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diff --git a/43337-h/43337-h.htm b/43337-h/43337-h.htm index 51d11f0..840c05a 100644 --- a/43337-h/43337-h.htm +++ b/43337-h/43337-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of the Jews, by Professor H. Graetz. @@ -236,45 +236,7 @@ span.locked {white-space:nowrap;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's History of the Jews, Vol. III (of 6), by Heinrich Graetz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: History of the Jews, Vol. III (of 6) - -Author: Heinrich Graetz - -Release Date: July 28, 2013 [EBook #43337] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. III (OF 6) *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43337 ***</div> <h1>HISTORY OF THE JEWS</h1> @@ -321,9 +283,9 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <td class="tdr bpad"><i>page</i></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE DECAY OF JUDA, AND THE JEWS IN DISPERSION.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE DECAY OF JUDÆA, AND THE JEWS IN DISPERSION.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Zendik Religion—King Kobad and Mazdak the Reformer—Revolt of the Jews—Mar-Zutra—Revival of the Schools—The Saburam—The Talmud committed to writing—Tolerance of Chosru II—The Christianization of Juda—The Jews under Byzantine Rule—Justinian—Persecution of the Samaritans—Benjamin of Tiberias—Attack on Tyre—The Emperor Heraclius</td> + <td class="tdl">The Zendik Religion—King Kobad and Mazdak the Reformer—Revolt of the Jews—Mar-Zutra—Revival of the Schools—The Saburaïm—The Talmud committed to writing—Tolerance of Chosru II—The Christianization of Judæa—The Jews under Byzantine Rule—Justinian—Persecution of the Samaritans—Benjamin of Tiberias—Attack on Tyre—The Emperor Heraclius</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">500–628 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -350,7 +312,7 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE AGE OF THE GEONIM.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Conquests of Islam—Omar's Intolerance—Condition of the Jews in Babylonia—Bostana—The Princes of the Captivity and the Geonim—Dignity and Revenues of the Prince—Communal Organization—Excommunication—Julian of Toledo and the Jews—The Moslems in Spain—The Jews and Arabic Literature—The Assyrian Vowel-system—The Neo-Hebraic Poetry: Jos ben Jos—Simon ben Caipha—Employment of Rhyme—Janna—Eleazar Kaliri—Opposition to the Study of the Talmud—The False Messiah Serenus, the Syrian—The Jews in the Crimea and the Land of the Chazars—The False Messiah Obadia Abu-Isa</td> + <td class="tdl">The Conquests of Islam—Omar's Intolerance—Condition of the Jews in Babylonia—Bostanaï—The Princes of the Captivity and the Geonim—Dignity and Revenues of the Prince—Communal Organization—Excommunication—Julian of Toledo and the Jews—The Moslems in Spain—The Jews and Arabic Literature—The Assyrian Vowel-system—The Neo-Hebraic Poetry: José ben José—Simon ben Caipha—Employment of Rhyme—Jannaï—Eleazar Kaliri—Opposition to the Study of the Talmud—The False Messiah Serenus, the Syrian—The Jews in the Crimea and the Land of the Chazars—The False Messiah Obadia Abu-Isa</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">640–760 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -368,16 +330,16 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">FAVORABLE CONDITION OF THE JEWS IN THE FRANKISH DOMINIONS, AND THE DECAY OF THE EXILARCHATE IN THE EAST.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Jews under Louis le Dbonnaire—The Empress Judith and her Veneration for Judaism—Agobard, Bishop of Lyons—Conversion of Bishop Bodo—Amolo's effort against the Jews—Charles the Bald—Troubles in Bziers and Toulouse—Decree against the Jews in Italy—Boso of Burgundy—Basilius—Leo the Philosopher—Decline of the Exilarchate—The Geonim acquire Additional Influence—The Prayer Book of Amram—Mar-Zemach—Literary and Scientific Activity of the Jews—Decay of Karaism—Dissensions at Pumbeditha</td> + <td class="tdl">The Jews under Louis le Débonnaire—The Empress Judith and her Veneration for Judaism—Agobard, Bishop of Lyons—Conversion of Bishop Bodo—Amolo's effort against the Jews—Charles the Bald—Troubles in Béziers and Toulouse—Decree against the Jews in Italy—Boso of Burgundy—Basilius—Leo the Philosopher—Decline of the Exilarchate—The Geonim acquire Additional Influence—The Prayer Book of Amram—Mar-Zemach—Literary and Scientific Activity of the Jews—Decay of Karaism—Dissensions at Pumbeditha</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span>814–920 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE GOLDEN AGE OF JEWISH SCIENCE: SAADIAH AND CHASDA.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE GOLDEN AGE OF JEWISH SCIENCE: SAADIAH AND CHASDAÏ.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Judaism in the Tenth Century—Saadiah, the Founder of Religious Philosophy—Translation of the Bible into Arabic—Saadiah opposes Karaism—The Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham—Saadiah and the School at Sora—Saadiah retires from Sora—His Literary Activity—Extinction of the Exilarchate—Sahal and other Karaite writers—Jews in Spain—The School at Cordova—Dunash ben Tamim—Chasda—His services to Judaism—Menachem ben Saruk—Chasda and the King of the Chazars</td> + <td class="tdl">Judaism in the Tenth Century—Saadiah, the Founder of Religious Philosophy—Translation of the Bible into Arabic—Saadiah opposes Karaism—The Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham—Saadiah and the School at Sora—Saadiah retires from Sora—His Literary Activity—Extinction of the Exilarchate—Sahal and other Karaite writers—Jews in Spain—The School at Cordova—Dunash ben Tamim—Chasdaï—His services to Judaism—Menachem ben Saruk—Chasdaï and the King of the Chazars</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">928–970 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -386,7 +348,7 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE RISE OF JEWISH-SPANISH CULTURE, AND THE DECAY OF THE GAONATE.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Gaon Sherira and his son Ha—Sherira's Historical Letter—The Jewish Congregations in Spain—Jewish Culture in Andalusia—The Disciples of Menachem and Dunash—Jehuda Chayuj—Contest between Chanoch and Ibn-Abitur—Jacob Ibn-Jau—The Jews of France—Nathan the Babylonian and Leontin—The Jews of Germany—Gershom and his Ordinances—The Emperor Henry II—The Caliph Hakem—The Jewish Communities of Northern Africa—Chananel, the Son of Chushiel, and Nissim bar Jacob Ibn Shahin—The Jerusalem Talmud—Ha Gaon—His Character and Importance—Samuel bar Chofni—Chiskiya, the Last Gaon—Samuel Ibn-Nagrela—Jonah Ibn-Janach</td> + <td class="tdl">The Gaon Sherira and his son Haï—Sherira's Historical Letter—The Jewish Congregations in Spain—Jewish Culture in Andalusia—The Disciples of Menachem and Dunash—Jehuda Chayuj—Contest between Chanoch and Ibn-Abitur—Jacob Ibn-Jau—The Jews of France—Nathan the Babylonian and Leontin—The Jews of Germany—Gershom and his Ordinances—The Emperor Henry II—The Caliph Hakem—The Jewish Communities of Northern Africa—Chananel, the Son of Chushiel, and Nissim bar Jacob Ibn Shahin—The Jerusalem Talmud—Haï Gaon—His Character and Importance—Samuel bar Chofni—Chiskiya, the Last Gaon—Samuel Ibn-Nagrela—Jonah Ibn-Janach</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">970–1050 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -395,7 +357,7 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">IBN-GEBIROL AND HIS EPOCH.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Solomon Ibn-Gebirol—His early life—His poems—The statesman Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan befriends him—Murder of Yekutiel—Bachya Ibn-Pakuda and his moral philosophy—The Biblical critic Yizchaki ben Yasus—Joseph ben Chasda, the Poet—Death of Samuel Ibn Nagrela—Character of his son Joseph and his tragic fate—Death of Ibn-Gebirol—The French and German communities—Alfassi—Life and works of Rashi—Jewish scholars in Spain—King Alfonso</td> + <td class="tdl">Solomon Ibn-Gebirol—His early life—His poems—The statesman Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan befriends him—Murder of Yekutiel—Bachya Ibn-Pakuda and his moral philosophy—The Biblical critic Yizchaki ben Yasus—Joseph ben Chasdaï, the Poet—Death of Samuel Ibn Nagrela—Character of his son Joseph and his tragic fate—Death of Ibn-Gebirol—The French and German communities—Alfassi—Life and works of Rashi—Jewish scholars in Spain—King Alfonso</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">vi</a></span>1027–1070 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -431,7 +393,7 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">SURVEY OF THE EPOCH OF MAIMUNI (MAIMONIDES).</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Jews of Toledo—Ibn-Shoshan, Ibn-Alfachar—The Poet Charisi—Sheshet Benveniste—Benjamin of Tudela—The Jews of Provence—The Kimchis—The Communities of Bziers, Montpellier, Lnel, and Toulouse—Persecutions of Jews in Northern France—The Jews of England—Richard I—The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span>Jews of York—The Jews of Germany—Ephraim ben Jacob—Ssskind—Petachya the Traveler—The Jews of Italy and of the Byzantine Empire—Communities in Syria and Palestine—The Jews of Bagdad—Mosul—The Pseudo-Messiah, David Alroy—The Jews of India—Conversion to Judaism of Tartars—The Jews of Egypt</td> + <td class="tdl">The Jews of Toledo—Ibn-Shoshan, Ibn-Alfachar—The Poet Charisi—Sheshet Benveniste—Benjamin of Tudela—The Jews of Provence—The Kimchis—The Communities of Béziers, Montpellier, Lünel, and Toulouse—Persecutions of Jews in Northern France—The Jews of England—Richard I—The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span>Jews of York—The Jews of Germany—Ephraim ben Jacob—Süsskind—Petachya the Traveler—The Jews of Italy and of the Byzantine Empire—Communities in Syria and Palestine—The Jews of Bagdad—Mosul—The Pseudo-Messiah, David Alroy—The Jews of India—Conversion to Judaism of Tartars—The Jews of Egypt</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_382">382</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">1171–1205 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -458,7 +420,7 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE MAIMUNIST CONTROVERSY AND THE RISE OF THE KABBALA.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Opposition against Maimuni—Maimunists and anti-Maimunists—Mer Abulafia—Samson of Sens—Solomon of Montpellier—Excommunication of the Maimunists—David Kimchi's energetic Advocacy of Maimuni—Nachmani—His <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span>Character and Work—His Relations to Maimuni, Ibn-Ezra, and the Kabbala—Solomon of Montpellier calls in the aid of the Dominicans—Moses of Coucy—Modern date of the Kabbala—Azriel and Ezra—Doctrines of the Kabbala—Jacob ben Sheshet Gerundi—The Bahir—Three Parties in Judaism—Last flicker of the Neo-Hebraic Poetry—The Satirical Romance: Al-Charisi and Joseph ben Sabara</td> + <td class="tdl">The Opposition against Maimuni—Maimunists and anti-Maimunists—Meïr Abulafia—Samson of Sens—Solomon of Montpellier—Excommunication of the Maimunists—David Kimchi's energetic Advocacy of Maimuni—Nachmani—His <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span>Character and Work—His Relations to Maimuni, Ibn-Ezra, and the Kabbala—Solomon of Montpellier calls in the aid of the Dominicans—Moses of Coucy—Modern date of the Kabbala—Azriel and Ezra—Doctrines of the Kabbala—Jacob ben Sheshet Gerundi—The Bahir—Three Parties in Judaism—Last flicker of the Neo-Hebraic Poetry—The Satirical Romance: Al-Charisi and Joseph ben Sabara</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_522">522</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">1232–1236 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -467,7 +429,7 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">PUBLIC DISCUSSIONS, AND THE BURNING OF THE TALMUD.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Pope Gregory IX—Emperor Frederick II and the Jewish Scholars, Jehuda Ibn-Matka and Jacob Anatoli—The Jewish Legislation of Frederick of Austria—The Martyrs of Aquitaine and Gregory IX—Louis IX of France and his Enmity to the Jews—Attacks on the Talmud—The Apostate Nicholas-Donin—Disputation at the French Court between Yechiel of Paris and Nicholas-Donin—Judah of Melun—The Talmud burnt at Paris—The Church and Jewish Physicians—Moses Ibn-Tibbon and Shem-Tob Tortosi—Papal Bull acquitting Jews of the Blood-accusation—The Last French Tossafists—The Jews of England—The Jewish Parliament—Alfonso the Wise and the Jews of Spain—Mer de Malea and his Sons—The Jewish Astronomers Don Judah Cohen and Don Zag Ibn-Said—The Jews of Aragon—De Penyaforte and the Apostate Pablo Christiani—The First Censorship of the Talmud—Nachmani's Disputation with Pablo—Influence of Nachmani—The Karaites</td> + <td class="tdl">Pope Gregory IX—Emperor Frederick II and the Jewish Scholars, Jehuda Ibn-Matka and Jacob Anatoli—The Jewish Legislation of Frederick of Austria—The Martyrs of Aquitaine and Gregory IX—Louis IX of France and his Enmity to the Jews—Attacks on the Talmud—The Apostate Nicholas-Donin—Disputation at the French Court between Yechiel of Paris and Nicholas-Donin—Judah of Melun—The Talmud burnt at Paris—The Church and Jewish Physicians—Moses Ibn-Tibbon and Shem-Tob Tortosi—Papal Bull acquitting Jews of the Blood-accusation—The Last French Tossafists—The Jews of England—The Jewish Parliament—Alfonso the Wise and the Jews of Spain—Meïr de Malea and his Sons—The Jewish Astronomers Don Judah Cohen and Don Zag Ibn-Said—The Jews of Aragon—De Penyaforte and the Apostate Pablo Christiani—The First Censorship of the Talmud—Nachmani's Disputation with Pablo—Influence of Nachmani—The Karaites</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_563">563</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">1236–1270 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -476,7 +438,7 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">THE AGE OF SOLOMON BEN ADRET AND ASHERI.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Martyrs in Germany—The Jews of Hungary and Poland—The Council at Buda—The Jews of Spain and Portugal—Solomon ben Adret, his character and writings—Raymund Martin's anti-Jewish Works—New antagonism to the Maimunist Philosophy—David Maimuni—Moses Taku—Mer of Rothenburg—The Jews of Italy—Solomon Petit—Rudolph of Habsburg—Emigration of Jews from the Rhine Provinces—Sufferings of the English Jews—Expulsion of the Jews from England and Gascony—Saad Addaula—Isaac of Accho</td> + <td class="tdl">Martyrs in Germany—The Jews of Hungary and Poland—The Council at Buda—The Jews of Spain and Portugal—Solomon ben Adret, his character and writings—Raymund Martin's anti-Jewish Works—New antagonism to the Maimunist Philosophy—David Maimuni—Moses Taku—Meïr of Rothenburg—The Jews of Italy—Solomon Petit—Rudolph of Habsburg—Emigration of Jews from the Rhine Provinces—Sufferings of the English Jews—Expulsion of the Jews from England and Gascony—Saad Addaula—Isaac of Accho</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_610">610</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl chap smaller">1270–1306 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></td></tr> @@ -491,14 +453,14 @@ By the Jewish Publication Society of America. <hr /> <h2 class="vspace"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br /> -<span class="smaller">THE DECAY OF JUDA AND THE JEWS IN DISPERSION.</span></h2> +<span class="smaller">THE DECAY OF JUDÆA AND THE JEWS IN DISPERSION.</span></h2> <blockquote> <p class="hang">The Zendik Religion—King Kobad and Mazdak the Reformer—Revolt of the Jews—Mar-Zutra—Revival of the Schools—The -Saburam—The Talmud committed to writing—Tolerance of -Chosru II—The Christianization of Juda—The Jews under +Saburaïm—The Talmud committed to writing—Tolerance of +Chosru II—The Christianization of Judæa—The Jews under Byzantine Rule—Justinian—Persecution of the Samaritans—Benjamin of Tiberias—Attack on Tyre—The Emperor Heraclius.</p></blockquote> @@ -623,9 +585,9 @@ possessions, and led into captivity, and it is probable that this was not the full extent of the persecution. The members of the family of the Prince of the Captivity were compelled to flee. They escaped -to Juda, taking with them Mar-Zutra's posthumous +to Judæa, taking with them Mar-Zutra's posthumous heir, who also bore the name Mar-Zutra. -He was educated in Juda, and there became a +He was educated in Judæa, and there became a distinguished scholar. On account of Kobad's persecution, the office of Prince of the Captivity in Babylonia remained in abeyance for some time. @@ -666,7 +628,7 @@ in hiding by the river Zab, was called to preside over the academy at Sora; the sister academy at Pumbeditha chose Semuna as its head. A third name of this period has been transmitted to posterity, -that of Raba of Rob (near Nahardea), whose +that of Rabaï of Rob (near Nahardea), whose position and office are, however, not clearly known. These men, with their associates and disciples, devoted their whole activity to the Talmud. It was @@ -679,7 +641,7 @@ the Law endeared and sanctified it, and the Talmud was the sacred banner around which the entire nation rallied.</p> -<p>But the disciples of the last Amoram had lost all +<p>But the disciples of the last Amoraïm had lost all creative power, and were unable to continue the development of the Talmud. The subject-matter and the method of teaching were both so fully defined @@ -708,8 +670,8 @@ all were ignorant of authoritative precepts by which to regulate their religious conduct. The establishing of the final rules for religious and legal practice after careful consideration of the arguments <i>pro</i> and <i>con</i> -conferred upon the post-Amorac teachers the name -of Sabureans (Sabura). After the various opinions +conferred upon the post-Amoraïc teachers the name +of Sabureans (Saburaï). After the various opinions (Sebora) were reviewed, they were the ones that established the final, valid law. The activity of the Sabureans really began immediately after the completion @@ -724,7 +686,7 @@ the Talmud to writing. They availed themselves partly of oral tradition, partly of written notes made by various persons as an aid to memory.</p> -<p>As everything which proceeded from the Amorac +<p>As everything which proceeded from the Amoraïc authorities appeared of importance to their successors, they gathered up every utterance, every anecdote which was current in learned circles, so @@ -856,7 +818,7 @@ same period was a teacher of similar name, Mar bar Huna (609 to about 620), during whose administration the fortunes of the Jews of Palestine alternated from victory to defeat. The successors -of these teachers were Chanina in Pumbeditha and +of these teachers were Chaninaï in Pumbeditha and Chananya in Sora; they lived to see the victorious advance of the Arabs and the end of the Persian rule. The last of the Sassanian kings, of whom @@ -869,13 +831,13 @@ Captivity at its head. During the half-century that elapsed between the re-opening of the academies under Bahram and the Arab conquest of Persia (589–640), three Resh-Galutas are mentioned by -name: Kafna, Chanina, and Bostana. The last +name: Kafnaï, Chaninaï, and Bostanaï. The last of these belongs to the ensuing epoch, in which, aided by favorable circumstances, he succeeded in again investing the dignity of Prince of the Captivity with substantial power.</p> -<p>The position of the Jews in Juda during the sixth +<p>The position of the Jews in Judæa during the sixth century was so terrible that a complete cessation of intellectual pursuits ensued. Like their co-religionists of the Byzantine empire, they were without @@ -918,7 +880,7 @@ brutally murdered the worshipers (507).</p> <p>Meanwhile how much of the land of their fathers still remained in the hands of the Jews? Christianity -had made itself master of Juda, and had +had made itself master of Judæa, and had become the heir of Judaism. Churches and monasteries arose in the Holy Land, but its former masters were subjected to all sorts of persecution @@ -950,7 +912,7 @@ most beautiful women in all Palestine were to be found, seems to have been mostly populated by Jews, as it had not been raised to the rank of a bishopric. Scythopolis (Bethsan), which became -the capital of Palstina Secunda during this century, +the capital of Palæstina Secunda during this century, and Neapolis (Shechem), the capital of the Samaritans since Samaria had become Christian, had Jewish inhabitants. But in all these cities, with @@ -1011,7 +973,7 @@ unleavened bread (about 540).</p> <p>Other invasions were made by Justinian on the territory of religious affairs. A Jewish congregation, -probably in Constantinople or Csarea, had been +probably in Constantinople or Cæsarea, had been for some time divided against itself. One party wanted the reading of the portions of the Pentateuch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> and the Prophets to be followed by a translation @@ -1110,12 +1072,12 @@ of Esau (Byzantium). His shafts come suddenly, and are not felt until the word is spoken for death or imprisonment. Their writings are 'the arrow that flieth by day.'" In this strain the -teachers of the Law preached in Juda.</p> +teachers of the Law preached in Judæa.</p> <p>The Jews of Palestine had but little cause to be satisfied with Justinian's rule, which oppressed them doubly with its extortionate taxation and its religious -hypocrisy. Stephanus, the governor of Palstina +hypocrisy. Stephanus, the governor of Palæstina Prima, doubtless no better than the majority of officials in Justinian's time, helped to irritate the Jews, by whom he was thoroughly hated. The time @@ -1132,7 +1094,7 @@ Christians. They were compelled, with even greater rigor than the Jews, to embrace Christianity, and all who refused to submit forfeited the right of disposing of their property. Although Sergius, bishop -of Csarea, declared that the obstinacy of the +of Cæsarea, declared that the obstinacy of the Samaritans had decreased, and that they embraced Christianity with ever-increasing sincerity, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> although he succeeded in inducing Justinian to @@ -1141,14 +1103,14 @@ been promulgated against them, they nevertheless concealed in their hearts the deepest hatred toward their tormentors.</p> -<p>On the occasion of a chariot-race in Csarea, +<p>On the occasion of a chariot-race in Cæsarea, the capital, where the jealousy of the color-factions against one another never allowed an event of that kind to pass off without a riot, the Samaritans threw off all restraint, and fell upon the Christians. The Jewish youth made common cause with them, and together they massacred their Christian opponents -in Csarea and destroyed their churches. Stephanus, +in Cæsarea and destroyed their churches. Stephanus, the governor, hastened to the aid of the Christians, but the Samaritans pressed him and his military escort so hard that he was obliged to take @@ -1305,7 +1267,7 @@ through fear, or because he despaired of the continuance of Christianity. The conversion of a monk who of his own free will embraced Judaism was a great triumph for the Jews. This monk had spent -many years in the monastery on Mount Sina in +many years in the monastery on Mount Sinaï in doing penance and reciting litanies. Suddenly he was assailed by doubts as to the truth of Christianity. He alleged that he had been led to this @@ -1314,7 +1276,7 @@ side Christ, the apostles, and the martyrs enveloped in gloomy darkness, while on the other side were Moses, the prophets, and the holy men of Judaism, bathed in light. Weary of this internal struggle, -he descended from Mount Sina, crossed the desert +he descended from Mount Sinaï, crossed the desert to Palestine, and finally went to Tiberias, where he declared his settled determination to embrace Judaism. He offered himself for circumcision, adopted @@ -1353,7 +1315,7 @@ the Greek emperor all those provinces which were on the point of being permanently constituted Persian satrapies. After the conclusion of peace between Heraclius and Syroes, who dethroned and killed his -aged father, the Persians quitted Juda, and again +aged father, the Persians quitted Judæa, and again the country fell under Byzantine rule (628). In the autumn of the same year the emperor proceeded in triumph to Jerusalem. On his journey he touched @@ -1397,7 +1359,7 @@ during a pestilential famine charitably fed the needy without distinction of religion. The Jews of Alexandria, moved by warm sympathy for their suffering co-religionists, fraternally welcomed -the unhappy fugitives from Juda, the victims of +the unhappy fugitives from Judæa, the victims of monkish fanaticism. Heraclius seized upon this occasion to renew the edicts of Hadrian and Constantine, by which the Jews were forbidden to enter @@ -1525,7 +1487,7 @@ trophies were displayed in triumph along with Gelimer, the Prince of the Vandals and grandson of Genseric, and the treasures of that unfortunate monarch. A certain Jew, filled with profound grief -on seeing the living memorials of Juda's former +on seeing the living memorials of Judæa's former greatness in the hands of her enemies, remarked to a courtier that it was not advisable to deposit them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span> in the imperial palace, for they might bring misfortune @@ -1562,7 +1524,7 @@ world, and felt that the lamentation over Jerusalem could be literally applied to Rome as well: "She that was great among the nations, and princess among the provinces, how is she become tributary?" -After the Gepid and the Heruli, by whom +After the Gepidæ and the Heruli, by whom Rome had been temporarily enslaved, came the Goths, who threw the name of Rome into oblivion by founding the Ostrogothic empire under Theodoric @@ -1705,7 +1667,7 @@ exposition of the Psalms, in which he makes frequent reference to the Jews, apostrophizing them, and endeavoring to convert them. It is characteristic of this period that Cassiodorus,—who, besides -Bothius, was the only notability of the sixth century +Boëthius, was the only notability of the sixth century possessing a certain philosophic culture—designated the Jews by the most opprobrious names. It would be easy to compile a dictionary of abusive @@ -1853,11 +1815,11 @@ Church gained the upper hand.</p> <p>The immigration of the Jews into these important and wealthy provinces took place probably as early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> -as the time of the Republic or of Csar. The +as the time of the Republic or of Cæsar. The Jewish merchants whose business pursuits brought them from Alexandria or Asia Minor to Rome and Italy, the Jewish warriors whom the emperors Vespasian -and Titus, the conquerors of Juda, had dispersed +and Titus, the conquerors of Judæa, had dispersed as prisoners throughout the Roman provinces, found their way voluntarily or involuntarily into Gaul and Iberia. The presence of the Jews in @@ -1877,7 +1839,7 @@ Frankish kingdom founded by Clovis, the Jews dwelt in Auvergne (Arverna), in Carcassonne, Arles, Orleans, and as far north as Paris and Belgium. Numbers of them resided in the old -Greek port of Marseilles, and in Bziers (Biterr), +Greek port of Marseilles, and in Béziers (Biterræ), and so many dwelt in the province of Narbonne that a mountain near the city of that name was called <i>Mons Judaicus</i>. The territory of Narbonne @@ -1921,7 +1883,7 @@ But this decision of the council was of no avail; canonical severity was powerless to check this friendly intercourse. It became necessary to re-enact this ecclesiastical prohibition several times. -Thus, in spite of their separation from Juda and +Thus, in spite of their separation from Judæa and Babylonia, the centers of Judaism, the Jews of Gaul lived in strict accordance with the precepts of their religion. Wherever they settled they built their @@ -2031,7 +1993,7 @@ indicate quite clearly that the Jews of Clermont suffered innocently, and became converts to Christianity out of sheer desperation. Thus the effects of the ever-growing fanaticism made themselves felt -in many parts of France. The Council of Mcon +in many parts of France. The Council of Mâcon (581) adopted several resolutions which aimed at assigning an inferior position in society to the Jews. They were neither to officiate as judges nor to be @@ -2076,7 +2038,7 @@ of the Frankish empire must either embrace Christianity before a certain day, or be treated as enemies and be put to death (about 629).</p> -<p>The more the authority of the Merovingian <i>fainants</i>, +<p>The more the authority of the Merovingian <i>fainéants</i>, as they have been called, declined, and the more the power of the politic and cautious stewards, Pepin's descendants, rose, the greater was the exemption @@ -2135,7 +2097,7 @@ by their hearty interest to the greatness of the country, which they loved as only a fatherland can be loved, and in so doing achieved world-wide reputation. Jewish Spain contributed almost as -much to the development of Judaism as Juda and +much to the development of Judaism as Judæa and Babylonia, and as in these countries, so every spot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span> in this new home has become classic for the Jewish race. Cordova, Granada, and Toledo are as familiar @@ -2205,7 +2167,7 @@ modest, and dated its immigration only from the destruction of the Second Temple. A family tradition runs to the effect that the Roman governor of Spain begged the conqueror of Jerusalem to send -him some noble families from the capital of Juda, +him some noble families from the capital of Judæa, and that Titus complied with his request. Among those thus transported was a man named Baruch, who excelled in the art of weaving curtains for the @@ -2287,7 +2249,7 @@ as the most trusty guardians of the frontier, and their martial courage gained for them special distinction. The Visigothic Jews must have remained in communication, either through Italy or through -Africa, with Juda or Babylonia, from which countries +Africa, with Judæa or Babylonia, from which countries they probably received their religious teachers. They adhered strictly to the precepts of the Talmud, abstained from wine made by non-Jews, and admitted @@ -2700,7 +2662,7 @@ century that the Christian envoys succeeded in converting to Christianity an Arab prince and his tribe, whose capital was the commercial town of Najara.—Arabia owned only half the island of Yotabe (now -Jijbn), in the Red Sea (60 miles to the south of the +Jijbân), in the Red Sea (60 miles to the south of the capital, Aila); a small Jewish free state had existed there since time immemorial.</p> @@ -2724,7 +2686,7 @@ cattle breeding, transport by caravan, traffic in weapons, and probably also the calling of robbers. The Arabian Jews likewise possessed a patriarchal, tribal constitution. Several families were united under -one name, and led by a chieftain (shach), who in +one name, and led by a chieftain (shaïch), who in times of peace settled controversies and pronounced judgment, and in war commanded all the men able to bear arms, and concluded alliances with neighboring @@ -2761,7 +2723,7 @@ and to adorn their poetry with rhymes.</p> <p>The knowledge of their religion, which the Arabian Jews had brought with them in their flight from -Juda, and that which afterwards came to them +Judæa, and that which afterwards came to them from the academies, conferred upon them superiority over the heathen tribes, and soon made them their masters. While but few Arabs, before the @@ -2800,7 +2762,7 @@ to the authorities in Tiberias, whence they received, as also from the Babylonian academies probably, religious instruction and interpretation of the Bible. Yathrib was the seat of Jewish learning, -and possessed teachers of the Law (Achbr, Chabar) +and possessed teachers of the Law (Achbâr, Chabar) who expounded the Scriptures in an academy (Midras). But the knowledge of the Bible which the Arabian Jews possessed was not considerable. @@ -3164,7 +3126,7 @@ loss of their power and the sense of defeat. The insecurity of their lives taught them dissimulation, and they gradually placed themselves under the protection of one or another tribe, and so became -dependents (Mawli) of Aus and Chazraj. They +dependents (Mawâli) of Aus and Chazraj. They hoped for the coming of the Messiah to crush their enemies.</p> @@ -3402,14 +3364,14 @@ They looked upon him to some extent as a Jewish proselyte, and expected to see Judaism through him attain to power in Arabia. Some of them followed him devotedly and were his faithful allies (Ansar); -amongst them was a learned youth, Abdallah Ibn-Salm, +amongst them was a learned youth, Abdallah Ibn-Salâm, of the race of Kainukaa. Abdallah and other Jews assisted Mahomet in propagating the Koran. The unbelieving Arabs frequently reproached him, saying that he was an ear (accepted anything as truth), that it was not the angel Gabriel who was teaching him, but a mortal man. -Nevertheless, though Abdallah Ibn-Salm and other +Nevertheless, though Abdallah Ibn-Salâm and other Jewish Ansars supported him, they were far from abandoning Judaism on this account, and continued to observe the Jewish commandments, and Mahomet @@ -3502,7 +3464,7 @@ had contained many allusions to his appearance and calling as a prophet, but that the Jews had expunged the passages. At first he declared that the Jews were possessed of the true faith; later on he -said that they honored Ezra (Ozar) as the son of +said that they honored Ezra (Ozaïr) as the son of God, just as the Christians did Jesus, and that the Jews were consequently to be regarded as infidels. His hatred against the Jews, who refused to @@ -3882,12 +3844,12 @@ deepest degradation.</p> <blockquote> <p class="hang">The Conquests of Islam—Omar's Intolerance—Condition of the Jews -in Babylonia—Bostana—The Princes of the Captivity and the +in Babylonia—Bostanaï—The Princes of the Captivity and the Geonim—Dignity and Revenues of the Prince—Communal Organization—Excommunication—Julian of Toledo and the Jews—The Moslems in Spain—The Jews and Arabic Literature—The Assyrian Vowel-system—The Neo-Hebraic Poetry: -Jos ben Jos—Simon ben Caipha—Employment of Rhyme—Janna—Eleazar +José ben José—Simon ben Caipha—Employment of Rhyme—Jannaï—Eleazar Kaliri—Opposition to the Study of the Talmud—The False Messiah Serenus, the Syrian—The Jews in the Crimea and the Land of the Chazars—The False Messiah Obadia @@ -3924,7 +3886,7 @@ Jews and Samaritans both helped the Arabs to capture the land, in order that they might be freed from the heavy yoke of the malignant Byzantine rule. A Jew put into the hands of the Mussulmans the -strongly-fortified town of Csarea, the political +strongly-fortified town of Cæsarea, the political capital of the kingdom, which is said to have contained 700,000 fighting men, amongst whom were 20,000 Jews. He showed them a subterranean @@ -3991,7 +3953,7 @@ Asiatic and Egyptian Jews consequently treated the Mahometans as their liberators from the yoke of the Christians. A mystical apocalypse makes a distinct reference to the joy experienced at the -victory of Islam. Simeon bar Yocha, who was +victory of Islam. Simeon bar Yochaï, who was looked upon as a mystic, foretells the rise of Islam, and bewails the same in the prayer which runs as follows: "Have we not suffered enough through @@ -4022,31 +3984,31 @@ find even the fanatical Caliph Omar bestowing rewards and privileges upon them. It was, doubtless, in consequence of the services which they had rendered that the Mahometan generals recognized -Bostana, the descendant of the Exilarch of the +Bostanaï, the descendant of the Exilarch of the house of David, as the chief of the Jews. Omar -respected Bostana so highly that he gave him a +respected Bostanaï so highly that he gave him a daughter of the Persian king Chosru in marriage. She had been taken prisoner, together with her sisters (642)—a singular turn of fate! The grandson of a race that boasted descent from the house of David married a princess whose ancestors traced their descent from Darius, the founder of the Persian -dynasty. Bostana was the first Exilarch who +dynasty. Bostanaï was the first Exilarch who was the vassal of the Mahometans.</p> <p>The Exilarch exercised both civil and judicial functions, and all the Jews of Babylonia formed a -separate community under him. Bostana also obtained +separate community under him. Bostanaï also obtained the exceptional permission to wear a signet-ring (Gushpanka). By this means he was able to give his documents and decrees an official character.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> The seal, in reference to some unknown historical -allusion, bore the impress of a fly. Bostana +allusion, bore the impress of a fly. Bostanaï must have been an important personage in other respects, since legends cluster about him, and would make his birth itself appear a miraculous event. -The Judo-Babylonian community, which had acquired -some importance through Bostana, obtained +The Judæo-Babylonian community, which had acquired +some importance through Bostanaï, obtained its real strength under Ali, the fourth Caliph, Mahomet's comrade and son-in-law, the hero of Chaibar.</p> @@ -4062,7 +4024,7 @@ a relative of the murdered Caliph Othman.</p> <p>The Babylonian Jews and Nestorian Christians sided with Ali, and rendered him assistance. A Jew, -Abdallah Ibn-Sab, was a spirited partisan of Ali. +Abdallah Ibn-Sabâ, was a spirited partisan of Ali. He asserted that the succession to the Caliphate was his by right, and that the divine spirit of Mahomet had passed to him, as it had from Moses to Joshua. @@ -4079,11 +4041,11 @@ certain privileges connected with the Gaonate, upon which even the Exilarch did not venture to encroach. Thus a peculiar relation, leading to subsequent quarrels, grew up between the rival offices—the -Exilarchate and the Gaonate. With Bostana and +Exilarchate and the Gaonate. With Bostanaï and Mar-Isaac, the Jewish officials recognized by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> Caliph, there begins a new period in Jewish history—the -Epoch of the Geonim. After Bostana's death -dissension arose among his sons. Bostana had left +Epoch of the Geonim. After Bostanaï's death +dissension arose among his sons. Bostanaï had left several sons by various wives, one of them the daughter of the Persian king. Perhaps her son was his father's favorite, because royal blood flowed @@ -4100,38 +4062,38 @@ favorite, their own brother, as a slave. Revolting as this proceeding was, it was approved by several members of the college of Pumbeditha, partly from religious scruples, partly from the desire to render -a friendly service to Bostana's legitimate sons. -Other authorities, however, maintained that Bostana, +a friendly service to Bostanaï's legitimate sons. +Other authorities, however, maintained that Bostanaï, who was a pious man, would not have married the king's daughter before he had legally freed her, and made her a proselyte. In order to protect her -son from humiliation, one of the chief judges, Chanina, +son from humiliation, one of the chief judges, Chaninaï, hastened to execute a document attesting her emancipation, and thus the wicked design of the brothers was frustrated; but the stain of illegitimacy still attached to the son, and his descendants were never admitted to the rank of the descendants of the -Exilarch Bostana.</p> +Exilarch Bostanaï.</p> -<p>Bostana's descendants in the Exilarchate arbitrarily +<p>Bostanaï's descendants in the Exilarchate arbitrarily deposed the presidents of the colleges, and appointed their own partisans to the vacant places. -The religious leaders of the people thus bore Bostana's +The religious leaders of the people thus bore Bostanaï's descendants a grudge. Even in later times, an authority amongst the Jews had to defend himself with the words: "I am a member of the house of the -Exilarch, but not a descendant of the sons of Bostana,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> +Exilarch, but not a descendant of the sons of Bostanaï,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> who were proud and oppressive." The vehement quarrels about the Caliphate, between the house of Ali and the Ommiyyades, were repeated on a small scale in Jewish Babylonia. The half-century from -Bostona and the rise of the Gaonate till the Exilarchate -of Chasda (670 to 730) is in consequence +Bostonaï and the rise of the Gaonate till the Exilarchate +of Chasdaï (670 to 730) is in consequence involved in obscurity. Few also of the Geonim who held office and of the presidents of the colleges during this period are known, and their chronological order cannot be ascertained. After Mar-Isaac, -probably the first Gaon of Sora, Huna held office, +probably the first Gaon of Sora, Hunaï held office, contemporaneously with Mar-Raba in Pumbeditha (670 to 680). These presidents issued an important decree with respect to the law of divorce, whereby a @@ -4151,7 +4113,7 @@ many unhappy wives to appeal to the Mahometan courts, and they compelled their husbands to give them a divorce without the aforesaid penalties. It was in consequence of the events just related that -Huna and Mar-Raba introduced a complete reform +Hunaï and Mar-Raba introduced a complete reform of the divorce laws. They entirely abrogated the Talmudical law, and empowered the wife to sue for a divorce without suffering any loss of her property-rights. @@ -4210,7 +4172,7 @@ permitted to elect one from its own ranks.</p> <p>Now that the Exilarch everywhere met with the respect due a prince, he was installed with a degree of ceremony and pomp. Although the office was -hereditary in the house of Bostana, the acquiescence +hereditary in the house of Bostanaï, the acquiescence of both colleges was required for the nomination of a new Exilarch, and thus there came to be a fixed installation service. The officials of both the colleges, @@ -4303,7 +4265,7 @@ the officials of the Caliph supported him in this because they themselves had an interest in it.</p> <p>The president of the college of Sora was the -second in rank in the Judo-Babylonian community. +second in rank in the Judæo-Babylonian community. He was the only one who held the title of Gaon officially, and he had the precedence over his colleague of Pumbeditha on all occasions, even @@ -4416,7 +4378,7 @@ has served as a model for the whole Jewish people, partly until the present time. At the head of the community stood a commission entrusted with the public interests, and composed of seven members, -who were called Parnes-ha-Keneset (Maintainers +who were called Parnesé-ha-Keneset (Maintainers of the Community). A delegate of a Prince of the Captivity, or of one of the principals of the colleges, was charged with the supervision of public business, @@ -4509,7 +4471,7 @@ month of assembly, during which no business was transacted by the colleges; the members mourned for the benefactors of the colleges that had died during the past year, and prayed for the peace of -their souls (Ashkab). Later on it became customary +their souls (Ashkabá). Later on it became customary to forward lists of the dead, even from France and Spain, in order that they might also be thus honored.</p> @@ -4579,7 +4541,7 @@ punishment. Those, however, who desired to continue outwardly in their pretended faith, but who still clung to Judaism in their inmost hearts, were required to subscribe anew to a renunciation of their -religion (placitum Judorum).</p> +religion (placitum Judæorum).</p> <p>On February 18th, 654, the Jews of the capital Toletum (Toledo) signed a confession of the purport @@ -5021,7 +4983,7 @@ must be amplified, and more matter for meditation provided. In this manner arose the synagogical, or, as it was also called, the <i>poetanic</i> composition. At the head of the succession of neo-Hebraic poets -stands Jos bar Jos Hayathom (or Haithom), +stands José bar José Hayathom (or Haithom), whose works are not without true poetic ring, although devoid of artistic form. The date and nationality of this poet are entirely unknown, but it @@ -5029,7 +4991,7 @@ appears probable that he was a native of Palestine, and that he lived not earlier than the first Gaonic century.</p> -<p>Jos b. Jos took as the subject of his poems the +<p>José b. José took as the subject of his poems the emotions and memories which move a Jewish congregation on New Year's Day. On this occasion, the birthday of a new division of time, on which, @@ -5042,12 +5004,12 @@ to the old prayers for the prescribed blowing of the cornet, and was intended to interpret them, embraces in a small compass the story of Israel's glorious past, its oppressed present, and promised -future. Jos's poem is at once a psalm of triumph +future. José's poem is at once a psalm of triumph and of lamentation, interwoven with penitential prayers and words of hope. The resurrection is described in a few striking, picturesque lines.</p> -<p>Another and longer of Jos's poems has for its +<p>Another and longer of José's poems has for its theme the ancient worship in the Temple on the Day of Atonement, which an attentive nation had once followed in devotional mood, and the description @@ -5071,7 +5033,7 @@ of the past, which has always awakened a powerful echo in the hearts of the Jewish people.</p> <p>Elevation of thought and beauty of language are -the characteristics of Jos b. Jos's poetry. His +the characteristics of José b. José's poetry. His New Year's sonnets and Temple epic have become parts of the divine service of certain congregations, and have served as models for others. His verses @@ -5086,7 +5048,7 @@ subservient to the subject-matter. There has been preserved from ancient times another Abodah, ascribed to a poet named Simon ben Caipha. It appears to have been written in imitation of that -of Jos b. Jos, but is greatly inferior to its model. +of José b. José, but is greatly inferior to its model. However, it was honored by being adopted by the synagogue of the Gaonate. To the name of Simon Caipha, which sounds like the Jewish name of the @@ -5340,9 +5302,9 @@ communities were doubtful, however, whether they ought to re-admit their repentant brethren into their midst, or whether they ought not to be treated as proselytes. They referred the matter, therefore, -to Natrona ben Nehemiah, surnamed Mar-Yanka, +to Natronaï ben Nehemiah, surnamed Mar-Yanka, the principal of the college at Pumbeditha, and successor -of Mar-Raba (719–730). Natrona's decision<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> +of Mar-Raba (719–730). Natronaï's decision<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> concerning the reception of Serene's adherents was conceived in a liberal spirit, and ran as follows: According to the laws of the Talmud, there @@ -5362,7 +5324,7 @@ country these people lived. Without declaring either for Christianity or Islam, they had entirely severed their connection with Judaism. When some of these sought re-admission into the fold of -Judaism, Natrona was again asked for his opinion. +Judaism, Natronaï was again asked for his opinion. He said, "It is better to take them under the wings of God than to cast them out."</p> @@ -5444,7 +5406,7 @@ said that he was made aware of his call to an exalted vocation by a sudden cure from leprosy. Abu-Isa did not proclaim himself to be the Messiah, but asserted that he was the forerunner and awakener -(D) who was to prepare for the coming of the +(Dâï) who was to prepare for the coming of the Messiah. His views concerning the office of precursor of the Messiah were, indeed, altogether peculiar. He taught that five forerunners would precede @@ -5592,7 +5554,7 @@ center of Jewish life, it was impossible for it to be taken up by the multitude, or to produce any regenerative effects. The required agitation was set on foot by a son of the Prince of the Captivity, of the -house of Bostana, and produced lasting effects.</p> +house of Bostanaï, and produced lasting effects.</p> <p>It appears that the Exilarch Solomon died (761–762) without issue, and that the office ought to have @@ -5617,10 +5579,10 @@ the two academies, who directed the election of the Exilarch. The Gaonic office was at that time held by two brothers, sons of Nachman: that of Sora by Judah the Blind (759–762), and that of Pumbeditha -by Duda (761–764). These two brothers united +by Dudaï (761–764). These two brothers united with their colleges to prevent Anan from succeeding to the dignity of Exilarch, and to choose in his -stead his younger brother Chananya (or Achuna). +stead his younger brother Chananya (or Achunaï). But Anan did not stand entirely alone; of elevated rank, he naturally had friends. His expectation of succeeding to a position of authority, whose sway @@ -5791,7 +5753,7 @@ the interpretation of the Scripture, Karaism naturally was unsettled in character. A new explanation of the text might threaten the very foundations of religious life, for what had been lawful might become -unlawful, and <i>vice vers</i>. Anan was as devoid of +unlawful, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Anan was as devoid of the power of appreciating poetry as of understanding history. The sacred prophetic and poetic literature was of no further use to him than to prove @@ -5945,22 +5907,22 @@ this time exercised it on the ground that they could not allow princes of Karaite opinions to be at the head of the Jewish commonwealth. The Exilarchate, which had been hereditary since the time -of Bostana, became elective after Anan, and the +of Bostanaï, became elective after Anan, and the presidents of the academies directed the election. -On the death of Chananya (Achuna), and hardly +On the death of Chananya (Achunaï), and hardly ten years after Anan's defection from Rabbanism, a struggle for the Exilarchate broke out afresh -between two pretenders, Zacca ben Achuna and -Natrona ben Chabiba. The latter was a member +between two pretenders, Zaccaï ben Achunaï and +Natronaï ben Chabibaï. The latter was a member of the college under Judah. The two heads of the schools at this period, Malka bar Acha, of Pumbeditha -(771–773), and Chanina Kahana ben Huna, of +(771–773), and Chaninaï Kahana ben Huna, of Sora (765–775), united to bring about the overthrow -of Natrona, and succeeded in procuring, through +of Natronaï, and succeeded in procuring, through the Caliph's attendants, his banishment from Babylonia. He emigrated to Maghreb (Kairuan), in which city there had existed ever since its foundation -a numerous Jewish population. Zacca was +a numerous Jewish population. Zaccaï was confirmed in the office of Exilarch. The Exilarchate continued to become more and more dependent on the Gaonate, which often deposed obnoxious princes, @@ -6329,7 +6291,7 @@ of two Arabic medical authorities, Razi and Anzarbi.</p> had applied themselves to medicine, mathematics and astronomy, the Mussulmans prosecuted the study of the science of religion, a sort of philosophy -of religion (Kalm). It was invested with as much +of religion (Kalâm). It was invested with as much importance as the affairs of state, and exercised a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> certain influence on politics. The expounders of the Koran, in trying to explain away the grossly @@ -6683,7 +6645,7 @@ to the Caliph Almamun to confirm the Exilarch of their choice. Almamun, however, at that time was engaged in a dispute about the Eastern Church. He had been called upon to decide between two -claimants for the Chaldo-Christian Patriarchate, +claimants for the Chaldæo-Christian Patriarchate, and wanted to rid himself of such litigation. He therefore declined to interfere in the internal affairs of the Jews and Christians, and decreed that in @@ -6870,10 +6832,10 @@ AND THE DECAY OF THE EXILARCHATE IN THE EAST.</span></h2> <blockquote> -<p class="hang">The Jews under Louis le Dbonnaire—The Empress Judith and her +<p class="hang">The Jews under Louis le Débonnaire—The Empress Judith and her Veneration for Judaism—Agobard, Bishop of Lyons—Conversion of Bishop Bodo—Amolo's effort against the Jews—Charles the -Bald—Troubles in Bziers and Toulouse—Decree against the +Bald—Troubles in Béziers and Toulouse—Decree against the Jews in Italy—Boso of Burgundy—Basilius—Leo the Philosopher—Decline of the Exilarchate—The Geonim acquire Additional Influence—The Prayer Book of Amram—Mar-Zemach—Literary @@ -6939,7 +6901,7 @@ and obtained through this privilege a certain power over the Christians, although this was distinctly contrary to the provisions of canonic law.</p> -<p>An officer (Magister Judorum) was appointed +<p>An officer (Magister Judæorum) was appointed whose duty it was to watch over the rights of the Jews, and not permit them to be encroached upon. In the time of Louis this office was filled by a man @@ -7063,7 +7025,7 @@ her freedom she allowed herself to be baptized encroachment on their chartered rights and on their property, demanded the surrender of the runaway slave. On Agobard's refusal to grant this, the -Jews turned to Eberard, the Magister Judorum, +Jews turned to Eberard, the Magister Judæorum, who threatened to punish the bishop, if he persisted in his refusal to restore her to her master.</p> @@ -7114,7 +7076,7 @@ him render the Jews all assistance (828). Agobard took no notice of these letters, and spitefully alleged that the imperial decree was spurious—in fact, could not possibly be genuine. Thereupon Eberard, -the Magister Judorum, sent to him, telling him +the Magister Judæorum, sent to him, telling him of the emperor's displeasure on account of his disobedience. But he remained so obstinate, that the emperor had to send two commissioners, Gerrick @@ -7424,14 +7386,14 @@ the tyranny of petty princes.</p> <p>How malicious was the spirit animating the French clergy, can be judged from the fact that -the successive bishops of Bziers were in the habit +the successive bishops of Béziers were in the habit of preaching vehement sermons from Palm Sunday until Easter Monday, exhorting the Christians to avenge themselves on the Jews of the town, because they had crucified Jesus. The fanatical mob thus incited armed themselves with stones to attack the Jews. The mischief was repeated year after year -for centuries. The Jews of Bziers often defended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> +for centuries. The Jews of Béziers often defended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> themselves, and on these occasions much damage was inflicted on both sides. The Jews of Toulouse, too, for a long time had to suffer numerous indignities. @@ -7595,12 +7557,12 @@ although the Exilarchs could not make their influence felt.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> -A Gaon of Sora, Natrona II, son of Hilla +A Gaon of Sora, Natronaï II, son of Hillaï (859–869), kept up a prolific correspondence with foreign communities in the Arabic language. His predecessors had employed a mixture of Hebrew and Chaldee as the medium of their communications. -Natrona II also corresponded with the Jewish-Spanish +Natronaï II also corresponded with the Jewish-Spanish community at Lucena, whose members doubtless understood Arabic better than Hebrew. He opposed the Karaites as bitterly as the Geonim @@ -7672,7 +7634,7 @@ to compose a code embracing all religious and ceremonial laws (about 900). This work, directed against the Karaites, bears the title "The Great Halachas" (Halachoth gedoloth), and forms a supplement -to Jehuda's work of a similar nature. The +to Jehudaï's work of a similar nature. The history of the post-exilic period till the destruction of the Temple was also written at this time; its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span> author is unknown. It is written in Arabic, and @@ -7770,7 +7732,7 @@ touched. The more rigorous the Karaites became, the more they looked upon the Rabbanites as reprobates and sinners, whose houses it was a sin to visit. The Karaites gradually spread from -Babylonia and Juda to Egypt on the one side +Babylonia and Judæa to Egypt on the one side and to Syria on the other, and northwards as far as the Crimea. There were large Karaite communities in Alexandria and Cairo, and also in the @@ -7805,7 +7767,7 @@ the Geonim of Sora, the sister academy was considered even in Babylonia to be the chief authority, and to have most influence. This influence was increased still more through the choice as Gaon of -Pumbeditha of Ha ben David (890–897), who had +Pumbeditha of Haï ben David (890–897), who had hitherto held the post of rabbi and judge in the capital of the Caliphate. It was just at this time, at the end of the 9th century, that the Jews again @@ -7815,14 +7777,14 @@ Ubaid-Allah Ibn-Suleiman appointed Jews and Christians alike to state offices.</p> <p>The community of Bagdad gained most through -the favor shown to the Jews by the vizir. As Ha +the favor shown to the Jews by the vizir. As Haï had occupied his post in the capital for a long time, and had made himself popular in the community, he was elected Gaon of Pumbeditha by the influential members. Their object was to make the school of Pumbeditha of greater importance, and the academy at Sora declined more and more. -Ha's successors, who, like himself, had commenced +Haï's successors, who, like himself, had commenced their career with the rabbinate of Bagdad, worked in the same spirit, and were assisted by the powerful members of the community in the effort to make @@ -7866,7 +7828,7 @@ banish him from Bagdad. The Exilarch went to Karmisin (Kermanshah, east of Bagdad), and Kohen-Zedek rejoiced that the Exilarchate was now destroyed. The weak president of Sora, -Jacob ben Natrona, permitted all these usurpations +Jacob ben Natronaï, permitted all these usurpations without interfering.</p> <p>Meanwhile matters took a favorable turn for the @@ -7910,7 +7872,7 @@ the land of his fathers (919).</p> than Ukba personally; he now took care that no successor should be appointed to the Exilarchate, which he desired to extinguish. His contemporary -Gaon in Sora, Jacob ben Natrona, was either too +Gaon in Sora, Jacob ben Natronaï, was either too weak or too much hampered to interfere. So the office of Exilarch was left vacant for a year or two. However, hated as the Exilarchate was by the representatives @@ -7921,11 +7883,11 @@ clamored for the restoration of the office. Thereupon the Gaon of Sora took courage, and refused any longer to be a weak tool in the hands of Kohen-Zedek. The people vehemently demanded -that David ben Zacca, a relative of Ukba, be made +that David ben Zaccaï, a relative of Ukba, be made Exilarch, and the whole college of the school of Sora paid homage to him in Kasr, where he lived (921). Kohen-Zedek and the college of Pumbeditha -refused to recognize him. David ben Zacca +refused to recognize him. David ben Zaccaï was as resolute and ambitious as his opponent, and determined to assert his authority. By virtue of his power, he deposed Kohen-Zedek, and named @@ -7965,7 +7927,7 @@ Pumbeditha into the shade.</p> <h2 class="vspace"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br /> -<span class="smaller">THE GOLDEN AGE OF JEWISH SCIENCE: SAADIAH AND CHASDA.</span></h2> +<span class="smaller">THE GOLDEN AGE OF JEWISH SCIENCE: SAADIAH AND CHASDAÏ.</span></h2> <blockquote> @@ -7975,8 +7937,8 @@ opposes Karaism—The Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham—Saadiah and the School at Sora—Saadiah retires from Sora—His Literary Activity—Extinction of the Exilarchate—Sahal and other Karaite writers—Jews in Spain—The School at Cordova—Dunash -ben Tamim—Chasda—His services to Judaism—Menachem -ben Saruk—Chasda and the King of the Chazars.</p></blockquote> +ben Tamim—Chasdaï—His services to Judaism—Menachem +ben Saruk—Chasdaï and the King of the Chazars.</p></blockquote> <p class="center bpad">928–970 <span class="smcap smaller">C. E.</span></p> @@ -8001,7 +7963,7 @@ of science, and this position was first assumed during this epoch. Two men especially, one in the east and the other in the west, made science a principle of Judaism. They were the Gaon Saadiah -and the statesman Chasda.</p> +and the statesman Chasdaï.</p> <p>With them begins a new period of Jewish history, which we may confidently call the scientific epoch. @@ -8024,9 +7986,9 @@ Jewish history.</p> European ground. Judaism assumed, so to speak, a European character, and deviated more and more from its Oriental form. Saadiah was the last important -link in its development in the East; Chasda +link in its development in the East; Chasdaï and the scientific men whom he influenced became -the first representatives of a Judo-European culture.</p> +the first representatives of a Judæo-European culture.</p> <p>Saadiah (Arabic, Said) ben Joseph, from the town Fayum in Upper Egypt (892–942), was the founder @@ -8137,7 +8099,7 @@ Rabbanite, endowed with intellect and knowledge, entered the lists against them. A lively contest arose, which served its purpose in awakening scientific interest. Saadiah's chief opponent was the -Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham (Rucham). This +Karaite Solomon ben Yerucham (Ruchaïm). This Karaite (born in Fostat in 885, died in 960), who lived in Palestine, and was only a few years older than Saadiah, did not rise above mediocrity. He @@ -8185,7 +8147,7 @@ to him.</p> <p>The school of Sora was in a sad state of decadence, and was so deficient in learned men, that the -Exilarch David ben Zacca found it necessary to +Exilarch David ben Zaccaï found it necessary to invest a weaver named Yom-Tob Kahana ben Jacob, with the honor of the Gaonate, but he died in his second year of office (926–928). The Gaon of Pumbeditha, @@ -8196,7 +8158,7 @@ reconciled, to close the school of Sora, to transplant the members to Pumbeditha, and to appoint a titular Gaon of Sora, who should have his seat in Pumbeditha. The son of a Gaon, named Nathan ben -Yehuda, was invested with this titular dignity, but +Yehudaï, was invested with this titular dignity, but he died suddenly. His sudden death seems to have been taken as a condemnation of the intention to abolish the old college at Sora. The Exilarch @@ -8243,13 +8205,13 @@ young men to academic offices, and was faithful to the duties of his position. What must have been his feelings when he entered for the first time the halls of learning where the great authorities, the -Amoram, had taught before him! Soon, however, +Amoraïm, had taught before him! Soon, however, he no doubt became conscious of the fact that there existed but the smallest remnant of that former greatness, and that the high-sounding titles and dignities were mere semblances of things long since sunk into oblivion. The Exilarchate, the head of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> -the Judo-Babylonian community, was without intrinsic +the Judæo-Babylonian community, was without intrinsic excellence, and was constantly at variance with the schools. Not being officially recognized at court, the Exilarchate had to purchase its existence @@ -8311,7 +8273,7 @@ When, however, he found him determined, he raised his hand against Saadiah, and vehemently demanded his signature. Saadiah's servants soon removed Judah, and locked the door of the meeting -hall. David ben Zacca, who felt himself insulted, +hall. David ben Zaccaï, who felt himself insulted, deprived the Gaon of his office. He excommunicated him and appointed a young man, Joseph ben Jacob ben Satia, as his successor. Saadiah, however, @@ -8498,7 +8460,7 @@ Saadiah's deposition. His vizir Ali Ibn-Isa was favorably inclined towards Saadiah. The Gaon Kohen-Zedek, who had made common cause with the Exilarch, had died in 936. His successor, -Zemach ben Kafna, was a harmless man. So +Zemach ben Kafnaï, was a harmless man. So David had only Aaron Ibn-Sarjadu to assist him in his quarrel; the people, however, in increasing numbers, sided with Saadiah. It happened that an @@ -8578,7 +8540,7 @@ vacant.</p> <p>Thus, after an existence of seven centuries, ended the Exilarchate, which had been the sign of political independence for Judaism. Just as the dignity of -the Patriarchate had ceased in Juda through the +the Patriarchate had ceased in Judæa through the intolerance of the Christian emperors, so the Exilarchate now ceased through the fanaticism of the Mahometans. The two schools alone remained to @@ -8722,7 +8684,7 @@ be silent, when I see that the leaders of the community, who say that they constitute the Synhedrion, eat without compunction with non-Jews. How shall I be silent, when I perceive that many of my people make use of idolatrous practices? They sit on the graves of the -departed and invoke the dead, and pray to Rabbi Jos the Galilean, +departed and invoke the dead, and pray to Rabbi José the Galilean, saying, "O heal me, and make me fruitful." They make pilgrimages to the shrines of the pious dead, light candles there, and burn incense. They also make vows that they may be cured of their diseases. @@ -8911,7 +8873,7 @@ was so precious to the community of Cordova, he wished to retract the sale in order to get a higher ransom. The Jews appealed to the just Caliph, Abdul-Rahman III, through the Jewish statesman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> -Chasda, and represented to him that they would +Chasdaï, and represented to him that they would be able, through Rabbi Moses, to sever themselves from the Gaonate of the eastern Caliphate. Abdul-Rahman, who, to his intense regret, had seen considerable @@ -8982,7 +8944,7 @@ Dunash that they said that he had became a convert to Islam, doubtless in order that they might count him amongst their own, but he certainly remained faithful to Judaism to the end of his life. He corresponded -with the Jewish statesman Chasda, for +with the Jewish statesman Chasdaï, for whom he composed an astronomical work on the Jewish calendar.</p> @@ -9021,11 +8983,11 @@ but scarcely any of them rose above mediocrity. Though the Italian Jews never attained superiority, they were diligent and faithful disciples of foreign teachers. In Babylonia they laughed at "the wise -men" of Rome or Italy. Even Sabbata Donnolo, +men" of Rome or Italy. Even Sabbataï Donnolo, the head of Jewish science in Italy at the time of Saadiah, could scarcely be described as a moderate scholar. This man is known rather through his -career than through his works. Sabbata Donnolo +career than through his works. Sabbataï Donnolo (913–970) of Oria was taken prisoner when the Mahometans of the Fatimide kingdom pressed forward across the straits of Sicily, invaded Apulia and @@ -9050,7 +9012,7 @@ in a work published in 946. But little wisdom was contained in this book, if we are to judge by the fragments that still remain to us. The author, however, put so high a value upon it, that he -thought that through it the name Sabbata Donnolo +thought that through it the name Sabbataï Donnolo of Oria would be handed down to posterity.</p> <p>Meanwhile, unimportant though Donnolo was @@ -9133,7 +9095,7 @@ circumstances Jewish Spain was in a position at first to rival Babylonia, then to supersede it, and finally to maintain its superiority for nearly five hundred years. Three men were the founders of -the Judo-Spanish culture: (i) Moses ben Chanoch, +the Judæo-Spanish culture: (i) Moses ben Chanoch, the Talmudical scholar, who had been carried captive to Cordova; (2) The first Andalusian grammarian, Menachem ben Saruk; (3) and the creator @@ -9142,13 +9104,13 @@ This culture, however, unfolded through one man, who by means of his high endowments, his pure character and prominent position, was enabled to give it the proper impulse. This man was Abu-Yussuf -Chasda ben Isaac Ibn-Shaprut (915–970), a +Chasdaï ben Isaac Ibn-Shaprut (915–970), a member of the noble family of Ibn-Ezra. He was the first of a long succession of high-minded persons who made the protection and furthering of Judaism the task of their lives.</p> -<p>Chasda was quite modern in his character, +<p>Chasdaï was quite modern in his character, entirely different from the type of his predecessors. His easy, pliant, and genial nature was free both from the heaviness of the Orientals and the gloomy @@ -9158,7 +9120,7 @@ and through him, so to speak, Jewish history<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ receives a European character. His ancestors came from Jaen; his father Isaac, who probably lived at Cordova, was wealthy, liberal, and in a -measure, a Mcenas. The son inherited from him +measure, a Mæcenas. The son inherited from him a love of science, and the worthy application of riches. He attained only a theoretical knowledge of medicine, but in literature, as well as in diplomacy, @@ -9169,27 +9131,27 @@ Spanish Christians.</p> <p>The Caliph Abdul-Rahman III, who stood in diplomatic relations with the small Christian courts -of northern Spain, perceived Chasda's value and +of northern Spain, perceived Chasdaï's value and usefulness, and appointed him as interpreter and -diplomatist (940). At first Chasda only had to +diplomatist (940). At first Chasdaï only had to accompany the principal ambassadors to the Spanish Christian courts. But the more able he proved himself, the more was he honored and advanced. -On one occasion Chasda's diplomacy proved very +On one occasion Chasdaï's diplomacy proved very useful. He once induced a king of Leon (Sancho Ramirez) and a queen of Navarra (Toda), together with the clergy and other great people, to visit Cordova, in order to conclude a lasting treaty of peace with Abdul-Rahman. The Caliph rewarded his services by appointing him to various offices. -Chasda was, in a certain sense, minister of foreign +Chasdaï was, in a certain sense, minister of foreign affairs. He had to receive foreign ambassadors and their presents, and to give them presents from the Caliph in return. He was, at the same time, the minister of trade and finance, and the revenue that arose from the various taxes and tolls that went to the treasury, passed through his hands. -In spite of all this Chasda had no official title. +In spite of all this Chasdaï had no official title. He was neither vizir (the Hagib of the Spanish Arabs) nor the secretary of state (Katib). For the Arabs at first also had a strong prejudice against @@ -9203,7 +9165,7 @@ anti-Jewish sentiments of the Koran.</p> was the greatest ornament of the throne, dared not throw off these inborn prejudices. It remained for the Jews themselves to overcome them gradually -through their spiritual superiority. Chasda inspired +through their spiritual superiority. Chasdaï inspired a favorable opinion of his co-religionists amongst the Andalusian Moslems, and was able, through his personal intercourse with the Caliphs, @@ -9219,7 +9181,7 @@ Jewish poet was able to say of him:</p> <span class="i0">Crumbs of comfort and salvation."<br /></span> </div></div> -<p>This praise is by no means exaggerated. Chasda +<p>This praise is by no means exaggerated. Chasdaï was indeed a comforter and deliverer to all the communities far and near. His high position and wealth rendered him useful to his brethren. His @@ -9246,7 +9208,7 @@ interest in their cause. From them he always asked particulars as to the condition of the Jews, and obtained favors for his brethren.</p> -<p>Chasda played an important part in two embassies +<p>Chasdaï played an important part in two embassies from the mightiest courts of Europe. The Byzantine empire, oppressed on all sides, had remained lifeless for several centuries, and was now @@ -9271,14 +9233,14 @@ him a scholar who understood both Greek and Latin. Constantine, who wished to show his good-will to the Mahometan court, sent a monk named Nicholas as interpreter. Amongst all the physicians -of Cordova, Chasda was the only one who understood +of Cordova, Chasdaï was the only one who understood Latin, and he was, therefore, requested by the Caliph to take part in the translation. Nicholas -translated the original Greek into Latin, and Chasda +translated the original Greek into Latin, and Chasdaï re-translated it into Arabic. Abdul-Rahman was pleased with the completion of a work which, according to his thinking, lent great splendor to -his reign. Chasda also had a peculiar rle to play<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> +his reign. Chasdaï also had a peculiar rôle to play<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> in the embassy which was sent by the powerful German emperor Otto I to the court of Cordova. Abdul-Rahman had previously sent a messenger @@ -9288,23 +9250,23 @@ Andalusian ambassadors had to wait several years before they were admitted to an audience with the emperor. After they had been received, the German emperor sent an embassy, at whose head was -the abbot John of Gorze (Jean de Vendires), and +the abbot John of Gorze (Jean de Vendières), and a letter, in which there were harsh expressions against Islam. The Caliph, who suspected something -of the kind, asked Chasda to find out for him -the contents of the diplomatic letter. Chasda +of the kind, asked Chasdaï to find out for him +the contents of the diplomatic letter. Chasdaï treated with John of Gorze for several days, and -although the latter was very clever, Chasda outwitted +although the latter was very clever, Chasdaï outwitted him, and learnt from him the purport of the letter. Thereupon Abdul-Rahman kept the German envoys waiting for a whole year before admitting them to an audience. He would have kept -them waiting still longer, had not Chasda and the +them waiting still longer, had not Chasdaï and the Mozarab Bishop of Cordova induced John of Gorze to procure a new and unobjectionable document from the emperor (956–959).</p> -<p>Chasda, who, from his elevated position, was +<p>Chasdaï, who, from his elevated position, was accustomed to deal with public affairs on a large scale, was deeply grieved when he thought of the state of the Jews, of their dependent and suffering @@ -9313,7 +9275,7 @@ How often must he have heard Mahometans and Christians pronounce that most powerful argument against Judaism, "Inasmuch as the scepter hath departed from Judah, God hath rejected it!" -Even Chasda shared the restricted view of the +Even Chasdaï shared the restricted view of the time, viz., that a religion and a people without a country, a king, a court, sovereignty, and subjects, has neither stableness nor vitality.</p> @@ -9321,11 +9283,11 @@ has neither stableness nor vitality.</p> <p>The rumor of the existence of an independent Jewish community in the land of the Chazars, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> had penetrated to Spain, roused his interest. Eldad's -appearance in Spain, several decades before Chasda's +appearance in Spain, several decades before Chasdaï's birth, had given probability to the vague tradition, but, on the other hand, rendered it improbable through the exaggeration that the ten tribes were -still in existence in all their strength. Chasda +still in existence in all their strength. Chasdaï never failed to make inquiries about a Jewish kingdom or a Jewish ruler when embassies came to him from far or near. The news of a Jewish community @@ -9348,14 +9310,14 @@ several vain attempts, he succeeded in effecting the desired communication. In an embassy of the Slavonic king from the Lower Danube there were two Jews who had to act as interpreters in Cordova. -Chasda gave the Slavonic ambassadors a letter to +Chasdaï gave the Slavonic ambassadors a letter to the king of the Chazars. This letter, in beautiful Hebrew prose, with introductory verses, written by Menachem ben Saruk, is a priceless document for the history of the time. The author, in his pious wishes and in his humble bearing, skilfully permitted his statesmanship and a sense of his own -worth to be seen. Chasda's letter fortunately +worth to be seen. Chasdaï's letter fortunately reached the hands of King Joseph, through the instrumentality of a man Jacob ben Eleazar from the land of Nemes (Germany). Joseph was the eleventh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span> @@ -9390,7 +9352,7 @@ fear was expressed by this mark of honor. The Chazar kings took great interest in their foreign co-religionists, and made reprisals for wrong done to the Jews. The king expressed his joy at receiving -Chasda's letter, and corrected the false +Chasdaï's letter, and corrected the false impression that the land of the Chazars had always been inhabited by Jews. "The Chazars were rather of heathen origin," he wrote in his answer, @@ -9431,24 +9393,24 @@ henceforth received the name of "the Land of the Chazars." Its capital was Bosporus (Kertch). Thus did the kingdom of the Chazars decline, and Joseph was its last king who possessed any power. -When Chasda received his letter, his patron, Abdul-Rahman, +When Chasdaï received his letter, his patron, Abdul-Rahman, had died. His son Alhakem, a more zealous patron of science and poetry even than his father, now sat upon the throne. More peacefully -disposed than his father, he honored Chasda, whom +disposed than his father, he honored Chasdaï, whom he made an important state official, and whose superior talents he employed as freely as his father had done.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> Imitating the example of two Caliphs, who respected -genius, Chasda protected the Jews, and to +genius, Chasdaï protected the Jews, and to him is credit due for having given the impulse to the Jewish-Andalusian culture. He gathered around him at Cordova a band of talented philosophers and poets, who in turn immortalized him in their works and poems. "In Spain far and wide, wisdom was -cherished in Chasda's time. His praise was sung +cherished in Chasdaï's time. His praise was sung by eloquent tongues." Only two of the philosophers and poets of this time became famous, Menachem ben Saruk and Dunash ben Labrat. Both of @@ -9476,8 +9438,8 @@ of this characteristic, and continued halting and rugged like Kaliri's. In didactic and controversial poems a miserable doggerel was used, as in the verses of Solomon ben Yerucham, of Abu-Ali -Jephet, of Ben-Asher and Sabbata Donnolo. -Chasda, however, gave the poets an opportunity +Jephet, of Ben-Asher and Sabbataï Donnolo. +Chasdaï, however, gave the poets an opportunity of changing their subjects. His imposing person, his high position, his deeds, and his princely liberality had an inspiring influence upon the poets, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span> @@ -9493,9 +9455,9 @@ pattern, nor adopt its unnatural meter, but they selected its beauties and imitated them. The verses at the beginning of this flourishing period of poetry were brisk and lively in their measure, and yet the -Hebrew poetry of the epoch of Chasda did not +Hebrew poetry of the epoch of Chasdaï did not entirely cast off its fetters, nor change its high-flown -style. "The poets in Chasda's time first began +style. "The poets in Chasdaï's time first began to chirp," as the inimitable critic of a later time remarks. The favorite themes of the new Hebrew poesy now became panegyric and satire, but it did @@ -9508,7 +9470,7 @@ As far as can be gathered from existing sources, Menachem ben Saruk, of Tortosa (born 910, died 970), was in needy circumstances from his earliest years; at any rate, his patrimony was too small to -maintain him. Chasda's father Isaac was interested +maintain him. Chasdaï's father Isaac was interested in him, and took care that pecuniary difficulties should not destroy the germ of poetry which was latent in him. His favorite occupation was the @@ -9516,13 +9478,13 @@ study of the Hebrew language; he made use of the works of his predecessors, but he did not acquire his noble Hebrew style from them—that was inborn.</p> -<p>When Chasda attained his high position, he +<p>When Chasdaï attained his high position, he invited the favorite of his father, with flattering words and glowing promises, to come to Cordova. -Menachem became Chasda's court poet, and was +Menachem became Chasdaï's court poet, and was warmly attached to him, praising him in every kind of verse, and, as he himself affirms, "exhausted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> -poetry in singing Chasda's praises." Chasda +poetry in singing Chasdaï's praises." Chasdaï encouraged him to write on the philology of the Hebrew language, and to endeavor to ascertain its various forms, and to investigate the meanings of @@ -9567,7 +9529,7 @@ by his rival, Dunash ben Labrat.</p> This poet (also called Adonim) came from Bagdad, and was younger than Menachem (born 920, died 970). He afterwards lived in Fez, and was -likewise invited to Cordova by Chasda. Dunash +likewise invited to Cordova by Chasdaï. Dunash appears to have been wealthy, and was thus able to be freer and more independent than the grammarian of Tortosa. He was a man of spirited and @@ -9593,17 +9555,17 @@ He dedicated his critical works against Menachem to the Jewish statesman, whom he flattered so abjectly in some prefatory verses, that we can hardly fail to see that his object was to gain over -the Jewish Mcenas to his side, and to injure Menachem +the Jewish Mæcenas to his side, and to injure Menachem in the eyes of the latter.</p> <p>Dunash's flattery of the Jewish statesman and his coarse polemic against Menachem are not -wanting in power. The admiration of Chasda +wanting in power. The admiration of Chasdaï for Ben-Saruk was diminished when he perceived that Dunash was a better poet, and at least as good a philologist. When various calumniators who wished to ingratiate themselves with the Jewish -prince, traduced Menachem before him, Chasda's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> +prince, traduced Menachem before him, Chasdaï's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> favor was withdrawn from the latter, and changed into direct hostility. In what their defamations consisted is not known.</p> @@ -9614,7 +9576,7 @@ Jehuda ben Daud, Isaac Ibn G'ikatilia, and Ben-Kafren (Ephraim) were the most important of these. They, too, dedicated their polemical writings to the Jewish minister, and sent him a panegyric -and a satire against Dunash. Chasda seems +and a satire against Dunash. Chasdaï seems to have just returned from a diplomatic victory which he had won for the Caliph Alhakem. The followers of Menachem celebrated his triumph: @@ -9622,13 +9584,13 @@ followers of Menachem celebrated his triumph: the prince of Judah. All the world rejoices at his return, for whenever he is absent, darkness sets in, the haughty rule and fall upon Judah's sons. But -Chasda brings back peace and order. God has +Chasdaï brings back peace and order. God has appointed him prince, and granted him the king's favor, whereby He exalted him above all the nobles."</p> <p>Menachem's defenders endeavored to appeal to -Chasda's love of truth, and to make him the +Chasdaï's love of truth, and to make him the arbiter against Dunash, "who set himself up as the chief of commentators, who knows neither law nor limit of change, and who desecrates and spoils @@ -9641,7 +9603,7 @@ witty lampoons against each other, which fact contributed largely towards making the Hebrew language at once pliant and rich.</p> -<p>As Chasda Ibn-Shaprut had given an impulse to +<p>As Chasdaï Ibn-Shaprut had given an impulse to various poets and writers by means of encouragements and rewards, so also he founded a home in Spain for the study of the Talmud. Jewish science @@ -9651,7 +9613,7 @@ care of a protector. Moses ben Chanoch, too, who had been chosen to collect contributions for the school of Sora, and who had been brought as a slave to Cordova and there redeemed, found a -patron in Chasda, and the two Caliphs who were +patron in Chasdaï, and the two Caliphs who were friendly to science beheld with pleasure the study of the Talmud springing up in their realms, because it would tend to sever their Jewish subjects from @@ -9677,7 +9639,7 @@ henceforth were directed to Moses. From all parts of Africa, eager students flocked to his school. There now arose a strong desire for thorough Talmudical knowledge, which would enable them to -dispense with the Babylonian teachers. Chasda +dispense with the Babylonian teachers. Chasdaï gave orders for copies of the Talmud to be bought at his expense in Sora, where many lay idle and unused. These he distributed amongst the pupils, @@ -9734,12 +9696,12 @@ their piety and their character. There were consequently two parties—the one siding with the native, who was the representative of culture, the other with Moses' son. Meanwhile, before the -strife had taken a serious turn, Chasda exerted his +strife had taken a serious turn, Chasdaï exerted his powerful influence in favor of Chanoch. The latter thus became rabbi of Cordova and the authority for the Jewish-Spanish communities. As long as the Jewish minister of Alhakem lived, Chanoch's right -to the rabbinate remained unchallenged. Chasda +to the rabbinate remained unchallenged. Chasdaï Ibn-Shaprut died during the lifetime of the noble Caliph (970), and left behind him an illustrious name, and both Jews and Mahometans vied with each @@ -9756,7 +9718,7 @@ THE GAONATE.</span></h2> <blockquote> -<p class="hang">The Gaon Sherira and his son Ha—Sherira's Historical Letter—The +<p class="hang">The Gaon Sherira and his son Haï—Sherira's Historical Letter—The Jewish Congregations in Spain—Jewish Culture in Andalusia—The Disciples of Menachem and Dunash—Jehuda Chayuj—Contest between Chanoch and Ibn Abitur—Jacob Ibn Jau—The @@ -9764,7 +9726,7 @@ Jews of France—Nathan the Babylonian and Leontin—The Jews of Germany—Gershom and his Ordinances—The Emperor Henry II.—The Caliph Hakem—The Jewish Communities of Northern Africa—Chananel, the Son of Chushiel, and Nissim -bar Jacob Ibn-Shahin—The Jerusalem Talmud—Ha Gaon—His +bar Jacob Ibn-Shahin—The Jerusalem Talmud—Haï Gaon—His Character and Importance—Samuel bar Chofni—Chiskiya, the last Gaon—Samuel Ibn-Nagrela—Jonah Ibn-Janach.</p></blockquote> @@ -9789,7 +9751,7 @@ the death of the Gaonate for somewhat more than half a century, but they were unable to restore its vitality. These two men—father and son, the last distinguished presidents of the school of Pumbeditha—were -Sherira and Ha (Haaja), to whom +Sherira and Haï (Haaja), to whom later generations gave the name of "the fathers and teachers of Israel."</p> @@ -9799,7 +9761,7 @@ Sherira, son of the Gaon Chanina (born 920, died father's and his mother's side, several members of both families having filled the office of Gaon. He boasted that he could trace his descent to the line -of the Exilarchs before Bostana. The seal of the +of the Exilarchs before Bostanaï. The seal of the Sherira family bore the impress of a lion, which is said to have been the coat-of-arms of the Jewish kings.</p> @@ -9854,7 +9816,7 @@ Geonim as given by him is our guide for this epoch. Sherira in this "Letter" answers the questions put to him with the simple straightforwardness of the chronicler. But his opinions about the Exilarchs of -the line of Bostana, and about some of his contemporaries, +the line of Bostanaï, and about some of his contemporaries, <i>e. g.</i>, about Aaron Ibn-Sarjadu, are not altogether unbiased. We have to thank the Gaon Sherira for the preservation of the facts of Jewish @@ -9870,7 +9832,7 @@ school of Pumbeditha. The zeal for the study of the Talmud and scientific activity had cooled in the Babylonian countries. The academy had so few scholars at this time that Sherira was compelled to -promote his young son Ha, when only sixteen +promote his young son Haï, when only sixteen years old, to the high office of chief judge. The respect for the Gaon had vanished. Malicious persons had Sherira arraigned before the Caliph @@ -9885,14 +9847,14 @@ dignity. Sherira soon after, on account of old age, abdicated in favor of his son (998), and died a few years later.</p> -<p>His son Ha, although he was only 30 years old, +<p>His son Haï, although he was only 30 years old, was so popular that to the reading of the Law on Sabbath, as a mark of honor to him, the portion of the Pentateuch was added in which Moses prays for a worthy successor, and instead of the usual prophetic lesson, the story of David anointing his successor was read, and in conclusion the words, -"And Ha sat on the throne of Sherira his father, +"And Haï sat on the throne of Sherira his father, and his kingdom was firmly established."</p> <p>We turn gladly from the decay of the internal @@ -9906,8 +9868,8 @@ of Andalusia intense zeal for the various branches of knowledge, and an eager desire for creative activity.</p> -<p>The seed which had been sown by Chasda, the -Jewish Mcenas, by the study of the Talmud under +<p>The seed which had been sown by Chasdaï, the +Jewish Mæcenas, by the study of the Talmud under Moses the Babylonian, and by the poetical and philological works of Menachem and Dunash, produced the fairest fruit. Many-sided knowledge was @@ -9919,7 +9881,7 @@ the Great, the Moslems admitted Jews to state offices, owing to their superior insight and business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> capacity; thus we find both Jewish consuls and Jewish ministers at Mahometan and Christian -courts. These emulated the conduct of Chasda in +courts. These emulated the conduct of Chasdaï in encouraging learning and poetry. The knowledge of the period was neither one-sided nor barren; on the contrary, it was full of healthy life, useful and @@ -10008,7 +9970,7 @@ was of such proportions that the catalogue took up twenty-four volumes) by the addition of the Mishna, which was so highly valued by the Jews. The men most distinguished in philology and Hebrew poetry -during the period after Chasda were the pupils of +during the period after Chasdaï were the pupils of Menachem and Dunash. They carried on a controversy in epigrams, in prose and verse. Of these, Isaac Ibn-G'ikatilia was a poet, and Jehuda Ibn-Daud @@ -10038,7 +10000,7 @@ their philological studies.</p> <p>Although the rabbinate of Cordova was merely an honorary office, and Chanoch derived no income<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> from it, nevertheless it gave rise to contention after -Chasda's death. The followers of Joseph Ibn-Abitur, +Chasdaï's death. The followers of Joseph Ibn-Abitur, amongst whom were the numerous Ibn-Abitur family, and the brothers Ibn-Jau, silk manufacturers, who were employed at court, endeavored @@ -10230,7 +10192,7 @@ who instilled true zeal for the study of the Talmud into the Jews of southern France. This may have been Nathan bar Isaac, the Babylonian, but more probably it was his pupil Leon or Leontin (Jehuda -ben Mer), who, although he left no works behind +ben Meïr), who, although he left no works behind him, was yet the first founder of the scientific study of the Talmud, which henceforth flourished in France and Germany. His famous pupil, Gershom, confessed @@ -10293,7 +10255,7 @@ and patience were required for it. He was at once recognized as an authority by the German, French, and Italian communities. Questions were submitted to him, and unwittingly he became the -rival of the last Gaon Ha, although he looked upon +rival of the last Gaon Haï, although he looked upon him with the reverence of a disciple. Through a peculiar combination of circumstances those who respected the Gaonate most, contributed to its @@ -10536,12 +10498,12 @@ emigration to Spain.</p> <p>The institutions, too, and the traditions of Babylonian-Persian Judaism showed manifest signs of decay at this time. They possessed, it is true, two -men of extraordinary ability, viz. Ha and Samuel +men of extraordinary ability, viz. Haï and Samuel ben Chofni, but these were not in a position to stay its dissolution, and could only throw a dim light upon the dying Gaonate.</p> -<p>Ha (or Haya, born 969, died 1038), who had in +<p>Haï (or Haya, born 969, died 1038), who had in his eighteenth year been raised to the highest office next to the Gaon, at the age of thirty years succeeded his father Sherira in the Gaonate of Pumbeditha. @@ -10553,11 +10515,11 @@ as well as the Babylonians, showed him the highest respect. His character was noble, and he was a man of independent thought. He was versed in all branches of science as they were then -taught, and displayed great literary activity. Ha +taught, and displayed great literary activity. Haï reminds one of Saadiah, whom he took as his model, and whom he defended from attacks, but he was essentially a Talmudist, whereas Saadiah was a religious -philosopher. Like him Ha was a thorough +philosopher. Like him Haï was a thorough Arabic scholar, and made use of that language in many of his letters, and in numerous scientific treatises. Like the Gaon of Fayum he was free from @@ -10572,7 +10534,7 @@ the Patriarch (Mar-Elia I.).</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span> In his explanation of rare and archaic words in -the Bible, Ha boldly sought assistance from the +the Bible, Haï boldly sought assistance from the Koran and the old traditions of the Mahometans in order to confirm their meaning. He was an unprejudiced sage, who loved the light and avoided @@ -10586,7 +10548,7 @@ results. He wrote a terse commentary, in which he explained the words in the most difficult portions of the Mishna and the Talmud.</p> -<p>Ha treated of the civil law of the Talmud, of +<p>Haï treated of the civil law of the Talmud, of contracts, loans, boundaries and oaths, with systematic precision. He did this as no one before him had done, and he therefore became the model @@ -10595,7 +10557,7 @@ enter upon the field of metaphysics, but although he was not a philosopher, he had sound opinions on mysticism. Surrounded with a halo of religion, a mystic belief often appears reasonable to those of -weak reasoning powers, but Ha perceived its deceptive +weak reasoning powers, but Haï perceived its deceptive character.</p> <p>The belief in miracles has, in every country, at @@ -10610,16 +10572,16 @@ believed that any one who is truly pious can perform at will miracles as great and surprising as those of the prophets of old. They thought, however, that for this purpose it is necessary to pronounce certain -magical formul, consisting of various combinations -of the letters in the name of God. Ha's true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> +magical formulæ, consisting of various combinations +of the letters in the name of God. Haï's true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> religious insight prompted him to write indignantly against this belief, which, despite the fact that his father was not free from it, he considered a desecration of religion. A pupil of Jacob ben Nissim of -Kairuan once asked Ha what he thought of the +Kairuan once asked Haï what he thought of the magical power of the names of God, which, many -boasted, they could use. Ha answered briefly and -sensibly:—"If any one by the mere use of formul +boasted, they could use. Haï answered briefly and +sensibly:—"If any one by the mere use of formulæ could perform miracles, and thereby alter the course of nature, wherein lay the distinction of the prophets?" God gave the prophets the power of @@ -10631,13 +10593,13 @@ become daily occurrences, and the motion of the sun from west to east would appear no more extraordinary than its common motion in the opposite direction—in short, miracles would cease to be -miracles. "It is wrong," said Ha, "to make use +miracles. "It is wrong," said Haï, "to make use of the name of God for such purposes," and he warned the people against this practice, in which there is much doubt and little truth; and a man must be indeed foolish who believes everything.</p> -<p>Ha was universally acknowledged as an authority, +<p>Haï was universally acknowledged as an authority, and through his influence the school of Pumbeditha somewhat recovered its prestige. The great scholars Nissim and Chananel of Kairuan, the @@ -10648,15 +10610,15 @@ of three parts of the world, submitted questions to him, and honored him as the chief representative of Judaism. He was called "the father of Israel." The Exilarchate had been practically extinct since -the death of the grandson of David ben Zacca, and -Ha stood at the head of Judaism. No fitter man +the death of the grandson of David ben Zaccaï, and +Haï stood at the head of Judaism. No fitter man could have been found to represent it. Unlike the former Geonim of Pumbeditha, who all looked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> askance at the sister academy, unlike his father, who felt a keen delight when Sora was without a chief, -Ha did his best to give it a leader in the person +Haï did his best to give it a leader in the person of Samuel ben Chofni, who filled his office during -Ha's Gaonate. Samuel was his father-in-law, and +Haï's Gaonate. Samuel was his father-in-law, and his equal in learning and character. He wrote several systematic works on the ritual, and a commentary on the Pentateuch, in which he set forth @@ -10677,14 +10639,14 @@ Balaam, as dreams. Like Saadiah, he attacked Karaism, the occasion being a keen controversy which broke out at that time between the Karaites and the Rabbanites. Samuel ben Chofni died four -years before his son-in-law Ha (1034), and thus +years before his son-in-law Haï (1034), and thus ended the line of the Geonim of Sora.</p> <p>This school does not appear to have made any effort to continue after his death. The times were in every way unfavorable to the Gaonate, and it was impossible for it to regain its pristine vigor. -When Ha died, in 1038, mourned by all the Jews, +When Haï died, in 1038, mourned by all the Jews, and eulogized by the greatest poet of the time, Ibn-Gebirol, and by his admirer Chananel, in Africa, the time for the dissolution of the school of Pumbeditha @@ -10696,7 +10658,7 @@ grave with his person.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> Chiskiya, the great grandson of the quarrelsome -Exilarch David ben Zacca, was appointed head of +Exilarch David ben Zaccaï, was appointed head of the school. But the glory which it was thought he would shed upon the school could not make itself visible. Chiskiya had many implacable enemies @@ -10723,7 +10685,7 @@ the House of David, and under the name Ibn-Daudi, devoted themselves to the cultivation of the muses.</p> -<p>Jewish Spain thus became the heir of Juda, +<p>Jewish Spain thus became the heir of Judæa, Babylonia, and northern Africa, and greatly increased its inheritance for succeeding generations. There the exiled sons of the Jewish-Chazar princes, @@ -10734,7 +10696,7 @@ wisdom, virtue and position, the first of the succession of Jewish teachers coming after the Geonim. He united in his person all the virtues of the three men who had made Jewish Spain famous. He was -like Chasda, a generous chief and a patron of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span> +like Chasdaï, a generous chief and a patron of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span> learning, like Moses ben Chanoch, a thorough Talmudist, and like Dunash ben Labrat, a poet and grammarian.</p> @@ -10900,7 +10862,7 @@ interesting to see in the writings of a contemporary<span class="pagenum"><a nam historian the form used by the Jewish minister in the royal decrees addressed to the Mahometan people. Samuel, or as he was called, Ismael Ibn-Nagrela, -did not shrink from using the formul +did not shrink from using the formulæ of Moslem rulers. He opened with the words, Chamdu-l-Illahi (praised be God), and added, when mentioning the name of Mahomet, the sentence, @@ -10913,7 +10875,7 @@ Mahometan style.</p> <p>Without doubt both Habus and Badis permitted the Jewish vizir to exercise authority over the Jewish congregations of Granada, similar to that which -Chasda and Ibn-Jau had possessed in Cordova. +Chasdaï and Ibn-Jau had possessed in Cordova. Samuel was named chief and prince (Nagid) of the Jews, and this title is used by Jewish authors. The minister of state was also the rabbi; he presided @@ -10961,7 +10923,7 @@ advance science and poetry, and should support learning with princely generosity. Samuel was in communication with the most prominent men of his time, in Irak, Syria, Egypt, and Africa, especially -with the last of the great Geonim, Ha and with +with the last of the great Geonim, Haï and with Nissim. He gave rich gifts to the learned, he had copies of books made to be presented to poor students, arousing dormant talents and becoming the @@ -11008,7 +10970,7 @@ in Jewish history, more especially because for a long time he was unknown and then misunderstood. Jonah Marinus (in Arabic, Abulvalid Mervan Ibn-Janach, born about 995, died 1050), was educated -in Cordova, where after the death of Chasda all +in Cordova, where after the death of Chasdaï all hearts were filled with enthusiasm for knowledge and a devoted love for the holy language. Isaac Ibn-G'ikatilia, of the school of Menachem, taught @@ -11131,7 +11093,7 @@ were not of the pleasantest kind.</p> <p class="hang">Solomon Ibn-Gebirol—His early life—His poems—The statesman Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan befriends him—Murder of Yekutiel—Bachya Ibn-Pakuda and his moral philosophy—The Biblical -critic Yizchaki ben Yasus—Joseph ben Chasda, the Poet—Death +critic Yizchaki ben Yasus—Joseph ben Chasdaï, the Poet—Death of Samuel Ibn-Nagrela—Character of his son Joseph and his tragic fate—Death of Ibn-Gebirol—The French and German communities—Alfassi—Life and works of Rashi—Jewish scholars @@ -11216,7 +11178,7 @@ daily praise their Creator, in which God revealed the Sinaitic Law, the prophets prophesied and the psalmists sung." He blamed his countrymen, the men of Saragossa, the blind community, for their -indifference to pure Hebrew. "Some speak Iduman +indifference to pure Hebrew. "Some speak Idumæan (Romance), and some the language of Kedar" (Arabic). His versified Hebrew Grammar was intended to awaken love for the language @@ -11342,7 +11304,7 @@ expressed by earlier philosophers, but he formed into one organic whole a confused mass of scattered thoughts. He developed his system in a work entitled, "The Fountain of Life" (Mekor -Chayim, Fons Vit), written in Arabic, which he +Chayim, Fons Vitæ), written in Arabic, which he handled with as much ease as Hebrew. A Christian emperor destroyed the temple of philosophy in Athens, and exiled its last priests. Since that time @@ -11379,7 +11341,7 @@ scholastic writers subscribed to the views of Ibn-Gebirol, whom they called Avicebrol or Avicebron. Others opposed them, but all considered them. In later times, the Kabbala borrowed some -formul from him.</p> +formulæ from him.</p> <p>Another Jewish philosopher of this time, which was so rich in great men, pursued a course different @@ -11487,21 +11449,21 @@ who, for flight of fancy, depth of thought, and beauty of expression, may claim equality with Solomon Ibn-Gebirol, but of whose poems only a single one is extant, "an orphaned song," as he himself called -it. Abu Amr Joseph ben Chasda was probably +it. Abu Amr Joseph ben Chasdaï was probably born in Cordova. His two brothers, who were compelled by the troubles of the wars in Spain to leave home, dwelt under the protection of the statesman, Samuel Ibn-Nagrela. Respect and thankfulness towards their noble patron induced -Joseph ben Chasda to write an elevated, artistic, +Joseph ben Chasdaï to write an elevated, artistic, and highly imaginative poem, in which he eulogized Samuel and his young son Joseph with enthusiastic warmth (about 1044–1046). Samuel, who would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span> never accept anything, not even a gift of praise, without making some return, wrote, in praise of -Joseph ben Chasda, a similar poem in the same +Joseph ben Chasdaï, a similar poem in the same meter, but not possessing the same poetical beauty. -Joseph ben Chasda left a son, who later obtained +Joseph ben Chasdaï left a son, who later obtained in Saragossa a position similar to that of Ibn-Nagrela in Granada.</p> @@ -11743,9 +11705,9 @@ friendly spirit by Almuthadid, king of Seville, and<span class="pagenum"><a name Joseph Ibn-Migash I was given a high office. The king of Saragossa, Al-muktadir Billah, a patron of science and poetry, also had a Jewish vizir, Abu -Fadhl, a son of the poet Joseph Ibn-Chasda who +Fadhl, a son of the poet Joseph Ibn-Chasdaï who contended with Ibn-Gebirol for the laurels of poetry. -This Abu Fadhl Chasda (born about 1040) was +This Abu Fadhl Chasdaï (born about 1040) was likewise a poet, but, although acquainted with Hebrew, he wrote only in Arabic verse. The following opinion of him was expressed by an Arabic critic: @@ -11899,7 +11861,7 @@ over all the Jewish communities of his kingdom, which fortunate conquests had made the mightiest in Mahometan Spain. It extended northward as far as Cordova, and eastward to Murcia. Isaac, -therefore, like Ibn-Chasda, Ibn-Jau, and Ibn-Nagrela, +therefore, like Ibn-Chasdaï, Ibn-Jau, and Ibn-Nagrela, took the rank of prince (Nassi). He was at the same time rabbi over the communities of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> realm of Seville, and his authority was acknowledged @@ -11948,7 +11910,7 @@ was made a teacher of the Law under the title of Gaon. So greatly had the times changed! Whilst the Occident had formerly lent a willing ear to the utterances of the Geonim in the Orient, it was now, -scarcely half a century after the death of Gaon Ha, +scarcely half a century after the death of Gaon Haï, able to send teachers to the country in which had stood the cradle of the Talmud, and a man who found no recognition in Spain was considered an @@ -11956,7 +11918,7 @@ authority by the once proud Pumbeditha.</p> <p>In knowledge and sharp-witted understanding of the Talmud, these four Isaacs were outstripped by -the fifth, Isaac ben Jacob Alfassi, or Alkala. Born +the fifth, Isaac ben Jacob Alfassi, or Alkalaï. Born in Kala-Ibn-Hammad, in the neighborhood of Fez (1013), he was instructed by the last African authorities, Nissim and Chananel, and after their death @@ -11988,7 +11950,7 @@ Talmud only whatever affects conduct, but fix the practical bearings of the laws thus classified with absolute certainty. Alfassi's work consigned to oblivion all similar works compiled in the course of -three centuries, since Jehuda Gaon's time. His +three centuries, since Jehudaï Gaon's time. His name was borne by this work far beyond the straits into Spain where he counted still more admirers than in his native land.</p> @@ -12129,7 +12091,7 @@ concerning the Talmud that had been sent to him, and wrote down the answers dictated to her. His three daughters were married to men of learning, and gave birth to sons worthy of their ancestry. -One of these sons-in-law, Mer of Rameru, not far +One of these sons-in-law, Meïr of Rameru, not far from Troyes, was the father of three distinguished sons. Through Rashi and his school, the north of France, Champagne, became the home of Talmudic @@ -12260,7 +12222,7 @@ to select a Christian and a Jew as arbitrators (Alkalde). If a man wished to sell his house, two Christians and the same number of Jews had to appraise it. According to another law established -by custom (fuero de Njera), the Jews were treated +by custom (fuero de Nájera), the Jews were treated on an equality with the nobles and the clergy; the same sum was fixed as compensation for the murder of a Jew, a nobleman, and a priest. Down to the @@ -12438,7 +12400,7 @@ of faith with blood. Before the crusades, the Jews of Germany had dwelt in peace; they were not excluded from the possession of land, nor were they despised and humiliated. When Bishop -Rdiger Huozmann, of Speyer, extended the limits +Rüdiger Huozmann, of Speyer, extended the limits of the town by including the village Old Speyer, he knew no better way of improving the new portion than by allowing the Jews to have privileges and @@ -12449,11 +12411,11 @@ decided lawsuits. The Jews could buy slaves, and hire male and female servants from Christians, in opposition to the canonical laws and against the will of Pope Gregory VII. In order to protect -them from the mob, Rdiger gave them a special +them from the mob, Rüdiger gave them a special quarter surrounded by a wall, which they might fortify and defend. These privileges, for which they -annually paid 3 lbs. of gold, were guaranteed to -them for all time. Rdiger adds in the charter +annually paid 3½ lbs. of gold, were guaranteed to +them for all time. Rüdiger adds in the charter that he was granting to the Jews the same favorable conditions that they enjoyed in other German towns. Emperor Henry IV confirmed these privileges, @@ -12995,7 +12957,7 @@ the Caliph Ali, and bore the titles of prince and vizir. Alcharizi says that his verses rendered eloquent the lips of the dumb, and illuminated the eyes of the blind. The physician Abulhassan Abraham -ben Mer Ibn-Kamnial, of Saragossa, likewise +ben Meïr Ibn-Kamnial, of Saragossa, likewise occupied a high post at Ali's court, and also bore the title of vizir. The greatest poets of the time celebrated his nobility of soul, his generosity and @@ -13041,7 +13003,7 @@ would appear in the year 5118 of the world <p>Thus men of influence and knowledge were not wanting at this period in Spain, but none of them -acted as a center, like Chasda Ibn-Shaprut and +acted as a center, like Chasdaï Ibn-Shaprut and Samuel Ibn-Nagrela, from which might go forth the impetus that would rouse to activity slumbering talents, or mark out the road for literary efforts. @@ -13129,7 +13091,7 @@ and pleasing. They are not the outpourings of a poetic soul, but are to some extent a tribute to fashion.</p> -<p>Joseph ben Mer Ibn-Migash Halevi (born 1077, +<p>Joseph ben Meïr Ibn-Migash Halevi (born 1077, died 1141) surpassed his contemporaries in mastery of the Talmud. Grandson of an important man at the court of the Abbadides in Seville, and son of a @@ -13200,7 +13162,7 @@ the rabbi and judge, Joseph Ibn-Migash, determined to make an example of him. He condemned the traitor to be stoned to death at twilight on the Day of Atonement. Joseph Ibn-Migash -left a learned son, Mer (1144), and a large circle +left a learned son, Meïr (1144), and a large circle of disciples, amongst whom was Maimun of Cordova, whose son was destined to begin a new era in Jewish history.</p> @@ -14135,7 +14097,7 @@ aim of his journey. But as soon as his name became known, all hearts were drawn towards him. The most distinguished man of the Alexandrian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span> congregation, the physician and rabbi Aaron Ben-Zion -Ibn-Alamni, who was blessed with prosperity +Ibn-Alamâni, who was blessed with prosperity and children, and was himself a liturgical poet, hastened to receive him as a noble guest, showed him the highest honor, and placed his hospitable @@ -14143,7 +14105,7 @@ mansion at the disposal of Halevi and his comrades. Under the careful treatment of cordial friends, he recovered from the effects of his sea-voyage, and expressed his gratitude in beautiful Hebrew verses. -The family of Ibn-Alamni were so urgent in their +The family of Ibn-Alamâni were so urgent in their desire to keep him with them, that in spite of his great longing for Jerusalem, he remained for nearly three months at Alexandria, till the Feast of Dedication. @@ -14289,7 +14251,7 @@ servants. It is said that half of Paris, which at that time was not yet a city of very great importance, belonged to Jews. The Jewish congregations were recognized as independent corporations, and had -their own mayor, with the title of Provost (prpositus), +their own mayor, with the title of Provost (præpositus), who was invested with authority to guard the interests of his people, and to arrest Christian debtors and compel them to pay their Jewish creditors. @@ -14354,10 +14316,10 @@ superficial examination would never have discovered.</p> <p>The circle of the earliest Tossafists was composed chiefly of the relatives of Rashi, viz.: his two sons-in-law, -Mer ben Samuel of Rameru, a small town +Meïr ben Samuel of Rameru, a small town near Troyes, and Jehuda ben Nathan (Riban); later, his three grandsons, Isaac, Samuel and Jacob -Tam, the sons of Mer; and finally a German, +Tam, the sons of Meïr; and finally a German, Isaac ben Asher Halevi (Riba) of Speyer, also connected with the family of Rashi.</p> @@ -14387,13 +14349,13 @@ Talmud. Only two men can be recorded as famous exceptions, who returned from exegesis according to the Agadic method (Derush) to the strict and rational elucidation of the text (Peshat); these are -Joseph Kara and Samuel ben Mer (about 1100-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span>1160). +Joseph Kara and Samuel ben Meïr (about 1100-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span>1160). Both of these have the greater importance, since they were in opposition to their fathers, who adhered to the Midrashic system of interpretation. Joseph Kara was the son of Simon Kara, a compiler of Agadic pieces, the author of the Yalkut; and -Samuel ben Mer had been taught by his grandfather +Samuel ben Meïr had been taught by his grandfather Rashi to pay great respect to the Agada. Both of them forsook the old way, and sought an explanation of the text in strict accordance with @@ -14408,7 +14370,7 @@ Samuel, called Rashbam, wrote, in this temperate style, a commentary to the Pentateuch and the Five Megilloth; and Joseph Kara wrote commentaries on the books of the Prophets and the Hagiographa. -Samuel ben Mer, in his interpretation of +Samuel ben Meïr, in his interpretation of Holy Writ, sought for the sense and the connection of the text, and did not shrink from explanations at variance with the Talmud, or in harmony with the @@ -14466,7 +14428,7 @@ Mahomet as the prophet. In one land they were expected to do violence to their reason and to accept fables as sober truths, and in another they were asked to renounce their faith and take in its -stead dry formul, tinged with philosophy. Both +stead dry formulæ, tinged with philosophy. Both held out the cheerless choice between death and the renunciation of their ancient religion. The French and the Germans rivaled the savage Moors @@ -14633,7 +14595,7 @@ Rhine to look round for protection. They paid immense sums to the princes, to be permitted to live in the fortresses and castles for safety. The Cardinal Bishop Arnold of Cologne gave them -the castle of Wolkenburg, near Knigswinter, and +the castle of Wolkenburg, near Königswinter, and allowed them to defend themselves with arms. Wolkenburg became a refuge for many of the congregations of the district. As long as the Jews @@ -14707,11 +14669,11 @@ and their logic could not be shaken. They said, "If it is a godly deed to slay unbelieving Turks, it surely cannot be a sin to massacre unbelieving Jews." At about this time the lacerated limbs of a -Christian were discovered at Wrzburg, and the +Christian were discovered at Würzburg, and the crusaders who were assembled there believed, or pretended to believe that the Jews had butchered the man. They took this pretext to attack the -congregation at Wrzburg. The Jews of this city +congregation at Würzburg. The Jews of this city were under the protection of Bishop Embicho, and dwelt in tranquillity in the city, not deeming it necessary to seek a place of refuge. The terror @@ -14723,10 +14685,10 @@ and gentle Rabbi Isaac ben Eliakim, who was slain whilst reading a holy book. Some were cruelly maltreated, and left as dead, but were afterwards restored to life, and carefully tended by compassionate -Christians. The humane Bishop of Wrzburg +Christians. The humane Bishop of Würzburg assigned a burial-place in his own garden for the bodies of the martyrs, and sent the survivors -into a castle near Wrzburg. The lot of the German +into a castle near Würzburg. The lot of the German Jews became still more lamentable when the emperor Conrad with his knights and army joined the crusading expedition, and the mobs who were @@ -14748,7 +14710,7 @@ by the loss of so many men, found an entrance into the court, attacked the Jews in the rear, and massacred them all. Among the martyrs of this time in France was a young scholar named Peter, a pupil -of Samuel ben Mer and Tam, who, in spite of his +of Samuel ben Meïr and Tam, who, in spite of his youth, had already distinguished himself among the Tossafists. At no great distance from the monastery of Clairvaux, under the eyes of the Abbot @@ -14817,7 +14779,7 @@ he considered himself as such, demanding in return the fulfilment of certain duties. The German Jews, who had hitherto been as free as the Germans or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span> Romans, henceforth became the "servants of the -chamber" (servi camer) of the Holy Roman +chamber" (servi cameræ) of the Holy Roman empire. This hateful name at first only signified that the Jews enjoyed immunity from all attacks like the imperial servants, and had to pay a certain @@ -14961,7 +14923,7 @@ Koran. But truly conscientious and pious men were unable to play this double part for any length of time. They threw off the hateful mask, and openly professing Judaism, suffered martyrdom, as -happened in Fez, Segelmessa, Dra and other +happened in Fez, Segelmessa, Draï and other towns.</p> <p>The victorious Abdulmumen was not content with @@ -14983,7 +14945,7 @@ Ibn-Zadik, witnessed this sad downfall of the oldest and most distinguished congregation, but died soon after (at the end of 1148 or the commencement of 1149). The renowned Jewish academies at Seville -and Lucena were closed. Mer, the son and successor +and Lucena were closed. Meïr, the son and successor of Joseph Ibn-Migash, went from Lucena to Toledo, and with him all those able to escape. The remainder followed the example of the African @@ -15009,7 +14971,7 @@ Ibn-Nagrela. The wise and philanthropic Emperor Alfonso Raimundez had a Jewish favorite in the person of the still youthful Jehuda Ibn-Ezra, the son of that Joseph Ibn-Ezra, who, together with his -three brothers, is celebrated in Judo-Spanish literature. +three brothers, is celebrated in Judæo-Spanish literature. On taking possession of the border fortress of Calatrava, between Toledo and Cordova (1146), the emperor, probably as a reward for his bravery, @@ -15023,7 +14985,7 @@ them to find homes and employment in Christian Spain, and used his riches in ransoming captives, in clothing the naked and feeding the hungry. The congregation of Toledo was very much increased -by the immigrant Jews. Mer Ibn-Migash opened +by the immigrant Jews. Meïr Ibn-Migash opened an academy for the study of the Talmud, and numerous pupils attended it. Jewish learning under the protection of the Christian king, now @@ -15203,7 +15165,7 @@ His Hebrew style is flowing, and not altogether wanting in poetic coloring.</p> <p>A still more erudite, comprehensive, and profound -mind was that of Abraham ben Mer Ibn-Ezra +mind was that of Abraham ben Meïr Ibn-Ezra of Toledo (born about 1088, died 1167). He was a man of remarkable ability, conquering with equal skill the greatest and the smallest things in @@ -15475,7 +15437,7 @@ Spanish-Jewish culture than the north of France, Italy, or Germany. In Jewish history Provence forms the dividing line between two methods, the strictly Talmudical, and the scientific and artistic. -The Jewish Provenals worked actively according +The Jewish Provençals worked actively according to both methods, but did not attain any degree of excellence in either, merely remaining admirers and imitators. Ibn-Ezra introduced a new element into @@ -15489,7 +15451,7 @@ homage. Ibn-Ezra was very much surprised, and replied with an epigram, half complimentary, half insulting. His love of travel led him, now in his seventieth year, to foggy London, where he found a -liberal Mcenas, who treated him with affection. +liberal Mæcenas, who treated him with affection. Here he composed a kind of philosophy of religion, written, however, with such extreme carelessness and haste, that it is absolutely impossible to follow his @@ -15516,7 +15478,7 @@ an assertion that the Biblical day began in the morning and not in the evening. This unorthodox doctrine, which, it may be remarked, was propounded by the grandson of Rashi, the pious -Samuel ben Mer, aroused Ibn-Ezra; and he felt +Samuel ben Meïr, aroused Ibn-Ezra; and he felt himself in duty bound to controvert it with all his might, "lest Israel be led into error." In pious wrath he writes, "May the hand of him who wrote @@ -15819,10 +15781,10 @@ history commenced.</p> <p class="hang">The Jews of Toledo—Ibn-Shoshan, Ibn-Alfachar—The Poet Charisi—Sheshet Benveniste—Benjamin of Tudela—The Jews of Provence—The -Kimchis—The Communities of Bziers, Montpellier, -Lnel, and Toulouse—Persecutions of Jews in Northern France—The +Kimchis—The Communities of Béziers, Montpellier, +Lünel, and Toulouse—Persecutions of Jews in Northern France—The Jews of England—Richard I—The Jews of York—The Jews -of Germany—Ephraim ben Jacob—Ssskind—Petachya the +of Germany—Ephraim ben Jacob—Süsskind—Petachya the Traveler—The Jews of Italy and of the Byzantine Empire—Communities in Syria and Palestine—The Jews of Bagdad—Mosul—The Pseudo-Messiah, David Alroy—The Jews of India—Conversion @@ -16048,7 +16010,7 @@ the hands of the enemy (9 Ab, 1197).</p> the time of Ramon Berengar IV, the Jews lived under favorable conditions, and were able to develop their minds. Alfonso II (1162–1196), a promoter -and patron of the Provenal poetry, favored men +and patron of the Provençal poetry, favored men gifted with word and thought, and amongst such the Jews at this time took a foremost place. Although Saragossa was the capital of Aragon, and since @@ -16074,11 +16036,11 @@ and forty-two verses in honor of Joseph Ibn-Shoshan of Toledo.</p> <p>Next to him in importance in Barcelona stood -Samuel ben Abraham Ibn-Chasda Halevi (1165–1216), +Samuel ben Abraham Ibn-Chasdaï Halevi (1165–1216), "the fountain of wisdom and the sea of thought," as the poet Charisi extravagantly calls him. He had five learned sons, among whom was -Abraham Ibn-Chasda, who as the author of a +Abraham Ibn-Chasdaï, who as the author of a moral romance, "The Prince and the Dervish," and as a translator of philosophical writings, has made a name in the history of literature.</p> @@ -16118,7 +16080,7 @@ works, and annotated the commentaries of Alfassi. Serachya Gerundi appears to have suffered persecution at the hands of the community of Gerona, for which he avenged himself by a satire. -He left Gerona, and settled in Lnel, where he possessed +He left Gerona, and settled in Lünel, where he possessed many friends, and where he was maintained by a patron of learning. Here he composed various writings against a Talmudical authority of the south @@ -16154,7 +16116,7 @@ and St. Gilles; and, lastly, to different vassals, counts, viscounts, and barons.</p> <p>These were nearly all actuated by broad views -of life; they were patrons of the flourishing Provenal +of life; they were patrons of the flourishing Provençal poetry, they encouraged learning, and were not bigoted servants of the Church. Besides the nobility, a free and wealthy middle class had arisen, @@ -16162,14 +16124,14 @@ which guarded its independence as its dearest treasure. The intimate relations between the inhabitants and the Moslems and Jews had weakened western prejudices against the Orientals. The -breadth of mind of the Provenals, which prompted +breadth of mind of the Provençals, which prompted them to resist the Catholic Church, to disregard papal bulls, to condemn the arrogant clergy, to apply the scourge to the vices of the Roman court, and which gave rise to the sect of the Albigenses, also rendered them capable of appreciating Judaism, and the adherents of that religion. Among the -Provenal free-thinkers whom the stern, unbending +Provençal free-thinkers whom the stern, unbending Catholic Church branded as heretics, there were many who secretly and openly acknowledged that the law of the Jews was better than that of the @@ -16195,7 +16157,7 @@ the limits of Judaism. Jewish Provence did not produce a single original mind, not one profound thinker, not one genuine poet, not one distinguished scholar in any branch of knowledge. The -Jewish Provenals were faithful disciples of foreign +Jewish Provençals were faithful disciples of foreign masters, whose conclusions they appropriated, and steadfastly maintained; they were humble workers in science, translators and propagators of foreign @@ -16313,7 +16275,7 @@ of a simple, sober, literal exegesis in opposition to the extravagant, Agadic, pseudo-philosophical method of exposition.</p> -<p>The old community of Bziers, which had received +<p>The old community of Béziers, which had received Ibn-Ezra so honorably, was at this time, under Viscount Raymond Trencaval and his son Roger, in a still more fortunate condition than that @@ -16341,7 +16303,7 @@ pledged themselves to pay four pounds of silver every year on Palm Sunday. The assassination of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">395</a></span> Raymond Trencaval by several conspirators in church on Sunday (5th Oct., 1167), involved the -Jews of Bziers in trouble, probably on account of +Jews of Béziers in trouble, probably on account of their known attachment to the viscount. Certain citizens preferred accusations against them, and the directors of the congregation were arrested. Not @@ -16359,16 +16321,16 @@ Through this partiality towards the heretics and the Jews, he provoked the anger of the clergy and the Pope, and in consequence suffered a tragic end.</p> -<p>An important Provenal congregation existed in +<p>An important Provençal congregation existed in the flourishing commercial city Montpellier, which was the capital of southern France; it had very rich members whose beneficence was much extolled. -Like their co-religionists in Bziers, they had a predilection +Like their co-religionists in Béziers, they had a predilection for learning, fostered by the existence of a medical academy in the town and the prevailing freedom of education. The lords of this city were by no means so friendly to the Jews as their neighbors -of Bziers. William VIII and his son expressly +of Béziers. William VIII and his son expressly enjoined in their wills that no Jew should be admitted to the office of sheriff (1178–1201), although the latter owed a Jew, Bonet, a large sum of money. @@ -16380,7 +16342,7 @@ compared its rabbinical school with the Synhedrion of the Temple-Mount (Har).</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">396</a></span> -What is now the little town of Lnel, not far from +What is now the little town of Lünel, not far from Montpellier, was, under the lords De Gaucelin, an important city, and the Jewish congregation, consisting of nearly three hundred members, was considered, @@ -16404,7 +16366,7 @@ to various branches, especially to translating Arabic works of Jewish authors into Hebrew. He was the first to awaken, among the Jews of Provence, a taste for learning. He occupied the same influential -position in southern France that Chasda +position in southern France that Chasdaï Ibn-Shaprut had occupied in Spain. Meshullam had five learned sons, who illustrated within a small circle the two currents which were to meet in the @@ -16418,15 +16380,15 @@ light of reason. Jacob, although rich, led an ascetic life, drank no wine, and on that account received the name of Nazarite. He is described as the first promoter of the new Kabbala. His brother, Asher -of Lnel, lived, if possible, a life even more austere,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span> +of Lünel, lived, if possible, a life even more austere,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span> and although equally affluent, he fasted much, and ate no meat.</p> <p>On the whole, the scientific tendency prevailed -in the community of Lnel. It was represented +in the community of Lünel. It was represented by two men, who have made themselves famous in the history of Jewish literature, viz., the founder -of the family of Tibbon, and Jonathan of Lnel. +of the family of Tibbon, and Jonathan of Lünel. The latter was an important Talmudical authority, who wrote a commentary on Alfassi's Talmudical work. He was none the less fond of science, and @@ -16435,7 +16397,7 @@ a high place in Jewish studies. Judah ben Saul Ibn-Tibbon (born about 1120, died about 1190) originally came from Granada, and had emigrated to southern France on account of the persecution -of the Jews by the Almohades. In Lnel he pursued +of the Jews by the Almohades. In Lünel he pursued the profession of physician, and in that capacity made himself so popular, that his services were sought by princes, knights, and bishops, and he was @@ -16450,7 +16412,7 @@ was unhappy if he noticed any confusion in them. He set great value upon elegant handwriting and other unessential matters. Ibn-Tibbon was thus, as it were, created for translating. At the instigation -of friends, particularly Meshullam of Lnel—with +of friends, particularly Meshullam of Lünel—with whom, as with Serachya of Gerona and Abraham ben David, he lived on friendly terms—he translated in succession from Arabic into Hebrew, @@ -16502,7 +16464,7 @@ rests on their skill as translators, as that of the Kimchis on their grammatical acumen.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">399</a></span> -Not far from Lnel, in Posquires, there existed +Not far from Lünel, in Posquières, there existed at that time a congregation of forty members. Here was born one of the greatest Talmudists, Abraham ben David (about 1125, died 1198), son-in-law @@ -16949,7 +16911,7 @@ teacher of Rameru. The knightly son of Henry, Richard the Lion-hearted, was equally averse to persecution, and the Jewish community of England might have developed peacefully under him, had -not the fanaticism kindled by Thomas Becket included<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span> +not the fanaticism kindled by Thomas à Becket included<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span> them among its victims. At Richard's coronation (3d September, 1189), the first persecution broke out against the Jews, culminating a century @@ -17224,18 +17186,18 @@ German emperors had constituted themselves the guardians of the Jews, that any one who harmed them committed high treason, and that in return for his protection they became his "servi -camer," the serfs of the imperial chamber. Frederick +cameræ," the serfs of the imperial chamber. Frederick Barbarossa, the most powerful German emperor, who took Charlemagne for a model, was the first to begin the conversion of free Jews into -"servi camer." The legend is interesting which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span> +"servi cameræ." The legend is interesting which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span> characterizes the connection of the German emperor with the Jews in history. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, a third of the Jews is said to have been sold as slaves at the rate of thirty for a bad penny. These, scattered throughout the Roman empire, were the property of the Roman -emperor, and became his "servi camer." The +emperor, and became his "servi cameræ." The emperor, however, had taken upon himself the duty of protecting them, as a reward for Josephus' service to Titus, whom he had cured of gout. The rights @@ -17243,8 +17205,8 @@ and obligations of the Roman emperors towards the Jews passed over, through Charlemagne, to the German emperors, and hence the latter were similarly constituted the protectors of the Jews, and -the Jews became their "servi camer." The Jews -had, in all essentials, been "servi camer" before, +the Jews became their "servi cameræ." The Jews +had, in all essentials, been "servi cameræ" before, in France and England; that is, they were half-and-half the property of the king or the barons, and under one or another title they constantly had @@ -17262,7 +17224,7 @@ in return for his imperial support, supply the emperor with pocket-money.</p> <p>Although the Jews of Germany were "servi -camer," they were not robbed wholly of their +cameræ," they were not robbed wholly of their personal rights in the twelfth century. They were allowed to carry weapons, and even to fight single combats. During the siege of Worms, Jews fought @@ -17352,7 +17314,7 @@ given birth to a Jewish poet who was able to sing in beautiful strains, knew how to handle rhyme, meter,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span> strophes in the vernacular, and was so warmly appreciated that he was received into the circle of -poets. Ssskind (Szkint) of Trimberg, a small +poets. Süsskind (Süzkint) of Trimberg, a small town on the Saale in Franconia, adopted the poetic style of Walter von der Vogelweide and Wolfram of Eschenbach. He was probably a physician by @@ -17364,7 +17326,7 @@ castle, Bodenlaube, in the company of noble knights and beautiful dames, he poured forth, lute in hand, his melodious strains, and the largesses which were showered on him formed his sole means -of support. Ssskind sang of the high worth of +of support. Süsskind sang of the high worth of the pure woman, and pictured to the knights his ideal of a nobleman: "Who acts nobly, him will I account noble." He speaks of the freedom of @@ -17375,7 +17337,7 @@ thought, not yielding to force:</p> <span class="i0">A thought can glide through stone, and steel, and iron chain."<br /></span> </div></div> -<p class="in0">Ssskind also composed a German psalm. He +<p class="in0">Süsskind also composed a German psalm. He describes the awesome thought of death and dissolution, mocks at his own poverty, and prescribes a virtue-electuary. Once the noblemen, whose bread @@ -17556,7 +17518,7 @@ congregations, among which was one that had the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa custom of commencing the Sabbath in the morning, not in the evening, and continuing it till Sunday morning. The most important congregations in -the Grco-Byzantine empire were those of Thebes +the Græco-Byzantine empire were those of Thebes and Constantinople, in both of which were nearly 2000 families, the latter containing 500 Karaites besides. The Theban Jews were the most skilful @@ -17611,7 +17573,7 @@ ascendancy, there were many and populous Jewish communities. In Antioch, which belonged to a Christian prince, there lived only 10 families, nearly all glass-workers. In Leda (Laodicea), 200; in -Jebil, which belonged to the Genoese, 150; in +Jebilé, which belonged to the Genoese, 150; in Bairut (Berytus), 50; in Saida (Sidon), 10; only in Tyre was there a congregation containing 400 members, and there the Jews possessed farms, and @@ -17642,7 +17604,7 @@ the hands of the Christians, there lived scarcely more than 1000 families. The largest congregations, each of 300 members, existed at that time in Toron de los Caballeros, in Jerusalem and Askalon; -in each of the most important towns of Juda, on +in each of the most important towns of Judæa, on the other hand, there lived only about 200 Jews. The Jewish inhabitants of Jerusalem were mostly dyers, having bought the exclusive right to exercise @@ -17656,7 +17618,7 @@ of carrying on the dyer's trade. The Christians, deeply sunk in vice, believed the holy city to be polluted by the continent Jews. In Askalon there lived, at about this time, 300 Samaritan and 40 -Karaite families. In Csarea, which had before +Karaite families. In Cæsarea, which had before harbored many thousands of Jews, there lived then only 10 families and 200 Samaritans. Of this sect there were many also in their aboriginal seat, @@ -17666,7 +17628,7 @@ of 50 there were in Tiberias and Ulamma, 20 in Gischala, 22 in Bethlehem, and in each of the other towns from one to three families. Thus was the heritage of Israel given away to strangers. The -Jewish inhabitants of Juda vegetated rather than +Jewish inhabitants of Judæa vegetated rather than lived; not even the study of the Talmud was cultivated by them. Accho alone possessed Talmudists, one Zadok, and another Japhet ben Elia, and these @@ -17698,7 +17660,7 @@ business in a mosque in Madain (near Bagdad), because he disturbed their service in the synagogue. The caliph, Mahomet Almuktafi, had conceived an affection for an estimable and wealthy -Jew, Solomon (Chasda?), and bestowed on him +Jew, Solomon (Chasdaï?), and bestowed on him the office of Exilarch, and created him prince over all the Jews in the caliphate. The Prince of the Captivity was once more allowed to be surrounded @@ -17716,7 +17678,7 @@ and the Caucasus, and as far as Yemen, India and Thibet. He appointed these officials by commission, for which he expected gifts. Thus the exilarchate was once more raised to the splendor of -the time of Bostana. There also arose in Bagdad +the time of Bostanaï. There also arose in Bagdad an important Talmudical college, whose principal assumed the title of Gaon. Isaac Ibn-Sakni, who had emigrated from Spain to the East towards the @@ -17749,7 +17711,7 @@ his army to encamp in tents before the gates. His successor, Saif-Eddin Ghasi (1146–1149), observed the same friendly attitude towards the Jews. At the head of the Mosul congregation was a man -named Zacca, who also proclaimed himself to be a +named Zaccaï, who also proclaimed himself to be a scion of the house of David, in consequence of which he bore the title of "Prince." He divided his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">430</a></span> authority with another, who was considered a distinguished @@ -17884,7 +17846,7 @@ and partly on account of the punishment with which they had been threatened, to address themselves to David Alrui, and try to turn him from his purpose by threats of excommunication. The representatives -of the congregation of Mosul, Zacca and +of the congregation of Mosul, Zaccaï and Joseph Barihan Alfalach, wrote to him in the same strain; until at last the Mahometan commandant of Amadia, who was most of all eager to be rid of him, @@ -18075,7 +18037,7 @@ the Abbassid Caliphs of Bagdad, the Jews of this dominion were subject to the Exilarch of Bagdad. The second Prince of the Captivity, who was surrounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span> with pomp, was Daniel, the son of Solomon -(Chasda), who held office about 1165–1175. He +(Chasdaï), who held office about 1165–1175. He was as much respected by the Caliphs Almustanjid and Almustadhi as his father had been by Almuktafi. Under Daniel, the Talmudical college of Bagdad @@ -18220,7 +18182,7 @@ students and marriageable orphans.</p> <p>Another resort of pilgrims was the supposed mausoleum of Ezra the scribe. Although this great regenerator of Judaism exercised his activity only in -Juda, legend nevertheless fixes his grave at Nahar-Samara, +Judæa, legend nevertheless fixes his grave at Nahar-Samara, in the neighborhood of the Tigris. The Mahometans, as well as the Jews, reverenced this tomb, offered presents for its maintenance, and made @@ -18293,7 +18255,7 @@ community likewise had no connection with the Asiatic community. They had a chief of their own, recognized by the Caliph, who exercised spiritual and judicial functions, bore the title Nagid (Arabic, -Res), and was, in a sense, the Egyptian Exilarch. +Reïs), and was, in a sense, the Egyptian Exilarch. The Nagid had authority to appoint or confirm rabbis and precentors, and to impose fines, scourgings, and imprisonment, for transgressions and @@ -18334,7 +18296,7 @@ there existed also a Karaite congregation which is said to have been still more numerous than that of the Rabbanites. It also had a Chief Rabbi who possessed plenary power in religious and judicial -matters, and bore the title Prince (Nasi, Res). +matters, and bore the title Prince (Nasi, Reïs). About this time, Chiskiya and Solomon I, who believed themselves to be descendants of Anan, successively held this office (about 1160–1200). Many @@ -18347,7 +18309,7 @@ rabbi from Provence, Phineas ben Meshullam. So poor were the Jews of Egypt in Talmudical authorities at this time that they were obliged to import a Talmud instructor from France. A Karaite congregation -existed also in Alexandria. In Bilbes +existed also in Alexandria. In Bilbeïs (east of the Nile) there was a large congregation, consisting of 3000 members, which suffered much during the campaign of Amalrich, the Christian @@ -18423,7 +18385,7 @@ France were still in the first stage of their infancy; the northern French Jews were too exclusively absorbed in the Talmud, and oppressed by anxiety for what the morrow would bring. The German -Jews were "servi camer" of the Germano-Roman +Jews were "servi cameræ" of the Germano-Roman empire; the Jews of the other countries of Europe had scarcely extricated themselves from barbarism. The restored Exilarchate, the offspring of the @@ -18738,7 +18700,7 @@ passages adduced by his adversary.</p> of the duties of Judaism did not constitute absolute departure from it. The idolatrous Israelites in the times of the prophets were always considered as -members of the people of the Lord. Mer, a +members of the people of the Lord. Meïr, a highly esteemed doctor of the Mishna, had feigned heathenism during a time of persecution, and when put to the test, had even partaken of forbidden food. @@ -18814,7 +18776,7 @@ religion, to combat their lukewarmness, and to urge them to abandon their equivocal life. On this account he exposed himself to extreme danger, and might have been put to death, if a Mahometan -theologian and poet, named Abul-Arab Ibn-Mosha, +theologian and poet, named Abul-Arab Ibn-Moïsha, had not interceded for him, and saved him. The feeling of insecurity, together with the pricks of conscience, when compelled publicly to deny Judaism, @@ -18979,7 +18941,7 @@ called a halt to free thought, marked the boundary line between belief and heresy, not in the firm province of religious practice, but in the shifting ground of religious belief, and brought the ethereal element -of thought under rigid formul.</p> +of thought under rigid formulæ.</p> <p>Great as the work of Maimuni in his commentary on the Mishna undoubtedly is, although he applied @@ -19232,7 +19194,7 @@ of art. He justly laid special emphasis, in the Mishne-Torah, on the necessity of skilful grouping, the difficulties of which can be estimated only by a specialist deeply versed in the subject. The Talmud -resembles a Ddalian maze, in which one can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span> +resembles a Dædalian maze, in which one can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span> scarcely find his way even with Ariadne's thread, but Maimuni designed a well-contrived ground-plan, with wings, halls, apartments, chambers, and @@ -19533,7 +19495,7 @@ in ordinary, but Maimuni refused the offer.</p> acquitted him at about this time of a grave charge, for which, under a less mild Mahometan, or even a Christian judge, he would have incurred the penalty -of death. The same Abulalarab Ibn-Mosha who +of death. The same Abulalarab Ibn-Moïsha who had befriended Maimuni in Fez, had come from Maghreb to Egypt, and when he saw Maimuni, whom he had known as a Mahometan, at the @@ -19666,7 +19628,7 @@ altogether disarmed his opponents.</p> ben Ali, and his prodigious activity as a physician, which scarcely gave him time for study, he completed his religious philosophical work, "Guide of -the Perplexed" (Moreh Nebuchim, Dalalat al Harin) +the Perplexed" (Moreh Nebuchim, Dalalat al Haïrin) in about 1190. This treatise became of extraordinary importance, not only for Judaism, but for the history of philosophy in the Middle Ages generally. @@ -20144,7 +20106,7 @@ devotion to religion was compatible with a taste for free research, and whose works revealed circumspection, clearness, deliberation and depth. Not only laymen, but even profound Talmudists, like -Jonathan Cohen, of Lnel, idolized him, eagerly +Jonathan Cohen, of Lünel, idolized him, eagerly absorbed his every word, and paid him profound homage. "Since the death of the last rabbis of the Talmud, there has not been such a man in Israel."</p> @@ -20164,7 +20126,7 @@ fell sick, and was much worn out by his medical practice, and much affected by political changes. As soon as he had recovered, and calm was restored, he answered certain questions which had some -time before been directed to him from Lnel. In +time before been directed to him from Lünel. In his missive he excuses himself on the ground that his senses were disturbed, his mental power weakened, and his capacities blunted, yet his arguments @@ -20176,7 +20138,7 @@ The great veneration which the congregations of southern France felt for Maimuni's writings, and especially for his code, aroused against him a violent antagonist in the person of Abraham ben David, -of Posquires, whose inconsiderate manner of dealing +of Posquières, whose inconsiderate manner of dealing with those who represented an opposite line of thought to himself had been experienced by Serachya Halevi Gerundi. This profound Talmudist subjected @@ -20196,7 +20158,7 @@ strictures (Hassagoth) upon Maimuni's work gave occasion to the Talmudists of a later time to indulge their casuistical tendencies, and gave a great impulse to the taste for disputation. The rich, learned, -and impulsive rabbi of Posquires also had his +and impulsive rabbi of Posquières also had his admirers. When he died (Friday, 26th Kislev—27th Nov., 1198), descendants of Aaron, who are not allowed to enter a cemetery, made his grave, @@ -20207,7 +20169,7 @@ may sink its sacred character.</p> Maimuni in no way prejudiced the latter's consideration among the congregations of Provence; he remained for them an infallible authority. The -chief representative of Jewish-Provenal culture, +chief representative of Jewish-Provençal culture, Samuel Ibn-Tibbon, wrote to Maimuni that he was busying himself with the rendering of the "Guide" from Arabic into Hebrew, and that he longed to @@ -20245,7 +20207,7 @@ I am accustomed on this day to dispose of the affairs of the community for the following week, and to hold a discourse. Thus my days glide away."</p> -<p>It may be that the congregation of Lnel was not +<p>It may be that the congregation of Lünel was not aware that Samuel Ibn-Tibbon was engaged with the translation of the "Guide," or did not give him credit for ability in that direction; however it was, @@ -20253,9 +20215,9 @@ some of its members applied to Maimuni to translate this work for them into Hebrew. Maimuni pleaded want of time in excuse, and referred them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">492</a></span> to Ibn-Tibbon (about 1200). He seized the opportunity -also to exhort the Provenal Jews to grapple +also to exhort the Provençal Jews to grapple with the scientific treatment of the Talmud. "You, -members of the congregation of Lnel and of the +members of the congregation of Lünel and of the neighboring towns, are the only ones who raise aloft the banner of Moses. You apply yourselves to the study of the Talmud, and also cherish wisdom. @@ -20280,12 +20242,12 @@ and be united in your work." Maimuni felt that enlightened Judaism would have its chief advocacy in Provence. The congregation of Marseilles requested the poet Charisi to translate Maimuni's -Commentary to the Mishna into Hebrew. The Provenals +Commentary to the Mishna into Hebrew. The Provençals took this great man and his writings as a guide in all their actions.</p> <p>When Maimuni despatched his last missive to -the congregation of Lnel, he felt the decadence of +the congregation of Lünel, he felt the decadence of his powers: "I feel old, not in years, but on account of feebleness." He died from weakness at the age of seventy years (20th Tebet—13th Dec., 1204), @@ -20353,7 +20315,7 @@ Louis IX of France—The Jews of Hungary.</p></blockquote> <p>Maimuni, the most intellectual rabbi and the deep religious philosopher, constitutes the zenith in -medival Jewish history, and soon after his death +mediæval Jewish history, and soon after his death the shadows begin to incline. Gradually the sunshine lessens, and gives way to dismal gloom. His intellectual bequest produced a far-reaching cleavage, @@ -20431,7 +20393,7 @@ time of the Lutheran reformation: the tyrannical domination of the Roman Church over princes and peoples, the enslaving and abasing of the human mind, the persecution of free thought, the institution -of the Inquisition, the <i>auto-da-f</i> against heretics, +of the Inquisition, the <i>auto-da-fé</i> against heretics, <i>i. e.</i>, against those who dared doubt the infallibility of the Roman Bishop;—he was also the pope Innocent III who was an embittered enemy of Jews and @@ -20477,7 +20439,7 @@ them; and, lastly, their cemeteries were to be respected, and their dead were neither to be disinterred nor dishonored. So much had Christianity degenerated, that decrees like these, and a constitution -(Constitutio Judorum) like this, had to be +(Constitutio Judæorum) like this, had to be promulgated for the sake of the Jews. So deluded were its leaders, that the head of the Church passed these resolutions, not from the simple motive of @@ -20674,11 +20636,11 @@ instigation of the Pope and the bloodthirsty monk, Arnold of Citeaux. It was led by the ambitious and rapacious Count Simon de Montfort, and it marched against the Viscount Raymund Roger and -his capital Bziers. Roger was doubly hated by +his capital Béziers. Roger was doubly hated by the Pope and his legate as the secret friend of the Albigensian heretics, and as the protector of the Jews. On the 22d July (1209) the beautiful city of -Bziers was stormed, and its inhabitants were massacred +Béziers was stormed, and its inhabitants were massacred in the name of God. "We spared neither dignity, nor sex, nor age," wrote Arnold, the man of blood, to the Pope, "nearly 20,000 human beings @@ -20691,7 +20653,7 @@ to how the orthodox were to be distinguished from the heretics, Arnold answered, "Strike down; God will recognize His own." Under these circumstances, the flourishing and cultured Jewish communities of -Bziers had still less reason to hope for any indulgence. +Béziers had still less reason to hope for any indulgence. The result was that two hundred Jews were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">503</a></span> cut down, and a large number thrown into captivity. The Jews, on their side, marked this year of the @@ -20699,7 +20661,7 @@ Albigensian crusade as a "year of mourning."</p> <p>In consequence of the diplomatic victory over Raymund of Toulouse, and the military victory over -Raymund Roger of Bziers, the intolerant Church +Raymund Roger of Béziers, the intolerant Church had acquired supremacy not only in the south of France, but everywhere else. The audacity of free-thinkers, who claimed the right to form their own @@ -20763,8 +20725,8 @@ nobility against him, he naturally sought to win over to his side the moneyed classes of the people. He appointed a Talmudical scholar, Jacob of London, as chief rabbi over all the English communities -(presbyteratus omnium Judorum totius -Angli), and all his subjects were warned against +(presbyteratus omnium Judæorum totius +Angliæ), and all his subjects were warned against attacking either his property or his dignity. The king called this chief rabbi his "dear friend." Every outrage that was offered to the latter was @@ -20802,7 +20764,7 @@ sides, and their yearning for the Holy Land, which the poet Jehuda Halevi had aroused, induced more than 300 rabbis of France and England to emigrate to Jerusalem (1211). The most renowned of them -were Jonathan Cohen of Lnel, who had been in +were Jonathan Cohen of Lünel, who had been in correspondence with Maimuni, and was one of his admirers, and Samson ben Abraham, an opponent of the school of Maimonides. Many of the emigrants @@ -21250,7 +21212,7 @@ means of refuting a heresy than the blazing fire.</p> Pope against the Jews at that time had least effect in Germany, and that under Emperor Frederick II they enjoyed a comparatively favorable position. -It is true that they were "servi camer" of +It is true that they were "servi cameræ" of the empire and the emperor, and were even so called; but nevertheless princes, especially the archdukes of Austria, now and again entrusted into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">517</a></span> @@ -21270,7 +21232,7 @@ of that time. A synod of rabbis, which met at Mayence for the purpose of adjusting it. There were at this synod, which numbered more than twenty members, the most influential rabbis in Germany: David ben -Kalonymos, of Mnzenburg (in Hesse-Darmstadt), +Kalonymos, of Münzenburg (in Hesse-Darmstadt), a famous Tossafist; Baruch ben Samuel, of Mayence, composer of a Talmudical work; Chiskiya ben Reuben, of Boppard, the courageous champion @@ -21342,7 +21304,7 @@ end, and the horrors of a blind, revengeful, bloodthirsty reaction began. The preacher-monks, the disciples of Domingo, glorified Christianity through the agonies of the rack and the stake. Whoever -was in possession of a Bible in the Romance (Provenal) +was in possession of a Bible in the Romance (Provençal) language incurred the charge of heresy at the court of the Dominicans, who had the exclusive right to bloodthirsty persecutions. Their allies, the @@ -21375,7 +21337,7 @@ Ferdinand III of Castile, who inherited also the crown of Leon, and was likewise recognized by the Church as a saint, because he burnt heretics with his own hand. Lastly, the Dominican-General Raymond -de Penyaforte (Peaforte), the most frantic +de Penyaforte (Peñaforte), the most frantic oppressor of the heretics, who applied all his efforts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">520</a></span> to convert Jews and Mahometans to Christianity. In this spirit he exercised his influence upon the @@ -21393,7 +21355,7 @@ of Aragon, the position of the Jews of Aragon and of the provinces belonging to it took an evil turn. Spurred on by clerical fanaticism and by greed for gold, this king declared the Jews to be his clients, -<i>i. e.</i> in a manner, his "servi camer."</p> +<i>i. e.</i> in a manner, his "servi cameræ."</p> <p>Everywhere the hostile spirit which first proceeded from Innocent, and was spread by the @@ -21465,7 +21427,7 @@ KABBALA.</span></h2> <blockquote> -<p class="hang">The Opposition against Maimuni—Maimunists and anti-Maimunists—Mer +<p class="hang">The Opposition against Maimuni—Maimunists and anti-Maimunists—Meïr Abulafia—Samson of Sens—Solomon of Montpellier—Excommunication of the Maimunists—David Kimchi's energetic Advocacy of Maimuni—Nachmani—His Character and Work—His @@ -21533,7 +21495,7 @@ repel. Thus, besides enthusiastic worshipers of Maimuni, who religiously adopted his doctrine as a new revelation, there was formed a party, which assailed his writings, and combated particularly the -"Guide of the Perplexed" (Mor), and the first +"Guide of the Perplexed" (Moré), and the first part of his Code (Madda). The rabbis and the representatives of the Jewish congregations in Europe and Asia, consequently became divided @@ -21549,14 +21511,14 @@ writings which contained them.</p> begun during Maimuni's life, but it remained quiet and timid, unable to assert itself against the enthusiasm of his admirers. A young, intellectual, and -learned man, Mer ben Todros Halevi Abulafia, of +learned man, Meïr ben Todros Halevi Abulafia, of Toledo (born about 1180, died 1244), had, at an early period, expressed his religious objections to Maimuni's theory in a letter to the "wise men of -Lnel," which was intended for publication. Maimuni's +Lünel," which was intended for publication. Maimuni's doctrine of immortality forms the central point of Abulafia's attack. He made, however, but -little impression by this letter, for although Mer +little impression by this letter, for although Meïr Abulafia was descended from a highly respectable family, and enjoyed considerable authority, still his hostile attitude towards science, and his @@ -21564,9 +21526,9 @@ tendency towards an ossified Judaism, isolated him even in his own circle. Apart from this, he was possessed of overweening arrogance, a quality not calculated to win adherents and organize a party. -Instead of finding supporters, Mer met with a +Instead of finding supporters, Meïr met with a sharp rebuff from the learned Aaron ben Meshullam, -of Lnel, who was master of the sciences and +of Lünel, who was master of the sciences and the Talmud, and a warm adherent of Maimuni. He charged him with presumption in venturing, though unripe in years and wisdom, to pass an opinion on @@ -21575,7 +21537,7 @@ northern France, led by Samson of Sens, to whom every letter of the Talmud was an embodiment of the highest truths, and who would not countenance any new interpretations, thoroughly concurred with -the inquisitor Mer Abulafia. Mer was looked +the inquisitor Meïr Abulafia. Meïr was looked upon in his time as chief of the Obscurantists. The aged Sheshet Benveniste, of Barcelona, ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">525</a></span> a warm friend of free research, composed a sarcastic @@ -21583,7 +21545,7 @@ epigram upon him:</p> <div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> <span class="i0">"You ask me, friends, why this man's name,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Seeing he walks in darkness, should be Mer.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a><br /></span> +<span class="i0">Seeing he walks in darkness, should be Meïr.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a><br /></span> <span class="i0">I answer, the sages have called the night 'light,'<br /></span> <span class="i0">This, too, is an example of the rule of contraries."<br /></span> </div></div> @@ -21754,7 +21716,7 @@ ben Abraham Gerundi (the elder) of Gerona, a blind zealot like his master, and David ben Saul. These three pronounced the ban (beginning of 1232) against all those who read Maimuni's compositions, -especially the philosophical parts (Mor and +especially the philosophical parts (Moré and Madda), against those who studied anything except the Bible and the Talmud, against those who distorted the plain literal sense of Holy Writ, or, in @@ -21786,7 +21748,7 @@ science, and the defamation of Maimuni, excited the violent indignation of his admirers. It seemed to them unheard-of audacity, unparalleled impudence. The three chief congregations of Provence, -Lnel, Bziers, and Narbonne, in which the +Lünel, Béziers, and Narbonne, in which the Maimunists were in power, rose against this presumption of the Obscurantists, and on their side excommunicated Solomon and his two disciples, @@ -21835,7 +21797,7 @@ to defend his own cause. Old and weak as he was, he nevertheless did not hesitate to undertake a journey to Spain, in order personally to bring the congregations of that country over to the side of -the Provenals against Solomon of Montpellier.</p> +the Provençals against Solomon of Montpellier.</p> <p>Another man of commanding influence in this struggle was Moses ben Nachman, or Nachmani @@ -21925,7 +21887,7 @@ pillars rested: the creation from nothing, the omniscience of God, and divine providence. But, although Nachmani shunned philosophy, he nevertheless advanced new ideas which, though not -demonstrated by logical formul, deserve recognition. +demonstrated by logical formulæ, deserve recognition. The ethical philosophy of Maimuni sought to elevate man above the accidents of life, by reminding him of his higher origin and his future bliss, @@ -22019,7 +21981,7 @@ which mystical names of God might be composed.</p> was uttered against Maimuni's philosophical writings, Nachmani was not yet forty years old, but he even then was of such importance that even the -haughty Mer Abulafia paid him the tribute of his +haughty Meïr Abulafia paid him the tribute of his respect. He could, therefore, as rabbi of the congregation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">536</a></span> of Gerona, support either the one party or the other. He decided in favor of his friend @@ -22097,7 +22059,7 @@ was probably physician in ordinary of King Ferdinand III, possessed the greatest authority. Hitherto he had not expressed his opinion either for or against Maimuni, but had observed a discreet -silence. But the zealous rabbi of Toledo, Mer +silence. But the zealous rabbi of Toledo, Meïr Abulafia Halevi, the old antagonist of the Maimunist tendency, loudly raised his voice. He replied to the letters of Nachmani and of the Gerona @@ -22120,7 +22082,7 @@ down the enclosures. "The exalting of God's name is on their lips, but also poison and death lurk on their tongues." He had always kept himself remote from this bottomless heresy, and had sent a letter -to the Lnel community more than thirty years +to the Lünel community more than thirty years since, to counteract the enthusiasm for Maimuni, but his effort had been fruitless.</p> @@ -22180,7 +22142,7 @@ us heretics who cling as firmly as you to the Torah and tradition?" Saporta's letter, in addition to other influences, made so deep an impression upon some of the French rabbis that they renounced -Solomon. They soon notified the Provenal congregations +Solomon. They soon notified the Provençal congregations of their change of opinion. This change was undoubtedly due in great measure to Moses, of Coucy (born about 1200, died about 1260), one @@ -22212,7 +22174,7 @@ other hand, the condemnation of the study of the of the Talmudical exposition of the Bible was to be strengthened. This sentence of excommunication was not to be passed by the one party -only, but the Provenal rabbis, and even Maimuni's +only, but the Provençal rabbis, and even Maimuni's son, the pious Abraham, were to be invited to support it with their authority. In this manner the gate would be closed to disaffection and unbelief. @@ -22265,7 +22227,7 @@ support of Toledo were quite disconcerted at the result.</p> <p>In the meantime, the sympathy of such influential -personages as Alfachar, Nachmani, and Mer +personages as Alfachar, Nachmani, and Meïr Abulafia, proved to be of little value to Solomon's cause. The feeling of the people in his native place and in Spain was against him. The French @@ -22357,7 +22319,7 @@ Dominicans judges of what was or was not consistent with Judaism, was to introduce the heathen enemy into the Holy of Holies. Samuel Saporta denounced this conduct in a letter to the French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">544</a></span> -rabbis. Abraham ben Chasda of Barcelona, an +rabbis. Abraham ben Chasdaï of Barcelona, an enthusiastic admirer of Maimuni, who had censured Jehuda Alfachar for his insulting treatment of Kimchi, and for his espousal of the cause of Solomon, @@ -22368,7 +22330,7 @@ who was in Burgos on his homeward journey, heard of this affair, he inquired of Alfachar, whether he still thought of keeping the informer and traitor, Solomon, under his protection. The intelligent followers -of the latter, Nachmani and Mer Abulafia, +of the latter, Nachmani and Meïr Abulafia, were deeply abashed, and remained silent. Public opinion condemned Solomon and the cause he represented. A poet of the Maimunist party composed @@ -22394,7 +22356,7 @@ incidents are veiled. The fate of Solomon, the cause of all these events, is uncertain. The Maimunists observed with a certain malicious joy the severe punishment of their adversaries in Montpellier. -A poet, probably Abraham ben Chasda, wrote +A poet, probably Abraham ben Chasdaï, wrote an epigram upon it, which was soon in everyone's mouth:</p> @@ -22418,7 +22380,7 @@ entitled "War for God" (Milchamoth), in order to repel the attack upon the orthodoxy of his father, and to denounce the conduct of his opponents. This composition, directed, in the form of a -letter, to Solomon ben Asher (in Lnel?), justified +letter, to Solomon ben Asher (in Lünel?), justified Maimuni's system on Maimuni's lines, and is valuable only on account of its historical data.</p> @@ -22430,7 +22392,7 @@ attempted another method of procedure, with greater success. Moses of Coucy, who, although of the Tossafist tendency, had held Maimuni in high esteem, undertook the task of fortifying the -drooping spirit of religion among the Provenals and +drooping spirit of religion among the Provençals and the Spaniards by delivering sermons and spirited exhortations. Moses was undoubtedly inspired in his attempt by the example of the preacher-monks, @@ -22514,7 +22476,7 @@ of this occult lore, when asked to confess honestly from whom they had first received it, answered in plain terms: "From Rabbi Isaac the Blind, or perhaps from his father, Abraham ben -David, of Posquires, the antagonist of Maimuni." +David, of Posquières, the antagonist of Maimuni." They frankly confessed that the Kabbalistic doctrine does not appear either in the Pentateuch or in the Prophets, in the Hagiographa, or in @@ -22580,7 +22542,7 @@ was an abomination to those whose deep piety regarded every word of the Bible and the Talmud as a divine truth. There is a way of escape from the philosophical consideration of God and Judaism, -<i>i. e.</i> to receive everything in nave faith. This was +<i>i. e.</i> to receive everything in naïve faith. This was the method of the Jews of Germany and northern France; it was the rigid Tossafist tendency. But the pious Jews of southern France and of Spain, @@ -22876,8 +22838,8 @@ had recourse to fraud. They circulated a Kabbalistic manuscript which purported to have been composed by an honored Talmudical doctor, Nechunya ben ha-Kana, and others. In vain the -highly respected Mer ben Simon and Rabbi Meshullam -of Bziers called attention to this forgery, +highly respected Meïr ben Simon and Rabbi Meshullam +of Béziers called attention to this forgery, which bore the title Bahir (Luminous), and condemned it to be burnt, as it contained blasphemies against the greatness of God; the book Bahir @@ -22965,7 +22927,7 @@ The happy contentment, the joyousness, the delight in original, intellectual work, which, combined with spiritual activity, had borne such beautiful fruit, had all long since passed away. Sad earnestness filled -the hearts of the Spanish and Provenal Jews, and +the hearts of the Spanish and Provençal Jews, and weighed down, as with lead, every lofty aspiration of their souls. The joyous singers became silent, as if the icy breath of the gloomy present had suddenly @@ -23022,20 +22984,20 @@ power of poetic production had died out, and those who were acquainted with the manipulation of language, and could construct tolerably good rhymes, merely imitated the work of their predecessors. -Abraham ben Chasda, a Maimunist, of +Abraham ben Chasdaï, a Maimunist, of Barcelona, re-wrote, from an Arabic translation, a moral dialogue between a worldly-minded and a penitent man. This he put into a Hebrew form under the title of "The Prince and the Nazarite."</p> -<p>A poor copyist, Berachya ben Natrona Nakdan, +<p>A poor copyist, Berachya ben Natronaï Nakdan, called in the dialect of the country Crispia (flourished about 1230–1270), turned his attention to fables, which had been popular among the ancient Hebrews. He was, however, unable to invent, but chiefly elaborated in the neo-Hebraic form the productions of earlier fabulists. Among his one hundred -and seven Fox Fables (Mishl Shualim) there +and seven Fox Fables (Mishlé Shualim) there are very few original ones. Berachya desired to hold a mirror up to his contemporaries, "who spurned the truth, and held out the golden scepter @@ -23047,7 +23009,7 @@ Berachya and of Ibn-Sahula, a minor poet of northern Spain (1245), who also moralized in perfervid words in the "Fables of Ancient Times" (Mashal ha-Kadmoni), as also by the moral tale, "The -Prince and the Dervish" of Abraham ben Chasda, +Prince and the Dervish" of Abraham ben Chasdaï, consists in the happy imitation of the Biblical style, and in the ingenious application of the verses of Scripture to an entirely different line of thought. @@ -23124,7 +23086,7 @@ of Melun—The Talmud burnt at Paris—The Church and Jewish Physicians—Moses Ibn-Tibbon and Shem-Tob Tortosi—Papal Bull acquitting Jews of the Blood-accusation—The Last French Tossafists—The Jews of England—The Jewish -Parliament—Alfonso the Wise and the Jews of Spain—Mer de +Parliament—Alfonso the Wise and the Jews of Spain—Meïr de Malea and his Sons—The Jewish Astronomers Don Judah Cohen and Don Zag Ibn-Said—The Jews of Aragon—De Penyaforte and the Apostate Pablo Christiani—The First Censorship of the @@ -23266,10 +23228,10 @@ mystical character. Following this method, he delivered public discourses on Sabbaths and festivals, which he collected into one volume (Malmed), which, in spite of its mediocrity, became the cherished -book of the orthodox Provenal congregations. +book of the orthodox Provençal congregations. Frederick II entrusted him with the task of translating the writings of Aristotle, with the commentaries -of the Arabic philosopher Averros (Ibn-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">567</a></span>Roshd), +of the Arabic philosopher Averroës (Ibn-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">567</a></span>Roshd), hitherto unknown to Christians. A Christian doctor, probably Michael Scotus, the court astrologer of the emperor, translated these works @@ -23370,7 +23332,7 @@ condemned to perpetual slavery, oppress the Christians through its office-holding members. With particular satisfaction he pronounced the sentence that the Jews, wherever they were located, were the "servi -camer" of the emperor. He adhered so strictly to +cameræ" of the emperor. He adhered so strictly to the canonical decrees of the Lateran Council against them, that he was even more rigorous than the kings of Spain in executing the law which compelled @@ -23384,7 +23346,7 @@ whilst he remitted taxes from other colonies for ten years, he at once burdened the Jewish immigrants with heavy imposts, and restricted them to agricultural pursuits. He, indeed, promised his "servi -camer" especial protection, but nevertheless he +cameræ" especial protection, but nevertheless he treated them as a despised race of human beings. Henceforward the three powers of Christianity, the princes, the Church, and the people, combined to @@ -23395,7 +23357,7 @@ When Pope Gregory IX gave orders for another crusade to be preached, the warriors of the cross assembled in Aquitania, made an attack upon the Jewish communities of Anjou, Poitou, in the cities -of Bordeaux, Angoulme, and elsewhere, in order +of Bordeaux, Angoulême, and elsewhere, in order to compel them to accept baptism. But as the Jews remained steadfast to their faith, the crusaders acted with unprecedented cruelty towards them, trampling @@ -23411,7 +23373,7 @@ five hundred accepted Christianity. Once again did the surviving Jews complain to the pope of this unendurable cruelty. The pope felt himself obliged to send a letter about the matter to the prelates of -the Church in Bordeaux, Angoulme, and other +the Church in Bordeaux, Angoulême, and other bishoprics, and also to King Louis IX of France (September, 1236), in which he deplored the events that had taken place, and signified that the Church @@ -23519,7 +23481,7 @@ name of Nicholas. Filled with hatred against the rabbis and the Talmud, the apostate determined to revenge himself on both. Probably urged on by the clergy, he became the instigator of the great -autos-da-f of the Jews and their writings, and it +autos-da-fé of the Jews and their writings, and it was he that occasioned the bloody persecution in Poitou. His appetite for revenge was, however, not yet satiated. Donin or Nicholas betook himself @@ -23541,7 +23503,7 @@ the sage remark of Abtalion, "Ye wise men, be cautious with your words," they, in their desire to immortalize every utterance, every familiar conversation, every trivial controversy, and even every -joke made by one of the Tanam or Amoram, had +joke made by one of the Tanaïm or Amoraïm, had incorporated these in the Talmud, thinking that the outer world would be none the wiser. But the sins of the fathers were visited upon the children. On @@ -23752,9 +23714,9 @@ should be sought for, and taken away from their possessors by force. Four-and-twenty cartloads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">579</a></span> of them were brought together in one spot in Paris, and committed to the flames (Friday, Tamuz—June, -1242). Two young men, one a Provenal and the +1242). Two young men, one a Provençal and the other a German, named respectively Abraham Bedaresi -and Mer, of Rothenburg, wrote each an elegy +and Meïr, of Rothenburg, wrote each an elegy upon this event. The French Jews or the French students of the Talmud, who imagined that they could as little exist without the Talmud as without @@ -23864,7 +23826,7 @@ entrusted to his skill. The clergy, who were seldom gentle as doves, but often full of cunning, could not suffer this influence of the Jews over the powerful rulers of the land. The Church council at -Bziers was the first to pay special attention to the +Béziers was the first to pay special attention to the question of Jews' practising the medicinal art. Under the presidency of the Archbishop of Narbonne, this council, which also inflicted all kinds of @@ -23915,7 +23877,7 @@ was able to translate the writings of the best Arabic physicians, and to deliver lectures upon the healing art. These and many other Jewish physicians were now, in pursuance of the edict of the council at -Bziers, to be driven forth from the temple to which +Béziers, to be driven forth from the temple to which they alone, it may almost be said, in all Christendom possessed the key.</p> @@ -23928,11 +23890,11 @@ even the most bigoted Christian called in the aid of the clever Jewish physician. When Alfonso, Duke of Poitou and Toulouse, the brother of the fanatical king, Louis IX, under whose patronage the anti-Jewish -councils at Bziers and Alby had taken place, +councils at Béziers and Alby had taken place, was afflicted with some disease of the eye, he was perforce obliged to invoke the assistance of Abraham of Aragon, a skilful Jewish oculist. The lord -of Lnel was driven to use great efforts, and to +of Lünel was driven to use great efforts, and to seek the good offices of his Jewish agent, in order to induce the wealthy and independent Jewish physician to attend to the French prince. In Montpellier, @@ -24116,8 +24078,8 @@ special tax for the privilege; and he forbade the native Jews, not, indeed, from any particularly tender feeling towards them, to quit the country. Henry, as his father had done, appointed a chief rabbi over -all the Jewish congregations (presbyter Judorum). -The first man to hold this office was Joceus (Jos?); +all the Jewish congregations (presbyter Judæorum). +The first man to hold this office was Joceus (José?); Aaron of York succeeded him, and the last to hold the post was Elias, of London. This appointment was for life. The English chief rabbi possessed @@ -24239,7 +24201,7 @@ and to resort to usury in order to replenish their coffers. An account, which is still extant, gives some idea of the exactions made by Henry III. The Jews were required to collect within seven years -the sum of 422,000 sterling. One Jew, Aaron +the sum of £422,000 sterling. One Jew, Aaron of York, was compelled to pay to the king, in seven years, the sum of 30,000 marks of silver, besides 200 marks of gold to the queen. As the chief rabbi @@ -24317,7 +24279,7 @@ and Spanish inscription, which ran as follows:—"The King of kings opens, the king of the land will enter." When Alfonso ascended the throne, he entrusted many important official positions to the -Jews. Don Mer de Malea, who was a cultured +Jews. Don Meïr de Malea, who was a cultured man, and a student of the Talmud, was treasurer to this monarch, and bore the title of Almoxarif. He appears to have performed his functions in this @@ -24474,7 +24436,7 @@ the bigoted St. Louis and his councilors. From them he acquired the theory of the proper treatment of Jews. He also looked upon them, with all their possessions, as the chattels of the sovereign, -his "servi camer," serfs. No Jew was allowed +his "servi cameræ," serfs. No Jew was allowed to place himself under the protection of a nobleman. There was an advantage in this: it withdrew the Jews from the jurisdiction of the clergy. @@ -24672,7 +24634,7 @@ was resolved upon compassing the conversion of the Jews, and permitted nothing to turn him from his fixed determination. He obtained from King Jayme a letter of protection which would enable -his protg Pablo Christiani to go on long missionary +his protégé Pablo Christiani to go on long missionary journeys, and thus the Jews were exposed to the caprice of the Jewish Dominican friar. What had failed of success in Barcelona, with an antagonist @@ -24816,7 +24778,7 @@ exile. He made his way to the Holy Land, being filled with the same intense longing as his spiritual kinsman, Jehuda Halevi. He went a step further than the latter, maintaining that it is the religious -duty of every Jew to dwell in Juda. Thus fate +duty of every Jew to dwell in Judæa. Thus fate had done him a kindness, assisting him in the performance of a command, and helping him to fulfil his ardent desire. He set out on his journey by @@ -24845,7 +24807,7 @@ oppressors of Israel, the followers of Jesus and of Mahomet, might perhaps bring near unto Israel the hour of redemption. An enthusiast circulated a new revelation said to have been given through -Simon bar Yocha, the medium so frequently appealed +Simon bar Yochaï, the medium so frequently appealed to by mysticism, and it declared that the devastations of the Mongols were the sufferings which must precede the coming of the Messiah.</p> @@ -24855,8 +24817,8 @@ Mongols had been expelled from the country by the Sultan of Egypt. He beheld many ruins, and apostrophized them in eloquent words, saying, "The more holy the place, the greater its desolation; -Jerusalem is more desolate than the rest of Juda, -and Juda in turn more desolate than Galilee." +Jerusalem is more desolate than the rest of Judæa, +and Judæa in turn more desolate than Galilee." The Jews of the Holy City had either been slain or scattered; the scrolls of the Law had been rescued by some who fled to Shechem. Two thousand Mahometans @@ -24937,7 +24899,7 @@ mystics.</p> <p>During his three years' stay in Palestine, Nachmani kept up a correspondence with his native -land, whereby Juda and Spain were brought into +land, whereby Judæa and Spain were brought into closer connection. He sent copies of his works to his sons and friends, and gave them descriptions of the condition of their ever unhappy ancestral @@ -24988,7 +24950,7 @@ Kimchi was completely neglected.</p> at Buda—The Jews of Spain and Portugal—Solomon ben Adret, his character and writings—Raymund Martin's anti-Jewish Works—New antagonism to the Maimunist Philosophy—David -Maimuni—Moses Taku—Mer of Rothenburg—The Jews +Maimuni—Moses Taku—Meïr of Rothenburg—The Jews of Italy—Solomon Petit—Rudolph of Habsburg—Emigration of Jews from the Rhine Provinces—Sufferings of the English Jews—Expulsion of the Jews from England and Gascony—Saad-Addaula—Isaac @@ -25167,7 +25129,7 @@ revenues of their sees to the hands of Jews were to be suspended from their holy offices. Laymen, of whatsoever rank, were to be placed under a ban of excommunication till they dismissed the -Jewish contractors and employs, and had given +Jewish contractors and employés, and had given security that henceforward they would not accept or retain such men, "because it is very dangerous to permit Jews to dwell together with Christian @@ -25210,7 +25172,7 @@ Castile, had promulgated a law precluding Jews from filling state offices, yet he himself continued to appoint Jews to important posts. Amongst others, he promoted Don Zag (Isaac) de Malea, the son -of Don Mer, to be the royal treasurer. He was +of Don Meïr, to be the royal treasurer. He was severely rebuked for doing so by Pope Nicholas III (1279), but still he did not remove the Jews from their offices. On one occasion, indeed, he became @@ -25465,7 +25427,7 @@ books full of malevolent hostility against Judaism, whose very titles announce that the prison cell and the sword were to be employed against its adherents. They are called "Bridle for the Jews," -and "Dagger of Faith" (Capistrum Judorum, and +and "Dagger of Faith" (Capistrum Judæorum, and Pugio Fidei). Martin possessed a thorough knowledge of Biblical and rabbinical literature, and was the first Christian who was better acquainted with @@ -25570,7 +25532,7 @@ agitated with speculations upon the consequences involved in the Maimunist philosophy of religion.</p> <p>The man who rekindled this bitter strife was a -learned Talmudist, named Moses ben Chasda Taku +learned Talmudist, named Moses ben Chasdaï Taku (Tachau?), who flourished from about 1250 to 1290. An eccentric, orthodox literalist, he considered all philosophical and rational views concerning Judaism @@ -25594,7 +25556,7 @@ were in entire agreement with him: but they did not all possess the courage or versatility to take part in a contest against the well-armed representatives of the philosophical school. The -most distinguished among them was Mer ben +most distinguished among them was Meïr ben Baruch of Rothenburg on the Tauber (born 1220, died 1293), on whom the last rays of the dying school of the Tossafists continued to linger. He @@ -25609,7 +25571,7 @@ with Ben Adret; however, he was an authority in Germany and northern France. His piety was of an exaggerated kind. It had been agreed by the French rabbis that in winter rooms might be -warmed on the Sabbath by Christians. Mer of +warmed on the Sabbath by Christians. Meïr of Rothenburg would not allow the Sabbath to be desecrated in this indirect way. He therefore tightly fastened up the doors of the stoves in his @@ -25651,7 +25613,7 @@ more a sentence of condemnation upon Maimunist writings, of forbidding under penalties all scientific study, and excommunicating men engaged in independent research. His fanaticism was especially -directed against Maimuni's "Guide" (Mor); in his +directed against Maimuni's "Guide" (Moré); in his opinion it deserved to be proscribed, like other heretical works. He enlisted many followers in Palestine to aid him in this attack on heresy. Who @@ -25662,7 +25624,7 @@ Solomon Petit met with unexpected opposition.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627">627</a></span> At the head of the Eastern congregations at this -time, there stood an energetic man, Yisha ben +time, there stood an energetic man, Yishaï ben Chiskiya, who had obtained the title of Prince and Exilarch (Resh-Galuta) from the temporal authorities. Those communities of Palestine which were @@ -25670,7 +25632,7 @@ under the rule of the Mahometans and of the Egyptian Sultan Kilavun, naturally belonged to his diocese, and he also claimed obedience from the community at Accho, although it was in the hands of -the crusaders. The Exilarch Yisha held Maimuni +the crusaders. The Exilarch Yishaï held Maimuni in the highest respect, and was on friendly terms with his grandson, David, the Nagid of Egypt. As soon as he received information concerning the @@ -25678,7 +25640,7 @@ doings of Solomon Petit, the mystic of Accho, he dispatched a sharp letter to him, and threatened to excommunicate him if he persisted in his attacks on Maimuni and his writings. Several rabbis, whom -Yisha had called in, to add the weight of their +Yishaï had called in, to add the weight of their authority to his, expressed themselves to the same effect. But Solomon Petit was not a man to permit himself to be overpowered by obstacles. He undertook @@ -25695,7 +25657,7 @@ read them. Nowhere did Solomon Petit meet with such hearty support as with the German rabbis. They showed their approval of his action in letters, even some of those who had recently been in agreement -with the Exilarch Yisha.</p> +with the Exilarch Yishaï.</p> <p>Being assured of the assistance of the German and of some of the French rabbis, Solomon Petit @@ -25720,7 +25682,7 @@ liberty to permit the clergy to exert any influence over their domestic concerns. The city of Ferrara passed a statute in favor of the Jews, granting many liberties to them, and containing a clause stating, -that a magistrate (podest) could be empowered +that a magistrate (podestà) could be empowered neither by the pope nor by any one else to deprive them of these privileges. Not only had the king of Sicily, Charles of Anjou, a Jewish physician, Farraj @@ -25785,7 +25747,7 @@ The miracles in the Bible and the Talmud were not<span class="pagenum"><a name=" regarded by him as fanciful allegories, but on the contrary retained their character as real events. About this time there lived in Italy two logical -thinkers, one a native born Italian, Sabbata ben +thinkers, one a native born Italian, Sabbataï ben Solomon, of Rome—in his time a very distinguished personage—and the other, a Spaniard, who had emigrated to Rome, Serachya ben Isaac, a @@ -25895,7 +25857,7 @@ that he would place Petit under the severest ban of excommunication till he ceased his attempts to create a disturbance (Iyar, 1289). Eleven rabbis of his college signed this threat against the heresy-hunter -of Accho. The Exilarch of Damascus, Yisha +of Accho. The Exilarch of Damascus, Yishaï ben Chiskiya, who had already issued a warning against these attacks on Maimuni, again took energetic action in the matter. Together with his @@ -26089,7 +26051,7 @@ seek a new home. Many families from the cities of Mayence, Worms, Speyer, Oppenheim, and others, in the Wetterau, left their rich possessions in order to go across the sea. At the head of these emigrants -was the most famous rabbi of Germany, Mer +was the most famous rabbi of Germany, Meïr of Rothenburg, who was revered as a saint. He also wandered forth, together with his whole family, to make his way to Syria (spring, 1286). A rumor @@ -26138,17 +26100,17 @@ and rose step by step to the position of the highest state official.</p> <p>Many wealthy Jews of the districts of the Rhine -and the Maine started on their journey; and Mer +and the Maine started on their journey; and Meïr of Rothenburg reached Lombardy, together with his whole family. He was only waiting for the members of his congregation in order to take ship in Italy, and, together with other exiles, steer their course towards the East into the haven of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">639</a></span> -safety. Unfortunately, Mer was recognized by a +safety. Unfortunately, Meïr was recognized by a baptized Jew, who was passing through the same town in the train of the bishop of Basle. At the instigation of the bishop, the captain, Meinhard of -Grz, took him prisoner, and delivered him to the +Görz, took him prisoner, and delivered him to the authorities. Emperor Rudolph ordered him to be placed under arrest in the tower of Ensisheim, in Alsace (4th Tammuz—19th June, 1286). The @@ -26156,8 +26118,8 @@ emperor did not intend to punish the runaway rabbi, but to keep him safe and prevent him from emigrating. He was afraid that, by the departure of the Jews <i>en masse</i>, the imperial income obtained -from these serfs of the chamber ("servi camer") -would suffer heavy loss. Mer's imprisonment was, +from these serfs of the chamber ("servi cameræ") +would suffer heavy loss. Meïr's imprisonment was, therefore, not a severe one. He was permitted to receive visits, to instruct his pupils, and to perform all the functions of a rabbi, but he was not permitted @@ -26171,16 +26133,16 @@ Rudolph, when he paid a visit to the Rhine country of money, he entered into negotiations with them. The Jews offered him 20,000 marks of silver if he would inflict punishment upon the murderers of the -Jews of Oberwesel and Boppard, release Mer from +Jews of Oberwesel and Boppard, release Meïr from custody, and guarantee to them security against murderous outrages at the hands of the populace. The emperor acceded to their terms, and laid a heavy fine upon the citizens of Oberwesel and -Boppard. Mer was not, however, released from +Boppard. Meïr was not, however, released from prison, either because the emperor hoped to make capital of the respect of the Jews for their rabbi, and to extract large sums of money from them, -or, as is related, because Mer himself refused +or, as is related, because Meïr himself refused to be liberated on these terms. He feared that the precedent of imprisoning the rabbis to extort ransoms from the Jews, would be frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_640" id="Page_640">640</a></span> @@ -26191,7 +26153,7 @@ composed several works there. He died in prison, and the successors of Rudolph kept his corpse unburied for fourteen years, in order to extort money from the congregations. At length a childless -man from Frankfort, named Ssskind Alexander +man from Frankfort, named Süsskind Alexander Wimpfen, ransomed the body for a large sum, and interred it in Worms. The only reward which the noble Wimpfen demanded was that his @@ -26230,7 +26192,7 @@ their own writings. But instead of converting them, the preaching friar, Robert de Reddinge, became himself converted. He was inspired by so deep a love for Judaism that he underwent circumcision, -assumed the name of Hagga, and married a +assumed the name of Haggaï, and married a beautiful Jewess (summer of 1275). When he was summoned to answer for his apostasy, he defended his new faith with great warmth. King Edward @@ -26623,7 +26585,7 @@ the translation of most of the poetic passages in this volume.—[<span clas <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor1">4</a> Mer means light-bearer or luminary.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor1">4</a> Meïr means light-bearer or luminary.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651">651</a></span></p> @@ -26637,24 +26599,24 @@ the translation of most of the poetic passages in this volume.—[<span clas <p>Aaron Halevi, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>.</p> <p>Abassid caliphs, civil war of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">persecute the Jews, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span></p> -<p>Abdallah Ibn-Sab, Jewish partisan of Ali, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> -<p>Abdallah Ibn-Salm, relation of, to Mahomet, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p> +<p>Abdallah Ibn-Sabâ, Jewish partisan of Ali, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> +<p>Abdallah Ibn-Salâm, relation of, to Mahomet, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p> <p>Abdallah Ibn-Ubey, ally of the Jews in Arabia, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> <p>Abdel-latif, opinion of, on Maimonides, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</p> <p>Abdul Malik, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> <p>Abdulmumen, bigotry of, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">persecutes the Jews in Africa, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span></p> <p>Abdul-Rahman III, inaugurates the classical period of Moslem culture in Spain, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">and Chasda, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> ff.</span></p> -<p>Abel Zion. See <a href="#mourners">Mourners of Zion</a>.</p> -<p>Abodah (liturgy of the Day of Atonement), of Jos bar Jos, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> f.<br /> +<span class="ixsub1">and Chasdaï, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> ff.</span></p> +<p>Abelé Zion. See <a href="#mourners">Mourners of Zion</a>.</p> +<p>Abodah (liturgy of the Day of Atonement), of José bar José, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Simon ben Caipha, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">connected with the Apostle Peter, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span></p> <p>Abrabanels, descent of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> <p>Abraham of Aragon, oculist, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>.</p> -<p>Abraham ben Chasda of Barcelona, champion of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.<br /> +<p>Abraham ben Chasdaï of Barcelona, champion of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">poet, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</span></p> -<p>Abraham ben David of Posquires (Rabed II), <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.<br /> +<p>Abraham ben David of Posquières (Rabed II), <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">death of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">opposition of, to Maimonides, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</span></p> <p id="abrahamson">Abraham, son of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.<br /> @@ -26664,12 +26626,12 @@ the translation of most of the poetic passages in this volume.—[<span clas <p>Abu-Amran Moses, founder of a Karaite sect, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> f.</p> <p>Abu-Ayub, poet and court physician, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p> <p>Abu-Bekr, repelled by the Jews, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> -<p>Abu-Fadhl Chasda, Jewish vizir and poet in Saragossa, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> +<p>Abu-Fadhl Chasdaï, Jewish vizir and poet in Saragossa, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> <p>Abu-Isa, opposition of, to the Talmud, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p> <p>Abu-Jafar Almansur, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> f.</p> <p>Abu-Jafar Ibn-Aljezzar, Mahometan physician, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p> <p>Abu-Kariba, Arabian king converted to Judaism, <a href="#Page_62">62</a> f.</p> -<p>Abulafia, Mer, opponent of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_524">524</a> f., <a href="#Page_537">537</a> f.</p> +<p>Abulafia, Meïr, opponent of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_524">524</a> f., <a href="#Page_537">537</a> f.</p> <p>Abulmeni. See <a href="#abrahamson">Abraham, son of Maimonides</a>.</p> <p>Abu-Mansur, head of the Jewish community in Egypt, <a href="#Page_340">340</a> f.</p> <p>Abu-Sahal Ali, Jewish scholar, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> @@ -26677,7 +26639,7 @@ the translation of most of the poetic passages in this volume.—[<span clas <p>Abuzurj-Mihir, counselor of Hormisdas IV, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> <p id="Accho">Accho, Jewish community of, blotted out, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">nest of the Kabbalists, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>.</span></p> -<p>Achuna. See <a href="#chananya">Chananya</a>.</p> +<p>Achunaï. See <a href="#chananya">Chananya</a>.</p> <p>Acrostichs, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> <p>Aden, warlike Jews of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> <p>Adher-Baijan, low condition of the Jews of, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> @@ -26839,7 +26801,7 @@ the translation of most of the poetic passages in this volume.—[<span clas <p>Aus, Arabic tribe partly converted to Judaism, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> <p>Austrasia, Jews of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> <p>Austria, favorable condition of the Jews of, <a href="#Page_516">516</a> f., <a href="#Page_567">567</a> f.</p> -<p>Averros, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</p> +<p>Averroës, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</p> <p>Avignon, council of, prohibits the Jews from working on Sunday, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</p> <p>Avitus, bishop of Arverna, inaugurates a persecution of the Jews in the Frankish empire, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> f.</p> <p>Azriel, Kabbalist, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.</p> @@ -26894,11 +26856,11 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Benveniste, Don Isaac, physician to the king of Aragon, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">work of, in behalf of the Jews, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</span></p> <p>Benveniste, Sheshet, diplomatist and poet, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a> f.</p> -<p>Berachya ben Natrona Nakdan (Crispia), writer of fables, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</p> +<p>Berachya ben Natronaï Nakdan (Crispia), writer of fables, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</p> <p>Berbers, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a> ff.</p> <p>Bernard of Clairvaux and the second crusade, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">intercedes in behalf of the Jews, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</span></p> -<p>Bziers, council of, prohibits the Jews from practising medicine among Christians, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.<br /> +<p>Béziers, council of, prohibits the Jews from practising medicine among Christians, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">inhabitants of, massacred by the crusaders, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Jews of, hold offices, <a href="#Page_394">394</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Palm Sunday riots in, against the Jews, <a href="#Page_394">394</a> f.</span></p> @@ -26924,7 +26886,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>"Book of the Pious," <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> <p>Boppard (Germany), massacre of the Jews of, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>.</p> <p>Boso, king of Burgundy, presents the Jews as a gift to the church, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> -<p>Bostana, exilarch, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<p>Bostanaï, exilarch, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">descendants of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">marries a daughter of Chosru, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">recognized by the Mahometans, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span></p> @@ -26939,7 +26901,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">occupations of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">oppression of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</span></p> <p class="p2">Cabades. See <a href="#Kobad">Kobad</a>.</p> -<p>Csarea, betrayed to the Arabs, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> +<p>Cæsarea, betrayed to the Arabs, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">riot of Jews and Samaritans against the Christians, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span></p> <p id="Cairo">Cairo, Jewish congregation of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> <p>Caliphate, condition of Jews under, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> f., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> @@ -26969,11 +26931,11 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Chaldean Christians support the Arabs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p> <p>Chanan of Iskia, principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> <p>Chananel of Kairuan, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> ff.</p> -<p id="chananya">Chananya (Achuna), exilarch, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> +<p id="chananya">Chananya (Achunaï), exilarch, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> <p>Chananya, principal of Sora, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> -<p>Chanina, exilarch, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> -<p>Chanina, principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> -<p>Chanina Kahana ben Huna, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> +<p>Chaninaï, exilarch, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> +<p>Chaninaï, principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> +<p>Chaninaï Kahana ben Huna, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> <p>Chanoch, head of the Jews of Andalusia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> f., <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">contest of, with Ibn-Abitur, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">death of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span></p> @@ -26985,8 +26947,8 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>.</p> <p>Charles the Bald protects the Jews against the clergy, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> <p>Charles the Simple grants Jewish property to the church, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> -<p>Chasda, exilarch, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> -<p>Chasda, Ibn-Shaprut, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>–<a href="#Page_230">30</a>.<br /> +<p>Chasdaï, exilarch, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> +<p>Chasdaï, Ibn-Shaprut, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>–<a href="#Page_230">30</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">ambassador, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">character of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">correspondence of, with the Jewish king of the Chazars, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> ff.</span><br /> @@ -26997,7 +26959,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">in the service of Abdul-Rahman III, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">patron of learning, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">promotes the study of the Talmud, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">representative of a Judo-European culture, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">representative of a Judæo-European culture, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">statesman, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span></p> <p>Chayuj, father of Hebrew philology, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</p> <p>Chazanuth, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> @@ -27057,7 +27019,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Conrad III, German emperor, protects the Jews, <a href="#Page_351">351</a> f., <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> <p>Constantine VIII sends an embassy to Spain, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</p> <p>Constantinople, Jews of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> -<p>"Constitutio Judorum," <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</p> +<p>"Constitutio Judæorum," <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</p> <p id="Controversies">Controversies, between Jews and Christians, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_598">598</a>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">between Jews and Mahometans, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span></p> <p>Conversions, forced, of Jews to Christianity, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> f., <a href="#Page_48">48</a> f., <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.<br /> @@ -27073,11 +27035,11 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">Lateran, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Lateran, the Fourth, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>–<a href="#Page_512">12</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Avignon, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">of Bziers, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">of Béziers, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Buda, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Exeter, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Illiberis, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">of Mcon, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">of Mâcon, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Meaux, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Nice, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">of Orleans, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27115,7 +27077,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>David ben Daniel, exilarch and defender of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_632">632</a>.</p> <p>David ben Judah, exilarch, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> f.</p> <p>David ben Saul, opponent of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</p> -<p>David ben Zacca, exilarch, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> +<p>David ben Zaccaï, exilarch, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">conflict of, with Saadiah Gaon, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> f.</span></p> <p>David Abudarham, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>.</p> <p id="Alrui">David Alrui, false Messiah, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>–<a href="#Page_433">33</a>.</p> @@ -27135,7 +27097,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">preachers, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">rivalry of, with the Franciscans, <a href="#Page_641">641</a>.</span></p> <p>Don Judah ben Moses Cohen, physician to Alfonso X, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>.</p> -<p>Don Mer de Malea, treasurer of Alfonso X, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>.</p> +<p>Don Meïr de Malea, treasurer of Alfonso X, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>.</p> <p>Don Pedro II, king of Aragon, <a href="#Page_497">497</a> f.</p> <p>Don Sancho, son of Alfonso X, king of Castile, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">and Don Zag, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27144,23 +27106,23 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Don Zag, Isaac, treasurer of Alfonso X, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">and the "Tables of Alfonso," <a href="#Page_594">594</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">executed, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>.</span></p> -<p>Donnolo, Sabbata, head of Jewish science in Italy, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>–<a href="#Page_214">14</a>.<br /> +<p>Donnolo, Sabbataï, head of Jewish science in Italy, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>–<a href="#Page_214">14</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">relation of, to Nilus the younger, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> f.</span></p> <p>Dossa, son of Saadiah Gaon, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">and Chasda, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span></p> -<p>Duda, Gaon of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> -<p id="dunash">Dunash ben Labrat, creator of the artistic form of Jewish poetry, and one of the founders of Judo-Spanish culture, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<span class="ixsub1">and Chasdaï, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span></p> +<p>Dudaï, Gaon of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> +<p id="dunash">Dunash ben Labrat, creator of the artistic form of Jewish poetry, and one of the founders of Judæo-Spanish culture, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">career and character, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">first employs meter in Hebrew poetry, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">polemic of, against Menachem and Saadiah, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span></p> <p>Dunash ben Tamim, physician, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> -<span class="ixsub1">correspondence of, with Chasda, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">correspondence of, with Chasdaï, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span></p> <p>Duns Scotus, recommends forced conversion of the Jews, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</p> <p class="p2">East, the, loses the leadership of Judaism, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">scepticism in, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span></p> <p>Easter, Jewish, celebration of, forbidden before the Christian, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> <p>Eastertide, during, Jews forbidden to appear in the streets, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.</p> -<p>Eberard, Magister Judorum, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> +<p>Eberard, Magister Judæorum, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> <p>Edward I, Jews treated by, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>–<a href="#Page_646">6</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Jews expelled by, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">justice of, to Jews, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27271,7 +27233,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">enmity of, against the Jews, <a href="#Page_567">567</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">in feud with Gregory IX, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">scepticism of, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</span></p> -<p>Frederick Barbarossa, makes free Jews "servi camer," <a href="#Page_416">416</a> f.<br /> +<p>Frederick Barbarossa, makes free Jews "servi cameræ," <a href="#Page_416">416</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">protects the Jews, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</span></p> <p>Fulko de Neuilly, preaches against the Jews, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> <p class="p2">Galen, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</p> @@ -27356,11 +27318,11 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">influence of, in Italy, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">translated into Latin, <a href="#Page_542">542</a> f.</span></p> <p class="p2">Hadrian, pope, unfriendly to the Jews, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p> -<p>Hagga. See <a href="#Redingge">Robert de Redingge</a>.</p> +<p>Haggaï. See <a href="#Redingge">Robert de Redingge</a>.</p> <p>Hagin Denlacres, chief rabbi of England, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>.</p> -<p>Ha ben David, Gaon of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> -<p>Ha, son of Sherira, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</p> -<p>Ha Gaon, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>–<a href="#Page_253">3</a>.<br /> +<p>Haï ben David, Gaon of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> +<p>Haï, son of Sherira, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</p> +<p>Haï Gaon, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>–<a href="#Page_253">3</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">character of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">compared with Saadiah, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">death of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> @@ -27414,7 +27376,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Huns, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">re-instate Kobad, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span></p> <p>Huna, exilarch and father of Mar-Zutra II, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p> -<p>Huna, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> +<p>Hunaï, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> <p class="p2">Ibn-Abbas, Judah, poet, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Abbas, Samuel, apostate to Islam, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Abitur, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> @@ -27426,7 +27388,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Aljami, Nagid of Egypt, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Alruchi. See <a href="#Alrui">David Alrui</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Balam, Jehuda, grammarian, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</p> -<p>Ibn-Chasda, Samuel ben Abraham, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">661</a></span></p> +<p>Ibn-Chasdaï, Samuel ben Abraham, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">661</a></span></p> <p>Ibn-Daud, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Daud, Abraham, religious philosopher, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>–<a href="#Page_365">5</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">as historian, <a href="#Page_365">365</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -27468,10 +27430,10 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">philosophical writings of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</span></p> <p>Ibn-Jau, Jacob, head of the Jews of Andalusia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> ff.</p> <p>Ibn-Malka, Jehuda, at the court of Frederick II, <a href="#Page_565">565</a> f.</p> -<p>Ibn-Migash, Mer, disciple and successor of Alfassi, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> f.<br /> +<p>Ibn-Migash, Meïr, disciple and successor of Alfassi, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">disciples and descendants of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">in Toledo, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</span></p> -<p>Ibn Mosha and Maimonides, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</p> +<p>Ibn Moïsha and Maimonides, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Sahal, Joseph ben Jacob, rabbi of Cordova and poet, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Sahula, writer of fables, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</p> <p>Ibn-Sakbel, Solomon, poet, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> @@ -27516,7 +27478,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Isaac, accompanies the embassy of Charlemagne to Haroun Alrashid, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p> <p>Isaac of Accho, Kabbalist, executed, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>.</p> <p>Isaac the Blind, supposed originator of the Kabbala, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</p> -<p>Isaac ben Eliakim, rabbi of Wrzburg and martyr, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p> +<p>Isaac ben Eliakim, rabbi of Würzburg and martyr, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p> <p>Isaac ben Jacob Halaban of Prague, Tossafist, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> <p>Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>.</p> <p>Isaac ben Mordecai, physician to the pope, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>.</p> @@ -27562,7 +27524,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p id="Itil">Itil (Atel), kingdom of the Chazars, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> <p class="p2">Jacob of Orleans, head of the school in London, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">kills himself, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</span></p> -<p>Jacob ben Natrona, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> ff.</p> +<p>Jacob ben Natronaï, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> ff.</p> <p>Jacob ben Nissim, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> ff.</p> <p>Jacob ben Samuel, pupil of Saadiah, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p> <p>Jacob ben Sheshet Gerundi, Kabbalist, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</p> @@ -27638,7 +27600,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">representatives of the commerce of the world, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">render scientific literature accessible to Arabs and Christians, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">scepticism among, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">"servi camer," <a href="#Page_356">356</a> f.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">"servi cameræ," <a href="#Page_356">356</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">slaveholders, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">suffering of, in the calamities of the Roman empire, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">theological controversies among, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> ff.</span><br /> @@ -27654,12 +27616,12 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Jonah ben Abraham Gerundi, opponent of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">repentance of his fanaticism towards Maimonides, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">works of, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>.</span></p> -<p>Jonathan Cohen of Lnel, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> +<p>Jonathan Cohen of Lünel, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">emigrates to Palestine, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</span></p> -<p>Jos bar Jos Hayathom, Neo-Hebraic poet, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> f.</p> +<p>José bar José Hayathom, Neo-Hebraic poet, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> f.</p> <p>Joseph Amarkala Halevi, prince of an independent Jewish tribe in Arabia, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> <p>Joseph bar Abba, mystic and principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p> -<p>Joseph ben Chasda, poet, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> +<p>Joseph ben Chasdaï, poet, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> <p>Joseph ben Chiya, principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> <p>"Joseph ben Gorion," <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> <p>Joseph ben Sabara, poet, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</p> @@ -27670,7 +27632,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Joseph Kara, Tossafist and exegete, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> f.</p> <p>Josephus' writings in favor with Christians, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> <p>"Josippon," <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> -<p>Judo-Spanish culture, founders of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</p> +<p>Judæo-Spanish culture, founders of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</p> <p>Judah, minister of finance in Portugal, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>.</p> <p>Judah of Melun, disputation of, with Nicholas Donin, <a href="#Page_577">577</a> f.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_664" id="Page_664">664</a></span></p> <p>Judah the Blind, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> @@ -27714,7 +27676,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Kabbalists, desecrate Maimonides' grave, <a href="#Page_631">631</a>.</p> <p>Kachtanites and Ishmaelites, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> <p>"Kadish," <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p> -<p>Kafna, exilarch, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> +<p>Kafnaï, exilarch, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> <p>Kainukaa, driven out from Arabia by Mahomet, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> f.</p> <p>Kairuan, center of Judaism and science, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">school of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> ff.</span></p> @@ -27805,18 +27767,18 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">proselytizing of, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</span></p> <p>Louis the Pious, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">favorable to the Jews, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> ff.</span></p> -<p>Lnel, Jewish congregation of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.<br /> +<p>Lünel, Jewish congregation of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">letter of Maimonides to, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</span></p> <p>Lynn, Jews of, massacred, <a href="#Page_411">411</a> f.</p> <p class="p2">Macedonia, settlement of Jews in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p> <p>Machir, learned Jew, sent by Haroun Alrashid to Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p> <p>Machuza, capital of the Jewish state in Babylonia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">taken by Mebodes, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span></p> -<p>Mcon, council of, degrades the Jews, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> +<p>Mâcon, council of, degrades the Jews, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> <p>"Madda," <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">proscribed, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</span></p> <p>Magharyites. See <a href="#Makariyites">Makariyites</a>.</p> -<p>"Magister Judorum," <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p> +<p>"Magister Judæorum," <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p> <p>Mahdi, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p> <p id="mahomet">Mahomet, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>–<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">breaks with the Jews, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> f.</span><br /> @@ -27918,7 +27880,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Mar-Isaac, first Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> <p>Mar-Raba, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> <p>Mar-Ukba, exilarch, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> f.</p> -<p>Mar-Yanka. See <a href="#Natronai">Natrona</a>.</p> +<p>Mar-Yanka. See <a href="#Natronai">Natronaï</a>.</p> <p>Mar-Zemach I, first of the literary Geonim of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">author of an Aruch, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span></p> <p>Mar-Zutra, posthumous son of Mar-Zutra II, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> @@ -27947,24 +27909,24 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Medicine, practice of, by Jews among Christians, forbidden, <a href="#Page_581">581</a> f.</p> <p>Medina, becomes the lawgiver for millions, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Jews not allowed to dwell in, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</span></p> -<p>Mer of Rameru, Tossafist, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> -<p>Mer of Rothenburg, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>.<br /> +<p>Meïr of Rameru, Tossafist, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> +<p>Meïr of Rothenburg, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">corpse of, ransomed, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">dies in prison, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">eccentric piety of, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>,</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">leader of Jewish emigrants from Germany, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>–<a href="#Page_640">40</a>.</span></p> <p>"Men of Faith," <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> -<p>Menachem ben Saruk, first grammarian and one of the founders of Judo-Spanish culture, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<p>Menachem ben Saruk, first grammarian and one of the founders of Judæo-Spanish culture, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">controversy of, with Dunash, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">death of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">disciples of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">relation of, to Chasda, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">relation of, to Chasdaï, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">works of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> f.</span></p> <p>Menahem ben Solomon. See <a href="#Alrui">David Alrui</a>.</p> <p>Merovingian kings, bigotry of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">narrow-mindedness of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span></p> <p>Merv, center of science, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> -<p>Meshullam ben Jacob, head of Lnel, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> +<p>Meshullam ben Jacob, head of Lünel, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> <p>Messer-Jawaih of Bassorah, Jewish physician, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> <p>Messiahs, false, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>–<a href="#Page_333">3</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</p> <p>Messianic hopes, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>.</p> @@ -27998,12 +27960,12 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">itinerant preacher, <a href="#Page_545">545</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Tossafist and Maimunist, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">work of, on the Law, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</span></p> -<p>Moses ben Chanoch, one of the founders of Judo-Spanish culture, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<p>Moses ben Chanoch, one of the founders of Judæo-Spanish culture, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">death of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">functions of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a> f.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">relation of, to Chasda, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="ixsub1">relation of, to Chasdaï, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">spreads Talmudic studies in Spain, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Moses ben Chasda, fanatic opponent of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_624">624</a> f.</p> +<p>Moses ben Chasdaï, fanatic opponent of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_624">624</a> f.</p> <p>Moses ben Jehuda Cohen, rabbi of Safet, <a href="#Page_633">633</a>.<br /></p> <p>Moses ben Maimun. See <a href="#Maimonides">Maimonides</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_668" id="Page_668">668</a></span></p> <p>Moses ben Nachman. See <a href="#Nachmani">Nachmani</a>.</p> @@ -28065,9 +28027,9 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">Talmudic school of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span></p> <p>Nathan ben Isaac Kohen, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p> <p>Nathan ben Yechiel of Rome, author of the Aruch, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> -<p id="Natronai">Natrona II, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p> -<p>Natrona ben Chasda, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> -<p>Natrona ben Nehemiah, principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> f.</p> +<p id="Natronai">Natronaï II, Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p> +<p>Natronaï ben Chasdaï, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> +<p>Natronaï ben Nehemiah, principal of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> f.</p> <p>Nazareth, inhabited by Jews, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p> <p id="Neapolis">Neapolis (Shechem), capital of the Samaritans, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p> <p>Nechunya ben ha-Kana, Kabbalistic manuscript attributed to him, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</p> @@ -28147,7 +28109,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">Talmudic academy of, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Talmudic academy of, closed, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</span></p> <p>Parliament, Jewish, in Worcester, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>.</p> -<p>Parnes-ha-Keneset, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> +<p>Parnesé-ha-Keneset, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> <p>Paul of Tarsus, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p> <p>Pauline Christianity, what it effected in Judaism, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p> <p>Pentateuch, system of reading of, in the synagogue, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> @@ -28176,7 +28138,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Pinehas Ibn-Azura, Jewish opponent of Mahomet, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> <p>"Pirke Aboth," explained by Maimonides, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_670" id="Page_670">670</a></span><br /></p> <p>"Piyutim," <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> -<p>"Placitum Judorum," <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p> +<p>"Placitum Judæorum," <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p> <p>Poetanic compositions, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> <p>Poetanists, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> ff.</p> <p>Poetry, among the Arabs, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> @@ -28190,7 +28152,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Popes, toleration of, towards the Jews, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">protect the Jews, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</span></p> <p>Portugal, favorable condition of the Jews of, <a href="#Page_617">617</a> f.</p> -<p>Posquires, Jewish congregation of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p> +<p>Posquières, Jewish congregation of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p> <p>Prelates, moral condition of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> <p>Prince of the Captivity. See <a href="#Exilarch">Exilarch</a>.</p> <p>Prophecy and prophets, <a href="#Page_482">482</a> ff.</p> @@ -28210,10 +28172,10 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">position of the principal of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> ff.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">revenues of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">rises to importance, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="ixsub1">under Ha Gaon, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span></p> +<span class="ixsub1">under Haï Gaon, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span></p> <p>Purple manufactured by Jews, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> <p>Pyrenean peninsula, condition of the Jews of, compared with that of those in other European countries, <a href="#Page_618">618</a> f.</p> -<p class="p2">Raba of Rob, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> +<p class="p2">Rabaï of Rob, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> <p>Rabba ben Ami, Gaon of Pumbeditha, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p> <p>Rabbanites, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> <p>Rabbinical epochs in Spain, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> @@ -28226,7 +28188,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">Jewish congregation of, during the second crusade, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span></p> <p>Ramon Berengar IV, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> <p>Rashba. See <a href="#Adret">Solomon ben Adret</a>.</p> -<p>Rashbam. See <a href="#Meir">Samuel ben Mer</a>.</p> +<p>Rashbam. See <a href="#Meir">Samuel ben Meïr</a>.</p> <p id="Rashi">Rashi, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>–<a href="#Page_289">9</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">career of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">character of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span><br /> @@ -28249,7 +28211,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">persecutes Nachmani, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">proselytizing of, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>.</span></p> <p>Raymund Martin, anti-Jewish writings of, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>.</p> -<p>Raymund Roger of Bziers, defeated by the crusaders, <a href="#Page_502">502</a> f.</p> +<p>Raymund Roger of Béziers, defeated by the crusaders, <a href="#Page_502">502</a> f.</p> <p>Raymund V of Toulouse, favors the Jews, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p> <p>Raymund VI of Toulouse, compelled by Innocent III to depose Jewish officers, <a href="#Page_501">501</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">favors the Jews, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</span></p> @@ -28284,7 +28246,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">prohibits Jewish emigration from</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">Germany, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">protects Jews, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>.</span></p> -<p>Rdiger, bishop of Speyer, favorable to the Jews, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> f.</p> +<p>Rüdiger, bishop of Speyer, favorable to the Jews, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> f.</p> <p>Rurik, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p> <p>Russia, Jews of, take part in Talmudic studies, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> <p>Russians, war of, with the Chazars, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p> @@ -28316,8 +28278,8 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <span class="ixsub1">retires to Bagdad, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">translates the Bible into Arabic, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">works of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> f., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> f.</span></p> -<p>Sabbata ben Solomon of Rome, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.</p> -<p>Sabureans (Sabura), <a href="#Page_6">6</a> f.</p> +<p>Sabbataï ben Solomon of Rome, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.</p> +<p>Sabureans (Saburaï), <a href="#Page_6">6</a> f.</p> <p>Safet, Jewish congregation of, takes the side of Maimonides, <a href="#Page_633">633</a>.</p> <p>Safia, Jewess, captured by Mahomet, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> <p>Sahal of Taberistan, Jewish physician and mathematician, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> @@ -28342,7 +28304,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Samuel ben Ali Halevi, rabbi of Bagdad, <a href="#Page_438">438</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">head of the opposition to Maimonides, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a> ff., <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</span></p> <p>Samuel ben Chofni, last Gaon of Sora, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /></p> -<p id="Meir">Samuel ben Mer, Tossafist and exegete, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> f.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_672" id="Page_672">672</a></span><br /></p> +<p id="Meir">Samuel ben Meïr, Tossafist and exegete, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> f.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_672" id="Page_672">672</a></span><br /></p> <p>Samuel ben Solomon Sir Morel, Tossafist, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</p> <p>Samuel Cohen ben David, head of the Talmudic school of Bagdad, <a href="#Page_633">633</a>.</p> <p>Samuel Halevi, scientist at the court of Alfonso X and inventor of a water-clock, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>.</p> @@ -28366,7 +28328,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Serachya ben Isaac, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>.</p> <p>Serachya Halevi Gerundi, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> <p>Serene, false Messiah and leader of a movement against the Talmud, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> f.</p> -<p>"Servi camer," <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.<br /> +<p>"Servi cameræ," <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">original signification of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a> f.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">legend about the origin of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</span><br /> <span class="ixsub1">when the Jews were turned into, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</span></p> @@ -28394,7 +28356,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Simon of Cairo, author of the "Halachoth Gedoloth," <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p> <p>Simon ben Caipha, Neo-Hebraic poet, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> <p>Simon ben Isaac ben Abun, poet, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> f.</p> -<p>Simon bar Yocha, connected with mysticism, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.<br /> +<p>Simon bar Yochaï, connected with mysticism, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">foretells the rise of Islam, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> f.</span></p> <p>Simon de Montfort, <a href="#Page_508">508</a> f.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">leader of the crusade against the Albigenses, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</span><br /> @@ -28471,7 +28433,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Sunna (Mahometan tradition), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> <p>Superstition among Jews and Christians, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</p> <p id="Susa">Susa (Tuster), Jewish congregation of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a> f.</p> -<p>Ssskind (Szkint) of Trimberg, Jewish German poet, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> +<p>Süsskind (Süzkint) of Trimberg, Jewish German poet, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> <p>Suwailin, plots against Mahomet, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> <p>Sviatislaw, conquers the kingdom of the Chazars, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p> <p>Swintila, king of the Visigoths, dethroned, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> @@ -28529,7 +28491,7 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Theodoric, attitude of, towards the Jews, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> f.</p> <p>Theodosius II, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">laws of, against the Jews, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> f., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span></p> -<p>Thomas Becket, kindles fanaticism against the Jews, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> +<p>Thomas à Becket, kindles fanaticism against the Jews, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> <p>Tiberias, Jews of, driven out by Omar, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">school of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span></p> <p>Tiberius, emperor, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p> @@ -28585,13 +28547,13 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Werner, archbishop of Mayence, protects the Jews, <a href="#Page_636">636</a>.</p> <p>William II, of Sicily, favorable to the Jews, <a href="#Page_422">422</a> f.</p> <p>William the Conqueror, imposes restrictions on the Jews, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</p> -<p>Wimpfen, ransoms the body of Mer of Rothenburg, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</p> +<p>Wimpfen, ransoms the body of Meïr of Rothenburg, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</p> <p>Witiga, king of the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /></p> <p>Wolfram of Eschenbach, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_675" id="Page_675">675</a></span><br /></p> <p>Worms, during the crusades, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Jews of, favored by Henry IV, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span></p> <p>Wratislaw, ruler of Bohemia, extorts money from the Jews, <a href="#Page_307">307</a> f.</p> -<p>Wrzburg, Jewish martyrs of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p> +<p>Würzburg, Jewish martyrs of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p> <p class="p2">Xeres, battle of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> <p class="p2">Yathrib (Medina), seat of Jewish learning, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p> <p>Yechiel of Paris, disputation of, with Nicholas Donin, <a href="#Page_576">576</a> f., <a href="#Page_598">598</a> f.<br /> @@ -28605,12 +28567,12 @@ Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</p> <p>Yemen, benevolence of the Jews of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.<br /> <span class="ixsub1">Maimonides' letter to, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>–<a href="#Page_464">4</a>.</span></p> <p>Yezid I, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> -<p>Yisha ben Chiskiyah, exilarch of Damascus, defends Maimonides, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_632">632</a>.</p> +<p>Yishaï ben Chiskiyah, exilarch of Damascus, defends Maimonides, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_632">632</a>.</p> <p>Yizchaki ben Yasus, Biblical critic, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> <p>Yizchaki Solomon. See <a href="#Rashi">Rashi</a>.</p> <p>Yom Tob of Joigny, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> <p>York, Jews of, exterminated, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>–<a href="#Page_416">16</a>.</p> -<p class="p2">Zacca ben Achuna, exilarch, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> +<p class="p2">Zaccaï ben Achunaï, exilarch, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> <p>Zainab, Jewess, captured by Mahomet, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> f.</p> <p>Zedekiah, Jewish physician to Charles the Bald, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> <p>Zendik, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</p> @@ -28658,388 +28620,6 @@ short.</p> <p>Page <a href="#Page_664">664</a>: "Judaism: d philosophy" was printed that way in the original.</p> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the Jews, Vol. III (of 6), by -Heinrich Graetz - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. 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