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diff --git a/43323-0.txt b/43323-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ff1e53 --- /dev/null +++ b/43323-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3945 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43323 *** + +HINTS ON CHEESE-MAKING, + +FOR THE + +DAIRYMAN, THE FACTORYMAN, + +AND THE MANUFACTURER. + +BY T. D. CURTIS. + +UTICA, N. Y. + +ROBERTS, PRINTER, MORNING HERALD ESTABLISHMENT. + +1870. + + +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by + +THOMAS DAY CURTIS, + +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northern District of +New York. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +The following pages comprise the series of articles which appeared, +during the last season, in the columns of the UTICA MORNING and WEEKLY +HERALD. It is not claimed that they exhaust the several questions +discussed; but it is believed that they constitute the most practical +treatise on cheese-making that has yet appeared, and that they embrace +the leading features and indicate the more advanced methods of the art +as practiced by the best manufacturers. Every experienced cheese-maker +may find something in them to object to and criticise, as there is +diversity of opinion on many, as yet, not definitely settled questions. +The writer would not check honest and intelligent criticism, if he +could, but, on the contrary, encourage it. Nor would he have others +adopt any of the suggestions, methods or practices herein mentioned, if +they think they have better of their own. He would rather stimulate +independent thought and action, and urge each to observe closely, +experiment thoroughly, and be guided by his own experience. Beginners, +without a complete knowledge of all the branches of cheese-making, it is +believed, will be able to glean from these pages what will afford +valuable assistance to them; but they should accept nothing as +conclusive. There is much to be discovered and learned about +cheese-making. Those who have worked at the business for years, without +material progress, are not as likely to make important discoveries or +improvements as those who now or may hereafter come to a knowledge of +the subject with fresh minds and faculties newly stimulated. They will +begin where the old cheese-makers leave off, and ought to be able to +make advances in the work thus far developed by their predecessors. That +each may keep his wits about him and add something valuable to our +present stock of knowledge in regard to cheese-making, is the earnest +wish of + +THE AUTHOR. + +UTICA, January, 1870. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + PAGE. +INTRODUCTORY, 5 + +BUILDING CHEESE FACTORIES, 9 + +PRODUCTION OF MILK, 14 + +COMPOSITION OF MILK, 18 + +TAINTS AND ODORS, 23 + +COOLING MILK, 27 + +DELIVERING MILK, 31 + +RECEIVING MILK, 36 + +BIG AVERAGES, 40 + +CONDUCTORS, STRAINERS, &C., 45 + +COLOR, 49 + +RENNETS, 55 + +PREPARING RENNET, 60 + +SETTING, 64 + +CUTTING CURDS, 68 + +HEAT, 73 + +ACID, 79 + +DIPPING CURDS, 84 + +SALTING CURDS, 87 + +TAINTED MILK, 91 + +CURING, 93 + +GREASING CHEESE, 95 + +SKIPPERS, 99 + +CHEDDAR PROCESS, 102 + + + + +HINTS ON CHEESE-MAKING. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +BUILDING CHEESE-FACTORIES. + + +We frequently receive inquiries from parties who contemplate building +cheese-factories, regarding certain details which none but those who +have actual experience can readily carry out. For the benefit of all +needing such information, we have taken pains to prepare the following: + +Small or medium-sized factories now seem to be in order. People do not +like to carry milk long distances, and this fact undoubtedly accounts +for the tendency to small factories, conveniently located. We will give +the size of a building suitable for a dairy of 300 to 500 cows. Let it +be 80 by 26 feet, with 16 feet posts and two floors. From one end of the +lower story take 24 feet for a make room, leaving the remainder for a +curing room. Should more than one vat be used, the make room will need +to be about six feet larger one way. It may be made so by taking the +space off from the curing room, or by putting a projection on the side. +The upper story will be used for curing, but should be partitioned off +the same as the lower story. The room over the make room should be +lathed and plastered, and provided with heating apparatus, so as to make +a suitable place for curing early and late made cheese. The building may +be cheap, or as expensive as desired. + +Either setters and ranges, or the old style tables, may be used. The +latter, since small-sized cheeses have come in fashion, are the more +common. They are quite as cheap and convenient, and by using them, +factorymen avoid the annoyance consequent upon the pretended patent +right which is claimed on the rails and turners. + +We shall not recommend any particular style of vat, since by doing so we +should seem to condemn others. But we will mention the fact that for +small factories, vats with self-heaters are preferable and the more +economical. A self-heater can be set up and run anywhere, with a piece +of stove-pipe to conduct off the smoke, and the expense of boilers, +mason-work, etc., is avoided. Five or six cords of maple stove-wood, +split fine and well seasoned, will run a good self-heater through the +season. + +The appearance of a dairy depends very much on the trueness, as well as +uniformity in hight, of the cheeses. Good presses and hoops are +therefore essential, and save a great deal of trouble as well as give a +great deal of satisfaction. The press, therefore, needs to be made heavy +and strong, so as not to spring or warp. Let the sill be 14 by 4 inches; +the beam, 10 by 6 inches; posts, 4 by 14 inches, slanted from the sill +upward to 10, the width of the beam. The sill and beam should be boxed +into the posts three-fourths of an inch, and the posts should extend +above the beam some 4 inches or more. The top of the sill should stand +about 2 feet from the floor. The space between the sill and beam should +be 2 feet 4 inches. The lateral space allowed for each hoop should be 2 +feet; and in each space between the hoops the sill and beam should be +held in place by seven-eighths inch rods of iron. In the first space +from either end, a single rod is sufficient; the next should have two +rods, and so on, alternately. The single rod should extend through the +middle of the sill and beam, and have heavy washers attached to each +end, to prevent the head or nut from settling into the wood. The double +rods should go through the edges of the beam and sill, and through heavy +washers of iron on the bottom of the sill, and through strong straps +extending across the top of the beam. The presses should be made for +pressing four or six cheeses, and be made of hard, seasoned timber. The +screws should be 1¾ inch. Of the various kinds of screws introduced, we +know of none better than the old-fashioned ones, with holes through them +to receive the bar. + +The curd-sink is an important thing in a factory. Its construction is +always a matter of considerable speculation and perplexity. We will give +dimensions for one suitable for a factory of the size we have indicated. +It should be 16 feet long, 2 feet 10 inches in width inside, and 1 foot +deep. The bottom should be 1½ inch thick, and the sides 1 inch thick. +The legs should be 3 feet high, extending up the sides, so that the top +of the sink will be 3 feet from the floor. The sink should be made of +clear, seasoned pine, and the legs be well braced, with cross and side +pieces connecting them about 6 inches from the floor. Backs and a cloth +strainer may be used, or a false bottom with perforated tin strainers +may be substituted. + +The proper hight of the weighing can, of the dumping window from the +ground, and the best apparatus for unloading, are generally matters +quite perplexing. The proper hight of the receiving can is that which +gives a gentle slope to the conductor, as too much current not only +causes the milk to slop over the sides of the strainer, but drives the +dirt through the strainer. With vats 3 feet 2 inches high, the platform +for the scales should be 3 feet 8 inches from the floor. + +Of the many appliances used for unloading, none is simpler, cheaper or +more satisfactory than the crane. Make it of scantling 4 by 4 inches, +the upright 8 feet long, and the arm 7 feet. Hang it as you would a +barn-door. Fasten one end of a strong half or three-quarter inch rope to +the end of the arm; run it through a pully to which is attached the +tongs; then over a 4 inch pully above, near the end of the arm; run it +back over a similar pully next to the upright, then down to a 3 inch +roller, with a crank, at a convenient hight for turning. One end of the +crank must be sustained by a strong iron strap, bowing outward, in the +direction of the arm, to admit the roller (about 6 inches long) +lengthwise, and fastened to the upright above and below. + +The window-sill should be not more than two or three inches above the +edge of the receiving-can, which should stand close to the window, just +clearing the sill. The road should be eighteen inches below the platform +on which stand the scales and weighing can. Then the can, when raised +just enough to clear the wagon-box and wheels, will be of the right +hight for dumping when swung round to the window. Many make the mistake +of getting the road too low, which causes the unnecessary work of +raising the milk 3 or 4 feet by hand before it can be dumped, and wastes +strength and time, both in raising the can and lowering it back again +into the wagon after it is emptied. + +In building a factory, every provision should be made for cleanliness. +It should be located near a living spring of water, ranging in +temperature somewhere between 45° and 55°. There should be sufficient +water to fill, at all times, an inch pipe, and care should be taken to +secure a fair head--enough to carry the water above the vats, at least. +The water should be carried in pipes under the building, along by the +ends of the vats where it is wanted, with penstocks rising from the +pipe, to furnish water for each vat. The faucets in the penstocks should +be all of the same hight--if any difference is made, the one farthest +from the head might be a quarter or half an inch the lowest. Outside +should be a penstock, to carry off the superfluous water. The outlet to +this should be a few inches higher than the faucets in the penstocks for +supplying the vats with water. This is necessary to secure a flow of +water in the factory. In freezing weather, and during the winter, the +penstocks in the factory can be removed, until needed for use, and the +holes in the pipe beneath plugged up. An extra faucet in one of the +penstocks at the ends of the vats, inserted high enough from the floor +to set a pail under, will supply all the necessary water for cleaning +and other purposes. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +PRODUCTION OF MILK. + + +The requisites of good milk have been so frequently and fully discussed, +that we need not more than briefly advert to them now. The importance of +good milk, for either cheese or butter, will be conceded, and therefore +the question need not be argued. + +The first requisites of good milk are good cows. But these will +disappoint their owners if they have not good keep. Plenty of good clean +hay and pure water, with warm quarters, are indispensable. The +old-fashioned method of allowing cows, or other cattle, to weather all +kinds of storms, with a snow-bank for a bed at night, we believe is +pretty effectually done away with. It has been found that it does not +pay. It is not yet quite so universally admitted that generous feeding +is equally advantageous, nor that a warm stable is as much an advance on +an open, cold one, where the cows stand and shiver throughout the +twenty-four hours, as a common shelter is an improvement on no shelter. +Yet, a warm stable, which may be had for a small expense, is decided +economy, in the saving of food, as well as a comfort to the cows; and +generous feeding will be found a profitable investment, both by the +increased flow of milk and by its increased richness. A poorly-kept cow +will give less milk than a well-kept one, and its poorer quality will be +more manifest than the diminution in quantity. When turned out to grass, +if the feed should prove good, it will take the cow weeks to build up +her system and get in the condition she should have been in at the +start; and though the quantity and quality of her milk will improve, +she will reach the time when the mess naturally begins to shrink before +she will have thoroughly recuperated. After this, the richness of the +milk will probably be satisfactory. But in case the season should open +dry and cold, so that the grass starts slowly, and is then followed by +the hot dry weather of July and August, as is not unfrequently the case, +a cow that starts "spring poor" will scarcely get in good condition +before the grass is nipped by the fall frosts and it becomes necessary +to begin to fodder. + +There is a marked difference in the quality of the messes of milk +delivered at a cheese-factory. The use of the lactometer and +cream-gauges will show this. It will be an interesting experiment, for +cheese-makers who never tried it, to test in this way the quality of the +milk delivered by the different patrons, and then ascertain the style in +which each keeps his cows, the character of the pastures of each, the +kind of water which the pastures afford--whether brook, river, swamp or +spring--and to note any other facts and conditions which may be apparent +or may suggest themselves. It will be found, we think, that bad +wintering and poor pastures have as much or more to do than anything +else with the production of poor milk. No breed of cows nor selection of +a dairy can wholly counteract these evils. The yield of milk will +undoubtedly be greater and better with some cows than with others; and +so with naturally good cows, good wintering and pasturing will show +quite as marked improvements. + +We have in our mind an instance where, at the opening of a +cheese-factory, only a few of the farmers, having the largest dairies, +delivered milk. They were all men who fed their cows well during the +winter, and gave them meal before and after coming in. The result was +an astonishingly large yield of cheese from milk at that season of the +year. But as the messes increased, and milk from dairies poorly-kept +came in, the yield of cheese in proportion to the number of pounds of +milk steadily diminished. The lactometer and cream-gauges showed that +the poorest milk came from the poorest-kept cows. + +The forepart of the season proved a cold and wet one, which made the +grass more juicy and less nutritious. This, with the accidental or +intentional watering which the milk got from the rain falling in the +cans, either at home or on the road, was also believed to decrease the +yield of cheese. It appeared that milk coming long distances through the +rain, other things being equal, showed more water than that brought +short distances. Manifestly, some sort of shelter to the cans should be +devised, to be used both at home and on the road, during rainy +weather--and the same for keeping off the rays of the sun, in fair +weather, is equally desirable. + +All through the season, in the instance referred to, there was a marked +difference in the quality of the milk of the well-kept and of the +poorly-kept dairies. Swampy pastures also seemed to impoverish the milk. +Those pastures that were dry, with pure water accessible, appeared to +produce the richest milk. While the milk of the best dairies, on being +tested, would indicate a yield of a pound of cheese to eight or nine +pounds of milk, the milk of others would not yield a pound of cheese to +less than eleven or twelve pounds of milk. The average number of pounds +of milk for a pound of cheese, during the season, was about 9.9. + +In the foregoing, will be seen a manifest objection to the factory +system, as at present conducted. The quality of the milk delivered is +nowhere taken into consideration. The man who has a well-selected dairy, +keeps it well, and delivers milk that will turn out, for the season, a +hundred pounds of cheese for every nine hundred pounds of milk, gets no +more returns for a given number of pounds of milk than the man who +delivers milk so poor that twelve hundred pounds of it will not make +more than a hundred pounds of cheese, or the same as the former's nine +hundred pounds. There is a difference of about twenty-five per cent, in +the quality of the milk turned out by the good and the poor dairies, +one-half of which the owner of the former loses, and the other half of +which the owner of the latter gains, by getting his milk made up at the +factory. Some means should be devised for remedying this piece of +injustice, if the better class of dairies is to be retained by the +factories. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +COMPOSITION OF MILK. + + +The composition of milk, though frequently discussed, is not generally +well understood. It is quite variable, not only in the milk from +different cows, but in that from the same cow at different times, and in +different conditions, but especially at different seasons of the year. +It is more buttery in winter, and more cheesy in summer. A cow milked +three times a day would give more in quantity but poorer in quality, +than if milked twice; while one milked twice a day will yield more milk +than if milked once a day, but one milking a day would be the richer. +The first milk drawn from the udder is more watery than what follows; +the last is the richest. The accumulation of milk in the cow's bag is +influenced by the law of gravitation. The water being the heaviest +ingredient, settles to the bottom, and is the first milked; the cream, +which is the lightest, rises, and is the last milked. That is to say, a +partial separation takes place in the udder, sufficient to make the +"strippings" some ten or twelve times as rich in butter as the first +milk drawn. We would, therefore, infer that the first third contains the +most water, the second third the most cheese, and the last third the +most butter. There is said to be a difference in the milk drawn from the +compartments of the udder of the same cow, or from different teats. + +The variation in the composition of milk, of course, is indicated by +different chemical analyses, no two of which can be found to exactly +agree. We give an analysis by HAIDLEN. He found that the specimen +contained, in 1,000 parts, 873 parts of water, 30 of butter, 48.2 of +cheese, 43.9 of sugar of milk, 2.31 of phosphate of lime, .42 of +magnesia, .47 of iron, 1.04 of chloride of potassium, and .66 of sodium +and soda. Other chemists have found albumen among the constituents of +milk, and this ingredient is believed, by many, to be the one that first +commences decaying, in hot weather, and produces, "tainted" milk, +"floating" curds, and "huffy" cheese. Skimmed milk has been found, in +some instances, to contain as high as 97 parts of water in 100, and only +3 per cent. of solids, or cheesy matter. "Swill milk" has been found to +contain as low as 1½ per cent. of butter. An analysis of the first milk +taken from a cow's bag after calving, showed it to consist of 15.1 per +cent. of caseine, or cheese, 2.6 of butter, 2 of mucous matter, and 80.3 +of water. Ordinary pure milk will average about 12½ per cent. of cream. +But it is not unfrequently found to yield 15 to 20 per cent., and even +as high as 25 per cent. of cream has been obtained. If milk yields less +than 10 per cent. of cream, it is below the average, and unprofitable +for butter-making. + +We know of no single instrument that will at once indicate the quality +of milk. What is called the lactometer, but is properly a hydrometer, +will indicate the density of milk, and if its specific gravity in a pure +state be known, it will show the amount of water added, if any. On an +average, milk is about 4 per cent. heavier than water. That is, a +hydrometer with a scale graded at 100 for milk at 60° Farenheit, ought +to sink to 96 in water. The variation in the density of milk will be +shown by an experiment given by CHARLES L. FLINT, in his "Milch Cows and +Dairy Farming." He says: + +"For the purpose of showing the difference in the specific gravity of +different specimens of pure milk, taken from the cows in the morning, +and allowed to cool down to about 60°, I used an instrument graduated +with the pure milk mark at 100, with the following results: The first +pint drawn from a native cow stood at 101. The last pint of the same +milking, being the strippings of the same cow, stood at 86. The mixture +of the two pints stood at about 93½. The milk of a pure bred Jersey +stood at 95, that of an Ayrshire at 100, that of a Hereford at 106, that +of a Devon at 111, while a thin cream stood at 66. All these specimens +of milk were pure, and milked at the same time in the morning, carefully +labeled in separate vessels, and set upon the same shelf to cool off; +and yet the variations of specific gravity amounted to 25, or, taking +the average quality of the native cow's milk at 93½, the variations +amounted to 17½." + +It will be seen, by these experiments, that the richer the milk in +butter, the less the specific gravity, thin cream being 30° below the +water mark. The richer the milk in caseine, or cheese, the greater the +specific gravity, the milk of the Devon indicating 15° above the water +mark. Watering milk will of course reduce the specific gravity of milk +rich in cheese, and by this means it can be made to indicate the average +density of pure milk. In the same way, milk rich in butter may have its +specific gravity increased until it nearly reaches that of water, but no +amount of watering can make it indicate over 96°, which is the figure +given for pure water. A little salt, or other ingredient, may be added +to bring the density up to the pure milk mark. So the blueness of milk, +produced by either skimming or watering, may be removed by the use of +burnt sugar, which will give it a rich color. Or annotto may be used +for the same purpose. Many expedients have been resorted to, from time +to time, by the dishonest, for the purpose of disguising the +impoverishment of milk by skimming and watering. + +"But," says some one, "why tell dishonest men how they can skim and +adulterate their milk?" We have not done so. We have told honest men +some of the practices of the dishonest, with the view of enabling them +to detect the fraud. True, the hydrometer is not an accurate or legal +test; but it shows the exact density of the milk tried, and this is a +very important point. When you have decided this, by the use of the +cream-gauges, you can determine the amount of cream; and if you let the +milk stand until it coagulates, and the cheese separates from the whey, +you can tell the relative proportion of water and cheese. This may be a +somewhat slow and clumsy process, but it is nevertheless decisive, and +often repays the trouble. Foreign substances, so far as not held in +solution by the water, or not entangled in the cheese or cream, will +settle at the bottom of the glasses. Besides, with these evidences to +start on, the ways of a suspected person can be watched, and he often be +caught in the very act of violating the law, which we quote below: + + + § 1. Whoever shall knowingly sell, supply, or bring to be + manufactured to any cheese manufactory in this State, any milk + diluted with water, or in any way adulterated, or milk from which + any cream has been taken, or milk commonly known as skimmed milk; + or whoever shall keep back any part of the milk known as + "strippings;" or whoever shall knowingly bring or supply milk to + any cheese manufactory that is tainted or partly sour from want of + proper care in keeping pails, strainers, or any vessel in which + said milk is kept, clean and sweet, after being notified of such + taint or carelessness; or any cheese manufacturer who shall + knowingly use, or direct any of his employes to use, for his or + their individual benefit, any cream from the milk brought to said + cheese manufacturer, without the consent of all the owners thereof, + shall, for each and every offense, forfeit and pay a sum not less + than twenty-five dollars, nor more than one hundred dollars, with + costs of suit, to be sued for in any court of competent + jurisdiction, for the benefit of the person or persons, firm or + association or corporation, or their assigns, upon whom such fraud + be committed. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +TAINTS AND ODORS. + + +Whatever be the grade of cows and the quality of milk, much depends upon +its management. A good deal of care and attention are requisite for the +attainment of the best possible results with such milk as we may have to +work up. But before we come to the process of milking, let us look a +moment at the effect of food in regard to taints and the flavor of milk. + +It is now universally conceded, that the flavor as well as the quality +of the milk depends very materially upon the food of the cow. Coarse +swamp-grasses and weeds do not produce as rich or sweet milk as clover, +timothy and red-top, grown on dry upland soil; while swamp-water gives a +ranker flavor than the sweet spring and brook-water of hilly regions. +Leeks are not the only weeds which taint the milk before it is taken +from the cow. All rank vegetable growths lend a similar influence to +injure flavor. Indeed, that which the cow eats is what she makes the +milk of, and if these offensive things are taken into her system, she +cannot be expected to turn out milk that will not partake of their +qualities, any more than a man can be expected to make sweet cider of +sour apples by running them through the mill and press. Even the +atmosphere which the cows breathe affects the flavor of the milk. +Carrion in the lot where the cows feed has been known to impart its odor +to the milk of the dairy. Dirty stables and barnyards, the odor of which +is breathed by the cows, makes the milk "taste of the barnyard," as the +common expression goes. + +It becomes of the greatest importance, therefore, that cows should have +clean, sweet pastures to feed in, and clear spring or brook-water to +drink; also, that they should have clean, well-ventilated stables to +stand in, and be milked in clean yards or stables, as free from all +taints and bad odors as possible. The cows should not be heated by +hurried driving with a dog, or by a man or boy on horseback, as this +fevers the milk, giving it an unwholesome quality, leading to rapid +decay as well as producing bad flavor. + +And, if quantity as well as quality is to be attained, pastures must +contain plenty of feed, so that the cow can soon fill her stomach and +then lie down or stand in the shade and ruminate at ease, instead of +working constantly from morning to night to gather food enough to +satisfy her. She must have water handy, instead of away back in some +retired corner of a large pasture, as she naturally wants to drink a few +swallows quite often, in warm weather, but will go until she gets +excessively dry and feverish before she will travel a long distance to +get water. When thus very dry, she drinks an inordinate quantity, which +makes her feel heavy and uncomfortable--and whatever annoys a cow +lessens the flow and reduces the quality of the milk. + +A little reflection must make these things apparent to every reasoning +mind. Cows must have plenty of clean, wholesome food and pure water, and +must be every way made comfortable and contented, if the largest flow +and best quality of milk is expected. The cow is sure to show, not only +her own naturally good or bad qualities, but her keep and care, in the +milk pail. There is no cheating her. She will make a corresponding +discount or dividend on every iota of ill or good treatment she +receives. In this, she is an exact accountant, and she will insist upon +keeping the account square. + +Milk requires not only favorable conditions for its production, as above +indicated, but needs great care and cleanliness after it is drawn from +the cows. A foul yard or stable will impart its odors to the milk. +Uncleanliness in milking not only gets filth into the milk, but taints +and injures its flavor. Some, for this reason, recommend washing the +cow's bag before milking. But if this washing is done with cold water by +the milker, it is quite likely to consume time, cool the bag and cause +the cow to hold up a portion of the mess. Experience shows that the +quicker the milk can be drawn, after the operation is commenced, the +better the yield. If washing is done, it should be with warm or tepid +water, and be the work of one person, who should go through the whole +dairy in advance of the milkers. But, in our opinion, where the stable +or yard is kept clean, a careful brushing of the bag with the hands +before beginning, and care in holding the pail a little toward you from +under the teats, will obviate all the evils of uncleanliness from +milking; and, certain it is, where all the surroundings are dirty, no +amount of washing the cow's bag will get rid of the bad effects of the +odors arising from the filth. Clean quarters for milking are +indispensable to the furnishing of sweet, nice-flavored milk. + +Cleanliness in all the pails, cans, strainers, and whatever comes in +contact with the milk, is equally necessary. Thorough washing, not +omitting the use of soap, scalding and airing, are the only things that +will keep them sweet and free from taint. All implements and utensils +should be as free from sharp corners as possible, as these are difficult +to clean, and taints are apt to be left in them to come in contact with +the new milk and infect it, as a small quantity of yeast leavens a batch +of bread. The milk will, therefore, soon begin to ferment, producing one +of the worst conditions which the cheese-maker has to contend with, and +rendering it impossible for him to make firm, clean-flavored cheese of +the milk. In no case should wooden vessels be used for milk. The wood +will absorb the milk, and no amount of washing and scalding will get it +entirely out. What remains will get frowy and impart its infection to +the warm milk and cause it to rapidly taint. Tin vessels are the best of +anything yet devised, and are recommended universally by the best +dairymen and by the American Dairymen's Association. Those with pressed +or round bottoms, having no inside angles for ferments to collect in, +are preferable. These can be obtained for a trifle if any more money +than common tin pails cost, and should receive the preference of +dairymen when purchasing. + +In short, the greatest care should be taken to have all things strictly +clean--not only those that come in contact with the milk, but those +surrounding it. The milkers should be as clean, careful and expeditious +as possible, avoiding all unnecessary or unusual motions, and everything +calculated to alarm or excite the cows. Then, if the cows have had +proper food, drink, care and treatment, there is little reason to +apprehend anything objectionable in either the quantity or quality of +the milk. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +COOLING MILK. + + +The management of milk, when once obtained, is the great practical +consideration with the farmer and cheese-maker. But the first handling +and care devolve upon the farmer; the cheese-maker's duties begin with +the delivery of the milk at the factory. Much, very much, depends upon +the treatment of the milk after milking, and the consequent condition in +which it is delivered. We will therefore begin at the stable or yard and +follow the milk through all its stages, until it is run into the +weighing-can. + +Previous suggestions as to cleanliness, etc., being adopted, we find the +hot milk in the pails ready to be strained into the can standing on the +platform or in the wagon. We say "strained," because this is necessary +to absolute cleanliness, which affects the flavor, though at some +factories the patrons are directed not to strain the milk, for the +reason that poor care is so often taken of the strainer, and the keeping +of the strainer drawn tight over the top of the can prevents cooling and +hastens taint. For this reason, we would recommend the use of +strainer-pails, unless the cloth strainer can be stretched above the can +so as to allow the heat to escape and the cool air to come in. These +precautions should be observed, most certainly, if no means is adopted +for cooling the milk before starting for the factory. + +The subject of cooling and airing milk has long been earnestly +discussed, and the importance of cooling, at least, we believe is +universally conceded. But how is this end to be attained, with the +thermometer indicating an average temperature of 80°, and perhaps +higher? The first and simplest suggestion is to set the can in a tub of +cold water--cold spring or well-water, or iced water--and to give the +milk frequent agitation with a dipper or other convenient article, care +being taken to stir it from the bottom, as the cold milk naturally +settles, and of course the hot milk lies on the top. Gentle agitation +secures the advantage, also, of preventing the cream from rising. This +makes trouble, and consumes a little time, but we believe the result +will well repay both. + +The milk-can should, by all means, be kept out of the sun's rays, and in +a clean airy place. As to the importance of airing milk, there is a +difference of opinion. Some assert that the airing is beneficial only so +far as it assists in cooling, and that if we can succeed in cooling the +milk down to 60°, or thereabouts, immediately after milking, we shall +attain all the good results apparent from exposure to the air. All the +"animal odors," they say, disappear. Be that as it may, it is scarcely +possible to cool milk without more or less exposure to the atmosphere, +and we have never heard it claimed that any bad consequences follow this +exposure. It is possible, however, that it may more rapidly absorb +oxygen, and thus sooner sour. The probability is, that any process which +will secure the proper cooling will also afford the necessary exposure +for the escape of all animal or other odors likely to pass off in the +form of gas. Therefore, practically, it is of very little importance +whether we consider the question of airing milk, in any of the stages of +its management. So we will first look after the processes which secure +known advantages. + +Several inventions for the purpose of cooling milk have made their +appearance within the past year or two. Some for the use of factories, +which seem to work quite satisfactorily, and others for the use of +farmers, none of which, we believe, have yet been received with much +favor. They are mostly too complicated, if not too expensive, and too +difficult to keep clean, to ever become generally adopted. Yet, enough +has already been developed to convince us that the desideratum, of a +satisfactory apparatus for cooling milk as fast as, or soon after, it is +taken from the cow, can be realized. The great trouble is, to make +farmers use it faithfully, if at all. + +The cooling of milk as fast as milked, or very soon afterward, is the +great question now presented to farmers and cheese-makers. It is of +quite as much and more consequence, than keeping it cool at the +factory--for milk is often so far advanced in decomposition, if not +actually sour or tainted, when received, that it is impossible to work +it up satisfactorily. Some Yankee must give us a simple and cheap +apparatus that will effect the desired result. Such an invention will +greatly improve the quality and increase the consumption and price of +American cheese. But, in the absence of anything better, the can set in +a tub of water and the milk frequently stirred, would be a great +improvement on starting for the factory with hot milk. If the water can +be made to constantly run into the tub, fresh and cool, as the warm +water runs out, so much the better. Another improvement would be some +kind of wagon-cover, permitting the air to pass under it, to keep off +the sun in clear weather and keep out the rain in wet weather. The hot +rays of the sun, pouring on a can of milk for the distance of two or +three miles, perhaps--especially if the milk is not cooled before +starting--cannot fail to do it serious injury. Milk thus exposed often +has a very offensive smell when it reaches the factory-door. This shows +that it is already tainted and in a condition to injure the good milk in +the vat into which it is run, and cause a porous or "huffy" curd. + +The question as to the effect of suddenly cooling milk has been somewhat +discussed; also as to how low a temperature is beneficial. Experiments +are necessary to definitely and satisfactorily settle these questions. +Our impression is that, if ice is not used, there is no danger of +cooling milk too suddenly or of getting it too cool. But where ice is +used, especially if permitted to come in contact with the milk, or even +to be separated from it only by a thickness of tin, there is danger of +chilling the particles of milk in immediate contact with the cold +surface, and causing them to prematurely decay. This would, of course, +injure the keeping qualities of the rest of the batch. So far as the +suddenness of the operation is concerned, we doubt if it would have any +material effect, one way or the other. But where any portion of the milk +is chilled, whether the whole batch of milk be slowly or suddenly +reduced in temperature, we should expect it to injure the flavor and +keeping qualities of the cheese. Some experiments, like the one made and +related by Mr. FARRINGTON, of Canada, at the last Convention of the +American Dairymen's Association, would seem to favor the conclusion, +that suddenly reducing the milk to a low temperature is unfavorable to +the production of the best quality of cheese. More experiments, as we +have previously suggested, are necessary to finally settle these +questions. But of the importance of cooling milk down to as low a +temperature as 60° to 65°, there can be no doubt; and there need be no +fear of milk being cooled rapidly enough to injure it where only water +is used in the process of cooling. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +DELIVERING MILK. + + +Very little attention is usually paid to carrying milk to the factory. +Too many pour the hot milk into a can standing on a wagon or platform, +in the broiling sun, put on the cover, which fits almost air-tight, as +soon as through, and then haul it in this condition, without any shelter +or protection from the sun's rays, to the factory. It is sometimes drawn +two or three miles in this way. Or, as is often the case, it is left +standing on the platform, covered air-tight, until the milk-wagon comes +along. Whether taken on the wagon at the beginning of the route, or left +standing on the platform at the last end of the route, it broils in the +sun an hour or two, with the animal heat all in it. If drawn a long +distance, it is pretty well churned, in addition, and thus a separation +of the butter takes place which no ingenuity of the cheese-maker can +remedy; but when the result is seen in the cream rising on the whey-vat, +anathemas are heaped on his head. Where the milk stands quiet on the +platform, the cream rises and forms an air-tight covering over the top +of the milk, which soon taints next to the cream. And whether standing +still or riding in a tight can, exposed to the sun's rays, without the +animal heat having been expelled, it is scarcely possible to avoid +taint. + +In this way, the manufacturer is furnished with perhaps fifty or +seventy-five messes of milk, all more or less tainted, or at least +progressed in decomposition, whether any offensive odor is perceptible +or not. He has these to cool off and keep over night--often with poor +facilities for cooling--for proprietors of factories are too often +ignorant of the importance of providing ample means for cooling, or are +too eager for large profits on small investments, to furnish them. So +the operator dips and stirs away at the decomposing mass until ten or +eleven o'clock, if not later, and finally yields to "tired nature's +sweet restorer, balmy sleep," to rest his weary muscles and care-worn +brain--exhausted, perhaps, by months of incessant toil seven days every +week. By five the next morning he must be on hand, to receive the +scattering messes of milk. At seven or eight o'clock comes the rush. +Then the messes begin to drop off, and by half-past nine or ten o'clock +the last steaming batch, with an unmistakable rotten-egg smell, makes +its appearance. + +Now, what has the cheese-maker got on his hands, some sweltering +morning, during the season when it is "too hot to make butter," and +people kindly draw their dairy liquids to the cheese-factory? Why, on +rising in the morning and rubbing open his eyes, he breaks the cream on +his milk. The under surface has a sickish, sour smell, which tells him +very plainly that it cannot be worked up too soon. But what is he to do? +The answer is plain enough: Run into this fermenting mass an equal +quantity of the same hot stuff which he received the night before! What +will be its condition by the time he gets through? No matter! It is his +business to make cheese of it. He is employed for that purpose. If the +cheese does not prove of the first quality, every patron who furnishes +him stinking milk will have strong suspicions that he does not +understand his business! And some even insist that the cheese-maker +shall pay for all the poor cheese! But any man who is fool enough to +make such an agreement, ought to suffer, at least one season. The +thought of it, however, is almost "enough to make a minister swear." +And, by the way, we have been told of one instance where a minister left +the pulpit and took to the cheese-factory--probably for the purpose of +practically learning a lesson of patience. He was simple-minded enough +to agree to pay for all the poor cheese. He soon found his salary was +not equal to such a demand. So he set himself about watching the +weighing-can, to keep out the bad milk. This was a Herculean task he had +not counted on. We are not informed whether he swore or not; but he +actually took his station outside, with a heavy rod of iron, which he +was compelled to use, on one or two occasions, to keep the patrons from +running rotten milk into the weighing-can! His experience was an +instructive one, and ought to be a warning to all ambitious clergymen, +as well as to innocent-minded cheese-makers! + +We do not mean to say, that the patrons of all factories are as bad as +above indicated, nor that they are no better on an average. But we do +mean to say, that too many are very careless, and that almost every +factory has a few patrons whose milk is apt to be in a bad condition +when delivered. Besides, while we hear frequent complaints about bad +milk, we never hear of any one's delivering milk in too good a +condition. Patrons need have no fears of this, and may take it for +granted that they cannot take too much pains with milk, both in point of +cleanliness and of keeping it out of the hot sun and expelling the +animal heat. We should expect to find, if a careful investigation were +made, that the most unsuccessful factories are those where milk is +delivered in the worst condition, while the successful ones are those +where patrons are more careful and the milk received is generally good. +More often depends on the milk than on the cheese-maker. We have heard +it remarked, that "almost anybody can make good cheese of perfectly +sweet milk;" but it is a smart chap indeed who can make good cheese of +poor milk. Every cheese-maker will appreciate our remarks, and we hope +they may not be altogether lost on some patrons. + +It will not, as a general thing, pay to draw milk over two or two and a +half miles, for two reasons: First, it consumes too much valuable time, +and next, it churns the milk too much and keeps it too long shut up +tight and exposed to the hot atmosphere, if not the sun. If milk, +however, were thoroughly cooled as soon as milked, and then carried on +easy springs over a smooth road, there is little doubt that it might be +drawn four or five miles without much injury, but the expense would be a +serious objection to going so long a distance. + +Cans that hold over a barrel will be found inconvenient. It is better to +use two smaller ones, that can be easily handled, than one very large +one. They will cost but little more, and will last considerably longer, +as the strain on them will be less. A large can is made of the same +material, and is but little if any stronger from additional bracing and +staying, and is liable to spring aleak. + +As to the use of faucets, it is generally objected to by cheese-makers, +as too little pains is taken by many to keep them clean. Their use is, +therefore, discarded as far as possible, and we believe cans are +generally made without them. Yet, some factories still continue +receiving milk through conductors, where, of course, faucets are +necessary. They are also a convenience to the patron, in many instances, +where the can may be used for other purposes than holding milk. It is, +therefore, not likely that their use will ever be entirely done away +with. But, if neatly and smoothly put in, and care is observed in +cleaning them, there can be no serious objection to them. Small faucets, +however, should never be tolerated. Nothing smaller than inch-and-a-half +or two-inch faucets should be put in. These are easy to clean, and +greatly facilitate emptying. A small spiteful stream is a nuisance, and +causes a waste of time at the factory door where expedition is what +everybody wants, and is what is needed. If you use a faucet, use a large +one, and keep it scrupulously clean. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +RECEIVING MILK. + + +Most factories now unload milk by the use of cranes or some other kind +of tipping apparatus. Some of the older factories--there are no very old +ones--continue the use of conductors for transferring the milk to the +weighing-can. This is the easier but the slower way, and necessitates +the use of at least double the number of weighing-cans that are required +by the crane. Besides, in the use of conductors, there is the constant +inconvenience of standing out in the rain, in wet weather, to hold the +conductor, while there is more or less liability to accident from the +backing up or starting of the team. Conductors are mean, even +impossible, things to clean; and their use, when there is a rush of +teams, requires a second man or boy to hold them, while the first does +the weighing and makes the necessary entries on the milk-book. If sixty +to eighty messes are to be received, at least two weighing cans will be +necessary. But by the use of a crane, one weighing-can will do the same +work--always provided it has a faucet of not less than three inches in +diameter, so that the can may be emptied while a team is driving up and +the patron's can is being grappled and elevated ready for tipping. A +large faucet is of equal advantage when conductors are used, and, in +that case, every patron's can should be furnished with at least a +two-inch faucet, to facilitate the transfer of milk to the weighing-can. + +The use of the crane is, of course, not entirely free from accident. The +strain on the can, when full, is very great, and it is liable to spring +aleak, unless well made. But cans made with reference to this use are +now furnished with crowning or with patent bottoms, and are so well +hooped and braced that no serious accidents of this kind are likely to +occur. A can-ear, or a rope long in use, may break. There may be +carelessness in hooking on to the can, and the milk may be slopped or +spilled by letting a full can turn over too soon, or by too suddenly +letting the milk dash into the weighing-can. All these operations +require care and experience; but, with proper management, the loss from +accident, during a season, will be very slight--perhaps nothing at all. + +Great care should be taken in weighing milk, to not only weigh it right, +but to make the patron feel that his milk is honestly weighed, and that +he is likewise honestly credited on the milk-book. Much suspicion and +hard feeling are liable to spring up, if the man who weighs the milk has +the appearance of being hasty and careless--especially if he should be +ill-natured and disagreeable in his manners. And it may not be out of +place here to remark, that good manners and a spirit of accommodation +are no more out of place in a cheese-factory than anywhere else. Among a +large number of patrons, it would be strange if there were not +disagreeable, ill-mannerly men; but a man who retains his +self-possession and always acts fairly and talks reasonably, will seldom +fail to get along tolerably well and retain the good will of all. It is +the right of the patron to know that his milk is correctly weighed and +credited, and every reasonable facility should be afforded him to +satisfy himself that he is fairly dealt with. + +It becomes the duty of one receiving milk to see that it is delivered in +proper condition. Experience, a good eye and a good nose, are all +useful assistants. Even with the use of all these, messes will sometimes +get into the vat that never ought to be there. But when a patron's milk +is found not to be right, it is not necessary to insult or abuse him, +nor to make a general exposure of him. Neither law nor duty requires +this. He should be kindly informed of the fact, told what the matter is +with his milk and what he had better do to remove the evil. If you do +not wish to take the mess, you can express your regrets at his +misfortune, and show him that it would cause great damage, some of which +must necessarily fall on himself. If the mess is objectionable, but will +pass, give him notice that you will be obliged to refuse it in future, +if not in a better condition. When you have done this, more words with +him are unnecessary, and you have all the advantage, for the law and the +community are on your side. But, with a reasonable man, it will not be +necessary to more than call his attention to the fact that his milk is +bad. The cause may be the result of accident or oversight on the part of +his help, and he will at once set himself to work to apply the remedy. +The importance of delivering milk in good condition is more and more +acknowledged every year, and not a few patrons pride themselves on +delivering as good milk as any of their neighbors. It is well to +encourage this feeling by giving every man credit who takes pains with +his milk. Nothing is worse than wholesale denunciation and fault +finding. It only discourages many, creates bad feeling, and makes an +up-hill road a rough one as well. A cheese-maker needs friends, if +anybody does; and if he does not get them among his patrons, he is not +likely to get them at all. In that case, his seven days a week of hard, +thankless toil and care are likely to weigh heavily on body and mind. + +The greatest difficulty is usually experienced in old factories, where +the conveniences are not generally up to the more modern mark, and +patrons fell into bad habits before experience had developed a better +knowledge of the requirements of cheese-making. New patrons will submit +to be trained, and a sensible cheese-maker, who knows what he wants, can +generally get them to do almost anything at the opening of a new +factory. In this way, he can discipline them and get them in the habit +of taking good care of their milk. But, in an old factory, where +everything started off badly, the old adage, that "it is hard to learn +old dogs new tricks," is apt to be exemplified. They dislike +innovations, think a new man, who wants to be particular, wishes to put +them to useless trouble, and they are not disposed to gratify him, but +rather to growl at him, and feel that what was good enough for others is +good enough for him. Such conduct is all wrong, and those who are guilty +of it stand in their own light. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +BIG AVERAGES. + + +It is the custom in many factories to balance the scales so that a pound +or so is taken out of each mess, in order to help make "a big average" +for the season. That is, every mess is made to weigh a pound or so less +than its actual weight, and is so entered on the book. In this way, if +sixty or seventy messes are received, the cheese-maker has that number +of pounds of milk more to make up than is charged against him. This +amount twice a day would enable him to turn out some twelve or fourteen +pounds of cheese more than he ought to if he received no more pounds of +milk than he gives credit for on the milk-book. Thus he makes it appear +to the patrons, and publishes it ultimately to the world, that he uses +less pounds of milk in making a pound of cheese than is the actual fact. +In common phrase, he "makes a big average." + +Let us illustrate a little. Suppose ten hundred and ten pounds of milk +are delivered in ten messes. The entry on the book is one thousand +pounds. Out of this he makes one hundred and one pounds of cured cheese. +If the milk had been correctly weighed, the fact would appear that he +made one pound of marketable cheese for every ten pounds of milk. But it +really appears that it took a fraction less than ten pounds of milk, or +9.9 pounds, for a pound of cheese. This is the advantage which he has, +in the eyes of the community, over the maker who gives honest weight. +This is the reward of his petty dishonesty. + +In justification of this, it is argued that it keeps up not only the +reputation of the maker but the reputation of the factory, while it +wrongs no one, since the patrons get all the cheese, or its equivalent +in money, and all are served alike. We admit that the patrons get all +the products of the milk, but let us see for a moment whether all are +treated fairly. Every patron has a pound of milk deducted from each +mess. SMITH brings a hundred pound mess, and is therefore docked one +hundredth part of it. JONES, with only one cow, delivers a ten pound +mess, and is docked one-tenth of it. Thus, at the end of thirty days, +each has delivered sixty messes. SMITH has delivered 6,000 pounds and +been credited for 5,940. JONES has delivered 600 pounds, and got credit +for 540. If ten pounds of milk make one pound of cheese, the account +ought to stand thus: + + + Smith, 6000 lbs. milk, 600 lbs. cheese. + Jones, 600 lbs. milk, 60 lbs. cheese. + --- + Total, 660 + + +But, under the system of deducting a pound from each mess, in order to +show a "big average," the account really stands thus: + + + Smith, 5,940 lbs. milk, 605 lbs. cheese. + Jones, 540 lbs. milk, 55 lbs. cheese. + --- + Total, 660 + + +At twenty cents a pound for cheese, JONES, because he is poor and +delivers a small mess, loses just one dollar on his month's milk, and +SMITH, because he is better off and has a bigger mess, gets the dollar +added to his profits. This, in plain figures, is the result of deducting +weight in order to show a "big average." Let no one who reads this do it +again. He can no longer plead ignorance, and continue to rob PETER for +the benefit of PAUL, under the supposition that he is treating all alike +and fairly. + +Unquestionably, something should be allowed for the difference between a +dry and a wet can. The amount is trifling, and can be got at by +balancing the scales immediately after running out a can of milk. But, +when the scales are balanced with a wet can, they will not balance +exactly when the can is dry; and whoever delivers the first mess and +wets the can will suffer a slight loss, unless care is taken to give +good weight. The variation will generally not be more than a quarter of +a pound or so, and can be nearly enough approximated by attention to the +fractions of a pound denoted by the scales. + +Of course, in weighing milk, only the full pounds can be counted and +credited, the fractions going to make up full weight. As quick weight is +demanded in selling cheese, milk when received should be weighed in the +same way. This is fair, and ought to be satisfactory to all. But whether +quick or slow weight is given, let it be honest. In the long run, +"honesty is the best policy" in weighing milk as well as in other +transactions; and, in this case, it is absolutely essential to justice. +A little deduction or variation on a single mess, is of small +consequence; but "many mickles make a muckle," and when the variation +from a correct standard is constantly in one direction, after a while it +amounts to a noticeable quantity. + +Occasionally a mess of milk will get run into the vat without weighing, +by the weigher forgetting to close the gate or faucet. When an accident +of this kind happens, there is no fairer way than to give credit for an +average mess as compared with the messes at the same time of day +previously. If the patron is a fair man, there will be little trouble in +hitting upon a satisfactory figure. If disposed to make the most of a +mistake, he will be likely to tell you that he thought he had a larger +mess than usual, and crowd you up to as high a figure as possible. But +one has to exercise his best judgment, and give such credit as he thinks +will wrong no one. Such mistakes, though almost unavoidable, are +unpleasant to one who is sensitive and wishes to keep the good side of +all; and not only care should be taken, but every precaution should be +used, to prevent them. The handle or lever for closing the gate should +be in full sight, and one should acquire the habit of working +systematically, so that he may instinctively do what is necessary, even +though his attention be for the moment diverted from his business. + +Great care is required, too, in making the entries in the milk book. A +mess, by carelessness, may be credited to the wrong man; but when the +man to whom the credit is wrongfully given presents himself, the mistake +is likely to be discovered, though you may not be able to determine at +once to whom the credit belongs. In such case, preserve the figures, and +when your messes are all in, turn over the leaves of the book and see +who is without credit. The size of the mess is generally some +indication. One is liable, too, to make a mistake of fifty or a hundred +pounds in looking at the scales. But the habit of comparing every entry +with the previous ones as you make it, will show the discrepancy. Where +such variation is noticed, of course another glance at the weight will +determine whether it is a mistake or not. It is a very good practice to +call out the weight of each mess. This affords satisfaction to the +patron as well as guards against allowing errors to pass. But, under +all circumstances, too much attention cannot be paid to keeping the +milk-book correctly. It is the only guide to the distribution of the +proceeds of the factory, and the thought of even a possible mistake +ought to give an honest man a strong sense of responsibility. No bank +book is of more importance. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +CONDUCTORS, STRAINERS, ETC. + + +When treating of receiving milk, we spake of conductors as difficult to +clean. We consider them an abomination in a cheese factory; yet almost +every factory uses them. We believe there are some, however, arranged +for delivering and receiving milk by driving through one end of the +factory. The milk is brought in small cans, out of which it is poured +into the weighing-can by hand. The weighing-can is on a truck running on +a railway along the sides or ends of the vats, into which the milk is +readily emptied by tipping. This does away with both faucets and +conductors, and the idea is worthy the attention of all factorymen. + +When cranes are used in receiving milk, the outside conductors are not +needed, but there are two or three long conductors, inside the factory, +used for running the milk from the weighing-can into the vats. Sometimes +we see one of these tin tubes ten or fifteen feet long. It is impossible +to keep such a thing clean. A peep into this, or shorter ones, will show +that they are not kept clean. Take as much pains as the hands may to +clean them with a swab on a long stick, they will soon get coated over +inside by the milk drying on; and, unless extra pains is taken, they +will be lined with a beautiful coating of green and gold! They are used +at night, and, unless the weather is very bad--and many pay no attention +to the weather--they are allowed to stand over night where used, ready +for the next morning. The milk and cream get dried on the inside +surface, and nobody has the time, if the disposition, to soak it off. +Further, tin conductors will get dents in them. The milk will collect +and dry in the angles made by these dents. How, in the name of common +sense, can any one get at them to clean them, in a tube ten or even four +feet long? It is an impossibility. The milk collects, from day to day, +until the conductor is full of foul ferments, through which all the milk +of the factory is run and tainted. It is no fault of the cheese-maker, +because he can't help it, if he employs a hand constantly on these +abominable tubes. He may use a swab with strong ley, or salt and water, +or both, and run hot water through the tubes till the patrons begin to +come with their milk, but the "damned spots" will not "out." Of course, +he will somewhat neutralize their active properties as ferments, but he +does not altogether get rid of them. The only way in which he can do it, +is to pitch the nasty things out of the window. + +If conductors must be used--and their use seems to be a foregone +conclusion--let them be made in the form of open spouts. A foot or so +next to the head, is all the tube that is needed--and this should be +large enough to readily admit the hand for the purpose of washing. The +rest should be an open spout, which can be easily and speedily cleaned +and scalded. Many owners of factories, however, are too penurious to +spend a few dollars in order to get rid of this nuisance of long tin +conductors. They would rather lose--or, at least, run the risk of +losing--five hundred dollars on the sale of their cheese, than spend +five dollars for the purpose of avoiding this fruitful source of taint. +If the cheese is poor, the blame can be laid on the cheese-maker; or, if +the taint is too manifest in the vat of milk or curd, it can be charged +upon the carelessness of the patrons. + +There is another source of trouble, which lies entirely with the +cheese-maker, or with the hands under him whom he trusts. This is the +strainer. In cool weather, perhaps there will be no difficulty, if the +strainer is properly washed, scalded and dried each morning after the +milk is all in. But in hot weather, especially if the atmosphere is damp +and steamy, if a strainer is left over night without rinsing, it is sure +to sour. Yet, the strainer, like the conductor, is often left at night +just as used, ready for the reception of the next morning's milk. Both +are likely to be sour. The milk in the vat is "old," especially next the +cream, which acts as an air-tight covering. Now, run hot milk through +the sour can, conductor and strainer, into this mess of changed milk, +and any one, with even but a modicum of brains, can see what is likely +to be the consequence. It will be a batch of sour, leaky cheese. + +Where an agitator is used, the trouble of milk souring or tainting +beneath an air-tight covering of cream, is obviated. Washing cans, +conductors and strainers at night, gets rid of the difficulty from these +sources--that is, as far as the can and strainer are concerned, and +partially as regards the conductor. A thorough rinsing in cold water, +immediately after the last mess is run in, will be found to answer the +purpose. It is usually late, and there is no hot water for regular +washing and scalding. But a few moments' work will complete the rinsing +in cold water, and this will not be found a very hard task for even the +jaded hands of a cheese-factory. During all the hot weather, this should +be strictly attended to. It will pay in a double sense--it will prevent +sourness, and make the can, conductor and strainer easier to wash the +next day. + +The old-fashioned thermometer is also a source of annoyance, if care is +not taken in cleaning it. It will fill up with ferments between the face +and back, in an astonishingly short space of time, during hot weather. +In short, there is no way of keeping it perfectly clean, except by +slipping the thermometer out of the back or case, and carefully washing +and scalding it--and in doing this, it is exceedingly liable to get +broken. We are therefore glad to notice the introduction of a new +thermometer for dairy purposes. It is simply constructed, plain, easy to +clean, and no more expensive than the common kind now in use. Those in +need of thermometers will find this style much better adapted to their +uses. The glass is fastened to a plain plate of metal, the two edges of +which are bent forward to give it the requisite stiffness. + +Of course, agitators, dippers, rakes, &c., need to be carefully cleaned. +But we have before spoken of the importance of the most scrupulous +attention to cleanliness throughout, on the part of the cheese-maker as +well as of the patron. Cleanliness is an indispensable virtue in all +departments of dairying. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +COLOR. + + +One would hardly think of associating cheese-making with the fine arts; +yet, in what other light can we view the subject of color? It adds +nothing to the quality of the cheese, but rather detracts from it. It is +expensive and troublesome, and grows more so every year, as the demand +for annotto runs up the price and leads to adulteration. But as long as +we make cheese for a foreign market, we must adapt our goods to the +tastes of that market, whether they be physical or mental. Our home +market would, perhaps, not suffer from the omission of color; but the +English market demands, to a large extent, highly-colored cheese. The +Liverpool market will take a small quantity of pale cheese, but it does +not equal more than one-fifth of the demand of the English market. A few +factories, which sell exclusively to buyers who supply the Liverpool +demand for pale cheese, may safely omit the color; but all which depend +on the general market cannot safely do so. The London market specially +demands a high color, and it is no less exacting now than it has been +heretofore. The cry of buyers generally is, "Keep up the color!" The +exceptions to this are few, and are confined to those who have special +orders for pale cheese to supply the demand above indicated. + +The English consumer acquired his taste for golden-hued cheese before +the American make found any considerable market abroad--indeed, before +we had much cheese to sell. The first object in coloring seems to have +been to give a rich butter color. In this way, cheese was made to +appear rich whether it really was so or not. But the shade has been +considerably intensified and the English eye is best pleased with the +color produced by the use of prime annotto, with which it has become +familiar. This may be a prejudice, but it is a comparatively harmless +one; and since our customer is willing to pay for it, there seems to be +no good reason why it should not be gratified. It is for our interest to +please the eye as well as the appetite of so large a buyer of our +products as England. She wants about four-fifths of her cheese highly +but nicely colored. + +The complaint among buyers generally is, that color is too low. In reply +to suggestions about the fact, makers often say that they never used +more coloring, but it does not produce the desired effect. They have +paid a high price for what was supposed to be prime annotto, but it +proves to be extensively adulterated, and therefore weak. This is not +the complaint of all, but of many. Some have adopted the use of prepared +annotto, and find it cheaper and more satisfactory. When prime annotto +could readily be had, it was cheaper to buy the basket and prepare it +themselves. But now, one poor basket, during a season, imposes a loss +greater than the difference in price between the prepared and the +unprepared. + +There is another evil about the use of poor annotto. It is not only +expensive and does not give the desired color, but what color it does +give fades out with age, and leaves the cheese with a cloudy, mottled +appearance, which is very offensive to the eye of our best customers. +Again, where poor annotto is bought in the basket and prepared at the +factory, it contains a large amount of sediment, and this sediment, +often containing deleterious substances, too frequently gets into the +cheese. The liquid is not properly settled and racked off. This affords +another argument in favor of buying prepared annotto, which, if properly +put up, is free from sediment. + +Those who prefer to buy the basket annotto and prepare it themselves, +should buy only on the warrant of the dealer that it is what it is +recommended to be. The dealer should test a sample of his annotto, +before offering it for sale, and know precisely what he is selling. +Buyers by thus purchasing only of well-known dealers, who sell upon +honor, will discourage rascality. This is the only method we see for +keeping the spurious article out of market, and securing satisfactory +results in coloring. + +We would suggest to those who prepare their own annotto, that they use +concentrated ley or potash. By doing so, they will secure just as good a +shade as they can by using ley from wood-ashes, and not only save the +trouble of bothering with a leach, but secure uniform strength. Two +leaches will seldom turn out ley of the same strength. Sometimes it will +be strong and satisfactory. But if you happen to get a lot of soft wood +ashes in your leach, the ley will be weak, imperfectly dissolve the +annotto, and materially injure the liquid. + +In fact, it is difficult to get your coloring twice alike by the use of +a common leach. But with concentrated ley or potash, the same quantities +or proportions of materials, mixed in the same way, will produce the +same result. You can therefore keep your color even, and will not be +called upon to experiment and change your hand every time you prepare a +new batch of annotto. The difference in expense will be trifling, and +rather in favor of the use of potash, if time and trouble are counted of +any value. + +The prepared annotto ought to be kept in a stone jar, as the ley +operates injuriously upon wood, and is liable to leave a tub in a leaky +condition as the liquid is used out and the tub dries. Where annotto is +purchased already prepared, of course it comes in vessels suitable to +keep it in; but when prepared at the factory, a receptacle has to be +provided, and nothing is better than stone or earthen-ware. In hot +weather, the liquid is liable to smell badly from the action of the heat +on it. A little salt stirred in will be found useful as a preventive +against this. + +It is not necessary to discuss at length the question of the effect of +coloring on the quality of the cheese. The introduction of a strong +alkaline preparation cannot be without some effect; and when that +happens to be adulterated with some vile substance, the effect cannot be +otherwise than injurious. The annotto itself is generally conceded to be +harmless; and the ley is, at most, but a neutralizer of the lactic acid, +but the quantity is not sufficient, perhaps, to produce any perceptible +result. At all events, color is demanded; annotto, prepared with ley or +potash, is the accepted material; so we have only to color with annotto +to suit the taste of our customer. + +We are assured that nicely colored cheese will bring from a cent to a +cent and a half a pound more than the same quality of cheese will bring +when pale. Buyers in some instances advise the making of pale cheese +because they have a special order for it; but they usually expect to get +it a little under the highest market quotations, and factorymen who +allow themselves to drop the color on the advice of an interested buyer, +because it is easy and costs nothing directly to do so, run the risk of +being caught and of losing a great deal more than they can save by +omitting the coloring. We never heard of a lot of cheese being condemned +because it was too nicely colored; but we frequently hear of complaints +and losses because cheese is too pale. The chances are at least four to +one in favor of high-colored cheese; and even the fifth chance is not +positively against color, though the other four are strongly against +_lack_ of color. He who wishes to have the widest range of markets, and +to command the best markets, must pay strict attention to color--not +only must he color, but color well and evenly. + +We have an objection to color, for reasons satisfactory to ourselves; +and buyers can have no interest in inducing makers to color their +cheese, beyond the fact that it makes it more marketable--and in this, +patrons and factorymen have a much greater interest than dealers can +have. The market demands a rich, even color, and will not be satisfied +without it. We say, therefore, _as a matter of dollars and cents_--not +of taste, choice or convenience--_keep up the color_. + +We will give two recipes for preparing annotto: 1. To five pounds of +prime annotto put five gallons of strong ley, made from wood ashes; +gradually heat up and dissolve the annotto, care being taken to not +scorch it on the bottom of the kettle. Of course thorough stirring is +essential. When the annotto is all dissolved, add five pounds of sal +soda and five gallons of soft water. Then gently boil the whole for +twenty or thirty minutes. This makes about ten gallons of prepared +coloring. If boiled away to less, add sufficient ley and soft water, in +equal quantities, to make that amount. Some omit the sal soda; but it is +generally believed that it not only adds strength to the preparation, +but improves the color by giving it more of a rich, buttery hue, instead +of a red. The whole, when sufficiently cooled to handle safely, should +be set in a tub, with a faucet two or three inches from the bottom, to +settle. When settled, it can be drawn off, and is ready for use. + +2. Mix in the proportion of five quarts of water to half a pound of +concentrated ley, and one pound of prime annotto. First dissolve the ley +in the water, by heating and stirring, and then add the annotto, and +dissolve it. Boil gently for half an hour. Care, as with the other +preparation, should be taken not to burn it. Settle and rack off. Then +your liquid is ready for use. + +The second recipe is the one most used, and is easiest to prepare, as it +avoids the labor, perplexity and risk of making the ley, which may not +always be of the desired strength, as the ashes may not be the same. But +if ashes are used, hot water is best to leech through them. A quart of +salt to ten gallons of preparation will improve its keeping qualities. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +RENNET. + + +An indispensable requisite in making cheese is good rennet. Nothing else +will answer the purpose. Different substitutes have from time to time +been tried, but all have met with indifferent success, or absolutely +failed. Acids will produce coagulation, but they spoil the quality of +the cheese. It was once supposed that the gastric juice of the calve's +stomach was acid, and produced coagulation by souring. But it has been +demonstrated that good curd can be produced from sweet new milk, by the +use of rennet, without the development of acid in either the curd or the +whey. How or why the principle obtained by soaking the calve's stomach +produces coagulation has not yet been discovered. What the principle +_is_, is not even known. It appears to be contained in the gastric juice +secreted by the inner membranes of the stomach, and a small quantity of +rennet, stirred into a vat of milk, seems to coagulate it in the same +manner that milk taken into the calve's stomach is coagulated. We all +know the fact that by the use of rennet we can make cheese. Beyond this, +we have little knowledge; so far as we are aware, scientific men are +just as much in the dark as the cheese-maker. + +As the stomach of the calf is bifold, we have seen the mistake +frequently made of saving the wrong one. But we presume patrons are +generally well informed on this point now, after so many years' +experience. Where the stomach is not entirely empty, the presence of +curd is a sure guide. Always save the stomach that contains the curd, +and no mistake will be made. If the stomach is empty, save the one that +has a smooth inside surface. The one that has a rough, honey-comb-like +inside surface is worthless for cheese-making, and should, of course, be +rejected. + +There are three or four ways of preserving the rennet or stomach, for +future use. Only two, we believe, are generally practiced in America. In +all cases, the rennet is to be turned wrong side out, all its contents +being thrown away, and the inner surface carefully cleaned by picking +off all hairs and bits of grass, hay or other substance which the calf +may have taken into its stomach. But the rennet should never be washed, +and great care should be taken not to remove any of the inner membrane +of the rennet, as in this membrane resides all its strength. Washing +would rinse out the gastric juice, and weaken the rennet; and much +washing would render it nearly or quite worthless. + +When properly cleaned, the rennet should be thoroughly rubbed with salt, +outside and in, turned the right side out, stretched on a crotched stick +or on a hoop, and hung up in a cool, dry place, to cure. In private +dairies, the farmer's wife, after salting the rennet, sometimes spreads +it on an earthen plate and sets it away to dry, frequently turning it on +the plate. Rennets dried in this way are nice, but it is too much work +to tend to them for a general adoption of this method of drying. Drying +on a stick or a hoop is the common way, and answers the purpose very +well. The only trouble is to find a place both dry and cool. It is +generally conceded, we believe, that heat injures the strength of the +rennet. Hence the importance of curing it in a cool place. Freezing is +thought by many to add to or develop the strength of the rennet. Be this +as it may, old rennets, that have hang up in the dry-house or some +other convenient place through the winter, will go much further in +cheese-making than new rennets. + +Another method of preserving rennets is by packing them into salt. This +is quite common, and is practiced by some of our best factories. It is +less troublesome than drying them, and is a sure preventive against +moths, which are apt to get into dried rennets. By salting them down, +there is less trouble to find a cool place in which to keep them during +the summer. But care should be taken to use only the purest salt in +packing rennets. Salt not fit to salt curd with is not fit to pack +rennets in, for when the rennets are used, the salt will be in the +liquid and find its way into the mass of curd. Besides, pure salt is +much the better preservative, and will keep either meat or rennets +sweeter than impure salt. + +Some think rennets preserved in this way are not as strong as those that +are dried. We do not quite see the philosophy of this, since by packing +in salt, none of the virtues of the rennet can escape by evaporation, +and must be retained either in the rennet or in the salt. It may be said +that the salt injures the strength of the rennet. If so, why does it not +prove equally injurious when the rennet is dried? In both methods of +preserving, salt is freely used--generally all that the rennet will +absorb. A batch of dried rennets may go farther than the same number +packed in salt, and _vice versa_; but this does not prove that the +_same_ rennets would not have equal virtues preserved by either method. + +The German method of preserving rennets is by blowing them up like a +bladder, and drying them. This is the way in which the Bavarian rennets, +which reach this country, are preserved. We believe no salt is used. +The method is simple, and if it answers the purpose equally well, we see +not why it may not be adopted in this country. We understand that the +Bavarian rennets give very good satisfaction. But, as we have never used +them, nor seen them used, we cannot speak from positive knowledge. + +Veal rennets are generally supposed to be better than deacon rennets. +Certain it is that the stomach of a calf that never sucked the cow is +not worth much in cheese-making. It is both small and weak. It seems to +be necessary that the process of digestion should go on for a while, at +least, that all the functions of the animal may become active and a full +secretion of gastric juice take place. Some are of the opinion that the +rennet is best when the calf is from three to five days old, as at that +age it is not likely to have taken anything but milk into its stomach, +which is best prepared for digesting that kind of food, the first +process of which is coagulation. Veal calves are apt to get hold of +other food, and the stomach is therefore less exclusively adapted to a +milk diet. Hence, it is argued, if the veal rennet is better than the +deacon, the stomach of the cow or ox ought to be better than that of the +veal calf. Whatever may be the conclusion, we have, and shall probably +continue to have, both deacon and veal rennets, both kinds of which have +been found to work satisfactorily. + +Much seems to depend on the condition of the calf when killed. If it +goes too long without food, the stomach gets inflamed and is not only +deprived of its strength, but is partially diseased, and, therefore, +unfit for cheese-making. This is the condition of most of the rennets +taken from calves killed in our larger cities, the calves going without +food sometimes two or three days. On the other hand, when the calf has a +full stomach, the juices seem to be absorbed in the food, and the rennet +is, therefore, weak. The best time for killing the calf appears to be +just after the stomach has emptied itself, when the appetite of the calf +begins to be sharp and the secretions of gastric juice are copious. This +will generally be found from twelve to eighteen hours after eating. If +fed at night, it may be killed any time the next forenoon. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +PREPARING RENNET. + + +The process of preparing rennet for use is very simple, and so generally +understood that we need not more than give a few hints on the subject. +In putting rennets to soak, care should be taken not to allow any +tainted ones to get into the batch. When they are packed in salt, it is +not difficult to make a selection. If the poor rennet does not smell, it +will be pretty likely to be discolored and unhealthful looking, instead +of having a whitish, wholesome appearance. All rennets thus discolored +should be thrown away as worse than useless--as positively injurious. If +the rennets are dried, it may not be so easy to detect the poor ones +before putting them to soak. After soaking, their quality will be quite +apparent; but much of their injurious effect may be avoided by promptly +rejecting them without rubbing. It is generally, and we believe +correctly, understood that diseased or tainted rennets produce both +huffy and bad-keeping cheese, by the introduction of decayed animal +substances. It certainly cannot improve the quality of the cheese to mix +with it the broth of carrion. + +Clear whey is the common and best liquid for soaking rennets. Water was +once and is now sometimes used, but it needs to be very soft and pure, +and is improved by boiling. We have never tried water, but it is +asserted by those who have used it for soaking rennets that a batch +prepared with it will not keep sweet as long as one prepared with whey, +but that boiling the water keeps it sweet longer than it will keep if +not boiled. We think the purer the whey the better, and therefore +prefer that which first separates from the curd after setting. Some are +not particular, and some prefer the salt whey that runs from the +presses. There is a saving of salt in this, but we think this liquid +cannot be as good to introduce into milk as that containing less cheesy +and buttery particles. Boiling the whey and skimming it, afterward +allowing it to cool and settle, that the sediment may also be excluded, +is said to be a great improvement, and we can easily believe this to be +true. It is not only free from impurities, but it forms a sharp acid +that acts readily upon the rennets and extracts more completely the +pepsin, gastric juice, or whatever it may be that coagulates the milk. +It is said that quite a saving in rennets can be effected by using +scalded whey for soaking them. + +Twenty or twenty-five prime rennets put into a half barrel of whey will +make a good preparation. It can be made stronger, of course, by the +addition of more rennets, or pouring in a less amount of whey; but it is +questionable if the entire strength can be extracted by using a less +quantity of whey in proportion to the number of rennets. They need to be +rubbed at least three times, each time in a new batch of whey. The +second time the preparation will be found about as strong as the first. +The third rubbing and rinsing may be in fresh whey to be used for +soaking a new batch of rennets. We like to have two tubs or jars for +soaking the rennets, one for the first and the other for the second +rubbing, alternately. After rubbing the second time, put the rennets in +a sack made of strainer cloth, to keep them separate, and soak them with +the batch intended for the next second rubbing. In this way the strength +of the preparation from the batch may be kept equal to that from the +first. Rub the third time, and rinse in fresh whey, as before indicated, +when the strength will be found pretty completely extracted. If dried +rennets are used, it will be necessary to add salt to the whey when the +batch is put to soak. Every time new whey is added, more salt will be +required. Where the rennets are packed in salt there will usually be +salt enough for the first soaking adhering to them; if not, it may be +increased in quantity by a few handfuls of that loose in the barrel in +which they have been packed. As the rennets will float on the whey, they +should be thoroughly stirred up as often as night and morning, and a +little salt sprinkled over those left on the top. + +We prefer stone jars, both for soaking rennets and to keep the prepared +rennet in, because they are so much more easily kept sweet than wooden +tubs can be. Of all things, we detest a stinking rennet tub or jar. +Frequent scalding, when emptied, is necessary. When the preparation is +kept in a tub, it will be advantageous to rub a little salt, each +morning, on the sides of the tub left exposed to the air, after setting +the milk, by the lowering of the liquid. By all means, do anything and +everything that may be necessary to keep the rennet tubs or jars from +stinking so badly that the stench will nearly suffocate one on +uncovering them. A sweet rennet tub is the evidence of important +qualities in a cheese-maker--care and cleanliness. + +Of course, there are various ways of managing, as regards quantity, +convenience's sake, and so on, but we do not believe the principles +involved in the process of selecting and preparing rennets for use, as +we have given it, can be violated or neglected without loss in some +manner. The importance of properly-prepared rennet, and of keeping it +sweet and clean, cannot be too highly estimated. "Bad luck" in +cheese-making might not infrequently be traced to the rennet tub; while +"good luck" may be as often traced to the same source. Look out for your +rennets and take care of your rennet-tubs or jars. They may make or mar +your fortune. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +SETTING. + + +The temperature of 82° to 86° is generally considered the best for +setting--the former in hot and the latter in cold weather. This gives an +average of 84° for mild weather. Perhaps this point is as good as any +for setting. But it is worth bearing in mind that the milk will +coagulate sooner, after adding the rennet, at a high than at a low +temperature. The same milk will set quicker at 86° than at 82°, and at +the points in the vat where the heat is greatest, or the milk cools +least by radiation, the curd will become tough and difficult to cut, +while other parts of the mass will remain tender and cut easily. This +not only demonstrates the greater activity of the rennet at a higher +heat, but the importance of an even heat throughout, and of keeping it +from falling. Some throw a cloth over the vat, after the milk begins to +thicken and agitation is no longer necessary to keep the cream from +rising. This is a good practice, we believe, as it retards the reduction +of temperature by radiation, and keeps the heat more equalized. This +will secure a more uniform action of the rennet, and render the cutting +less difficult and less liable to cause waste. + +When the rennet is once added and thoroughly incorporated with the milk, +we believe it would be better if the mass could have perfect rest until +the curd is ready to cut. We think the curd is more likely to be spongy +in consequence of the continued or frequent agitation kept up to prevent +the cream from rising. All know that a stir too much after the milk +begins to look thick, and roll heavily, prevents the formation of a +solid curd. It refuses to unite in one uniform mass, and remains in +small, separate particles. But, when the milk is all right, observation +will show that such a curd makes fine cheese, though there is great +waste from the fine particles floating off with the whey. And why will +it make fine cheese? Because it is in small particles, gets thoroughly +and evenly cooked, and the butter is equally distributed through it. + +But the difficulty of preventing the cream from rising and forming a +cream-curd, that will float on the whey, if it does not waste, needs to +be overcome before we can allow the milk perfect rest after +incorporating the rennet. We are not aware of any method for +accomplishing this. Agitation of the surface, at least, seems necessary +to retain the cream; but if the surface only is agitated, manifestly the +cream will escape from the bottom of the mass and impoverish it while +enriching the top. A thorough stirring of the whole mass, therefore, +will keep the cream more equally distributed, and it will also secure a +greater uniformity of temperature. The cheese must be of evener texture +than if made of curd of different degrees of richness mixed together. + +It is a question for debate as to whether the cream which rises on milk +is thoroughly incorporated with it by stirring. That butter is wasted in +making cheese, is a fact that cannot be denied. Some think that nearly +all the cream that rises on the vat during the night is floated off in +the whey. We cannot indorse this conclusion, although it is asserted +that where agitators are used, and the cream is thus prevented from +rising, there is a great saving of the butter. But one fact is worth a +thousand fictions in the practical affairs of life, whatever it be in +romance. Cream will mix with the milk by stirring, and go to enrich the +cheese, as is proved in the manufacture of the English Stilton cheese. +In the manufacture of this, the cream of the night's milk is taken off +and added to the morning's milk, which is worked up separately. The +cheese is greatly enriched thereby. How much the waste of butter is +increased, we are unable to say. We know from our own experience, that +skimming the night's milk, instead of stirring in the cream, makes a +marked difference in the yield and quality of the make. + +The first thing in setting, when a vat of milk is raised to the proper +temperature, is to add the coloring. This is a strong alkaline +preparation, and must have a tendency to retard the development of the +lactic acid, if it does not combine with it in forming a neutral salt. +If no effect is perceptible, beyond the color it imparts, it is simply +because the quantity is so small. Probably the effect of the alkali in +the annotto is more than counteracted by the acid in the rennet. + +Nothing as good as clear whey has been found for soaking rennets. Some +think the acid an advantage in the working of the milk, and others go so +far as to add, in cold weather, a quantity of sharp whey to the milk +along with that in the prepared rennet. This, of course, hastens the +development of acid throughout the mass. But we cannot say that we +approve of doing anything to change the milk, and thus sour the curd +before cooking. We prefer to have the milk as sweet as possible when +set, and to keep the curd sweet until it is cooked. Then we would +develop the acid in the whey. For this reason, if sour whey is to be +added, we should add it after the curd is cooked, for the purpose of +hastening the development of the lactic acid in the whey. This seems to +us to be the most rational course, from what our experience has taught +us. If fair experiment should demonstrate that we are in error as to +when and where the development of the acid should take place, we shall +be willing to yield the point. + +The amount of prepared rennet that it is necessary to add to the milk, +depends upon its strength, which can be determined only by experiment. +Sufficient should be used to coagulate the milk in ten or fifteen +minutes, and render it fit to cut in thirty or forty minutes. If the +milk is "old," the same quantity of rennet will cause it to work sooner, +as it should. Some would add less rennet. We would not. The milk needs +to work faster, and the acid, although it coagulates the milk, will not +supply the place of the rennet. The rennet ought to be strong enough to +require not more than a quart to a thousand pounds of milk. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +CUTTING CURDS. + + +Cheese-making was once carried on without cutting the curd; and even +since the introduction of the factory system, there have been those who +denounced the idea of using a cutting instrument. Breaking up the curd +with the hands was considered the better method as incurring less waste, +both of butter and cheese. Such ideas, though entertained but a few +years ago, are obsolete. Cutting curds is now universal, certainly in +America. The only questions are as to the time, manner and extent of +cutting. + +When should the curd be cut? Practically, there is little difference of +opinion on this question. Some may cut a little sooner or later than +others, and even the same person may not always be precise as to the +time of cutting. But all will agree that a curd should not be cut before +it is firm enough to break square and smooth over the finger without +whitening the whey; and they will also agree that it should be cut +before it gets tough enough to drive along ahead of the knife. We would +cut it as soon as it can be done without waste, while the curd is +tender; and we would do all the cutting at once. There is no sense in +running the knife through the curd one way, and then letting the curd +stand and toughen before cross-cutting and completing the operation. If +it is fit to partly cut, it is fit to wholly cut; and the sooner the +cutting is done with, the better. Time for the separation of the whey +can be given after the cutting is done, and before the heat is further +raised. + +The cutting should be done as carefully as possible and as evenly as +possible. The fewer the motions, the better. If it could be done +instantaneously and uniformly, without agitation, it would be an +advantage. At the right time, we would like to have the entire vat of +curd instantaneously separated into pieces of uniform size. This is the +end to be aimed at. We are far from reaching it with present appliances. +We can only approximate it as nearly as possible. A knife, therefore, +with blades near together is preferable to one with blades farther +apart. + +As to the extent of the cutting, there is more difference of opinion, +though the difference has much diminished since the mania for coarse +curds ran its course. A few yet cling to this exploded notion; but the +great majority choose a medium degree of fineness. It has been found +that the large pieces do not sufficiently cook, especially if the milk +is old enough to work quick. The consequence is an uneven texture, and a +deteriorated flavor. Sufficient whey remains in the centers of the large +lumps to ferment and give the cheese the smell of the whey-vat, if it +does not sour and cause the cheese to become leaky and dry. Possibly, if +the weather be favorable for curing, the whey may collect in pungent +drops throughout the cheese, showing themselves when cut somewhat as +they do in the Limburger. Such cheese, we think, is likely to ultimately +approximate the Limburger in both odor and flavor. It will please some +tastes, but will not answer for the best markets. + +Medium curds are now the rule. As cheese-makers have approximated fine +curds, they have improved the quality of their cheese. We believe still +finer cutting will prove a further advantage. We will give our reasons +for thinking so, and will add that our experience, as far as it goes, +corroborates the idea. It secures a more uniform action of the heat and +separation of the whey, and therefore an evener texture and better +flavor, with correspondingly improved keeping qualities. + +What is the object and advantage of cutting at all? Why not let the curd +remain in one unbroken mass? We cut the curd for the purpose of +facilitating the separation of the fluids from the solids by the +combined action of the rennet and heat. Is it not desirable that this +action should be uniform on every particle of curd? We think this +question will be generally answered in the affirmative. If so, then it +must be conceded that the finer the curd is cut the more nearly the +desired result will be attained. If it could be separated particle from +particle, without waste, would not the action of the heat and rennet be +more perfect still? When in lumps, the externals of them must +necessarily be cooked more than the centers, and the evil of +over-cooking--if there is such an evil with a blood heat temperature--is +illy counteracted by the mixture of curd cooked to different +degrees--some overdone and some underdone. It should all be cooked +alike, to whatever degree the cooking may be carried. This will secure +uniformity of texture and quality, and also clean flavor, if the cooking +is complete. + +But, of course, in cutting a curd fine there is danger of waste--waste +of curd, but not necessarily waste of butter, unless the curd is sour. +Then it is impossible to avoid waste of butter by any process that we +are aware of--and with a sour curd there is all the more necessity for +cutting fine and cooking rapidly and thoroughly. With proper care, the +evil of sour milk can be avoided. With good sweet milk and proper +management, there is very little danger of waste of any kind, cut as +fine as we can with the common knife. + +We would cut so that the pieces when cooked should not be larger than +kernels of corn; and though many object to it, we should not, if the +pieces were as small as buckwheat--and as regular in size. We would not +use a knife with the blades more than a quarter of an inch apart. Though +we have never used a knife for cutting horizontally, the idea commends +itself to our judgment. We would carefully cut first with the horizontal +knife, leaving the thin slabs of curd lying one upon the other. Then, +without waiting for the whey to rise or the curd to sink, we would use +the perpendicular blades lengthwise of the vat, reducing the slabs to +long square strips, and follow this with the cross-cutting until the +pieces were at least as small as beechnuts. After this, the curd may be +allowed to stand a few minutes, for the whey to separate, before +starting the heat--provided the milk is sweet enough to permit of delay. +But if the milk should give any indication of being old, we would begin +at once to gradually raise the heat; if quite old and changed, we would +crowd the heat as fast as practicable. + +To sum up in brief, we would cut a curd and complete the cutting as soon +as it can be done without waste; we would cut it as expeditiously as +possible and with as few motions; we would cut it as fine as care +against waste would warrant; we would raise the heat as gradually and +evenly as circumstances would permit; we would cook as thoroughly and as +evenly as possible; we would keep up the heat until the curd is done; we +would then let the acid develop in the whey until it is plainly changed; +we would dip as warm as convenient, drain and salt, cool to at least +80°, and then put to press. With good milk, good rennet and a good +place to cure the cheese in, we should expect in this way to turn out a +tip-top article. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +HEAT. + + +One of the most important elements in cheese-making is heat; but we do +not believe the importance of its proper regulation is sufficiently +understood by our cheese-makers. We are aware that cheese can be made +without the use of artificial heat. It is not such an article, however, +as would meet with a ready sale, or be likely to increase the +consumptive demand for cheese. A good-keeping, mild and nutty-flavored +cheese cannot readily be produced, if at all, with a temperature lower +than 96°; nor can a rich, buttery article be made with a temperature +over 102°. We consider 6° the widest allowable range of heat, and think +98° to 100°, or full blood-heat, the best temperature. + +Evenness and steadiness of temperature are two important points. That +apparatus is best which heats the milk throughout the vat the most +evenly--leaves it the freest from hot places and cold places, at the +sides, ends, or on the bottom. A perfect apparatus would raise the +temperature of every particle of milk at the same time and at the same +rate; and retain this perfectly even heat at the desired point until the +cooking is completed. + +The difficulty, with most or all heating apparatus, is to raise the heat +of the entire mass to the required temperature, without submitting some +particles to a greater degree of heat than is necessary, or heating them +in advance of the rest, to be stirred in and partially cooled again. + +We believe that an even cook or scald is of the utmost importance, and +that everything that can be should be done to secure that end. If +thoroughly accomplished, with sweet milk to begin with, we have no fears +as to the richness, fine flavor and good keeping qualities of the +cheese. There is no other thing, in our opinion, which will go so far +toward securing these three desirable qualities. + +Another thing, as before indicated, we consider of great importance in +securing a thorough cooking and proper separation of the whey from the +curd. We refer to steadiness of temperature. It seems to us a great +mistake, when the temperature is once up, to not keep it there, without +rising or lowering. It seems a misapplication of terms to speak of +cooking or scalding at a temperature of 98 or 100 degrees; yet, we all +know that blood-heat is all that is required for cheese-making. This +heat seems necessary. Perhaps it is because nature designed the gastric +juice from the rennet to operate at the temperature. It is a well +established fact that digestion will not go on when the temperature of +the stomach is below that of blood-heat. We presume a much higher +temperature is equally detrimental. This may account for the fact that +blood-heat is the best for cheese-making, as at that temperature the +rennet is most active. Be this as it may, we are satisfied that the +process is retarded and the curd deteriorated by allowing the +temperature to fall during the time it is in the scald. Instead of +cooking, and condensing, as it should, in order to expel the whey, it is +only soaking and souring. The moment the acid is sufficiently developed, +though the curd be yet soft and raw, the whey is drawn, the curd is +further cooled and soaked, and then dipped, drained, salted and put to +press. A leaky cheese is the result. If the weather is cool and bad for +curing, a sour cheese follows. But whatever the weather may be, we doubt +if a leaky cheese ever yet turned out all right in flavor and quality. +It can never have that nutty, new-milk flavor which belongs to cheese +properly cooked. We presume there are those who will differ with us in +opinion, but we should demand the positive evidence of at least four +senses before believing we are wrong. + +We say, therefore, raise your temperature gradually and evenly, to full +blood-heat, and there retain it until your curd is ready to dip. Then we +believe it would be an advantage to dip and drain, without cooling more +than what cannot be avoided, and salt warm. But of salting, we will +speak more at length some other time. We are now discussing the question +of heat. Let us give a little every-day illustration. Suppose the +housewife were to put her potatoes for dinner in a kettle of water, run +the heat up to 212°, and then allow it to cool by radiation until the +potatoes are done. What kind of a dish would they make? Or, after she +had cooked her potatoes, suppose she should let them stand and soak +until they are cool enough to handle without danger of burning or +scalding any one. Who would want to eat the watery things? The truth is, +212° is the proper temperature for boiling potatoes, and the sooner and +hotter you can get them out of the water, the better. So, in our +opinion, blood-heat, or 98° to 100°, is the proper temperature for +cooking cheese curd, and that after the curd is done, the sooner and +warmer it is dipped, the better for the curd--the sweeter, +richer-flavored and better grained (not pasty, but more of the +consistency of hard, well-made butter, which shows the batter globules +whole) will be the cheese, and its keeping qualities will be +correspondingly improved. It may be a little more work to cool the curd +in the air, and harder keeping it from packing; but if dipped warm, the +whey will the sooner drain off, and the salt can be the sooner thrown +on, when it will penetrate quicker, season the mass more evenly, and +form a coating to the particles of curd, which will keep them from +packing together. + +But whether the curd is cooled before dipping or not, we maintain that +it is a great advantage to keep the temperature up to blood-heat during +the entire process after the heat is once raised. With self-heating +apparatus, this can be done by keeping a very little fire going--just +enough to supply the loss of heat from radiation. Where the heating is +done by running warm water around the milk-vat, a current of the proper +temperature can be kept up. If steam is used, perhaps a small jet can be +kept pouring into the space around the vat. But in all these cases, the +danger is that too high a temperature will have to be kept up at the +point of applying the heat, in order to prevent the temperature of the +whole mass from falling. This is a decided objection, and necessitates a +great deal of stirring, which is only a palliative of and not a remedy +for the evil. + +Of course we write with reference to the management of heat with milk +that is sweet and in proper condition for cheese-making. Where it is +"old," or tainted, to begin with, it is necessary to hurry the heat, and +every operation connected with the process of making it up. A higher +temperature and less time will be found to produce a very similar effect +to a lower temperature and more time. But, in all cases, an even, steady +heat should be aimed at and maintained to the end. + +We never could quite understand the philosophy of cooking less in the +spring and fall than in the summer. The idea that it makes the cheese +more buttery to dip the curd raw, seems to us very absurd. If there is +any time when a curd needs to be thoroughly cooked, it is when the +weather is cool and unfavorable for curing. If the whey is not properly +expelled by the action of heat, it has got to either dry out or leak +out, or both. If there is too much left in the curd to dry out, long +before it can leak out, your cheese will be sour, with a puckered face, +and sundry ugly cracks. Even when the cheese does not absolutely drip, +if the curd is dipped while underdone, it will sour, the face will have +a corrugated appearance, and the cheese will "try" crumbly and sour. The +color will also be paler than in those that are properly cooked, the +general look will be clammy, and no rind will form that will be +satisfactory. Even when well-cooked and well-made, if a cheese does not +have sufficient warmth, it will sour on the ranges and spoil; and it +stands to reason that cheese made from a curd insufficiently cooked must +work a great deal worse under unfavorable conditions for curing. Our +experience is, that a curd needs more cooking in the spring and fall +than will answer in hot, dry weather. If we must have a curd dipped soft +at any season of the year, we say let it be at that season when the +weather is best for drying and curing. A cheese that would become +worthless on the ranges in cold, wet weather, may turn out pretty fair +in "dog days." But we do not believe in undercooking at any time. Food, +of all kinds, needs as much cooking one season of the year as another. +It is quite likely, however, that a degree or two lower heat will answer +in cool weather, for the reason that milk keeps better then, and the +curd remains longer in the scald before taking on acid. In this case, we +have a lower heat for a longer time, which will produce the same result +as a higher heat for a shorter time. But in both cases the curd ought to +be cooked the same. Whatever degree of heat is decided upon, let it be +kept up, steady and uniform throughout the mass, and at all seasons of +the year let the curd be cooked done. This is specially important when +the conditions for curing are unfavorable. You must do, then, in the vat +part of the work which can be done on the ranges when the weather is +favorable. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +ACID. + + +Another important agent in cheese-making is acid. This you are pretty +sure to have, at some stage of the process, and the chief question seems +to be as to _when_ you will have it. It is said that milk fresh from the +cow manifests the presence of lactic acid. The quantity is very slight, +however, and under favorable circumstances the development is slow. +Where milk is properly cooled immediately after being taken from the +cow, and the factoryman has good facilities for keeping it cool, it will +be found, when the time comes to begin the process of working up, what +is called "sweet." It will not taste as fresh and clean as when first +cooled after milking; but no acid will be perceptible to either taste or +smell--not even enough to make it what is termed "old." + +Some think age makes the milk all the better for cheese-making, and we +believe it is generally understood that milk fresh from the cow does not +work quite satisfactorily. However, we place no great stress on this +opinion. Old milk will work quicker than new milk; the acid will develop +sooner to the point desired by the cheese-maker, and this saving of time +doubtless has something to do with the decision in favor of age in milk +for the purpose of cheese-making. + +Our impression is, that milk cannot be too sweet when the rennet is +added, and that if sufficient time is taken to develop the acid in the +whey before dipping, the fresh milk will be found to turn out the +finest-flavored and best-keeping cheese. The acid is not wanted in the +_curd_, but in the _whey_. If the milk is sour, to begin with, or quite +advanced toward sourness, the lactic acid must pervade every particle of +the whole mass. Now, it strikes us that the correct idea is to expel the +whey from the curd, as far as possible, before the acid makes its +appearance, and let the acid develop in the whey afterward, so as to +furnish a sort of pickle. The acid will develop sharply at some stage in +the process; and, as we have before said, the question to be decided +seems to be as to what point it is best to have it develop at. + +We say, with the light we at present have before us, we think the acid +should never be allowed to develop much before the curd is cooked and +the whey is properly expelled; then let the whey take on acid to quite a +perceptible degree before dipping the curd. We doubt if it makes much +difference whether the acidulation takes place while the curd is +floating in the whey, or after the whey is drawn off and while the curd +stands and drains. There is rather more convenience in handling to leave +the whey on and stir the curd sufficiently to keep it from packing; but +the "cheddar" cheese, which is generally considered the best of any, is +made by stacking the curd, after cooking, and allowing the whey that +clings to it to take on acid. But where the milk is all right, to begin +with, and the curd is properly managed and cooked, we doubt if it makes +any material difference which process is adopted for allowing the acid +to develop. With such a curd, there is little danger of its being +injured by the acid, as any one can demonstrate by allowing curd to +stand unpressed over night, as is often done with small remnants, when +the pieces will be found covered with an almost vinegar-sour acid. Grind +this curd and put it to press, and there will be no signs of sour +cheese. + +The development of the acid is absolutely necessary to secure good +keeping qualities and a mild, clean flavor. Dip a curd before the whey +has become perceptibly acid, or is on the verge of "changing," and we +think that a rank, bitter flavor will be sure to follow. The absence of +sufficient lactic acid leaves the albumen in a condition likely to +decompose, while the butyric acid develops itself, as in rancid butter, +and the two combine to make a very unpalatable flavor to one nice about +the taste of his cheese. Some prefer strong cheese. To such, the nearer +the flavor approaches that of smoked herring and tobacco, the greater +the gustatory gratification. + +The principal difficulty in working up sour milk is to get sufficient +action of the rennet and heat on the curd to properly condense it and +expel the whey. It is a mistake, therefore, to dip a curd soft because +it is sour. Run your heat up to 104° or even 106°, as soon as possible, +and keep it there until your curd is cooked. It is sour, and nothing but +cooking will save it, if anything will. The whey must and will come out. +If you do not expel it from the particles of curd in the vat, you will +not be able to press it out sufficiently to keep it from working and +leaking out while the cheese stands on the ranges. + +If anything will prevent sour milk from making leaky cheese, it is +thorough cooking. This process you should hurry up as much as +possible--always having an eye to keeping the heat even, and preventing +waste of butter. The acid, acting on the butter globules, makes their +coatings tender. Therefore, handle the curd as carefully as possible, +cool well before putting to press, and press gently, increasing the +pressure gradually. But, if you have succeeded in getting your curd +properly cooked, you have done one of the best things possible to +retain the butter. If, when you put the curd to press, you find you have +more than the usual bulk of curd, filling the hoops fuller and refusing +to yield readily to the pressure of the screw--as is generally the case +with sour milk, as managed in most factories--you may know that you have +not done your work thoroughly, and therefore look out for leaky, sour, +poor cheese. On the other hand, if you have condensed the curd to the +usual bulk, so that it works well under the screw, you may hope for a +fair cheese, that may pass muster when the buyer comes along. + +We often hear the remark, when anything is said about developing the +acid, "No sour cheese for me; I prefer to dip my curd sweet." People who +talk in this way either make bitter, bad-flavored cheese, or else get on +more acid than they are aware of, in consequence of having dull taste +and smell. They judge by the _appearance_ and _feel_ of the curd when it +is in condition to dip, and may succeed in hitting the right point. In +hot weather, it is hardly possible not to develop the acid sufficiently. +But if they really dip the curd sweet, we do not believe it possible +that their cheese can be up to the standard demanded by the best +markets, though they may succeed in getting a fair price for it. Not all +buyers are really good judges, and fewer still know what the matter is +with a cheese that is imperfectly made. They know, perhaps, that there +is something wrong about it; but what, they are unable to say. Further, +we believe the average price of American cheese lower than it should be, +in consequence of so little really prime cheese, and of the large amount +of second-rate; and that, as yet, our buyers are not sufficiently +discriminating in their purchases and prices, though they are yearly +growing more so. Both buyers and cheese-makers need more experience and +a better understanding of what is requisite in the manufacture of a +prime article. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +DIPPING CURDS. + + +There is nothing so difficult in cheese-making as to determine the exact +point when a curd ought to be taken out of the vat and salted. A slight +variation either way from this point makes an uneven lot of cheese, and +much variation spoils the batch, so that it will not pass for "prime." +Every cheese-maker has felt the want of some test whereby the exact +point, when a curd is sufficiently "done" to dip, can be determined with +certainty. Neither the sense of smell, the sense of taste, nor the sense +of touch is infallible. The evidence of this fact can be seen in any +factory during the season of cheese-making. A simple test of acidity, +which is claimed to be conclusive, is the application of a hot iron to a +lump of curd. The iron wants to be searing hot--not red hot, but hot +enough to toast cheese. Take up a small handful of curd, squeeze the +whey out of it, and touch the hot iron to it, holding it there for a +moment, or until it adheres and begins to melt or toast the cheese. Then +pull the iron gently away from the curd. If the curd is raw and sweet, +it will break short off from the iron and appear crumbly. If slightly +acid, it will slightly pull out in threads, but not very long ones. As +the acid develops, the stringiness increases. At a certain point, the +curd will cling to the iron and pull out in numerous fine threads an +inch or two long. Beyond this point, the threads grow longer but fewer, +until there will be only one, which will draw out a foot or so, and then +break, recoiling somewhat like India-rubber. Indeed, the curd grows +tougher and more stringy from the time it begins to take on acid +perceptibly, until it finally ends in stringing indefinitely, like wax, +having passed the point of breaking and flying back. The successive +stages of development are gradual, but very marked, and cannot fail to +be recognized after a few experiments. + +Thus having obtained a means of telling the degree of acid developed, it +only remains to be decided at what point to dip the curd. It is claimed +that the proper one is where the threads are the finest and most +numerous. Beyond this point, the threads diminish in number but increase +in length, which is an indication of too much acid. It is asserted that +the hot iron test is uniform and reliable, besides being easy of +application. Cheese-makers can make their own experiments, and we advise +them to try the hot iron to their own satisfaction. If it should prove +as conclusive as good judges think it will, it will be of immense value +to our dairymen. + +This test reminds us of the test used by maple-sugar makers to determine +when the batch has reached the point where it will "grain" and "cake" +well. They make a small bow of a twig, dip it into the sugar, which +adheres to and fills it, and then they blow through the bow. If no +bubble forms and floats off like a soap-bubble, the batch is not done. +But if they can blow a string of bubbles, or one long bubble, it is time +to remove the heat. The stringing of the cheese-curd, on the application +of the hot iron, seems to afford a very similar test for the +cheese-maker. + +It is not claimed that the use of the hot iron will necessarily insure +the making of good cheese. It only determines the degree of acidity, +which is one very important point. Other things are requisite to the +manufacture of a prime article, and the same care, attention, and +labor, in other matters, will remain just as essential. By using the hot +iron, however, it is claimed that the cheese-maker can tell, every time, +just how sour his curd is. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +SALTING CURDS. + + +We believe there is not much controversy on the question of salting +curd. One says, salt it hot, and another says, cool it first. But the +variation in temperature is but a few degrees, and can hardly be +supposed to have much effect. On the whole, we prefer salting as warm as +practicable, as the curd then takes the salt better and the seasoning is +likely to be evener. But the sooner the salt is thrown on, the greater +the waste will be from running off in the whey. If the curd were +thoroughly drained, or pressed out, as it is by the English in the +manufacture of cheddar cheese, before the salt is added, considerable +less would be needed. Some salt the curd in the vat, while it is yet +covered with whey, and think this the better way. We opine, however, it +matters but little when the salt is added, if it be distributed evenly +throughout the mass of curd and is used in the proper quantity. The +common method is to salt in the curd-sink, while the curd is +draining--generally as soon after it is dipped as it can be stirred into +a loose condition suitable for evenly mixing the salt. + +We have heard the opinion expressed that it matters not whether the curd +is well separated after salting, or left in coarse chunks with the salt +adhering to their surfaces when put to press, as salt is very +penetrating and the pressing drives the salt whey all through the +cheese. But the common practice is not based on such a conclusion, and +we think it well that it is not. Even salting we consider as essential +in cheese-making as in butter-making. + +The amount of salt used at the different factories varies from four +ounces to five ounces for a hundred pounds of milk, or from two pounds +and a half to three pounds and an eighth for a thousand pounds of milk, +or a hundred pounds of curd. The higher rate of salting is thought to +somewhat retard the curing, but it will help the keeping qualities of +the cheese. + +For convenience sake, and to save time and the liability to mistakes +when in a hurry, we would recommend the making of a scale or table, +based on the rate of salting adopted, ranging from twenty or twenty-five +pounds up to a hundred, and then for the hundreds up to the capacity of +the vat. It takes but a little while, during some leisure hour, to make +such a tabular scale. When made and stuck up in some convenient +place--say, over the salt barrel, or over the balances--it will enable +any one not familiar with or quick in figures to see at a glance how +much salt is needed for the curd of a given amount of milk. It is a +convenience, too, that will last as long as the factory, if taken care +of. + + +For the benefit of whom it may concern, we give the following tables: + + +TABLE + +FOR SALTING AT THE RATE OF 2 LBS. 8 OZS. TO 1,000 LBS. OF MILK. + + + -----------+---------------++---------+--------------- + MILK. | SALT. || MILK. | SALT. + -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- + lbs. | lbs. | ozs. || lbs. | lbs. | ozs. + 25 | 0 | 1 || 1,000 | 2 | 8 + 50 | 0 | 2 || 2,000 | 5 | 0 + 75 | 0 | 3 || 3,000 | 7 | 8 + 100 | 0 | 4 || 4,000 | 10 | 0 + 200 | 0 | 8 || 5,000 | 12 | 8 + 300 | 0 | 12 || 6,000 | 15 | 0 + 400 | 1 | 0 || 7,000 | 17 | 8 + 500 | 1 | 4 || 8,000 | 20 | 0 + 600 | 1 | 8 || 9,000 | 22 | 8 + 700 | 1 | 12 || | | + 800 | 2 | 0 || | | + 900 | 2 | 4 || | | + -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- + + +TABLE + +FOR SALTING AT THE RATE OF 3 LBS. 2 OZS. TO 1,000 LBS. OF MILK. + + + -----------+---------------++---------+--------------- + MILK. | SALT. || MILK. | SALT. + -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- + lbs. | lbs. | ozs. || lbs. | lbs. | ozs. + 20 | 0 | 1 || 1,000 | 3 | 2 + 40 | 0 | 2 || 2,000 | 6 | 4 + 60 | 0 | 3 || 3,000 | 9 | 6 + 80 | 0 | 4 || 4,000 | 12 | 8 + 100 | 0 | 5 || 5,000 | 15 | 10 + 200 | 0 | 10 || 6,000 | 18 | 12 + 300 | 0 | 15 || 7,000 | 21 | 14 + 400 | 1 | 4 || 8,000 | 25 | 0 + 500 | 1 | 9 || 9,000 | 28 | 2 + 600 | 1 | 14 || | | + 700 | 2 | 3 || | | + 800 | 2 | 8 || | | + 900 | 2 | 13 || | | + -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- + + +We presume the method of using these tables will be plain enough to +most cheese-makers. But we will give a single illustration. Supposing +the batch of milk to be 4,640 pounds, if we wish to salt at the rate of +3 lbs. 2 ozs. to the 1,000 pounds of milk, we look at the column +indicating the quantity of salt for a given number of thousands, and +find that 4,000 pounds of milk require 12 lbs. 8 ozs. of salt. Referring +to the other column, we find 400 pounds of milk require 1 lb. 4 ozs. +salt, and 40 pounds, 2 ozs. Add these together, and we have 13 lbs. 14 +ozs. as the quantity of salt required for 4,640 lbs. of milk. If +desired, a table can be made out, with little trouble, that will show +the quantity of salt required for any given number of hundreds of pounds +of milk likely to be contained in a single vat. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +TAINTED MILK. + + +The most abominable of all things in a cheese-factory is tainted milk. +It means floating curds, "huffy" cheese, bad flavor and poor prices. +Yet, as milk is now managed, most factories will, in hot weather, get +occasionally caught with a mess of tainted milk. There are hard work, +anxiety and unsatisfactory results in it for the cheese-maker, and +dissatisfaction and small profits for the patron. Such things never +ought to be; but, when such a catastrophe happens, like other +disagreeable things, it has to be borne and the best made of it that +circumstances will permit. + +We know of no way to make good cheese out of tainted milk, and have had +comparatively little experience with it--though quite as much as we +desire. But from our own knowledge and what we can learn from the +experience of others, if we had a tainted mess of milk to work up, we +should heat it up as soon as possible, cut the curd fine, cook it +thoroughly and develop the acid as much as we thought the curd would +bear and stick together so as to bandage well. If we had another batch, +in which the whey was all right, we would draw off the whey from the +tainted batch as early as possible and add whey from the sweet batch to +the tainted curd, to cook it in. If not, as soon as cooked, we would +draw off the whey and allow the acid to develop in the curd. We presume +sour whey added to the batch would be an advantage in developing the +acid, and acid is what seems to be needed to check the decomposition and +further tainting of the curd. An extra quantity of salt would doubtless +be an advantage in stopping further taint. The curd should be cooled to +the temperature of the atmosphere, and well aired before being put to +press, and the pressing should be thorough. + +Old cheese-makers have told us that they thought they found an advantage +in washing and cooling a tainted curd with ice water--that is, by +chilling it. It seems to us that, though this might check taint for the +time being, it would hasten it when the cheese warmed up in curing, as +butter or meat will spoil rapidly after having come in contact with ice, +if exposed to the atmosphere. + +Prime cheese never can be made of bad milk. But, if milk is not too +badly tainted, a mess managed on the principles we have indicated will +make a fair cheese--one that will suit many palates. A curd made of sour +milk may be improved by washing out some of the acid by the use of warm +water. With such a curd, extra cooking is an important point; but +generally there is less cooking, owing to the hurry to get the curd out +of the sour whey. It is in almost the opposite condition, so far as acid +is concerned, of curd made from tainted milk. The latter has too little +acid; the former too much. We therefore want to develop the acid in a +tainted curd, and to retard or diminish it in a sour one. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +CURING. + + +There is no part of the process of making up milk and getting the +product ready for market which requires more care and judgment, as well +as some hard work, than curing. Few rooms are properly prepared for the +purpose. They are left too open and barn-like, with no means of +controlling the temperature. Factorymen generally seem to think that if +the cheese is only made and put on the ranges, there is little or no +need of making any further provision. We have seen cheese, which we +believe had deteriorated from one to two cents a pound in value, because +the curing process had not gone on properly. The curing rooms were full +of cracks which let in the wind, cold or hot, dry or damp, as it might +be, and the cheese stood on the ranges in the cold, damp atmosphere, +turning to swill--to hog feed, instead of human food. The faces were +cracked; the flavor was bad; "too much acid," the buyers said; the +makers were perplexed, and quite sure they had not changed their hands +from what they were when they made a good reputation; the patrons were +dissatisfied, and the committeemen grumbled. There might have been other +failings; but we are quite sure that no one has a right to expect prime +cheese where there are not the proper facilities for curing. If the +weather happens to be right, a barn may answer the purpose. But no one +has a right to presume on always having favorable weather; and it is the +part of wisdom to make preparations for all sorts of contingencies. + +A curing-room should be made with a wind-proof wall. This would guard +against sudden changes of weather, by keeping out both heat and cold. +Sufficient air can be introduced through the windows, which should be +made to open easily, and be provided with blinds. There should also be +provision for supplying artificial heat, equally distributed throughout +the building, and not from a red-hot stove set in the middle, or in one +end or corner, where it will toast the cheeses near it, and leave those +farther off to chill in the cold weather of spring and fall. If steam is +used, the heating apparatus may be made to do the double work of cooking +the curd, and warming the drying-room. This may be done by means of +hot-air tubes, or by the use of steam-pipes running round the room. Of +course it would cost a little at the beginning; but a curing room once +properly fitted up would soon pay the extra expense in the saving of +time, labor, care, vexation and money. A thousand and one annoyances +would be guarded against, and the proprietor would have the satisfaction +of knowing that he had got a good thing, which would insure the most +that could be expected from the product of the cheese-vat, and build up +a first-class reputation and a permanent business. + +A curing-room should not only be kept at an equable temperature of 70° +to 80°, but be well ventilated. The gases constantly emitted by the +curing process should have a chance to freely escape and leave the +atmosphere as pure and sweet as possible. There is no more sense in +supposing that a cheese can cure properly and have a clean, wholesome +flavor, if kept in a close, unventilated room, than that a human being +can retain his health in impure air. The curing-room must be kept clean +and sweet, dry and airy--not by allowing the wind to whistle through it +as it listeth, but by a judicious system of heating and ventilating, +which will allow the hot and chill blasts to blow harmlessly by. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +GREASING CHEESE. + + +When a cheese is first removed from the hoops, care should be taken that +its face be not allowed to dry and crack before it is greased with hot +whey-butter. Nothing has been found so good as whey-butter for the +purpose of greasing cheese, and it should be applied hot, and as soon +after the cheese is set on the range as possible. If it dries at all, we +think it injurious to the formation of a smooth, glassy face; and if it +dries much, the face is sure to check and present an unsatisfactory +appearance, besides furnishing convenient places for the cheese-fly to +deposit its eggs. + +A very convenient thing for applying the hot butter is a paint-brush. It +is much handier and better every way than a swab. But care must be +taken, or the bristles of the brush will get scorched. This can be +avoided by removing the brush from the dish when through using it, and +not putting it in the grease again until you are ready to grease the +faces of your cheeses. + +A pressed iron dish with a handle riveted on, is handy for melting the +grease. There is no danger of melting out the bottom, or melting off the +handle, and you are less liable to burn yourself or spill your grease +than you are if you melt the whey butter in an old basin, which very +soon gets burnt and leaky. + +Little conveniences, like the iron dish and brush we have mentioned, +help a great deal, in the course of a season, about cheese-making; and a +cheese-maker had better furnish them at his own expense, if his +employers are too stingy to do it, than not to have them. There are +many such little things that greatly assist in doing work easily and in +keeping neat and tidy. One can do without them, on the principle that a +farmer can hoe his corn without a cultivator, but it does not pay. + +If a cheese cannot be greased as soon as taken out, spread a cloth or +put a turner over it, or both. This will keep the moisture from escaping +and the air from immediate contact with the face of the cheese. + +As whey-butter is the best and nearly the only material used for +greasing the faces of cheeses, it will not be amiss and may be of use to +inexperienced cheese-makers, to say a few words on the mode of trying +out the whey-butter. Prepare a skimmer with a long handle, which may be +cheaply made by punching the bottom of an old tin-pan full of holes and +fastening a wooden handle to it with bits of wire. A shrub five or six +feet long and of suitable size, with a short crook at the larger end, is +convenient. It can be split at the crooked end, slipped on the edge of +the pan and wired there without much trouble. + +Hang a large kettle--a cauldron is best--in a convenient place, and fill +it about two-thirds fall of the grease and scum which you skim off from +the vat. It is yeasty stuff, and requires a good deal of room, at first, +to swell in when the heat is started. Keep up a moderate fire, so as to +boil it gently without scorching, and continue the boiling until the +cheesy portion is sufficiently cooked to sink to the bottom. Then allow +the batch to rest and cool down. Dip off the butter, while still warm +and oily, and carefully strain it into a clean tub. When cooled +sufficiently to begin to thicken somewhat, a little salt sprinkled on +the surface and thoroughly stirred in, as the farmers' wives sometimes +salt their lard, will help prevent it from getting rancid and stinking. +Set it in a cool place, and keep it covered tightly. Near the close of +the fall's operations, a nice tub of whey butter should be thus prepared +and set by for use the next spring--for, in the cold spring weather, +when cheese-making first commences, very little cream will rise on the +whey-vat, and it will take some time before a batch can be procured. + +In applying the whey-butter to the face of the cheese, no more should be +used than the surface of the cheese will absorb and leave it moist and +shiny. If enough is put on so that it will cool in streaks and stick to +whatever it touches, it should be wiped off, or it will daub the turner +or bench, and not only make unnecessary work in cleaning, but prevent a +hard, smooth rind from forming. Many give themselves a good deal of +annoyance by putting on too much grease. + +The next morning after the cheese has been set on the range, and had its +upper face greased with hot whey-butter, it should be turned over, when +a similar application of hot butter should be made to the other face. If +the cheese is well made and of good milk, and properly greased, as we +have indicated, more greasing will seldom be needed. A little care will +determine when more is needed, if at all. If the face begins to look dry +and feel harsh, in spite of thorough rubbing with the hands, call the +grease-brush into requisition again. In hot, dry weather--especially if +the air is allowed to strike the face of the cheese--a timely +application of more whey-butter may keep the face from cracking and save +considerable trouble. + +The cheeses should be regularly turned, for the first fortnight, every +day, and have their faces thoroughly rubbed and polished with the naked +hand. Nothing else will do so much to help form a satisfactory rind. A +cloth carried along should be used to wipe off any surplus grease on the +bench or turner, so as to prevent its daubing the next cheese and making +additional work. This same cloth, thus made greasy, will answer the +additional use of wiping off any mould that may be found collecting on +the bandage. + +In this way, a lot of cheese, with comparatively little additional work +and trouble, but a trifle more attention, can be kept looking clean and +wholesome; and if this neatness does not actually help improve the +quality of the cheese--we think it does--it will so much improve the +appearance, that you will not only be rewarded by the satisfaction +afforded, but can safely count on a fraction more from the buyer--enough +to more than pay for all the labor bestowed in curing. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +SKIPPERS. + + +One of the most annoying things in the drying-room is the cheese-fly. It +is very small but very effective in its way; and as it has the power to +so rapidly increase its numbers, it sometimes gives a good deal of +trouble. To a beginner, its ways seem almost past finding out, yet its +path often becomes disgustingly visible. + +We know of no sovereign remedy for these pests of the drying-room. The +best preventive is perfect cleanliness in all the surroundings. No pools +of whey or slops of any kind in, under or around the building, should be +allowed to furnish the first broods. But few factories are so arranged +as to leave no putrid whey-spouts or other receptacles for the eggs of +the fly. When hot weather comes on, the flies, therefore, swarm all +around the building; and most curing-rooms are so open as to afford them +easy access. Once in the room, the trouble and warfare begin, and cease +not until the dog-star no longer rages. + +The cheese-fly is not very particular where it deposits its +eggs--whether in the cracks in the benches or turners, in wrinkles in +the bandage, in the checks in the rind of the cheese, or on the smooth +face. If the weather is warm enough and there is the least bit of +moisture, the eggs will hatch anywhere around the cheese. As soon as +hatched, instinct leads the skipper to burrow in the cheese at once. It +is a mistaken idea, we think, that the fly inserts the eggs. It drops +them in clusters, wherever it is convenient. It may be on a turner, +which is standing idle. It is taken up thoughtlessly, clapped over a +cheese, which is turned on it, nicely covering the eggs, which hatch +between it and the rind, and the brood is soon found thriving nicely in +the cheese. Perhaps the eggs are laid on the smooth face of the cheese, +in plain sight, if one looks carefully enough for them. The next time +the cheese is turned, the eggs are in the same situation as those laid +on the turner. They may be laid on the bench, and the cheese set on +them. A careful hand, who is used to hunting eggs as well as skippers, +will look closely for them everywhere, and be sure that the face of no +cheese that has them on is turned down, and that no turner is used +containing them. In all these cases, care and neatness have their +advantages, and pay. + +If a cheese is leaky, look out for it. We have seen the eggs of the +cheese-fly deposited on the best cheeses; but sour, stinking, leaky +cheeses attract them most. Here they are in their natural element. The +eggs dropped on the moist cheese anywhere, even on the bandage, will do +remarkably well. They no sooner hatch, than the tiny worm works its way +through the bandage or rind into the cheese, and there he feasts, +fattens and grows. + +It is almost traditional that a skippery cheese is invariably a good +one. We admit that good cheese may be skippery--it is so, sometimes; but +the leaky, greasy, rank smelling and strong-tasting cheese, is the +skipper's delight. In such a cheese, he luxuriates in all his disgusting +glory. + +When skippers get into a cheese, we know of no better way than to dig or +cut them out as soon as possible. Their presence is at once indicated by +a moist spot, when the bottom face of the cheese is first turned up. +Greasing a piece of paper over the hole in the cheese, which is the +entrance of the skipper, will bring him to the surface after air, but it +does not kill him nor free the cheese from skippers. We say, cut them +out. Cut freely, and make sure work. If the spot is near the edge, a +wedge-shaped piece may be cut out, and a piece of another cheese--there +is usually one cut for patrons of a factory--can be fitted in, a second +bandage drawn over, and the cheese slipped into a hoop, when a little +pressing will smooth down all roughness and heal all scars. + +Some put cayenne pepper in whey-butter used for greasing cheeses. But, +though it may help keep flies off, it will not prevent trouble. They +will work their way wherever there is a chance for them. Dryness, +cleanliness and watchful care, are the only sure preventives of +skippers, in hot weather. To one who has had experience, it is not so +very difficult to guard against serious loss from skippery cheese. But +beginners need to be put on their guard--and for their benefit we have +penned this article on skippers. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +CHEDDAR PROCESS. + + +During the summer of 1869, we had the pleasure of visiting the Spring +Creek and Slate Hill factories, in Montgomery county, under the charge +of Mr. ALEXANDER MACADAM. Mr. MACADAM'S father is an old cheese-maker, +who learned the Cheddar process from the celebrated English dairyman, +Mr. JOSEPH HARDING, of Somerset, about 1855. The son has had all the +advantages of the father's experience, and, in addition to an active, +inquiring and practical turn of mind, has had experience in one of the +heaviest cheese houses in London. If any one knows what good cheese is, +and what is required by the English taste, as well as by the American +market, we think Mr. ALEXANDER MACADAM does. He is, besides, +intelligent, free and communicative--ready to impart any information +within his knowledge. We propose to give as intelligible an account of +his process as we were able to pick up in our brief visit. But, as he +adopts in part the American method, and humors considerably American +ideas, we will first give a brief description of the real Cheddar +process, as explained in a pamphlet written by Mr. ROBERT MACADAM, of +Gorsty Hill Dairy, Crewe, who is the father of our host: + + + In describing the process of cheese-making, it is necessary to keep + in view some definite size of dairy; and for this reason, we will + allude in the present section to one making cheese from the milk of + 60 cows. + + As detailed in the paragraph on the morning's operations, the + evening's milk having cooled down to 62°, is lifted and sieved into + the cheese tub, and the morning's milk added to it, as it comes + from the cow-house. If the temperature of the milk, when thus + mixed, be under 78°, it must be raised to that degree of warmth, as + from 78° to 80° is the best temperature at which milk can be set + for coagulation. This may be effected either by warming a portion + of the milk among hot water to any temperature not above 150°, or, + when the cheese-tub is double-bottomed, by introducing a jet of + steam, or allowing the hot water to circulate. The quantity of milk + in the cheese-tub being one hundred and sixty-five gallons, the + requisite quantity of annotto is now added, and carefully mixed, to + produce a rich straw or cowslip color. Five quarts of sour whey + being added, and a quantity of rennet sufficient to coagulate the + mass of milk in sixty minutes, the whole is gently stirred and + completely mixed, covered over with a clean cloth, and allowed to + stand for coagulation. After the milk has stood for fifteen + minutes, the top or surface should be gently stirred, to prevent + the cream from ascending, and this must be repeated if the curd is + long in beginning to form. Hence it is preferable that the + coagulation should be completed in from fifty to sixty minutes, as + otherwise a waste of richness is likely to ensue. When the cream + shows a decided tendency to rise to the surface, it is advisable to + skim it off, previous to lifting the evening's milk, and warm it to + a temperature of 95°, as this prevents it from ascending, and + causes it to amalgamate more completely with the mass of milk set + for coagulation. In stirring the milk to prevent the cream from + ascending, the strictest attention should be observed to abstain + from doing so if the slightest degree of coagulation is perceived. + As soon as the curd has acquired a moderate degree of firmness, the + operation of breaking-up should be at once commenced, and must be + performed carefully, gently and minutely. This may be accomplished + by one person in about thirty minutes, when the revolving knife + breaker is employed, or by two persons in about the same time, when + the shovel or wire-breakers are used. Before this operation is + finished, a quantity of whey must be taken from the cheese-tub, + heated to 150°, and again poured upon the mass, stirring being + actively kept up beneath the stream, to prevent any portion of the + curd from being scalded. The quantity thus heated must be + sufficient to raise the temperature of the contents of the + cheese-tub to 80°, and the whole must be carefully and completely + mixed. The addition of warm whey raises the temperature, and + consequently hastens the separation of the whey from the curd, and + assists in promoting the necessary acidity. [If, however, the + presence of acidity can be detected by the smell or taste, no warm + whey should be used at this stage of the process.] The curd being + broken to a sufficient degree of fineness, it is allowed to remain + undisturbed for one hour, except when the acid exists in too great + a degree, in which case it should only stand during the time + occupied by warming the whey for scalding. The whey-separator is + then inserted, and the liquid allowed to run off until the surface + of the curd appears among the whey, after which the separator is + taken out, and the curd properly broken up with the shovel-breaker. + But before breaking up the curd, a quantity of whey should be + heated to 150°, for the purpose of scalding it. One person pours a + portion of this hot whey over the curd, while another stirs + actively beneath the stream with a shovel-breaker. The hot whey is + poured cautiously over the mass at intervals, and the stirring is + kept up gently but briskly, until the temperature is raised + gradually to 98° or 100° Fah. The stirring is continued, and the + temperature maintained, until the curd acquires a certain degree of + firmness and consistency, which it is difficult to describe, but + which the intelligent cheese-maker soon learns to recognize by its + appearance, and by its peculiarly elastic feel when handled. It is + therefore of the utmost importance to possess the discrimination + and tact necessary for discerning when the proper degree of + firmness and consistency has been attained. When the curd is + sufficiently "cooked," it is in small granular particles, firm and + elastic to the touch, and when a portion is taken in the hand and + squeezed, it does not readily adhere, but separates into particles. + The stirring must be continued till this peculiar consistency is + attained, without any regard to the length of time, but should on + no account be farther prolonged, because the cheese will then have + a tendency to be hard and stiff, and will require a longer time to + mature in the cheese-room. The length of time required for stirring + varies according to the previous condition of the milk, being from + twenty to thirty minutes when the acid exists in a sufficient + degree, or even double that time when the natural process of change + in the milk has been slow. This process of saturating the curd with + heated whey has the effect of completely separating the solid and + fluid parts, the only moisture left being that which adheres to the + particles, and which comes away under pressure. But when the + temperature is raised in this manner, or by heat from the bottom of + the cheese-tub, the utmost care is necessary to keep the curd from + being over-scalded, as, when the temperature is too suddenly + raised, part of buttraceous matter may be lost, and the small pulpy + particles get skinned over, inclosing a quantity of the whey, which + it is extremely difficult again to separate. If the milk has been + in proper condition to begin with, and the process carried on in + the manner thus detailed, the curd will retain all the natural + richness of the milk, and the cheese produced will have that rich + creamy taste and sweet milky flavor, something like the odor of new + milk, known as the _Cheddar flavor_. When the curd is raised (in + the manner described above) to the natural heat of the milk (98°,) + or only one or two degrees above it, all the butter is retained and + fixed in the curd; for although subjected even at first to a + pressure of half a ton, little or no trace of butter will appear. + This is unquestionably a more rational and far superior method of + separating the whey from the curd than that of heating beside a + fire or in a furnace, with its attendant skewerings and changings. + + The next step in the continuation of the process is to insert the + separator, after the curd has been allowed to remain undisturbed in + the scald for the space of thirty minutes. After the whey is run + off, the curd is thrown up into a heap in the center of the + cheese-tub, covered over with a clean cheese-cloth, and the whey + allowed to drain away from it for another half-hour. At the end of + that time the curd is cut across, turned over in square lumps, + heaped up, covered as before, and then allowed to lie for half an + hour longer. The curd is then taken from the cheese-tub, laid upon + a cooler, split by the hand into thin flakes, and spread out to + cool. The curd at this stage has a distinctly acid smell; it is + slightly sour, and by no means palatable; and its taste and + appearance are such as would lead a novice to think it unlikely to + produce a fine cheese. When the curd has been exposed on the cooler + for fifteen minutes, it is turned over, and allowed to lie for the + same length of time. It is then packed into a cheese-vat, having a + clean cloth under it, placed under the press for the space of ten + minutes, and subjected to a pressure of half a ton. When taken out, + it is ground in the mill, weighed, and returned to the cooler, and + if the acid is sufficiently developed, it should be at once salted, + cooled down to about 65°, and placed under pressure. The purest + refined salt should be used, and should be weighed and carefully + mixed with the mass, one pound of salt being sufficient for + fifty-six pounds of curd. + + When the acid is found to be insufficiently developed in the + previous stages of the process, the curd is allowed to lie + unsalted, and is stirred up occasionally, until the necessary + degree of acidity is acquired. The curd is then finally put into + the cheese-vat, and at once put under pressure, at first under a + weight of five or six cwt. The cheese is taken out of the press in + the evening, and a clean cloth put upon it, and being turned in the + vat, is subjected to a pressure of half a ton. Next morning, it is + again taken out, wrapped in a dry cloth, reversed in the vat, and + returned into the press with four cwt. additional pressure placed + upon it. On the following morning it receives its third and last + cloth, and when placed in the press, is now subjected to the + pressure of 18 cwt. In the evening, it is once more removed from + the press, gets a calico cap neatly stitched upon it, is reversed + in the vat, placed under a pressure of one ton till the following + morning, and is then finally taken from the press. The cheese is + then tightly bandaged to preserve its proper shape, and being + ticketed with its date and number, is carried to the cheese-room, + where it must be turned every day until fully ripe for market. + Cheeses may always be in the store-room in seventy-two hours after + they are first put into the press, and, indeed, they might be + placed there much earlier; only to insure consolidation, it is + preferable to maintain the pressure during the time specified. + + A diary or register should be kept, into which the date and number + of each cheese should be formally entered, together with such + remarks as may be needful and proper concerning the condition of + the milk, and the peculiarities of the curd, &c. The cheese-maker, + when testing the quality of any cheese after it is ripe, may learn + from the register the precise conditions of its manufacture, and + will thus be assisted in attaining that degree of excellence which + was laid down in the beginning of this work as a proper standard or + quality.[A] It will also be found highly useful to note down many + similar facts, such as the various yields of milk at particular + seasons, and from different kinds of pasture or house-feeding, as + the practice will not only give wide views of the subject, and + correct information regarding it, but will also tend greatly to + foster accurate and business-like habits. + + It is necessary to state distinctly the mode of procedure best + adapted for this contingency because the over-acidity of milk when + not detected and duly attended to in the process, produces a + corresponding blemish in the cheese. + + In very warm weather, when the temperature of the evening's milk + stands in the morning as high as 70° or upwards, every part of the + process described in the previous section must be hastened. The + curd is broken more speedily than usual, and whey is taken off as + soon as possible, and quickly warmed for scalding. When the + operation of breaking is concluded, an interval of only five + minutes is allowed before the whey is run off. Scalding is then + proceeded with, but, under these circumstances, the curd and whey + should only be raised to the temperature of 98°. When the proper + degree of firmness has been attained by stirring, the rest of the + whey is run off after another interval of five minutes, and when + the curd is heaped up, ten minutes only are allowed to elapse + before it is cut across and turned over. At the end of other ten + minutes, it is laid upon the cooler, in five minutes more it is + turned over, and at the end of other five it is put into the vat + and under the press. Having been subjected to pressure for five + minutes, the curd is taken out, ground in the mill, put back into + the cooler, and salted. It is then stirred up to cool, until the + temperature of the mass is reduced to 65°, when it is placed in the + vat, and subjected to the ordinary routine of pressure. It may be + stated, in illustration of the time occupied by these operations, + that if the curd be ready for breaking at eight o'clock, it may be + milled and salted by eleven. By expeditiously conducting every + stage of the process, excellent cheeses may be produced, even at + the above temperature; but when the ordinary time is allowed to + elapse before the curd is "cooked" and salted, the cheeses will + likely be sour. These rules and statements are based on the safe + ground of personal experience, for in a very warm season we have + made upwards of forty tons of cheese without one being sour. + + In these days of dispatch and outward display, when men seek so + eagerly for the shortest and easiest ways of doing things, some + will doubtless be found to carp at the minuteness and extent of the + foregoing details, and at the repeated injunction to strive after a + clear and intelligent conception of the principles on which this + branch of industry is founded. And many more, whose past experience + has been little else than a slothful compliance with false rules + and prejudices, may, perhaps, censure the system as too abstruse + and complicated. But all such objections are refuted by the simple + fact that no common product, made from raw material universally the + same, varies more in quality and value than cheese, from the one + cause of difference in the skill with which it is made. To attain + to excellence in cheese-making, it is absolutely necessary that the + hand and the head should work together. + + +The Cheddar process, as carried on at Spring Creek factory, is an +adaptation of the foregoing to American apparatus and implements, with +other variations. The milk is set in the usual manner, and at the usual +temperature--say, 82° to 84°. It is cut in the usual manner, and +gradually heated up to 98°. Then the whole is allowed to stand, with +occasional stirring, until the whey is perceptibly acid. The day we were +there, we found the curd in the whey, and as much changed as is +generally considered by Americans sufficient for dipping and salting. +But as soon as a slight change is perceptible--indeed, as soon as any +one of the hands fancies it is changed--the whey is drawn off. If the +whey should still be sweet and the curd soft, there is no harm in +drawing off the whey. Then one end of the vat is raised, the curd is +poked away from the lower end, and the whey is allowed to drain out. If +the curd is quite soft, the further separation of the whey is +facilitated by cross-cuttings with a large butcher or groceryman's +cheese-knife. If it is well "cooked," this is not necessary. + +At the expiration of half an hour or so--provided the whey is not +rapidly taking on acid, in which case, at the expiration of five, ten, +or fifteen minutes, according to condition--the curd is cut into pieces +six or eight inches square, with the knife just mentioned; these pieces +are split laterally through the middle with the knife; the top and +bottom surfaces are put together, and the whole piled up along the sides +of the vat. The object of this operation is to get the cool surfaces +into the middle, to be influenced by the heat, and to give the already +heated center contact with the atmosphere. In a little while, the bottom +pieces are piled on top. The cutting and splitting operation may be +repeated at intervals of twenty or thirty minutes until the whey that +runs from the curd has much the taste of sour milk just before it begins +to lopper. + +The whey looks white and rich, and is really so; but it is claimed, that +there is not as much waste as is caused by keeping the curd in the whey +and stirring it, when the butter and cheese that escape are so diluted +as not to be noticed. + +When the whey draining from the curd has a decided sour-milk taste, the +accumulation is removed, the curd mill is set on the end of the vat, and +the large square pieces of curd thrown into the hopper and run through. +The mill tears them into pieces varying in size from that of a kernel of +corn to a butternut. When ground, two pounds and an eighth of salt are +sprinkled over the curd and stirred in. (Considering the dry state of +curd, this is really heavy salting--heavier than three pounds thrown on +the dripping curd, in the usual manner.) The salting done, the curd is +allowed to stand, with occasional stirring, as long as +convenient--indeed, the longer the better. It will take no harm after +being salted; and if a curd is at all tainted, or is made of sour-milk, +and is rather soft, it should be allowed to stand as long as possible, +and permit the hands to get it to press and ready to bandage the same +afternoon or evening. + +This is the simple process, as we saw it at Spring Creek factory. The +pressing and curing are not essentially different from the common +methods. Thorough pressing, however, is considered essential; and so is +an equable temperature in the drying room--which, by the way, Mr. +MACADAM did not have the advantage of, as the building was erected on +economical principles, with a very primitive but thorough system of +ventilation--not under his direction or supervision, however. + +With sour-milk, Mr. MACADAM hastens every stage of the process, up to +the time of salting. When the requisite degree of acid is developed, +even though the heat may not have gone above 90°, and the curd is very +soft, the whey is drawn off, and the curd repeatedly cut into small +squares with a knife, to facilitate the separation of the whey. The curd +is ground, and the salt thrown on--in less quantity--when the whey that +drains off has the proper sour milk taste. It is then allowed to stand +in the vat, and drain and harden, as long as the work of the factory +will permit. If it can remain a couple of days in the press, it is an +advantage. + +The curds prepared in the manner we have been describing for good milk, +does not have a very promising look to an American cheese-maker. It is +tough and stringy, and quite elastic. At least, such was the appearance +of the curd which we saw. It is proper to state, however, that it was +made of tainted milk, and the taint was quite marked in the curd. This, +Mr. MACADAM told us, was the condition of most of the milk and curds for +some weeks past in that factory; yet, the taint did not show in the +cheese on the ranges, except in a few instances where the curd had been +salted a little too sweet, as he thought. + +The great secret of his success, he seemed to think, was in getting rid +of the whey early, in allowing a good deal of acid to develop, +especially in tainted curds, in airing the curds and allowing the gases +to escape, and in salting well. + +Mr. MACADAM'S cheese, as a general thing, tried splendidly. It was firm, +flaky, buttery and fine-flavored. His opinion is, that American cheese +is, as a general rule, salted too sweet and too low, for the purpose of +having it cure quick for market; but it lacks good keeping qualities, +and verifies the old adage, "Soon ripe, soon rotten." It is hard to +overcome this desire for quick returns; but he would recommend those who +wish to improve American cheese, to sour rather more, salt a little +more, and color a little less--as little as the market will allow--as +coloring is believed to be positively injurious to quality. The +_tendency_ should be in these directions, in order to make a slower +curing, better keeping and better flavored article. + +But, it must be borne in mind, that Mr. MACADAM has in view his own +process of manufacture, and that allowances must be made for different +modes. Let each be ready to receive hints, make his own experiments, and +abide by his own decisions. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[A] "A good cheese is rich, without being greasy, with a sweet, nutty +flavor; clear, equal color throughout; of a compact, solid texture, +without being waxy; firm, yet melting easily in the mouth, and leaving +no rough flavor on the palate." + + + + +ADVERTISEMENTS + + +Utica Morning Herald + +BOOK AND JOB PRINTING + +ESTABLISHMENT, + +No. 60 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y., + +Possesses EXTENSIVE MODERN FACILITIES for all kinds of + +LETTER PRESS PRINTING, + +And increased attention will be paid to this department, under the +direction of + +R. W. ROBERTS. + +NEW STYLES OF TYPE, BORDERS, &C., + +are provided as they appear in the Eastern cities, and the + +Long Established Reputation + +of the office will be maintained, for + +THE BEST WORK AT THE LOWEST PRICES. + +MANUFACTURERS, +LAWYERS, +AND BUSINESS MEN, + +Will have their orders carefully and intelligently filled. + +ELLIS H. ROBERTS, Proprietor. + + +Utica Morning Herald + +AND DAILY GAZETTE, + +NINE DOLLARS A YEAR IN ADVANCE, contains more reading matter than any +other daily published in Central New York, including the Fullest and +Latest + +TELEGRAPHIC REPORTS, + +CORRESPONDENCE + +From the State and National Capitals, + +and elsewhere, while especial attention is bestowed on + +LOCAL AND GENERAL NEWS, + +and a high Literary Standard is aimed at. An + +AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT + +is well maintained especially designed for the + +Dairymen and Farmers + +of the Central and Northern Counties. + +The UTICA HERALD has by far the largest circulation in the City, and its + +AGGREGATE CIRCULATION IS OVER 12,000. + +ADVERTISE IN IT. + + +THE DAIRYMEN'S PAPER! + +THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD + +has, since the first organization of the Dairymen's Association, +reported promptly and fully all of its proceedings and never more fully +and satisfactorily than the addresses and debates before the Convention +held in Utica in January, 1870. + +The UTICA HERALD also devotes especial attention to everything connected +with the dairy interest; to + +Diseases of Cattle and their Cure; The Manufacture of Butter and Cheese, +and to all Improved Processes and Apparatus. + +The weekly edition every Tuesday contains the report of the + +LITTLE FALLS MARKET OF THE PREVIOUS DAY. + +The UTICA HERALD has made the dairy interest a specialty, and in its +weekly edition devotes to it + +More Space and Attention than any other Paper in the Country. + +At the same time, the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD aims to be in all respects a + +FIRST-CLASS FAMILY PAPER. + +Its Editorial Articles + +are accepted and recognized as fitly speaking the Union sentiment, the +intelligent convictions, and the thoughtful aspirations of the million +of people which it represents. + +The UTICA HERALD, in its weekly as well as its morning edition, is +pre-eminently + +A NEWSPAPER. + +By thorough classification and elaborate condensation it presents the +gist of all the news in the briefest space, and the person who reads no +other journal, will not be ignorant of the current of events, and the +movement of men and principles. + +THE CORRESPONDENCE + +weekly published in our columns, from Washington, New York, Albany and +elsewhere, is not inferior in literary or political interest to that of +any other journal in the country. + +THE LITERARY DEPARTMENT + +will receive during the coming year, increased attention, and we trust +will deserve in even a higher degree than heretofore the encomiums which +have been bestowed upon it. + +ADVERTISE IN IT. + +Manufacturers and merchants wishing to reach dairymen and producers of +butter and cheese, can do so in no other way so readily and so cheaply, +as through the columns of the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD. + +THE TERMS. + +The UTICA WEEKLY HERALD is published at the low price of + +TWO DOLLARS A YEAR. + +Payment is required in advance. Taking into account the size and +character of the paper--its political, news, literary and agricultural +merits--it is believed that this is + +THE CHEAPEST PAPER PUBLISHED. + +Now is the time to form clubs. Let the circulation be doubled during the +current year. + +_Address, UTICA HERALD_, +60 Genesee Street, Utica, N. Y. + + +BOOK BINDING! + +THE OLD ESTABLISHED + +BOOK BINDERY, + +No. 60 GENESEE ST., UTICA, N. Y., + +(_Morning Herald Block_,) + +Has all the facilities for BINDING BOOKS, new and old, in as good style, +and at as low prices as can be obtained anywhere in New York or +elsewhere. + +Many families may gather a respectable library by gathering up their + +Magazines, Newspapers, and other Serials, + +And we are prepared to bind in any desirable style + +ATLANTIC MAGAZINE, +HARPER'S MAGAZINE, +KNICKERBOCKER MAGAZINE, +GRAHAM'S MAGAZINE, +PETERSON'S MAGAZINE, +HOME MAGAZINE, +LESLIE'S MAGAZINE, +BALLOU'S MAGAZINE, +LADY'S BOOK, +MUSIC, +LIBRARY BOOKS, +LAW BOOKS, +LESLIE'S PICTORIAL, +HARPER'S PICTORIAL, +BALLOU'S PICTORIAL, +ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, +SPENCER'S HISTORY OF UNITED STATES, +TALLIS'S SHAKESPEARE, +JOHNSON'S SHAKESPEARE, +BOYDELL'S SHAKESPEARE, +IRVING'S WASHINGTON, +LOSSING'S WASHINGTON, +SCRIPTURE HISTORY, +LIFE OF CHRIST, +HARPER'S BIBLE, +BROWN'S BIBLE, +FLETCHER'S BIBLE, +VIRTUE'S BIBLE, +DOUAY BIBLE, +ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, +HINTON'S HISTORY OF UNITED STATES, + +And all newspapers, whether great or small, as well as collections of +Pamphlets, Manuscripts, or whatever else is worthy of preservation. + +Books will be bound in any style to suit the taste of our customers in + +Full Turkey Gilt, +Full Calf, Antique Finished, +Half Calf, or Half Turkey, + +or in Full Sheep, Full or Half Cloth, with Edges Gilt, Marbled, or +Sprinkled, as may be desired. + +Books sent by express or otherwise, will receive prompt +attention. Good Workmanship and Reasonable Prices warranted. + + +The Largest Fancy Goods House + +IN CENTRAL NEW YORK, + +W. M. STORRS, + +71 Genesee Street, Utica, + +--DEALER IN-- + +FOREIGN & DOMESTIC + +FANCY GOODS, + +Shot Guns, Rifles, Revolvers, Cartridges, +Ammunition, Fishing Tackle and +Sporting Apparatus of every +Description. + +Wooden & Willow Ware, + +HOUSE-KEEPING GOODS, + +Farm Baskets, Pails, Churns, &c., &c. + +CALL AND SEE MY IMMENSE STOCK. + +W. M. STORRS, +UTICA, N. Y. + + +READY-MADE CLOTHING! + +Every farmer in this and adjoining counties will find it to his +advantage to purchase his Clothing of + +C. A. YATES & CO., + +AT THE + +MARBLE BLOCK + +CLOTHING STORE. + +We pay particular attention to the quality of the Cloth, have every +garment substantially made, and guarantee durability. We also keep the + +LARGEST STOCK OF CLOTHING + +in this section of the country, and can therefore give the advantage of +an immense variety. Our prices will at all times be the lowest in the +market, and goods will be freely shown, whether for the purpose of +buying at the time or at some future time. We therefore _invite all to +call and see our store and stock, and to learn our prices_. + +Particular attention paid to + +Youth's and Boys' Clothing. + +The most extensive assortment in the county can be found at our store. + +When in search of Clothing, _Look for the Marble Block_, + +No. 54 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y. + +C. A. YATES & CO. + + +AMERICAN BUTTON HOLE, + +OVERSEAMING AND SEWING MACHINE. + +The cheapest as well as the best, since it combines a Button Hole, +Overseaming and Sewing Machine, in one simple form, making either the +Lock Stitch or Button Hole Stitch, as occasion may require; doing every +variety of sewing in a SUPERIOR MANNER, and in addition works a most +perfect Button Hole and Overseams nicely. + +Received a _First Premium_ at the New York State Fair, and numerous +other Fairs throughout the United States and Canada. + +[Illustration: LAMB KNITTING MACHINE] + +Knits Hosiery of all sizes. _Sets up its own work._ Knits the Heel and +narrows off the Toe, and knits a pair of socks in thirty minutes. + +The _only_ Knitting Machine in the world that can shape a stocking the +same as can be done when knit by hand. + +Will make four distinct webs, thus enabling the operator to do a great +variety of FANCY WORK. + +For samples of work, and circulars of both Sewing Machine and Knitting +Machine, address, + +H. J. HILLIARD, + +(BUTTERFIELD HOUSE.) 205 Genesee St., Utica. + + +HOWES & CLARK, + +Real Estate Brokers, + +178 GENESEE STREET, + +Z. M. HOWES,} UTICA, N. Y. +B. A. CLARK.} + +Agents for Sale, Purchase, Leasing, Care, and Management of Real Estate. + +Mortgages Negotiated and Investments Made. + +FIRE, LIFE AND ACCIDENTAL INSURANCE IN FIRST CLASS COMPANIES. + +_Deeds, Mortgages and Leases Drawn and Executed._ + + +The Best Dairy Paper! + +At a recent meeting of the Farmers' Club, of the American Institute, in +New York City, a correspondent asked for + +"The Best Paper + +IN THIS COUNTRY + +DEVOTED TO THE DAIRY INTEREST?" + +Mr. F. D. CURTIS, Vice President of the STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, +answered, and it went on record as the + +SENTIMENT OF THE CLUB: + +"THE UTICA HERALD." + +THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD + +IS ONLY + +TWO DOLLARS A YEAR, IN ADVANCE. + + +[Illustration: WOOD & MANN + +STEAM ENGINE CO.,] + +PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES, + +From 4 to 20 Horse Power. + +STATIONARY ENGINES, + +From 4 to 500 Horse Power. + +BOILERS OF ALL KINDS, + +CIRCULAR SAW MILLS, &C. + +Boilers Especially Adapted to Cheese Factories + +On Hand or Furnished on Short Notice. + +Having one of the Oldest, Largest and Most Complete Works in the United +States, especially adapted to the manufacture of Engines, Boilers, Saw +Mills, &c., we are able to furnish them, built of the very best +materials, and at the lowest prices at which work in any way equal, can +be obtained. + +Prices furnished on application. + +Wood & Mann Steam Engine Co., +UTICA, N. Y. + + +WILLIAM RALPH & CO., + +173 & 175 Genesee St., + +WM. RALPH, } UTICA, N. Y. +JOHN CARTON.} + +MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN + +CHEESE-FACTORY AND FARM + +Dairy Apparatus, + +TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS + +AND + +FURNISHING GOODS, + +SUCH AS + +CHEESE VATS FOR FACTORIES, +CHEESE VATS FOR DAIRIES, +FACTORY WARMING AND +VENTILATING APPARATUS, WATER-HEATERS, +WEIGHING CANS, CARRYING CANS, +CHEESE PRESSES, PRESS SCREWS, + +WOOD PRESS HOOPS, METALLIC PRESS HOOPS, +MILK AGITATORS, "AMERICAN" CURD MILL, +CURD AGITATORS, LACTOMETERS, +MILK TEST GLASSES, CREAM GAUGES, +THERMOMETERS, STEEL CURD KNIVES, + +DRAINING SINKS, MILK CONDUCTORS, +PLATFORM SCALES, IMPROVED TIN MILK PAILS, +DAIRY PAILS, DAIRY DIPPERS, +CURD SCOOPS, WHEY STRAINERS, +RENNET JARS, +PATENT MILK CAN HANDLES, + +STENCIL PLATES, FACTORY MILK BOOKS, +ANNOTTA, SCALE BOARDS, +CHEESE BANDAGE, RENNETS, +MILK, WATER AND WHEY FAUCETS, +SINK CASTORS, CHEESE HOOPS, +HANDLES, &c., &c. + +All articles in our line are of the best kinds and most +approved patterns, and our prices as low as first class goods can be +furnished. + +Plans, Estimates, &c., for Cheese-Factories and Dairies, +together with other information pertaining thereto, will be cheerfully +furnished to parties interested, on application. + + +RALPH'S ONEIDA CHEESE VATS + +For Cheese Factories & Farm Dairies. + +ADAPTED TO ALL CLASSES, HOWEVER LARGE OR SMALL. + +(_See cut of 600 gallon, factory size, on cover._) + +This Cheese Vat is constantly growing in favor as its merits become +known; it is now used in about 500 Cheese Factories and 1400 Dairies. +From its construction and principle of operation--differing essentially +from all others,--a larger amount of cheese from a given amount of milk +can be made with it, with a much less consumption of fuel and labor. By +it _the heat is perfectly controllable, and distributed absolutely equal +in every part_, except that there is a slightly less amount at the +bottom of the Milk Vat; this is effected by the "EQUALIZER"--which is +not used in any other apparatus,--and is an advantage duly appreciated +by all good cheese-makers. + +These Vats are complete and ready for use on attaching smoke pipe, +involving the use of _no steam-boiler or pipes, brick arches or other +expensive appertenance_; are quite simple in arrangement, strong and +durable in construction. + +_Send for Descriptive Circular and Price List._ + +WM. RALPH & CO., + +UTICA, N. Y. + + +CHEESE FACTORY + +WARMING & VENTILATING APPARATUS. + +WE WOULD INVITE ATTENTION TO THIS ARTICLE: + +It is admirably adapted to securing a proper condition of the atmosphere +in the curing-room to facilitate the curing of the cheese, particularly +in cool and damp weather, in spring and fall, giving + +A Soft Genial Temperature Throughout the Building, + +favorable to a rapid and proper ripening of the cheese; there being no +more heat near the heater than in remote parts of the room. By a +suitable inlet and ventiducts, air from the outside may be conducted to +the heater and from thence distributed to all parts of the curing-room, +expelling the old and perhaps tainted air from the building. For further +information address, + +WM. RALPH & CO., + +UTICA, N. Y. + + +JONES & FAULKNER'S + +Dairy Furnishing Store, + +No. 141 GENESEE STREET, + +UTICA, N. Y. + +We beg leave to call your attention to our stock of Dairy Furnishing +Goods, being the only complete assortment in this line to be found in +the United States. Believing we can make it an object for you to +purchase of us, we earnestly solicit your patronage. + +We shall issue our Price List about the 1st of March. Those sending +their names to us, will receive a copy of the same by mail. + + +CHEESE VATS. + +WE SELL + +Ralph's and O'Neil's Patent Vats, Bagg's, Miller's, and Schermerhorn's +Patent Heaters, at Manufacturers' prices. + +HOOPS. + +ALL SIZES. + +Improved Hard Wood, Extra Hooped with Iron, Welded and Riveted Bands, +and Malleable Handles, also Galvanized Hoops. + +SCREWS. + +ALL STYLES AND SIZES. + +Wrought Iron, and of superior manufacture. + +BANDAGE. + +ALL WIDTHS. + +26, 28, 34, 36, 38 and 40 inch, Bleached and Unbleached. + +Linen Strainer and Linen and Cotton Press and Cap Cloth, also Bleached +and Brown Sheetings. + +STONE RENNET JARS. + +Sizes 8, 10, 12, 15 and 20 gallons. + +WEIGH and CARRYING CANS. + +ALL SIZES. + +With Patent Bottoms, and extra heavy Tin. + +Burnap's Concave Can Bottoms and Convex Tops, best thing made. + +DAIRY KNIVES. + +Young's celebrated Two Edged, Cast Steel, best in use, all sizes, with +Perpendicular and Horizontal Blades. + +ANNOTTO. + +Common, Medium, and Extra Fine, also Liquid Annato. + +RENNETS. + +_American and Imported, of superior quality and strength._ + +MISCELLANEOUS. + +Factory Account Books, all Sizes. + Curd Scoops, wood and tin. + Rubber and Tin Syphons and Strainers. + Rubber Mops and Aprons. + Improved Per Cent. Lactometers. + Alkali and Spirit Meters. +Legal Instruments for detecting impurities in Milk. + Glass Test Tubes. Cheese and Butter Tryers. + Indelible Marking Paste, red, blue and black. + Stencil Plates and Brushes. + Factory Brands. Factory Slates. + Factory Soldering Irons. +Weigh Can Gates, 3 in. Dairy Dippers. + Milk and Hot Water Faucets, all sizes. Conductor Heads. + Scale Boards, all sizes. + Wood, Iron and Lead Water Pipes + and Steam Pipes. +Curd Sink Castors. McAdams' English Curd Mills. + Platform Scales. Potash and Concentrated Lye. + New Style Brass Thermometers. + +Finally, every article used by Cheese Factory and Dairymen, pertaining +to the manufacture of Cheese. + +We also sell the Annual Reports of the American Dairymen's Association, +and McAdams' explanation of the Cheddar System. + +Factorymen wishing Cheese-Makers, will do well to apply to us, as we +have a list of First Class Makers desiring situations. + +Cheese-Makers who are competent, and can give satisfactory references, +may do well to make application to us. + +Goods ordered from us will be carefully packed and shipped as +directed to any part of the World. + +JONES & FAULKNER, + +No. 141 GENESEE STREET, + +UTICA, N. Y. + + +GREAT REDUCTION IN THE PRICE OF CLOTHING! + +Some of the BARGAINS to be found at the +GREAT WARDROBE. +CALL AND INSPECT THEM. + +BLACK BROADCLOTH FROCKCOATS, Only Seven Dollars. +HEAVY BLACK DOESKIN PANTS, Only Four Dollars. +FINE BLACK DOESKIN VESTS, Only Two Dollars and Fifty Cents. +HEAVY STOUT PANTS, (BLACK OR MIXED,) Only Three Dollars. +HEAVY MOSCOW BEAVER OVERCOATS, Only Fifteen Dollars. +HEAVY AND WARM OVERCOATS, Only Six Dollars and Fifty Cents. +GOOD ALL WOOL OVERCOATS, Only Seven Dollars. +HEAVY ALL WOOL SACKCOATS, Only Six Dollars. + +A LARGE STOCK OF BOYS' CLOTHING, + +A Good Share at Cost, and part Less than Cost. + +A Splendid Assortment of +FURNISHING GOODS, +Cheaper than at any other Store. + +The New and Elegant "IRVING" PAPER COLLAR, Only Ten Cents per Box. +FINE LINEN COLLARS, Only One Dollar and Fifty Cents per Dozen. +GOOD WHITE SHIRTS, Only One Dollar Each. +QUAKER CITY FINE SHIRTS, the Best Shirts in the United States. + Those Made from New York Mills Muslin, Only Three Dollars Each. + From Wamsutta Muslin, Only Two Dollars and Seventy-five Cents. + Lower Grades of the same make, at Two Dollars and Fifty Cents and + Two Dollars Each. + +Don't Fail to Examine these Shirts--It may be an Advantage to You. + +FINE WHITE WRAPPERS AND DRAWERS, Only One Dollar Each. +HEAVY MIXED WRAPPERS AND DRAWERS, Only Fifty Cents Each. + +CALL AT THE +GREAT WARDROBE +THE MODEL CLOTHING STORE, +110 & 112 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y. + +CHARLES C. KINGSLEY. + +Agents for the Double Warp Royal Standard Alpacas. +We Make a Specialty of Flannels and Blankets. + +[Illustration] + +AGENTS FOR MATIER & CO., OF BELFAST, LINEN MANUFACTURERS. +Agents for Williston's Combed Sea Island Machine Thread. + +V. B. STEWART & CO., +Manufacturers of and Dealers in +CLOAKS, +DRY & FANCY GOODS, +Silks, Shawls, Dress Goods, Cloakings, +CARPETS, OIL CLOTHS, MATS, &c., +Nos. 166 & 168 Genesee Street, Utica, N. Y. + + +CHAMBERLAIN & CUSHMAN, +--GENERAL AGENTS FOR THE-- +Singer's Sewing Machines +--AND-- +BICKFORD FAMILY KNITTING MACHINE, + +FOR THE COUNTIES OF + +Chenango, Herkimer, Jefferson, Lewis, Oneida, Otsego +and St. Lawrence. + +113 GENESEE ST., UTICA, N. Y. + +The Celebrated Singer Family Sewing Machine, one of the oldest and most +reliable Sewing Machines in use. It has been very much improved in the +past year, making it the most quiet and easiest running shuttle machine +now in use. It is adapted to a greater range of work than any other one +machine, sewing from the finest tuck in Tarliton to a heavy Beaver coat. +Its Attachments for Hemming, Braiding, Cording, Tucking, Quilting, +Felling, Trimming, Binding, Ruffling and Embroidering, are novel and +practical, and have been invented and adjusted especially for this +Machine. There is now nearly 400,000 in use. There is now being made and +sold over 4,000 machines each week, which is one of its best +recommendations over other machines. It is perfectly simple and easy to +learn. Don't fail to see one before purchasing a machine. + +THE BICKFORD KNITTING MACHINE + +Will Knit 15,000 stitches or 18 inches of Perfect Work in a Minute. + +Socks complete and whole with double heel and toe. Strips from 1 to 12 +inches wide, with selvedge on each edge. Fringe of any length, Cord of +any size, and Tufting of any style. + +PRICE 30 DOLLARS. + + +TAYLOR & CO.'S +Jewelry Establishment, +70 GENESEE ST., UTICA, N. Y. + +AMERICAN WATCHES, +COMPRISING THE + +[Illustration] + +HOWARD WATCH, +WALTHAM WATCH, + +ELGIN WATCH, +UNITED STATES WATCH, + +ALL AT FACTORY PRICES, +In Gold and Silver Cases. + +In SOLID SILVER WARE, of Gorham Manufacture, and in FINE SILVER PLATED +WARE, of Rogers & Bros. make, we have a great variety of the very best +patterns. + +In ELEGANT JEWELRY we have the newest and most desirable patterns, +consisting of + +Gold Chains, Sets--Pins and Ear-Rings, Finger-Rings, +Lockets, Bracelets, Sleeve-Buttons, +Studs, &c., &c. + +Purchasers of any articles in our line are invited to give us a call. +All goods warranted. + +W. S. TAYLOR & CO., 70 Genesee St. + + +THE GENUINE + +OR, + +Elias Howe Sewing Machine. + +[Illustration: THIS MEDALLION IS EMBEDDED IN EVERY GENUINE HOWE SEWING +MACHINE] + +Hemmer, + Feller, + Binder, +Braider, + Quilter, + Self-Baster, +Corder, + (adjustable foot,) + Embroidery + Attachment, + and Gage. + +SOLD ONLY AT +87 GENESEE ST., UTICA. + +OVERTON & BUCKINGHAM, Agents. + +N. B.--None genuine without the Trade Mark, (Medallion Profile of ELIAS +HOWE, Jr.,) is imbedded in the Machine. This is the GENUINE HOWE. Prof. +"ELIAS HOWE, Jr., the inventor, has + ++The Exclusive Right to Make and Sell this Machine+." + +Decision, Judge INGRAHAM--May, 1867. + +_Awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor, the Grand Gold Medal +and a Silver Medal, Paris Exposition, 1867; the Grand Gold Medal, +London, 1862; Six First Premiums, N. Y. State Fair, 1867, on Machine and +Samples of Work._ + +Also, the following STATE FAIRS of 1868, have awarded this Machine the + +FIRST PREMIUM: + +New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts. +Vermont, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Indiana. + +At the County Fairs of Madison, Onondaga, Oswego, Wayne, Orleans, +Tompkins, Seneca, Monroe, Herkimer, Schuyler, Livingston and a host of +others, and Town Fairs too numerous to mention. + +_Agents for the NEW WILLISTON THREAD, made of Combed Sea Island Cotton._ + + +PECKHAM'S POPULAR COOKING STOVE. + +[Illustration: P.P.C.] + +A New Strictly First Class Cooking Stove, + +_FOR COAL AND WOOD_. + +Unequalled and Warranted + +IN EVERY RESPECT. + +The Success and Superiority of this new Stove is Established beyond a +doubt. + +For its Economy of Fuel, Spacious Ovens, Splendid Baking Qualities, +Facilities for Keeping Fire for great length of time, Extra Weight and +Quality of Castings, and Superior Fitting of the Joints. + +New Patent Movable Reservoir, New Patent Sectional Fire-Plate, New +Patent Sad Iron Heater, New Patent Roaster. _All Valuable Improvements._ +Call and Examine the Stoves and get Circulars with Testimonials. + +MANUFACTURED AND SOLD BY +J. S. & M. PECKHAM, +20 Catharine St., Utica, N. Y. + + +PECKHAM'S + +NEW PATTERN + +Agricultural Furnace & Boiler, + +[Illustration] + +Warranted to Boil with Less Fuel and in Less Time than any Boiler Made. + +This Furnace is used to great advantage by _Cheese-Makers, Farmers, +Butchers, Bakers and Hotel Keepers_, and for various other Manufacturing +and Mechanical purposes. + +The Flues of this Boiler are so constructed that the whole surface of +the Caldron is heated at the same time. They are portable, and require +only a few lengths of pipe to fit them for use, and possess great +advantages over Caldron Kettles set in brick. + +J. S. & M. PECKHAM, +Sole Manufacturers, Utica, N. Y. + + +THE PREMIUM HARVESTER + +OF AMERICA. + +[Illustration: ON THE ROAD.] + +THE ORIGINAL AND ONLY PREMIUM + +BUCKEYE MOWER + +AND COMBINED + +SELF-RAKING REAPER. + +Awarded the _Highest_ Premium both in _Mowing and Self-Raking_, at the +most important field trials ever held in _any_ country. + +Over 125,000 now in use. + +30,000 sold in a single season. + +MANUFACTURED BY + +ADRIANCE, PLATT & CO., + +FOR + +J. M. CHILDS & CO., UTICA, N. Y. + +Office, 121 Genesee Street. + +Circulars forwarded by mail. + + +HINTS + +ON + +CHEESE-MAKING, + +FOR THE + +Dairyman, the Factoryman, + +AND THE + +MANUFACTURER. + +BY T. D. CURTIS. + +UTICA, N. Y. + +ROBERTS, PRINTER, MORNING HERALD ESTABLISHMENT. + +1870. + + +THE BEST DAIRY PAPER! + +At a recent meeting of the Farmers' Club, of the American Institute, in +New York City, a correspondent asked for "THE BEST PAPER IN THIS COUNTRY + +DEVOTED TO THE DAIRY INTEREST?" + +Mr. F. D. CURTIS, Vice-President of the _State Agricultural Society_, +answered, and it went on record as the SENTIMENT OF THE CLUB: + +"THE UTICA HERALD." + +THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD + +Is Only Two Dollars a Year, in advance. + + +THE DAIRYMEN'S PAPER! + +THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD + +has, since the first organization of the Dairymen's Association, +reported promptly and fully all of its proceedings and never more fully +and satisfactorily than the addresses and debates before the Convention +held in Utica in January, 1870. + +The UTICA HERALD also devotes especial attention to everything connected +with the dairy interest; to + +Diseases of Cattle and their Cure; The Manufacture of Butter and Cheese, +and to all Improved Processes and Apparatus. + +The weekly edition every Tuesday contains the report of the + +LITTLE FALLS MARKET OF THE PREVIOUS DAY. + +The UTICA HERALD has made the dairy interest a specialty, and in its +weekly edition devotes to it + +More Space and Attention than any other Paper in the Country. + +At the same time, the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD aims to be in all respects a + +FIRST-CLASS FAMILY PAPER. + +Its Editorial Articles + +are accepted and recognized as fitly speaking the Union sentiment, the +intelligent convictions, and the thoughtful aspirations of the million +of people which it represents. + +The UTICA HERALD, in its weekly as well as its morning edition, is +pre-eminently + +A NEWSPAPER. + +By thorough classification and elaborate condensation it presents the +gist of all the news in the briefest space, and the person who reads no +other journal, will not be ignorant of the current of events, and the +movement of men and principles. + +THE CORRESPONDENCE + +weekly published in our columns, from Washington, New York, Albany and +elsewhere, is not inferior in literary or political interest to that of +any other journal in the country. + +THE LITERARY DEPARTMENT + +will receive during the coming year, increased attention, and we trust +will deserve in even a higher degree than heretofore the encomiums which +have been bestowed upon it. + +ADVERTISE IN IT. + +Manufacturers and merchants wishing to reach dairymen and producers of +butter and cheese, can do so in no other way so readily and so cheaply, +as through the columns of the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD. + +THE TERMS. + +The UTICA WEEKLY HERALD is published at the low price of + +TWO DOLLARS A YEAR. + +Payment is required in advance. Taking into account the size and +character of the paper--its political, news, literary and agricultural +merits--it is believed that this is + +THE CHEAPEST PAPER PUBLISHED. + +Now is the time to form clubs. Let the circulation be doubled during the +current year. + +_Address_, _UTICA HERALD_, +60 Genesee Street, Utica, N. Y. + + +WILLIAM RALPH & CO., + +MANUFACTURERS OF + +ONEIDA CHEESE VATS, + +FOR CHEESE-FACTORIES AND DAIRIES. + +(See Advertisements Inside.) + +[Illustration] + +Address, WILLIAM RALPH & CO., 173 and 175 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Hints on cheese-making, by Thomas Day Curtis + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43323 *** |