range -of which they began to perceive, and which threatened to expose the -participators to peril. Solomon of Montpellier complained that no one -besides his two disciples sided with him, but the maladroitness with -which he conducted his cause was chiefly responsible for the want of -sympathy that he encountered. Thus forsaken of all, and hated most -bitterly in his own congregation, he resolved on a step which led to -the most deplorable results, not only for his own party, but for the -whole Jewish people. - -Pope Gregory IX, who was eager to extirpate the remnant of the -Albigensian heretics in Provence, root and branch, about this time -established the permanent Inquisition (April, 1233), and appointed the -violent Dominican friars as inquisitors, as the bishops, who had till -then been entrusted with the persecution of the Albigenses, did not -seem to him to treat the heretics with sufficient severity. In all the -large towns of southern France where there were Dominican cloisters, -in Montpellier among others, there were erected bloody tribunals, -which condemned heretics or those suspected of heresy, and often quite -innocent people, to life-long imprisonment or to the stake. - -With these murderers, Rabbi Solomon, the upholder of the Talmud and -of the literal interpretation of the Holy Writ, associated himself. -He and his disciple Jonah said to the Dominicans: "You burn your -heretics, persecute ours also. The majority of the Jews of Provence -are perverted by the heretical writings of Maimuni. If you cause these -writings to be publicly and solemnly burnt, your action will have -the effect of frightening the Jews away from them." They also read -dangerous passages from Maimuni's compositions to the inquisitors, at -which the infatuated monks must have felt a shudder of holy horror. -The Dominicans and Franciscans did not wait for a second invitation to -interfere. The papal Cardinal-Legate, who was of the same fanatical -zeal as Gregory IX, promptly took up the matter. The Dominicans may -have feared that the fire of the Maimunist heresy might set their -own houses ablaze. For the "Guide" had been translated by an unknown -scholar into Latin during the first half of the thirteenth century. -This translation was probably done in southern France, where Maimuni's -philosophical composition had its second home, and where educated -Jews were conversant with the Latin language. Maimuni might with -justice appear to the guardians of Catholic orthodoxy to have deserved -damnation for his religious philosophy. Thinking about religion in -those days was looked upon in official Christendom as a capital sin. -If the inquisitors had at that time possessed power over the persons -of Jews, the Maimunists would have fared ill indeed; as it was, the -persecution extended only to parchment. Maimuni's works, at least in -Montpellier, were sought out in the Jewish houses, and publicly burnt. -In Paris also, Maimuni's antagonists caused a fire to be kindled for -the same purpose, and it is said to have been lit by a taper from -the altar of one of the principal churches. The enemies of Judaism -congratulated themselves that confusion now prevailed among the Jews, -who till then had been united and compact, and thought that they were -approaching their decay. The anti-Maimunists, however, were not yet -satisfied. Confident in the support of those in power, they calumniated -their opponents before the authorities, so that many members of the -congregation of Montpellier were placed in great danger. - -These proceedings naturally excited the horror of all the Jews on -both sides of the Pyrenees. Solomon and his partisans were generally -condemned. To invoke the aid of the temporal power, and moreover of a -clergy which was swollen with hatred of the Jews, was, in the Jewish -world, justly considered the most outrageous treachery; and to make -the Dominicans judges of what was or was not consistent with Judaism, -was to introduce the heathen enemy into the Holy of Holies. Samuel -Saporta denounced this conduct in a letter to the French rabbis. -Abraham ben Chasdai of Barcelona, an enthusiastic admirer of Maimuni, -who had censured Jehuda Alfachar for his insulting treatment of Kimchi, -and for his espousal of the cause of Solomon, dispatched a letter -denouncing Solomon's action in unmeasured terms, to the communities of -Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Leon. When Kimchi, who was in Burgos on -his homeward journey, heard of this affair, he inquired of Alfachar, -whether he still thought of keeping the informer and traitor, Solomon, -under his protection. The intelligent followers of the latter, Nachmani -and Meir Abulafia, were deeply abashed, and remained silent. Public -opinion condemned Solomon and the cause he represented. A poet of the -Maimunist party composed on this occasion a very fine epigram: - - "What thought ye to burn, when ye kindled the pyre - For writings more precious than gold? - Lo, truth is a flame--will ye quench it with fire? - In a chariot ablaze like the Tishbite of old, - It rises to Heaven. O, bigots, behold-- - God's angel appears in the fire!" - -By some secret power the system of informing in Montpellier through -false witnesses, to which the adherents of Maimuni were exposed, was -put an end to. More than ten of Solomon's partisans, who had been -convicted of slander, were punished in the most cruel manner. Their -tongues were cut out. But rarely does the gloom clear up in which these -incidents are veiled. The fate of Solomon, the cause of all these -events, is uncertain. The Maimunists observed with a certain malicious -joy the severe punishment of their adversaries in Montpellier. A poet, -probably Abraham ben Chasdai, wrote an epigram upon it, which was soon -in everyone's mouth: - - "Against the guide of Truth, - A false pack raised their voices. - Punishment overtook them; - Their tongue was directed to heaven, - Now it lies in the dust." - -With this tragic issue the struggle was still far from being at an end. -The parties were more than ever embittered against each other. - -When Abraham Maimuni learnt, with indignation, of the hostility towards -his father, and the sad termination of the conflict which had broken -out (January, 1235), he wrote a little book on the subject, entitled -"War for God" (Milchamoth), in order to repel the attack upon the -orthodoxy of his father, and to denounce the conduct of his opponents. -This composition, directed, in the form of a letter, to Solomon ben -Asher (in Luenel?), justified Maimuni's system on Maimuni's lines, and -is valuable only on account of its historical data. - -Solomon's effort to silence the free spirit of research in the province -of religion was thus overthrown, and had met a lamentable end. Another -French rabbi, of mild character and gentle piety, attempted another -method of procedure, with greater success. Moses of Coucy, who, -although of the Tossafist tendency, had held Maimuni in high esteem, -undertook the task of fortifying the drooping spirit of religion among -the Provencals and the Spaniards by delivering sermons and spirited -exhortations. Moses was undoubtedly inspired in his attempt by the -example of the preacher-monks, who aimed at overcoming the disbelief -in the Roman Church by preaching in village after village, and who, to -some extent, were successful. In the same manner the rabbi of Coucy -traveled from one congregation to another in southern France and in -Spain (1235), and was accordingly called the "preacher." But there was -an important difference between the Jewish expounder of the law and -the Catholic order of preachers. The one acted in genuine simplicity -of heart, without any ambitious motives, with mildness on his lips -and mildness in his heart. The Dominicans, on the other hand, put -on their humility and poverty only for show, and behind them there -lurked the devil of arrogance. They flattered their patrons in sermons, -and humiliated their opponents unsparingly; they gained inheritances -surreptitiously, and filled their cloisters with treasures; they -nourished a bloody fanaticism, and strove after power and authority. - -Moses of Coucy succeeded in bringing many thousands who had neglected -several rites (Tephillin), or had never observed them, to repentance -and atonement, and in persuading them to remain constant in their -practice. In Spain he even succeeded in influencing those who had -contracted mixed marriages with Christian or Mahometan women, to -divorce themselves from their strange wives (1236). It was, of course, -not only his sermons which brought about this sudden conversion, but -the superstitious fear of evil dreams and extraordinary celestial -phenomena, by which at that time Jews and Christians were seized. -Moses of Coucy, in the meantime, preached to his brethren not only to -observe the ceremonies, but also to be truthful and upright in their -dealings with non-Jews. In his pulpit he laid stress upon the virtue of -humility, which was all the more becoming to the children of Israel, -seeing that they had God ever present before them, who hates the proud, -and loves the meek. Far from kindling fanatical zeal, Moses ever took -peace and friendliness as his text. He helped to conciliate many by -acknowledging Maimuni's greatness, and putting him on a level with the -Geonim. - -Evil consequences now began to develop within Judaism from this -controversy in regard to the value or worthlessness of free inquiry, -the effects of which lasted for centuries, and have not yet died away. -Maimuni aimed at unifying Judaism, and produced division; he had -sought to give it transparent clearness and general simplicity, and -only caused misunderstanding and complication. It was his ambition to -establish peace, but he kindled war--so little can even the greatest -of mortals calculate the consequences of his actions. His system of -philosophy had divided Judaism, separated the simple believers from -thinking men, and aroused a commotion, which in its violence far -overstepped the borders of moderation. Through the rupture that arose -from the conflict for and against Maimuni, there insinuated itself -into the general life of the Jews a false doctrine which, although -new, styled itself a primitive inspiration; although un-Jewish, called -itself a genuine teaching of Israel; and although springing from -error, entitled itself the only truth. The rise of this secret lore, -which was called _Kabbala_ (tradition), coincides with the time of the -Maimunistic controversy, through which it was launched into existence. -Discord was the mother of this monstrosity, which has ever been the -cause of schism. The Kabbala, in its earliest systematic development, -is a child of the first quarter of the thirteenth century. The early -adherents of this occult lore, when asked to confess honestly from -whom they had first received it, answered in plain terms: "From Rabbi -Isaac the Blind, or perhaps from his father, Abraham ben David, of -Posquieres, the antagonist of Maimuni." They frankly confessed that -the Kabbalistic doctrine does not appear either in the Pentateuch or -in the Prophets, in the Hagiographa, or in the Talmud, but rests on -scarcely perceptible indications. Of the Kabbalistic utterances of the -founder of the Kabbala, Isaac the Blind (flourished about 1190-1210), -there are only fragments extant, from which but little can be inferred. -The darkness of his physical vision was said to have been illuminated -by an inner light. He adopted as an article of faith the doctrine of -Metempsychosis, which had been condemned and ridiculed by Jewish -thinkers. His disciples said that he had the power of discerning -whether men possessed a new and fresh soul, coming directly from the -world of heavenly spirits, or an old soul which was migrating from body -to body, trying to recover its purity. Two of his disciples, Azriel and -Ezra, were the first who reduced the Kabbala to a coherent system. They -were so like-minded, that they have often been confounded, and certain -writings and doctrines have at times been ascribed to the one, and -again, to the other. These twins in thought, perhaps brothers in blood, -are consequently reckoned in the history of the Kabbala as only one -person; they complement one another. - -But little is known of the life of this pair, and it is reported of -one of them (it is uncertain whether Ezra or Azriel) that he died at -the age at least of seventy, a few years after the commencement of -the Maimunist schism. Of Azriel, rather more is known. He relates -how, from his earliest youth, he traveled about from place to place, -in search of a secret art, which could give satisfactory conclusions -about God and creation. Certain men, who were in possession of this -lore, had taught it to him, and he was firmly convinced of its truth. -He had, therefore, himself spread this Kabbalistic doctrine among the -congregations which he visited during his wanderings; but was laughed -to scorn by the philosophical scholars in Spain (Sevilla?). Thus, -one of the earliest mystics confessed that the Kabbala had met with -opposition at the very outset of its career, and that the antiquity of -its subject-matter was emphatically denied. Azriel and Ezra, however, -were not disturbed by this opposition, but labored to make good their -position and spread their doctrines. They developed their peculiar -theory in their explanations of passages in the Agada, the prayers, -and the Song of Solomon, which is a mine for every kind of mysticism. -Azriel endeavored to convince also philosophical scholars of the truth -of the Kabbala, and clothed its doctrines in the language of logic. But -as soon as this secret lore steps out of its obscurity into the light -of the sun, it shows its nakedness and deformity. It is certain that -the Kabbala was intended as a counterpoise to the growing shallowness -of the Maimunists' philosophy. That Judaism should teach nothing more -than Aristotelian philosophy was an abomination to those whose deep -piety regarded every word of the Bible and the Talmud as a divine -truth. There is a way of escape from the philosophical consideration of -God and Judaism, _i. e._ to receive everything in naive faith. This was -the method of the Jews of Germany and northern France; it was the rigid -Tossafist tendency. But the pious Jews of southern France and of Spain, -who, as it were, breathed everywhere an atmosphere of philosophy, -could not be satisfied with dull literalness. Judaism appeared to them -without meaning, if not permeated with deep thought. The religious -injunctions of the Law, the ceremonies, must have a higher, ideal -meaning. The anti-Maimunists themselves had admitted, that the precepts -of Judaism could on no account be accepted as arbitrary decrees of a -despot, but, being divine ordinances, must have an intelligent basis; -and as the apparently meaningless laws of the Bible, and the obscure -verses of Scripture, so also the Agadic utterances of the Talmud must -contain a higher sense, otherwise they would be without rhyme or -reason. The Kabbala is a daughter of embarrassment; its system was the -way of escape from the dilemma between the simple, anthropomorphic -interpretation of the Bible and the shallowness of the Maimunist -philosophy. - -The secret doctrine, first completely developed by Ezra and Azriel, -established not a new, but at any rate a peculiar philosophy of -religion, or, more correctly, theosophy, which, advancing from one -inconceivable statement to another, finally soared into the misty -region where all thinking ceases, and even imagination droops its -wings. It started from a basis which at that time was considered -unimpeachable, but made bold deductions from it, which clashed with -its underlying principle. Unity was transformed, by sleight-of-hand, -into a plurality, spirituality into a coarse materialism, and refined -belief into extravagant superstition. The original Kabbala established -the following principles: the Deity is elevated above everything, -even above existence and thought. Consequently, we have no right to -say of Him that He speaks or acts, and still less that He thinks, -wills and designs. All these qualities, which are human, imply some -limitation, and God is unlimited, because perfect. Only one attribute -can be assigned to Him--He is unconditioned or infinite. The Kabbala -accordingly confers on God the title of Eternal (Hebrew, En-Sof). This -was its first innovation. In His unthinkable universality, God, or the -En-Sof, is hidden and inconceivable, and consequently, in a manner, -non-existent; for that which cannot be recognized and conceived by -the thinking mind does not exist for it. The universal existence, the -En-Sof, consequently is identical with the non-existent (Ayin). Hence -in order to make His existence known, Deity was obliged or wished to -make Himself visible and recognizable; He had to become active and -creative, so that His existence might be perceived. - -But the lower world in its depravity and decrepitude could not have -been produced or created by the En-Sof, for the Infinite and Perfect -cannot directly bring into existence the finite and imperfect. The -Deity, therefore, is not to be regarded as the immediate Creator of the -world; the process of creation must be conceived in quite a different -manner. The En-Sof, by means of His infinite wealth of light, radiated -from Himself a spiritual substance, a force, or whatever it is to -be called, which, flowing directly from Himself, partakes of His -perfection and infinity. On the other hand, this radiation or emanation -cannot be like the En-Sof, its creator, in all points, for it is not -absolutely original, but derivative. This power, springing from the -En-Sof, is, therefore, not identical with Him, but only similar to Him, -_i. e._, it has besides an infinite, also a finite side. The Kabbala -calls this first spiritual child of the En-Sof the first Sefira, a name -possibly adopted as suggestive at once of number and of sphere. This -first spiritual power radiates from itself a second force, and this -latter a third, and so on, so that altogether ten spiritual substances, -or forces, or intermediate entities, or organs (as they are in turn -called), were successively revealed, and became active. These ten -powers the Kabbala calls the Ten Sefiroth. - -The ten substances are parts of one another and of the En-sof, and -only represent different sides (or phases) of the same being, as fire -produces both flame and sparks, which, although appearing different to -the eye, nevertheless indicate the same thing. The Ten Sefiroth, which -are distinguished from one another like different colors of the same -light, being emanations of the Deity, are dependent on one another, and -consequently are conditioned. Only in the degree in which the En-Sof -endows them with force, can they continue to act. Their action is shown -in the creation of the material and spiritual world in their own image, -in their eternal support of the world with which they are in union, and -in their ever communicating to it the gracious gift of divine life. - -The Kabbala divides the ten Sefiroth into three groups of three each, -and these nine Sefiroth would have been sufficient to exhaust all -the powers needed by the system, but the Kabbala could not forego -the number ten, it was too important. The Ten Commandments, the Ten -Declarations, by means of which the Agada explains the creation of -the universe, the Ten Spheres, what a world of meaning is therein -hidden! The Kabbala was bent on keeping the tenth power, but could -not consistently introduce it into its scheme, however it might -eschew strict logic; hence it floundered about amidst a variety of -conceptions. Close thinking is no concern of the Kabbala; it is -satisfied with fantastic pictures and symbols, however unsubstantial. -With this number ten the Kabbala sported in a most capricious manner. -By means of the Sefiroth, God can make Himself visible, and even invest -Himself with a body. When it is said in Holy Writ: God spoke, descended -to the earth, or ascended, it is not to be understood, as the strict -literalists or the Agadists take it, as referring to the Deity Himself, -or to the sublime En-Sof, but to the Sefiroth. The incense which -mounted from the altar, and became sweet savor, was not inhaled or -absorbed by the Deity Himself, but by the intermediate beings. In this -manner the Kabbala thought that it had overcome the difficulties which -the notion of the absolute spirituality of God and the Biblical method -of representation of God offer. The Deity is incorporeal and infinite, -has no corporeal functions, and is not affected by anything corporeal. -But the Sefiroth, which in addition to their infinite side, have also -a finite, and as it were, a corporeal side, can also perform corporeal -functions, and enter into relation with corporeal things. - -The Kabbalistic theory of the creation is equally fantastic. God, or -the En-Sof, did not create the visible world immediately, but entirely -by means of the Sefiroth. All things in the lower world, both classes -and individuals, have their original form (types) in the higher -worlds, so that there is nothing without a purpose, but everything -has a higher significance. The universe resembles a giant tree with -a wealth of branches and leaves, whose roots are the Sefiroth; or, it -is a closely wrought chain, the last link of which hangs on to the -higher world; or, a great sea, which is constantly filled from an -eternally flowing source. The human soul in particular is a privileged -citizen of the higher world, is in immediate connection with all the -Sefiroth, and consequently it can exert some influence on them, and -even on the Deity. By virtue of its moral and religious conduct the -soul can increase or diminish the flow of grace from the Deity, through -the channel of the intermediary beings, its good actions causing an -uninterrupted flow, and its evil conduct occasioning its discontinuance. - -The people of Israel were specially chosen to promote the fulness of -grace, and therefore the preservation of the world. For that purpose, -they received the Revelation and the Law, with its 613 religious -ordinances, in order to act on the Sefiroth through every religious -act, and, so to speak, compel the dispensing of their bounty. The -ceremonies consequently have a deeply mystical meaning and imperishable -importance: they constitute the magic means whereby the whole universe -is supported, and blessed. "The righteous man is the foundation of -the world." The Temple, and the sacrificial service especially, had -a particularly deep significance in keeping alive the connection of -the lower world with the higher. The earthly Temple corresponded with -the heavenly Temple (the Sefiroth). The priestly blessing, which was -pronounced with the ten fingers raised, prompted the Ten Sefiroth -to pour out their gracious gifts upon the lower world. After the -destruction of the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and -accordingly prayer has a peculiar, mystical importance. The prescribed -ritual has an unfailing effect, if the worshiper knows how to address -himself, on any particular occasion, to the proper Sefira, for prayer -must be addressed only to it, and not directly to the Deity. The -mystery of prayer assumes an important place in the Kabbala. Every -word, even every syllable in the prayers, every movement made during -worship, every ceremonial symbol is interpreted by the Kabbala with -reference to the higher world. The Kabbalists took a special interest -in the mystical explanation of the religious laws of Judaism. This was -the center of gravity of their system; by its means they could oppose -the Maimunists. Whilst the latter, from their philosophical point of -view, declared certain precepts to be meaningless and obsolete, the -mystics treated these ordinances as of the highest moment. They were -therefore considered the preservers of Judaism. - -The vital importance to Judaism of the doctrine of retribution and -the inquiry into the condition of the soul after death had been too -strenuously asserted by Maimuni for the Kabbala to omit to drag them -also into the province of its theory. The Kabbala claimed great -antiquity for its views on these questions; but their youth and -derivation from another system of thought are obvious. Starting from -the doctrine that all souls had been created in the beginning, the -Kabbala taught that these souls were destined to enter upon an earthly -career, to pass into bodies, and to remain connected with them for a -certain period of time. The soul during its earthly life was subjected -to the test whether, in spite of its connection with the body, it can -keep itself pure from earthly grossness. If it can do this, it ascends -purified after death to the domain of spirits, and becomes a part of -the world of the Sefiroth. If, on the other hand, it becomes tainted -with earthliness, it is compelled to return to the bodily life (but -not more than three times) till, after repeated tests, it can soar -aloft in a pure state. On the doctrine of the transmigration of the -soul, an important point of the Kabbala, was based its doctrine of -reward and punishment. The sufferings to which the pious, apparently -without cause, are subjected on earth, serve the purpose of purifying -their souls. God's justice, therefore, ought not to be questioned, -if the righteous are unfortunate, and the godless are prosperous. As -most souls during their earthly existence become lost in sensuality, -forgetting their heavenly origin, and therefore are obliged to wander -through new bodies, it happens that the larger number of souls are -such as are born again, while new souls rarely come on earth. Through -the sinfulness of man, whereby the same souls repeatedly enter bodies, -the great redemption is postponed, for the new souls cannot come into -existence, the world being almost entirely filled by old ones. The -great time of grace, the spiritual completion of the world, cannot -come until all created souls have been born on earth. Even the soul of -the Messiah, which like others abides in the spiritual world of the -Sefiroth in its pre-mundane existence, cannot appear until every soul -has dwelt in a body. The soul of the Messiah will be the last of the -souls, and the Messiah therefore will come only at the end of days. -Then at length the great jubilee will arrive, when all souls, purified -and refined, will have returned from earth to heaven. The furthering -and hastening of this time of grace depends, therefore, on the wisdom -and religious conduct of the righteous. The adepts in Kabbala thus -acquired extraordinary importance; they were sureties, not only for -Israel, but for the whole order of the world, for through their conduct -they might hasten the birth of the soul of the Messiah, the last in the -storehouse of souls. - -The Kabbala boasted that it had disclosed the secret of Judaism much -better than Maimuni, and had shown its relation to the higher world, -and to the shaping of the future. The Kabbala had unlimited play for -its fantastic interpretations. In distortion of the Scriptures, the -Kabbalists out-ran the Alexandrine allegorists, the Agadists, the -Church Fathers, and the Jewish and Christian religious philosophers. -Azriel, indeed, coquetted with philosophy, and endeavored to make the -Kabbala acceptable to thinkers. But another Kabbalist of this time, -Jacob ben Sheshet Gerundi, of Gerona (who wrote in about 1243 or -1246), deliberately opposed his secret lore to the explanations of the -philosophers. He repudiated any truce with them, and could not find -scorn enough for philosophical "heretics and despisers of the Law." -Gerona, the native place of Ezra and Azriel, of Jacob ben Sheshet, -and Nachmani, was the first warm nest for the fledgeling Kabbala. -This occult science, which made its appearance with a flourish, rests -on deception, at best, on the self-deception of its founders. Its -theory is not old, as it pretended, but very modern; at any rate it -is not found in Jewish antiquity, but dates from the twilight of -Greek philosophy. The Kabbala is a grotesque distortion of Jewish and -philosophical ideas. In order to make it appear ancient and authentic, -the compilers had recourse to fraud. They circulated a Kabbalistic -manuscript which purported to have been composed by an honored -Talmudical doctor, Nechunya ben ha-Kana, and others. In vain the -highly respected Meir ben Simon and Rabbi Meshullam of Beziers called -attention to this forgery, which bore the title Bahir (Luminous), and -condemned it to be burnt, as it contained blasphemies against the -greatness of God; the book Bahir maintained its ground, and was in -later times used as evidence of the great age of the Kabbala. - -The labors of Azriel and Ezra in behalf of the secret science might -have had but poor results, if Nachmani had not ranged himself under -their banner. At first blush, it is indeed hard to conceive how this -clear, keen-witted, subtle thinker, who, in the province of the Talmud, -had the ability to shed light upon every obscurity, could be induced -to join the votaries of the Kabbala, and permit himself to be blinded -by the false light of the Bahir. But on deeper examination of his way -of thinking, this phenomenon ceases to be a paradox. Nachmani belonged -to that numerous class of men who can form a correct judgment on -single objects, but are unable to comprehend a great whole. Maimuni's -philosophical line of argument repelled him on account of its prosaic -nature; the Kabbala, on the other hand, attracted him because his -belief in miracles and respect for authority found nourishment therein. -When he, a pious rabbi and deep Talmudist, had acknowledged the truth -of the Kabbala, its authority became established; where Nachmani -believed unconditionally, those less gifted dared not doubt. A poet, -Meshullam En-Vidas Dafiera, an opponent of the Maimunists, accordingly -ranges him with Ezra and Azriel, as a defender of the truth of the -secret lore. - - "The son of Nachman is our stronghold sure, - Ezra and Azriel know the hidden things. - They are my priests; my altar they illume; - They are my stars that never cease to shine; - They can compute the meanings of God's words, - Only from fear of scoffers are they silent." - -Thus Nachmani became a chief pillar of the Kabbala, the more so because -he spoke of it only casually, and concealed more of it than he revealed. - -Thus, within barely four decades after the death of Maimuni, Judaism -was divided into three parties; and this was the beginning of a -retrograde movement which led to degradation. A marked division was -established between the philosophical school, the strict Talmudists and -the Kabbalists. The first named, who regarded Maimuni as their chief, -strove to interpret the doctrines of Judaism in a rational manner; -they either adhered to the arguments of their leader, or deduced, from -his premises, bold conclusions which had escaped his notice, or which -he had not desired to infer, and they almost entirely broke away from -the Talmud. The strict Talmudists occupied themselves exclusively with -Halachic controversies, and had no desire to become acquainted with -philosophical notions; they were averse to science and to inquiry in -the domain of religion, and they interpreted the Agadas in a purely -literal sense, but they also turned aside from the Kabbala. Lastly, -the Kabbalists were prejudiced against both the literal Talmudists -and the rationalistic Maimunists. At first, they maintained friendly -terms with the Talmudists because their numbers were few, and the -conclusions, at variance with Judaism, which could be drawn from their -system, were not yet recognized, for both had to combat a common enemy. -Hence the Kabbalists at first directed their attacks solely against the -Maimunists, but before the end of the century the Kabbalists and the -Talmudists had become enemies, attacking each other as vigorously as -they had formerly assailed their common opponents, the philosophers. - -The consequences, on the one hand, of the degradation of the Jews, -through the papacy, and on the other, of the internal discord, soon -made themselves felt, and produced an unhappy condition of affairs. -The happy contentment, the joyousness, the delight in original, -intellectual work, which, combined with spiritual activity, had borne -such beautiful fruit, had all long since passed away. Sad earnestness -filled the hearts of the Spanish and Provencal Jews, and weighed -down, as with lead, every lofty aspiration of their souls. The joyous -singers became silent, as if the icy breath of the gloomy present had -suddenly caused their warm blood to freeze. How could a Jew pour forth -merry strains of song with the badge of dishonor on his breast? The -neo-Hebraic poetry, which, for three centuries, had produced such noble -works of genius, perished altogether, or bore only faded leaves. The -satires and epigrams which the Maimunists and anti-Maimunists hurled -against each other were the last products of the neo-Hebraic muse -of Spain. But these verses no longer bubbled over with laughter and -merriment; they were full of earnest logic and argument. They were -no longer like the epigrams of the flourishing era of poetry, which -resembled prattling maidens, but were like quarrelsome scolds who had -lost the charm of youth. Poets themselves felt that the source of the -neo-Hebraic poetry had been exhausted, and they fed on the memories of -its Golden Age. - -The last representatives of the neo-Hebraic poetry were Jehuda -Alcharisi, the untiring translator and warm partisan of Maimuni, then -Joseph ben Sabara, and lastly Jehuda ben Sabbatai. These three men, as -if acting in collusion with one another, created the satirical romance. -This consisted in the introduction of fictitious characters, and the -use of exuberant rhetoric; but there is more of strained attempt at -wit than of graceful skill in their poems. Alcharisi, in his romance, -"Tachkemoni," under the disguise of Heber the Kenite, and in dialogues -with the poet, introduces a variety of subjects, both humorous and -serious, intermingling rhymed prose with verse, and interweaving -little episodes. This method was pursued also by the poet, Joseph ben -Sabara, probably a physician in Barcelona, in his romance, "Diversions" -(Shaashuim). The third poet of this class, Jehuda ben Isaac ben -Sabbatai, also of Barcelona, was considered by Alcharisi to be one of -the best masters of the art; his performances, however, do not in any -way justify this opinion. His dialogue, "Between Wisdom and Wealth," is -very poor in poetical ideas. His satirical romance, "The Woman-hater," -is not much better; he lacked entirely the broad conceptions of his -contemporaries. - -The decay of the neo-Hebraic poetry was very rapid. After the death -of Sabbatai it fell into a yet more forlorn condition, and a century -passed before a worthy successor made his appearance. Original power of -poetic production had died out, and those who were acquainted with the -manipulation of language, and could construct tolerably good rhymes, -merely imitated the work of their predecessors. Abraham ben Chasdai, a -Maimunist, of Barcelona, re-wrote, from an Arabic translation, a moral -dialogue between a worldly-minded and a penitent man. This he put into -a Hebrew form under the title of "The Prince and the Nazarite." - -A poor copyist, Berachya ben Natronai Nakdan, called in the dialect of -the country Crispia (flourished about 1230-1270), turned his attention -to fables, which had been popular among the ancient Hebrews. He was, -however, unable to invent, but chiefly elaborated in the neo-Hebraic -form the productions of earlier fabulists. Among his one hundred and -seven Fox Fables (Mishle Shualim) there are very few original ones. -Berachya desired to hold a mirror up to his contemporaries, "who -spurned the truth, and held out the golden scepter to falsehood"; -plants and animals were employed to describe the perversity and -depravity of mankind. - -The only merit possessed by the fables both of Berachya and of -Ibn-Sahula, a minor poet of northern Spain (1245), who also moralized -in perfervid words in the "Fables of Ancient Times" (Mashal -ha-Kadmoni), as also by the moral tale, "The Prince and the Dervish" of -Abraham ben Chasdai, consists in the happy imitation of the Biblical -style, and in the ingenious application of the verses of Scripture -to an entirely different line of thought. This it is which, in the -eyes of scholars, imparts to their language an air of uncommon wit, -attractiveness and piquancy. It is doubtful whether Joseph Ezobi -should be included among the poets of the time. It is showing too much -honor to his writings to term them poetry; and they would be silently -ignored when neo-Hebraic poetry is referred to, were it not that, -through frequent transcripts and the multiplication of copies in Latin -and French translations, the attention of the historian of literature -has been drawn to them, and they have acquired a certain fame. Joseph -Ezobi (or Esobi) ben Chanan, of Orange (near Avignon, about 1230-1250), -dedicated to his son Samuel an epithalamium, called "The Silver Dish" -(Kaarat Kesef), in which he laid down admonitions and rules of life. -Among other things, he commanded him "to hold aloof from the wisdom -of the Greeks, which resembled the vine of Sodom, and implanted the -seeds of disease in the mind of man." He suggested to him to study -Hebrew grammar and the Bible; but to devote his attention chiefly to -the Talmud. This is sufficient to characterize the man and the bent of -his mind. Joseph Ezobi's verses show a fair command of language, but -they are deficient both in power of expression and in gracefulness; he -is one of those versatile poetasters who arose at this time in large -numbers, especially in Provence. - -The various branches of learning degenerated in the post-Maimunic -time even more than the art of poetry. How could a sound exegesis -flourish when both philosophers and Kabbalists vied with each other -in subtilizing and misinterpreting the meaning of Holy Writ, so as -to obtain Biblical support for their theories? Hebrew grammar at the -same time also fell into decay, under the subtle quibblings of the -philosophers and the Kabbalists; the excellent productions of earlier -days sank into oblivion. David Kimchi was the last exegete and -grammarian for a long space of time. Nachmani, it is true, occupied -himself with the exposition of the Scriptures, and very often called -in the aid of grammar, and displayed traces of correct philological -theory; he did not, however, cultivate these branches for their own -sake, but in the service of a prejudiced opinion, and especially in -controverting the views of an opponent. Thus, the magnificent garlands -of Jewish learning that had been woven by the Jewish Spanish thinkers -and inquirers after truth gradually faded. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -PUBLIC DISCUSSIONS, AND THE BURNING OF THE TALMUD. - - Pope Gregory IX--Emperor Frederick II and the Jewish - Scholars, Jehuda Ibn-Matka and Jacob Anatoli--The Jewish - Legislation of Frederick of Austria--The Martyrs of Aquitaine - and Gregory IX--Louis IX of France and his Enmity to the - Jews--Attacks on The Talmud--The Apostate Nicholas-Donin - --Disputation at the French Court between Yechiel of Paris - and Nicholas-Donin--Judah of Melun--The Talmud burnt at - Paris--The Church and Jewish Physicians--Moses Ibn-Tibbon - and Shem-Tob Tortosi--Papal Bull acquitting Jews of the - Blood-accusation--The Last French Tossafists--The Jews - of England--The Jewish Parliament--Alfonso the Wise and - the Jews of Spain--Meir de Malea and his Sons--The Jewish - Astronomers Don Judah Cohen and Don Zag Ibn-Said--The Jews of - Aragon--De Penyaforte and the Apostate Pablo Christiani-- - The First Censorship of the Talmud--Nachmani's Disputation - with Pablo--Influence of Nachmani--The Karaites. - -1236-1270 C. E. - - -Whilst these internal divisions continued, the poisonous seed that -had been scattered abroad by the papacy was producing abundance of -evil fruit. Persecutions of the Jews, which had hitherto been merely -local, began to spread like a contagion, and became every year more -violent and general. Innocent III, it is true, did not aim at the -complete annihilation of the Jews, but only at their degradation. He -desired to crush them down to a state lower than that of the rustic -serfs, for which purpose the whole weight of the society of the Middle -Ages, consisting of princes, nobles of high or low rank, the clergy of -every degree, burghers and peasants, was to bear heavily upon them, -to afflict them grievously, and to reduce them to a most pitiable -condition. The humiliation of the Jews afforded great pleasure to the -lower grades of the people, who were rejoiced to behold a class of -human beings, sunk yet lower than themselves, against whom they could -use their clumsy wit and rough fists. This people, which was branded -with a distinguishing badge by the Church and society, was regarded -by the ignorant mob as a race of outcasts, who might be put to death -like filthy dogs, without any feeling of remorse. All sorts of crimes -were attributed to the Jews, and credited. Fierce attacks on the Jews -were repeated from time to time, and in various places, on the plea of -child murder, and with such an air of truth in the charge that even -well-disposed Christians were filled with doubts, and were inclined -to believe the tissue of lies. It happened once that the body of a -Christian was found between Lauda and Bischofsheim (in Baden). Who -were the murderers? Jews, of course. On this altogether groundless -accusation, the Jewish men, women and children of both towns were -attacked by the mob and the clergy, and, without being brought to -trial, were put to death. Then eight learned and pious men were brought -up to answer for the supposed assassination of a Christian (on the 2d -and 3d January, 1235); they were put to the rack, and, probably in -consequence of the confessions wrung from them by the torture, they -were executed. The plundering of Jewish houses was the invariable -accompaniment of such massacres. The Jews in the neighboring districts -thereupon implored Pope Gregory IX to grant them a charter, which might -protect them against the arbitrary action of the murderous mob and -the bigoted judges. In reply, he issued a bull to all Christendom (on -the 3d of May, 1235), which repeated and confirmed the constitution -of Pope Innocent III. So little sense of justice existed that it was -the opinion of many that the Vicar of Christ had allowed himself to be -induced to publish this bull by a bribe of a large sum of money from -the Jews. However, whether this papal decree had emanated from love of -justice, or had been the outcome of bribery, like many previous ones in -favor of the Jews, it remained a dead letter. The spirit of intolerance -and of Jew-hatred which was taught in the schools, and was preached in -the pulpit by the Dominicans, became infused into the very blood of -men, and the noblest natures were not able to escape contamination. -Of what advantage was it to the Jews that they produced comparatively -the largest number of scholars, who first rendered science accessible -to Christians, either by means of translations and expositions of -didactic writings in foreign languages, or through their own activity -and discoveries, especially in medicine? They received no benefit from -providing the marts of trade with wares, and the book market with works -of genius, for the Christians would acknowledge no thanks to them for -their labor, or repaid them by splitting their skulls. - -As an eloquent illustration of the attitude of the Middle Ages with -regard to the Jews, the conduct of the greatest and most cultured -German emperor towards them may be instanced. Frederick II, the last of -the Hohenstaufen line of emperors, was the most genial and unprejudiced -monarch of the first half of the thirteenth century. A Sicilian rather -than a German, he had a liking for the sciences, and supported men -of genius with princely liberality. He took an interest in having -writings on philosophy and astronomy translated from the Arabic, and -for this purpose he employed many learned Jews. The emperor carried -on a correspondence with a young Jewish scholar, Jehuda ben Solomon -Cohen Ibn-Matka, of Toledo (born in about 1215, and wrote in 1247). -His learning produced so deep an impression on Emperor Frederick that -he submitted a number of scientific questions to him, and expressed -pleasure at the answers returned to them. The emperor then probably -induced him to come to Italy (Tuscany). Jehuda Ibn-Matka possessed the -right of free entry to the imperial court. - -The emperor invited another Jewish sage, Jacob Anatoli (Anatolio), to -leave Provence and take up his residence in Naples. He granted the -scholar an annual stipend, so that he might be at leisure to apply -himself to the translation of Arabic works of a scientific character. -This man, whose full name was Jacob ben Abba-Mari ben Simon, or Samson -(flourished about 1200-1250), was the son-in-law of the prolific -translator but sterile author, Samuel Ibn-Tibbon, who was praised by -the Maimunists, and hated by the strict Talmudists. Anatoli resembled -him as a son resembles his father, and in a manner continued his work -of translation. Like Ibn-Tibbon he did not possess any creative genius, -but was, so to speak, a handicraftsman in philosophy, who translated -Arabic writings on this subject into Hebrew. He had undergone special -training for this work with his father-in-law and his Christian friend, -Michael Scotus. He had so exalted a reverence for Maimuni that he -placed him in the rank of the prophets, and was naturally full of wrath -against those who termed him a heretic. "These malicious bigots," he -remarked, "would have condemned even David and Asaph, had they lived in -these times." By the aid of philosophical catchwords, he interpreted -Holy Writ in the spirit of Maimuni. He also tried to refer miracles, -as far as possible, to natural causes, and was, in short, one of those -men who divested Judaism of much of its mystical character. Following -this method, he delivered public discourses on Sabbaths and festivals, -which he collected into one volume (Malmed), which, in spite of its -mediocrity, became the cherished book of the orthodox Provencal -congregations. Frederick II entrusted him with the task of translating -the writings of Aristotle, with the commentaries of the Arabic -philosopher Averroes (Ibn-Roshd), hitherto unknown to Christians. A -Christian doctor, probably Michael Scotus, the court astrologer of -the emperor, translated these works into Latin, probably under the -supervision of Anatoli. - -From all this it might be expected that the emperor Frederick -entertained a favorable feeling towards the Jews, especially as, if -only a portion of the accusations which his contemporaries leveled -against his orthodoxy be true, he was by no means convinced of the -truths of Christianity. Pope Gregory IX, his mortal foe, frankly -reproached him with having said in public that the world had been -deluded by three impostors, Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet, of whom two -had died an honorable death, but the third had ended his days on the -cross. The emperor can, therefore, hardly be supposed to have taken -deep offense at the unbelief of the Jews; yet in spite of all this, -the emperor Frederick was no whit less an enemy of the Jews than his -antipode, the bigoted Saint Louis of France. A bitter enemy to the -papacy, which hindered his undertakings in every possible way, he -nevertheless executed in his realm the canonical decree which excluded -all Jews from public offices, making an exception only in the case -of a certain Jewish clerk of the mint at Messina. In his capital, -Palermo, he shut the Jews up in a Ghetto, an act of intolerance which -far outstripped that of the popes of the time. In Austria, the Jews -were permitted to fill public offices, under the rule of the Princes of -Babenberg. The Archduke Frederick I, the Valiant, recognized the worth -of the Jews as promoters of wealth, entrusted the care of his finances -to Jewish officials, and granted to them titles of honor. Two brothers, -Leblin and Nekelo, were officially styled chamberlains of the Duke of -Austria. Frederick I of Austria (in 1244) granted a royal decree to the -Jews of his domain, which appears to have been inspired by a love of -justice and humanity, and which became an example for other similarly -disposed potentates who desired to protect their Jewish subjects from -injury and violence. This statute, which consisted of thirty clauses, -aimed especially at affording protection to the Jewish inhabitants -of Austria against murder and assault. If a Christian killed a Jew, -he was to suffer the extreme penalty of the law; if he wounded him, -he was to be compelled to pay a heavy fine, or lose his hand. If the -murderer of a Jew could not be convicted by means of direct proof of -the commission of the crime, but strong circumstantial evidence fixed -the deed on him, then the relatives or friends of the Jew could appoint -a champion to meet the accused in a duel. A Christian who made a -murderous attack upon a Jewess was sentenced to the loss of his hand. -Grave charges involving the persons or property of Jews were not to -be determined by the evidence of a Christian, unless a Jewish witness -confirmed the misdemeanor. A Christian who kidnapped a Jewish child -for the purpose of compulsory baptism, was to be punished as a thief. -The statute of Frederick the Valiant also allowed the Jews to exercise -their own jurisdiction, so that the judges of the land could have no -power over them. The synagogues and cemeteries of the Jews were also -to be respected by Christians, and the latter were liable to heavy -punishment for any outrage upon them. The statute further guaranteed to -all Jews the privilege of free passage and free trading throughout the -country, and the right to loan money on pledges. The rates of interest -were limited, but were permitted to be sufficiently high. The right -of accepting pledges, which had been granted to members of the Jewish -religion, was strictly regulated as an object of vital importance -for both the Jews and the Duke. This decree, moreover, shielded them -against paying extortionate sums to the Christians for the conveyance -of Jewish corpses from place to place. The Archduke Frederick remarked -that he conceded these privileges to the Jews, in order that "they also -might participate in his grace and good wishes." This statute also -proved beneficial to the Jews of other lands, for within twenty years -it was introduced into Hungary, Bohemia, Greater Poland, Meissen, and -Thuringia, and later on into Silesia. - -A duke of inferior rank thus set the example of protecting the -Jews against caprice by means of fixed laws. The powerful emperor -Frederick II thereupon censured Frederick the Valiant for his friendly -attitude towards the Jews, and he, who himself had been expelled from -the Church, published an edict that the Jews of Austria should be -rigorously excluded from all public offices lest the race, condemned to -perpetual slavery, oppress the Christians through its office-holding -members. With particular satisfaction he pronounced the sentence that -the Jews, wherever they were located, were the "servi camerae" of -the emperor. He adhered so strictly to the canonical decrees of the -Lateran Council against them, that he was even more rigorous than the -kings of Spain in executing the law which compelled the Jews in his -hereditary provinces to wear a distinguishing badge, and he crushed -them under a load of taxes. It is true that he permitted those who had -come to Sicily from Africa (whence they had fled before the fanatical -fury of the Almohades), to take up their residence under his sway. -But whilst he remitted taxes from other colonies for ten years, he at -once burdened the Jewish immigrants with heavy imposts, and restricted -them to agricultural pursuits. He, indeed, promised his "servi camerae" -especial protection, but nevertheless he treated them as a despised -race of human beings. Henceforward the three powers of Christianity, -the princes, the Church, and the people, combined to utterly destroy -the feeblest of nations. - -When Pope Gregory IX gave orders for another crusade to be preached, -the warriors of the cross assembled in Aquitania, made an attack upon -the Jewish communities of Anjou, Poitou, in the cities of Bordeaux, -Angouleme, and elsewhere, in order to compel them to accept baptism. -But as the Jews remained steadfast to their faith, the crusaders acted -with unprecedented cruelty towards them, trampling down many of them -beneath the hoofs of their horses. They spared neither children nor -pregnant women, and left the corpses lying unburied, a prey to wild -beasts and birds. They destroyed the sacred books, burnt the houses -of the Jews, and possessed themselves of their property. On this -occasion, more than three thousand persons perished (in the summer -of 1236), whilst more than five hundred accepted Christianity. Once -again did the surviving Jews complain to the pope of this unendurable -cruelty. The pope felt himself obliged to send a letter about the -matter to the prelates of the Church in Bordeaux, Angouleme, and other -bishoprics, and also to King Louis IX of France (September, 1236), in -which he deplored the events that had taken place, and signified that -the Church desired neither the utter annihilation of the Jews, nor -their compulsory baptism. What, however, could occasional letters of -admonition avail against the bitter feeling of abhorrence towards the -Jews that had been stirred up by the Church? The otherwise noble and -well-disposed monarch, Louis IX, was so ruled by his prejudice that -he could not bear to look at a Jew. He encouraged the conversion of -the Jews in every way, and permitted the children of converted fathers -to be torn away from their mothers, who still adhered to Judaism. The -Jews had only one means wherewith to appease the rage that was kindled -against them, and that was--money. In England, by its influence, they -induced King Henry III to proclaim throughout his territories that no -one should offer any injury to a Jew. But this means proved to be a -double-edged sword that turned against the very people it was intended -to benefit. In order to raise large sums of money, the Jews were -compelled to charge extortionate interest, and even to have recourse -to fraud. In this way, they incurred the hatred of the populace, and -subjected themselves to further outrages. The repeated complaints about -their usury prompted Louis IX to fix the rate of interest, and in many -cases to remit a portion of the debts owing to Jews. But when this -same king determined to repress usury, and called together a number of -barons to decide upon the matter, the latter asserted that the peasants -and merchants were unable to dispense with loans from the Jews, and -that the Jews were preferable to the Christian money-lenders, because -the latter oppressed their Christian debtors with still higher rates of -usurious interest. - -In the midst of all these troubles, petty inflictions and persecutions, -there was only one spot in which the Jew might feel himself quite -happy, and was able to forget his sufferings. The house of learning, -where young and old gathered together in order to study the Talmud, -was their only haven of peace. Absorbed in their study, the Talmud -enthusiasts became entirely oblivious of the outer world, with its -bitter hate, its malicious laws and its cruel tortures. Here they -were princes, the majesty of thought cast a halo about their brows, -and their delight in spiritual activity transfigured their features. -Their whole happiness consisted in solving some difficult problem -in the Talmud, or in throwing light upon some obscure point, or in -discovering something new which had escaped the notice of their -predecessors. They looked neither for office nor honor in reward -for their profound studies, and received no tangible recompense for -their nocturnal vigils. They desired only to gratify their intense -longing for knowledge, to satisfy their sense of religious duty, at -best, assure themselves of reward in the hereafter. The all-important -occupation for all was study, and the flower of all scholarship was the -Talmud. As soon as a child was able to lisp, he was led on the morning -of Pentecost from his house to the synagogue or "school," with his -eyes veiled, in order that they might not encounter anything profane. -There the Hebrew alphabet, in its usual and also in a reversed order, -and some appropriate verses were read to him. He was rewarded with a -honey cake and an egg, with Scriptural verses inscribed on them. The -day on which the child was first introduced to the Law was celebrated -by his parents and the whole congregation as a festive occasion. If -he proved at all intelligent, he was allowed to begin the Talmud, -after having spent some time over the Bible. To be a student of the -Talmud was esteemed the highest honor. Disgrace was the portion of -the ignoramus (Am ha-Arez). A studious youth passed many years in the -house of learning even till the time of his marriage; and to the end -of his life the earning of his livelihood was held to be of secondary -importance, and the study of the Talmud the aim of his existence. This -absorbing study of the Talmud was certainly one-sided, but there was -something ideal about it. The hand of the enemy had up to this time not -violated this inner sanctuary. The temporal authorities did not concern -themselves about the matter, the clergy had no power over the domestic -affairs of the Jews; here excommunication itself proved ineffectual. - -This domestic peace of the Jews was, however, soon to be destroyed; -even from their intellectual asylum they were to be driven forth. The -leader in the movement was a baptized Jew, who incited the temporal -and the spiritual powers against his former co-religionists. A man, -named Donin (or Dunin), a Talmudist from La Rochelle, in the north of -France, conceived doubts of the validity of the Talmud and the oral -law. For this he was excommunicated by the French rabbis. Having no -position either among Jews or among Christians, Donin determined to -accept baptism, and assumed the name of Nicholas. Filled with hatred -against the rabbis and the Talmud, the apostate determined to revenge -himself on both. Probably urged on by the clergy, he became the -instigator of the great autos-da-fe of the Jews and their writings, -and it was he that occasioned the bloody persecution in Poitou. His -appetite for revenge was, however, not yet satiated. Donin or Nicholas -betook himself to Pope Gregory IX, and brought charges against the -Talmud, saying that it distorted the words of Holy Writ, and that in -the Agadic portions there were to be found disgraceful representations -of God; that in spite of this, it was held in higher estimation by -the rabbis than the Bible, and finally that it was filled with abuse -against the founder of the Christian religion and the Virgin. Donin -demonstrated to the pope that it was the Talmud which prevented the -Jews from accepting Christianity, and that without it they would -certainly give up their unbelief. The excess of veneration paid by the -compilers of the Talmud to earlier lawgivers caused cruel suffering. -Without considering the sage remark of Abtalion, "Ye wise men, be -cautious with your words," they, in their desire to immortalize every -utterance, every familiar conversation, every trivial controversy, and -even every joke made by one of the Tanaim or Amoraim, had incorporated -these in the Talmud, thinking that the outer world would be none the -wiser. But the sins of the fathers were visited upon the children. On -account of various unguarded statements, the Talmud was dragged before -the judgment-bench to answer these charges, and the whole of the Jewish -world, which had accepted the Talmud as its guide in life, was made -responsible for its contents. This was the first time that it was thus -accused, but in the course of the century the charge was repeated -frequently and in a more bitter spirit. The apostate had made extracts -from the Talmud, and formulated thirty-five articles, upon which he -based his charges. Some of these alleged that the Talmud contained -many gross errors and absurdities, and also rank blasphemies against -God; in others, it was stated that it upheld dishonesty and duplicity -in intercourse with Christians; others again asserted that the Talmud -insulted and blasphemed Jesus, the Virgin, and the Church. Compared -with the spiteful attacks which the Evangelists, the Church Fathers -down to Hieronymus and Augustine, and various ecclesiastical scholars -have made, with the intention of humiliating and injuring the Jews, the -few passages in the Talmud concerning Jesus seem harmless jests; but -the Church was waging successful war against the Synagogue, and was -very sensitive to any disrespectful utterance. In his charges against -the Talmud, Nicholas-Donin had, however, distorted the truth. He had -stated that the Talmudical writings taught that it was a meritorious -action to kill even the best among the Christians; that a Christian -who rested on the Sabbath day or studied the Law was to be punished -with death; that it was lawful to deceive a Christian; that Jews were -permitted to break a promise made on oath; and he had made many other -lying assertions. - -The guilt of the Talmud, which implied that of the Jews, seemed -unmistakable to Pope Gregory, for whom the apostate had drawn up -these grounds of accusation, and to whom he had communicated them -both by word of mouth and in writing. He immediately dispatched to -the heads of the Church in France, England, Castile, Aragon, and -Portugal, transcripts of the list of charges tabulated by Nicholas, -and commanded them to confiscate all copies of the Talmud--on the -morning of the first Saturday in Lent, when the Jews assembled in their -synagogues--and to hand them over to the Dominicans and Franciscans. -He also wrote to the monarchs of those countries, and called upon them -to support the Church with their temporal power. The pope further -admonished the provincials of the two orders of monks, who had -inquisitorial power over books and doctrines, to submit the contents -of the Talmudical writings to an examination; and if their judgment -corroborated the charges of Nicholas-Donin, they were to burn the -volumes of the Talmud (9 June, 1239). - -Thus a new weapon for the destruction of Judaism was brought into -play, and had this papal decree been rigidly executed, the spiritual -life of the Jews, which was intimately bound up with the Talmud, would -have been endangered in its most vital part. The pope gave Nicholas -a special letter to be delivered to William, Bishop of Paris, which -charged him with the vigorous persecution of the Talmud in France, -the chief seat of Talmudical erudition, and the original home of the -Tossafists. - -However, when the pope's edict was to be executed, it appeared that -the pretended Vicar of God upon earth did not really possess, even -in the zenith of his power, the great influence he was supposed to -have. Only in such places where personal interests and passions were -concerned did the princes thoroughly carry into effect the violent -policy of the pope; otherwise, unless the rulers were particularly -bigoted, but little heed was paid to papal decrees even in the Middle -Ages. The command of Gregory to confiscate the Talmud was entirely -disregarded in Spain and in England, at least there is no record of -any hostile measures in these countries. Only in France, where the -priest-ridden and weak-minded Louis IX, having attained his majority, -had nominally assumed the reins of government, was the Talmud really -confiscated. The Jews were compelled under penalty of death to -surrender their copies (March, 1240). The Talmud was then put on trial. -Four distinguished rabbis of northern France were commanded by the -king to hold a public disputation with Nicholas, either to refute the -imputations leveled against the Talmud, or to make confession that it -contained abuse against Christianity and blasphemies against God. Each -of these rabbis was to be examined separately, and to give replies to -the accuser. - -The four rabbis who were summoned to act as advocates on behalf of the -Talmud were Yechiel (Vivo) of Paris, Moses of Coucy, who had returned -from his embassy to Spain, Jehuda ben David of Melun, and Samuel ben -Solomon of Chateau-Thierry. Yechiel, who was more eloquent than his -associates, and, besides, had more frequently entered into theological -discussions with antagonists who belonged to the Church, was first -called, unaccompanied by his friends. He was not asked to controvert -the accusations made against them, but to confess that these were -founded on truth. The disputation was held in Latin at the royal court -(on the 5th of Tamuz--25th June, 1240), in the presence of the bishops -of Paris and Senlis, of many Dominicans, and of the wise queen-mother -Blanche, who for all practical purposes was at the head of affairs. -At first Yechiel refused to answer. He based his objection upon the -constitution of the popes, which had assured independence to the -Jews in their domestic concerns. He remarked that the Talmud was the -very essence of their life, in behalf of which numbers of Jews were -prepared to die. The queen, however, allayed his fears by assuring him -that their lives were in no danger; she would protect them, and he -was only required to answer the questions asked of him. When Nicholas -demanded that Rabbi Yechiel should take an oath to answer to the best -of his knowledge and ability, as otherwise he might attempt to pervert -the truth by subtleties and evasions, the rabbi refused to do so. He -said that never, in the course of his life, had he taken an oath, and -that he would not invoke the name of God in vain. Thereupon the queen -released him from the necessity of taking an oath. The discussion -which now took place turned upon the two points, whether there were -in the Talmud immoral sentiments and offensive passages against the -Deity, and whether it contained insulting remarks concerning Jesus. -Yechiel disproved the charge of blasphemy and immorality. With regard -to the second of the accusations, he asserted that there could be no -doubt that many odious facts were related in the Talmud concerning a -Jesus, the son of Pantheras; these, however, had no reference to Jesus -of Nazareth, but to one of a similar name who had lived long before -him. He himself believed that this declaration was true, and affirmed -it with the solemnity of an oath. Tradition and Talmudical chronology -had misled him into believing that the Jesus whose name occurred in -the Talmud was not identical with the founder of Christianity. Yechiel -also contended, among other things, that the Father of the Church, -Hieronymus, and other Church Fathers, who were acquainted with the -Talmud, had never asserted that it contained sentiments hostile to the -Christian faith, and that Nicholas was the first one to raise these -false imputations, inspired as he was with feelings of malice and -revenge against his former co-religionists, who had expelled him from -their community on account of his heresy. - -The examination of Yechiel of Paris lasted two days, during which the -Jewish congregations fasted, and offered up prayers to God to avert -misfortune from their heads. On the third day, the second rabbi, Judah -of Melun, was examined, without having been previously allowed to -confer with Yechiel, who was kept in custody. In the main, he agreed -with the statements of Yechiel, that the defamatory passages in the -Talmud concerning Jesus did not refer to the man who was held in such -great honor by the Christians, and that the Talmud was indispensable -to the religious life of the Jews. The two remaining rabbis were -not required to undergo an examination. As the result of this three -days' discussion (25th-27th June, 1240), the commission, which had -been appointed to make an inquiry into the Talmud, condemned it to -be burnt, on the ground that Yechiel and Judah of Melun had been -compelled to admit the truth of several of the charges. The sentence of -condemnation, however, remained unexecuted. It appears that Archbishop -Walter (Guatier) Cornutus, of Sens, a prelate influential with the -king, had interceded on behalf of the Jews, and had succeeded in having -many of the confiscated volumes restored to their owners. From a -Christian source of information, which was intended to calumniate the -Jews, but which only points conclusively to the corruptibility of the -Church dignitaries of the time, it is gleaned that this prelate was won -over to the side of the Jews by a bribe. The French Jews were filled -with great joy at the unexpected issue of this event which was of such -vital importance to them, and celebrated the day on which the copies of -the Talmud were restored to them as a day of rejoicing. But they had -begun to exult too early. - -The prelate who had raised his voice in favor of the Jews died -suddenly; the fanatical monks saw in this a heaven-sent punishment -for his befriending the Jews, or persuaded the weak-minded and docile -monarch that it was so. Thereupon he commanded that the volumes of -the Talmud and similar writings should be sought for, and taken away -from their possessors by force. Four-and-twenty cartloads of them -were brought together in one spot in Paris, and committed to the -flames (Friday, Tamuz--June, 1242). Two young men, one a Provencal and -the other a German, named respectively Abraham Bedaresi and Meir, of -Rothenburg, wrote each an elegy upon this event. The French Jews or the -French students of the Talmud, who imagined that they could as little -exist without the Talmud as without their souls, did not remain passive -in quiet endurance of their grief. They turned to Pope Innocent IV, -the successor of Gregory IX, and begged that they might be permitted -to retain their Talmudical writings, without which they could not -fulfil their religious obligations. Their petition was acceded to. The -new pope promulgated a decree that they were not to be deprived of -those writings which contained nothing antagonistic to Christianity -(1243), and under this description the Talmud could be included, as -the Christian clergy were unable to discriminate between one work and -another. The fanatics, however, among whom was the papal legate, Odo, -of Chateauroux, continued to agitate against this edict, till they -induced the pope to give his sanction to the sentence of condemnation -that had been passed upon the Talmud. - -The grief of the French Jews on account of these events was -heartrending. They felt as if their very hearts had been torn from -them. The pious men among them kept the anniversary of the burning -of the Talmud as a fast. One good effect, however, sprang from these -wholesale methods of destruction. The opponents of the Maimunists -were, to a certain extent, disarmed, and the fierce passions of the -parties engaged in internal conflict were stilled for the moment. Jonah -Gerundi was the sole survivor of the chief antagonists of the Maimunist -teaching. But a short time before he had given the writings of Maimuni -to the Dominicans and the Franciscans in Paris to be thrown into the -flames. As soon as Jonah became aware of the bitter hostility of the -monkish orders of the Inquisition to the Talmud, which was so highly -revered by him, he very deeply regretted that he had employed them as -the instruments of his hate against Maimuni, and beheld in the burning -of the Talmud a divine punishment for his having allowed the writings -of Maimuni to be consumed by fire. He was so overwhelmed by the sense -of his injustice that he publicly, in the synagogue, confessed his -sincere repentance, and announced his intention of making a pilgrimage -to the grave of Maimuni, there, veiled in mourning, to prostrate -himself and, in the presence of ten persons, to implore the pardon of -this great and pious man. For this purpose he set out on a journey, -left Paris, and stopped at Montpellier, where he also made public -confession of his remorse for his procedure against Maimuni. This act -reconciled the two parties. The opponents cast aside all feelings -of rancor, and treated each other as brethren. In his discourses, -he repeatedly mentioned the name of Maimuni with the respect due to -that of a holy man. This conversion possessed so much the greater -importance, as Jonah was a rabbinical authority, and the author of -several Talmudical works, which were held in high estimation. - -From this time forward the whole history of the Jews alternated between -restrictive laws and bloody persecutions, which were repeated from year -to year, now at one place, now at another, but principally in Germany, -where the intolerant Church had transformed the naturally mild-tempered -people into tigers. When the Mongols and Tartars, the savage warriors -of Jenghis-Khan, made their inroads into Europe, ravaged Russia and -Poland, and penetrated to the borders of Germany, the Jews were -accused of having secretly aided this enemy of Christianity. Instead -of directing their charges against Emperor Frederick II and the pope, -who, engaged in an obstinate feud, looked on quietly whilst the savage -conquerors were advancing, the rage of the deluded populace, based -upon groundless imputations of guilt, was directed against the Jews of -Germany. There were, indeed, Jewish soldiers among the Mongols, from -the independent tribes of Khorasan, or, as the legends call them, the -remnant of the Ten Tribes who were shut in by the Caspian mountains. -Had the German Jews any knowledge of their kinsmen among the Mongol -hordes? Had they any secret understanding with them? The story was -circulated in Germany that the Jews had offered to supply the Mongols -with poisoned provisions. Under this pretext they had attempted to -provide them with weapons of all kinds enclosed in casks. A vigilant -guard at the borders, having his suspicions aroused, insisted on having -the casks opened, whereupon the plot was revealed. This tale was -received with general credulity, and was the cause of much suffering to -the German Jews. - -As if the representatives of the Church had not yet done sufficient -harm to the Jews, they determined to deprive them of their only -remaining position of influence in Christian society. The practice of -medicine was in the hands of Jews principally; indeed, nearly every -prince and noble had his private Jewish physician, who possessed more -or less influence over the mind of the one whose body was entrusted -to his skill. The clergy, who were seldom gentle as doves, but often -full of cunning, could not suffer this influence of the Jews over the -powerful rulers of the land. The Church council at Beziers was the -first to pay special attention to the question of Jews' practising the -medicinal art. Under the presidency of the Archbishop of Narbonne, -this council, which also inflicted all kinds of hardships upon the -Albigensian heretics, renewed many ancient restrictions. They enacted -that Jews should not be allowed to possess Christian servants or -nurses, and that they should not be eligible to offices of trust. They -were not to leave their homes during Passion Week; they were to pay -to the Church an annual sum of six dinars for each family. Upon their -breasts they were bidden to wear a distinctive badge, that of a wheel, -and they were forbidden to sell meat in public. To these laws there was -added a canonical decree that Christians should not seek the services -of Jewish physicians, under penalty of excommunication (May, 1246). -These restrictive enactments were repeated by a council held in the -south of France, in which district the Jews had conferred distinction -upon the healing art. Three generations of the Tibbon family had acted -as instructors to Christian physicians, and now the third member of the -family, Moses (who flourished 1250-1285 in Montpellier), the translator -of philosophical and medical writings, was commanded to discontinue -practising among Christian patients. Another writer on medicine, and a -practical physician, Shem-Tob ben Isaac of Tortosa (born 1206, composed -his works about 1261-1264), delivered public discourses on the healing -art to Christian audiences in Marseilles, and made them acquainted -with the results of the Arabic schools. This physician presents an -instructive instance of the Jewish zeal for knowledge. In his youth he -was taught exclusively in the Talmud; later he forsook this study, and -became a merchant, making journeys across the sea, and going as far as -the last remaining seat of the former Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, -Jean d'Acre (Accho). Here one of his co-religionists, who was engaged -in the study of mathematics, upbraided him for having considered -science subordinate to the earning of a livelihood. Owing to this -rebuke, although over thirty years of age, Shem-Tob Tortosi changed -his plan of life, hastened from Accho to Barcelona, and made study -his primary pursuit, and the earning of his livelihood a subsidiary -one. He studied medicine, and became so proficient that he was able to -translate the writings of the best Arabic physicians, and to deliver -lectures upon the healing art. These and many other Jewish physicians -were now, in pursuance of the edict of the council at Beziers, to be -driven forth from the temple to which they alone, it may almost be -said, in all Christendom possessed the key. - -However, although the Church held the souls of the faithful captive and -in a state of mystification, yet their bodies remained rebelliously -opposed to her and her decisions. This canonical law could not, -therefore, long retain its force. In sickness even the most bigoted -Christian called in the aid of the clever Jewish physician. When -Alfonso, Duke of Poitou and Toulouse, the brother of the fanatical -king, Louis IX, under whose patronage the anti-Jewish councils at -Beziers and Alby had taken place, was afflicted with some disease of -the eye, he was perforce obliged to invoke the assistance of Abraham -of Aragon, a skilful Jewish oculist. The lord of Luenel was driven to -use great efforts, and to seek the good offices of his Jewish agent, in -order to induce the wealthy and independent Jewish physician to attend -to the French prince. In Montpellier, the seat of a famous college of -medicine, Jewish physicians continued for a long time to be permitted -to take the examinations, to practise, and even to give instruction. - -The frequent massacres of the Jews, which for ten years had been taking -place in Germany and France, especially on the charge of the murder -of Christian children, induced the German and French congregations to -apply for protection to Pope Innocent IV, and to explain to him that -the charge that they employed the blood and hearts of human beings -was a lying invention, concocted solely for the purpose of seeking -an occasion for murder and robbery. At this time, Innocent lived in -partial exile at Lyons, whither he had been forced to retire owing -to his dispute with Emperor Frederick II. He yielded to the entreaty -of the Jews, either because he deemed it necessary, in view of his -strained relations with nearly all the temporal powers, to appear -just, or because the Jews had liberally supplied him with the means -of which he was so covetous, to enable him to overcome his bitter -opponents. His greed for money was the subject of a biting satire, -describing how the goddess Pecunia rules the world, the Church never -closing its doors against her, and the pope willingly receiving her in -his arms. Innocent IV dispatched a bull from Lyons (July 5, 1247) to -the Church dignitaries of France and Germany, in which, for the first -time, the repeated baseless and fiendish imputations against the Jews -were officially contradicted. "Certain of the clergy, and princes, -nobles and great lords of your dioceses have falsely devised certain -godless plans against the Jews, unjustly depriving them by force of -their property, and appropriating it themselves; they falsely charge -them with dividing up among themselves on the Passover the heart of a -murdered boy. Christians believe that the Law of the Jews prescribes -this to them, whilst in their Law the very reverse is ordained. In -fact, in their malice, they ascribe every murder, wherever it chance -to occur, to Jews. And on the ground of these and other fabrications, -they are filled with rage against them, rob them of their possessions -without any formal accusation, without confession, and without legal -trial and conviction. Contrary to the privileges graciously granted to -them from the Apostolic chair, and opposed to God and His justice, they -oppress the Jews by starvation, imprisonment, and by other tortures -and sufferings; they afflict them with all kinds of punishments, and -sometimes even condemn them to death, so that the Jews, although -living under Christian princes, are in a worse plight than were their -ancestors in Egypt under the Pharaohs. They are driven to leave in -despair the land in which their fathers have dwelt since the memory -of man. Since it is our pleasure that they shall not be distressed, -we ordain that ye behave towards them in a friendly and kind manner. -Whenever any unjust attacks upon them come under your notice, redress -their injuries, and do not suffer them to be visited in the future -by similar tribulations." One would imagine that so decisive a -condemnation of the blood-accusation would once for all have disposed -of these false charges. But the papacy had so impregnated men's hearts -with the feeling of hatred against the Jews, that a mild expression of -opinion from one or the other of the popes passed idly away as a breath -of wind. - -The so-called St. Louis was literally more papal than the pope himself. -His weak mind lent its ready aid to all the fanatical measures taken -against the Jews. When the wild idea occurred to him of entering -upon a new crusade, he confiscated the property of certain Jews in -order to obtain money for the campaign. Whilst waging war in Egypt in -furtherance of the crusade, he was taken prisoner (April-May, 1250). -He was jeered at by the Mahometans, because he, the most Christian -king, suffered the enemies of Christianity to remain in his kingdom. -He thereupon, on his release, promulgated an edict for the banishment -of all Jews, with the exception of handicraftsmen, from his hereditary -lands. However, his prudent mother, the queen Blanche, probably -paid little heed to this reckless command. On her death, however, -and the subsequent return of Louis to France (December, 1254), the -king seriously set about expelling the Jews. Their landed property, -synagogues and cemeteries, were forfeited to the crown. What Philip -Augustus had done from apparently political motives, Louis, the saint -of the Church, did from fanaticism. But on this, as on the former -occasion, the period of exile was not long. As before, the edict -affected only those Jews who dwelt in the king's own territories; and -even then those who lived by the labor of their hands were excepted. A -few years later, permission was granted to the exiles to return, and -their synagogues and cemeteries were restored to them. - -It is a noteworthy fact that the spiritual activity of the French Jews, -the ingenious exposition of the Talmud by the Tossafists, in no degree -ceased on account of these miseries, but continued undisturbed for -some time longer. The Talmud was burnt; the teaching of it was again -prohibited by Louis, and still, in this very time, the pious itinerant -preacher, Moses of Coucy, composed his great work on the Law. In this -he combined, in a clear, synoptical manner, the elements of the Talmud -with the religious ordinances of the Bible, proceeding on the basis -of the Code of Maimuni. Another famous Talmudist, Samuel ben Solomon -Sir Morel, of Falaise, prepared a new collection of Tossafoth, just -at the time when the Talmud was proscribed (1252-1259); he possessed -no copy of the Talmud to work from, because the Dominican spies had -deprived him of it, and he was compelled to rely upon his memory. -Moreover, Yechiel of Paris had three hundred students of the Talmud in -his academy, to whom he delivered discourses, probably from memory. But -this activity could not long continue; there were too many obstacles -to be encountered. The French congregations had become impoverished by -the frequent demands for money and the confiscation of their property. -Whilst formerly France had sent money for the support of the Jews in -Asia, Yechiel was now compelled to send a messenger to Palestine and -the neighboring lands to procure supplies for the maintenance of his -academy. Yechiel felt himself obliged to leave his native land and -to emigrate to Palestine (to Jean d'Acre). He was one of the last -representatives of the French Tossafist school, which had developed so -much ingenuity and critical acumen, but was now gradually declining -and approaching its fall. The Church was succeeding in altogether -destroying the Talmudical spirit which had its chief home in France. -The last followers of the school of Tossafists in France were only -compilers, who endeavored to bring the results of the labors of past -scholars into proper form and order. Prompted by the conviction that -the study of the Talmud was declining, and that even the rabbis were -at a loss for correct decisions, Isaac ben Joseph, of Corbeil, the -disciple and son-in-law of Yechiel of Paris, wrote a concise manual of -such religious duties as were of practical importance to the Jews in -their dispersion (Semak). He strove to render his book as popular and -pleasing as possible, for he could not at that time depend upon its -being easily understood by the bulk of the people in any other form, -and he sent a letter to the congregations of France and Germany asking -them to make copies of his work, and to spread the knowledge of it. -The Tossafist method of study perished before the fanaticism of the -mendicant friars and the bigotry of King Louis IX. - -In England, throughout the long reign of King Henry III (1216-1272), -the condition of the Jews grew worse and worse. Henry, indeed, was -not a tyrant like his father, John Lackland, and was at first kindly -disposed towards the Jews. During his minority, whilst the regent held -the reins of office, the Jews were treated with great indulgence. -Commands were given to the sheriffs to protect them against the -violence of the mob; and distinct and impressive orders were given -to the clergy not to assume any power over the Jews. Henry, or the -regent, permitted foreign Jews to land and settle in any part of -England without paying any special tax for the privilege; and he -forbade the native Jews, not, indeed, from any particularly tender -feeling towards them, to quit the country. Henry, as his father had -done, appointed a chief rabbi over all the Jewish congregations -(presbyter Judaeorum). The first man to hold this office was Joceus -(Jose?); Aaron of York succeeded him, and the last to hold the post -was Elias, of London. This appointment was for life. The English chief -rabbi possessed very great authority over the members of his community. -He was at the same time royal overseer (justitiarus) of the revenues of -the crown which were obtained from the Jews. He, together with certain -Jewish and Christian colleagues, had to keep a register of the property -of the English Jews in the Rolls (rotuli); to see also to the payment -of the Jew-tax into the treasury, called the Exchequer of the Jews; and -also to deliver up to the royal exchequer the property of men who had -died without heirs, this property escheating to the crown. If the chief -rabbi did not wish to occupy himself with financial matters, he could -appoint a substitute with full powers. Finally, he was invested with -the authority to excommunicate members of his community who refused -to obey his decrees, or who would not contribute towards the burdens -of the congregation. Henry III at first energetically restrained -the intolerance of the Church. On one occasion, when the Archbishop -of Canterbury, in order to prevent intercourse between Christians -and Jews, issued a decree prohibiting all Christians, on pain of -ecclesiastical censure, from selling any kinds of food to Jews, the -king countermanded the interdict. Whilst the French Jews were being -robbed and massacred by the crowds of crusaders, Henry exerted himself -to prevent the spreading of this spirit of fanaticism over his domains. - -But this considerate treatment of the Jews did not last long. Henry III -was of a reckless, thoughtless nature, and very extravagant. He lent -a ready ear to all that his friends advised. He was especially guided -by the legates and financial agents of the pope, who had been sent to -loot this rich land, and who, like a long-enduring epidemic, caused -much injury to England, and stirred up revolts and civil war. On the -one hand, he was in great need of a very large sum of money, and on the -other, the influence of the Church was continually growing stronger. In -order to replenish his almost empty coffers, Henry levied a poll-tax -upon the Jews, even upon newly-born infants. A portion of every debt -contracted between Jews and Christians was to be paid into the royal -treasury. The bonds for debts owing to Jews were therefore registered -and examined with suspicious care, lest an attempt be made to defraud -his majesty. The bonds had to be attested by several witnesses, and a -copy of them deposited in the city archives. The ordinary Jew-taxes, -however, did not long satisfy the king, who was involved in debt, and -very lavish in his expenditure. Enormous sums were extracted from the -congregations, now under one pretext, now under another. The clergy -furnished the opportunities. Sometimes the Jews were accused of making -away with their baptized brethren, and of circumcising Christian -boys. Upon such charges, individuals or even whole congregations were -cast into prison, and released only on payment of a heavy ransom. All -this, however, presents no novel features. Something entirely new and -original was done when the king summoned a Jewish Parliament. He issued -writs to all the English communities, commanding the larger ones to -return six representatives from among their distinguished men, and the -smaller ones two, who were to assemble before the king, in Worcester, -on the Sunday before Lent. The Jewish Parliament in Worcester numbered -over one hundred members. The king in his message stated that they were -to take counsel together for their own and his majesty's welfare. But -it is scarcely possible that the Jews allowed themselves to be lulled -by the deceptive promise that liberties would be conceded to them. -Henry assembled his ordinary Parliament only when he was in urgent -need of supplies. Accordingly, he informed his Jewish Parliament that -it was to collect large sums of money for him, and the Jews dared not -make any objections. Finally, the Parliament elected trustworthy men to -assess the money for each congregation, and to see to its payment. If -the apportioned sums of money were not forthcoming, the collectors were -made answerable, on penalty of imprisonment of themselves, their wives, -and their families. When at length, Henry had extorted enough from the -Jews, and a feeling of shame prevented him from demanding any more -money from them, he pledged them, on certain conditions, to his brother -Richard, who had even less consideration for them. - -The Church now began her canonical extortions and cruelties. The clergy -prevailed on the king, who was their puppet, to prohibit the Jews -from erecting any new house of prayer; they were not to utter their -prayers aloud in their synagogues, and especially they were to wear the -conspicuous Jew-badge on their garments. Many other enactments to a -similar effect were passed. The life of the Jews became so intolerable -by reason of this double tyranny of Church and State, that their chief -rabbi Elias, together with a few colleagues, twice declared to the -king, in the name of the congregations, that they could not pay the -taxes that were continually being demanded from them, and they must -ask leave to quit the country. However sorry they might be to depart -from their native land and to forsake their homes, they preferred it to -the miserable condition in which they now were. But it was of no avail. -The Jews were obliged to remain in England against their will; they -were forced to surrender their last farthing, and to resort to usury in -order to replenish their coffers. An account, which is still extant, -gives some idea of the exactions made by Henry III. The Jews were -required to collect within seven years the sum of L422,000 sterling. -One Jew, Aaron of York, was compelled to pay to the king, in seven -years, the sum of 30,000 marks of silver, besides 200 marks of gold -to the queen. As the chief rabbi Elias was not sufficiently severe in -raising money for the king, Henry deposed him, and granted the Jews the -privilege, on payment of a certain sum, of electing their own spiritual -leaders. - -Meanwhile, in England also, the usual charge of child-murder was made -against the Jews. The Dominicans, with their poisonous eloquence, -zealously called for their punishment. Several of them were thrown into -prison; but they were freed by the Franciscans. Matthew Paris, the -malicious chronicler of the period, remarks, concerning the affair, -"Dame Rumor has it that the Minorites' friendship for the Jews was -bought by a bribe." This statement does not, indeed, go to prove -the guilt of the Jews in the charge of child-murder, but that the -Franciscans had for once permitted themselves to be bought for a just -cause. The constant agitation of the fanatical Dominicans against the -Jews had filled the people with deep hatred against this race. At the -time when the Commons were admitted by law as the Third Estate, and -rose against the despotic rule of the monarch, they made an attack -upon the Jews in London, pillaged their treasures, and murdered 1500 -of them (Easter week, 1264). The surviving Jews fled for safety to -the Tower, where the king granted them his protection; their houses, -however, fell into the hands of the plundering barons. The Jews became -so impoverished by these assaults that they were not able to pay the -ordinary taxes, and Henry was obliged to remit payment for the space -of three years, in order to avoid reducing them to a state of total -destitution (1268). Besides, the king and the Parliament forbade their -buying fee estates, or, in general, real property from Christian owners -(1270). - -Superficially compared with their brethren in England, France and -Germany, the Jews in Spain at this time appeared to be living in -paradise. In Castile, Alfonso X (1252-1284), who was called the Wise, -even by his contemporaries, was king. He had a veritable and strong -affection for science, and encouraged its pursuit. He emulated the -fame of his Mahometan predecessors, Abderrahman III and Alhakem. -His father, Ferdinand the Holy--a title always synonymous with the -Intolerant--was not particularly gracious towards the Jews, but the -son, who in no respect was in accord with him, appeared desirous of -pursuing another course of action. In the war against Seville, which -he conducted whilst still heir-apparent, there were many Jewish -soldiers in his army. When this city was captured, and the district -was being partitioned among the warriors, the Infante Alfonso looked -well to the interests of his Jewish allies. He allotted to them certain -lands, where they might form a village exclusively Jewish (Aldea de -los Judios). He transferred three mosques, which they turned into -synagogues, to the Jews of Seville. The latter had probably helped him -in the capture of the city, as they had been very wretched under the -rule of the Almohades, having been compelled to live as Mahometans. A -large portion of the town, which was separated from the rest of the -city by a wall, belonged to them (under the name of Parternilla de -los Judios). Out of gratitude towards the victor, the congregation of -Seville presented him with a valuable, artistically wrought key, with -a Hebrew and Spanish inscription, which ran as follows:--"The King of -kings opens, the king of the land will enter." When Alfonso ascended -the throne, he entrusted many important official positions to the Jews. -Don Meir de Malea, who was a cultured man, and a student of the Talmud, -was treasurer to this monarch, and bore the title of Almoxarif. He -appears to have performed his functions in this office in so excellent -a manner that his son, Don Zag (Isaac), succeeded him in the position. -It became the custom in Castile for a long space of time to select Jews -as Chancellors of the Exchequer, not only because they were better -informed on financial matters than the Spanish hidalgos, but because -they managed in a more trustworthy and skilful manner. Many other Jews -were admitted to the court of Alfonso. He employed a Jewish physician, -Don Judah ben Moses Cohen, who at the same time was his astronomer -and astrologer. The king, who was himself engaged in the study of -astrology and alchemy to a great extent, had astronomical works, and a -book upon the qualities of certain stones, translated by learned Jews, -from Arabic into Castilian. At this period, as in earlier times, there -were very few Christian scholars acquainted with Arabic, although they -were surrounded by Arabs, and the Jews here, as in most places, had to -furnish the means of communication. Churchmen who had not forgotten -their Latin then translated the Castilian version made by the Jews into -the language of the Church. The king was accustomed to call the reader -of prayers in the synagogue of Toledo "his sage." This man was Don Zag -(Isaac) Ibn-Said (Sid), one of the most distinguished astronomers -of his age. Alfonso commissioned this precentor, Don Zag, to draw up -astronomical tables, which work renders the name of this sovereign more -famous than his warlike deeds and his political wisdom. Up to the time -of the recent discoveries in astronomy, those engaged in this study -made use of the "Tables of Alfonso," which more appropriately should be -termed the tables of Zag or of Said. There was a third Jewish scientist -at the court of Alfonso, Samuel Halevi, whose name is associated with -an ingenious water-clock, which he invented, and fashioned at the order -of the king. The representatives of the Church were naturally very much -incensed that the Jews held these important positions at court, and -the Pope Nicholas III thereupon, with characteristic selfishness and -presumption, reproached the king with a long list of sins, and pointed -out that many evils arose because Jews were preferred to Christians. - -However, although Alfonso admitted many cultured and able Jews to -court, and employed their talents, yet the condition of the Jews of -Castile under his rule was by no means so favorable as one might at -first sight expect. Alfonso was not altogether free from the prejudices -of his time. The spirit of hatred of the Jews, which had been stirred -up by Innocent III, had taken its hold upon him, as upon Emperor -Frederick II, whose place he had been elected to fill by a certain -faction. Alfonso deserved the honorable title of "the Wise" only in a -limited sense, seeing that he acted very unwisely in political matters, -and in his relations with the Church was by no means so enlightened -as Frederick II. As a favor to the clergy, or because he was a bigot, -he placed many restrictions upon the Jews, and reduced them to a -degraded condition. It is not quite certain whether the Visigothic -collection of laws (called Forum Judicum, fuero juzgo) was translated -into Castilian by Alfonso or by his father. From this collection the -Spaniards acquired their ineradicable hatred against the Jews. Whether -Alfonso is responsible for this or not, it is nevertheless well known -that he aimed at reducing the Jews to a miserable state by a series of -enactments of his own. - -He compiled for all the peoples of his kingdom a bulky code of laws, -divided into seven groups, and written in Castilian (1257-1266). In -this work there are many references to the Jews, in fact a whole -section of the code treats solely of them. It is there stated: -"Although the Jews deny Christ, they are suffered in all Christian -countries, so that they may remind everybody that they belong to that -race which crucified Jesus. Since they are merely tolerated, they -must keep themselves quiet and unobtrusive, must not openly preach -the doctrines of Judaism, nor attempt to make any converts to their -religion." The law of Alfonso attached the penalty of death to the -conversion of a Christian to Judaism. It asserts that in ancient times -the Jews were held in respect, and called the people of God, but by -their wickedness against Jesus, they had forfeited this distinction, -and no Jew was ever to obtain any dignity or fill any public office in -Spain. Alfonso included in his code of laws every possible restriction -which fanaticism and hatred had ever devised against the Jews. They -were prohibited from building new synagogues, from having Christian -servants, and from intermarriage with Christians. Jews and Jewesses -were to wear a peculiar mark upon their head-dress, and any person who -was seen without this mark was condemned to pay a fine of ten pieces -of gold, or if he was poor, to receive ten stripes with the scourge. -Jews and Christians were not to take their meals together, nor bathe -in company. Alfonso also incorporated the ordinance that Jews should -not appear in the public streets on Good Friday. The wise Alfonso -gave credence to the lying story that the Jews every year, on Good -Friday, crucified a Christian child, and therefore framed a law that -whoever was found guilty of this crime, or whoever crucified a wax -figure on this day, should be put to death. In vain had Pope Innocent -IV declared the falsehood of this accusation, and proved the innocence -of the Jews. When a pope was heard to speak in a favorable manner of -the Jews, his infallibility was discredited, even by a cultured monarch -who held intercourse with Jews. It is hard to believe that the king who -kept a private Jewish physician promulgated a law to the effect that -no Christian should take any medicine prepared by a Jew. It must be -considered a great concession to the Jews, that Alfonso decreed that -their synagogues were not to be profaned or dishonored, that they were -not to be coerced to undergo baptism, were not to be summoned before a -court of justice on their festivals, and were simply to take the oath -upon the Torah, without any further degrading ceremony, such as was -sometimes added in Germany. - -The laws of Alfonso with regard to the Jews had no practical importance -for the time being; his code obtained the force of law only at a much -later date. Alfonso himself transgressed the very laws concerning the -Jews which he had laid down, when he permitted Jews to hold offices -of trust. Nevertheless, his collection of laws exercised a most -prejudicial effect upon the Jews of Spain. It set up the canonical -standard as that of the state, and contributed towards transforming -their paradise into a veritable hell. The laws of Alfonso are in force -at the present day in Spanish America, whilst his astronomical tables -have been forgotten. - -The Jews in the kingdom of Aragon suffered even worse treatment than -those of Castile. Here, two influences were at work, making their -condition a most humiliating one. The king Jayme (Jacob I), who -reigned for a long time, had possessions in the south of France, and -often came into contact with the bigoted St. Louis and his councilors. -From them he acquired the theory of the proper treatment of Jews. He -also looked upon them, with all their possessions, as the chattels of -the sovereign, his "servi camerae," serfs. No Jew was allowed to place -himself under the protection of a nobleman. There was an advantage in -this: it withdrew the Jews from the jurisdiction of the clergy. A law -was made by Jayme which expressly stated that the Jews were not to -be treated either as prisoners or as slaves. They were nevertheless -exposed to the arbitrary action of the reigning sovereign, which was -not limited by any law or custom. The second pernicious influence -emanated from the Church and its blind zealots. The general of the -Dominicans was Raymond de Penyaforte, the collector of the papal -decretals, the precursor of Torquemada, whose whole soul was absorbed -by the task of elevating the power of the papacy and of the infallible -Church above that of the state. This gloomy and evil-minded monk was -the confessor of King Jayme. The king of Aragon had loved much, and -sinned greatly, and was thus in constant need of his father-confessor, -and dependent on him; and though he did not always obey his will, -in his treatment of Jews and Mahometans, he did his bidding gladly. -The main purpose of Penyaforte's exertions was to convert Jews and -Mahometans. In the higher schools, conducted by the Dominicans, -Penyaforte had also Hebrew and Arabic taught, so that the preaching -friars might use their knowledge of those languages in effecting -conversions. - -A young man of this order, named Pablo Christiani, a baptized Jew, -who was like Nicholas-Donin in disposition, was the first missionary -preacher for the conversion of the Jews. He journeyed about in the -south of France and in other places, invited the Jews to enter into -discussion with him, and sought to demonstrate to them that the -Messianic character and the divinity of Jesus were confirmed in the -Bible and the Talmud. As his mission was crowned with little or no -success, De Penyaforte resolved on arranging a public disputation on -the relative merits of Judaism and Christianity at the royal court, -between Pablo Christiani and Moses Nachmani, the most famous rabbi in -Spain. If the rabbi was converted, Penyaforte hoped to effect without -any difficulty the wholesale acknowledgment by the Jewish communities -of the truths of the Christian faith. Nachmani received a letter of -invitation from King Jayme to come to Barcelona and enter upon a solemn -discussion (1263). - -Nachmani made his appearance, and, contrary to his desire, was -obliged to declare himself willing to take part in the disputation. -However, he did it with dignity, and represented the religion of his -fathers before a Christian king in as honorable a manner as Philo of -Alexandria had done twelve hundred years before, in the presence of a -heathen emperor. At the outset Nachmani told Jayme and his confessor -Penyaforte that he was ready to take part in this contest only on the -condition that complete freedom of speech be granted him, so that he -might meet his opponent on a footing of equality. The king consented -to this stipulation. When Penyaforte thereupon remarked that he must -not avail himself of this liberty of speech to revile and blaspheme -Christianity, he replied, with dignity, that he knew the rules of -common courtesy. The discussion between Nachmani and Pablo Christiani, -if compared with that between Yechiel and Nicholas-Donin, clearly -reveals the superiority of the Spanish Jews over their brethren of -northern France. The rabbi of Paris and the Dominican Donin fought -like two fierce pugilists, assailing each other with heavy blows of -the fist, accompanied by words of abuse; the rabbi of Gerona and the -Dominican Pablo, on the other hand, met like two cultured noblemen, who -dealt blows with an air of politeness, and with due observance of the -etiquette of refined society. - -This disputation at Barcelona lasted for four days (beginning on -the 20th July). It took place in the palace of the king, and in the -presence of the whole court and of many distinguished ecclesiastics, -knights and citizens. Many Jews were probably among the audience. -Nachmani at the very beginning clearly defined the points to be -discussed. The points of difference between Judaism and Christianity -were so numerous, he remarked, that it was advisable to pay attention -only to the most essential among them. The topics of discussion which -he suggested were, first, whether the Messiah had appeared or not; -next, whether the Messiah, according to the prophecies of the Bible, -was to be considered as God, or as a man born of human parents; and -finally, whether the Jews or the Christians were in possession of the -true faith. The king and all those interested in the matter expressed -their approval of this proposed plan. It is peculiar that whilst -Nicholas-Donin accused the Talmud on the ground that it contained -scurrilous attacks upon Jesus and the Christians, Pablo Christiani -based his argument on the opposite contention, that the Talmud -recognized Jesus as the Messiah. This statement it was, of course, -easy for Nachmani to refute. Pablo's chief proof rested upon Agadic -passages, but Nachmani had at the beginning of the discussion carefully -guarded against this method of attack, by emphatically asserting that -he did not believe in these and other Agadic stories. The Dominican -now declared that an interpretation such as he suggested was heresy, -as though he knew better than the rabbi what was orthodox in Judaism -and what infidelity. His Jewish antagonist, however, would not allow -himself to be disconcerted by such remarks, and said in justification -of his position that it behoved a Jew to believe in the truth of the -Bible and in the exposition of the Talmud in all points of religious -practice; but, on the other hand, he was perfectly at liberty to reject -or accept the Agadic interpretations, which were to be regarded only -as sermons (sermones), as they were conformable or opposed to his -views. Nachmani made another bold remark. He said "that he had more -regard for the Christian monarch than for the Messiah." This statement -he justified by saying that it was more meritorious for himself and -for all Jews to keep the precepts of their religion whilst under a -Christian ruler, in exile, and suffering humiliation and abuse, than to -observe them when dwelling in prosperity and freedom under a powerful -Jewish king. The Messiah was to be regarded as nothing more than a -king of flesh and blood. Nachmani did not neglect to bring forward -an important objection to the Messianic character of Jesus, which -had been employed by ancient polemical writers. All the prophets had -foretold, that at the time of the Messiah a more elevated standard of -morality would prevail among mankind, and especially that all war and -bloodshed would cease. But since the appearance of Jesus, the world had -really become filled with violence and injustice. The Christians were -considered to be the most warlike among the nations, that is to say, -the people that shed most blood. Then turning to the king, Nachmani -said, "It behoves thee, and thy knights, O king, to put an end to all -thy war-making, as the beginning of the Messianic era demands." - -When Nachmani had been debating for three days, with candor combined -with dignity, about the doctrines of Christianity, the Jews of -Barcelona entreated him to break off the disputation, as they feared -the persecution of the Dominicans. Many knights and clergymen also -warned him against being carried too far by his frankness. The -Christian inhabitants of Barcelona interested themselves in behalf -of the Jews, and desired to avoid all provocation. Nachmani told the -king of the feeling that prevailed, but he wished the disputation -to continue. The intellectual tournament was therefore resumed. -Nachmani finally proved victorious, as Pablo could not cope with his -well-directed arguments. At the end of the discussion, the king said -to Nachmani in a private audience, that he had never heard so unjust a -matter defended so skilfully. The Dominicans, however, sought to spread -the report that Pablo Christiani had contrived to outwit his opponent -so cleverly that the latter, overwhelmed with shame, had secretly fled. -So far from running away, Nachmani remained in Barcelona for another -week, as a rumor had got abroad that his majesty and the Dominicans -intended to visit the synagogue on the following Saturday. They did -really appear in the synagogue, and Penyaforte resumed the disputation -there. He illustrated the doctrine of the Trinity by wine, which -possesses the qualities of color, taste and smell, and is yet a unity. -It was an easy task for Nachmani to offer a complete reply to these -and similar analogies, and he at last drove the confessor of the king -to make the dangerous acknowledgment that the idea of the Trinity was -so profound a mystery that even the angels were unable to comprehend -it. Thereupon Nachmani remarked, "If this is really the case, then no -reproach ought to be made to men, if they cannot surpass the angels -in wisdom." Before his departure, Nachmani was again admitted to an -audience with the king, and dismissed with a friendly farewell. The -king gave him three hundred maravedis as a mark of respect. - -The consequences of this disputation at Barcelona were by no means -harmless. De Penyaforte was resolved upon compassing the conversion -of the Jews, and permitted nothing to turn him from his fixed -determination. He obtained from King Jayme a letter of protection -which would enable his protege Pablo Christiani to go on long -missionary journeys, and thus the Jews were exposed to the caprice of -the Jewish Dominican friar. What had failed of success in Barcelona, -with an antagonist like Nachmani, might perhaps be successful in -other places with less skilful opponents. Strict commands were issued -to the congregations in Aragon, and in the adjoining districts of -southern France, to enter into discussion with Pablo Christiani at his -invitation. The Jews were to listen to him quietly, either in their -synagogues or wherever they chanced to be, to answer his questions -meekly, and to hand over to him all such books as he required for his -demonstrations. They were also to defray the expenses of his mission. -The despair of the Jews at such demands may well be imagined. Whether -victorious or defeated, they were subjected to torments and extortion. - -As in spite of the protection granted to him by the king, Pablo -Christiani did not meet with a hearty welcome among his former -co-religionists, he followed in the footsteps of Nicholas-Donin, and -denounced the Talmud, asserting that it contained passages of hostile -import directed against Jesus and Mary. He went to Pope Clement -IV, and repeated to him the charges against the Talmud. The pope, -at his request, issued a bull (1264) to the Bishop of Tarragona, -commanding him to confiscate copies of the Talmud, and to submit them -to the examination of the Dominicans and Franciscans; if found to be -blasphemous, they were to be burnt. Pablo Christiani, the apostate, in -person brought this bull to Spain. Thereupon King Jayme ordered (1264) -that the Talmud be examined, and the passages containing abuse and -slander be struck out. The duty of acting as censors was entrusted to -the Bishop of Barcelona, De Penyaforte, and to three other Dominicans, -together with Pablo Christiani. This commission marked the passages in -the Talmud which were to be obliterated, and thus for the first time -censorship was exercised by the Dominicans against the Talmud in Spain. -The censorship was on the whole less destructive in Aragon than in -France, where the whole Talmud was condemned to the flames. The reason -of this comparative mildness was explained by the fact that Raymond -Martin, a member of the Dominican order and of the board of censors, -and the writer of two anti-Jewish works, was convinced that several -passages in the Talmud bore witness to the truth of Christianity, and -were certainly traditions derived from Moses, and that therefore the -Talmud should not be utterly destroyed. - -The hurtful effects of the disputation of Nachmani have not yet been -enumerated. They even affected the man himself, who was the accredited -representative of Spanish Judaism in the post-Maimunic age. Nachmani -found himself obliged to publish, for his co-religionists, a true and -accurate report of the proceedings at Barcelona, in order to oppose -the missionary machinations of Pablo Christiani, and to rebuke the -unjustifiable vainglory of the Dominicans over the victory, which they -declared that they had gained at the disputation held at the court. - -He made no secret of the matter, but gave a copy of his pamphlet to -the Bishop of Gerona, and as the latter raised no objection, copies of -the account of this disputation were dispatched to various countries -where Jews dwelt (about 1264). As might have been expected, Nachmani by -this proceeding drew down upon himself the still fiercer hatred of the -Dominicans. Pablo Christiani, who obtained a report of the disputation, -and who understood Hebrew, selected from it passages that contained -gross blasphemies against the Christian religion, and notified De -Penyaforte, his superior, the fanatical general of the Dominicans, of -them. The latter then, in conjunction with a brother friar, instituted -a capital charge, and lodged a formal complaint with the king against -the author and his work. Don Jayme was obliged to assent to the charge; -but he did not entrust the trial to a court composed of Dominicans, -but called together an extraordinary commission, and invited Nachmani -(or as he was called by the Christians, Bonastruc de Porta) to -defend himself, and ordered that the proceedings be conducted in his -presence. Nachmani was in a very unpleasant position, but his staunch -truthfulness did not fail him. He admitted that he had stated many -things against Christianity in his pamphlet, but he had written nothing -which he had not used in his disputation in the presence of the king; -and he had asked from the king and the general of the Dominicans for -liberty of speech to utter these things, and had obtained permission. -He ought not to be made answerable and condemned for expressions in his -written account which had remained unrebuked in his oral defense. - -The king and the commission acknowledged the justice of his -vindication; nevertheless, in order to avoid provoking the order of the -Dominicans or De Penyaforte, Nachmani was sentenced to exile from his -native land for two years, and his pamphlet was condemned to be burnt. -The Inquisition had not yet attained an all-powerful position. The -Dominicans were, however, by no means satisfied with this comparatively -mild sentence, as they had expected a much more severe punishment. -It appears that they intended to summon Nachmani before their own -tribunal, where they would undoubtedly have condemned him to death. -King Jayme offered energetic opposition to this project. He gave to -Nachmani a sort of charter, which stated that he could be accused -in this matter only in the presence of the king (April, 1265). The -Dominicans were naturally very much enraged at the mildness of the -king, and at the apparent encroachment on their judicial prerogative -to decide upon questions of life and death. They appealed to Pope -Clement IV, complaining that the king had permitted the author of a -pamphlet which grossly insulted Christianity to go unpunished. The -pope, who at that time was harboring other grudges against the king of -Aragon, addressed a very severe epistle to him. He upbraided him for a -number of sins, ordering him to deprive Jews of public offices, and to -inflict heavy punishment on that arch-villain who, after taking part -in a religious discussion, had published a pamphlet as a trophy of his -heresy (1266). It cannot be fully ascertained whether the king obeyed -the pope regarding Nachmani or not, or what his sentence was. At any -rate, it appears that one punishment was meted out to him, namely, -that he was to be banished from the country. At the age of seventy, -Nachmani left his fatherland, his two sons, his school and his friends, -and went into exile. He made his way to the Holy Land, being filled -with the same intense longing as his spiritual kinsman, Jehuda Halevi. -He went a step further than the latter, maintaining that it is the -religious duty of every Jew to dwell in Judaea. Thus fate had done him -a kindness, assisting him in the performance of a command, and helping -him to fulfil his ardent desire. He set out on his journey by ship, and -landed at Jean d'Acre (1267), which at that time was still in the hands -of the Christians. Thence he made haste to start for Jerusalem (9th -Ellul--12th August). - -Nachmani's feelings were deeply stirred on beholding the condition -of the Holy Land and the Sacred City. He suffered even keener -disappointment than Jehuda Halevi. The Mongols or Tartars, under the -Sultan Hulagu, had committed fearful ravages in the land a few years -previously (1260). This savage monarch, after conquering the eastern -Caliphate, had turned his attention to the Sultanate of Egypt, captured -the fortresses on the Euphrates, Damascus, Aleppo, and Baalbek, and -forced his way into Palestine. Jerusalem was transformed into a heap -of ruins; all its inhabitants had forsaken it (1260). The Jews had -connected these extraordinary events with their hopes for the Messiah. -The "hateful, deformed men of the East," who had subdued both the -oppressors of Israel, the followers of Jesus and of Mahomet, might -perhaps bring near unto Israel the hour of redemption. An enthusiast -circulated a new revelation said to have been given through Simon bar -Yochai, the medium so frequently appealed to by mysticism, and it -declared that the devastations of the Mongols were the sufferings which -must precede the coming of the Messiah. - -Nachmani entered Palestine a few years after the Mongols had been -expelled from the country by the Sultan of Egypt. He beheld many ruins, -and apostrophized them in eloquent words, saying, "The more holy the -place, the greater its desolation; Jerusalem is more desolate than -the rest of Judaea, and Judaea in turn more desolate than Galilee." The -Jews of the Holy City had either been slain or scattered; the scrolls -of the Law had been rescued by some who fled to Shechem. Two thousand -Mahometans and three hundred Christians had again settled in Jerusalem, -but only one or two Jewish families were discovered there by Nachmani, -and, as before, they enjoyed the privilege of farming the dye-works. -The Jewish pilgrims, who had come to Jerusalem from Syria, erected a -synagogue at Nachmani's suggestion. Upon Mount Olivet, opposite the -ruins of the Temple, Nachmani breathed forth his deep distress over -the desolation of the Holy City; but it was not the song of Zion that -arose from his excited mind. Nachmani did not possess that divine gift -of grace, the poetical genius of Jehuda Halevi, the fancy that is able -to re-people deserts, re-establish destroyed kingdoms, chasten sorrow, -and ease the heart from pain. He uttered his lament in the verses of -other poets. - -This exile from Spain did not rest content with erecting synagogues -and organizing congregations in the land which for a long time had -been his spiritual home, but he also founded in it a home for the -study of Jewish science, which had died out there since the conquest -of Jerusalem by the crusaders. He gathered a circle of pupils around -him, and people came in crowds even from the district of the Euphrates -to hear him. Even Karaites are said to have sat at his feet, as for -instance Aaron ben Joseph the Elder, who became famous in later -times. Although he was no friend of free scientific thought, and -thoroughly adhered to Talmudic Judaism, yet Nachmani, as a son of -Spain, had obtained sufficient general culture to fertilize the desert -of the Oriental Jews. Even his theory of the Kabbala, which he first -transplanted into Palestine, where it afterwards spread far and wide, -had at least the merit of presenting new points of view, of which -his co-religionists, either on account of their ignorance or their -partiality for the Talmud, had no idea. He strove at least to explain -the irrational in a rational manner, and thus combated stupidity and -indifference. He was particularly successful in arousing an interest in -the exposition of Holy Writ, of which the Oriental Jews were entirely -ignorant. With this end in view, Nachmani composed his Commentary -to the Bible, and especially his chief work, the Exposition of the -Pentateuch. In this work he brought into play his peculiar genius, -his warm and tender disposition, his power of clear thinking, and -his mystical dreams. Like numberless men before and after him, he -discovered his own philosophy in this Book of books, and interpreted -it from his point of view. He did not make much of the Kabbala in his -Commentaries; merely touched upon it lightly. But precisely by his -careless allusions, he magnified its importance. Narrow, enthusiastic -minds searched eagerly for the hidden meaning of these suggestions, and -took more notice of Nachmani's Kabbalistic hints, than of the clear -ideas to be found in his work. - -Nachmani's method of exegesis did not altogether escape the reproach -of his contemporaries, chiefly because in his Commentary he made -attacks upon Maimuni, and spoke still more violently against Ibn-Ezra. -A devotee of philosophy and two enthusiastic students of it wrote -a refutation of his works, prefacing it by a satire, in which the -mysticism of Nachmani was especially made ridiculous. Pious men, on the -other hand, held him in high honor as a particularly orthodox rabbi, -and just as his Talmudical works were diligently read and used, so his -Commentary became a favorite study of the mystics. - -During his three years' stay in Palestine, Nachmani kept up a -correspondence with his native land, whereby Judaea and Spain were -brought into closer connection. He sent copies of his works to his sons -and friends, and gave them descriptions of the condition of their ever -unhappy ancestral country. He thus once again awoke an ardent longing -for the Holy Land, and induced several persons of an enthusiastic turn -of mind to emigrate thither. Nachmani died after having passed the age -of seventy (about 1270), and his remains were interred in Chaifa, next -to the grave of Yechiel of Paris, his companion in misfortune, who had -gone into exile before him. - -Nachmani exercised more effect upon his contemporaries and the -succeeding age by his personality than by his writings. His numerous -pupils, among whom the most renowned was Solomon ben Adret, made the -teaching of Nachmani predominant among the Spanish Jews. Inspirited -and unwavering attachment to Judaism, a deep regard for the Talmud and -complete resignation to its decrees, a dilettante knowledge of the -science of the time and of philosophy, the recognition of the Kabbala -as extremely ancient tradition, to which was given respect, but not -research, these are the distinctly characteristic traits of the Spanish -rabbis, and of the representatives of Judaism in the succeeding age. -Henceforth Spanish rabbis seldom occupied themselves with philosophy or -with any other branch of learning, or even with the exposition of the -Bible. Their minds were devoted only to the Talmud, whilst the sciences -were cultivated only by non-rabbinical scholars. The simple method of -Biblical interpretation taught by Ibn-Ezra and Kimchi was completely -neglected. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -THE AGE OF SOLOMON BEN ADRET AND ASHERI. - - Martyrs in Germany--The Jews of Hungary and Poland--The - Council at Buda--The Jews of Spain and Portugal--Solomon - ben Adret, his character and writings--Raymund Martin's - anti-Jewish Works--New antagonism to the Maimunist Philosophy - --David Maimuni--Moses Taku--Meir of Rothenburg--The - Jews of Italy--Solomon Petit--Rudolph of Habsburg-- - Emigration of Jews from the Rhine Provinces--Sufferings of - the English Jews--Expulsion of the Jews from England and - Gascony--Saad-Addaula--Isaac of Accho. - -1270-1306 C. E. - - -If Jewish history were to follow chronicles, memorial books and -martyrologies, its pages would be filled with descriptions of -bloodshed, it would consist of horrible exhibitions of corpses, and -it would stand forth to make accusation against a doctrine which -taught princes and nations to become common executioners and hangmen. -For, from the thirteenth till the sixteenth century, the persecutions -and massacres of the Jews increased with frightful rapidity and in -intensity, and only alternated with inhuman decrees issued both by -the Church and the state, the aim and purport of all of which were to -humiliate the Jews, to brand them with calumny and to drive them to -suicide. The prophet's description of the martyrdom of the servant of -God, of the Messianic people, was fulfilled, or repeated with terrible -literalness: "He was oppressed and he was afflicted, yet he opened -not his mouth: he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a -sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he openeth not his mouth. He was -taken from prison and from judgment ... for the transgression of my -people was he stricken." The nations of Europe emulated one another in -exercising their cruelty upon the Jews; and it was always the clergy -who, in the name of a religion of love, stirred up this undying hatred. -It mattered little to the Jews whether they lived under a strict -government or under anarchy, for they suffered under the one no less -than under the other. - -In Germany they were slain by thousands during the troubles which, -after the death of the emperor Frederick II, and till the crowning -of Rudolph of Habsburg as emperor, arose from the strife between -the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. Every year martyrs fell, now in -Weissenburg, Magdeburg, Arnstadt, now in Coblenz, Sinzig, Erfurt, and -other places. In Sinzig all the members of the congregation were burnt -alive on a Sabbath in their synagogue. There were German Christian -families who boasted that they had burnt Jews, and in their pride -assumed the name of "Jew-roaster" (Judenbreter). The Church took good -care that her flock should not, by intimate intercourse with Jews, -discover that they were like other human beings, and so be made to -feel sympathy for them. In Vienna, during the contest for the imperial -throne of Germany, a large assembly of churchmen met (12th May, 1267) -under the leadership of the papal legate Gudeo. Most of the German -prelates took part in it, and gave much attention to the question of -the Jews. They solemnly confirmed every canonical law that Innocent III -and his successors had passed for the branding of the Jews. Jews were -not allowed to have any Christian servants, were not admissible to any -office of trust, were not to associate with Christians in ale-houses -and baths, and Christians were not permitted to accept any invitation -of the Jews, nor to enter into discussion with them. As if the German -people desired to show that it could surpass all nations in scorn of -the Jews, the members of the council at Vienna did not rest content -with the command that the German Jews should wear a mark on their -dress, but they compelled them to assume a disfiguring head-dress, -a pointed, horned hat or cap (pileum cornutum), which provoked the -mockery of the gamins. Bloody persecutions were the natural outcome of -such distinguishing marks. - -In France the clergy did not find it necessary to urge upon their -princes, by threats, the degradation of the Jews. The saintly Louis, -on his own account, busied himself with this matter. A year before his -adventurous journey to Tunis, where he met his death, he emphasized, -at the instigation of his much-beloved Pablo Christiani, the Jewish -Dominican, the canonical edict which ordained the wearing of the -badges. He ordered that this badge should be made of red felt or -saffron-yellow cloth in the form of a wheel, and should be worn on -the upper garment both on the breast and the back, "so that those who -were thus marked might be recognized from all sides." Every Jew found -without this badge was to be punished, for the first offense, with the -loss of his garment, and for the second, with a fine of ten livres of -silver to be paid into the treasury (March, 1269). The Jews of northern -France, accustomed to ill-usage, and, as it were, dulled by it, easily -yielded; but not so the Jews of Provence, who, being educated and in -friendly intercourse with cultured Christians, would not submit to -this ignominy. Hitherto they had contrived to escape from wearing the -badge, and thought that they would be able to do so on this occasion -also. The congregations of the south of France thereupon sent deputies -to take counsel for the general welfare; and they in turn selected two -distinguished men, Mordecai ben Joseph, of Avignon, and Solomon, of -Tarascon, who were to go to court, and try to effect the abrogation of -this law. The Jewish delegates met with success, and they returned home -with the joyful news that the edict which commanded the wearing of -the badge had been rescinded. But Philip III, the successor of Louis, -and equally bigoted and narrow-minded, re-introduced the law a year -after his accession to the throne (1271). The Dominicans took great -care to see that it was not transgressed. Several distinguished Jews, -such as Mordecai, of Avignon, and others, who would not submit to this -disgrace, were imprisoned. This wearing of a badge by the Jews remained -in force in France till the time of their expulsion from the country. - -The Church pursued the sons of Jacob with its implacable hate to the -very border-line between Europe and Asia. The people of Hungary and -Poland, who had not yet laid aside their primitive state of barbarity -and their warlike ferocity, were in greater need of the services of -the Jews than the nations and states of Central and Western Europe. -The Jews, with their commercial habits and their practical skill, had -perceived the abundance of produce in the districts lying on the Lower -Danube, the Vistula, and on both sides of the Carpathian mountains, had -utilized, and thus first conferred value on, this source of wealth. -Despite the zeal with which the papacy strove to deprive Jews of public -offices, despite its efforts to restrain them from obtaining leases -for working the salt mines and from farming the coinage and the taxes -in Hungary, it could not expel them from positions in which they were -indispensable in preventing the wealth of the country from running to -waste. The Hungarian king, Bela IV, the successor of Andrew II, driven -by stern necessity, the ravages of the Mongols having impoverished the -country, invited Jewish agents. For the benefit of the Jews under his -dominion, Bela introduced the law of Frederick the Valiant, of Austria, -which protected them from the violence of the mob and the clergy, -conceded to them their own jurisdiction, and allowed them the control -over their domestic affairs. The papacy, however, turned its attention -to the Carpathian districts, partly for the purpose of kindling a new -crusade against the Mongols, and partly in order to bring back to the -Roman see, by means of trickery and force, the schismatic adherents of -the Greek Church. Its spiritual armies, the Dominicans and Franciscans, -were despatched thither, and they instilled into the hitherto tolerant -Magyars their own spirit of fanatical intolerance. A large church -assembly, consisting of prelates from Hungary and the south of -Poland, met at Buda (September, 1279). This convocation was under the -presidency of Philip, who was the papal legate for Hungary, Poland, -Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Lodomeria, and Galicia, and decreed a -proscription of the Jews of these countries, which the Church executed -with logical severity. Jews and other inhabitants of the country not -belonging to the Roman Catholic Church were to be debarred from the -right of farming the taxes, or from holding any public post. Bishops -and other ecclesiastics of higher or lower degree who had entrusted the -farming of the revenues of their sees to the hands of Jews were to be -suspended from their holy offices. Laymen, of whatsoever rank, were to -be placed under a ban of excommunication till they dismissed the Jewish -contractors and employes, and had given security that henceforward they -would not accept or retain such men, "because it is very dangerous to -permit Jews to dwell together with Christian families, and to have -intimacy with them at courts and in private houses." The synod at -Buda also enacted that the Jews of both sexes dwelling in Hungarian -territory (which included Hungary and the provinces of southern Poland) -should wear the figure of a wheel made of red cloth on the upper -garment on the left side of the breast, and that they should never be -seen without this badge. For the time, the exclusion of the Jews of -Hungary and Poland from Christian society had little practical effect, -for the Mahometans and the schismatic Greek Catholics shared their -proscription. These latter were also withheld from public offices. -The Mahometans, too, were ordered to wear a badge of a yellow color. -The Magyars and Poles had not yet been made so intolerant by church -influence as to adopt the refined, cruel practices of both the secular -and the regular clergy, who would have denied fire and water to men not -wearing a red or yellow sign. The first crop of this poisonous fruit -was gathered about half a century later. The last king of the family of -Arpad, Ladislaus IV, ratified and confirmed the statutes of the synod -in Hungary. - -A similar state of affairs was to be met with in the extreme west of -Europe, in the Pyrenean peninsula. As Mahometans here also dwelt in -proximity to Christians and Jews, the Church was not able easily to -carry out its purpose, prompted by intolerance, of crushing the Jews. -To this it must be added, that the higher culture of the Jews and their -participation in all internal and foreign affairs, were circumstances -in their favor here, and they forced respect from their enemies. -Although Alfonso the Wise, king of Castile, had promulgated a law -precluding Jews from filling state offices, yet he himself continued -to appoint Jews to important posts. Amongst others, he promoted Don -Zag (Isaac) de Malea, the son of Don Meir, to be the royal treasurer. -He was severely rebuked for doing so by Pope Nicholas III (1279), but -still he did not remove the Jews from their offices. On one occasion, -indeed, he became very angry with Don Zag, and caused his displeasure -to be felt by the Jews generally in an ebullition of rage; this, -however, was not out of respect for the Church, but emanated from -discordant family relations. Don Zag had large sums of money belonging -to the state under his custody, which the king had destined for the -carrying on of a campaign. The Infante Don Sancho, who cherished -hostile intentions against his father, compelled the Jewish treasurer -to surrender the public money to him. King Alfonso was extremely -enraged at this action, and, in order to teach his son a lesson, he had -Don Zag arrested, put in chains, and thus fettered conducted through -the city where the Infante was staying at the time. Don Sancho in vain -exerted himself to procure the freedom of the Jewish Almoxarif, who -was suffering for no guilt of his own; but Alfonso at once ordered -his execution (1280). His displeasure was also visited upon all the -Jews of Castile, who were forced to expiate their kinsman's act, which -assuredly cannot be termed an oversight. The "wise" King Alfonso issued -an injunction that all the Jews be imprisoned on a certain Sabbath, -and exacted heavy fines from them, 12,000 maravedis every day for a -stated period. The congregations were thus made to replenish the empty -treasury. However, in a short time the king had to suffer severely -for the violent injustice he had done to Don Zag. His son, who was -embittered against him on this account, and took the ill-treatment and -execution of Don Zag as a personal affront, openly rebelled against -Alfonso, and drew to his side the greater portion of the nobility, -the people, and the clergy. The unhappy king, who had indulged in -extravagant ideals at his accession, and had hoped, as the emperor of -Germany, to found a world monarchy, felt himself so deserted in his old -age that in despair he appealed to a Mahometan prince to come to his -help, seeing that he was "unable to find any protection or defender in -his own land." - -The condition of the Jews under Don Sancho, who ascended the throne -when his father died grief-stricken, was tolerable, but was dependent -upon caprice. This king was the first to regulate the payment of the -Jew-tax (Juderia) by the congregations of New Castile, Leon, Murcia, -and the newly-acquired provinces in Andalusia (la Frontera). Hitherto, -every Jew had paid a capitation-tax of three maravedis (thirty dineros, -about thirty-seven cents), in memory of the thirty pieces of silver -guiltily paid for the death of Jesus. Don Sancho assembled deputies -of the congregations at Huete, and named the total amount which every -district was required to pay into the royal coffers, leaving it to the -deputies to apportion this sum among the congregations and families -(Sept., 1290). The commission for the newly-acquired territory in -Andalusia was composed of four men. If these men found themselves -unable to come to an agreement, they were to call to their aid the -committee of the congregation (Aljama) of Toledo, and especially the -aged David Abudarham, probably a highly respected personage. The -Jews of the kingdom of Castile, whose population numbered nearly -850,000 souls, contributed 2,780,000 maravedis, part of which was the -poll-tax and part the service-tax. In these provinces there were over -eighty Jewish congregations, the most famous being in the capital -Toledo, which, together with the adjacent smaller cities, numbered -72,000 Jews. There were also very large communities in Burgos (nearly -29,000), Carrion (24,000), Cuenca, Valladolid, and Avila. Over 3000 -Jews dwelt in Madrid, which at this time had not yet attained any -degree of importance. The king granted certain Jews who were his -especial favorites immunity from taxation. This was the cause of much -dissension, seeing that the freedom enjoyed by these usually wealthy -persons fell as a heavy burden upon the body of the community, and on -those less endowed with worldly goods. - -At this period the Jews in the new kingdom of Portugal were very -favorably placed, both under King Alfonso III (1248-1279) and King -Diniz (1279-1325). Not only were they exempt from the canonical decrees -which compelled the wearing of a distinctive sign and the payment of -tithes to the Church, but prominent persons among them were appointed -to fill very important positions. King Diniz had a Jewish minister of -finance, named Judah, the chief rabbi of Portugal (Arraby Moor), who -was so wealthy that he was able to advance large sums of money for the -purchase of a city. Jews and Mahometans were commissioned to mete out -punishment to the rebellious clergy, who, at the constant instigation -of the papacy, strove to alter the national laws in accordance with -canonical decisions, thus kindling fierce strife between the monarchy -and the Church. In order to be at peace with the quarrelsome Church, -King Diniz at length yielded, and introduced the canonical laws into -his country, but made no serious attempt to carry them into effect. - -Thus the Jews in the Pyrenean peninsula, in spite of the growing -encroachments of the Church, in spite of its wicked desire to humiliate -them, and the fanatical preaching and disputations of the mendicant -friars, maintained a position superior to that held by Jews in the -remaining countries of Europe. Here the pulse of spiritual life was -strongest, here the character of Judaism was moulded, here questions -of vital importance sprang up, were discussed, debated with passionate -energy, and finally decided. Here the doctrines of Judaism were made -the subject of warm debate, and the results of the scholarship and -erudition of the Spanish Jews only gradually passed into the possession -of the inhabitants of other countries and continents. Spain was once -again, as in the ante-Maimunic epoch, elevated to the dignity of -representing Judaism for the space of two centuries, and this was -effected by a rabbi of remarkable genius. This rabbi was Solomon ben -Abraham Ben Adret, of Barcelona (abbreviated into Rashba, born about -1245, died 1310). He was a man of penetrating and clear understanding, -full of moral earnestness, of pure and unwavering belief, of mild -temperament, combined with an energetic character, which prompted him -to pursue with perseverance anything that he had discovered to be -right. The Talmud, with its labyrinthine tracks and its hidden corners, -with all the explanations and supplements of the Spanish and the French -Tossafist schools, presented no more difficulty to Ben Adret than a -child's primer, and he handled this enormous mass of material with -such ease that he aroused the astonishment of his contemporaries. His -probity at the same time guarded him from that subtle sophistry which -had even then begun to be adopted in the treatment of the Talmud. -Ben Adret, in Talmudical discussions, went straight to the core of -a question, and did not stoop to employ stratagems or subterfuge. A -Spaniard by birth, he did not altogether lack a knowledge of general -science, nor disdain to pay some regard to philosophy, as long as it -kept within its own province, acknowledged the doctrines of religion, -and did not intrude with the desire of becoming a ruling power. He -felt the necessity of interpreting those Agadic stories which gave -offense by their simple literalness, and to explain them in a rational -manner. While on the one side, then, he did no more than display a -spirit of tolerance towards philosophy, he, on the other, had profound -respect for the Kabbala, perhaps because his master Nachmani had paid -such great homage to it. He confessed that he had not dived very deep -into the subject, and maintained that his contemporaries who occupied -themselves with the study were likewise not very profoundly initiated, -and that their pretended secret traditions were idle boasts. He desired -that the Kabbala be taught only in secret (esoterically), and be not -expounded in public. Ben Adret's greatest power, however, lay in his -acquaintance with the Talmud, because this represented to him, as it -had to his teachers, the alpha and omega of all wisdom. In this he -lived with his whole soul. Every Talmudical expression appeared to -him to be an unfathomable well of the profoundest knowledge, and he -believed that a mind completely absorbed in the study was necessary in -order to reach its depths. - -Such was the nature of the man to whom was allotted the task of bearing -aloft the standard of Judaism in these greatly disturbed times, and of -combating the extravagant stories that arose on two sides--from the -philosophers and from the Kabbalists. For forty years the authority of -the Rabbi of Barcelona was paramount in the religious affairs of the -Jews, not alone in Spain, but also in other parts of Europe, as well as -in Asia and Africa. Questions for his decision were sent to him from -France, Germany, Bohemia, Italy, and even from St. Jean d'Acre (Accho) -in Palestine and from northern Africa. Students from Germany sat at his -feet to hear him expound the Talmud. This is the more noteworthy, as -the German rabbis were proud of the learning of their own country, and -would not admit the superiority of the academies of any country over -their own. When David, the grandson of Maimuni, was in great need, he -turned to Ben Adret to obtain assistance. David Maimuni (born 1233, -died 1300), who, like his father and his grandfather, was the prince -(Nagid) over all the congregations in Egypt, had been calumniated by -some evil-minded enemies before the Sultan Kilavun, and accused of -some crime. He put his detractors under a ban of excommunication, but -it appears without effect. At all events, David hoped to be placed on -a safer footing, if he succeeded in appeasing the Sultan by gifts of -money. He applied to Ben Adret, and laid the story of his sufferings -before him; his request met with a ready response. Ben Adret sent an -envoy with a letter to the Spanish congregations to collect funds, -and all the communities joyfully contributed large sums of money to -aid the grandson of the highly revered Maimuni. Whenever any event of -importance took place within Jewish circles, Ben Adret was appealed to -for advice or assistance. - -The unique distinction enjoyed by the Rabbi of Barcelona can certainly -not be attributed entirely to his comprehensive knowledge, for at that -time there lived many learned rabbis, and even in Spain there was one -equal to him. His fellow-student and countryman, Aaron Halevi (born -about 1235, died after 1300), was equally well grounded in the Talmud, -also composed works on the subject, and was not his inferior even in -secular knowledge. - -Ben Adret, nevertheless, exercised supreme authority over all the -congregations, both far and near. This superiority was conceded to him -on account of his energetic, ever ready defense of Judaism against -attacks from within and without. - -The clouds, pregnant with destruction, which burst upon the Jews of the -Pyrenean peninsula two centuries later, began to collect in the time -of Ben Adret. The means which the fanatical General of the Dominicans, -Raymond de Penyaforte, had devised for the conversion of the Jews, -were beginning to be used. The attempts made in Spain during the -period of the Visigoths, on the one hand, to work upon the feelings -of the princes and legislators by means of anti-Jewish writings, and, -on the other, to prevail upon the Jews to desert their faith, were -renewed on a larger scale. There now came forth from the institution -which had been established by Raymond de Penyaforte for the purpose -of instructing the Dominican monks in the literature of the Jews and -Arabs to be used as a means of conversion, a monk, who was the first -man in Europe to sharpen weapons of learning for the contest against -the Jews. Raymund Martin wrote two books full of malevolent hostility -against Judaism, whose very titles announce that the prison cell and -the sword were to be employed against its adherents. They are called -"Bridle for the Jews," and "Dagger of Faith" (Capistrum Judaeorum, and -Pugio Fidei). Martin possessed a thorough knowledge of Biblical and -rabbinical literature, and was the first Christian who was better -acquainted with Hebrew than the Church Father Jerome. He read with ease -the Agadic works, the writings of Rashi, Ibn-Ezra, Maimuni and Kimchi, -and used them to show that, not alone in the Bible, but also in the -rabbinical writings, Jesus was recognized as the Messiah and the Son of -God. As might be expected, Raymund Martin laid especial stress upon the -argument that the Jewish laws, although a revelation from God, were not -intended to have force for ever, and they would lose their validity, -particularly at the time of the Messiah. To demonstrate this point, he -adduced apparent proofs from the Agadic literature of the Talmud. He -also urged that the Talmudists had tampered with the text of the Bible. - -Although Raymund Martin's "Dagger of Faith" was neither sharp nor -pointed, and although the book is so devoid of spirit that no person -could be seduced by it, yet it made a great impression because of the -amount of learning displayed therein. By means of the subjoined Latin -translation of the Hebrew texts, Christians for the first time were -able to peer into the recesses of the Jewish world of thought, which -had hitherto been an impenetrable secret to them. Dominicans, eager for -the fray, were provided with weapons from this well-stocked arsenal, -and aimed blows with them which, to the superficial observer, appeared -to strike the air only, but which were regarded by Solomon ben Adret as -fraught with danger. He very frequently had interviews with Christian -theologians, and, it appears, with Raymund Martin himself. He heard -from them various statements, and all sorts of arguments to prove the -divine character of Christianity, and was afraid that the weak-minded -and the immature might be induced thereby to abandon the Jewish belief. -In order to counteract this, he wrote a small pamphlet, in which he -briefly refuted all those arguments which were employed at the time by -Christians against Judaism. In this refutation and justification, Ben -Adret manifested a remarkable spirit of moderation and calmness: no -bitter or passionate utterance escaped him. - -His polemical writings against a Mahometan writer are much more severe. -This author, with scathing criticism, attacked the three revealed -religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and directed his arrows -very cleverly against their weak points. But Ben Adret's defense is -feeble: it proves the correctness of the Bible from the Bible itself, -and combats his critical opponent with Talmudical weapons. He thus -continually reasons in a circle, and by no means did he achieve a -glorious victory. Ben Adret's activity was productive of better results -within the ranks of Judaism than beyond them. His time was one of great -agitation, in which science and religion were diverging more steadily -and noticeably than before: piety daily widened the gulf between it and -thought; and thought continually separated itself more and more from -the sphere of religion. The Kabbala, growing ever bolder, interfered -in the fierce battle of opinions and religious beliefs, and cast its -dark shadows over the dimly illuminated basis of Judaism. The old -questions, whether Maimuni was to be termed a heretic or not, whether -his philosophical writings were to be shunned or indeed consigned -to the flames, or whether they were to be considered a satisfactory -exposition of Jewish principles,--these questions now burst into new -life, and again caused divisions. In Spain and in southern France, -the strife had been extinguished by the solemn repentance of the -former anti-Maimunist, Jonah I. Since his time, the rabbis of these -congregations held Maimuni in great reverence, and considering his -ideas as indisputably conducive to the strengthening of religion, they -made use of them with more or less skill and lucidity of thought. Even -the most orthodox Talmudists in Spain and Provence quoted sayings of -Maimuni in their expositions of religious questions. But the battle -for and against Maimuni was waged on another scene of action. In the -German and Italian communities, it inflamed the minds of men anew, -penetrated as far as Palestine, and, as it were, enfolded all Judaism -in its embrace. The German Jews, who hitherto had not shown any liking -for science, and who had limited their thoughts to the narrow circle of -the Talmud, were unacquainted with the work of the active spirits of -Montpellier, Saragossa, and Toledo. They did not suspect that Maimuni, -in addition to his code of religious laws, which they accepted, had -left writings of a more questionable nature. They were now rudely -awakened from their happy religious slumber, and their minds agitated -with speculations upon the consequences involved in the Maimunist -philosophy of religion. - -The man who rekindled this bitter strife was a learned Talmudist, -named Moses ben Chasdai Taku (Tachau?), who flourished from about -1250 to 1290. An eccentric, orthodox literalist, he considered all -philosophical and rational views concerning Judaism equal to a -disavowal of the truths of the Torah and the Talmud. Taku was quite -logical in his opposition. He denounced as heretics not only Maimuni -and Ibn-Ezra, but also the Gaon Saadiah, because the latter, in his -writings on philosophy, had been the pioneer in this path. The new -study had thus originated with him; before his time it had been -unheard of in Jewish circles. Led by an unerring instinct, Taku -justly affirmed that these men had paved the way for the Karaites. -He maintained that it was the bounden duty of every pious Jew, who -believed in the written and oral Law, to keep himself aloof from their -folly. Moses Taku, with his curious notions, certainly did not occupy -an isolated position among the German rabbis. Other men, who had been -nurtured in the same school, undoubtedly were in entire agreement -with him: but they did not all possess the courage or versatility to -take part in a contest against the well-armed representatives of the -philosophical school. The most distinguished among them was Meir ben -Baruch of Rothenburg on the Tauber (born 1220, died 1293), on whom the -last rays of the dying school of the Tossafists continued to linger. -He probably was the first official chief rabbi in the German kingdom, -having perhaps received this title from Emperor Rudolph, the first of -the house of Habsburg. Although he is sometimes reckoned among the -Tossafists, yet his Talmudical writings reveal comprehensive erudition -rather than originality or acuteness. He can in no way be compared -with Ben Adret; however, he was an authority in Germany and northern -France. His piety was of an exaggerated kind. It had been agreed by -the French rabbis that in winter rooms might be warmed on the Sabbath -by Christians. Meir of Rothenburg would not allow the Sabbath to be -desecrated in this indirect way. He therefore tightly fastened up the -doors of the stoves in his house, because the servant-maid had several -times made a fire unbidden. In general, the German Jews were more -scrupulous than those of other countries; they, for instance, still -observed the fast of the Day of Atonement for two consecutive days. - -What position the German rabbis took in reference to the denunciation -of philosophy and of Maimuni, revived by Moses Taku, is not -authentically known, but may be inferred from an event which was the -cause of much scandal elsewhere. - -A French or Rhenish Kabbalist, who had emigrated to Jean d'Acre -(Accho), was stirred up by even more intense zeal than Moses Taku. -This man, whose name was Solomon Petit, made it the aim of his life -to kindle again the pyre for the wholesale burning of the writings of -Maimuni, and to plant the standard of the Kabbala upon the grave of -philosophy. At Accho he gathered a circle of pupils around him, whom he -initiated into the knowledge of the secret art, and to whom he related -marvelous stories in order to cast disrepute upon philosophy. Accho was -at this time a very nest of Kabbalists and mystics, of whom the greater -number were pupils of Nachmani. Although the days of this town, the -last stronghold of the much reduced Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, -were numbered, these dabblers in the mystic art conducted themselves as -if they were destined to remain there for ever. Solomon Petit thought -that he could command sufficient support to venture upon carrying into -execution his plan of publishing once more a sentence of condemnation -upon Maimunist writings, of forbidding under penalties all scientific -study, and excommunicating men engaged in independent research. His -fanaticism was especially directed against Maimuni's "Guide" (More); in -his opinion it deserved to be proscribed, like other heretical works. -He enlisted many followers in Palestine to aid him in this attack on -heresy. Who would not obey, when the voice of the Holy Land had caused -itself to be heard? Who would attempt to justify what it had condemned? -But the zealot Solomon Petit met with unexpected opposition. - -At the head of the Eastern congregations at this time, there stood -an energetic man, Yishai ben Chiskiya, who had obtained the title of -Prince and Exilarch (Resh-Galuta) from the temporal authorities. Those -communities of Palestine which were under the rule of the Mahometans -and of the Egyptian Sultan Kilavun, naturally belonged to his diocese, -and he also claimed obedience from the community at Accho, although -it was in the hands of the crusaders. The Exilarch Yishai held -Maimuni in the highest respect, and was on friendly terms with his -grandson, David, the Nagid of Egypt. As soon as he received information -concerning the doings of Solomon Petit, the mystic of Accho, he -dispatched a sharp letter to him, and threatened to excommunicate him -if he persisted in his attacks on Maimuni and his writings. Several -rabbis, whom Yishai had called in, to add the weight of their authority -to his, expressed themselves to the same effect. But Solomon Petit -was not a man to permit himself to be overpowered by obstacles. He -undertook a journey to Europe, visited the large congregations, and -described the danger of the Maimunistic writings to the rabbis and -other distinguished persons. He overawed them by his knowledge of the -Kabbala, succeeded in persuading many to join him, and announce, in -documents bearing their signatures, that the philosophical writings of -Maimuni contained heresies, that they deserved to be put aside or even -burnt, and that no Jew ought to read them. Nowhere did Solomon Petit -meet with such hearty support as with the German rabbis. They showed -their approval of his action in letters, even some of those who had -recently been in agreement with the Exilarch Yishai. - -Being assured of the assistance of the German and of some of the French -rabbis, Solomon Petit started on his return journey through Italy, -and sought to obtain partisans in that country also; but there he -met with the least response, for just as Maimuni was finding fresh -antagonists in Germany, so his admirers were increasing in Italy. -The Italian communities, which hitherto had rivaled the Germans in -ignorance of every kind, were just awakening from their torpidity, and -their recently opened eyes turned to the light which emanated from -Maimuni. Their political condition was not unfavorable; in fact, within -the precincts of St. Peter, they were at that time in more propitious -circumstances than any of the Jews of central Europe. The canonical -laws against the Jews were nowhere more disregarded than in Italy. The -small states and municipalities, into which the country was split up at -this time, were too jealous of their liberty to permit the clergy to -exert any influence over their domestic concerns. The city of Ferrara -passed a statute in favor of the Jews, granting many liberties to them, -and containing a clause stating, that a magistrate (podesta) could be -empowered neither by the pope nor by any one else to deprive them of -these privileges. Not only had the king of Sicily, Charles of Anjou, a -Jewish physician, Farraj Ibn-Solomon, who, under the name of Farragut, -was held in high repute as a scholar in Christian circles, but even the -pope himself transgressed the canonical decree which forbade any one's -taking medical assistance from a Jew. One of the four popes who reigned -during the short period of thirteen years (1279 to 1291) entrusted his -holy person to the care of a Jewish physician, Isaac ben Mordecai, who -bore the title of Maestro Gajo. - -The prosperity enjoyed by Italy in consequence of the wide extension -of its flourishing commerce, and the fondness for art and poetry which -sprang up at this time, during the youth of the poet Dante, affected -also the Italian Jews, and aroused them from their hitherto dormant -condition. - -The philosophical writings of Maimuni made their influence in favor -of the higher culture felt upon the minds of the Italian Jews. About -this time, they began to occupy themselves earnestly with the "Guide," -and intellectual men delivered discourses upon this profound work. The -origin of this revival may be traced back to Anatoli, but Hillel of -Verona must be considered the founder and promulgator of the scientific -method among the Italian Jews. Maimuni had no warmer admirer than -this true-hearted and energetic man, who, though somewhat limited in -range of ideas, was exceedingly lovable. Hillel ben Samuel of Verona -(born about 1220, died about 1295), a zealous Talmud disciple of Jonah -Gerundi, in no way partook of the intolerant and heresy-hunting spirit -which characterized his teacher. He had been a witness of the latter's -genuine atonement for calling in the aid of the Dominicans in his -fanatical onslaught on the writings of Maimuni, and since that time -Hillel almost worshiped Maimuni. He avoided Talmudic one-sidedness, and -turned his mind also to general studies. He made himself so thoroughly -acquainted with the Latin language--a rare accomplishment among the -Jews of his day--that he was able to compose in Latin with great ease; -he translated a work upon surgery from this language into Hebrew. -Indeed, Hillel's Hebrew style was influenced by the peculiarities of -Latin syntax. He wrote beautiful, clear, terse Hebrew prose, entirely -free from the verbose phraseology and ornate flourishes of the style -then in vogue. At first he practised the profession of medicine in -Rome, afterwards in Capua and Ferrara, and in his old age in Forli. - -With all his intellectual powers Hillel became absorbed in Maimuni's -writings on the philosophy of religion, notwithstanding which he -remained true to his religious belief, clinging to it with great -tenacity. The miracles in the Bible and the Talmud were not regarded -by him as fanciful allegories, but on the contrary retained their -character as real events. About this time there lived in Italy two -logical thinkers, one a native born Italian, Sabbatai ben Solomon, -of Rome--in his time a very distinguished personage--and the other, -a Spaniard, who had emigrated to Rome, Serachya ben Isaac, a member -of the renowned family of Ben Shaltiel-Chen (Gracian?), whose home -was in Barcelona. The latter, famous as a physician and an adept in -the Aristotelian philosophy, was a passionate opponent of the belief -in miracles. The desire of the Italian Jews for knowledge is well -illustrated by an anecdote wittily told by an Italian Jewish poet. -A Jewish scholar from Toledo arrived at Perugia with eighty books -upon science--a considerable library in those days--and, in order to -continue his journey more comfortably, he tied them up, sealed them, -and left them in Perugia. He had scarcely left the place, when those -eager seekers after knowledge, unable to repress their curiosity, broke -open the parcel, and possessed themselves of the mental treasures that -it contained. The young poet, Immanuel Romi, who perhaps was concerned -in this affair, drank in with all the vigor of his ardent mind, the -spirit which Hillel of Verona and Serachya-Chen had distilled for the -Italian Jews from the writings of Maimuni. - -It is quite obvious that in the presence of this revival of culture -among the congregations of Italy, the Kabbalist Solomon Petit could not -possibly meet with support in his effort to enlist adherents for his -denunciation of Maimuni. The fanatic was clever enough not to drop a -word of his intentions there. When he arrived at Jean d'Acre (Accho) -with the letters against Maimuni written by the German rabbis, he set -to work to encourage his confederates, who had been intimidated by -the threats of the prince-rabbi of Damascus, to arouse fresh strife, -and to induce them to pronounce sentence of excommunication against -Maimuni's philosophical writings. The Kabbalists of this community -readily assented to his plan, condemned the "Guide" of Maimuni to be -burnt, and threatened with excommunication all who might henceforth -study it. The Kabbala despite its youth felt itself so powerful, -that it imagined itself able to extirpate the firmly-rooted spirit -of inquiry from the midst of Judaism. It appears that the tomb of -Maimuni at Tiberias was desecrated by these Kabbalists. Instead of -the laudatory inscription written on the stone, they substituted, -"Moses Maimuni, the excommunicated heretic." However, the community -at Accho did not, as a whole, agree with this disgraceful charge of -heresy: there were in it warm admirers of Maimuni, and strenuous -opponents of his condemnation by self-constituted authorities. Thus -there broke out fierce strife in the very heart of the community, -which actually led to blows. The news of this contention rapidly -spread through the countries in communication with Palestine, and -called forth universal indignation. Hillel of Verona, who had been a -witness of the destructive consequences of the contest about Maimuni -in France, displayed great energy to prevent a repetition. He sent -letters to David Maimuni and the congregations in Egypt and Babylonia -(Irak), and proposed the following plan for extinguishing once for -all the destructive flame of dissension kindled by the writings of -Maimuni, which so often blazed up afresh. He suggested that the most -distinguished rabbis of the Jews in the East should assemble at a -synod at Alexandria, and summon the German rabbis who had supported -Solomon Petit to justify their conduct. If they could prove that -the philosophical writings of Maimuni contained actual heresies and -notions opposed to the Bible and the Talmud, which Hillel himself -believed impossible, then it was only just that Maimuni's writings -should be condemned, and removed from the hands of the public. If, -however, the German rabbis were unable to defend and justify their -accusations of heresy, then they should be compelled, under penalty of -excommunication, to submit to the universal verdict of the excellence -of the "Guide" of Maimuni, and to abstain in future from stirring up -discord and division by their opposition to Maimuni's philosophy. The -rabbis of Babylonia, who had possessed authority from time immemorial, -were to pronounce judgment. - -This energetic action in Europe, and the strenuous exertions of -Hillel, were not really necessary in order to disturb the work of -the mystics in Accho. Solomon Petit and his Kabbalistic faction were -isolated in the East. As soon as David Maimuni received information of -the condemnation passed upon his grandfather, he journeyed to Accho, -where he met with support from the section of the community opposed to -fanaticism. He addressed letters to all congregations, calling upon -them to take up the defense of the honor of his grandfather against the -Jewish Dominicans, the heresy-hunting and narrow-minded Kabbalists. -Everywhere he met with approval. The Prince of the Captivity at -Mosul, named David ben Daniel, who traced his origin back to King -David, and who was the head of the communities on this side of the -Tigris, declared that he would place Petit under the severest ban of -excommunication till he ceased his attempts to create a disturbance -(Iyar, 1289). Eleven rabbis of his college signed this threat against -the heresy-hunter of Accho. The Exilarch of Damascus, Yishai ben -Chiskiya, who had already issued a warning against these attacks on -Maimuni, again took energetic action in the matter. Together with his -college of twelve associates, he pronounced a ban of excommunication -(Tammuz--June, 1289), not merely against Solomon Petit and his -partisans, but also against any person who dared speak in terms of -contempt and disrespect of Maimuni, or who accused his writings of -heresy. All persons who possessed any books hostile to Maimuni were -commanded to yield them up to David Maimuni or his sons, as quickly -as possible, so that no improper use might be made of them. If any -persons who at the time dwelt in Accho, or who would immigrate thither -at some later time, refused to obey the decisions of the Prince of the -Captivity and his colleagues, it was incumbent upon every Jew to employ -all possible means to render these men incapable of doing any harm, and -even to call in the aid of the secular authorities. - -The important congregation of Safet also gave assent to the edict -in favor of Maimuni. The rabbi of the town, Moses ben Jehuda Cohen, -together with his colleagues, and a portion of the community of -Accho, repeated at the grave of Maimuni in Tiberias the formula of -excommunication against all who continued their obstinate enmity -against him, against those who refused to surrender writings accusing -him of heterodoxy, and especially against all who disobeyed the -decisions of the Prince of the Captivity, "seeing that they who incite -discord in the communities deny the Torah, which preaches peace, and -they mock at God, who is peace itself." All the congregations and -rabbis in Palestine took up the cause of Maimuni. The members of the -community of Bagdad, who at this time basked in the sunshine of the -favor of a prominent Jewish statesman, and at whose head as the chief -of the academy was Samuel Cohen ben Daniel, also expressed themselves -to the same effect (Tishri--September, 1289). The Kabbalists of Accho -were condemned by public opinion, and the Exilarch of Damascus took -care to acquaint the European communities with what had occurred. The -testimonials in favor of Maimuni were forwarded to Barcelona, probably -to Solomon ben Adret. The philosopher and poet, Shem-Tob Falaquera, -a prolific writer, took advantage of the favorable opportunity to -publish a vindication of the "Guide" of Maimuni, saying that in his -opinion only very few, perhaps only one person--who was able to read -this work on the philosophy of religion in the original--could render -it sufficient justice. But in Spain, Maimuni required no advocates; -for it was seldom that any one ventured to speak in derogatory terms -of his opinions. Though pious Spaniards might here and there have -found something to cavil at, they, nevertheless, paid great honor to -Maimuni's name. - -The German rabbis, by whom Solomon Petit had been supported, had no -leisure to note the issue of the strife concerning Maimuni. They -were too much occupied with their own affairs. During the reign of -Emperor Rudolph of Habsburg, such severe troubles befell the German -communities that they determined on emigrating _en masse_. Rudolph, -who from a poor knight had become the ruler over the German empire, -did not, indeed, threaten their lives, but had designs upon their -money. His coffers were empty, and he was in need of means to enable -him to subdue the proud nobles, and to lay the foundation of the power -of the house of Habsburg. Jews indeed advanced large sums of money to -the poor duke, to whom the crown of an empire had unexpectedly fallen, -one of his creditors being Amshel Oppenheimer. But these voluntary -advances did not satisfy him, and did not prevent him from extorting -larger sums from them. Every favor which he conceded them, and every -protection which he extended to them, was preceded by the payment of a -considerable present in money. As Rudolph always kept his own advantage -in view, a mark of favor displayed towards the Jews was regularly -followed by some restriction, so that he might always have them under -his control. - -He confirmed the privileges of the old congregation at Ratisbon, which -it had possessed from ancient days, acknowledging among other things, -that it might exercise its own jurisdiction in civil affairs, and -that none of its members could be convicted of any crime without the -corroborative evidence of a Jewish witness. At the instigation of the -bishop, however, he promulgated a decree that the Jews of Ratisbon -should remain at home during Eastertide, not show themselves on roads -and streets to the "ignominy of the Christian faith," and were to -fasten their doors and windows. For the congregations in Austria, -Emperor Rudolph confirmed the statute in favor of the Jews passed by -Archduke Frederick the Valiant, which afforded protection against -persecution and murder. On the other hand, a year later, he issued -a special decree to the citizens of Vienna, which solemnly declared -the ineligibility of the Jews for public offices. Pope Innocent IV -had exonerated them from the charge of child-murder at Passover. Pope -Gregory X (1271-1278), at the request of the Jews, had issued a bull, -which ordained that they were not to be made by brute force to undergo -baptism, and that no injury was to be inflicted upon their persons or -their property. Emperor Rudolph ratified these bulls, adding that "it -is not true that the Jews feed upon the heart of a slain child on the -days of the Passover festival." In order that they might be able to -live under his protection, assured of the imperial grace, he confirmed -and repeated all the edicts which had been issued by the popes in their -favor, especially the one which declared that Jews could be condemned -only on the valid evidence of Jews and Christians. He also afforded -them many other means of protection, and inflicted punishment upon some -murderers of innocent Jews in Lorch. But as the Germans had of old been -accustomed to anarchy, there arose, during his reign, a large number -of blood-accusations, and massacres of Jews, which the emperor partly -left unpunished, partly encouraged. - -About Easter time a dead Christian child was discovered at Mayence, and -now again arose the lying rumor that the Jews of Mayence had murdered -it. In vain did Archbishop Werner, of Mayence, the Lord Chancellor of -the kingdom, exert himself with great energy to appease the excited -mob, to institute a regular trial against the accused, and to discover -the guilty persons. The Christians, whom the sight of the corpse filled -with intense fury, attacked their Jewish neighbors on the second day of -Easter (or the last day but one of Passover, 19th April, 1283), slew -ten persons, and pillaged the Jewish houses. The persecution would -have been much more bloody, had not Archbishop Werner energetically -intervened for the defense of "his" Jews. Emperor Rudolph is reported -to have commanded an inquiry to be made into the matter later on, and -to have confirmed the judgment passed upon the Jews, and acquitted the -citizens of Mayence from all blame. The possessions of which they had -been plundered he is said to have confiscated, not, however, for the -benefit of his own treasury, but to be distributed among the poor; for -he would not make use of any property acquired by usury, nor would -he permit the Church to use it. In other respects, Emperor Rudolph -was by no means conscientious. On the day of the attack in Mayence, -twenty-six Jews were put to death in Bacharach. Two years later (11th -October, 1285) heartrending sufferings befell the congregation of -Munich. At this place also the false charge was circulated that the -Jews had purchased a Christian child from an old woman, and had killed -it. Without waiting for any judicial investigation of these charges, -the infuriated populace fell upon the Jews, and put to death all who -fell into their hands. The remaining Jews had fled for refuge to the -synagogue. Thereupon the adherents of the religion of love procured -some inflammable material, placed it around the building, and set fire -to the house of prayer. One hundred and eighty persons, old and young, -were thus burnt to death. Not long after this, more than forty Jews -of Oberwesel, near Bacharach, and others in Boppard, were innocently -murdered (1286). The charge against them was that they had secretly -drawn out the blood of a pious man, called by the people "the good -Werner." The credulous asserted that light had issued from his corpse, -on which account this so-called saint became the object of pilgrimages. -Emperor Rudolph, however, some time later stripped the man of sanctity, -and absolved the Jews from the guilt of his death. - -There can be no doubt that it was owing to the annually repeated -persecutions, the insecurity of their existence and their wretched -state, that the Jews of several congregations resolved to shake the -dust of Germany from their feet, and, together with their wives and -children, to wander forth and seek a new home. Many families from -the cities of Mayence, Worms, Speyer, Oppenheim, and others, in the -Wetterau, left their rich possessions in order to go across the sea. -At the head of these emigrants was the most famous rabbi of Germany, -Meir of Rothenburg, who was revered as a saint. He also wandered forth, -together with his whole family, to make his way to Syria (spring, -1286). A rumor was current that in this land the Messiah had made his -appearance, and would redeem unhappy Israel from its troubles. - -At this time all eyes in the East beheld with astonishment a Jewish -statesman as the most distinguished personage at the court of a Mongol -Grand Khan, whose dominion extended from the lower Euphrates and the -borders of Syria to the Caspian Sea. The Mongols, or Tartars, had -founded a large kingdom in Persia, which was only nominally subject to -the khanate of Mongolia and China. After Hulagu, the founder of this -kingdom, and his son Abaka (Abagha), his second son had succeeded to -the throne, and he embraced Islam, and assumed the name of Ahmed. The -Mongols of Persia were, however, dissatisfied with this proceeding: -Ahmed was dethroned, and put to death. His successor, in the -Perso-Mongolian kingdom, was Argun, the son of Abaka (1284-91). Argun -displayed marked aversion to Islam, and a special liking for Jews and -Christians. This Grand Khan had a Jewish physician, named Saad-Addaula -(perhaps the same as Mordecai Ibn-Alcharbiya), a man possessed of -wide learning, acute intellect, political insight, and disinterested -character. As he had frequent dealings with Mongols, he was acquainted -with their language as well as with Arabic. He had a handsome -appearance, charming manners, and the suppleness of a diplomat. He also -had a taste for poetry and science, and in later years became their -patron. Saad-Addaula practised in Bagdad, where Argun very often held -his court. The Grand Khan once fell ill, and was restored to health by -Saad. He conversed with the physician to whom he owed his recovery, -upon state matters, and learnt from him particulars of the condition -of the revenue, which the officials and courtiers, out of avarice, had -diligently concealed from the Grand Khan. From that time Saad-Addaula -became his favorite and counselor, and rose step by step to the -position of the highest state official. - -Many wealthy Jews of the districts of the Rhine and the Maine started -on their journey; and Meir of Rothenburg reached Lombardy, together -with his whole family. He was only waiting for the members of his -congregation in order to take ship in Italy, and, together with other -exiles, steer their course towards the East into the haven of safety. -Unfortunately, Meir was recognized by a baptized Jew, who was passing -through the same town in the train of the bishop of Basle. At the -instigation of the bishop, the captain, Meinhard of Goerz, took him -prisoner, and delivered him to the authorities. Emperor Rudolph ordered -him to be placed under arrest in the tower of Ensisheim, in Alsace (4th -Tammuz--19th June, 1286). The emperor did not intend to punish the -runaway rabbi, but to keep him safe and prevent him from emigrating. He -was afraid that, by the departure of the Jews _en masse_, the imperial -income obtained from these serfs of the chamber ("servi camerae") would -suffer heavy loss. Meir's imprisonment was, therefore, not a severe -one. He was permitted to receive visits, to instruct his pupils, and to -perform all the functions of a rabbi, but he was not permitted to leave -the place. - -The German Jews, however, could not feel easy while their highly -respected chief remained in custody: they, therefore, sent deputies -to Emperor Rudolph, when he paid a visit to the Rhine country (in the -year 1288). Being then, as usual, in need of money, he entered into -negotiations with them. The Jews offered him 20,000 marks of silver if -he would inflict punishment upon the murderers of the Jews of Oberwesel -and Boppard, release Meir from custody, and guarantee to them security -against murderous outrages at the hands of the populace. The emperor -acceded to their terms, and laid a heavy fine upon the citizens of -Oberwesel and Boppard. Meir was not, however, released from prison, -either because the emperor hoped to make capital of the respect of the -Jews for their rabbi, and to extract large sums of money from them, or, -as is related, because Meir himself refused to be liberated on these -terms. He feared that the precedent of imprisoning the rabbis to extort -ransoms from the Jews, would be frequently resorted to in after times, -and therefore continued for five years longer under arrest. From prison -he sent replies to inquiries addressed to him, and composed several -works there. He died in prison, and the successors of Rudolph kept his -corpse unburied for fourteen years, in order to extort money from the -congregations. At length a childless man from Frankfort, named Suesskind -Alexander Wimpfen, ransomed the body for a large sum, and interred it -in Worms. The only reward which the noble Wimpfen demanded was that his -bones might be laid by the side of the pious rabbi. - -At about this time the Jews of England suffered the extremity of -misfortune. They were more unhappy, if that was possible, than the -German Jews. Before being expelled, they had to pass through every -degree of misery. At the accession of the new king, Edward I, they had -prospects of a secure existence, seeing that this monarch, the very -opposite of his father, was severe but just; he showed them no favors, -but, on the other hand, he extorted nothing from them, and at all -events was able to protect them from the attacks of the deluded mob. -Edward took very great care that the Jews of his land be not made to -suffer nor be subjected to caprice, and that no injury be done either -to their persons or their property. They might have lived on in this -lowly state, bowed down beneath the burden of the imposts, and wearying -themselves to satisfy, through usury, the insatiable demands of the -royal treasury, had not a slight occurrence made them the object of the -bitter hatred of the monks. - -In London there lived a Dominican, named Robert de Redingge, who -inflamed the minds of the people by his eloquence in the pulpit. He -had studied the Hebrew language, on the cultivation of which so much -stress had been laid by the third general of the order, Raymond de -Penyaforte, to enable the monks to convert the Jews by means of their -own writings. But instead of converting them, the preaching friar, -Robert de Reddinge, became himself converted. He was inspired by so -deep a love for Judaism that he underwent circumcision, assumed the -name of Haggai, and married a beautiful Jewess (summer of 1275). When -he was summoned to answer for his apostasy, he defended his new faith -with great warmth. King Edward handed him over for punishment to the -archbishop of Canterbury. What was done to him is not known; but it -appears that he, together with his wife, escaped unhurt. The Dominicans -were, however, enraged at his conversion, for they considered the -apostasy of one of their members as a disgraceful blot upon their -order. Touched to the quick by the mockery of the people and their -rivals the Franciscans, who deeply hated them, the preaching friars -sought to wreak their vengeance upon the Jews. As the king could not -be approached except by some intermediate agent, they brought their -influence to bear upon the bigoted, avaricious queen-mother Eleanor, -and they succeeded. She identified herself with the cause of the -Dominicans against the Jews, and did not desist till the English Jews -had drained the cup of tribulation to the dregs. She first expelled the -Jews from the town of Cambridge which belonged to her, and personally -fostered the hostile feeling against them throughout the whole country, -especially among Christian merchants. - -There now commenced, almost against the will of the king, a series -of burdensome oppressions, which would appear incredible, were they -not authenticated by the testimony of trustworthy sources. Hitherto -Parliament had had nothing to do with the Jews; they were considered -the king's people, over whom neither the commons nor the nobility had -any authority. Just at this time, however, incited by the Dominicans -and the queen-mother, the House of Commons passed a statute (called the -Statute of Judaism), which breathes the inimical spirit of the Church. -It positively prohibited the Jews from taking usury. They were allowed -to reside only in royal cities and boroughs. If they had to enforce -payment of debts by law, they could not distress beyond the moiety of -the debtor's property. Every Jew above the age of twelve was to pay -the sum of three pence to the king at Easter. The House of Commons -strictly enforced the wearing of the Jew-badge, determined its size -and color (substituting yellow for white), and forbade all intercourse -with Christians. As an English writer, Tovey, remarks, the Jews in -England were treated like their ancestors in Egypt, except that instead -of bricks they had to furnish gold. This comparison is good at every -point, nothing was granted to them, and yet they were obliged to render -a complete tale of services. Even for the privilege of trading they had -to rely upon the favor of the king, and to pay a price for it. - -A favorable opportunity soon presented itself to the enemies of the -Jews to prefer grave charges against them. Counterfeit coins, imported -from abroad, were in circulation in England; the coin of the country -also was often clipped. The charge was directed against the Jews, that -they were the sole originators and circulators of the counterfeit -coins. In consequence of this, on Friday, 17th November, 1278, all the -Jews of England, together with their wives and children, were thrown -into prison, and their houses searched. It was afterwards proved that -many Christians, and even some noblemen of London, had been guilty of -counterfeiting the coin of the realm, and that throughout the whole -kingdom only 293 Jews had been convicted of the crime of which they -were accused. Nevertheless, over 10,000 Jews were made to suffer for -this act, and whilst the Christians who were implicated, with the -exception of three, were liberated on payment of a fine, the 293 Jews -were hanged, others sentenced to imprisonment for life, and still -others expelled from the country and their possessions confiscated. -But the hatred against them was not spent. The Jews continued to be -accused of passing counterfeit coins, and their enemies tried to -smuggle them into their possession, and then by threatening to denounce -them, extorted money from them. Edward, who became acquainted with -these intrigues, issued a law (May, 1279), which enacted that charges -of tampering with the coin of the realm could only be brought forward -till the May of the following year, and thus put a stop to all these -denunciations. - -The enemies of the Jews, however, did not tire of forging new charges -against them. It was soon reported that the Jews of Northampton had -crucified a Christian child. For this alleged crime many Jews in London -were torn asunder by horses, and their corpses hung on the gallows -(2nd April, 1279). Next, the Jews were charged with acts of disrespect -to Christian emblems. The king thereupon issued a decree that the -blasphemers were to be punished with death. As, however, Edward knew -his people, he added that the accused were to receive punishment -only if convicted by the evidence of honest, impartial witnesses of -the transgression. In order to lead the Jews on to blasphemous acts, -the Dominicans devised an infamous trick. They besought the king to -permit them to preach to the Jews for the purpose of converting them. -They knew that one or other of them would be transported by zeal for -his religion, and would make use of an offensive expression. Edward -granted them this permission at the request of the prior (1280), and -warned the Jews to listen to the sermons of the Dominicans patiently, -without turbulence, contradiction, or blasphemy. To promote their -conversion, the king even sacrificed money. The extraordinary law, -that the Jews who went over to Christianity were to forfeit their -property to the treasury, Edward partly abrogated, and decreed that -they might retain a half. He moreover ordered the erection of a house -for converts of the Jewish race, and endowed it with a revenue, which, -however, flowed mainly into the pockets of the overseer. A scholastic -philosopher of that time suggested another means for the conversion of -the Jews. The celebrated Franciscan monk, Duns Scotus (professor at -Oxford, afterwards in Paris and Cologne), who had nurtured his mind -with the thoughts of the Jewish philosopher Gebirol, held that it was -the duty of the king, if he wished to show Christian zeal, to tear -Jewish children away from their parents, and cause them to be educated -in the Christian faith. Still more, it was perfectly justifiable to -force the parents themselves, by all sorts of threats, to submit to -baptism. How much respect the Jews entertained for the Christianity of -the worldly-minded and rapacious popes, ferocious princes, and sensual -monks, is shown by a peculiar incident. A Jewess complained to the -king that her own and her husband's enemies had defamed her by calling -her a convert, and she entreated him to secure her redress for this -insult. Whilst the queen-mother, Eleanor, was exerting herself at the -instance of the Dominicans to inflame the king and the people against -the Jews, the queen, also named Eleanor, bestowed her favor on them. -She prayed the king to confer the vacant chief rabbinate of the English -congregation on her favorite Hagin (Chayim) Denlacres. The king granted -her prayer, and installed Hagin as chief rabbi, with all the powers and -privileges which his predecessors had enjoyed (15th May, 1281). - -When the king settled the chief rabbinate of England on Hagin and his -heirs, he had no thought of expelling the Jews from his kingdom. -Gradually, however, the fanatical party and his mother gained more -influence over him, and disturbed his clear perceptions. This party in -England, probably the Dominicans, appeared before the newly-elected -pope, Honorius IV, lodging the serious accusations against the Jews, -that they not only held friendly intercourse with Christians, but -that they encouraged the return of baptized Jews to Judaism, invited -Christians on Sabbaths and festivals to the synagogue, made them bend -the knee before the Torah, and enticed them to adopt Jewish customs. -The pope accordingly sent a missive to the archbishop of York and his -legate, bidding them employ every means to put a stop to this improper -conduct. On the 16th of April, 1287, a Church assembly was held in -Exeter, which renewed all the hateful canonical resolutions against the -Jews. A fortnight later (2nd May) the king for the second time ordered -the arrest of all English Jews with their wives and children, an act -for which no cause can be assigned. Nor did he release them until he -received a large ransom. Three years later, in 1290, Edward, instigated -by his mother, issued an edict on his own authority, without the -consent of Parliament, that all the Jews of England were to be banished -from the country. They were given till the first of November to change -their goods into money. Any Jew found on English soil after that date -was to be hanged. But they had to restore all pledges of Christian -debtors to their owners before that time. Edward was mild enough -strongly to impress upon his officials not to molest the Jews on their -departure, and he warned the sailing-masters at the five ports not to -insult them. Although their respite lasted till the 1st of November, -the 16,511 Jews of England left the country by the 9th of October. The -real estate which they had not succeeded in selling, escheated to the -king. In spite of the king's orders, the expelled Jews were exposed -to all sorts of ill-treatment. One captain, who was employed to convey -several families down the Thames to the sea, ran the ship against a -sandbank, and made them disembark until the rising of the tide. When -the tide began to return, he re-embarked, and his sailors went aboard, -sailed away, and called out scornfully to the despairing Jews, "Cry -unto Moses, who led your ancestors safely through the Red Sea, to bring -you to dry land." The unhappy people perished in the waves. This affair -came to the ears of the judges, and the ringleaders were hanged as -murderers. How many similar incidents may have occurred and remained -unpunished! The Jews of Gascony, which at that time belonged to -England, were also expelled. The banished Jews directed their steps to -France, the nearest refuge. There they were at first received by Philip -IV, le Bel. But soon after the king and the Parliament together decreed -that the Jews who had been driven out of England and Gascony were to -leave French territory by the middle of Lent. Once more were they -compelled to set out on their pilgrimage; some of them went to Germany, -the others probably to northern Spain. - -As if an evil destiny were pursuing the sons of Jacob, like a shadow, -never leaving them for a moment, the short spell of fortune enjoyed -through Saad-Addaula by the Jews of Asia soon turned to destruction. -The physician of the Grand Khan of Persia had drawn attention to the -fraudulent conduct of the finance officials; for which service he -had been appointed commissary, and sent to Bagdad to investigate the -condition of the revenue, and to bring the fraudulent administrators -to account (end of 1288). Saad-Addaula succeeded in restoring the -revenues to such order, that he was able to remit to the Grand Khan -Argun considerable sums, which he had not expected. Argun, who loved -gold, was delighted with his Jewish commissary, and distinguished him -by all possible marks of honor. As Saad-Addaula acted disinterestedly, -and was concerned only for the good of his master, he was able -continually to put larger sums of money into the treasury, and thus -won for himself ever more favor from this great khan. Ultimately Argun -appointed him minister of finance for the whole Iranian (Persian) -empire, and conferred on him the honorable title of Saad-Addaula, -"Support of the Empire" (summer, 1288). He was ordered to employ only -Jews and Christians in offices, as the khan disliked Mahometans on -account of their rebellious attitude. It was natural that Saad-Addaula -should employ his relatives, for he could best depend upon their zeal -to assist him in his difficult office. Through the fidelity with which -Saad-Addaula served his master, he won so much confidence, that nearly -all state affairs went through his hands, and he had the authority to -make decisions without referring the points to the great khan. Probably -through his instrumentality and advice Argun established diplomatic -connections with Europe, and even with the pope. Through the help of -the Europeans, the Mahometans were to be driven out of Asia Minor, -particularly out of Palestine. The pope, however, flattered himself -that Argun would become a member of the Catholic Church. - -The Jewish minister, indeed, deserved the high favor with which Argun -honored him. Where hitherto there had prevailed license and abuse -of power in the empire, he introduced law and order. The military -captains were forbidden to interfere with the administration of -justice, the legal tribunals were admonished to protect the weak and -the innocent. As the Mongols had no judicial code, Saad-Addaula put -the Mahometan laws into force, as far as they bore upon the civil and -penal administration of justice. The peaceful population blessed him -for the security of life and property for which they were indebted to -him. Saad-Addaula also patronized learning, settled handsome annuities -upon learned men and poets, and encouraged them in their literary -undertakings. In consequence he was extolled and praised by men of -letters in prose and verse. - -The Eastern Jews felt themselves happy and exalted through the -elevation of their co-religionist to the highest post of the empire. -From the most remote countries there flowed a stream of Jews to the -Persian Khanate, to bask in the favor of the Jewish minister. They -unanimously said, "God has elevated this man in the latter days as a -Lord of Redemption and to sustain our hope." Neo-Hebraic poetry, which -had arisen in the East, but had sunk into jarring discord, or become -altogether silent, appears to have recovered in order to proclaim his -glory. - -Saad-Addaula, however, had aroused many powerful enemies through -his resolute administration and his love of justice and order. The -Mahometans, who were shut out of every office, beheld, with deep -vexation, that Jews and Christians, whom they were accustomed to -despise as infidel dogs, were in possession of the government. They -were, moreover, urged on by their priests and learned men to a most -violent hatred of the Jewish statesman, to whom they imputed their -humiliation. They accordingly spread the report that Saad-Addaula was -contemplating the establishment of a new religion, and the proclamation -of the great khan as the religious lawgiver and prophet. To excite -their bigotry still more, they reported that Saad-Addaula had completed -preparations for an expedition to Mecca, to transform the hallowed -abode of the Kaaba into an idolatrous temple and to compel the -Mahometans once more to become heathens. The order of the Ishmaelite -murderers, the Assassins, which was organized for the purpose of -putting to death actual or supposed enemies of Islam, immediately made -arrangements clandestinely to remove Saad-Addaula and his relatives. -But their plot was betrayed, and it was frustrated by him. - -The Jewish minister had many opponents even among the Mongols. The -military captains were incensed against him, because he had laid -a restraint upon their license. A conspiracy was hatched also in -Mongol circles. It was given out that he had commissioned a Jew, -Neglib-Eddin, to proceed to Khorasan and put to death two hundred of -the most distinguished Mongols; and that his relative, Shem-Addaula, -had received instructions to remove many priests and chiefs of the -city. Unfortunately, Argun fell seriously ill (November, 1290), and -his sickness was a signal for the discontented to make a conspiracy -against Saad-Addaula and his adherents. The minister, in vain, -exerted himself to secure the recovery of the Khan, for he saw that -the latter's death meant his own. He even sent a messenger secretly -to Argun's son to ensure his speedy return to the court, in order -that he might seize the crown immediately after his father's death. -When they received intimation of these precautionary measures, the -Mongol magnates, who observed that Argun's end was near, pushed the -accomplishment of their conspiracy. They executed Saad-Addaula (March, -1291), and slew all Argun's favorites. Argun died seven days later. The -conspirators thereupon despatched messengers to all provinces, ordered -Saad-Addaula's relatives to be thrown into chains, their property to -be confiscated, and their wives and children to be sold as slaves. -The Mahometan population also fell upon the Jews in every city of the -empire, to wreak their vengeance upon them for the degradation which -they had suffered from the Mongols. In Bagdad there were numerous -encounters between armed bodies of Mahometans and Jews, and on both -sides many were killed and wounded. - -Two months later the great Jewish community of St. Jean d'Acre (Accho), -which shortly before had been put into a state of tumult by Solomon -Petit, was completely blotted out. The Egyptian sultan, Almalek -Alashraf, undertook a campaign to drive the last of the crusaders out -of Palestine and Syria. He besieged the fortified city of Accho for -more than a month, and then took it by storm (18th May, 1291). Not -only all the Christians, but many Jews who happened to be in the city -were executed. Others were cast into prison, and among them Isaac of -Accho, a zealous but unintellectual Kabbalist, whose candor forced him, -much against his will, to expose the halo of divinity, with which the -Kabbala had surrounded itself, as mere mummery. - - -END OF VOL. III. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[1] Translation by Solomon Solis Cohen, to whom thanks are due for the -translation of most of the poetic passages in this volume.--[ED.] - -[2] Translation by Emma Lazarus.--[ED.] - -[3] Translation by Emma Lazarus.--[ED.] - -[4] Meir means light-bearer or luminary.--[ED.] - - - - -INDEX. - - - Aaron of York, chief rabbi of England, 588. - - Aaron ben Joseph the Elder, Karaite, 607. - - Aaron ben Meshullam, adherent of Maimonides, 524. - - Aaron Halevi, 621. - - Abassid caliphs, civil war of, 145 f. - persecute the Jews, 145. - - Abdallah Ibn-Saba, Jewish partisan of Ali, 90. - - Abdallah Ibn-Salam, relation of, to Mahomet, 73. - - Abdallah Ibn-Ubey, ally of the Jews in Arabia, 77. - - Abdel-latif, opinion of, on Maimonides, 488. - - Abdul Malik, 110. - - Abdulmumen, bigotry of, 451. - persecutes the Jews in Africa, 358. - - Abdul-Rahman III, inaugurates the classical period of Moslem culture - in Spain, 214. - and Chasdai, 216 ff. - - Abele Zion. See Mourners of Zion. - - Abodah (liturgy of the Day of Atonement), of Jose bar Jose, 114 f. - of Simon ben Caipha, 115. - connected with the Apostle Peter, 115. - - Abrabanels, descent of, 43. - - Abraham of Aragon, oculist, 583. - - Abraham ben Chasdai of Barcelona, champion of Maimonides, 544. - poet, 560. - - Abraham ben David of Posquieres (Rabed II), 399. - death of, 490. - opposition of, to Maimonides, 490. - - Abraham, son of Maimonides, 493, 495. - attitude of, in the Maimunist controversy, 525 f. - "War for God" (Milchamoth), 545. - - Abraham Ibn-Ezra. See Ibn-Ezra. - - Abu-Amran Moses, founder of a Karaite sect, 157 f. - - Abu-Ayub, poet and court physician, 312. - - Abu-Bekr, repelled by the Jews, 82. - - Abu-Fadhl Chasdai, Jewish vizir and poet in Saragossa, 280. - - Abu-Isa, opposition of, to the Talmud, 128. - - Abu-Jafar Almansur, 129 f. - - Abu-Jafar Ibn-Aljezzar, Mahometan physician, 181. - - Abu-Kariba, Arabian king converted to Judaism, 62 f. - - Abulafia, Meir, opponent of Maimonides, 524 f., 537 f. - - Abulmeni. See Abraham, son of Maimonides. - - Abu-Mansur, head of the Jewish community in Egypt, 340 f. - - Abu-Sahal Ali, Jewish scholar, 146. - - Abu-Yussuf Almansur, imposes the Jew-badge, 511. - - Abuzurj-Mihir, counselor of Hormisdas IV, 7. - - Accho, Jewish community of, blotted out, 650. - nest of the Kabbalists, 626. - - Achunai. See Chananya. - - Acrostichs, 115. - - Aden, warlike Jews of, 436. - - Adher-Baijan, low condition of the Jews of, 430. - - Adonim. See Dunash ben Labrat. - - Africa, northern, Jews of: - great men of, 248. - oppressed and persecuted, 357 ff., 451 f. - - Agada, interpretation of, 495, 523, 527, 533, 535, 549, 552, 599, 619, - 622. - used by Christians against the Jews, 598, 622. - - Agadic discourses in the service, 116. - - Agadic method of interpretation of the Bible, 152, 408, 529, 561, - 608 f. - - Agobard, bishop of Lyons, contest of, with the Jews, 164-8. - - Ahunai, 4. - - Akbara, Jewish congregation of, 429. - - Akbarites, Karaite sect, 157 f. - - Albalia, Isaac ben Baruch, 282 ff. - descent of, 282. - head of the Jews in Seville, 283 f. - - Albergeloni, Isaac ben Reuben, Talmudist and poet, 284. - - Albigenses, 390, 394. - crusade against, 501 f. - relation of, to the Jews, 501. - - Aleppo, captured by the Mongols, 606. - - Alexander III, pope, friendly to the Jews, 421. - - Alexandria, Jewish congregation of, 444. - - Alfadhel, vizir of Saladin, relation of, to Maimonides, 472 ff. - - Alfassi, Isaac ben Jacob, 285 f., 315 ff. - character of, 315. - death of, 309. - disciples, 314. - education of, 285. - "Halachoth," 286. - - Alfonso II of Aragon, 387. - - Alfonso II (the Noble) of Castile, censured by Innocent III for - protecting the Jews, 499. - persecutes the Jews, 507. - - Alfonso III of Portugal, favors the Jews, 618. - - Alfonso VI, conquers Toledo, 294 f. - diplomacy of, 291. - employs Jews on diplomatic missions, 291. - tolerance of, 292. - - Alfonso VIII, admits Jews to high positions, 384. - - Alfonso X (the Wise), admits Jews to official positions, 592 f. - code of, 595. - imposes degrading restrictions upon the Jews, 594-6. - imprisons the Jews of Castile, 616. - rebellion of his son against, 616. - - Alfonso Raimundez, emperor of Castile, favorable to the Jews, 361. - - Alghazali, mystic philosopher, 357. - - Alhakem, caliph of Spain, death of, 239. - library of, 237. - - Ali, cousin of Mahomet, 82. - supported by the Jews, 90. - - Ali Halevi, principal of the Talmudic school of Bagdad, 429. - - Alice of Montmorency, persecutes the Jews of Toulouse, 514. - - Alides, contest of, with Ommiyyades, 92. - - Alkuti, Jewish philosopher, 267. - - Allegorical interpretation, adopted by Mahometans, 147. - - Almalek Alashraf, captures Accho, 650. - - Almamun, caliph, 147. - appealed to in internal disputes by Jews and Christians, 155. - flourishing condition of his caliphate, 146. - - Almansur, regent of Andalusia, 239 ff. - - Almohades, 358. - conquer Andalusia, 360. - fanaticism of, 359. - ravage Castile, 361. - - Almoravides, exterminated, 357. - invade Spain, 296, 311 ff. - - Almovachides. See Almohades. - - Al-Mutadhil, caliph, favorable to the Jews, 183. - - Al-Mutavakkil, renews Omar's laws, 176 f. - - Amadia, scene of a false Messiah, 431. - - Amolo, bishop of Lyons, hostility of, to the Jews, 170 f. - - Amshel Oppenheimer, creditor of Rudolph of Habsburg, 634. - - Amulets, 153. - - Anan ben David, founder of Karaism, 128-35. See also Karaism. - contest of, for the exilarchate, 129 f. - death of, 135. - emigrates to Palestine, 130. - excommunicated, 134. - hostility of, to the Talmud, 129 f. - imprisoned, 129. - interpretation, his, of the Bible, 131, 133. - memorial prayers for, 135. - mental capacity of, 135. - recognizes Mahomet as prophet, 134. - view of, on Jesus, 133. - want of poetical and historical sense in, 133. - works of, 131. - - Ananites. See Karaites. - - Anatoli, Jacob, Maimunist, 629. - in favor with Frederick II, 566. - - Andalusia, culture of, 234 ff. - fall of the princes of, 296. - flourishing condition of the Jews of, 234 ff. - persecution of the Jews of, by the Almohades, 361. - - Andreas, king of Hungary, excommunicated for his indulgence to - non-Christians, 521. - - Anthropomorphism and anthropomorphists, among Jews, 152, 528, 552. - among Mahometans, 148 f. - - Antioch, Jews of, murdered, 10 f. - uprise of the Jews against the Christians, 18. - - Apostates, 122, 441 f., 572. - - Aquitania, sufferings of the Jews of, from the crusaders, 570. - - Arab conquest of Persia, 10. - - Arabia, Jews of, 53-85. - attitude of, to the Talmud, 58, 119 f. - become thoroughly Arabic, 56 f. - condition of, 53, 56. - congregations of, 436. - conquered by the Arabians, 67 f. - customs of, 57. - difference between those of the north and those of the south, 56 f. - divisions among, 57, 77, 80. - empire of, 51. - intercourse of, with Palestine, 59. - inspire Mahomet, 71. - king of, 12. - language of, 111. - leaders of Arabian tribes, 53. - recover their importance, 71. - relations to the Arabians, 57, 67 f. - teachers of the Arabic nation, 54, 58 f. - traditions as to their original settlements, 54. - tribes of, 55. - - Arabian king converted to Judaism, 62 f. - - Arabic calligraphy, 255. - - Arabic language, 111. - adopted by the Jews of Spain, 110 f. - - Arabic tribe converted to Christianity, 56. - - Arabs, acquire the art of writing from the Jews, 58. - converted to Judaism, 56, 61 f. - descent of, 60. - teachers of the Jews, 224. - - Aragon, Jews of, 497 f. - compelled to support a Christian missionary, 602. - exempted from wearing the badge, 515. - favorable condition of, 387. - miserable condition of, 596-605. - - Areobindus, minister of Justinian, 15. - - Argun, Grand Khan of the Mongols, 646 f. - death of, 649. - favorable to the Jews, 638. - - Arianists, toleration of, 26, 44 f. - - Aristotle, influence of, 448. - works of, translated, 566 f. - - Arnold, bishop of Cologne, protects the Jews, 352. - - Arnold of Brescia, 370. - - Arnold of Citeaux, fanatical monk, 502, 507. - - "Aruch," 290, 421. - - Ashkaba (prayer for the dead), 101. - - Asia, degeneration of the Jews of, 440 ff. - under the Abbassides, 437. - - Asia Minor, Jewish communities of, 123 f. - - Asma, Arabian poetess, 76. - - Assassins, 648. - - Atel. See Itil. - - Atonement Day, liturgy of, 113 ff. - - Atzbaha. See Elesbaa. - - Aus, Arabic tribe partly converted to Judaism, 61. - - Austrasia, Jews of, 40. - - Austria, favorable condition of the Jews of, 516 f., 567 f. - - Averroes, 566. - - Avignon, council of, prohibits the Jews from working on Sunday, 504. - - Avitus, bishop of Arverna, inaugurates a persecution of the Jews in - the Frankish empire, 38 f. - - Azriel, Kabbalist, 548. - - - Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, 606. - - Babylonia, supplanted by Spain as center of Judaism, 210, 228. - - Babylonia, Jews of: - independent tribe of, 433 f. - organization and officials of, 96-100. - prosperous condition of, 428. - side with Ali, 90. - support the Arab conquerors, 89. - - Bacharach (Germany), massacre of the Jews of, 636. - - Bachiel Ibn-Alkonstantini, physician to King Jayme of Portugal and - Maimunist, 536 f. - - Bachya Ibn-Pakuda, moral philosopher, 271-3. - - Baden (Germany), Jews of, blood-accusation against, and massacre of, - 564. - - Badis, king of the Berbers, bloody design of, 276 f. - - Bagdad, Jews of, 156, 428. - center of science, 146. - congregation of, on the side of Maimonides, 633. - Talmudic school of, 429, 438 f. - - Bahram Tshubin, Persian general, 8 f. - dethrones Hormisdas IV, 8. - - Balanyiar, capital of the Chazars, 139. - - Baldwin, archbishop of Canterbury, fanaticism of, against the Jews, - 410. - - Barcelona, center of northern Spain, 387. - prominent Jews of, 387 f. - - Basilius, emperor, arranges disputations between Jews and Christians, - 175 f. - - Beaucaire (Belcaire), Jewish congregation of, 400. - - Bedaresi, Abraham, 579. - - Bedr, battle of, 76. - - Bela IV of Hungary, favorable to the Jews, 613. - - Belisarius, 4. - conquers the Vandals, 26. - subjects Italy, 31 f. - - Ben-Asher, Massoret, 207. - poet, 223. - - Benedict of York, maltreated, 411, 413. - - Bene Mikra. See Karaism. - - Benjamin of Canterbury, 409. - - Benjamin of Tiberias, leader of a Jewish uprise in Palestine, 19, 22. - - Benjamin of Tudela, traveler and historian, 388 f. - - Benjamin Nahavendi, Karaite and founder of the Makariyites, 149 f. - - Ben-Naphtali, 207. - - Benu-Bachdal, 55. - - Benu-Kainukaa, 55. - - Benu-Kinanah, Arabic tribe converted to Judaism, 61. - - Benu-Kuraiza, 55. - massacred by Mahomet, 80 f. - - Benu-Nadhir, 55. - driven out by Mahomet, 78 f. - - Benveniste, Don Isaac, physician to the king of Aragon, 508. - work of, in behalf of the Jews, 513. - - Benveniste, Sheshet, diplomatist and poet, 388, 524 f. - - Berachya ben Natronai Nakdan (Crispia), writer of fables, 560. - - Berbers, kingdom of, 256 ff. - - Bernard of Clairvaux and the second crusade, 349. - intercedes in behalf of the Jews, 353. - - Beziers, council of, prohibits the Jews from practising medicine among - Christians, 582. - inhabitants of, massacred by the crusaders, 502. - Jews of, hold offices, 394 f. - Palm Sunday riots in, against the Jews, 394 f. - - Bible, attacks against, 199. - Christian exposition of, 288. - Massoretic text of, 207. - oldest copy of, in Spain, 387. - study of, among Jews, 111 f., 118. - - Black Jews in India, 436. - - Blois, persecution of the Jews of, 378-81. - - Blood-accusation, 402, 418, 499, 564, 595. - causes frequent massacres of the Jews in France and Germany, 583. - first appearance of, 378-81. - in England, 591, 643. - officially contradicted by Innocent IV, 584, 635. - - Bodo (Puoto), bishop, converted to Judaism, 168 f. - - Bohemia, Jews of, 305. - during the crusades, 305, 356. - plundered, 307. - Talmudic center, 420 f. - - Bologna, Jews of, expelled, 421. - - Bonastruc de Porta. See Nachmani. - - "Book of the Pious," 408. - - Boppard (Germany), massacre of the Jews of, 637, 639. - - Boso, king of Burgundy, presents the Jews as a gift to the church, 175. - - Bostanai, exilarch, 10. - descendants of, 91. - marries a daughter of Chosru, 89. - recognized by the Mahometans, 89. - - Bray, massacre of the Jews of, 404. - - Bribery in the Church, 578, 584, 591. - - Buda, synod of, excludes the Jews from Christian society, 614. - - Bulan, king of the Chazars, 139. - - Burgundy, Jews of, oppressed, 37. - - Byzantine empire, Jews of, 10-23. - communities of, 424-7. - culture of, 425 f. - occupations of, 175. - oppression of, 122, 425. - - - Cabades. See Kobad. - - Caesarea, betrayed to the Arabs, 87. - riot of Jews and Samaritans against the Christians, 17. - - Cairo, Jewish congregation of, 444. - - Caliphate, condition of Jews under, 176 f., 183. - - Cambridge, Jews expelled from, 641. - - Cameos among Jews, 153. - - Carenton, massacre of Jews of, 355. - - Carlovingians, feeble rule of, 241. - - Cassiodorus, minister of Theodoric, 30. - invectives of, against the Jews, 31. - - Castile, civil war of, 363. - - Castile, Jews of, 361 ff., 592-6, 615-17. - admitted to honors, 293, 384, 593. - congregations of, 617. - oppressed by Alfonso X, 616. - favorable condition of, 361 ff. - fight of, against the Almohades, 386 f. - first persecution of, 507. - - Catalonia, Jews of, 389. - - Censorship of the Talmud, 602 f. - - Ceremonial laws explained, 484 f., 523, 553. - - Ceylon, Jews of, enjoy liberty, 436. - - Chagan, title of the king of the Chazars, 138. - - Chaibar (Arabia), 55. - Jews of, defeated by Mahomet, 81-3. - Jews of, driven out by Omar, 85. - Jews of, warlike, 437. - - Chaldean Christians support the Arabs, 89. - - Chanan of Iskia, principal of Pumbeditha, 9. - - Chananel of Kairuan, 248 ff. - - Chananya (Achunai), exilarch, 129, 137. - - Chananya, principal of Sora, 10. - - Chaninai, exilarch, 10. - - Chaninai, principal of Pumbeditha, 10. - - Chaninai Kahana ben Huna, Gaon of Sora, 137. - - Chanoch, head of the Jews of Andalusia, 229 f., 236. - contest of, with Ibn-Abitur, 229, 238. - death of, 241. - - Chariot-races occasions of bloodshed, 11, 17. - - Charlemagne, elevates the position of the Jews in Europe, 141 f. - embassy of, to Haroun Alrashid, 143. - imposes an oath on the Jews, 144. - regenerator of Europe, 141 f. - - Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, 628. - - Charles the Bald protects the Jews against the clergy, 172. - - Charles the Simple grants Jewish property to the church, 175. - - Chasdai, exilarch, 92. - - Chasdai, Ibn-Shaprut, 215-30. - ambassador, 218 f. - character of, 215. - correspondence of, with the Jewish king of the Chazars, 219 ff. - death of, 230. - deliverer of his people, 217. - descent of, 215. - gives Jewish history a European character, 216. - in the service of Abdul-Rahman III, 216. - patron of learning, 223, 234. - promotes the study of the Talmud, 227. - representative of a Judaeo-European culture, 188. - statesman, 187. - - Chayuj, father of Hebrew philology, 237, 255. - - Chazanuth, 118. - - Chazaria, 138. - - Chazars, 123 ff., 327 f. - army of, 221. - embrace Judaism, 138-41. - hospitality of, to Jews, 123 f. - Jewish kingdom of, 219 ff. - motive of conversion of, 139 f. - origin of, 138. - original religion of, 139. - tolerance of, 141. - wars of, 138. - - Chazraj, Arabic tribe partly converted to Judaism, 61. - - Cherem. See Excommunication. - - Chess, invention of, 7. - - Childebert I of Paris, intolerance of, 37. - - Children, introduction of, to the Law, 572. - - Chilperic, forces Jews to baptism, 39. - - Chindaswinth, king of the Visigoths, tolerance of, 101 f. - - Chintila, king of the Visigoths, forces the Jews to emigrate, 51 f. - - Chiskiya, last Gaon of Pumbeditha, executed, 254. - - Chivi Albalchi, first rationalist and critic, 199. - - "Chobath Halebaboth," 271. - - Chosroes Nushirvan imposes a poll-tax upon Jews and Christians, 5. - - Chosru II, attacks the Roman possessions, 19. - favorable to the Jews, 9. - - "Chozari," origin of, 327 f. - - Christian emperors curtail the political rights of the Jews, 27. - - Christian slaves, possession of, forbidden to Jews, 28, 33, 46, 48. - - Christians and Mahometans, treatment of Jews compared, 347, 426, 506. - - Christianity, hostility of, to Judaism, 34. - in western Europe at first tolerant against the Jews, 24, 34. - of the 11th century, 301. - - Christianity, Islam and Judaism compared, 328, 332 ff. - - Chumrata, 97. - - "Church of the Mother of God" in Constantinople originally a - synagogue, 26. - - Church, rigor of, against Jews and heretics, 496 ff., 503 f. - - Church and synagogue, attitude of, to science compared, 187 f. - - Chushiel, Rosh of Kairuan, 208 ff. - - Cidellus, Jewish diplomatist in the service of Alfonso VI, 292. - - Clement III, 306. - - Clement IV, hostile to the Jews, 605. - orders confiscation of the Talmud, 602. - - Clergy, hatred of, against the Jews, 24-6, 172, 241 f., 349 f., 611. - ignorance of, 26. - - Clotaire II, bigotry of, 40. - - Clovis, 36 f. - - Cologne, Jews of: - during the crusades, 303 f. - privileges of, 41. - when settled in, 41. - - Commons massacre the Jews of London, 591. - - Communism in Persia, 2 f. - - Confession of faith, Jewish (Shema), forbidden, 15. - - Conrad III, German emperor, protects the Jews, 351 f., 416. - - Constantine VIII sends an embassy to Spain, 218. - - Constantinople, Jews of, 26. - - "Constitutio Judaeorum," 497. - - Controversies, between Jews and Christians, 105, 576, 598, 622. - between Jews and Mahometans, 111, 119. - - Conversions, forced, of Jews to Christianity, 38 f., 48 f., 123, 176, - 246, 300, 570. - prohibited by Gregory X, 635. - - Conversions, forced, to Islam, 359 f., 451, 461. - - Conversions to Judaism, 21, 61, 409, 440, 445, 516, 640 f. - - Converts, Jewish, to Christianity, treatment of, 49 ff., 308 f. - - Cordova, center of Judaism, 228 f. - contention in, for the rabbinate, 229 f., 238 ff. - seat of a Talmudic school, 210. - - "Covenant of Omar," 87, 120, 145, 176 f. - - Council (of the Church. See also under the individual cities): - Lateran, 400, 421, 498. - Lateran, the Fourth, 509-12. - of Avignon, 504. - of Beziers, 582. - of Buda, 614. - of Exeter, 645. - of Illiberis, 43. - of Macon, 39. - of Meaux, 171. - of Nice, 25. - of Orleans, 37. - of Oxford, 516. - of Paris, 40. - of Toledo, 49, 102. - of Vannes, 36. - of Vienna, 611 f. - - Crimea, emigration of Chazars to, 222. - emigration of Karaites to, 435. - - Crispia, 560. - - Crusade, the first, 297. - effect of, on the intellectual condition of the Jews in Germany, 309. - in Jerusalem, 308. - - Crusade, the second, 349-57. - in France, 349-51, 355. - in Germany, 351 f. - - Crusade, the third, 405 ff. - - Crusade against the Albigenses, 501 f. - - Crusaders, brutalities of, 412-15, 497, 507, 570. - - Crusades in France, 299. - in Germany, 300 ff. - voluntary death of Jews during, 300, 302 f., 305. - - Cyril expels the Jews from Alexandria, 23. - - - "Dagger of Faith," 622. - - Dagobert, decree of, against the Jews, 40. - - Damascus, captured by the Mongols, 606. - - Daniel, the prophet, superstition about the grave of, 435. - - Daniel, the exilarch, 438. - - Daniel ben Saadiah, opponent of Maimonides, 525 f. - - Dante, 628. - - David, grandson of Maimonides, 627. - and Solomon ben Adret, 620 f. - defends his grandfather, 632. - - David ben Daniel, exilarch and defender of Maimonides, 632. - - David ben Judah, exilarch, 155 f. - - David ben Saul, opponent of Maimonides, 529. - - David ben Zaccai, exilarch, 186. - conflict of, with Saadiah Gaon, 195 f. - - David Abudarham, 617. - - David Alrui, false Messiah, 430-33. - - Dayan (judge), functions of, 98. - - Dei Mansi, family of, 421. - - Demons, belief in, 525, 528, 534. - - Dhu-Nowas. See Zorah Yussuf. - - Diniz, king of Portugal, favorable to the Jews, 618. - - Disputations between Jews and Christians, 576, 601 ff. - See also under Controversies. - - Divorce, law of, changed, 92. - reform of, by Gershom, 244. - synodical decisions concerning, 378. - - Dominicans, fanaticism of, 519, 591, 613, 641. - entrusted with the Inquisition, 542. - part taken by, in the disputation of Barcelona, 600 ff. - preachers, 545. - rivalry of, with the Franciscans, 641. - - Don Judah ben Moses Cohen, physician to Alfonso X, 593. - - Don Meir de Malea, treasurer of Alfonso X, 593. - - Don Pedro II, king of Aragon, 497 f. - - Don Sancho, son of Alfonso X, king of Castile, 616. - and Don Zag, 616. - rebellion of, against his father, 616. - regulates the Jew-tax, 617. - - Don Zag, Isaac, treasurer of Alfonso X, 593. - and the "Tables of Alfonso," 594. - executed, 615. - - Donnolo, Sabbatai, head of Jewish science in Italy, 212-14. - relation of, to Nilus the younger, 213 f. - - Dossa, son of Saadiah Gaon, 202. - and Chasdai, 217. - - Dudai, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 129. - - Dunash ben Labrat, creator of the artistic form of Jewish poetry, and - one of the founders of Judaeo-Spanish culture, 215. - career and character, 226. - first employs meter in Hebrew poetry, 223. - polemic of, against Menachem and Saadiah, 226. - - Dunash ben Tamim, physician, 181, 211. - correspondence of, with Chasdai, 211, 217. - - Duns Scotus, recommends forced conversion of the Jews, 644. - - - East, the, loses the leadership of Judaism, 207 f. - scepticism in, 199. - - Easter, Jewish, celebration of, forbidden before the Christian, 13. - - Eastertide, during, Jews forbidden to appear in the streets, 37, 39, - 171, 510, 518, 582, 595, 635. - - Eberard, Magister Judaeorum, 161, 164. - - Edward I, Jews treated by, 640-6. - Jews expelled by, 645. - justice of, to Jews, 640, 643. - proselytizing zeal of, 644. - - Egica, king of the Visigoths, imposes restrictions on the Jews, 107 f. - - Egilbert, bishop of Treves, inhumanity of, against the Jews, 300. - - Egypt, becomes a center of Judaism, 445. - Talmudic schools of, 210. - - Egypt, Jews of, 23, 443-5. - low state of culture of, 444 f. - prosperous condition of, under Saladin, 461. - - Elchanan, Tossafist and martyr, 404. - - Eldad, traveler, 182. - - Eleanor, mother of Edward I, enmity of, against the Jews, 641, 645. - - Eleazar ben Kalir, poetan, 116. - characteristics of his style, 117, 245. - - Elesbaa, king of Ethiopia, destroys the Jewish kingdom of Arabia, 66 f. - - Elias of London, chief rabbi of England, 588. - deposed, 591. - - "Emunoth we-Deoth," 197 f. - - England, Jews of, 409-16, 587-92, 640-6. - accusations against, 642 f. - act of parliament concerning, 642. - authority and functions of the chief rabbi of, 588. - blood-accusation against, 591. - converts to Judaism in, 409. - degradation of, 516. - enemies of, 504 f. - expelled, 643, 645. - impoverished, 592. - imprisoned, 645. - parliament of, 589. - occasion of the first persecution of, 410. - oppressions of, 641. - statute of Judaism for, 642. - - "En-Sof," 550. - - Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn, Talmudist and poet, 419. - - Erwig, king of the Visigoths, edict of, against the Jews and Jewish - converts, 106 f. - - Eugenius III, repudiates the debts to the Jews in the second crusade, - 349. - - Europe, becomes the chief seat of Judaism, 383. - Judaism of, compared with that of the East, 160. - - Excommunication, as inflicted by Church and Synagogue, 99, 151, 177, - 528. - degrees of, 99. - employment of, in the Middle Ages, 528. - - Exeter, council of, 645. - - Exilarch (Prince of the Captivity), authority of, lessened by the - Karaite disturbances, 137. - ceremonies of installation of, 94 f. - functions of, 89 f., 428 f. - last, 201. - under Mahometan rule, 89 f. - - Exilarchate, contest for, 155, 439. - corruption of, 194. - decline of, 177, 183 ff. - dependent on the Gaonate, 137. - disputes of, with the Gaonate, 184-6. - divested of its official character, 177. - elective, 137. - extinction of, 202. - in the 12th century, 439. - revival of, 428. - - Ezekiel, the prophet, grave of, resort of pilgrims, 440 f. - - Ezra, the scribe, grave of, resort of pilgrims, 441. - - Ezra, Kabbalist, 548. - - - Fables in Neo-Hebraic, 560 f. - - Farraj Ibn-Solomon, physician to Charles of Anjou, 628. - - Fathers of the Church put a chasm between Christianity and Judaism, - 144. - - Fatimide caliphate, 210. - fall of, 461. - fanaticism of, 212. - - Fatimides persecute the Jews, 247 ff. - - Ferdinand III of Castile, fanaticism of, 519. - - Ferdinand the Catholic, 383. - - Ferdinand the Holy, 592. - - Ferrara, favorable condition of the Jews in, 628. - - Firuz, persecutes the Jews, 1. - - Firuz-Shabur (place), 8, 90. - academy of, 9. - - Fosse, war of the, 80. - - Fostat, residence of Maimonides, 457. - - France, home of Talmudic lore, 289, 344 ff. - - France, Jews of, 34 ff. - expelled, 402, 585. - impoverished, 586 f. - massacre of, 583. - intellectual condition of, 281, 345. - prosperity of, 443. - settlement of, 34 ff. - under the last Carlovingians and the first Capets, 241 f. - - France, northern, Jews of, 400-9. - beginning of misfortunes of, 400. - driven out, 405. - money extorted from, 407. - lose freedom of motion, 406. - treated as chattels, 407. - - France, southern, Jews of, 390 ff. - prosperity of, 489. - sufferings of, during the Albigensian crusade, 501 f. - - Franciscans, fanaticism of, 519. - - Frankish empire, Jews of, clerical hatred against, 164 ff., 171 ff. - favorable condition of, 141 ff., 161-70. - privileges of, 161. - - Frederick I (the Valiant) of Austria, favorable to the Jews, 567 f. - statute of, for the protection of the Jews, 568. - - Frederick II, German emperor, 565-9. - confines the Jews to a ghetto, 567. - draws Jewish scholars to his court, 565. - edict of, against the Jews of Austria, 569. - enmity of, against the Jews, 567 ff. - in feud with Gregory IX, 567, 580. - scepticism of, 567. - - Frederick Barbarossa, makes free Jews "servi camerae," 416 f. - protects the Jews, 418. - - Fulko de Neuilly, preaches against the Jews, 405. - - - Galen, 473. - - Gaon and Exilarch, positions of, compared, 93. - - Gaonate (see also under Geonim): - decay of, 231-4. - extinction of, 253 f. - origin of, 90. - relations of, to the Exilarchate, 90, 137 f. - - Gaonic period, study of the Talmud in the, 128. - - Gascony, Jews of, expelled, 646. - - Gebirol, Solomon Ibn-, 265-80. - childhood of, 265. - death of, 280 f. - driven out from Saragossa, 268. - facility of muse of, 265, 267. - friend of Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan, 266. - Jewish Plato, 265. - legend about death of, 281. - melancholy of, 265 f. - philosophy of, 267, 269-71. - philosophy of, among Christians, 644. - poetical forms of, 301. - protected by Samuel Nagrela, 268. - versatility of, 267. - works of, translated, 503. - - Gelasius, pope, attitude of, to the Jews, 29. - - Gelimer, king of the Vandals, 26 f. - - Geonim, 126. - authority and influence of, 118 f. - epoch of, 90 f. - literary activity of, 178 ff. - - German emperor, protector of the Jews, 356 f. - - German nations, character of, 416. - - German princes, protect the Jews, 416. - - Germany, Jews of, 40 f., 144, 416-20, 634-40. - blood-accusation against, 635 f. - compelled to be tradesmen, 242 f. - culture of, 243, 281, 357, 419. - emigration of, 637. - favorable condition of, before the crusades, 297. - first persecution of, 245. - hostility against, 419. - massacre of, 418, 583, 611, 636. - opposition of, to Maimonides, 624 f. - oppressions of, 580. - rights of, 417 f. - Talmudic study of, 419. - under Frederick II, 516 f. - under Rudolph of Habsburg, 634-40. - under the Saxon emperors, 242 f. - - Gerona, home of the Kabbala, 556. - - Gershom ben Jehuda, 243-5. - decrees of, 244 f. - first commentator of the Talmud, 244. - in Mayence, 243. - son of, embraces Christianity, 246. - - Ghetto, 567. - - Ghuzz, Turkish hordes, 434. - - G'ikatilia, poet, 237, 290. - - Giza, principal of Sora, 4 ff. - - Granada, entirely inhabited by Jews, 256, 261. - envy against Jews of, 275 ff. - massacre of Jews of, 279. - - "Great Assembly," 95. - - Greece, Jews of, 27. - - Greek translation of the Bible, reading of, in the synagogue, 13-15. - - Gregory I (the Great), 46 f. - proselytizing of, 33 f. - protects Jewish rights, 33. - toleration of, towards Jews, 25. - - Gregory VII, intolerance of, 293. - - Gregory IX, condemns the Talmud, 574 f. - confirms the constitution of Innocent III, 564. - enmity of, against the Jews, 519 ff. - establishes the Inquisition, 542. - - Gregory X, prohibits the compulsory conversion of Jews, 635. - - Gregory of Tours, 39. - - Gudeo, papal legate, 611. - - Guelphs and Ghibellines, 611. - - "Guide of the Perplexed," 477 ff. - influence of, in Italy, 629. - translated into Latin, 542 f. - - - Hadrian, pope, unfriendly to the Jews, 142. - - Haggai. See Robert de Redingge. - - Hagin Denlacres, chief rabbi of England, 644. - - Hai ben David, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 183. - - Hai, son of Sherira, 234. - - Hai Gaon, 250-3. - character of, 250. - compared with Saadiah, 250. - death of, 253. - friendly relations of, to the Christian patriarch, 250. - influence of, 252. - learning of, 250. - opinion of, on mysticism, 251 f. - systematic methods of, 251. - - Hakim, caliph of Egypt, 247 f. - - Hamadan, Jewish congregation of, 434. - - Hariri of Basra, Arabian poet, 318. - - Harith Ibn-Abu Shammir, treachery of, 68. - - Haroun Alrashid, embassy of Charlemagne to, 143. - re-enacts Omar's laws, 145. - - Head-dress imposed on Jews, 612. - - Hebrew language, cultivation of, among Jews, 111 f. - among Christians, 579, 622. - - Hebrew philology, 225, 561. - - Hejira, 73. - - Henry II of England, 409. - - Henry III of England, treatment of Jews by, 570 f., 587 ff., 591. - - Henry II, emperor of Germany, persecutes the Jews, 245 f. - - Henry IV, emperor of Germany, 418. - favorable to the Jews, 293, 298, 306, 308, 416. - permits converts to return to their faith, 306. - - Henry I, archbishop of Mayence, protects the Jews, 352. - - Heraclius, emperor, 19 ff. - forbids the Jews to enter Jerusalem, 23. - protects the Jews, 23, 47. - - Hibat-Allah, apostate to Islam, 442. - - Hilderic, rebels against Wamba, 104 f. - - Hillel of Verona, founder of the scientific method among the Italian - Jews, 629. - admirer of Maimonides, 629. - proposes a rabbinical synod to compose the Maimunist controversy, - 631. - - Hinkmar of Rheims, hostile to the Jews, 171 f. - - Honorius III, pope, attitude of, towards the Jews, 513, 515. - - Hormisdas IV, 7 ff. - compared to Nero, 8. - dethroned and assassinated, 8. - persecutes Christians and Jews, 8. - - Hugh Capet, 242. - - Hujej Ibn-Achtab, leader of the Benu-Nadhir against Mahomet, 78. - - Hulagu, founder of the Mongol kingdom in Persia, 638. - - Hungary invaded by the Mongols, 613. - - Hungary, Jews of, 613-15, 520 f., 613. - commercial activity of, 613. - condition of, 520 f. - decrees of the synod of Buda against, 614. - fanaticism kindled against, by the Dominicans and Franciscans, 614. - Jew-badge of, 614. - - Huns, 9, 138. - re-instate Kobad, 2. - - Huna, exilarch and father of Mar-Zutra II, 3. - - Hunai, Gaon of Sora, 92. - - - Ibn-Abbas, Judah, poet, 318. - - Ibn-Abbas, Samuel, apostate to Islam, 442. - - Ibn-Abitur, 229. - contest of, with Chanoch, 229 f., 238. - poetry of, 236 f. - - Ibn-Alfachar, Abraham, distinguished at the court of Alfonso VIII, - 384 f. - opponent of Maimonides, 541. - - Ibn-Alfayumi, Jacob, Talmudist of Yemen, 436, 462. - - Ibn-Aljami, Nagid of Egypt, 443. - - Ibn-Alruchi. See David Alrui. - - Ibn-Balam, Jehuda, grammarian, 290. - - Ibn-Chasdai, Samuel ben Abraham, 388. - - Ibn-Daud, 43. - - Ibn-Daud, Abraham, religious philosopher, 363-5. - as historian, 365 f. - dies a martyr, 386. - "Seder ha-Kabbalah," 366. - - Ibn-Ezra, Abraham, 366-75. - as astronomer and astrologer, 368, 371. - character of, 366 f. - commentary of, on the Pentateuch, 371, 373. - death of, 374 f. - exegete, 368, 370. - in France, 373. - in Italy, 369, 423. - in London, 373. - marks the end of the original element in the Spanish school, 381. - philosopher, 373. - poetry of, 367. - rationalism of, 372. - restlessness of, 368, 370. - "Sabbath Epistle" of, 373 f. - travels of, 369. - versatility of, 366. - wit of, 368. - - Ibn Ezra, brothers of, 318-21. - - Ibn-Ezra, Jehuda, 361-3. - head of the Jews of Castile, 362. - in favor with Alfonso Raimundez, 361. - persecutes the Karaites, 362 f. - protector of the Jews, 361 f. - - Ibn-Ezra, Moses, 310, 314. - career of, 319 f. - compared with Gebirol, 319. - philosophical writings of, 320. - poems of, 320 f. - - Ibn-Giat, Isaac ben Jehuda, poet, 284, 318. - - Ibn-Janach, creator of Hebrew syntax, 261, 263. - first rational Bible critic, 263. - opposed by Abraham Ibn-Ezra, 371. - philosophical writings of, 264. - - Ibn-Jau, Jacob, head of the Jews of Andalusia, 238 ff. - - Ibn-Malka, Jehuda, at the court of Frederick II, 565 f. - - Ibn-Migash, Meir, disciple and successor of Alfassi, 315 f. - disciples and descendants of, 317. - in Toledo, 362. - - Ibn Moisha and Maimonides, 456, 474. - - Ibn-Sahal, Joseph ben Jacob, rabbi of Cordova and poet, 314. - - Ibn-Sahula, writer of fables, 560. - - Ibn-Sakbel, Solomon, poet, 318. - - Ibn-Sakni, Jacob, 284 f. - awakens interest in Talmudic studies in Babylonia, 429. - - Ibn-Sarjadu, Aaron, principal of Pumbeditha, 202. - - Ibn-Shalbib, Amram ben Isaac, councillor to Alfonso VI, 292, 295. - killed, 295. - - Ibn-Tibbon, family of, 397 f. - as physicians, 582. - - Ibn-Tibbon, Judah ben Saul, translator, 397 f. - characteristics of his translations, 398. - pedantry of, 397. - - Ibn-Tibbon, translator and physician, 582. - - Ibn-Tibbon, Samuel ben Judah, translator and writer, 398. - correspondence of, with Maimonides, 490. - unproductiveness of, 566. - - Ibn-Tumart, Abdallah, founder of the sect of the Almovachides, 357 f. - - Ibn-Zadik, rabbi of Cordova and religio-philosophical writer, 314. - - Illiberis, council of, prohibits the friendly intercourse between Jews - and Christians, 44. - - Illyria, settlement of Jews in, 27. - - Image worship in the Church, conflict caused by, 122. - - Immanuel Romi, poet, 630. - - Immortality, teachings of the Kabbala on, 554. - - Imrulkais Ibn Hojr, Arabian poet, 68. - - India, Jews of, 435 f. - - Innocent III, 383, 496-504. - as president of the Fourth Lateran Council, 509-12. - brings about a change of sentiment towards the Jews, 507 f. - causes the deepest misery to the Jews, 513. - censures princes for their protection of the Jews, 498 ff. - characteristic of, 405, 496. - death of, 513. - degrades the Jews, 563. - ruthless hostility of, to the Jews, 496-501. - tyranny of, 496. - - Innocent IV, allows the keeping of the Talmud, 579. - contradicts the blood-accusation, 584, 596. - - Inquisition established, 542. - - Intermarriage between Jews and Christians, 44. - - Irak, Jews of, 89. - - Isaac, accompanies the embassy of Charlemagne to Haroun Alrashid, 143. - - Isaac of Accho, Kabbalist, executed, 650. - - Isaac the Blind, supposed originator of the Kabbala, 547. - - Isaac ben Eliakim, rabbi of Wuerzburg and martyr, 354. - - Isaac ben Jacob Halaban of Prague, Tossafist, 421. - - Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil, 587. - - Isaac ben Mordecai, physician to the pope, 628. - - Isaac ben Samuel of Dampierre (Ri), head of the school of Rameru and - Tossafist, 403 f., 406. - - Isaac, son of Abraham Ibn-Ezra, embraces Islam, 442. - - Isaac the Younger (Rizba), 408. - - Isaac Sanjari and Bulan, 140. - - Isaacs, the five, 282 ff. - - Isavites, 125. - - Ishmael, founder of the Akbarite sect, 157. - - Isidore of Seville, 49. - polemics of, against Judaism, 50 f. - - Islam (see also Mahomet): - benefits of the dominion of, to Judaism, 85, 89. - conquests of, 86 ff., 109 ff. - divisions of, 90. - hostility of, to Judaism, 84. - influence of, on Jewish history and Judaism, 71. - intolerance of, 87. - referred to in an apocalypse, 88 f. - restrictions imposed by, on Jews and Christians, 87 f. - truths of, a victory of Judaism, 72. - - Islam and Christianity in their treatment of the Jews compared, 88. - - Islamic theology, 146 ff. - - Ispahan, Jewish congregation of, 434. - - Ispahanites. See Isavites. - - Israeli, Isaac ben Suleiman, writer and physician to Ubaid-Allah, - 180 f., 192, 211. - - Italy becomes a province of the Byzantine empire, 32. - under the Lombards, 33. - under Ostrogothic rule, 28-32. - - Italy, Jews of, 27 f. - communities of, 27, 424. - favorable condition of, 421-3. - ignorance of, 290, 369, 421-3. - Maimunist controversy among, 628. - mental awakening of, 628 f. - resistance of, to Belisarius, 31 f. - settlement of, 27. - Talmudic schools of, 212. - under the Lombards, 33. - under the Ostrogoths, 28-32. - under the Papacy, 628. - - Itil (Atel), kingdom of the Chazars, 138. - - - Jacob of Orleans, head of the school in London, 409. - kills himself, 411. - - Jacob ben Natronai, Gaon of Sora, 184 ff. - - Jacob ben Nissim, 211, 232 ff. - - Jacob ben Samuel, pupil of Saadiah, 204. - - Jacob ben Sheshet Gerundi, Kabbalist, 556. - - Jacob Tam, 375-81. - character of, 376. - commentary of, to the Talmud, 376. - death of, 381. - descendant of Rashi, 375. - maltreated by the crusaders, 355. - poetry of, 376. - Tossafist, 343, 345, 375. - - Jannai, poetan, introduces rhymes into Neo-Hebraic poetry, 116. - - Jayme, king of Aragon, treatment of the Jews by, 536. - - Jean d'Acre. See Accho. - - Jehuda ben Abbas of Haleb, poet, 426. - - Jehuda ben Sabbatai, poet, 559. - - Jehuda Alcharisi, poet and translator, 559. - - Jehuda Hadassi, Karaite controversionist, 362. - - Jehuda ben Samuel Halevi, 310, 313, 315, 318, 321-43. - career of, 322 f. - character of, 321 f. - "Chozari" of, 327 f. - compared with the author of Job, 327. - disciple of Alfassi, 322. - end of life of, 342 f. - erudition of, 321 f. - evidences of Judaism by, 332 ff. - limits of philosophy set by, 331. - love poems of, 323. - national religious spirit of poetry of, 325 f. - philosopher, 326. - physician, 323 f. - pilgrimage of, to Palestine, 338-42. - power of description of, 325. - prince of poets, 321 f. - Songs of Zion of, 337 f. - subject matter of poetry of, 324 f. - view of, on poets and poetry, 324 f. - view of, on the suffering and position of Israel, 335 f. - - Jephet Ibn-Ali Halevi, Karaite champion, 205 f. - - Jerusalem, Jews of, 506. - during the crusades, 308. - expelled, 427. - Talmudic studies of, 249. - - Jesus the son of Pantheras, 577. - - Jew-badge, 511-13, 564, 595. - in England, 642. - in France, 612. - in Hungary, 614. - - "Jew-roaster," 611. - - Jew-tax, 281, 510, 517, 588 f., 617, 642. - - Jewish children taken away from their parents, 514, 570. - - Jewish communities between Worms and Mayence, 41. - - Jewish diplomatists, 291 f., 294. - - Jewish-Himyarite empire, 51. - - Jewish history, general survey of, 382 ff., 446 f., 494 f., 563 ff., - 610 ff. - scientific epoch of, 187 ff. - - Jewish king of Arabia, 12. - - Jewish kingdom in Arabia, 62-7. - - Jewish question, at Councils, 25. - - Jewish soldiers, 4. - - Jews (see also under the different countries): - buy protection by money, 570 f. - compelled to trade, 418. - decay of learning and poetry of, in the post-Maimunic time, 558-62. - degradation of, 563 f. - excluded from offices of honor, 502, 510, 513, 515, 521, 567, 569, - 635. - forbidden to enter Jerusalem, 23. - in service of Christian princes, 282, 291 f., 294, 312, 361 f., 384. - kill themselves to escape baptism, 404, 411, 415. - money extorted from them, 584 f., 589 ff., 634. - persecuted everywhere, 347 ff. - representatives of the commerce of the world, 142, 162. - render scientific literature accessible to Arabs and Christians, - 111, 565. - scepticism among, 199. - "servi camerae," 356 f. - slaveholders, 29. - suffering of, in the calamities of the Roman empire, 27 f. - theological controversies among, 148 ff. - treated as property, 417. - under Christian and Mahometan rule compared, 347 f., 426. - warlike, 4, 19, 384, 433, 436. - - Joan, pope, 169. - - Joceus, first chief rabbi of England, 588. - - Joceus, of York, 413. - - John Lackland, 416. - barbarities of, towards the Jews, 504 f. - death of, 516. - - Jonah ben Abraham Gerundi, opponent of Maimonides, 529. - repentance of his fanaticism towards Maimonides, 580. - works of, 580. - - Jonathan Cohen of Luenel, 397. - emigrates to Palestine, 505. - - Jose bar Jose Hayathom, Neo-Hebraic poet, 114 f. - - Joseph Amarkala Halevi, prince of an independent Jewish tribe in - Arabia, 433. - - Joseph bar Abba, mystic and principal of Pumbeditha, 154. - - Joseph ben Chasdai, poet, 273. - - Joseph ben Chiya, principal of Pumbeditha, 155. - - "Joseph ben Gorion," 180. - - Joseph ben Sabara, poet, 559. - - Joseph ben Satia, principal of Sora, 202. - - Joseph Ezobi, poet, 561. - - Joseph Ibn-Aknin, favorite disciple of Maimonides, 477 f., 526. - - Joseph Ibn-Shoshan, distinguished at the court of Alfonso VIII, 384. - - Joseph Kara, Tossafist and exegete, 345 f. - - Josephus' writings in favor with Christians, 162. - - "Josippon," 180. - - Judaeo-Spanish culture, founders of, 215. - - Judah, minister of finance in Portugal, 618. - - Judah of Melun, disputation of, with Nicholas Donin, 577 f. - - Judah the Blind, Gaon of Sora, 129. - Talmudic compendium of, 136. - - Judah Judghan, founder of a sect, 149 f. - - Judah Sir Leon ben Isaac of Paris, 408. - disciples of, 409. - - Judaism: d philosophy, 327 ff., 455, 467, 478, 487, 522 f. - assumes a European character, 188. - compared with Christianity and Islam, 328 f., 332 f., 393, 463. - conversions to, 21, 640 f. - divisions of, 494 ff., 522 ff., 557 f. - religious duties of, 365. - venerated by Christians, 162. - - Judghanites, 150. - - Judith, empress, friendly to Judaism, 162. - - Julian, king of the Samaritans, 16. - - Julian, metropolitan of Toledo, 107. - - Justin I, severe towards the Jews, 10. - - Justin II, 26. - oppresses the Samaritans, 17 f. - - Justinian, 12-17. - anti-Jewish laws of, 12 f. - closes the schools of philosophy in Greece, 7. - forbids the Confession of Faith (Shema), 15. - interferes in matters of conscience, 12 ff. - ordinances of, for the service of the synagogue, 14 f. - severity of, towards the Samaritans, 13, 16. - - - Kaab, leader of the Benu-Kuraiza against Mahomet, 80 f. - - Kaaba, 60, 72, 453. - - Kabbala, 547-57. - origin of, 535, 547. - part played by, in the religious controversies, 623, 626, 631. - principles of, 550-55. - teachings of, on the coming of the Messiah, 555. - teachings of, on the importance of prayer, 553. - teachings of, on the life after death, 554. - teachings of, on the signification of the ceremonial laws, 553. - transplanted to Palestine, 607. - what favored rise of, 549. - - Kabbalists, desecrate Maimonides' grave, 631. - - Kachtanites and Ishmaelites, 61. - - "Kadish," 95. - - Kafnai, exilarch, 10. - - Kainukaa, driven out from Arabia by Mahomet, 76 f. - - Kairuan, center of Judaism and science, 146, 210. - school of, 248 ff. - - Kaliri. See Eleazar ben Kalir. - - Kalonymos, learned Jew, 143. - - Kalonymos, Italian Jew in the retinue of Otto II, 243. - - Kalonymos ben Todros, head of the congregation of Narbonne, 392. - - Kameoth. See Cameos. - - Kamus, fortress in Chaibar, 82. - - Karaism, 127-37. - alterations made by, 131. - causes discord in the Talmudic schools, 155 ff. - character of, 133. - divisions of, 136, 157. - effect of, on the authority of the exilarch, 137. - emphasizes freedom of inquiry, 157. - explanation of name of, 130. - gives impetus to the study of the Bible, 133, 136. - inconsistencies of, 131, 133, 159, 443. - increases the religious duties, 131. - instability of, 133. - marriage laws of, 132, 158 f. - principal dogma of, 157. - regulations of, about festivals, 131, 158 f. - spread of, 182, 207. - - Karaites: - asceticism of, 181 f., 204, 437. - controversies of, with the Rabbanites, 134, 182, 203, 362 f. - cultivate Biblical philology and exegesis, 180 f., 204, 206. - in Cairo, 444. - in Crimea, 435. - in Palestine, 607. - narrow-mindedness of, 206. - polemical writings of, 191. - productive in Biblical literature, 136. - proselytism of, 203. - rigorous observance of the Sabbath, 132. - severity and gloominess of religious life of, 132 f. - superficiality of, 204, 206. - - Khiva, Jews of, 435. - - Khozars. See Chazars. - - Kimchi, family of, 392. - - Kimchi, David (Radak), grammarian and exegete, 394. - excommunicated, 531. - teacher of Hebrew to the Jews and Christians of Europe, 393. - view of, on the Talmud, 531. - zealous Maimunist, 530 f., 540 f. - - Kimchi, Joseph ben Isaac, introduces Jewish-Spanish culture into - southern France, 392. - writings of, 392 f. - - Kimchi, Moses, 393. - - Kinanah Ibn-Rabia, leader of the Chaibarites against Mahomet, 82. - - Kobad, 1-5. - death of, 5. - dethroned, 2. - institutes a religious persecution, 1. - re-instated, 2. - supports Mazdak, 2. - - Kohen-Zedek, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 183-200. - ambitiousness of, 192, 194. - conflict of, with the exilarch, 184 f. - - Koran, introduction of, 147. - on the position of women, 92. - relation of, to Bible and Talmud, 72. - - Kovad. See Kobad. - - - Ladislaus IV of Hungary, bigotry of, 615. - - Landfried, ambassador of Charlemagne to Haroun Alrashid, 143. - - Lateran Council, anti-Jewish decrees of, 400, 421 f., 498. - - Lateran Council, the Fourth, 509-12. - - Law, knowledge of, valued, 113. - - Leo the Isaurian, why he protected the Jews, 122 f. - - Leo the Philosopher, intolerant towards the Jews, 176. - - Leon, teacher of Gershom, 243. - - Leon (Leontini), founder of the scientific study of the Talmud in - France, 242. - - Letter of Sherira, 232 f. - - Letter-carrying, regulations about, by Gershom, 244 f. - - Liturgy and liturgical poetry, 113 ff., 132, 178, 236, 245, 260, 282, - 320, 367, 376, 419. - - London, Jews of: cruelties against, 643. - massacre of, 591. - persecution of, 410 f. - - Louis II orders the Jews out of Italy, 174. - - Louis VI, favorable to the Jews, 343. - - Louis VII, as crusader, 349. - favorable to the Jews, 343, 400. - - Louis IX (the Saint): Jews expelled by, 585. - Jews hated by, 519, 570. - orders of, concerning the Jew-badge, 612. - persecutes the Talmud, 578, 586. - proselytizing of, 570. - - Louis the Pious, 161. - favorable to the Jews, 161 ff. - - Luenel, Jewish congregation of, 396. - letter of Maimonides to, 492. - - Lynn, Jews of, massacred, 411 f. - - - Macedonia, settlement of Jews in, 27. - - Machir, learned Jew, sent by Haroun Alrashid to Charlemagne, 143. - - Machuza, capital of the Jewish state in Babylonia, 4. - taken by Mebodes, 9. - - Macon, council of, degrades the Jews, 39. - - "Madda," 468, 523. - proscribed, 529. - - Magharyites. See Makariyites. - - "Magister Judaeorum," 161. - - Mahdi, 358. - - Mahomet, 71-84. - breaks with the Jews, 75 f. - character of revelations of, 71. - chief opponents of, on the Jewish side, 74. - concessions of, to Judaism, 73. - confession of faith of, 71. - corruption of teachings of, 72. - death of, 84. - enters in alliance with Jewish tribes, 73. - first doctrines of, 71. - relation of, to Judaism, 71. - revelation of, against the Jews, 78. - supported by the Jews in the propagation of the Koran, 73. - teachings of, 72. - wars of, against the Jews, 76-84. - why the Jews objected to, 74. - - Mahomet Alemin, 145. - - Mahomet Almuktafi, caliph, re-instates the exilarch, 428. - - Mahomet Alnasir, attacks Spain, 506 f. - - Mahometans, divisions among, 147 f. - philosophy and theology of, 146 f. - revival of science among, 145 ff. - scepticism among, 199. - treatment of the Jews by, 88, 176. - - Maimonides, Moses ben Maimun (see also Maimunist controversy), - 446-93, 522-45. - aim of, 450, 522. - articles of faith of, 459 f. - attitude of, to the Aristotelian philosophy, 478. - attitude of, to the Karaites, 465, 475. - averse to poetry, 449. - birth of, 447. - brothers of, 457. - character of, 449 f. - commentary of, on the Mishna, 458-61. - conception of Judaism of, 456, 459, 522. - condemned in Accho, 631. - controversy about the system of, 522 ff. - correspondence of, with Samuel Ibn-Tibbon, 490 f. - court physician of Saladin, 472 f., 489. - death of, 492 f. - descendants of, 493. - descent of, 447. - doctrine of, on immortality and resurrection, 476, 478 f., 523 f. - education of, 447 f. - effects of death of, on Judaism, 494 f. - effects of teachings of, on Judaism in southern France, 526. - epitaphs on the grave of, 493, 631. - ethical philosophy of, 533. - explanation of the ceremonial laws by, 484 f., 523. - fame of, 471, 489 ff. - feigns Islam, 451 f. - first to develop a Jewish system of belief, 459. - funeral of, 493. - "Guide of the Perplexed of," 477. - "Iggeret Teman" of, 462-4. - in Palestine, 457. - Mahometan opinion of, 488. - medical learning of, 473, 489. - mental organization of, 448, 458, 467. - "Mishne-Torah" of, 466-70. - non-Jewish elements in the system of, 487, 522 f., 526. - opponents of, 471 f., 475, 490, 522 ff. - physician, 458, 491. - religio-philosophical system of, 478 ff., 522. - settles in Cairo, 457. - supreme head of the Jews of Egypt, 474. - view of, on feigned apostasy and martyrdom, 453-6. - view of, on miracles, 483, 523. - view of, on persecution and suffering of Israel, 463. - view of, on prophecy, 482, 523. - view of, on tradition, 459, 469 f. - wanderings of, 447 f., 451, 456 f. - works of, burnt, 543. - writings of, 451 f., 458, 462, 466, 477, 488. - - Maimun, father of Maimonides, 317. - - Maimun Asha, Arabian poet, 70. - - Maimuni. See Maimonides. - - Maimunist controversy, 522-45, 623-34. - abated, 580. - Dominicans appealed to in, 542 f. - evil consequences of, 546 f. - excommunication employed in, 529, 632. - in the East, 525 f. - in Germany, 623-7. - in Italy, 628. - in southern Europe, 526 ff. - part taken in, by the Kabbala, 631 f. - - Makariyites, Karaite sect, 151. - - Malka bar Acha, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 137. - - Maor, 389. - - Mar-Aaron, 157. - - Mar-Abraham ben Sherira, principal of Pumbeditha, 154 f. - - Mar-Amram ben Sheshna, Gaon of Sora and compiler of a liturgical order - of prayers, 178. - - Mar bar Huna, principal of Sora, 10. - - Mar-Chanina, grandfather of Mar-Zutra II, 3. - executed, 4. - - Mar-Isaac, murdered, 3. - - Mar-Isaac, first Gaon of Sora, 90, 92. - - Mar-Raba, 92. - - Mar-Ukba, exilarch, 184 f. - - Mar-Yanka. See Natronai. - - Mar-Zemach I, first of the literary Geonim of Pumbeditha, 178. - author of an Aruch, 179. - - Mar-Zutra, posthumous son of Mar-Zutra II, 4. - teacher at Tiberias, 12. - - Mar-Zutra II, exilarch, 3. - executed, 4. - king of a Jewish state, 4. - leader of a Jewish insurrection, 3 f. - - Marhab, Jewish hero in Chaibar, 82. - - Mari bar Mar, principal of Pumbeditha, 9. - - Massora, development and importance of, 112. - in Germany, 244. - - Massorets, 207. - - Matthew Paris, chronicler, 591. - - Mauritius, Byzantine emperor, 18. - resists Chosru, 9. - - Mayence, blood accusation and massacre of Jews of, 636. - during the crusades, 302 f. - rabbinical synod in, 517. - school of, 247. - - Mazdak, reformer of Magianism and communist, 1 f. - - Meaux, Council of, passes anti-Jewish decrees, 171 f. - - Mebodes, Persian general, massacres the Jews of Machuza, 9. - - Mecca, 60. - Jews not allowed to dwell in, 436. - - Medicine, practice of, by Jews among Christians, forbidden, 581 f. - - Medina, becomes the lawgiver for millions, 86. - Jews not allowed to dwell in, 436. - - Meir of Rameru, Tossafist, 345. - - Meir of Rothenburg, 579. - corpse of, ransomed, 640. - dies in prison, 640. - eccentric piety of, 625, - leader of Jewish emigrants from Germany, 637-40. - - "Men of Faith," 153. - - Menachem ben Saruk, first grammarian and one of the founders of - Judaeo-Spanish culture, 215. - controversy of, with Dunash, 226 f. - death of, 227. - disciples of, 227. - relation of, to Chasdai, 224, 226. - works of, 224 f. - - Menahem ben Solomon. See David Alrui. - - Merovingian kings, bigotry of, 39 f. - narrow-mindedness of, 143. - - Merv, center of science, 146. - - Meshullam ben Jacob, head of Luenel, 396. - - Messer-Jawaih of Bassorah, Jewish physician, 111. - - Messiahs, false, 120, 124, 149, 331-3, 462. - - Messianic hopes, 298, 313, 360, 606, 637. - - Metatoron, 88, 153. - - Metempsychosis, 547, 554. - - Meters, first employed in Neo-Hebraic poetry, 223. - - Meturgeman in the schools, 438. - - Michael ben Kaleb of Thebes, Jewish poet, 426. - - Michael Scotus, astrologer of Frederick II, 566 f. - - Mishna, commentary on, by Maimonides, 458 ff. - origin of, discussed, 233. - translated into Arabic, 237. - - "Mishne-Torah" of Maimonides, 466 ff. - - Moawiyah, contest of, with Ali, 90. - - Modestus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, fanaticism of, 22. - - Mongols, 646 ff. - establish a kingdom in Persia, 637. - invade Europe, 580 f. - invade Hungary, 613. - Jewish soldiers among, 581. - ravages of, in Palestine, 606. - - Montanists persecuted by Leo the Isaurian, 122 f. - - Montpellier, flourishing condition of the Jewish congregation of, 395. - seat of a medical college, 583. - - Mordecai ben Joseph of Avignon, 612. - - "Moreh Nebuchim." See "Guide of the Perplexed." - - Moses the Lawgiver, distinguished character of his prophetic faculty, - 483 f. - supposed synagogue of, 445. - - Moses of Baalbek, founder of a Karaite sect, 158. - - Moses of Coucy, 576. - itinerant preacher, 545 f. - Tossafist and Maimunist, 539. - work of, on the Law, 586. - - Moses ben Chanoch, one of the founders of Judaeo-Spanish culture, 208, - 215. - death of, 229. - functions of, 228 f. - relation of, to Chasdai, 228. - spreads Talmudic studies in Spain, 208 f. - - Moses ben Chasdai, fanatic opponent of Maimonides, 624 f. - - Moses ben Jehuda Cohen, rabbi of Safet, 633. - - Moses ben Maimun. See Maimonides. - - Moses ben Nachman. See Nachmani. - - Moses, son of Kalonymos, 143. - - Mosul, Jewish congregation of, 429 f. - - "Mourners of Zion," 182, 437. - - Mozarabs, 215. - - Munich, Jews of, massacred, 636 f. - - Musa, founder of the Akbarite sect, 157. - - Mushka, fanatical Judghanite, 150. - - Mutazilists (Mahometan rationalists), 147, 150. - - Muza Ibn-Nosair, governor of Africa, 109. - - Mysticism (see also Kabbala), 153 f., 251, 535. - in France, 160. - in Italy, 160. - - - Nachmani, 530-57, 598-609. - character of, 531. - commentary of, to the Bible, 607. - death of, 608. - disputation of, with Pablo Christiani, 598-601. - erudition of, 532. - exiled, 604 f. - hostile to Ibn-Ezra, 534, 608. - influence of, 609. - in Palestine, 605-7. - method of exegesis of, 562, 608. - opponent of Maimonides, 608. - part taken by, in the Maimunist - controversy, 530-6. - physician, 532. - religious system of, 533-5. - reverence of, for rabbinical tradition, 531, 557. - Talmudic works of, 532. - view of, on Agada, 599. - votary of the Kabbala, 535, 556. - - Nachshon ben Zadok, Gaon of Sora, 179. - - Nagid, Egyptian exilarch, 443. - - Nagrela, Joseph, son of Samuel, vizir and Nagid in Granada, 274. - indiscretion of, 275. - killed, 278. - - Nagrela, Samuel, head of the Jews of Andalusia, 254-65. - career of, 255. - characteristics of, 254 f. - compiles a methodology of the - Talmud, 259. - death of, 274. - diplomatist, 257. - friend of Gebirol, 268, 274. - philosopher, 261. - poet, 259 f. - supports learning, 260. - vizir, 256. - writings of, 259 f. - - Nakdan, 560. - - Naples, favorable condition of the Jews of, 422. - - Narbonne, 45. - principal Jewish congregation of - southern France, 392-4. - Talmudic school of, 143, 242. - - Nathan ben Isaac Kohen, 208, 242. - - Nathan ben Yechiel of Rome, author of the Aruch, 290, 421. - - Natronai II, Gaon of Sora, 178. - - Natronai ben Chasdai, 137. - - Natronai ben Nehemiah, principal of Pumbeditha, 121 f. - - Nazareth, inhabited by Jews, 12. - - Neapolis (Shechem), capital of the Samaritans, 12. - - Nechunya ben ha-Kana, Kabbalistic manuscript attributed to him, 556. - - Neo-Hebraic poetry, 112, 317 f. - artistic form of, 223. - compared with that of the Bible, 113. - decline of, 558 f. - didactic element of, 113. - effect of, on the divine service, 117 f. - introduction of rhyme into, 116. - last poets of, 559 f. - liturgical character of, 113. - meters employed in, 223. - subject matter of, 113. - - Nestorian Christians, persecuted by the Sassanian princes, 89. - - Nevers, Count, favorable to the Jews, 500. - - New Misr. See Cairo. - - New Nineveh, Jews of, ignorant, 430. - - New Year celebrated for two days, 428. - liturgy of, 113 ff. - - Nice, Council of, 25. - - Nicholas III, 594. - - Nicholas Donin, apostate, 572-8. - accuses the Talmud, 573. - disputation of, 576-8. - instigates a persecution of the Jews, 573. - - Nilus the Younger, Abbot of Rossana, relations of, to Donnolo, 213. - - Nissi Naharvani, reconciles the Exilarchate and Gaonate, 186. - - Nissim of Kairuan, 248 ff. - - Northampton, blood-accusation of, 643. - - Norwich, Jews of, massacred, 412. - - Nureddin, attacks the Christians in Asia, 349. - - - Oath imposed on the Jews by Charlemagne, 144. - - Obadiah, Jewish king of the Chazars, 140 f. - - Obaiah Abu-Isa ben Ishah, pseudo-precursor of the Messiah and leader - of a rebellion, 124 f. - - Oberwesel (Germany), Jews of, massacred, 637, 639. - - Odo, bishop of Paris, forbids intercourse between Jews and Christians, - 407. - - Offices of honor, Jews excluded from, 502, 510, 513, 515, 521, 567, - 569, 635. - - Omar, bestows rewards on Jews and Christians, 89. - captures Jerusalem, 87. - "covenant" of, 87, 145. - death of, 90. - fanaticism of, 84 f. - repelled by the Jews, 82. - restrictions imposed by, on Jews - and Christians, 87 f. - - Omar II, bigotry of, 120. - - Ommiyyades and Alides, 92, 100. - caliphs of, 110. - empire of, broken up into small principalities, 255 f. - last, 125. - - Opposition in history, its mission, 127. - - Orleans, Council of, enacts severe measures against the Jews, 37. - - Osius, bishop of Cordova, 44. - - Othman, killed, 90. - - Oxford, Council of, passes hostile resolutions against the Jews, 516. - - - Pablo Christiani, apostate, 597 ff. - denounces the Talmud, 602. - disputation of, with Nachmani, 597 ff. - inspires action against the Jews, 612. - - Pachda, exilarch, 3. - - Palestine: - captured by the Mongols, 606. - condition of Jews of, 10, 427. - conquest of, by the Arabs, promoted by Jews and Samaritans, 87. - emigration of Jews to, 505 f. - Jewish communities of, 427. - Jewish congregations of, take up the cause of Maimonides, 633. - Jews forbidden to build synagogues in, 10. - Jews of, take up arms against Heraclius, 83. - possessed by Christians, 11 f. - subordinates itself to Babylonia, 100. - under Christian rule, 341, 427. - - Paltoi ben Abayi, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 177. - - Parchon, Solomon ben Abraham, 423. - - Paris, Council of, passes anti-Jewish measures, 40. - Talmudic academy of, 586. - Talmudic academy of, closed, 403. - - Parliament, Jewish, in Worcester, 589. - - Parnese-ha-Keneset, 99. - - Paul of Tarsus, 72. - - Pauline Christianity, what it effected in Judaism, 127. - - Pentateuch, system of reading of, in the synagogue, 444. - - Persecutions of the Jews, influence of, on their mental condition, - 512 f. - spread of, 563. - - Persia, captured by the Arabs, 86. - communism of, 1 ff. - Mongol kingdom, 637. - - Persia, Jews of, 1-10. - establish a small state, 4. - persecuted, 2-4, 8, 89. - rebel against Zendiks, 2 f. - - Petachya, traveler, 421, 440. - - Peter of Amiens, 297. - - Peter of Clugny, rouses the crusaders against the Jews, 349 f. - - Peter the Apostle and the Abodah, 115. - - Philip III of France, bigotry of, 613. - - Philip Augustus, extorts money from Jews and expels them, 402. - massacres Jews, 404. - receives Jews, 405 f., 498. - - Physicians, Jewish, 583. - - Philo's writings in favor with Christians, 162. - - Phocas, treatment of the Jews by, 18. - - "Pileum cornutum," 612. - - Pilgrimages to graves, adopted by Jews, 440, 445. - - Pinehas Ibn-Azura, Jewish opponent of Mahomet, 74, 76. - - "Pirke Aboth," explained by Maimonides, 459. - - "Piyutim," 117. - - "Placitum Judaeorum," 103. - - Poetanic compositions, 114. - - Poetanists, 114 ff. - - Poetry, among the Arabs, 214. - among the Spanish Jews, 58, 68 ff., 317. - Neo-Hebraic. See Neo-Hebraic poetry. - liturgic. See Liturgy. - - Poitou, Jews of, persecuted, 573. - - Poland, Jews of, take part in Talmudic learning, 421. - commercial activity of, 613. - - Polygamy among Jews, 244, 378. - - Popes, toleration of, towards the Jews, 25, 29, 33. - protect the Jews, 421. - - Portugal, favorable condition of the Jews of, 617 f. - - Posquieres, Jewish congregation of, 399. - - Prelates, moral condition of, 281. - - Prince of the Captivity. See Exilarch. - - Prophecy and prophets, 482 ff. - - Proselytizing zeal of the Church, 25 f. - - Provence, Jews of: - culture of, 391. - favorable condition of, 389 ff. - Jew-badge of, 612 f. - political relations of, 390. - - Pumbeditha, school of, 92 f. - center of Judaism in Babylonia, 183. - closed, 8. - contest about the office of the principal of, 154. - extinction of, 254. - independent of the exilarchate, 177. - influence of, 160. - position of the principal of, 94 ff. - revenues of, 97 f. - rises to importance, 202. - under Hai Gaon, 225. - - Purple manufactured by Jews, 425. - - Pyrenean peninsula, condition of the Jews of, compared with that of - those in other European countries, 618 f. - - - Rabai of Rob, 5. - - Rabba ben Ami, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 178. - - Rabbanites, 134. - - Rabbinical epochs in Spain, 273, 282. - - Rabbinical synods, 376, 378, 517. - - Rabbis and Christian prelates compared, 287. - - Rabed II, 399. - - Rambam. See Maimonides. - - Ramban. See Nachmani. - - Rameru, center of Talmudic studies, 403. - Jewish congregation of, during the second crusade, 355. - - Ramon Berengar IV, 387. - - Rashba. See Solomon ben Adret. - - Rashbam. See Samuel ben Meir. - - Rashi, 286-9. - career of, 286. - character of, 287. - commentary of, on Talmud and - Bible, characterized, 288. - death of, 309 f. - descendants of, 289, 345. - descent of, 286. - elucidates the Talmud, 288. - grammatical erudition of, 289. - liberal attitude of, toward compulsory - converts, 308 f. - Rabbi of Troyes, 287. - works of disciples of, 444. - - Rationalism in the East, 199. - - Ratisbon, Jews of, during the crusades, 305. - privileges of, 635. - - Raymond de Penyaforte, Dominican General, fanaticism of, 519 f., 597, - 601 f. - arranges a religious disputation, 598. - persecutes Nachmani, 604. - proselytizing of, 621. - - Raymund Martin, anti-Jewish writings of, 622. - - Raymund Roger of Beziers, defeated by the crusaders, 502 f. - - Raymund V of Toulouse, favors the Jews, 399. - - Raymund VI of Toulouse, compelled by Innocent III to depose Jewish - officers, 501 f. - favors the Jews, 400. - - Raymund VII of Toulouse, favors the Jews, 513 f. - - Reccared oppresses the Jews, 46 f. - edict of intolerance of, 34. - - Receswinth, king of the Visigoths, persecutes the secret Jews, 102, - 104. - - Rechabites, 55. - - Refraction of light, first noted, 146. - - Resh Kalla or Rosh, 210 f. - - Resh Galutha. See Exilarch. - - Revival of science among the Arabs, 146. - part taken in, by Jews, 146. - - Rhabanus Maurus taught by Jews, 162 f. - - Rhine district, origin of Jews of, 40 f. - - Ri, 403. - - Riba, Tossafist, 345. - - Riban, Tossafist, 345. - - Richard the Lion-hearted, first persecution of the Jews in England - occurs at coronation of, 410 f. - protects the Jews, 411. - truce of, with Saladin, 405. - - Rizba, 408. - - Robert de Redingge, Dominican, converted to Judaism, 640 f. - - Roderic, last of the Visigothic kings, 109. - - Roger II, favorable to the Jews, 422 f. - - "Rokeach," 517. - - Roman empire, suffering of the Jews during calamities of, 27 f. - - Rudolph, monk, instigates the people against the Jews during the - second crusade, 351. - - Rudolph of Habsburg, treatment of the Jews by, 634-40. - extorts money from the Jews, 634. - injustice of, to the Jews of Mayence, 636. - prohibits Jewish emigration from - Germany, 639. - protects Jews, 635. - - Ruediger, bishop of Speyer, favorable to the Jews, 297 f. - - Rurik, 222. - - Russia, Jews of, take part in Talmudic studies, 421. - - Russians, war of, with the Chazars, 221. - - Ruta al Jahud, 42. - - Ruthard, archbishop of Mayence, treachery of, against the Jews, 303. - - - Saad-Addaula, Jewish physician to Argun, Grand Khan of the Mongols, - 638. - minister of finance, 646 f. - encourages learning, 648. - executed, 649. - - Saadiah Gaon, 187-202. - career of, 188. - combats rationalism, 199. - conflict of, with the exilarch, 195 f. - death of, 202. - defends Judaism against Christianity and Islam, 199. - deposed from the Gaonate, 196. - "Emunoth we-Deoth," 197 f. - endeavors to reconcile reason with Talmud and Bible, 190. - excommunicated, 195. - founder of scientific Judaism, 188, 197. - Gaon of Sora, 193. - idea of, of God, 189 f. - inaugurates a new epoch of Jewish history, 187. - magnanimity of, 201. - personality of, 188. - polemics of, against the Karaites, 189 ff. - polemics of, against the Massora, 207. - re-instated into the Gaonate, 200 f. - retires to Bagdad, 196. - translates the Bible into Arabic, 189 f. - works of, 189 f., 192, 196 f. - - Sabbatai ben Solomon of Rome, 630. - - Sabureans (Saburai), 6 f. - - Safet, Jewish congregation of, takes the side of Maimonides, 633. - - Safia, Jewess, captured by Mahomet, 83. - - Sahal of Taberistan, Jewish physician and mathematician, 146. - - Sahal, Abulsari, Karaite zealot, 203 f. - - Saladin, conquers Egypt, 461. - favorable to the Jews, 461. - resists the Christians, 405. - tolerance of, 474. - - Salvatierra, Jewish community of, destroyed, 507. - - Samaritans, 12 f. - communities of, 427. - help the Arabs to conquer Palestine, 87. - insurrections of, 13, 16. - massacre Christians, 16 f. - - Samarkand, Jews of, 435. - - Samson ben Abraham of Sens, 408. - emigrates to Palestine, 505. - narrowness of, 524. - opponent of Maimonides, 505. - - Samuel of Chateau-Thierry, 576. - - Samuel ben Abraham Saporta, defender of Maimonides, 539, 543. - - Samuel ben Ali Halevi, rabbi of Bagdad, 438 f. - head of the opposition to Maimonides, 472, 475 ff., 525. - - Samuel ben Chofni, last Gaon of Sora, 253. - - Samuel ben Meir, Tossafist and exegete, 345 f. - - Samuel ben Solomon Sir Morel, Tossafist, 586. - - Samuel Cohen ben David, head of the Talmudic school of Bagdad, 633. - - Samuel Halevi, scientist at the court of Alfonso X and inventor of a - water-clock, 594. - - Samuel Ibn-Adiya, Jewish Arabian poet and chief, 68 ff. - fidelity of, 69. - poems of, 70. - - Samuel Tam, Tossafist, 345. - - Sar Shalom, head of the Jewish congregation of Ispahan, 434. - - Saragossa, capital of Aragon, 387. - - Saul, son of Anan, leader of the Karaites, 136. - - Scepticism in the East, 199. - - Schism in the Church, 614. - - Scientific epoch in Jewish history, beginning of, 187 ff. - - Seal of the exilarch, 89 f. - - "Sechel ha-Poel," 480. - - Secret Jews, control exercised over, 104, 107. - treatment of, 101 ff. - - "Seder ha-Kabbalah," 366. - - "Sefiroth" (in the Kabbala), 551. - - Semuna, principal of Pumbeditha, 56. - - Serachya ben Isaac, 630. - - Serachya Halevi Gerundi, 389. - - Serene, false Messiah and leader of a movement against the Talmud, - 120 f. - - "Servi camerae," 516, 520. - original signification of, 356 f. - legend about the origin of, 417. - when the Jews were turned into, 416. - - Sens, Jewish community of, 499. - - Seville becomes the center of Jewish Spain, 284. - - Shechem. See Neapolis. - - "Shema," forbidden, 15. - - Shemaria ben Elchanan, 208. - - Shem-Tob of Tortosa, physician and writer on medicine, 582 f. - - Shem-Tob Falaquera publishes a vindication of the "Guide of the - Perplexed," 634. - - Sherira, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 231-4. - character of, 232. - death of, 234. - descent of, 232. - imprisoned, 234. - letter of, 232 f. - - Shiites, 150. - - Sicily, Jews of, 569. - favorable condition of, 422. - - "Siddur Rab Amram," 178. - - Sigismund, ambassador of Charlemagne to Haroun Alrashid, 143. - - Sigismund, king of Burgundy, oppresses the Jews, 37. - - Silk manufacture by Jews, 425. - - Simcha Cohen, martyr of Worms, 302. - - Simon of Cairo, author of the "Halachoth Gedoloth," 179. - - Simon ben Caipha, Neo-Hebraic poet, 115. - - Simon ben Isaac ben Abun, poet, 245 f. - - Simon bar Yochai, connected with mysticism, 606. - foretells the rise of Islam, 88 f. - - Simon de Montfort, 508 f. - leader of the crusade against the Albigenses, 502. - persecutes the Jews of Toulouse, 513, 515. - - Sinjar, Seljuk Sultan, encounter of, with the Jews, 434 f. - - Sinzig, Jews of, burnt alive, 611. - - Sisebut, 173. - fanaticism of, 40. - persecutes the Jews, 47 ff. - - Sisenard, king of the Visigoths, persecutes the secret Jews, 49 ff. - - Slave trade of the Jews, 28 f., 40, 142, 229, 305. - - Solomon, exilarch, 128, 428. - - Solomon of Tarascon, 612. - - Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier, opponent of Maimonides, 527 f., - 536 f. - invokes the Dominicans against the Maimunists, 542 f. - - Solomon ben Abraham ben Adret, 609, 618-23. - and David Maimuni, 620 f. - attitude of, to Kabbala and philosophy, 619. - character of, 619. - converses with Christian theologians, 623. - fame of, 620 f. - polemical writings of, against - Christianity and Islam, 623. - standard-bearer of Judaism, 621. - - Solomon ben Yerucham, Karaite champion, 206. - opponent of Saadiah Gaon, 191. - - Solomon Ibn-Gebirol. See Gebirol. - - Solomon Petit, Kabbalist and fanatical anti-Maimunist, 626. - in Accho, 627, 630 f. - - Sophronius, bishop of Jerusalem, surrenders to Omar, 87. - - Sora, academy of, 4 f., 92 f. - closed, 8, 202. - contest for the Gaonate, 156 f. - decline of, 183, 202. - extinction of, 253. - position of principal of, 93 ff. - regains its reputation, 186. - regeneration of, under Saadiah Gaon, 193. - revenues of, 97 f. - strife with Pumbeditha, 183 ff. - - Spain, Christian, 34, 43 f., 291, 361, 507, 592, 615, 618. - Mahometan, 109 ff., 214 ff., 313 ff. - - Spain, Jews of: - admitted to high offices, 234 f., 256 ff., 312 f., 383 f. - attain the highest development, 383 f. - characteristics of, 235 f. - center of Judaism, 42, 210, 228 f., 254, 618. - confer names upon localities, 42. - culture of, 234 f. - enjoy toleration, 44 f. - faithful to their religion, 236. - first persecution of, 278, 281. - first rabbinical epoch of, 273. - founders of culture of, 215. - friendly intercourse of, with Christians, 43 f. - importance of history of, 41. - impoverished, 121. - intermarriage of, with Christians, 44. - nobility of, 43, 235 f. - partisans, 317. - persecuted, 360. - prosperity of, 214, 229. - rabbis of, characterized, 609. - second rabbinical epoch of, 288. - settlement of, 34 f., 42 f. - support the Mahometan conquest, 109. - - Speyer, Jews of, during the crusades, 301. - privileges of, 297 f. - - Stamford, Jews of, maltreated, 412. - - Stephanus, governor of Palestine, killed by the Samaritans, 16 f. - - Stephen, king of England, protects the Jews during the second crusade, - 356. - - Stephen Langton, enemy of the Jews, 516. - - St. Gilles, Jewish congregation of, 399. - - Sunna (Mahometan tradition), 110. - - Superstition among Jews and Christians, 546. - - Susa (Tuster), Jewish congregation of, 434 f. - - Suesskind (Suezkint) of Trimberg, Jewish German poet, 420. - - Suwailin, plots against Mahomet, 84. - - Sviatislaw, conquers the kingdom of the Chazars, 222. - - Swintila, king of the Visigoths, dethroned, 49. - tolerant to the Jews, 49. - - "Synhedrion, the great and the smaller," 96. - - Synods of the Church. See Councils of the Church. - - Synods, rabbinical, 376, 377 f., 517. - - Syrian Christians render scientific literature accessible to the - Arabs, 111. - - - "Tables of Alfonso," 594. - - "Tachkemoni," 318. - of Alcharisi, 559. - - Talmud: - attitude of the Arabic Jews toward, 119 f. - causes suffering to the Jews, 573 f. - committed to writing, 6. - confiscated and burnt, 579. - degeneracy of study of, 128. - effect of condemnation of, by the Church, 579. - movement against, 124, 127 ff. - persecuted, 573-9. - put on trial in Aragon, 602. - stagnation of the development of, 5. - study of, becomes the center of Jewish life, 571 f. - subjected to censorship, 602 f. - supplants the Bible, 128, 317. - - Talmud, Babylonian, authority of, 118 f. - Jerusalem, studied, 249. - - Talmud, copies of, transferred from Sora to Spain, 203. - - Talmudic Judaism abandoned by a part of the Jews, 120-2. - - Talmudic lexicography, 179. - - Talmudic schools: - aim of, 6. - closed, 8. - lack of creative power of, 5 f. - literary activity of, 180. - of Cordova, 210. - of Egypt, 210. - of Kairuan, 248 f. - of Narbonne, 143, 242. - of Paris, 586. - of Tiberias, 12. - - Talmudic studies: - in Bohemia 420 f. - in France, 344 ff., 408. - in Germany, 419. - in Italy, 421. - in Spain, 227 ff., 282. - - Talmudic teachers have to flee, 4, 8. - - Tarik, the Mahometan conqueror of Spain, 109. - - Tax, Jewish. See Jew-tax and Tithe. - - Ten, importance of the number in the Kabbala, 552. - - "The History of the Maccabees," 180. - - Theobald, Count of Chartres, part taken by, in the first blood - accusation, 379 f. - - Theodatus, supported by the Jews, 31. - - Theodoric, attitude of, towards the Jews, 29 f. - - Theodosius II, 26. - laws of, against the Jews, 10, 28 f., 171. - - Thomas a Becket, kindles fanaticism against the Jews, 409. - - Tiberias, Jews of, driven out by Omar, 87. - school of, 12. - - Tiberius, emperor, 18. - - Tiflisites, Karaite sect, 158. - - Tithe, paid by Jews, 499, 516, 518, 582. - - Toledo, 384. - center of Jewish learning, 361. - confession signed by the Jews of, 103 f. - conquered by Alfonso VI, 294 f. - Council of, passes decrees against secret Jews, 49 ff., 102. - culture of the Jews of, 386. - delivered by the Jews to the Mahometans, 109. - Jewish congregation of, at the head of Spain, 537. - number of Jews in, 384. - riot against the Jews of, 386. - Talmudic school of, 362. - - Torah, distinguishing character of, 484 f. - - Tossafists, 344-6, 403 f., 408, 470. - last, 587. - method of, 344. - one-sidedness of, 529. - - "Tossafoth," old, 404. - - Toulouse, Jews of, 399 f. - indignities suffered by, 174. - - Tovey on the Jews, 642. - - Treves during the crusades, 300. - - Troyes, rabbinical synod of, 378. - - Tudela, Jews of, obtain equal rights with the Christians, 388. - - Tuster. See Susa. - - - Ubaid-Allah Ibn-Suleiman, vizir, favors the Jews, 183. - founder of the Fatimide dynasty, 180 f. - - Unitarians among Mahometans, 358. - - Usury of Jews and Christians, 399, 401, 510, 571, 642. - - - Vandals conquered by Belisarius, 26. - - Vannes, Council of, forbids the clergy to attend Jewish banquets, 36. - - Venantius Fortunatus, 39. - - Vessels of the Temple transported from Carthage to Constantinople and - Jerusalem, 26 f. - - Vienna, Council of, degrades the Jews, 611 f. - Jews of, excluded from offices, 635. - - Visigoths: - constitution of, 47. - treatment of Jews by, 44 f., 101. - - Vizirs, Jewish, 256 ff., 274, 280, 312. - - Vowel-points, introduction of, 7, 112, 207. - - - Wadil-Kora (Arabia), Jews of, 55 f. - driven out by Omar, 85. - - Walid I, 110. - - Walter, archbishop of Sens, intercedes in behalf of the Jews and the - Talmud, 578. - - Walter von der Vogelweide, 420. - - Wamba, king of the Visigoths, deposed, 104-6. - - Waraka Ibn-Naufal and Mahomet, 71. - - Wecelinus, convert to Judaism, 245 f. - - Werner, archbishop of Mayence, protects the Jews, 636. - - William II, of Sicily, favorable to the Jews, 422 f. - - William the Conqueror, imposes restrictions on the Jews, 294. - - Wimpfen, ransoms the body of Meir of Rothenburg, 640. - - Witiga, king of the Visigoths, 109. - - Wolfram of Eschenbach, 420. - - Worms, during the crusades, 301. - Jews of, favored by Henry IV, 293. - - Wratislaw, ruler of Bohemia, extorts money from the Jews, 307 f. - - Wuerzburg, Jewish martyrs of, 354. - - - Xeres, battle of, 109. - - - Yathrib (Medina), seat of Jewish learning, 59. - - Yechiel of Paris, disputation of, with Nicholas Donin, 576 f., 598 f. - emigrates to Palestine, 587. - head of the Talmudic school of Paris, 586. - - Yechiel ben Abraham, financier of pope Alexander III, 421. - - "Yekum Purkan," 95. - - Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan, head of the Jews in Saragossa, 266. - friend of Gebirol, 266. - killed, 266. - - Yemen, benevolence of the Jews of, 436. - Maimonides' letter to, 462-4. - - Yezid I, 110. - - Yishai ben Chiskiyah, exilarch of Damascus, defends Maimonides, 627, - 632. - - Yizchaki ben Yasus, Biblical critic, 273. - - Yizchaki Solomon. See Rashi. - - Yom Tob of Joigny, 414. - - York, Jews of, exterminated, 413-16. - - - Zaccai ben Achunai, exilarch, 137. - - Zainab, Jewess, captured by Mahomet, 83 f. - - Zedekiah, Jewish physician to Charles the Bald, 170. - - Zendik, 2. - - Zenki, father of Nureddin, 429. - - Zeno, emperor, hatred of, against the Jews, 10 f. - - Ziadeth-Allah, Aghlabite prince, 180. - - Zorah Yussuf, Jewish king in Arabia, 64. - intolerance of, 65. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -Inconsistent use of small-caps and Proper caps in names unchanged. - -Inconsistent use of periods after Regnal numbers not changed. - -Footnotes moved from bottoms of pages to the end of the text, just -before the Index. - -The Index was not checked for correct page references. - -Cover created by Transcriber and placed in the Public Domain. - -Pages v, 231: Chapter summaries refer to "Samuel bar Chofni," but -all occurrences in the body of the text and in the Index are to -"Samuel ben Chofni". - -Page 146: "His son Abu-Sahal Ali (835-853)" date range seems to be too -short. - -Page 648: Missing closing quotation mark added after 'and to sustain -our hope.' - -Page 654: Alphabetization sequence error corrected. - -Page 664: "Judaism: d philosophy" was printed that way in the original. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the Jews, Vol. III (of 6), by -Heinrich Graetz - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. III (OF 6) *** - -***** This file should be named 43337.txt or 43337.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/3/3/43337/ - -Produced by David Edwards, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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