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diff --git a/43320-h/43320-h.htm b/43320-h/43320-h.htm index 63bde34..9844d39 100644 --- a/43320-h/43320-h.htm +++ b/43320-h/43320-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Wonder Book of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, by Edwin J. Houston. @@ -101,48 +101,7 @@ table { </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wonder Book of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, by -Edwin J. Houston - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Wonder Book of Volcanoes and Earthquakes - -Author: Edwin J. Houston - -Release Date: July 27, 2013 [EBook #43320] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WONDER BOOK OF VOLCANOES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Diane Monico, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43320 ***</div> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="398" height="600" alt="(cover)" /> @@ -333,8 +292,8 @@ The Publishers.<br /> <tr><td align="right">23.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Aleutian Islands</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_23">146</a></td></tr> <tr><td align="right">24.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Map of the World, Showing Location of Active and Recently Extinct Volcanoes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_24">150</a></td></tr> <tr><td align="right">25.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Volcanic Vesicles</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_25">183</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">26.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Thread-Lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_26">185</a></td></tr> -<tr><td align="right">27.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Thread-Lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_27">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">26.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Thread-Lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_26">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">27.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Thread-Lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_27">185</a></td></tr> <tr><td align="right">28.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Frost-Like Lava Crystals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_28">187</a></td></tr> <tr><td align="right">29.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Frost-Like Lava Crystals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_29">187</a></td></tr> <tr><td align="right">30.</td><td align="left"> <span class="smcap">Basaltic Columns, Isle of Cyclops, Italy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig_30">188</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td></tr> @@ -409,8 +368,8 @@ one of the great highways to the East. Shipping is, therefore, always to be found in its waters.</p> <p>As can be seen by the map, Krakatoa is not far from -the Equator, being situated in lat. 6° 7' S. and long. -105° 26' E. from Greenwich. Since there are about sixty-nine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +the Equator, being situated in lat. 6° 7' S. and long. +105° 26' E. from Greenwich. Since there are about sixty-nine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> miles in every degree of latitude, Krakatoa is about 420 miles south of the Equator, and is about twenty-five miles from Java. Java is part of the Dutch East Indies, @@ -668,7 +627,7 @@ must not be understood that the formation of such waves was at all contrary to the known laws of physics. On the contrary, provided the force of the eruption was sufficiently great, such waves must have been produced in the -great ærial ocean. The astonishing, or wonderful thing, +great ærial ocean. The astonishing, or wonderful thing, was that the force setting up these waves was so great that it caused them to move seven times around the globe.</p> @@ -677,7 +636,7 @@ be worth our while to describe them in detail. Starting from the volcano of Krakatoa, as a centre, these waves moved outwards in all directions, becoming gradually larger and larger until they reached a point halfway -round the globe, or 180° from Krakatoa. The waves did +round the globe, or 180° from Krakatoa. The waves did not, however, stop here, but continued moving onward, now growing smaller and smaller until they reached a point in North America, immediately opposite Krakatoa. @@ -685,7 +644,7 @@ Such a point on a globe is called an <i>antipodal point</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_ waves did not stop at this point, but again advanced moving toward Krakatoa, growing larger and larger until they again reached a point halfway around the globe, -or 180° from Krakatoa, when they again continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +or 180° from Krakatoa, when they again continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> moving but now continually growing smaller and smaller, until they reached Krakatoa. Here they again began moving completely around the globe, and this was continued @@ -1875,7 +1834,7 @@ who saw the corpses, affirm that though in no place deeply burnt, yet they were thoroughly scorched." As you will see in <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Chapter XI</a>, this sudden and awful death due to highly heated air and dust particles, caused even a greater -loss of life in the catastrophic eruption of Pelée, in Martinique +loss of life in the catastrophic eruption of Pelée, in Martinique on May 8, 1902.</p> <p>By reason of its situation at a lower level on the slopes @@ -1896,7 +1855,7 @@ other volcanoes.</p> <p>The outlines of mountains like Mt. Loa or Kilauea differ greatly from mountains like Vesuvius; their slopes, like the slopes of all other Hawaii volcanoes, have an -inclination which does not exceed 10°. The lava streams, +inclination which does not exceed 10°. The lava streams, therefore, as they flow down the mountains, move more slowly than they would were the slopes more precipitous, as in mountains like Vesuvius.</p> @@ -1969,7 +1928,7 @@ of the plateau the ocean suddenly drops to a depth of <p>Toward the south the plateau extends with but few interruptions through the middle of the ocean to a shoal -known as the <i>Dolphin Shoal</i>, as far as lat. 25° N. This +known as the <i>Dolphin Shoal</i>, as far as lat. 25° N. This part of the ocean, which can only relatively be called a shoal, is not generally deeper than 9,600 feet, although in some places the water is more than 12,000 feet deep. @@ -2014,7 +1973,7 @@ waves.</p> springs afford vent to the subterranean heat, and solfataras discharge copious streams of inflammable matter. The volcanoes in different parts of the island are observed, -like those of the Phlegræan Fields, Italy, to be in activity +like those of the Phlegræan Fields, Italy, to be in activity by turns, one vent often serving for a time as a safety<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> valve for the rest. Many cones are often thrown up in one eruption and in this case they take a linear direction, @@ -2045,12 +2004,12 @@ and volcanic ashes; sixteen were of the lava-cone type, similar to Mt. Loa, of the Hawaiian Islands, and the remaining eighty-three were of the type of crater chains.</p> -<p>The volcano of Snaefell Jökul, 4,710 feet above the +<p>The volcano of Snaefell Jökul, 4,710 feet above the level of the ocean, is built up of alternate layers of lava and hardened volcanic mud. It is not, however, a true cone-shaped mountain.</p> -<p>The largest volcano in Iceland, the Dyngjufköll, with +<p>The largest volcano in Iceland, the Dyngjufköll, with its immense crater of Askja, has an area of some twenty-five square miles. In its form it resembles Snaefell.</p> @@ -2106,17 +2065,17 @@ channels; but on the next escape of the lava these gorges and valleys are again filled with the molten rock, and the rivers must begin their channel cutting all over.</p> -<p>You will note the frequent use of the word Jökul, as -Snaefell Jökul, Skaptar Jökul, Orefa Jökul, etc. The -name Jökul means a large mass of ice, or a mountain +<p>You will note the frequent use of the word Jökul, as +Snaefell Jökul, Skaptar Jökul, Orefa Jökul, etc. The +name Jökul means a large mass of ice, or a mountain that is continually covered with snow, for example, Snaefell -Jökul, is a beautifully shaped, snow-covered mountain +Jökul, is a beautifully shaped, snow-covered mountain situated on a point of land on the western coast of the island, extending out nearly fifty miles into the sea, between the Faxa Fiord and the Briela Fiord. It is a very conspicuous object, being visible to passing ships at considerable -distances from the island. Orefa Jökul is the -highest mountain in Iceland. Skaptar Jökul is one of the +distances from the island. Orefa Jökul is the +highest mountain in Iceland. Skaptar Jökul is one of the active volcanoes of Iceland.</p> <p>There can be no doubt that Iceland has been formed @@ -2130,7 +2089,7 @@ man has lived on the earth.</p> <p>The surface of Iceland is far from attractive. The interior is practically a vast lava desert, covered with -snow-clad mountains or Jökuls. There is no plant life +snow-clad mountains or Jökuls. There is no plant life except in marshy lands near the coasts, and even here scarcely enough grass is raised to feed the few cattle and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> horses owned by the inhabitants. There is no agriculture, @@ -2176,20 +2135,20 @@ before the glacial age, and the second lavas after that age.</p> <p>Let us now examine some of the more active volcanoes of Iceland and their eruptions. We will begin with the -well-known volcano of Skaptar Jökul.</p> +well-known volcano of Skaptar Jökul.</p> <p>The following description of this volcano has been taken from a book on Iceland by E. Henderson, published in -Boston, 1831. Skaptar Jökul lies in the south central +Boston, 1831. Skaptar Jökul lies in the south central part of Iceland about forty odd miles from the coast. It takes its name from the Skaptar River, down whose channel the lava flowed its entire distance of forty miles -from the ocean. Skaptar Jökul consists of about twenty +from the ocean. Skaptar Jökul consists of about twenty conical hills lying along one of the fissures that extends from northeast to southwest.</p> <p>It appears from Henderson's account that people living -in the neighborhood of Skaptar Jökul were greatly alarmed +in the neighborhood of Skaptar Jökul were greatly alarmed by repeated earthquakes that were felt at different times from the first to the eighth of June, 1783. These earthquake shocks increased in number and violence, so that @@ -2425,7 +2384,7 @@ Ischia.</p> </div> </div> -<p>The Phlegræan Fields was a name given by the ancients +<p>The Phlegræan Fields was a name given by the ancients to some of the lowlands in the neighborhood of Naples; they were believed to be under the special protection of the Roman gods. When the frequent earthquake shocks @@ -2498,7 +2457,7 @@ Every day dissatisfied men like himself escaped from the Romans and joined his ranks. Rome sent a larger body of men against Spartacus, but they also were beaten. At last, recognizing the gravity of the position, the Roman -Prætor, Clodius, was sent against Spartacus with an army +Prætor, Clodius, was sent against Spartacus with an army of some three thousand men. Clodius caught Spartacus in the crater and guarded the only space by which it seemed possible for Spartacus to escape. Using the vines @@ -2665,7 +2624,7 @@ flashes of fire, and yawning showed long shapes of flame. These were like lightning, only of greater extent....</p> <p>"Pretty soon the cloud began to descend over the earth -and cover the sea. It enfolded Capreæ and hid also the +and cover the sea. It enfolded Capreæ and hid also the promontory of Misenum." ... The flight was continued. "Ashes now fell, yet still in small amount. I looked back. A thick mist was close at our heels, which followed us, @@ -2937,7 +2896,7 @@ feet. This zone is covered with forests of chestnuts, oaks, beeches, and cork trees. The third and highest zone includes the rest of the mountain, and may be called the desert zone, since it is a sterile region, covered with huge -blocks of lava and scoriæ, and terminating, in the higher +blocks of lava and scoriæ, and terminating, in the higher portions, in a snow-covered plain, from which the central cone rises.</p> @@ -3036,7 +2995,7 @@ in a town situated in the lower part of the forest zone, about twenty-five miles below the summit of the mountain, and ten miles from the sea at Catania. During this eruption two deep fissures were opened near Catania. -From these such quantities of sand and scoriæ were thrown +From these such quantities of sand and scoriæ were thrown out, that, in the course of three or four months, a double cone was formed 450 feet high, which is now known as Monte Rosso. But what was most curious was the sudden @@ -3105,7 +3064,7 @@ length, the vaults terminate in a great gallery ninety feet long, and from fifteen to fifty broad, beyond which there is still a passage, never yet explored, so that the extent of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> these caverns remains unknown. The walls and roofs of -these great vaults are composed of rough bristling scoriæ +these great vaults are composed of rough bristling scoriæ of the most fantastic forms."</p></div> <p>Besides the eruptions mentioned there have been many @@ -3413,7 +3372,7 @@ of the grandest explosive eruptions of modern times. This eruption rivalled in energy the great explosive eruption which blew off the summit of Coseguina, in Central America, in 1835. As is common in the case of explosive -eruptions, volcanic dust and scoriæ were blown high into +eruptions, volcanic dust and scoriæ were blown high into the air, and, being carried by the winds, fell on the roofs of houses and on the land at a distance of 150 miles.</p> @@ -3566,7 +3525,7 @@ have caused the eruption of Krakatoa, namely, a large volume of water suddenly gaining access to a mass of liquid lava.</p> -<p>Volcán del Fuego is another of the many volcanoes of +<p>Volcán del Fuego is another of the many volcanoes of Central America. It is situated as one of a group of volcanoes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> on the highest summit of the Isthmus. This volcanic mountain has a regular cone with regular slopes @@ -3594,12 +3553,12 @@ memorable eruptions occurred in 1614, 1623, 1686, and which date to the present time the volcano has been quiet.</p> <p>We will conclude this brief description of the volcanoes -of Central America with that of Volcán de Agua, or, as the +of Central America with that of Volcán de Agua, or, as the word means, <i>The Water Volcano</i>. It is situated in Guatemala near the coast, and is one of the mountains that occupies the plateau on which Fuego is situated.</p> -<p>The Volcán de Agua is one of the most remarkable volcanoes +<p>The Volcán de Agua is one of the most remarkable volcanoes in Central America, standing, as it does, nearly alone, and rising to an elevation of 3,350 metres (10,988 ft.), above the level of the sea. It has been extinct for a long @@ -3633,9 +3592,9 @@ village below.</p> <div class="blockquot"> -<p>"The Volcán de Agua (Water-Volcano) is of enormous +<p>"The Volcán de Agua (Water-Volcano) is of enormous height, being covered with eternal snow, in the latitude -of 14°. Captain Basil Hall estimates it at more than 14,000 +of 14°. Captain Basil Hall estimates it at more than 14,000 feet, but a recent traveller states it at 12,600. It has the form of a blunted cone clothed with perpetual verdure to its summit. The crater is from forty to sixty yards in @@ -3687,9 +3646,9 @@ less straight lines, or are situated along the lines of great fissures that lie near the ocean. You must not, however, suppose that there is a continuous chain of active volcanic mountains from the Isthmus of Panama to the southern -part of the continent. According to Lyell, from lat. 2° N., -or from the north of Quito, to lat. 43° S. or south of -Chile, a total distance including 45° of latitude, there is a +part of the continent. According to Lyell, from lat. 2° N., +or from the north of Quito, to lat. 43° S. or south of +Chile, a total distance including 45° of latitude, there is a succession of districts with active and extinct volcanoes, or at least with volcanoes that have been quiet during the last three centuries.</p> @@ -3707,12 +3666,12 @@ the last three centuries.</p> <div class="blockquot"> <p>"The principal line of active vents which have been -seen in eruption in the Andes extends from lat. 43° 28' S., -... to lat. 30° S.; to these thirteen degrees of latitude +seen in eruption in the Andes extends from lat. 43° 28' S., +... to lat. 30° S.; to these thirteen degrees of latitude succeed more than eight degrees, in which no recent volcanic eruptions have been observed. We then come to the volcanoes of Bolivia and Peru, extending six degrees<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> -from S. to N., or from lat. 21° S. to lat. 15° S. Between +from S. to N., or from lat. 21° S. to lat. 15° S. Between the Peruvian volcanoes and those of Quito another space intervenes of no less than fourteen degrees of latitude, in which there is said to be but few active volcanoes as far @@ -3857,7 +3816,7 @@ increased in height during the last century and a half.</p> <p>Chimborazo, 20,498 feet, is another lofty mountain on the plateau of Quito. This volcano is situated in lat. -1° 30' S., and is not at the present time in an active condition. +1° 30' S., and is not at the present time in an active condition. It is, however, formed entirely of volcanic material. Its upper portions are covered with a layer of snow to a level of some 2,600 feet below the summit.</p> @@ -3905,7 +3864,7 @@ blown away portions of the cone.</p> are all we have space for describing.</p> <p>According to Lyell, the volcano of Rancagua, in Chile, -lat. 34° 15' S., is continually throwing up ashes and +lat. 34° 15' S., is continually throwing up ashes and vapors like Stromboli. Indeed, a year seldom passes in Chile without some earthquake shocks. Of these shocks those which came from the side nearest the sea are most @@ -3925,12 +3884,12 @@ of the principal volcanoes of Peru is Arequipa, whose summit is 18,877 feet above the level of the sea. The mountain takes its name from the city of Arequipa, which is situated not far from its base. It is an active -volcano. Another volcano, Viejo, is found in lat. 16° 55' S.</p> +volcano. Another volcano, Viejo, is found in lat. 16° 55' S.</p> <p>According to Lyell, there are active vents extending -through Chile to the island of Chiloe to lat. 30° N.</p> +through Chile to the island of Chiloe to lat. 30° N.</p> -<p>Aconcagua, west of Valparaiso, in lat. 32° 39' S., 23,000 +<p>Aconcagua, west of Valparaiso, in lat. 32° 39' S., 23,000 feet in height, the highest mountain in South America, is still in an active condition. According to Scrope, when the city of Mendoza was destroyed by an earthquake, @@ -4141,7 +4100,7 @@ same time, covering large areas in the western parts of Nevada.</p> <p>Coming now to Ice Springs Craters in Utah, we find -here three small craters formed of scoriæ and lapilli +here three small craters formed of scoriæ and lapilli (volcanic ashes consisting of small angular stony fragments). Near them lies a fragment of a much larger crater known as the Crescent. In some respects this crater @@ -4353,11 +4312,11 @@ Barbadoes, and others.</p> <p>Prior to 1902, the greatest volcanic eruption in this part of the world occurred on the island of St. Vincent, -with the volcano of Soufrière. Although the forces displayed +with the volcano of Soufrière. Although the forces displayed were exceedingly great, yet they become insignificant when compared with the appalling eruption that took place in Martinique only a short time ago; namely, -May the 8th, 1902, when the volcano of Mt. Pelée, situated +May the 8th, 1902, when the volcano of Mt. Pelée, situated on the northwestern part of the island, burst into an eruption so terrible that in destruction of life it far exceeded the eruption of Krakatoa, although the amount @@ -4371,13 +4330,13 @@ of energy causing the eruption was much smaller.</p> </div> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> -<p>Heilprin, in a book called "Mt. Pelée and the Tragedy +<p>Heilprin, in a book called "Mt. Pelée and the Tragedy of Martinique," from whom most of the information of this chapter has been obtained, calls attention to the fact -that before the eruption of Pelée there were plenty of +that before the eruption of Pelée there were plenty of warnings for those intelligent enough to note them. For two or three weeks prior to May 8th, 1902, the volcanic -activity of Pelée had been rapidly increasing, the mountain +activity of Pelée had been rapidly increasing, the mountain throwing out clouds of ashes and sulphurous vapors from its crater. By April 25th the sulphurous vapors had so increased in quantity as to make breathing difficult @@ -4389,7 +4348,7 @@ of St. Pierre as to stop traffic.</p> avalanche of mud poured down the slopes of the mountain with the rapidity of an express train. These torrents of mud and water deluged the towns and villages in the -neighborhood. The activity of Mt. Pelée increased until +neighborhood. The activity of Mt. Pelée increased until the morning of May 8th, 1902, when, almost at exactly 8 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, an eruption occurred, so terrible in its effects that in two minutes the city of St. Pierre was almost @@ -4397,7 +4356,7 @@ completely destroyed.</p> <p>St. Pierre, the principal town of Martinique, is situated on the island of Martinique, on the northwestern coast, -about ten miles southwest of Mt. Pelée. St. Pierre was +about ten miles southwest of Mt. Pelée. St. Pierre was settled as far back as 1635. It is situated on an open roadstead without any harbor.</p> @@ -4418,9 +4377,9 @@ many cases surrounded by fine gardens. The city extended along the coast for about two miles. The streets were well lighted.</p> -<p>The eruption of Mt. Pelée on May 8th, 1902, was of a +<p>The eruption of Mt. Pelée on May 8th, 1902, was of a very unusual character, containing a feature that—with -the exception of a volcanic eruption of Soufrière, a volcanic +the exception of a volcanic eruption of Soufrière, a volcanic mountain on the neighboring island of St. Vincent, and an eruption of Kilauea in Hawaii—so far as I am aware, never before occurred. This was a blast of highly @@ -4460,9 +4419,9 @@ steam loaded with great quantities of finely divided red hot or even white hot dust particles.</p> <p>While, perhaps, the force producing the awful eruption -of Mt. Pelée was greatly excelled in the case of many other +of Mt. Pelée was greatly excelled in the case of many other volcanic eruptions; such as Papandayang, in 1772; -Asamayama, in 1783; Skaptar Jökul, in 1783; Tomboro, +Asamayama, in 1783; Skaptar Jökul, in 1783; Tomboro, in 1815; Coseguina, in 1835; and Krakatoa, in 1883; yet, in the words of Heilprin, "in intensity and swiftness of its death-dealing blast ... the eruption of May 8th, and @@ -4472,18 +4431,18 @@ of later dates, stands unique in records of volcanic manifestations."</p> of white hot steam and air was comparatively small, yet during the time between this and the subsequent eruptions, the amount of ashes that were thrown from the -surface of Mt. Pelée was exceedingly great.</p> +surface of Mt. Pelée was exceedingly great.</p> <p>According to Russell, in a paper on the volcanic eruptions of Martinique and St. Vincent, in 1902, the amount of ashes and solid matter generally thrown out from the -crater of Mt. Pelée would be equal to 40,000,000 cubic +crater of Mt. Pelée would be equal to 40,000,000 cubic feet every minute, or one and a half times the sediments discharged by the Mississippi in the course of a whole year.</p> <p>According to Heilprin, however, the actual amount -of dust thrown from the crater of Mt. Pelée was, probably, +of dust thrown from the crater of Mt. Pelée was, probably, 500 times greater than the amount discharged by the Mississippi River in the course of a year, and, consequently, considerably greater than that of all the rivers of the @@ -4493,7 +4452,7 @@ world combined, or, as he says:</p> <div class="blockquot"> -<p>"Mont Pelée has now been in a condition of forceful +<p>"Mont Pelée has now been in a condition of forceful activity for upwards of two hundred days; can we assume that during this time it may have thrown out a mass of material whose cubical contents are hardly less than a @@ -4512,7 +4471,7 @@ of the destinies of the globe is of far greater significance than has generally been conceived."</p></div> <p>A curious circumstance connected with the eruption of -Mt. Pelée was the most pronounced electric and magnetic +Mt. Pelée was the most pronounced electric and magnetic disturbances. Moreover, as in the case of the eruption of Krakatoa, there were the same after glows or red sunsets and sunrises due to the presence of fine volcanic dust in @@ -4528,13 +4487,13 @@ this was, perhaps, the most destructive earthquake that has occurred in the Western Hemisphere since the great earthquake of 1812, that destroyed the city of Caracas. Indeed, Professor Milne suggests that it was this earthquake -that brought about the eruption of Mt. Pelée.</p> +that brought about the eruption of Mt. Pelée.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> -<p>Soufrière, on the island of St. Vincent, had a great eruption +<p>Soufrière, on the island of St. Vincent, had a great eruption on May 7th, 1902, one day before the awful eruption -of Mt. Pelée. No lava flowed during this eruption. There +of Mt. Pelée. No lava flowed during this eruption. There were, however, great discharges of mud, due to a lake that before the eruption filled the top of a depression known as the old crater which lay southwest of a new crater, or @@ -4549,7 +4508,7 @@ be only 1,200 feet above the level of the sea. The sheet of water that occupied it before the eruption being several hundred feet higher.</p> -<p>Soufrière did not fail to give warnings of its coming +<p>Soufrière did not fail to give warnings of its coming eruption. Rumblings were heard two days before the explosion. On May 5th, 1902, fishermen who crossed the lake noticed that the water was disturbed and agitated. @@ -4570,10 +4529,10 @@ eruption caused a loss of life of about 1,350.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p> -<p>This eruption of Mt. Soufrière was accompanied by +<p>This eruption of Mt. Soufrière was accompanied by the same tornadic blast of glowing air. There was not, however, any single blast quite as severe as that which -attended the eruption of Pelée on May 8th, 1902.</p> +attended the eruption of Pelée on May 8th, 1902.</p> @@ -4691,7 +4650,7 @@ Lombock, about 200 miles east of Java.</p> <p>This eruption of Sumbawa was of the most frightful violence, and, indeed, with the exception of Krakatoa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> -and Pelée, was one of the greatest eruptions in historic +and Pelée, was one of the greatest eruptions in historic times.</p> <p>Like all great eruptions, that of Sumbawa gave plenty @@ -4797,7 +4756,7 @@ called the Plain of Malpais, that lies between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above the level of the ocean. The plain was situated in a part of Mexico that was celebrated for the growth of the finest cotton and indigo in the world. It -formed the large estate of a wealthy planter, Señor Pedro +formed the large estate of a wealthy planter, Señor Pedro de Jorullo, who lived at his ease as a wealthy planter is apt to do in tropical countries like Mexico.</p> @@ -4992,7 +4951,7 @@ the great volcano begin to be covered with vegetation, we nevertheless found the ambient air heated to such a degree by the action of the small ovens, that the thermometer at a great distance from the surface and in the -shade rose as high as 43° C." (109° 4' F.).</p></div> +shade rose as high as 43° C." (109° 4' F.).</p></div> @@ -5078,8 +5037,8 @@ the direction of the northeast trend. This, as you will see, is the direction in which the two islands of New Zealand extend. The Tongan Island chain is continued to the south through Auckland and the Macquaire Islands -to 58° S. Towards the north, in almost the same line, -are the Kermadec Islands near 30° S.</p> +to 58° S. Towards the north, in almost the same line, +are the Kermadec Islands near 30° S.</p> <p>There are several active volcanoes in New Zealand. An explosive eruption of Tarawera, in New Zealand, in @@ -5127,7 +5086,7 @@ and a lake of pure water in its old crater.</p> <p>There are only a few volcanic islands in the Indian Ocean. Kerguelen Island lies in the southern waters. -St. Paul and Amsterdam to the north, lying near 40° S. +St. Paul and Amsterdam to the north, lying near 40° S. lat., as well as the Crozet Islands, are extinct volcanoes.</p> <p>In the Arctic Ocean is the volcanic island of Jan Mayen. @@ -5177,7 +5136,7 @@ Moreover, these parts of the ocean are shaken by severe earthquake shocks.</p> <p>Another evidence of submarine volcanic eruptions is -to be found in great quantities of ashes, scoriæ, or pumice +to be found in great quantities of ashes, scoriæ, or pumice stone, that are seen spread out over the surface of the ocean after the commotions referred to in the preceding paragraph. Still another proof is that parts of the ocean @@ -5270,8 +5229,8 @@ situated partly above the equator, though for the greater part south of the equator, frequently visited by submarine eruptions, that are accompanied by earthquakes, by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> agitation of the water, by the appearance of floating -masses of ashes and scoriæ, as well as by columns of steam -or smoke. Floating masses of ashes and scoriæ sometimes +masses of ashes and scoriæ, as well as by columns of steam +or smoke. Floating masses of ashes and scoriæ sometimes occur so thick as to retard the progress of vessels.</p> <p>But what forms, perhaps, one of the best instances of @@ -5280,7 +5239,7 @@ historical times, is Bogosloff Island in Behring Sea, some forty miles west of Unalaska Island. This island, the position of which is seen on the accompanying map, is known to the Russians as Ioanna Bogoslova, or St. John -the Theologian. It is situated in lat. 53° 58' N., long. 168° +the Theologian. It is situated in lat. 53° 58' N., long. 168° west. It is said that during the year 1795, some of the natives of Unalaska Island saw what they thought was a fog in the neighborhood of a small rock, which they had @@ -5462,7 +5421,7 @@ the neighboring islands; some fifteen or twenty in the Philippines; several along the northern coasts of New Guinea; a number in New Zealand and south of Cape Horn; the volcanoes of the Deception Island with its hot -springs, and also in the South Shetlands 62° 30' S.</p> +springs, and also in the South Shetlands 62° 30' S.</p> <p>3. <i>In the Indian Ocean.</i>—On the western border of the Indian Ocean there are a few volcanoes in Madagascar; @@ -5536,7 +5495,7 @@ activity has increased through the geological past until the age that immediately preceded the appearance of man on the earth. He thinks there is no reason for believing that there were any very great volcanic eruptions during -the earliest geological time known as the Archæic. Dana +the earliest geological time known as the Archæic. Dana speaks as follows concerning this:</p> <div class="blockquot"> @@ -6070,7 +6029,7 @@ Prussia, a depth of 2,200 feet showed a temperature of ninety-one degrees Fahrenheit at the bottom. This was at the rate of one degree for every fifty feet of descent. At Schladenbach, in Prussia, a well has been dug to the -depth of 5,735 feet with a temperature of 134° F. A +depth of 5,735 feet with a temperature of 134° F. A boring at Wheeling, in West Virginia, reached a depth of 4,500 feet, 3,700 feet below the level of the sea. Here the rate of increase of temperature in the upper half was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> @@ -6139,7 +6098,7 @@ physicist, show that our earth loses every year from each square foot of surface, an amount of heat that would be able to raise the temperature of one pound of water from the melting point of ice to the boiling point of water, -or from 32° F. to 212° F. The rate of loss of heat, must, +or from 32° F. to 212° F. The rate of loss of heat, must, therefore, have been much greater when the earth was more highly heated than it is now, and will be much smaller than now many years from the present.</p> @@ -6149,7 +6108,7 @@ to be true, that the earth was originally so hot as to be a molten globe, and that while in this molten condition, it began to revolve or move around the sun. Since the empty space through which the earth moves is very -cold, something in the neighborhood of 45° below the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +cold, something in the neighborhood of 45° below the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> zero of the Fahrenheit thermometer scale, the loss of heat would take place very rapidly and a thin crust of hardened materials would be formed on the outside. @@ -6478,16 +6437,16 @@ proportion of from 55 to 66%.</p> <p>While the temperature of liquid lava has not been very accurately determined, yet, since we know that molten lava is able to melt silver or copper, its temperature -must be somewhere between 2,500° F. and 3,000° F., +must be somewhere between 2,500° F. and 3,000° F., the melting point varying with the chemical composition.</p> <p>According to Dana lavas can be divided into the following classes according to their fusibility; i. e., <i>lavas of easy fusibility</i>, such as <i>basalts</i>; these lavas fuse at about -2,250° F.; <i>lavas of medium fusibility</i>, including andesites; -these lavas fuse at about 2,520° F.; <i>lavas of difficult +2,250° F.; <i>lavas of medium fusibility</i>, including andesites; +these lavas fuse at about 2,520° F.; <i>lavas of difficult fusibility</i>, such as trachytes; these lavas fuse at about -2,700° F.</p> +2,700° F.</p> <p>But what is, perhaps, most curious about lavas is that when the surface of a freshly broken piece of cold lava @@ -6613,7 +6572,7 @@ called volcanic bombs.</p> <p>That volcanic bombs have actually been subjected to a spinning motion while in the air can sometimes be -shown by the fact that masses of scoriæ are frequently +shown by the fact that masses of scoriæ are frequently found in the interior with air cells largest at the centre of the bomb.</p> @@ -6718,32 +6677,32 @@ mass of air.</p> </div> <p>Fragments of lava that possess a cellular structure -form what are known as <i>scoriæ</i>. The lightest of all kinds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> -of scoriæ is what is known as <i>thread-lace scoriæ</i>. Here +form what are known as <i>scoriæ</i>. The lightest of all kinds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +of scoriæ is what is known as <i>thread-lace scoriæ</i>. Here the thin walls consist of mere threads. <a href="#fig_26">Figs. 26</a> and <a href="#fig_27">27</a> -represent the appearance of thread-lace scoriæ from +represent the appearance of thread-lace scoriæ from Kilauea. The separate threads are very fine, being only from one-thirtieth to one-fortieth of an inch in thickness. As can be -seen, this form of scoriæ +seen, this form of scoriæ have six-sided or hexagonal shapes. You can form some idea of the great lightness of such -scoriæ when you learn +scoriæ when you learn that they contain only 1.7% of rocky material. Indeed, they contain so little solid material that a layer of volcanic glass -only one inch thick, if blown out into scoriæ, would be +only one inch thick, if blown out into scoriæ, would be able to produce a layer sixty inches thick.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> <a id="fig_26"></a> -<img src="images/i_207.png" width="300" height="278" alt="Fig. 26. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span><br /> +<img src="images/i_207.png" width="300" height="278" alt="Fig. 26. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span><br /> <small><i>From Dana's Manual of Geology</i></small> </div> </div> @@ -6765,8 +6724,8 @@ if its true cause is explained.</p> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> <a id="fig_27"></a> -<img src="images/i_207b.png" width="300" height="296" alt="Fig. 27. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span><br /> +<img src="images/i_207b.png" width="300" height="296" alt="Fig. 27. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27. Thread-lace Scoriæ from Kilauea</span><br /> <small><i>From Dana's Manual of Geology</i></small> </div> </div> @@ -7305,20 +7264,20 @@ would boil, taking into account both the pressure of the atmosphere and the pressure of the superincumbent column of water. The nearest approach to the boiling point is at A, a height of 30 feet from the bottom; but even -here the water is 2° C., or more than 3-1/2° F., below the +here the water is 2° C., or more than 3-1/2° F., below the temperature at which it could boil. How then is it possible that an eruption could occur under such circumstances?</p> <p>"Fix your attention upon the water at the point A, -where the temperature is within 2° C. of the boiling point. +where the temperature is within 2° C. of the boiling point. Call to mind the lifting of the column when the detonations are heard. Let us suppose that by the entrance of steam from the ducts near the bottom of the tube, the geyser column is elevated six feet, a height quite within the limits of actual observation; the water at A is thereby -transferred to B. Its boiling point at A is 123.8°, and its -actual temperature 121.8°; but at B its boiling point is -only 120.8°, hence, when transferred from A to B the heat +transferred to B. Its boiling point at A is 123.8°, and its +actual temperature 121.8°; but at B its boiling point is +only 120.8°, hence, when transferred from A to B the heat which it possesses is in excess of that necessary to make it boil. This excess of heat is instantly applied to the generation of steam: the column is thus lifted higher, @@ -7373,16 +7332,16 @@ situated principally around Fire-Hole Fork of the Madison, and near Shoshone Lake at the head of Lake Fork of the Snake River. There are many geysers in this region, as well as simple hot springs. The temperature of their -waters varies from between 160° and 200° F. to the +waters varies from between 160° and 200° F. to the boiling point of water at this elevation. As you are -probably aware, water boils at the temperature of 212° F. +probably aware, water boils at the temperature of 212° F. only under the condition of the ordinary atmospheric pressure that exists at the level of the sea. At higher elevations, such as on the slopes of mountains, or on high plateaus, water boils at a lower temperature. The height of the country in which the Yellowstone Park is situated is so great that the water boils at temperatures of from -198° to 199° F.</p> +198° to 199° F.</p> <p>The conical hillock of geyser cones from which the waters flow assume various shapes, two of which are @@ -8055,7 +8014,7 @@ caverns and are carried on with a whirling motion, and when their force, afterwards stirred and lashed into fury, bursts abroad and at the same moment cleaves the deep earth and opens up a great yawning chasm. This fell -out in Syrian Sidon and took place at Ægium in the Peloponnese, +out in Syrian Sidon and took place at Ægium in the Peloponnese, two towns which an outbreak of wind of this sort and the ensuing earthquake threw down. And many walled places besides fell down by great commotions on @@ -8851,7 +8810,7 @@ at the island of Sicily. This part of the Mediterranean Sea has for very many years been the arena or storm centre of more or less intense volcanic activity. To the northwest is the active volcano of Vesuvius, as well as -the volcanic regions of the Phlegræan Fields. Immediately +the volcanic regions of the Phlegræan Fields. Immediately opposite the point of Italy, near the toe of the foot, is the active volcanic mountain, Etna, while not far from this point is the volcano of Stromboli.</p> @@ -10097,7 +10056,7 @@ several craters are still visible. On the western banks of the Jordan numerous dikes and streaks of basalt occur in the limestone that covers parts of the region. Besides there are thermal springs whose waters are at a temperature, -according to Daubeny, of 114° F. Then, too, in the +according to Daubeny, of 114° F. Then, too, in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, as well as in the neighborhood of the adjoining mountain ranges, there are quantities of sulphur and asphaltum or bitumen, while on @@ -10333,7 +10292,7 @@ some neighboring volcano first overwhelmed these places; and that its eruption was followed by a depression of the whole of the region, from some point apparently intermediate between the lake of Tiberius and the mountains of -Lebanon, to the watershed in the parallel of 30°, which +Lebanon, to the watershed in the parallel of 30°, which occurs in the valley of El Arabah above-mentioned. I would thence infer that the waters of the Jordan, pent-up within the valley by a range of mountains to the east and @@ -10694,7 +10653,7 @@ in this region, both of which were, doubtless, due to submarine eruptions.</p> <p>On the 25th of January, 1859, as the ship <i>Florence</i> was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> -in lat. 0° 48' N., long. 29° 16' W., about ten miles N. W. +in lat. 0° 48' N., long. 29° 16' W., about ten miles N. W. by N. from St. Paul's Rock, the people on board felt a sudden shock that began with a rumbling sound like distant thunder. This lasted only forty seconds. The glass @@ -10759,7 +10718,7 @@ these, as shown by Rudolph's researches, are:</p> <p>The region already referred to in the narrowest parts of the Atlantic Ocean between Africa and South America almost immediately under the equator. Here there are -two well marked regions. One is in lat. 1° N., long. 30° W., +two well marked regions. One is in lat. 1° N., long. 30° W., where there is a submarine ridge, the tops of which form what are known as St. Paul's Rock. The ocean here is very deep, the slopes of the ridge descending rapidly. @@ -10767,7 +10726,7 @@ It is on these slopes that earthquakes are very apt to occur just as they do on the steep slopes of mountain ranges. The other region, called by Rudolph the <i>Equatorial District</i>, lies a little further to the east on both sides of the -equator in long. 20° W.</p> +equator in long. 20° W.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p> @@ -10793,7 +10752,7 @@ which the Lisbon earthquake is believed to have started.</p> <p>Another region where seaquakes are common is in the Pacific along the coast of South America from the -equator to 45° S. lat. "Here," says Dutton, "especially +equator to 45° S. lat. "Here," says Dutton, "especially in the vicinity of the angle where the Peruvian and Chilian coasts meet have they been most numerous and formidable. The harbors of Pisco, Arica, Tacua, Iquiqui, @@ -11833,7 +11792,7 @@ flow between two carbon rods that are first brought into contact, and then gradually separated from each other, just as they are in the ordinary arc lights employed for lighting the streets of our cities. In the latter way a -temperature that is estimated as high as 3,500° C. (6,332° F.),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> +temperature that is estimated as high as 3,500° C. (6,332° F.),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> can be readily obtained. Under these very high temperatures some very curious chemical products have been obtained in electric furnaces. These furnaces consist @@ -12000,7 +11959,7 @@ Little signs, meaningless to others, are easily read, and these prove beyond doubt the gradual sinking of the ocean's bed.</p> -<p>It was once believed that the coral polyps or animalculæ +<p>It was once believed that the coral polyps or animalculæ from the hard, bony skeletons of which coral reefs are formed, could live at the greatest depths of the ocean. These minute animals were, therefore, generally credited @@ -12015,7 +11974,7 @@ It had long been known that pieces of coral rock were brought up by dredging apparatus from the bottom of the ocean at all depths, but it was eventually shown that such pieces of coral rock never contained living -animalculæ, when brought from water at greater depths +animalculæ, when brought from water at greater depths than from 100 to 120 feet.</p> <p>It puzzled scientific men no little at first to explain this @@ -12035,7 +11994,7 @@ written in the clearest language.</p> <p>But there are other instances of gradual changes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> level besides the bed of the Pacific. About 600 miles along the coast of Greenland, from Disco Bay, near lat. -69° N., south to the Firth of Igaliko, lat. 60° 43' N., the +69° N., south to the Firth of Igaliko, lat. 60° 43' N., the bed of the ocean has been slowly sinking through 400 years. Old buildings and islands have been covered by the waters, so that fishermen have been compelled to provide @@ -12171,12 +12130,12 @@ beneath the sea. And that is the reason why the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is such a quantity of shallow mud in the way; and this was caused by the subsidence of the island." ("Plato's Dialogues," -ii, 517, Timæus).</p></div> +ii, 517, Timæus).</p></div> <p>But besides Solon and Plato there are other ancient writers who refer to the lost island of Atlantis.</p> -<p>Ælian, in his "Varia Historia," lib. iii, chap. xvii, states +<p>Ælian, in his "Varia Historia," lib. iii, chap. xvii, states that Theopompos, who flourished 400 <span class="smcap">b. c.</span>, refers to an interview between Midas, King of Phrygia, and Sielus, in which the latter speaks of a great continent larger than @@ -12378,7 +12337,7 @@ reason of this: there have been, and there will be again, many destructions of mankind arising out of many causes.</p> <p>"'There is a story which even you have preserved, that -once upon a time Phaëthon, the son of Helios, having +once upon a time Phaëthon, the son of Helios, having yoked the steeds in his father's chariot, because he was not able to drive them in the path of his father, burnt up all that was upon the earth, and was himself destroyed @@ -12427,7 +12386,7 @@ this was unknown to you, because for many generations the survivors of that destruction died and made no sign. For there was a time, Solon, before that great deluge of all, when the city which now is Athens, was first in -war, and was preëminent for the excellence of her laws, +war, and was preëminent for the excellence of her laws, and is said to have performed the noblest deeds, and to have had the fairest constitution of any of which tradition tells, under the face of heaven.'</p> @@ -12441,7 +12400,7 @@ Solon,' said the priest, 'both for your own sake and for that of the city; and, above all, for the sake of the goddess who is the common patron and protector and educator of both our cities. She founded your city a thousand -years before ours, receiving from the Earth and Hephæstus +years before ours, receiving from the Earth and Hephæstus the seed of your race, and then she founded ours, the constitution of which is set down in our sacred registers as 8,000 years old. As touching the citizens of 9,000 years @@ -12528,7 +12487,7 @@ And that is the reason why the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is such a quantity of shallow mud in the way; and this was caused by the subsidence of the island.' ('Plato's Dialogues,' ii, -517, Timæus.)...</p> +517, Timæus.)...</p> <p>"But in addition to the gods whom you have mentioned, I would specially invoke Mnemosyne; for all the important @@ -12642,7 +12601,7 @@ in that part of the world, he gave the name which in the Hellenic language is Eumelus, in the language of the country which is named after him, Gadeirus. Of the second pair of twins, he called one Ampheres and the other -Evæmon. To the third pair of twins he gave the name +Evæmon. To the third pair of twins he gave the name Mneseus to the elder, and Autochthon to the one who followed him. Of the fourth pair of twins he called the elder Elasippus and the younger Mestor. And of the fifth @@ -13305,16 +13264,16 @@ Page 76: Changed "Ena" to "Etna."<br /> Page 115: "eruption during the winter of 1841-43," could be a typo for 1841-42 or 1842-43.<br /><br /> -Page 122: "Mont Pelée" could be a typo for "Mount Pelée."<br /><br /> +Page 122: "Mont Pelée" could be a typo for "Mount Pelée."<br /><br /> -Page 136: 43° C." (109° 4' F.). could be a typo for (109.4° F.).<br /><br /> +Page 136: 43° C." (109° 4' F.). could be a typo for (109.4° F.).<br /><br /> Page 341: Changed one-eight to one-eighth.<br /> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Orig: It was equal to one-eight of a Roman mile)</span><br /><br /> Retained the following spelling variations:<br /><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Page 49: The largest volcano in Iceland, the Dyngjufköll,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Page 49: The largest volcano in Iceland, the Dyngjufköll,</span><br /> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Page 57: The largest volcano in Iceland is Dyngjufjoll.</span><br /><br /> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pages 52, 193, 311: Geikie</span><br /> @@ -13327,385 +13286,6 @@ Retained the following spelling variations:<br /><br /> <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Page 76: Lucullus</span><br /> </p> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wonder Book of Volcanoes and -Earthquakes, by Edwin J. 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