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diff --git a/43319-8.txt b/43319-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6093590..0000000 --- a/43319-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12857 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Churches and Church Ornaments, by William Durandus - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Churches and Church Ornaments - Rationale Divinorum Officiorum - -Author: William Durandus - -Commentator: Rev. John Mason Neale - Rev. Benjamin Webb - -Release Date: July 27, 2013 [EBook #43319] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHURCHES AND CHURCH ORNAMENTS *** - - - - -Produced by Don Kostuch, from scans obtained from Internet Archive. - - - - - -[Transcriber's notes:] - - This work is derived from files on the Internet Archive: - http://archive.org/details/symbolismofchurc00dura - - Page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed in curly - braces, e.g. {99}. They have been located where page breaks occurred - in the original book. - - The honorific "Mr" is without a following period in the original. - The period has been inserted in this transcription. - -[End Transcriber's notes.] - - -THE SYMBOLISM - -OF - -_Churches and Church Ornaments_ - - - -A TRANSLATION OF THE FIRST BOOK OF THE - - - -_Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ - - - -WRITTEN BY - -WILLIAM DURANDUS - -SOMETIME BISHOP OF MENDE - - -_WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY AND NOTES_ - -BY - -THE REV. JOHN MASON NEALE, B.A. - -AND - -THE REV. BENJAMIN WEBB, B.A. - -OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE - - -_New York_ - -CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - -743 AND 745 BROADWAY - -1893 - - - -DEDICATED TO - -THE CAMBRIDGE CAMDEN SOCIETY - - -BY - - -TWO OF ITS FOUNDERS - -{vii} - -PREFACE - -The interest which has lately been displayed, as on all subjects -connected with Ecclesiology, so more especially on the symbolical -bearing of Church Architecture, has led us to imagine that a -translation of the most valuable work on Symbolism which the middle -ages can furnish, might not, at the present time, be unacceptable to -churchmen. - -Written, however, at a period when Christian Architecture had not -attained its full glory, it necessarily leaves untouched many -arrangements of similar tendency, subsequently adopted; addressed to -those who had not yet learnt to doubt everything not formally proved, -it assumes many points which may now seem to require confirmation: and -composed for the use of a clergy habituated to a most figurative -ritual, it passes over much as well known, which is now forgotten or -neglected. On these accounts we have considered it necessary to prefix -an Essay on the subject; in which we have endeavoured to prove that -Catholic Architecture must necessarily be symbolical; to answer the -more common objections to the system; and to elucidate it by reference -to actual examples, and notices of the figurative arrangements of our -own churches. We have also added notes, where any obscurity seemed -{viii} to require explanation; and we have, both in them and in the -Appendix, thrown together such passages from Martene, Beleth, S. -Isidore of Seville, Hugo de S. Victore, and other writers, as tended -to explain and to enforce the remarks of Durandus. - -With reference to the author himself, but little is known; and that -little has been told before. - -William Durandus was born at Puy-moisson, in Provence, about the year -1220. A legend of his native country is told in the present work. -[Footnote 1] He became the pupil of Henry de Luza, afterwards Cardinal -of Ostia; and taught canon law at Modena. On this subject he composed -a most learned work, the _Speculum Juris_; from which he obtained the -title of _Speculator_: as also another treatise called _Repertorium -Juris_: and a _Breviarium Glossarum in Textum Juris Canonici_. His -high attainments marked him [Footnote 2] out for the office of -Chaplain to Pope Clement IV. - - [Footnote 1: See p. 126] - - [Footnote 2: _Mutata fortuna_, says Doard: to what this refers, we - know not.] - -He was afterwards Auditor of the Sacred Palace; and Legate to Pope -Gregory X at the Council of Lyons. He was then made Captain of the -Papal forces; in which post he assisted at the reduction of several -rebellious cities, and behaved with great courage. He finally became -Bishop of Mende in 1286. While in this post, and resident at Rome (for -he did not personally visit his diocese till 1291, the administration -of the diocese being perhaps left to a nephew of the same name, who -succeeded him), he finished the work, of the first book of which a -translation is presented to the reader. But it probably {ix} was -commenced before; for we find from a passage in its latter half, that -so far had been written during the course of this same year 1286. And -there is no difficulty in the title, _Episcopus Miniatensis_, which he -gives himself in the Proeme, as this could easily have been added -afterwards. But it was certainly published, as Martene observes, -before 1295; because Durandus speaks of the Feasts of the Holy -Apostles as _semi-doubles_, whereas in that year, by a constitution of -Pope Urban, they were commanded to be observed as doubles. The time at -which the treatise was written more especially demands our attention; -because, did we imagine it only a few years later than it really was, -we might well be astonished at finding no reference to the Symbolism -of the Decorated Style. The interruptions amidst which the _Rationale_ -was written are feelingly alluded to by its author, in the Epilogue -(p. 161). He also wrote a treatise _De Modo Concilii Generalis -habendi,_ probably either suggested by, or preparatory to, that of -Lyons. He afterwards went on an embassy from the Pope to the Sultan; -and is by some said to have ended this life at Nicosia in Cyprus. But -the fact is not so: for having governed his diocese ten years, and -having refused the proffered Archbishopric of Ravenna, he departed at -Rome on the Feast of All Saints, 1296, being buried in the Church of -Sancta Maria super Minervam, where his monument is yet to be seen, -with the following inscription:-- - -{x} - - Hic jacet egregius doctor proesul Mimatensis, - Nomine Duranti Guillelmus regula morum: - Splendor honestatis et casti candor amoris - Altum consiliis spatiosum mente serenum - Hunc insignibat immotum turbine mentis. - Mente pius, sermone gravis, gressuque modestus, - Extitit infestus super hostes more leonis: - Indomitos domuit populos, ferroque rebelles, - Impulit, Ecclesiae victor servire coëgit. - Comprobat officiis, paruit Romania sceptro - Belligeri comitis Martini tempore quarti: - Edidit in Jure librum, quo jus reperitur: - Et Speculum Juris, et patrum Pontificale: - Et Rationale Divinorum patefecit: - Instruxit clerum scriptis, monuitque statutis: - Gregorii deni, Nicolai scita perenni - Glossa diffudit populis, sensusque profundos: - Jure dedit mentes et corpus luce studentum: - Quem memori laude genuit Provincia dignum: - Et dedit a Podio Missone diaecesis ilium: - Inde Biterrensis, praesignis curia Papae: - Dum foret ecclesiae Mimatensis sede quietus, - Hunc vocat octavus Bonifacius; altius ilium - Promovet; hic renuit Ravennae praesul haberi. - Fit comes invictus simul hinc et marchio tandem, - Et Romam rediit: Domini sub mille trecentis - (Quatuor amotis) annis: tumulante Minerva. - Surripit hunc festiva dies, & prima Novembris. - Guadia cum Sanctis tenet Omnibus inde sacerdos: - Pro quo perpetuo datur haec celebrare capella. - - -The _Rationale_ was the first work, from the pen of an uninspired -writer, ever printed. The _editio princeps_ appeared at the press of -Fust in 1459; being preceded only by the Psalters of 1457 and 1459. It -is, of course, of the most extreme rarity: the beauty of the -typography has seldom been exceeded. Chalmers mentions, besides this, -thirteen editions in the fifteenth, and thirteen in the sixteenth -century: all of them are very rare. - -{xi} - -The editions with which we are acquainted, are those of Rome 1473; -Lyons 1503, 1512, 1534, 1584; Antwerp 1570; Venice 1599, 1609. The -translation has been made from the editions of 1473 and 1599. The -former is a magnificent specimen of typography: the words are -excessively contracted; and there are double columns to each page. Our -copy is partially illuminated; and the binding is ornamented with a -border of the Evangelistic Symbols. The latter contains also the first -edition of the work of Beleth, and is a reprint of Doard's Lyons -edition of 1565. Doard dedicated it to his brother, Bishop of -Marseilles; and prefixed a Preface, in which he bestows a well-merited -eulogium on Durandus, and mentions the care taken in correcting and -revising the work. He also added some notes, of little worth. The -Venice reprint is so vicious a specimen of typography, that from it -alone the sense could in many places hardly be explained. Our copy -belonged to Bishop White Kennett, who appears to have studied it -diligently. - -We must now say a few words as on our own share in the work. With -respect to the Introduction, fully convinced as we are of the truth -and importance of the general principle maintained in it, we do not -wish to press, as matter of certainty, all or any of the minor details -into which that theory is carried. We believe, indeed, that the more -the subject has been studied, the more truthful our views will appear -to be: but we wish the reader to bear in mind, that the weakness of -any portion of them is no argument against their reception, as a -whole. At the same time, none can be more aware than ourselves how -much more ably such views might have been advocated: we have not, -however, spared {xii} time or pains in the study of the subject; 'and -if we have done meanly, it is that we could attain unto.' - -In the Translation, we have endeavoured, too often unsuccessfully, to -retain the beautiful simplicity of the original. In the obscure -passages, of which there are not a few, we have mentioned the -difficulty in the notes, lest the reader, by our mistake, should be -led into error himself. - -The quotations from Holy Scripture are given in the authorised -version, except where, to bring out the author's full meaning, it was -necessary to have recourse to the Vulgate; and we have then translated -literally from that. - -We have felt no small pleasure in thus enabling this excellent -prelate, though at so far distant a land from his own, and after a -silence of nearly six hundred years, being dead, yet to speak: and if -the following pages are at all useful in pointing out the sacramental -character of Catholic art, we shall be abundantly rewarded, as being -fellow-workers with him in the setting forth of one, now too much -forgotten, Church principle. - - J. M. N. - B. W. - -_Michaelmas_, 1842. - - - -INTRODUCTORY ESSAY - ----- - -SACRAMENTALITY: A PRINCIPLE OF -ECCLESIASTICAL DESIGN - - - -ANALYSIS OF THE INTRODUCTORY ESSAY - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - 1. Spread of the study of Church Architecture. - - 2. Obvious, but indefinable, difference between old and new churches. - Wherein this consists. - Not in association, - Nor in correctness of details, - Nor in the Picturesque, - Nor in the Mechanical advantages, - But in Reality considered, in an enlarged view, as Sacramentality. - - 3. This probable, - from examples, and - promises in Holy Scripture. - Catholic consent, - examples to the contrary, - philosophical reasons. - - 4. Enunciation of the subject. - - 5. Writers on the subject, - Pugin, Poole, Lewis, Coddington, the writers of the - Cambridge Camden Society. - - -A. ARGUMENTS FOR SYMBOLISM. - - I. A PRIORI. - - Symbolising spirit of Catholic Antiquity, in - (a) Interpretation of Holy Scriptures. - (b) Analogy of the Jewish Ceremonies. - (c) Private manners. - (d) Emblems in Catacombs, etc. - (e) Symbolical interpretation of Heathen writers. - - II. ANALOGICAL. - i. Examples of other nations. - (a) Jews. - (1) Temple rites. - (2) Legal observances. - (3) Sacred books. - - (b) Turks. - - (c) Infidels. - (1) Hindu and Egyptian Mythology - (2) Persian Poetry. - - (d) Heretics. - -{xvi} - - ii. From Nature. - (a) Trinity. - (b) Resurrection. - (c) Self-sacrifice, - - iii. From Art. - (a) Sculpture, - (b) Painting. - (c) Music. - (d) Language of Flowers. - - iv. Parabolical teaching. - - - III. PHILOSOPHICAL. - - Objective answering to Subjective. - All effect sacramental of the efficient. - Sacramentality of all Religion. - Ritualism peculiarly and necessarily sacramental. - Church Architecture, a condition of Ritualism. - Necessities induce accidents: and these material expressions. - Example: - Necessities of Ritualism, and their expressions in earlier - and later ages. - Hence Symbolism. - Essential. - Intended. - Conventional, which again becomes intended. - - - IV. ANALYTICAL. - 1. Cruciformity. - 2. Ascent to Altar. - 3. Orientation. - 4. Verticality. - - V. INDUCTIVE. - Express and continuous testimony. - (a) Apostolical Constitutions. - (b) Eusebius. - (c) Symbolical writers. - Actual examples. - - VI. RECAPITULATION. - - - B. EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM. - I. DOCTRINES. - (a) The Holy Trinity, set forth in - i. Nave and Two Aisles. - ii. Chancel, Nave and Apse, - iii. Clerestory, Triforium, and Pier Arches, - iv. Triple windows. - v. Altar steps. - vi. Triplicity of mouldings, - vii. Minor details. - - (b) Regeneration. - i. The octagonal form of Fonts, - ii. The octagonal form of Piers, - iii. Fishes. - (c) Atonement. - i. Cruciformity. - ii. Deviation of Orientation. - iii. Double Cross, - iv. The threat Rood. - v. Details. - - (d) Communion of Saints. - - II. DETAILS. - (a) Windows: a series of examples. - (b) Doors. - i. Norman tympana. - ii. Double doors in Early English. - (a) These explained in two ways, - (1) Christ's entrance into the world. - (2) Our entrance into the kingdom of heaven. - (b) Difference between mouldings of Chancel arches and doors. - (c) Porches. - (d) Chancel Arch and Rood Screen. - (e) Monuments. - (a) Difference of ancient and modern symbolism in these, - (1) Sceptical character of the present age. - (2) Paganism of modern design. - (3) Reality of ancient design. - (b) Historical details of Monuments. - (f) Gurgoyles and Poppyheads. - (g) Flowers used in architecture. - - C. OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. - 1. Inequality of type and antitype. - 2. Difference of Symbolism in the same arrangement. - 3. Mechanical origin. - - D. HISTORY OF SYMBOLISM. - 1. Norman; as symbolising facts. - 2. Early English; as symbolising doctrines. - 3. Decorated; as symbolising the connection of doctrines. - 4. Perpendicular; as symbolising the progress of Erastianism. - 5. Flamboyant, etc. - 6. Post Reformation Symbolism. - - E. CONCLUSION. - Contrast between a modern and ancient Church. - - - -_Laus Deo_ - - -{xix} - -INTRODUCTORY ESSAY - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTORY - - -The study of Church Architecture has within the last few years become -so general, and a love for it so widely diffused, that whereas, in a -former generation it was a task to excite either, in the present it is -rather an object to direct both. An age of church-building, such as -this, ought to produce good architects, not only from the great -encouragement given to their professional efforts, but from the -increasing appreciation of the principles and powers of their art. And -yet it cannot be denied, however we may account for the fact, that (at -least among those for whom we write, the members of our own -communion), no architect has as yet arisen, who appears destined to be -the reviver of Christian art. It is not that the rules of the science -have not been studied, that the examples bequeathed to us have not -been imitated, that the details are not understood. We have (though -they are but few) modern buildings of the most perfect proportions, of -the most faultless details, and reared with lavish expense. It is that -there is an undefined--perhaps almost undefinable--difference between -a true 'old church,' and the most perfect of modern temples. In the -former, at least till late in the Perpendicular era, we feel that, -however {xx} strange the proportions, or extraordinary the details, -the effect is church-like. In the latter, we may not be able to blame; -but from a certain feeling of unsatisfactoriness, we cannot praise. - -The solution of the problem,--What is it that causes this difference? -has been often attempted, sometimes with partial, but never with -complete, success. That most commonly given is the following:--The -effect of association in old buildings,--the mellowing power of -time,--the evident antiquity of surrounding objects,--the natural -beauties of foliage, moss, and ivy, that require centuries to reach -perfection;--as on the other hand, the bareness, the newness, nay even -the sharpness and vigour of new work; these, it is said, are -sufficient to stamp a different character on each. There is doubtless -something in this; but that it is not the whole cause is evident from -the fact, that give a modern church all the above mentioned advantages -on paper, and an experienced eye will soon detect it to be modern. - -Those writers who, as Grose, Milner, and Carter, lived before the -details of Christian art were understood, seem to have placed its -perfection in a thorough knowledge of these: experience has proved -them wrong. Others, as Mr. Petit, [Footnote 3] have made a kind of -ideal picturesque; and, having exalted the phantasm into an idol, have -fallen down and worshipped it. Others, again, have sought for an -explanation of the difficulty in mathematical contrivance and -mechanical ingenuity; and the result has been little more than the -discovery of curious eave-drains, and wonderful cast-iron roof-work. -Lastly, Mr. Pugin (_cum talis sis, utinain noster esses!_) has placed -the thing required in _Reality_. {xxi} That is, to quote his own -words, in making these the two great rules of design:-- -1. That there should be no features about a building which are not -necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety: -2. That all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential -construction of a building.' [Footnote 4] And we may add, as a -corollary, still quoting the same writer:--'The smallest detail should -have a meaning or serve a purpose: the construction itself should vary -with the material employed: and the designs should be adapted to the -material in which they are to be executed.' Still, most true and most -important as are these remarks, we must insist on one more axiom, -otherwise Christian art will but mock us, and not show us wherein its -great strength lieth. - - [Footnote 3: See the review of his work in the _Ecclesiologist_, - vol. i, pp. 91-105.] - - [Footnote 4: Pugin's 'True Principles,' p. 1.] - -A Catholic architect must be a Catholic in heart. Simple knowledge -will no more enable a man to build up God's material, than His -spiritual temples. In ancient times, the finest buildings were -designed by the holiest bishops. Wykeham and Poore will occur to every -churchman. And we have every reason to believe, from God's Word, from -Catholic consent, and even from philosophical principles, that such -must always be the case. - -Holy Scripture, in mentioning the selection of Bezaleel and Aholiab, -as architects of the Tabernacle, expressly asserts them to have been -filled 'with the Spirit of God in wisdom, and in understanding, and in -knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship, to devise cunning works, -to work in gold, and in silver and in brass, and in cutting of stones -to set them, and in carving of timber, to work in all manner of -workmanship.' And this indeed is only a part of the blessing of the -pure in heart: they see God, the Fountain of Beauty, even in this -life; as they shall see Him, the Fountain of Holiness, in the {xxii} -next. From Catholic consent we may learn the same truth. Why else was -Ecclesiastical Architecture made a part of the profession of Clerks, -than because it was considered that the purity and holiness of that -profession fitted them best for so great a work? [Footnote 5] - - [Footnote 5: Compare the general drift of the Address to Paulinus. - _Eusebius_. H. E. X. 4.] - -Nay, we have remarkable proofs that feeling without knowledge will do -more than knowledge without feeling. There are instances of -buildings--Lisbon cathedral and S. Peter's College chapel, Cambridge, -are cases in point--which, with Debased or Italian details, have -nevertheless Christian effect. And we have several similar cases, more -particularly in the way of towers. - -Now, allowing the respectability, which attaches itself to the -profession of a modern architect, and the high character of many in -that profession, none would assert that they, as a body, make it a -matter of devotion and prayer; that they work for the Church alone -regardless of themselves; that they build in faith, and to the glory -of God. - -In truth, architecture has become too much a profession: it is made -the means of gaining a livelihood, and is viewed as a path to -honourable distinction, instead of being the study of the devout -ecclesiastic, who matures his noble conceptions with the advantage of -that profound meditation only attainable in the contemplative life, -who, without thought of recompense or fame, has no end in view but the -raising a temple, worthy of its high end, and emblematical of the -faith which is to be maintained within its walls. It is clear that -modern architects are in a very different position from their -predecessors, with respect to these advantages. We are not prepared to -say that none but monks ought to design churches, or that it is -impossible for a professional {xxiii} architect to build with the -devotion and faith of an earlier time. But we do protest against the -merely business-like spirit of the modern profession, and demand from -them a more elevated and directly religious habit of mind. We surely -ought to look at least for church-membership from one who ventures to -design a church. There cannot be a more painful idea than that a -separatist should be allowed to build a House of God, when he himself -knows nothing of the ritual and worship of the Church from which he -has strayed; to prepare both font and altar, when perchance he knows -nothing of either Sacrament but that he has always despised them. Or, -again, to think that any churchman should allow himself to build a -conventicle, and even sometimes to prostitute the speaking -architecture of the Church to the service of Her bitterest enemies! -What idea can such a person have formed of the reality of church -architecture? Conceive a churchman designing a triple window, admitted -emblem of the Most Holy Trinity, for a congregation of Socinians! We -wish to vindicate the dignity of this noble science against the -treason of its own professors. If architecture is anything more than a -mere trade; if it is indeed a liberal, intellectual art, a true branch -of poesy, let us prize its reality and meaning and truthfulness, and -at least not expose ourselves by giving to two contraries one and the -same material expression. - -It is objected that architects have a right to the same professional -conscience that is claimed, for instance, by a barrister. To which we -can only reply, that it must be a strange morality which will justify -a pleader in violating truth; and how much worse for an architect to -violate truth in things immediately connected with the House and -worship of God? It may be asked, Do we mean to imply then that a -church architect ought never {xxiv} to undertake any secular building? -Perhaps, as things are, we cannot expect so much as this now: but we -can never believe that the man who engages to design union-houses, or -prisons, or assembly-rooms, and gives the dregs of his time to -church-building, is likely to produce a good church, or, in short, can -expect to be filled from above with the Spirit of Wisdom. The church -architect must, we are persuaded, make very great sacrifices: he must -forego all lucrative undertakings, if they may not be carried through -upon those principles which he believes necessary for every good -building; and particularly if the end to be answered, or the wants to -be provided for, are in themselves unjustifiable or mischievous. Even -in church-building itself, he must see many an unworthy rival -preferred to him, who will condescend to pander to the whims and -comfort of a church-committee, will suit his design to any standard of -ritualism which may be suggested by his own ignorance, or others' -private judgment, who will consent to defile a building meant for -God's worship with pews and galleries and prayer-pulpits and -commodious vestries. But hard as the trial may be, a church architect -must submit to it, rather than recede from the principles which he -knows to be the very foundation of his art. We would go further even, -and deny the possibility of any architect's success in all the -different styles of Pointed architecture, not to mention the orders of -Greece and Rome, Vitruvian, Palladian, Cinque Cento, Wrennian, nay -even Chinese, Swiss, Hindoo, and Egyptian at once. We have not even -now exhausted the list of styles in which a modern architect is -supposed to be able to design. It is even more absurd than if every -modern painter were expected, and should profess, to paint equally -well in the styles of Perugino, Francia, Raphael, Holbein, Claude, the -Poussins, Salvator Rosa, Correggio, Van Eyck, {xxv} Teniers, Rubens, -Murillo, Reynolds, West, Gainsborough, Overbeck, and Copley Fielding -all at once! An architect ought indeed to be acquainted, and the more -the better, with all styles of building: but if architecture, as we -said before, is a branch of poesy, if the poet's mind is to have any -individuality, he must design in one style, and one style only. For -the Anglican architect, it will be necessary to know enough of the -earlier styles to be able to restore the deeply interesting churches, -which they have left us as precious heirlooms; enough of the Debased -styles, to take warning from their decline: but for his own style, he -should choose the glorious architecture of the fourteenth century; -and, just as no man has more than one hand-writing, so in this one -language alone will he express his architectural ideas. - -We cannot leave this topic without referring to what the Cambridge -Camden Society has said with respect to architectural competition. -[Footnote 6] _It is a fact_ that at this time many competing designs -are manufactured in an architect's office, by some of his clerks, as -if by machinery: if a given plan is chosen, the architect is summoned, -and sees _his_ (!) design for the first time, when he is introduced to -the smiling committee-men. It is another fact that there is at this -time in London a small body of persons, with no other qualification -than that of having been draughtsmen in an architect's office, who -_get up_ a set of competing designs for any aspirant who chooses to -give them a few instructions, and to pay them for their trouble. How -much it is to be wished that there were some examination of an -architect's qualifications, before he should be allowed to assume the -name! It seems strange that the more able members of the profession do -not themselves feel some _esprit de corps_, and do not at {xxvi} least -endeavour to claim for their art its full dignity and importance. We -fear however that very few, as yet, take that _religions_ view of -their profession, which we have shown to be seemly, even if not -essential. If, however, we succeed in proving that religion enters -very largely into the principles of church architecture, a religious -_ethos_, we repeat, is _essential_ to a church architect. At all -events, in an investigation into the differences between ancient and -modern church architecture, the contrast between the ancient and -modern builders could not be overlooked: and it is not too much to -hope that some, at least, may be struck by the fact, that the deeply -religious habits of the builders of old, the hours, the cloister, the -discipline, the obedience, resulted in their matchless works; while -the worldliness, vanity, dissipation, and patronage of our own -architects issue in unvarying and hopeless failure. - - [Footnote 6: See _Ecclesiologist_, vol. i, pp. 69, 85.] - -We said that there were philosophical reasons for the belief that we -must have architects--before we can have buildings--like those of old. -If it be true that an esoteric signification, or, as we shall call it, -_Sacramentality_, [Footnote 7] ran through all the arrangements and -details of Christian architecture, emblematical of Christian -discipline, and suggested by Christian devotion; then must the -discipline have been practised, and the devotion felt, before a -Christian temple can be reared. That this esoteric meaning, or -symbolism, does exist, we are now to endeavour to prove. - - [Footnote 7: It may be proper to distinguish between five terms, too - generally vaguely employed in common, and which we shall often have - occasion to use: we mean, _allegorical, symbolical, typical, - figurative_, and _sacramental_. - - 'Allegory employs fictitious things and personages to shadow out the - truth: Symbolism uses real personages and real actions (and real - things) as symbols of the truth:' _British Critic_, No. lxv. p. 121. - Sacramentality is symbolism applied to the truth [Greek text], the - teaching of the Church, by the hands of the teacher: a Type is a - symbol intended from the first: a Figure is a symbol not discovered - till after the thing figurative has had a being.] - -{xxvii} - -We assert, then, that _Sacramentality_ is that characteristic which so -strikingly distinguishes ancient ecclesiastical architecture from our -own. By this word we mean to convey the idea that, by the outward and -visible form, is signified something inward and spiritual: that the -material fabric symbolises, embodies, figures, represents, expresses, -answers to, some abstract meaning. Consequently, unless this ideal be -itself true, or be rightly understood, he who seeks to build a -Christian church may embody a false or incomplete or mistaken ideal, -but will not develope the true one. Hence, while the Parthenon, or a -conventicle, or a modern church, may be conceived to have, on the one -hand, so much _truthfulness_, as to symbolise respectively the -graceful, but pagan, worship of Athene--the private judgment of the -dissenter--and the warped or ill-understood or puritanised religious -ethos of the modern churchman; and, on the other hand, to have so much -_reality_ as to carry out most satisfactorily Mr. Pugin's canons; yet, -inasmuch as in neither case was the builder's ideal the true one, so -in neither case is his architecture in any way adapted to, or an -embodiment of, the ideal of the Church. Reality, then, is not of -itself sufficient. What can be more _real_ than a pyramid, yet what -less Christian? It must be Christian reality, the true expression of a -true ideal, which makes Catholic architecture what it is. This -Christian reality, we would call _Sacramentality_; investing that -symbolical truthfulness, which it has in common with _every_ true -expression, with a greater force and holiness, both from the greater -purity of the perfect truth which it embodies, and from the -association which this name will give it with those adorable and -consummate examples of the same {xxviii} principle, infinitely more -developed, and infinitely more holy in the spiritual grace which they -signify and convey,--the Blessed Sacraments of the Church. - -The modern writers who have treated on Symbolism seem to have taken -respectively very partial views of the subject. Mr. Pugin does not -seem in his books to recognise the particular principle which we have -enunciated. We have shown that his law about Reality is true so far as -it goes, but that it does not go far enough. He himself, for example, -is now contemplating a work on the reality of domestic, as before of -ecclesiastical, architecture. Now, nothing can be more true, nothing -more useful, than this. Yet even he does not seem to have discerned -that as contact with the Church endues with a new sanctity, and -elevates every form and every principle of art: so in a peculiar sense -the sacred end to which church architecture is subservient, elevates -and sanctifies that reality which must be a condition of its goodness -in common with _all_ good architecture; in short, raises this -principle of Reality into one of Sacramentality. We should be sorry to -assert that Mr. Pugin does not feel this, though we are not aware that -he has expressed it in his writings: but in his most lasting writings, -his churches namely, it is clear that the principle, if not -intentionally even, and if only incompletely, has not been without a -great influence on that master mind. Yet even in these we could point -to details, and in some of his earlier works to something more than -details, which shew that there is something wanting; that in the bold -expedients and fearless licence which his genius has led him to -employ, he has occasionally gone wrong; not from the fact of his -departure from strict precedent, and his vindication of a certain -architectural freedom, but because in these escapements from -authority, he has not invariably kept in view the { xxix} principle -now advocated. However the author of the 'True Principles' might point -to his churches, to prove that a reverent and religious mind, employed -in administering to the material wants of the Church, (even though -that reverence be misapplied, and that Church in a schismatical -position), cannot fail to succeed, at least in some degree, in -stamping upon his work the impress of his own faith and zeal, and in -making it, at least to some extent, a living development and -expression of the true ideal. - -Mr. Poole, the author of the 'Appropriate Character of Church -Architecture,' would appear to believe the symbolism of details rather -than any general principle. He was the first, we think, to reassert -that the octagonal form of fonts was figurative of Regeneration. In -the latter edition of his Book he has adopted several of the -symbolical interpretations advanced by the writers of the Cambridge -Camden Society. - -Mr. Lewis, in his illustrations of Kilpeck church (in an appendix to -which he has printed a translation of some part of the 'Rationale' of -our author), has given a treatise on symbolism generally, and has -applied his principles to the explanation of the plan and details of -that particular church. His book excited some attention at the time of -publication, and was met by considerable ridicule in many quarters. To -this we think it was fairly open, since the author did not seem to -have grasped the true view of the subject. He appears to believe that, -from the very first, _all_ church architecture was _intentionally_ -symbolical. Now this is an unlikely supposition, inasmuch as till -church architecture was fully developed, we do not think that its real -significancy was understood to its full extent by those who used it. -That it was, in its imperfect state, symbolical, we should be the last -to deny; but it seems more in accordance {xxx} with probability, and -more in analogy with the progress of other arts, to believe that at -first certain given wants induced and compelled certain adaptations to -those wants: which then _did_ symbolise the wants themselves; and -which afterwards became intentionally symbolical. Now such a view as -this will explain satisfactorily how a Christian church might be -progressively developed from a Basilican model. Mr. Hope, in his essay -on Architecture, carries us back to the very earliest expedient likely -to be adopted by a savage to protect him from weather, and from this -derives every subsequent expansion of the art. Which may be true, and -probably is true, so far at least as this: that, however first -acquired, the elementary knowledge of any method of building would be, -like all other knowledge, continually receiving additions and -improvements, till from the first bower of branches sprang the -Parthenon, and from that again Cologne or Westminster. But then it is -clearly necessary to show some moral reason for so strange a -development, so complete a change of form and style. Now the theory -that the ethos of Catholic architects working upon the materials made -to hand, namely, the ancient orders of pagan architecture and (say) -the Basilican plan, gradually impressed itself upon these unpromising -elements, and progressively developed from them a transcript of that -ethos in Christian architecture, is intelligible at least, and -presents no such difficulty as Mr. Lewis's supposition that ancient -architects (he does not say when, or how long--but take Kilpeck church -and say _Norman_ architects) designed intentionally on symbolical -principles. We want in this case to be informed when the change took -place, from what period architects began to symbolise intentionally, -at what time they forgot the traditions of church-building, which they -must have had, and commenced to carry new principles into practice. -{xxxi} Nor, on this supposition, do we see why there should have been -any progressive development, why the Basilican and Debased-Pagan -trammels were not cast away at once; nor why, if the _ideal_ of the -Norman architect was true and perfect (that is if he were a true -Catholic), its expression should not have been so too: nor why any -Norman symbolism, thus originated, should ever have been discarded (as -it has been in later styles), instead of remaining an integral and -essential part of the material expression of the Church's mind. Now -our view appears to be open to no such objection. On the one hand -there are given materials to work upon, and on the other a given -spirit which is to mould and inform the mass. The contest goes on: -mind gradually subdues matter, until in the complete development of -Christian architecture we see the projection of the mind of the -Church. It is quite in analogy with the history and nature of the -Church, and with the workings of God's providence with respect to it, -that there should be this gradual expansion and development of truth. -We foresee the objection that will be raised against fixing on any -period as that of the full ripeness of Christian art, and are prepared -for many sneers at our advocacy of the perfection of the Edwardian -architecture. But we are assured that, if there is any truth (not to -say in what is advanced in this essay, but) in what has ever been -proposed by any who have appreciated the genius of Pointed -Architecture--to confine ourselves to our own subject--no other period -can be chosen at which all conditions of beauty, of detail, of general -effect, of truthfulness, of reality are so fully answered as in this. -And from this spring two important considerations. Firstly, the -decline of Christian art--which may be traced from this very period, -if architecture be tried by any of the conditions which have been laid -down--was confessedly {xxxii} coincident with, and (if what we have -said is true) was really symbolical of, those corruptions, which ended -in the great rending of the Latin Church; the effects of, and -penalties for, which remain to this day in full operation in the whole -of Western Christendom. Secondly, the Decorated style may be indeed -the finest development of Christian architecture which the world has -yet seen; but it does not follow that it is the greatest perfection -which shall ever be arrived at. No: we too look forward, if it may be, -to the time when even a new style of church architecture shall be -given us, so glorious and beautiful and true, that Cologne will sink -into a fine example of a transitional period, when the zeal and faith -and love of the reunited Church shall find their just expression in -the sacramental forms of Catholic art. - -But besides the above objection to Mr. Lewis's theory we may mention -the arbitrary way in which he determines on things which are to be -symbolised, and then violently endeavours to find their expected -types. This is quite at variance with the practice of any sober -symbolist; and more especially (as we shall hereafter have occasion to -point out) with that of Durandus. This forced sort of symbolism -naturally leads to a disregard of precedent and authority: and -accordingly we remember to have heard of a design by this gentleman -for the arrangement of a chancel which professed to symbolise certain -facts and doctrines; but which, whatever might be the ingenuity of the -symbolism, was no less opposed to the constant rule of arrangement in -ancient churches, than it was practically absurd and inconvenient for -the purpose which it was meant to answer. Indeed, while Mr. Lewis -insists strongly on the symbolising of facts, he does not succeed in -grasping any general principle, any more than he sees the {xxxiii} -difficulty there is in the way of our receiving his supposition of an -intention to symbolise from the first. No architect ever sat down with -an analysed scheme of doctrines which he resolved to embody in his -future building: in this, as in any other department of poesy, the -result is harmonious, significant, and complete, and may be resolved -into its elements, though these elements might never have been laid by -the poet as the foundation upon which to raise his superstructure. -That were like De La Harpe's theory that an epic poet should first -determine on his moral, and then draw out such a plan for his poem as -may enable him to illustrate that moral. [Footnote 8] - - [Footnote 8: It is with pain that we have spoken of Mr. Lewis at - all, because every Ecclesiologist owes him a debt for his great - boldness in turning the public attention to the subject of - symbolism. Yet we believe that a prejudice has been excited by him - against that subject which it will be hard to get over; for we are - constrained to say, that greater absurdities were never printed than - some which have appeared in his book. His explanations of the west - end of Kilpeck church--his cool assumption when any bracket appears - more puzzling than usual that it is of later work, and therefore not - explainable--his random perversions of Scripture--his puerile - conceits about the door--deserve this criticism. This same south - door he extols as a perfect mine of ecclesiastical information, - while he confesses himself unable to explain the symbols wrought on - the two orders of the arch--that is about two-thirds of the whole! - It is strange, too, that in his restoration of the church, he should - have forgotten all about the bells--and have violated a fundamental - canon of symbolism, by terminating his western gable in a plain - Cross.] - -The writers of the Cambridge Camden Society have carried out the -system more fully and consistently than any others. It has evidently -grown upon them, during the process of their inquiries: yet in their -earliest publications, we trace, though more obscurely, the same -thing. Their 'Few Words to Church-Builders' acknowledged the principle -to a far greater length; and the _Ecclesiologist_ has always acted -upon it, even when not expressly referring to it. As a necessary -consequence, they were the first who dwelt on the absolute necessity -of a distinct and spacious chancel; the first who recommended, and -{xxxiv} where they could, insisted on, the re-introduction of the -rood-screen; and the first to condemn the use of western triplets. The -position and shape of the font, the necessity of orientation, and some -few details, they have, but only in common with others, urged. - -The Oxford Architectural Society have never recognised any given -principles: and in consequence Littlemore is proposed by them as a -model--a church either without, or else all, chancel; and either way a -solecism. - -As might have been expected from a separatist, Rickman, in his -treatise, gives not a single line to the principle for which we -contend. Mr. Bloxam, in his excellent little work, though often -referring to it--more especially in the later editions which have -appeared since the labours of the Cambridge Camden Society--yet -hardly gives it that prominence which we might have expected from one -who possesses so just an idea of mediaeval arrangements and art. - -Among the chief opposers of the system we may mention Mr. Coddington -of Ware, who sees perfection in the clumsiness of Basilican -arrangements, and schism in the developed art of the middle ages. This -writer, as it has been observed in the _Ecclesiologist_, contends for -two things:--1. That one great object of Romanism was to abolish the -distinction between the clergy and laity: 2. That another great object -of the same Church, acting by its monks, (or, as he calls them, -schismatical communities) was to exalt the clergy unduly above the -laity. The former assertion he does not attempt to prove: the latter -he supports by pointing to the arrangement of the rood-screen, which, -therefore, like the French Ambonoclasts, he wishes to pull down both -in cathedrals and churches. - -{xxxv} - -This brief review of the principal writers who have treated on the -Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments, concludes our first -chapter. In it we have endeavoured to point out an acknowledged -desideratum; to shew what suppositions have been advanced on the -subject; to set forth wherein, and for what reason, they fail of being -satisfactory; to enunciate the principle of _Sacramentality_ as -essential for the full appreciation and successful imitation of -ancient church architecture; and finally, in referring to the works of -some later symbolists, to shew why their hypotheses are incomplete or -untenable. We have also brought under review the glaring contrasts -between the methods of life of an ancient and modern architect; and, -if we may so say, between the machinery of designing and the habit of -mind in the two cases. We shall now proceed to examine those arguments -which may lead us to suspect that some such principle as -Sacramentality really exists. - - - -{xxxvi} - -CHAPTER II - -THE ARGUMENT A PRIORI - -It will first be proper to consider whether, regarding the subject _à -priori_, that is, looking at the habits and manners of those among -whom the symbolical system originated, if it originated anywhere, we -have reason to think them at all likely to induce that system. Now, as -matter of fact, we know that the train of thought, the every-day -observances, above all, the religious rites of the early Christians, -were in the highest degree figurative. The rite of Baptism gave the -most forcible of all sanctions to such a system; and while it -sanctioned, it also suggested, some of the earliest specimens of -Christian symbolism. Hence, when that rite was found to be, so to -speak, connected with the word formed by the initial letters of our -Blessed Saviour's name and titles, arose the Mystic Fish: hence, as we -shall see, the octagonal baptistery and font. Indeed, almost every -great doctrine had been symbolised at a very early period of -Christianity. The Resurrection was set forth in the Phoenix, rising -immortal from its ashes: the meritorious Passion of our Saviour, by -the Pelican, feeding its young with its own blood: the Sacrament of -the Holy Eucharist, by grapes and wheatears, or again by the blood -flowing from the heart and feet of the Wounded Lamb into a chalice -beneath: the Christian's renewal of strength {xxxvii} thereby in the -Eagle, which descending grey and aged into the ocean, rises thence -with renewed strength and vigour: the Church, by the Ark, and the -vessel [Footnote 9] in which our Lord slept: the Christian's purity -and innocence by the Dove: [Footnote 10] again, by the same symbol -the souls [Footnote 11] of those who suffered for the Truth: again, -though perhaps not so early, the Holy Spirit: the Apostles were also -set forth as twelve Doves: [Footnote 12] the Ascension of our -Saviour by the Flying Bird; concerning which S. Gregory [Footnote -13] teaches, 'rightly is our Redeemer called a Bird, Whose Body -ascended freely into heaven': Martyrs also by birds let loose; for so -Tertullian, [Footnote 14] 'There is one kind of flesh of fishes, that -is of those who be regenerate by Holy Baptism; but another of birds, -that is of martyrs.' - - [Footnote 9: Naviculum quippe ecclesiam cogitate,--turbulentum mare - hoc seculum.----_S. Aug. de Verb Dom_.] - - [Footnote 10: - Quaeque super signum resident coeleste Columbae, - Simplicibus produnt regna patere Dei. - _S. Paulin. ep. 12, ad Sever_.] - - [Footnote 11: Cum nollet idolis sacrificare (sc. S. Reparata) ecce, - gladio percutitur: cujus anima in Columbae specie de corpore egredi, - coelumque conscendere visa est.--_Martyrol. Rom. viii. Id. Oct._ - Emicat inde Columba repens, - Martyris os nive candidior - Visa relinquere, et astra sequi: - Spiritus hic erat Eulaliae - Lacteolus, celer, innocuus. - _Pruden. Perist. Hymn. 9._ - - Compare also the Passion of S. Potitus,--Act. SS. Bollandi, 13 Jan. - So, in the cemetery of S. Calistus, a piece of glass was found by - Boldetti, on which S. Agnes was represented between two doves, the - symbols of her Virginity and Martyrdom.] - - [Footnote 12: - Crucem corona lucido cingit globo - Cui coronas sunt corona Apostoli, - Quorum figura est in columbarum choro. - (S. Paulin. Epp.)] - - [Footnote 13: In Evang. 29.] - - [Footnote 14: De Resurrect. 52.] - -{xxxviii} - -The caged bird is symbolical of the contrary; this has been found upon -the phial containing the blood of a martyr. Of this, Boldetti says, -'It is represented on the mosaic of the ancient Tribune of S. Mary -beyond Tiber; one being seen at the side of Isaiah the Prophet, the -other at that of the Prophet Jeremiah.' In the same way, partridges -and peacocks, each with its own meaning are represented. So, again, -lions, tigers, horses, oxen, strange fishes, and marine monsters, -represent the fearful martyrdoms to which God's servants were exposed: -a point which the reader will do well to bear in mind, because in -treating of Norman mouldings we shall have occasion again to refer to -this matter. So, again, the extended hand symbolised Providence. We -have also the seven stars, the moon, and many other symbols of a -similar kind. Nor must we forget the _Agnus Dei_, by which our Blessed -Lord Himself was represented; nor the _Pastor Bonus_, in which His own -parable was still further parabolised. The Christian gems found in the -Catacombs are all charged with some symbolical device. Upon these is -the ship for the Church, the palm for the martyr, and the instrument -of torture: as well as the sacred monogram expressing our Saviour's -name. The same symbol blazed on the _labarum_ of the first Christian -Emperor; and the very coins symbolically showed that the Church had -subdued the kingdoms of this world. That fearful heresy, Gnosticism, -which arose from an over-symbolising, shows, nevertheless how deeply -the principle, within due limits, belonged to the Church. The Gnostic -gems exhibit the most monstrous perversions of symbolical -representations: the medals of Dioclesian bear a lying symbol of a -crushed and expiring Christianity. Later still, new symbols were -adopted: mosaics, illuminations, ornaments, all bore some holy -emblems. The monogram _ihs_ found in every church in Western -Christendom: the corresponding symbol stamps the Eucharistic wafers of -the East. [Footnote 15] - - [Footnote 15: See on this subject the Cambridge Camden Society's - 'Argument for the Greek Origin of the Monogram IHS.'] - -{xxxix} - -The symbols of the Evangelists were also of very early date, though -not, in all cases, appropriated as now: for the angel and the lion -fluctuated between S. Matthew and S. Mark. Numbers, too, were fruitful -of allegorical meaning; and the most ingenious combinations were used -to elicit an esoteric meaning from them. By _one_, the Unity of the -Deity was understood: by _two_, the divine and human Natures of the -Saviour: by _three_, of course, the doctrine of the Most Holy Trinity: -by _four_, the doctrine of the Four Evangelists: by _six_, the -Attributes of the Deity: _seven_ represented the sevenfold graces of -the Holy Spirit: _eight_ (for a reason hereafter to be noticed), -Regeneration: _twelve_, the glorious company, the Apostles, and, -tropologically, the whole Church. And when a straightforward reference -to any of these failed, they were added or combined, till the required -meaning was obtained. A single instance may suffice:--S. Augustine, -writing on that passage of S. Paul's, 'What? know ye not that the -saints shall judge the world?' after explaining (_Expos. super Psalm_. -lxxxvi) the twelve thrones, which our Saviour mentions, of the whole -Church, as founded by and represented in the Apostles, finds a further -meaning. 'The parts of the world be four; the east, the west, the -north, and the south:' and (adds the Father) 'they are constantly -named in Holy Writ. From these four winds, saith the Lord in the -Gospel, shall the elect be gathered together: whence the Church is -called from these four parts. Called, and how? By the Trinity. It is -not called, except by Baptism, in the name of the Father, and of the -Son, and of the Holy Ghost. So four, multiplied by three, make -twelve.' In accidental numbers, too, a meaning was often found. No -wonder that some beheld, in the three hundred and eighteen trained -servants wherewith Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, routed the -combined kings, a type of the three hundred and eighteen Fathers of -Nicaea, by whom the Faithful rose triumphant over the Arian heresy. - -{xl} - -Again, types and emblems without number were seen in the language of -the Psalmist, occurring so continuously in the services of the Church. -'His faithfulness shall be thy buckler,' gives rise to a fine allegory -of S. Bernard's, drawn from the triangular shape of the buckler used -at the time when that Father wrote; even as we still see it, in the -effigies of early knights. It protects the upper part of the body -completely: the feet are less completely shielded. And so, remarks the -saint, does God's providence guard His people from spiritual dangers, -imaged by those weapons which attack the upper, or more vital parts of -the body: but from temporal adversities He hath neither promised, nor -will give so complete protection. - -To mention the symbolism which attached itself to the worship of the -early Church, would be to go through all its rites. Confirmation and -Matrimony, and, above all, Baptism, were attended by ceremonies in the -highest degree symbolical. But it is needless to dwell on them; enough -has been said to prove the attachment which the Catholic Church has -ever evinced to symbolism. - -But the Sign of the Cross is that which gave the greatest scope to -symbolism.--Our readers will probably remember the passage of -Tertullian in which he says, 'we cross ourselves when we go out, and -when we come in; when we lie down, and when we rise up,' etc. Indeed, -as in everything they used, so in everything they saw, the Sign of the -Cross. The following lines from Donne are much to the purpose: - -{xli} - - Since Christ embraced the Cross itself, dare I - His Image, th' Image of His Cross, deny? - Would I have profit by the Sacrifice, - And dare the chosen Altar to despise? - It bore all other sins, but is it fit - That it should bear the sin of scorning it? - Who from the picture would avert his eye, - How should he fly His pains, Who there did die? - From me no pulpit, nor misgrounded law. - Nor scandal taken, shall this Cross withdraw: - It shall not--nor it cannot--for the loss - Of this Cross were to me another Cross: - Better were worse: for no affliction. - No cross were so extreme, as to have none. - Who can blot out the Cross, which th' instrument - Of God dewed on him in the Sacrament? - Who can deny me power and liberty - 'To stretch mine arms, and mine own Cross to be? - Swim--and at every stroke thou art thy Cross: - The mast and yard are theirs whom seas do toss. - Look down, thou seest our crosses in small things, - Look up, thou seest birds fly on crossed wings. - -We will mention but one symbolical feature more in the trains of -thought which were common among the early Christians. We refer to the -esoteric meaning which was supposed to exist in the writings of -heathen authors: as for example, when the Pollio of Virgil was -imagined to point to the Saviour, and the Fortunate Isles of Pindar to -Paradise. It were easy but needless to dwell on this subject. The few -instances we have given are already amply sufficient to prove to some, -to remind others, how symbolical was the religion of the early Church, -and (we think) to establish our case _à priori_. - -{xlii} - -CHAPTER III - -THE ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY - -Having dealt with the argument _à priori_, we now proceed to show -that, from analogy, it is highly probable that the teaching of the -Church, as in other things, so in her material buildings, would be -symbolical. - -Firstly, let us look at other nations, and other religions. It need -not be said that the symbolism of the Jews was one of the most -striking features of their religion. It would be unnecessary to go -through their tabernacle and temple rites, their sacrificial -observances, and their legal ceremonies. The Passover, the cleansing -of the leper, the scape goat, the feast of tabernacles, the morning -and evening sacrifice, the Sabbatical year, the Jubilee, were all in -the highest degree figurative. The very stones in the breastplate have -each, according to the Rabbis, their mystical signification. And, as -if still further to teach them the sacramentality, not only of things, -but of events, it pleased God to make all their most famous ancestors, -chiefs, and leaders, _e.g._ Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, -Joshua, David, most remarkable types of the Messiah: nay, from the -beginning the principal doctrines of Christianity were, in some form -or other, set forth. Regeneration and the Church, in the Flood and the -Ark: the Bread and Wine in the Manna and the Stricken Rock: the two -dispensations in Sarah and {xliii} Hagar. Indeed the immense extent of -symbolism in the Old Testament was the mine of the Fathers. Every day -they brought to light some new wealth; and, if we press the symbolism -of the Church further than it was actually intended, we are only -treading in the steps of her bishops and doctors. For while, of -course, in commenting on and explaining the sacrifice of Isaac, the -covenant of circumcision, the captivity and exaltation of Joseph, they -were only developing the real meaning which God seems to have intended -should be set forth by those events, there are,--as we have already -hinted,--many instances where their piety found an interpretation -which was perhaps never intended. Thus, because Job, while all else -that belonged to him was restored double, had only the same number of -children which he had lost--they have argued, that thus the separate -existence of souls was represented, as the Patriarch could not be said -to have lost those who were in another state of existence. - -And if in the Old Testament we find authority for the principle of -symbolism, much more do we in the New. We shall presently have -occasion to allude to the rise and progress of the sacramentality of -Baptism: we may now refer more particularly to the frequency with -which S. Paul symbolises the enactments of the law; as in the case of -the ox forbidden, while treading out the corn, to be muzzled. So -again, the Revelation is nothing but one continued symbolical poem. -The parabolic teaching of our Lord we shall presently notice. - -To this we may add, the exoteric and esoteric signification of certain -books, _e.g._, the Song of Solomon: the double interpretation of many -of the prophecies, primarily of the earthly, principally of the -heavenly Jerusalem: we may refer to the symbolical meaning attached, -under the Christian dispensation, to certain previously {xliv} -established rites, as, for instance. Holy Matrimony. With symbolical -writings, enactments, events, personages, observances, buildings, -vestments, for her guides and models, how could the Church Catholic -fail of following symbolism, as a principle and a passion? - -But not only is Christianity symbolical: every development of religion -is, and must necessarily be so. On the Grecian mythology, we shall -have occasion to say something more presently. The symbolism of Plato, -and still further development by Proclus and the later philosophers of -his school, will occur to every one. If it be asserted that the more -it was touched and acted on by Christianity, the more symbolical did -it become,--we only reply, So much the more to the purpose of our -argument. But not only in Roman and Grecian Paganism is this the case. -The Hindoo religion has much of symbolism; and some of its most -striking fables, derived from whatever source--whether from unwritten -tradition, or from contact with the Jews--possess this character -wonderfully. Take, for instance, the example of Krishna suffering, and -Krishna triumphant; represented, in the one case, by the figure of a -man enveloped in the coils of a serpent, which fastens its teeth in -his heel; in the other, by the same man setting his foot on, and -crushing the head of the monster. Now here, it is true, the doctrine -symbolised has long been forgotten among those with whom the legend is -sacred: we, on the contrary, have a very plain reference to the -promise concerning the Seed of the Woman and the serpent's head. This -is an instance of the fact, that Truth will live in a symbolical, long -after it has perished in every other form: and doubtless, when the -time for the conversion of India shall have arrived, thousands will -receive the truth the more willingly, in that they have had a -representation of it, distorted it is true, but not destroyed, set, -for so many centuries, before their eyes. {xlv} Some truths, -accidentally impressed on a symbolical observance, may still live, -that otherwise must have perished: just as the only memory of some of -the beings that existed before the flood, is to be found in the -petrified clay on which they accidentally happened to set their feet. - -The Mahometan religion has also, though in an inferior degree, its -symbolism; and the reason of its inferiority in this respect is -plain--because, namely, it is a religion of sense. Now Catholicity, -which teaches men constantly to live above their senses, to mortify -their passions, and to deny themselves;--nay even Hindooism, which, so -far as it approximates to the truth, preaches the same doctrine, must -constantly lead men by the seen to look on to the unseen. If -everything material were not made sacramental of that which is -immaterial, so, as it were, bearing its own corrective with its own -temptation, man could hardly fail of walking by sight, rather than by -faith. But now, the Church, not content with warning us that we are in -an enemy's country, boldly seizes on the enemy's goods, converting -them to her own use. Symbolism is thus the true Sign of the Cross, -hallowing the unholy, and making safe the dangerous: the true salt -which, being cast in, purified the unhealthy spring: the true meal -which removed death from the Prophet's provision. Others may amuse -themselves by asserting that the Church in all that she does and -enacts, is not symbolical:--we bless God for the knowledge that she -is. - -We need not dwell on the symbolism of heretics, insomuch as we shall -have occasion to refer to it in other parts of this essay. We will -rather notice, that those to whom we have been but now referring, -heathens and Mahomedans, have a way of discovering a subtle {xlvi} -symbolism in things which in themselves were not intended to have any -deeper meaning. We may mention the odes of Hafiz--the Anacreon, or -rather perhaps, the Stesichorus, of Persia. These poems, speaking to -the casual reader of nothing but love, and wine, and garlands, and -rosebuds, are seriously affirmed, by Persian critics, to contain a -deep esoteric reference to the communion of the soul with God; just as -it has been wildly supposed, that under the name of Laura, Petrarch in -fact only expressed that Immortal Beauty after which the soul of the -Christian is constantly striving, and to which it is constantly -advancing. So in Dante, Beatrice is not only the poet's earthly love, -but, as it has been well shown by M. Ozanam, the representative of -Catholic theology. - -To dwell on the symbolism of Nature would lead us too far from our -point. But we must constantly bear in mind that Nature and the Church -answer to each other as implicit and explicit revelations of God. -Therefore, whatever system is seen to run through the one, in all -probability runs through the other. Now, that the teaching of Nature -is symbolical, none, we think, can deny. Shall we then wonder that the -Catholic Church is in all her art and splendour sacramental of the -Blessed Trinity, when Nature herself is so? Shall God have denied this -symbolism to the latter, while He has bestowed it on the former? Shall -there be a trinity of effect in every picture, a trinity of tone in -every note, a trinity of power in every mind, a trinity of essence in -every substance,--and shall not there be a trinity in the arrangements -and details of church art? It were strange if the servant could teach -what the mistress must be silent upon: that Natural Religion should be -endued with capabilities not granted to Revealed Truth. - -{xlvii} - -Is not, again, the doctrine of the Resurrection wonderfully set forth -by Nature? This symbolism is the more remarkable, in that to the -ancients the rising of the sun and the bursting forth of the leaf must -have appeared false symbolism, although they knew too well that of -which autumn and evening were typical. So, to quote only one other -example, the law of self-sacrifice is beautifully shadowed out by the -grain that 'unless it die, abideth alone; but if it die, bringeth -forth much fruit.' We may argue next from the analogy of all art. -Sculpture, perhaps, has least to offer in our support. But in painting -we may refer to the conventional colours appropriated to various -personages; and the mechanical symbolism of poetry is known to all. -Nor must we forget the conventional use of language. Archaisms, -studied inversions, quaint phrases, and the like, have always been -affected by those who were treating of high and holy subjects. None -has employed these with happier effect than Spenser, whose language, -it need not be said, never was and never could have been really used. -The solemnising effect of a judicious employment of this artifice is -nowhere more strongly felt than in works of Divinity. Compare for -example the English language, where the conventional Thou is always -addressed to the Deity, and where a stern simplicity runs through the -whole of our Divine Offices, with the French which can only employ -_Vous_ in prayer, and with the Portuguese, where, in the authorised -translation of the Holy Scriptures, Apostles, and Prophets--nay, our -Blessed Lord Himself, speak in the polite phrases of conversational -elegance. [Footnote 16] - - [Footnote 16: It is on grounds similar to these, that, in our - translation of Durandus, we have adopted that conventional style - which has been objected to by some recent critics:--not that anyone - ever naturally conversed or wrote in it, but for the sake of - producing the effect which the subject seems to require. The - brilliancy of a summer's day is beautiful in its place: admitted - into a cathedral, it would be totally out of character.] - -{xlviii} - -Music, however, has the strongest claims to our notice. We know, for -example, that each instrument symbolises some particular colour. So, -according to Haydn, the trombone is deep red--the trumpet, -scarlet--the clarionet, orange--the oboe, yellow--the bassoon, deep -yellow--the flute, sky blue--the diapason, deep blue--the double -diapason, purple--the horn, violet:--while the violin is pink--the -viola, rose--the violoncello, red--and the double-bass, crimson. This -by many would be called fanciful:--therefore let us turn to a passage -of Haydn's works, and see if it will hold. Let us examine the sun-rise -in the 'Creation.' At the commencement, as it has been well observed, -our attention is attracted by a soft-streaming sound from the violins, -scarcely audible, till the pink rays of the second violin diverge into -the chord of the second, to which is gradually imparted a greater -fulness of colour, as the rose violas and red violoncellos steal in -with expanding beauty, while the azure of the flute tempers the -mounting rays of the violin: as the notes continue ascending to the -highest point of brightness, the orange of the clarionet, the scarlet -of the trumpet, the purple of the double diapason, unite in increasing -splendour--till the sun appears at length in all the refulgence of -harmony. - -This may serve as a specimen of the manner in which the expressions of -one art may be translated into that of another, because they each and -all symbolise the same abstraction. - -Again, the language of flowers is a case much in point. This is a -species of symbolism which has prevailed among all nations, and which -our devout ancestors were not slow in stamping with the impress of -religion. Witness, for example, the _Herb Trinity_, now generally -called _Heartsease_, the _Passion Flower_, and the _Lacrima Christi_. -And in the present day, who knows not that {xlix} the rose is for -beauty--the violet for modesty--the sunflower for faithfulness--the -forget-me-not for remembrance--the pansy for thought--the cypress for -woe--the yew for trueheartedness--the everlasting for immortality? -The flowers introduced into the ornament of churches we shall consider -presently. - -Furthermore, whatever was the character of our Lord's teaching--such -is likely to be that of His Church. If the former were plain, -unadorned, setting forth naked truths in the fewest and simplest -words; then we allow that there is a _primâ facie_ argument against -the system which we are endeavouring to support. But if it were -parabolic, figurative, descriptive, allegorical--why should not the -Church imitate her Master? His parables are at once the surest -defence, and the most probable originators, of her symbolism. - -We shall have occasion in another place to draw from a consideration -of the nature of our Lord's parables an argument in behalf of -symbolism against one of the most formidable objections that has been -raised against the system. It would here be sufficient for our purpose -to notice the figurative character of our Lord's general teaching. But -we have His own authority for much more than a general adoption of -such a principle. Tradition hands down that He was within sight of the -Temple when he pointed towards it, and uttered those gracious words, -_I am the Door_. Be this as it may, we have from it a sufficient -precedent to justify us in seeking for an emblematical meaning in the -external world, and more particularly in the material sanctuary. S. -Paul, on the same principle, allegorises the Jewish Temple, detail by -detail:--the Holy of Holies was heaven; the High Priest, Christ; the -veil, even his flesh. It is inconceivable that the Temple should be so -symbolical, and so holy that our Lord Himself cleansed it from its -defiling {l} money-changers: and yet that a Christian church, wherein -the Great Sacrifice is commemorated and our Lord is peculiarly -present, should be less symbolical--particularly when its arrangement -is in exact conformity to that of the temple, [Footnote 17] --or -should be less holy. At any rate the _Door_ must be significant: at -any rate the Altar, which S. Paul claims for the Christian Church, in -opposition to those who 'serve the tabernacle.' - - [Footnote 17: See Appendix A. ] - -Again, the holy Sacraments of the Church are examples, in the highest -degree, of this principle of figurative or symbolical teaching. They, -indeed, are not only signs of unseen things, but the channels and -instruments of grace. The latter quality we do not claim for the -speaking symbolism of a material church: but architecture is an emblem -of the invisible abstract, no less than Holy Baptism and the Lord's -Supper. Besides the two Sacraments [Greek text] our Church recognises -other offices, such as Marriage, Confirmation, and the like, as -Sacramentals. In short the whole Church system is figurative from -first to last: not indeed therefore the less real, actual, visible, -and practical; but rather the more real and practical, because its -teaching and discipline are not merely material and temporary, but -anticipative of the heavenly and eternal. This quality then of -symbolism cannot be denied to one, and a most important, expression of -the teaching of the Church, namely its architecture. The cathedral (to -repeat the general in the particular) is not the less material, the -less solid, the less real, because we see in it the figurative -exhibition of the peculiarities of our religion and the articles of -our creed. - - -{li} - - -CHAPTER IV - -PHILOSOPHICAL REASONS FOR BELIEVING IN SYMBOLISM - -We now propose to offer a few remarks on the philosophical reasons -there seem to be for concluding that Ecclesiastical Architecture has -some esoteric meaning, some figurative adaptation, more than can be -appreciated, or even discerned, by the casual observer, to the uses -which produced it, and which have always regulated it. We venture to -approach this consideration, however, rather from a feeling that our -Essay would be incomplete without some reference to this kind of -argument, than from any idea of our own ability to treat on subjects -so abstract and infinite; and fearing that we may not be able clearly -to express or dissect those thoughts which, nevertheless, appear to -our own minds both true and very important. - -It is little better than a truism to assert that there is an intimate -correspondence and relation between cause and effect: yet this thought -opens the way to a very wide field of speculation. Mind cannot act -upon matter without the material result being closely related to the -mental intention which originated it: the fact that anything exists -adapted to a certain end or use is alone enough to presuppose the end -or use, who can see a [Greek text], without distinguishing its -relation to the {lii} want or necessity which brought about [Greek -text]? In short, the [Greek text], whatever it may be, not only -answers to that which called it forth, but, in some sort, represents -materially, or symbolises, the abstract volition or operation of the -mind which originated it. Show us a pitcher, a skewer, or any of the -simplest utensils designed for the most obvious purposes: do not the -cavity of the one, and the piercing point of the other, at once set -forth and symbolise the [Greek text] which was answered in their -production? Now, from this thought, we might proceed to trace out the -truthfulness and reality of every [Greek text] considered in relation -to the [Greek text]; for even a deceptive thing is true and real in -its relation to the mental intention of deceiving: but we intend -merely to consider the way in which the abstract movements or [Greek -text] of mind are _symbolised_ by the material operations or results -which they have produced. In other words, we would allege that -everything material is symbolical of some mental process, of which it -is Indeed only the development: that we may see in everything outward -and visible some inward and spiritual meaning. It is this which makes -'books in everything': finding in everything objective the material -exhibition of the subjective and unseen; not claiming for the abstract -mind an independence of matter, but acknowledging its union with it; -and thus learning from the speculations of reason, to perceive the -fitness for our nature of that system of sacramentality in which God -has placed us, and to bless Him more and more for the Church, a -sacramental institution, and for _the_ Sacraments [Greek text], which -it conveys. This method of viewing the subject will be our excuse for -attempting on the one hand to learn by analysis from a material church -itself, considered objectively, the symbolism which may be supposed to -have directed its design; and on the other {liii} hand to show from -the abstract necessities of the case that a material church might have -been expected to be symbolically designed. But if this theory of -symbolism gives light and meaning and connection to the acknowledged -facts, whether abstract or material, with which we have to do; while -no other view will explain _all_ the phenomena;--it certainly -recommends itself by its simplicity and harmony to a general -reception. Considered in this light, the whole group of separate facts -become linked together and adjusted, and so resolve themselves into a -great fabric of truth, which (like the Pyramid of Cheops) is -consistent and real and intelligible, when seen from any point, under -any circumstances, or in any light. - -But if it be granted that there is this mutual connection between the -abstract and its material exhibition in every case, it will be readily -admitted that a principle of sacramentality must be especially a -condition of all religious acts. If we were merely spirits, without -bodies or any necessary connection with matter, it would be possible -perhaps for us to worship the Great Spirit in an abstract way by a -sort of volition of devotion; but not being so, our souls cannot -engage in adoration without the company of their material home. Hence -every effort of devotion is attended by some bodily act. Whether we -lift our eyes or hands to heaven, or kneel in prayer, we show forth -this necessity of our being: our body has sinned, has been redeemed, -will be punished or glorified, no less than the soul: it must -therefore worship with the soul. Now the symbolism of the bodily acts -of devotion is understood by all. We have even personated Prayer by a -prostrate figure with uplifted hands. [Footnote 18] - - [Footnote 18: The necessity which the body seems to feel for this - symbolism may be seen in the constantly occurring fact, that in - making signs, whether of inquiry or adieu, to a person at a - distance, we naturally speak the words, though inaudible to him, - which the gestures we use express.] - -{liv} - -It has been felt not only right but necessary, in all ages and places, -to accompany the inward feeling of devotion with some outward -manifestation of it. In other words, all religious actions are from -their nature symbolical and figurative. But if the most obvious -corporeal accompaniments to spiritual worship show this clearly, how -much more evidently must all ritual systems appear to be symbolical? A -system of worship, whether heathen, Christian, or heretical, is only -the development and methodising of the simplest figurative acts of -devotion; the whole affected by the peculiar relation between the -object of adoration and the worshippers which in each particular -system may have been pre-supposed. Why does the Mussulman take off his -shoes, kneel on his carpet towards Mecca, and perform his stated -ablutions? Is not each act in itself figurative and full of meaning? -How could such a system, or any other system, have been originated, -but with some intended typification of certain given facts or -doctrines or feelings? Why does the heartless Quaker go with covered -head into his bare conventicle, and sit in enforced silence? He will -answer, to express his independence of idle forms, the spirituality of -his worship, his repudiation of any media in his intercourse with the -Divine Being. We thank him for his admission of a symbolical purpose, -but we read the symbolism differently. We perceive it to express -clearly enough the presumptuous pride and vanity of his sect, his -rejection of all Sacraments, and his practical disbelief in the -Communion of Saints. Again, is the pulpit of the Brownist symbolical; -and shall not our font and altar be so at least as much? The Catholic -ritual is indeed symbolical from first to last. Without the clue to -its figurative meaning, we should never have understood its pregnant -truthfulness and force. {lv} No one, in short, ever ventured to regard -the ancient ritual as anything but highly figurative: this was claimed -as its highest excellence by its observers and commentators, this was -ridiculed and despised by the enemies of the Church; but was confessed -by all. The more anyone meditates on the ancient ritual of the Church, -the more this will be found not only the most prominent -characteristic, but the only satisfactory explanation of many -otherwise unintelligible requirements. This is not the place to go at -any length into the consideration of the whole symbolism of the ritual -system: it will be enough if it is granted that some prescribed -ritual, however meagre, must be a necessary part of all religion; and -that every such system is in some degree figurative or symbolical. Now -to apply this to church architecture. No one will deny that, in a -general point of view, the form of our churches is adapted to certain -wants, and was chosen for this very adaptation. Indeed this is allowed -by modern writers and builders: who defend a church which has no more -than an altar-recess, on this very ground, that there is no longer any -want of a deep chancel. 'I object to aisles,' says a modern architect, -'because the great end of a church is to be an auditorium.' 'The cross -form,' says another, 'I always adopt, because then everyone can see -the preacher if I place the pulpit in the middle.' But why not take a -circle or octagon at once, or the form which is always adopted for the -lecture-rooms at Mechanics' Institutes? For these plans are obviously -_most_ convenient for hearing and seeing. But then, everyone knows -that these are not _church_ forms. The modern builder then, -trammelled, at least in this respect, by rule and precedent, chooses -the cruciform plan, not (perhaps) for its true symbolism; but, by a -wrong arrangement of this plan, still further symbolises (for example) -his own undue estimation of the ordinance {lvi} of preaching. So true -it is that those who would most object to symbolism, as a rule of -design, are themselves (did they but know it) symbolising, in every -church they build, their own arbitrary and presumptuous ideas on the -subject. It is not our intention to prove here, (what has been pointed -out, however, many times), the duty incumbent upon us of following in -our modern churches the ancient principles of design: we are not -writing with the immediate practical end of improving modern church -architecture; but are endeavouring to illustrate the symbolical -principles of ancient design. We shall, however, before finishing this -chapter, choose an example, which will apply to us, as well as to any -other branch of the Church, to show how essentially church -architecture in that respect at least is a part of the Ritual system. -And if Catholic worship is expressed and represented by Catholic -ritual, and if church architecture is a part of this ritual, then is -church architecture itself an expression and exponent of Catholic -worship. A conclusion this which will well warrant the very strong -language in which the Cambridge Camden Society have always asserted -the great importance of this art, and have exacted from its professors -such qualifications of personal holiness and liturgical knowledge as -are no less above the attainment than the aspirations of the modern -school. - -It may not be clear to some how in any sense architecture can be -called symbolical, or the outward sign of something invisible: or -rather what the process is by which a given arrangement, suggested -perhaps by some necessity, becomes in turn suggestive and figurative -of the very purpose for which it was planned. But let us take the case -of a theatre. Here it is clearly necessary that there shall be a stage -or orchestra, accommodation for spectators, and means of easy exit. -{lvii} Accordingly every theatre displays all these requisites. And -does not the building then in turn emblem the purpose for which it was -planned? The ruins of Roman theatres are not uncommon: do we fail to -be recalled by them to the idea of the Roman stage? are not the -several parts of the material building highly figurative and -suggestive of the rules and orders of the abstract drama? - -With respect to churches: let us suppose the institution and ritual of -the Church to be what we know it was; and that we have to adapt some -architectural arrangement to the performance of this ritual. Is there -anything which will dictate any general form rather than another? -Surely there is. We will not speak now of the propriety of setting -aside a place for the celebration of the Holy Eucharist, or of the -propriety of retaining the plan of the typical Temple; but we are -considering simply what is required by practical necessity. The -worshippers who are to assemble in our church are not all on an -equality. There are some who are endowed with high privileges as being -those consecrated to the immediate service of the sanctuary. In early -times so real a thing was the distinction between the clergy and the -laity, that the Church being divided into these two classes, the -material edifice displayed a like division: and the nave and chancel -preach to posterity the sacredness of Holy Orders, and the mutual -duties arising from the relation in which the flock stand to their -shepherds. But in early ages the laity were not all classed _en masse_ -as with us now. Among them were the Faithful, the Catechumens, who had -not yet been admitted to Holy Baptism, and the Penitents or those who -had lapsed. True to itself, church architecture provided then a -separate place for each of these divisions. Does not the ground plan -of such a church symbolise minutely the then state of church -discipline and the {lviii} conditions of church worship? The reality -and meaning of such an arrangement may be shown thus also. After the -Reformation the great distinction between clergy and laity became lost -or undervalued: accordingly the chancel-screens in many places -disappeared, as symbolical in their absence as in their existence. But -still there was a necessity for some material arrangement to protect -the Altar from insult: and so altar rails came in, manifest symbols of -that spirit which made their introduction allowable, if indeed not -necessary: [Footnote 19] still these very rails, and the penned up -reading-pew, teach that the clergy, at least when performing a -function, are divided from the laity. - - [Footnote 19: In the correspondence of the Rev. W. Humphrey, whose - atrocious treatment by the Church Missionary Society has so lately - excited the indignation of all true churchmen, it appears that one - of the noble designs of this zealous priest was to restore for the - peculiar congregation over which he was appointed, consisting of - Faithful, Catechumens, and Unbelievers, the distinct arrangement of - the ancient Church: the modern plan of having but one area for the - lay worshippers being found inconvenient and injurious. That is to - say, our modern church arrangement may suit and does symbolise the - present state of the Church with us, but does not suit and does not - symbolise the state of the missionary Church of India.] - -Now it is of no consequence whatever, whether the early builders of -churches intended this particular arrangement to be symbolical. The -arrangement being adopted becomes necessarily, even if -unintentionally, symbolical, by the process we have endeavoured to -trace, and so things essentially symbolical give rise to intended -symbolism: for it is a simple historical fact that the weathercock, -whatever practical utility may have first suggested its use and -peculiar form, has been for many centuries placed on the church spire -for its _intentional symbolism_. [Footnote 20]And the process is -repeated: for suppose one only of the conventional symbolical meanings -of the weathercock had been discovered: the thoughtful mind {lix} goes -on to find out other figurative senses in which its use is -appropriate, and these conventional meanings become in their turn -intentionally symbolised by future church builders. This may be -illustrated also in the following way: The Jews, in the rite of -Baptism, had probably no other idea than a reference to 'the mystical -washing away of sins.' But when S. Paul had once given to that rite -the new idea of a burial with Christ in the Baptismal water, and a -rising again with Him, this typical meaning became an example of -intended symbolism to all those who should hereafter use it. - - [Footnote 20: See Rationale, p. 27.] - -As we began this part of our subject with hesitation, so we finish it -with some degree of apprehension. To some what has been said may seem -more than ordinarily visionary and ridiculous: yet others, we hope, -will feel that, however feebly and inadequately expressed, there is -some truth in what has been advanced concerning the relation between -the material and immaterial: that the latter welding and moulding the -former into an expression of itself, makes it in turn a type of that -which it expresses. So that if on the one hand, to take our particular -branch of the subject, the theoretical ritual and ordinances of -religion imply and require certain peculiar adaptations of the -material building in which they are to be celebrated; then in turn the -circumstances of the material fabric suggest and symbolise the -peculiar conditions of ritual which induced them. In short we have -endeavoured to prove that from our very nature every outward thing is -symbolical of something inward and spiritual: but, above all things, -outward religious actions are sacramental; and particularly _any_ -prescribed ritual, of which the first characteristic is that it is -figurative: that the Catholic ritual is eminently symbolical, and from -its nature very strikingly influences all its material appliances: -that church architecture is the {lx} eldest daughter of Ritual: that -the process, according to which architecture was influenced by the -requirements of Ritualism was at first as simple as that by which the -form of a theatre sprang from the conditions which were to be -fulfilled by its builder: that thus a church (built in the fully -developed style of Christian architecture) even if not built with any -intention of symbolising, (though it is an historical fact that the -symbolism of each part was known and received _before_ the erection of -any church of this style,) became nevertheless essentially a -'petrifaction of our religion': a fact which, once admitted and -realised, becomes to succeeding church builders, whether they will or -not, a rule and precedent for intentional symbolical design. - - -{lxi} - -CHAPTER V - -THE ANALYTICAL ARGUMENT - -We must arrive at the same conclusion, if we consider the subject in -an analytical way. For example: suppose a person, hitherto -unacquainted not only with the general peculiarities of Christian -churches, but also with Christianity itself, were to enter a -cathedral; or (which will be a fairer case) were to visit a Catholic -country, and examine its churches as a whole, would he not, if -possessed of only ordinary intelligence, observe that the cross form, -for example, was of most common occurrence, and, in the case of the -larger buildings, was perhaps the only plan adopted? And would he not -then naturally inquire why there should be this marked preference for -a form, in itself inconvenient for purposes of hearing or seeing, -[Footnote 21] and open to great mechanical objections, such as the -almost resistless pressure of the four arms on the piers which stand -at the angles of intersection? - - [Footnote 21: That is, a Catholic _arrangement_ of the church being - presumed.] - -But if he learnt that the religion for which these temples were -designed was that of the Cross, he would at once see the propriety of -this ground plan, and would confidently and truly conclude that this -form was chosen in order to bring the Cross, by this symbolism, -vividly and constantly before the eyes of the worshippers. To deny -intended symbolism, in the case of such a person, would {lxii} clearly -be absurd: shall it be less obvious to us? Our traveller would -probably, being satisfied on this point, examine these buildings more -closely. He would find an altar raised conspicuously above the -surrounding level; and for this he might discover a practical reason; -but why in so many cases (so many as well nigh to make a rule) are the -steps either _three_ or some multiple of three? Surely the fundamental -doctrine of the Holy Trinity would, if explained to him, sufficiently -account for this all but universal arrangement. Why, again, in every -case does a screen separate one part of the church from the other? -When our inquirer learns the principle of the separation of laity and -clergy, this arrangement also will be at once intelligible and -figurative. How unreasonable would the position of the font by the -door appear to him, till he learnt the symbolical reason for its being -placed there! And we may here remark that the practice of the last -generation in removing old fonts, or using basins for substitutes, or -in placing new fonts, near the altar, shows clearly enough that -convenience and utility would have pointed out a very different place -for the font from what is assigned by the canon, on symbolical -grounds; grounds adduced in this case, as it would seem, to give -weight to a decision so clearly opposed to all merely practical and -obvious reasons. Again, the marked deviation of the orientation of the -chancel from that of the nave, would be quite inexplicable till the -beautiful and affecting symbolism of the arrangement were pointed out. - -Again, it has not been left merely to the meditative ecclesiologist to -observe that Christian architecture has as decided a characteristic of -verticality, as Pagan architecture had of horizontalism. A mere artist -could not fail of marking the contrast between Beauvais and the -temples of Paestum. {lxiii } The contrast must then be admitted: but -how must we explain it? Surely no accident could have developed the -grovelling Pagan into the aspiring Gothic. What mechanical reasons -could produce Westminster from even the Parthenon? But is not the -phenomenon explained when we see in towering pier, spire, and -pinnacle, the symbolical exhibition of that religion which alone -aspires to things above, nay more, the figurative commemoration of -that Resurrection itself, which alone originates, and only justifies, -the same heavenward tendency. But if this be true; if these -acknowledged peculiarities in Christian architecture be utterly -unintelligible on any other supposition than this of a symbolical -meaning, surely it is not unreasonable to receive so ready a solution -of the difficulty: and, the principle admitted, why may not reasons of -the same figurative nature be assigned for other arrangements, in -themselves on any other interpretation not only meaningless but -obviously useless or absurd? - - -{lxiv} - -CHAPTER VI - -THE INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT - -We have next to show, by a process of induction, that some principles -of symbolism have always been observed in designing churches: that is -to say, that without any actual acquaintance with the plan, details or -arrangement of existing churches, we might gather from other sources, -not only the probability, but the fact, that there was some reason -(not merely mechanical or accidental) for the selection and universal -observation of particular forms and ornaments, and peculiar rules of -distribution. - -First, we shall refer to the celebrated passage of S. Clement of Rome, -[Footnote 22] about performing the Divine Offices decently and in -order, as to time, and place, and circumstance. 'Where and by whom God -willeth these to be performed He hath Himself defined by His most -supreme will.' 'But where,' says Mede, [Footnote 23] (discussing the -passage with the view of establishing a particular point, namely, -bowing towards the altar) 'hath the Lord defined these things, unless -He hath left us to the analogy of the Old Testament?' - - [Footnote 22: S. Clem. Rom., ad Corinth. I, 40.] - - [Footnote 23: Mede, in Epist. lviii Folio, Lib. iv.] - -{lxv} - -This indeed is obviously S. Clement's meaning: and not to go at any -length into the consideration of all the particular forms or -ceremonies of the Old dispensation which were perpetuated in the -New--as the threefold Ministry deduced by S. Jerome, from the High -Priest, Priests, and Levites; the Canonical Hours; the Gospel -anciently laid on the altar, answering to the Two Tables, and the -like--it will be sufficient to refer once more to the remarkable -parallel between a Christian church and the Jewish Temple. [Footnote -24] There can be little doubt that Mede proved his point of the -propriety of genuflexion towards the altar. We are contending for a -much simpler thing: for no more indeed than the concession of a -probability that in the earliest Christian churches there was at least -this resemblance to the Temple; that there should be in both a Holy of -Holies and an outer-court. Supposing this distinction to have been -only made by a curtain, our point is nevertheless gained; and we would -rest here on this one particular of resemblance only (though others -might be insisted on); because, any one designed parallel being -granted, the inference for others is easy. And here it will be enough -to observe that the almost constant practice in ancient writers of -applying to some one part of a Christian church a name or names -derived directly from the _Holy of Holies_ is a strong argument in our -favour: though the passages are often too incidental to be adduced as -evidence of an intended symbolism. [Footnote 25] But, we repeat, the -fact that a particular part of a church--(if we were now arguing for -rood screens, we {lxvi} should show that any such distinction of parts -made a _screen of some sort_ necessary, even if we did not know what -sort of screens really existed)--the fact that a particular part of a -church was distinguished by names directly carrying us back to the -exactly corresponding particular part in the Temple, shows that in the -arrangement at least, if not in the building, of the earliest churches -there was, at least in this one point, an intention to produce an -antitype to the typical Tabernacle. It is observed in a note to -Neander's history [Footnote 26] that if the interpretation of -Michaelis be received there is evidence of a Christian church being -built at Edessa, A.D. 202, with three parts, expressly after the model -of the Temple. - - [Footnote 24: See this carried out by Durandus. Appendix A.] - - [Footnote 25: Compare, amongst others, S. Cyprian, Ep. 55; Euseb. x, - 4. [Greek text]; Id. vii, 18. [Greek text] (the word used in the lxx - for the _Sanctuary_)'. S. Dionys. Areop., Ep. 8, ad Demoph.; S. - Athanas., _Edit, Commel._ Tom. ii, p. 255; Theod. H. E. iv, 17, v, - 18; Concil. Tours. (A. D. 557). can. 4; S. Germ. Constant. _In - Theor. rer. Eccles._; Card. Bona. _Rer Liturg._i, xxv, II; Dionys. - _Hierarch._ cap. 2; S. Chrysost. Lib vi, _De Sacerdotio._] - - [Footnote 26: Rose's Neander, i, 246.] - -Whatever may be the authority allowed to the Apostolical -Constitutions, the fact that they touch at some length upon the form -of churches is enough for our purpose. 'The church,' [Footnote 27] -they say, 'must be oblong in form, and pointing to the East' The -oblong form was meant to symbolise a ship, [Footnote 28] the ark -which was to save us from the stormy world. It would be perfectly -unnecessary to support this obvious piece of symbolism by citations. -The orientation is an equally valuable example of intended symbolism. -We gain an additional testimony to this from the well-known passage of -Tertullian, [Footnote 29] (a.d. 200,) about 'The house of our Dove.' -Whether this corrupt extract be interpreted with Mede or Bingham, -there can be no doubt that its {lxvii} _in lucem_ means that the -church should face the East or dayspring. The praying towards the East -was the almost invariable custom in the Early Churches, and as -symbolical as their standing in prayer upon the Festivals of the -Resurrection. [Footnote 30] So common was orientation in the most -ancient churches, that Socrates [Footnote 31] mentions particularly -the church at Antioch as having its 'position reversed; for the altar -does not look to the east but to the west.' This rule appears to have -been more scrupulously followed in the East than in the West; though -even in Europe examples to the contrary are exceptions. - - [Footnote 27: Apost. Const, 2, 57, (61.)] - - [Footnote 28: See also what is said on this point by Buscemi, in his - Notizie della Basilica di San Pietro, ch. iii, p. 7. The church of - SS. Vincenzo and Anastatio at Rome, near S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane, - built by Honorius I, (A.D. 630) has its wall _curved_ like the ribs - of a ship. The constitution itself refers to the resemblance of this - oblong form to a ship. See also S. Clem. Alex., _Paedag_, iii, 246.] - - [Footnote 29: Tertull. advers. Valent., cap. 2.] - - [Footnote 30: See Origen, _Hom_. 5, in _Numer_. cap, 4. Tertull. - _Apol_. cap. 16, and _Ad Nation_, i, 13. S. Clem. Alex. _Strom_, - vii, _ante med._ quoted by Mede.] - - [Footnote 31: Hist. Eccles. Lib. v, cap. [Greek text].] - -The Apostolical Constitution in its other directions about the -position of the bishop, priests, and deacons, and the separate -stations for the sexes, shows (as Father Thiers [Footnote 32] has -remarked) that there was even then a marked distinction between the -clergy and laity though the method of division is not described. At -any rate, what has been here adduced--compiled from notes taken some -time since for another object, and without access (from accidental -circumstances) to a library--seems enough to show that in the -earliest notices of Christian churches there is distinct intimation of -at least three particulars of intended symbolism. - - [Footnote 32: Thiers, _Dissert, de la Clôture du Choeur des - Eglises._cap. 2.] - -The circular form given to the church of the Holy Sepulchre was of -course appropriate enough in that particular case, where the sepulchre -would naturally become the centre. The circular churches of Europe -were again imitated from this. The Cross form would appear to have -made its first appearance in Constantinople: that is, in the city -which was the first to take a completely Christian character. {lxviii} -For example, the church of the Apostles built by Constantine was -cruciform: and the symbolism of this is pointed out by S. Gregory -Nazianzen in his poem, 'the Dream of Anastasia,' quoted by Bingham. -[Footnote 33] So Evagrius describes the church of S. Simon Stylites, -as cited by Buscemi, [Footnote 34] who also mentions a Cross church -founded by King Childebert, about the year 550. The cathedral of -Clermont, mentioned by S. Gregory of Tours, and the church of SS. -Nazarius and Celsus at Ravenna, both founded about 450, were -cruciform. More than this, we have examples of an oblong church being -_intentionally_ made cruciform by the addition of _apsides_, as at -Blachernoe by Justin Junior, instanced by Bingham out of Cedrenus and -Zonaras. This has been remarked also in the case of some Italian -churches: though the early churches of the West seemed to have -retained the oblong form, even when the details and general -arrangement were Byzantine, as in the _Capella Regia_ at Messina; the -more remarkable from the peculiar influence of Constantinople in the -island of Sicily. But in either case there was a symbolising intention -on the part of the founders of churches. - - [Footnote 33: Carm. ix, tom ii, p. 79. [Greek text]] - - [Footnote 34: Notizie etc. Note al Lib. 1, capo terzo. Nota 10 p. 15.] - -There is mention also of octagonal churches, as at Antioch and -Nazianzum: but these seem to have been mere exceptions; and perhaps -from being coupled with fonts in the inscription quoted by Mr. Poole -from Gruter, may have been intended to symbolise Regeneration. The -first two lines are as follows:-- - - Octachorum sanctos templum surrexit in usus: - Octagonus fons est munere dignus eo. - -{lxix} - -Bingham mentions that the oblong form was sometimes called [Greek -text] which he explains as intimating that they had void spaces for -deambulation. [Footnote 35] It seems however more likely that the -name was derived from the resemblance between this form of church and -a stadium; the apsidal end answering to the curve round the goal. - - [Footnote 35: Book viii, 3, following Leo Allatius and Suicer.] - -Some objection may be raised to our theory because Bingham, from whom -of course almost all the existing passages in ancient writers about -the form of churches might be gathered, does not recognise any such -principles, and rather seems on the other hand to believe that there -was at first no rule or law on these points. But it is not detracting -from his fame for almost consummate learning to question whether his -practical knowledge of church architecture, ancient or modern, was -very deep. It might be shown indeed to be far otherwise. But at any -rate the principle now contended for never entered his mind, or he -would have seen that some of the very passages he adduces to show that -the form of ancient churches was accidental, because (for example) -they were often made out of Basilicae or even heathen temples, really -tell against such a supposition. He quotes from Socrates [Footnote -36] a description of the conversion of a Pagan island to Christianity, -about 380, and the turning the heathen temple into a church. But the -words of the original, given in our note, are very remarkable: 'The -guise of the temple they transformed unto the type (or pattern) of a -church.' We want to prove nothing more than that there was _some_ type -of a church. It was not a mere ejection of idols that was required to -make a temple into a church: but some change of form and arrangement. -So also in a passage from Sozomen (vii, 15), 'The temple of Dionysus -which {lxx} they had, was changed in fittings ([Greek text]) into a -church.' Again, a very interesting passage about the conversion of -Iberia by means of a female captive in the time of Constantine is -cited from Theodoret, [Footnote 37] to show that churches _did exist_ -at that date. But we find a particular form of building clearly -alluded to in the original: and, more than this, 'He Who filled -Bezaleel with a wise spirit for building, judged this captive also -worthy of grace, so as to design the divine temple. And so she -designed, and they built.' And this passage brings us at once to the -famous panegyric on Paulinus, Bishop of Tyre, and builder of the -church there preserved by Eusebius. In this speech the prelate is -throughout supposed to have been inspired for his work, and is -compared to Bezaleel, Solomon and Zerubbabel, the builders of the -Tabernacle, and the First and Second Temples. And not only is the -general spirit assumed to be a directly religious one: but the details -are described as having a symbolical meaning. - - [Footnote 36: Socrates iv, 24, [Greek text].] - - [Footnote 37: Theodoret I. xxiv. [Greek text]] - -In the comparison between the material temple and the 'living temple' -the Spiritual Church, there are several points worthy of observation. -The symbolical explanation of the corner stone as our Lord, of the -foundation as the Apostles and Prophets, of the stones as the members -of the Church, are of course taken directly from Holy Scripture. It is -scarcely necessary to remark the great authority for considering the -fabric of the church as symbolical which these passages convey. Many -of our readers will remember how S. Hermas carries out into -considerable detail the same idea. But the Panegyrist in Eusebius -distinctly refers to 'the most {lxxi} inward recesses [of that -spiritual temple] which are unseen of the many, and are essentially -holy and holy of holies'; [Footnote 38] that is, of course, to a -Sanctuary; which he goes on to describe as having 'sacred inclosures,' -and as being accessible to the priest alone; with a distinct reference -to S. Paul's [Footnote 39] illustration taken from the Jewish -Temple. Again he proceeds to compare the Bishop Paulinus with the -'great High Priest,' not only in being permitted to enter the holy of -holies, but in doing what Christ has done, just as the Son did what He -saw the Father do. 'Thus he, looking with the pure eyes of his mind -unto the Great Teacher, whatsoever he seeth Him doing, as if making -use of archetypal patterns, has, by building ([Greek text]) as much -like them as possible, wrought out images of them as closely as can -be; having in no respect fallen short of Bezaleel, whom God Himself, -having filled him with the Spirit of wisdom and knowledge and other -skilful and scientific lore, called to be the builder of the material -expression of the heavenly types in the symbols of the temple. In this -way then Paulinus also, carrying wholly like a graven image in his -soul Christ Himself, the Word, the Wisdom the Light . . . has -constructed this magnificial temple of the most High God, resembling -in its nature the pattern of the better (temple) as a visible (emblem) -of that which is invisible.' [Footnote 40] - - [Footnote 38: Euseb. H. E., x, 4, 21.] - - [Footnote 39: Hebrews, ix, 6, 7.] - - [Footnote 40: Euseb. X, iv, 24, 25.] - -This remarkable passage appears to assert (i) the inspiration of the -architect, (ii) the fact of this heavenly type, which (iii) material -churches ought to follow; and (iv) the general symbolism of the -Spiritual Church by the visible fabric. We must pass over a great deal -of this oration, with a general request that such as are interested in -this discussion will read the whole in the original for the sake of -seeing its general spirit and bearing. {lxxii } The description of the -details is of great interest. The arrangement of the porticoes, etc., -is of course quite adapted to the wants of the Church in that age: it -is fair to own that the chief entrance appears to have faced the East -in this church. Mention is made also of seats in order for the bishops -and presbyters, and of the altar in the midst: the whole being -encompassed with wooden network, exquisitely worked, in order to be -made inaccessible to the multitude. [Footnote 41] Further on -[Footnote 42] we read that Paulinus rebuilt his church, 'such as he -had been taught from the delineation of the holy oracles.' And again, -'More wonderful than wonders are the _archetypes_, and the intelligent -and godlike _prototypes_ and _patterns_ (of earthly church building): -namely, I say, the renewing of the divine and reasonable building in -the soul'; [Footnote 43] assuming that material churches are but -copies from some heavenly type. Again, a passage, in which the ruined -fabric and the persecuted Church are mixed up, speaks of the Church as -'having been made after the image of God,' [Footnote 44] and more to -the same effect. The symbolical prophecy of the 'fair edification' of -the Gentile Church [Footnote 45] is quoted as being almost literally -fulfilled in the Tyrian church, and is still further symbolised by the -Panegyrist. [Footnote 46] The four-square atrium is said to set forth -the four Gospels of the scripture. [Footnote 47] - - [Footnote 41: Euseb. H. E., x, 43] - - [Footnote 42: Ibid 53.] - - [Footnote 43: Ibid 54.] - - [Footnote 44: Ibid 57.] - - [Footnote 45: Isaiah liv, 11.] - - [Footnote 46: Euseb. X. iv, 60.] - - [Footnote 47: Ibid 61.] - -The whole arrangement of the church is symbolised at much length, as -setting forth the different divisions of the laity and the states of -the faithful with respect to advance in holiness. The great portico -symbolised God the Father: the side porticoes the other Two Persons of -the Most Holy Trinity. The seats represented the souls of the -faithful, upon which, {lxxiii} as on the Day of Pentecost, the cloven -tongues would descend and _sit_ upon each of them. 'The revered and -great and only altar, what could this be but the spotlessness of soul -and holiness of holies of the common Priest of us all?' [Footnote 48] -Once more, the parallel between the spiritual and the material -Churches being continued, the Word, the Great Demiurgus of all things, -is said to have Himself made upon earth a copy of the heavenly pattern -which is the Church of the Firstborn written in heaven, Jerusalem that -is above, Sion the Mount of God, and the city of the living God. - - [Footnote 48: Euseb. H. E., x, 65.] - -It appears then that throughout this description a symbolical meaning -is found attached to the material church: and this not far-fetched or -now first fancifully imagined; but appealing, as it seems, to what the -auditors would be prepared to grant, and admitted by the historian -without a comment, as one specimen of a class. - -We have before remarked that every notice of the particular -distribution of a church for the reception of the different classes of -Christians, may be taken as an argument on our side: for if it can be -shown that the form of churches was not arbitrary, but was adapted to -certain peculiar wants, it must be granted that there was some -particular law of design, and that law connected with Ritual: and -then, as before pointed out, this arrangement becomes itself -symbolical, and that _intentionally_. We shall only refer here to a -passage quoted by Bingham, [Footnote 49] in which S. Gregory -Thaumaturgus describes the places in church assigned respectively to -the five degrees of Penitents. Mede [Footnote 50] argues for the -_existence_ of churches in the first three centuries, from the -universal custom of praying towards the East, the necessity of {lxxiv} -providing distinct places for the Penitents, Hearers, Catechumens, and -Faithful, and from the patterns of the Jewish _proseuchae_ and -synagogues. But all these arguments seem to tell as much for some -particular form of churches as for their existence: that is they prove -that the earliest churches were designed on rules which, even if not -intentionally symbolical (though we have shown that many were so), -became by a natural process intentional among later church-builders. - - [Footnote 49: Greg. Nyssen, iii, 567.] - - [Footnote 50: Discourse of Churches, Folio Edn., p. 333.] - -So also with respect to the great division into nave and sanctuary by -a screen of some sort: concerning which the passages that might be -cited from ancient writers would be innumerable. We shall only give -one quoted by Father Thiers from a Poem of S. Gregory of Nazianzum, in -which the _balustrade_ or rood-screen is said to be 'between two -worlds, the one immovable, the other changeful; the one of gods (or -heaven) the other of mortals (or earth); that is to say between the -choir and the nave, between the clergy and the laity.' - -We have attempted to prove then that the earliest Christian churches -were designed, or described, symbolically: by showing that there was a -reason for their shape, whether oblong, cruciform, or circular; for -their main division into choir and nave, and their subdivision for the -penitents: for their orientation; and even to some extent for their -minor internal arrangements: and that some type or pattern of a church -was universally recognised. [Footnote 51] - - [Footnote 51: Much stress is laid by some on the acknowledged - Bascilican origin of churches as an argument against the principle - here contended for. But we find a great authority on the Antiquities - of Christian Rome deciding differently: 'There seems to be in the - building of churches, as in the mosaics, and other works of art of - the old Christian times in Rome one constant type in which the art - of building could show little freedom or variety.-- _Beschreibung - der Stadt Rom. Basiliken._vol, i, p. 430.] - -{lxxv} - -It would require more reading than we can boast of to give a catena of -writers who have asserted the symbolism of churches. But if the point -has been in any way proved for the first four centuries, enough will -have been done: since from that period we can trace from existing -edifices the gradual relinquishment of the peculiar Basilican plan, -and general adoption of the Latin Cross, or oblong, in the West, while -the East consistently retained the Greek Cross. We observe it stated -[Footnote 52] that Mr. E. Sharpe, in a paper read before the Cambridge -Camden Society, described the gradual _typical_ additions' to the -Basilican ground plan. Indeed symbolism, to any extent, once made -known, must have become a rule and precedent to later church -architects. - - [Footnote 52: Ecclesiologist, vol. i, p. 120.] - -S. Isidore, of Seville, incidentally mentions many symbolical -arrangements: they will be found in the notes to the text of the -Rationale. Many pieces of symbolism are to be found incidentally in -the Decretum of Gratian. - -In mentioning Durandus himself, it seems proper to anticipate an -objection which may occur to some readers. The authority, it may be -said, of that writer must be very small who can give such absurd -derivations as _cemeterium_ from _cime, altare_ from _alta res, -allegory_ from _allon_ and _gore_. But it must be remembered, firstly, -that in the thirteenth century, Greek was a language almost unknown in -Europe: next, that our author nowhere professes an acquaintance with -it: further, that the science of derivation was hardly understood till -within the last few years: and lastly, that Cicero's authority led -Durandus into some errors; for instance, his derivation of _templum_ -from _tectum amplum_. - -One proof of the _reality_ of Durandus's principles we must not fail -to notice. It is the express allusion which he makes to, and the -graphical description which he {lxxvi} gives of, that which we know to -have been the style of architecture employed in his time. The tie -beams, the deeply splayed windows, the interior shafts, all prove that -we are engaged with a writer of Early English date. - -It is very remarkable, that Durandus, S. Isidore, Beleth, and the -rest, seem to quote from some canons of church symbolism now unknown -to us. Their words are often, even where they are not very connected -nor intelligible, the same. One example may suffice. 'In that this -rod,' says Hugh of S. Victor, 'is placed above the Cross, it is shown -that the words of Scripture be consummated and confirmed by the Cross: -whence our Lord said in His Passion, "It is Finished." _And His Title -was indelibly written over Him_' (p. 200). 'In that the iron rod,' -says Durandus, 'is placed above the Cross, on the summit of the -church, it signifieth that Holy Scripture is now consummated and -confirmed. Whence saith our Lord in his Passion, "It is Finished," -_and that Title is written indelibly over Him_(p. 28). The following, -by way of another instance, is the symbolical [Footnote 53] -description of a church, written on a fly-leaf, at the beginning of a -MS. 'Psalterium Glossatum,' in the public library at Boulogne, though -formerly in that of S. Bertin's Abbey, at S. Omer. - - [Footnote 53: _British Magazine_, 1843, p. 393.] - -The text is either of the tenth or eleventh century; but it will be -seen that the words of Durandus, writing at so great a distance of -time and place, are nearly the same in some passages. - - Fundamentum ipsius Camerae est Fides. - Altitudo ejus est Spes. - Latitudo ejus est Caritas. - Longitudo ejus est Perseverantia. - Latera ejus sunt Concordia et Pax. -{lxxvii} - Frontes ipsius sunt Justicia & Veritas. - Pulchritudo ejus est exemplum bonorum operum. - Fenestrae ejus sunt dicta sanctorum. - Pavimentum ejus est humilitas cordis. - Camera est conversatio coelestis. - Pilastri ejus sunt spiritales virtues. - Columnae ejus sunt boni pontifices & sacerdotes. - Interlegatio ejus est vinculum pacis. - Tectum ejus est fidelis dispensator. - * isces ejus sunt mediatio celestis. - Mensa Christi est in camera bona conversatio. - Ministerium Christi in camera sua est bona memoria. - Facinus Christi est bona voluntas. - Canterellus Christi est nitor conscientiae. - Cathedra Christi est serenitas mentis. - Sponsa Christi est sancta anima. - Camerariae Christi spiritales virtutes sunt: - Prima Sancta Caritas dicta est; illa Christi regit cameram. - Secunda est Sancta Humilitas; illa est thesauraria in camera Christi - Tertia est Sancta Patientia; illa facit luminaria in camera Christi. - Quarta Sancta Puritas; illa scopat cameram Christi. - -But besides, and in our opinion stronger than this express and -continuous testimony to the fact that Catholic architecture is -symbolical, we have the testimony of all other branches of Catholic -art, which none ever did, or could deny to be figurative and -sacramental. Let us take merely the rites which accompany the close of -Easter week. We enter a darkened church, illuminated only by the -lighted 'Sepulchre': we hear the history of the Passion chaunted by -three voices in three recitatives: we have the most mournfully -pathetic strain for the 'Reproaches' which perhaps the human mind ever -imagined:--we pray for Pagans--and we kneel; we pray for Turks--and we -kneel; we pray for the Jews, and we kneel not; in abhorrence of the -mockery that bowed the knee to the King of the Jews. We enter that -church again, now perfectly darkened, except for the one lamp that -renders the lectern and the books {lxxviii} thereon just visible: the -solemn litanies seem in that obscurity, and amidst the silent crowd of -worshippers, more solemn than usual. There is a short pause: then in -one second, priests and people, voices and instruments, burst forth -with the Easter Alleluia: light pours in from every window of the -cathedral: showers of rose leaves fall from the roof: bells--silent -for three long days, peal from every church tower: guns fire and -banners wave: _Dominus resurrexit vere, Alleluia, et apparuit Sinioni -Alleluia_. - -Now, without being concerned to defend, or the contrary, any or all of -these ceremonies, we ask:--Is it possible to conceive that the Church -which invented so deeply symbolical a system of worship--should have -rested content with an unsymbolical building for its practice? This -consideration, perhaps, belongs to the analogical branch of our essay: -yet it may also find a place here, as one of the strongest parts of -the inductive argument. - -Seeing then that there are strong reasons _à priori_ for believing -that the ritual and architecture of the Church would partake of a -decidedly symbolical character: that by the analogy of the practice -amongst all religionists, of the operations of God in nature, of the -conditions of Art, and especially of the whole sacramental system of -the Church, it is likely that church architecture itself would be -sacramental: that from the nature of things everything material is in -some sort sacramental, and a material fabric essentially figurative of -the purpose for which it was designed: that an actual Christian church -(taken as we find it) has such accidents as can be explained on no -other than a symbolical supposition, and might be analysed into just -those elements from which, by induction, we first constructed an -hypothetical Christian church: and lastly, that from express and -{lxxix} continuous historical testimony without any actual -acquaintance with existing fabrics we might have deduced that the -material church would be itself, to some extent, a figurative -expression of the religion for the celebration of which it was -constructed: it does not seem too much to assert that Christian -architecture owes its distinctive peculiarities to its sacramental -character, and that consequently we can neither appreciate ancient -examples nor hope to rival them, at least in their perfection, without -taking into account this principle of their design. In other words, -the cause of that indefinable difference between an ancient and modern -church which we were led to discover at the beginning of this -treatise, is neither association of ideas nor correctness of detail, -nor picturesqueness, nor of a mechanical nature, but (in the most -general point of view) is the sacramentality, the religious symbolism, -which distinguished and sanctified this as every other branch of -mediaeval art. - - -{lxxx} - -CHAPTER VII - -EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM - -In endeavouring shortly to develop the practice of symbolism, -according to our view of the subject, we are fully aware that to those -who have never yet bestowed a thought upon it, we shall appear mere -visionaries or enthusiasts. It has been the fashion of late to smile -at the whole theory, as amusing and perhaps beautiful: but quite -unpractical and indeed impracticable. We cannot hope to convince by -aesthetics those who are deaf to more direct arguments, and who refuse -to view everything, as churchmen ought to do, through the medium of -the Church. But those who agree with us in the latter duty, will -perhaps suffer themselves to think twice on what will be advanced -before they condemn it. - -We shall consider the practice of symbolism as connected with, 1. The -Holy Trinity; 2. Regeneration; 3. The Atonement; 4. The Communion of -Saints; and then we shall notice several parts of a church, such as -windows, doors, etc., with their specific symbolical meaning. - -The doctrine of the Holy Trinity has left, as might be expected, -deeper traces in the structure of our churches than any other -principles of our faith. We have already noticed that possibly the -Basilican arrangement might be providentially ordered with reference -to this. {Ixxxi} In Saxon times we find the idea carried out, not only -by the Nave and two Aisles, but also by the triple division in length, -into Nave, Chancel, and Sanctum Sanctorum. This triple division is -most frequently given in Norman buildings, by a central tower; with -chancel and nave: we also find in this style a triple chancel arch, an -arrangement never occurring at a later epoch. Thus length and breadth -were made significant of this Mystery; nor was height less so. The -clerestory, the triforium, and the piers cannot fail to suggest it. -Indeed, where a triforium was not needed, there is often, as at Exeter -and Wells, an arrangement of arcading in niches to resemble it, made -that the triplicity might be retained. It is only in late -Perpendicular, such as the nave of Canterbury cathedral, that the -arrangement is omitted: there the eye is at once dissatisfied. Again, -the triple orders of moulding, which are so much more frequent than -any other number, may be supposed to refer to the same thing. The -altar steps, three, or some multiple of three, certainly do. So do the -three fingers with which Episcopal Benediction is given. And this is a -very early symbolism. It occurs in illuminated MS. We may mention one -(Harl. 5540) of the thirteenth century, where it forms a part of the -first letter of S. John's gospel. So, as we shall presently see, are -Eastern triplets. And reference is constantly made to the same -doctrine in bosses: we may mention as a remarkable instance one that -occurs in Stamford, S. Mary's, a figure with an equilateral triangle -in its mouth: thereby setting forth the duty of the preacher to -proclaim the doctrine of the Trinity. In large churches, the three -towers undoubtedly proclaim the same doctrine. We shall hereafter show -that neither in nave and aisles, in triplets, or any thing else, is -the _inequality_ any thing else than what might have been expected. - -{lxxxii} - -II. The Doctrine of Regeneration - -We know, as a fact, that from the earliest times, baptisteries and -fonts were octagonal. We know also that the reason assigned, if not by -S. Ambrose himself at least by one of his contemporaries, for this -form was, that the number eight was symbolical of Regeneration. For as -the old Creation was complete in seven days, so the number next -ensuing may well be significative of the new. - -Now none can deny that very much the greater number of fonts are in -this shape. To prove this we will refer to those selected by the -Cambridge Camden Society in the appendix to the second edition of -their 'Few Words to Church-Builders.' There we find. - - Octagonal. Of all other shapes - - In Norman 15 43 - Early English 19 30 - Decorated 24 1 - Perpendicular 57 2 - Total 115 76 - -Now, it is to be remembered, that the superior convenience of a -cylindrical or circular form, together with the wont of Norman -architects rather to symbolise facts than doctrine, accounts for the -comparatively small number of octagonal fonts in that style: in later -ages their preponderance is overwhelming. - -The symbolism sculptured on the sides of the font hardly falls under -our consideration in this place. And besides, it has been fully -detailed in the publications of the Cambridge Camden Society, and of -Mr. Poole. Whether the general octagonal uses of piers may not arise -from a similar design, we do not pretend to decide. - -{lxxxiii} - -One of the most apposite illustrations in _corbels_, consists in three -fishes intertwined in an equilateral triangle; and thus typifying our -regeneration in the Three Persons of the Ever-Blessed Trinity. For it -need not be said, that the fish is the emblem of the Christian, as -being born again of water. The mystical vesica piscis of this form () -wherein the Divinity, and (more rarely) the Blessed Virgin are -represented has no reference, except in its name to a fish; but -represents the almond, the symbol of virginity, and self-production. - - -III. The Atonement - -We will notice in the third place, the symbolical representation of -the great doctrine of the Atonement, in the ground lines and general -arrangement of our churches. - -As soon as ever Christianity possessed temples of her own, the -cruciform shape was, we have seen, sometimes adopted. And so, as we -all know, has it continued down to the present day. England, perhaps, -has fewer examples of cross churches than any other country: the -proportion of those which bear this shape being not so much as one in -ten. In France, on the contrary, the ratio would probably be inverted. -Into the reason of this remarkable difference we shall not now -inquire: but will merely remark, that many churches which do not, in -an exterior view, appear cruciform, are nevertheless, from their -internal arrangements, really so. The transepts do not project beyond -the aisles: but have distinct transept arches, and a window of much -larger dimensions than those in the aisles. This principally occurs in -city churches, or where the founders were confined for want of room. -And this is the case as well in churches which have aisles to the -chancel, as in Godalming, Surrey, as where the nave alone has them, -{lxxxiv} as in Holy Rood, Southampton. They will be distinguished -readily on the outside by the northern and southern gable. In some -cathedral churches, there is a double cross: in York, this perhaps -signifies the metro-political dignity of that church; in other cases, -it was probably merely a method of imparting greater dignity to the -building. Some churches--though they are not frequent--are in the form -of a Greek Cross: that is, the four arms are all of equal length. -Darlington, Durham, is an example: in this case there is a central -tower. In some, as at Westminster, Gloucester, and S. Albans, the -choir runs westward of the transept; in Seville, almost the whole of -the choir is locally in the nave; in others, as Ely, it does not -extend westward so far. These peculiarities, curious in themselves, do -not affect the symbolism: and probably no modification of meaning is -to be attached to them. - -Mr. Lewis has asserted, that in early churches, a cross was marked on -the pavement, the upper part running into the chancel, the arms -extending into the transepts, and the body occupying the nave. And -some such arrangement, or rather the traces of it, we have ourselves -perhaps noticed. The reason it was given up, was probably the anathema -pronounced by the second OEcumenical Council, on those who should -tread on that holy symbol. - -Thus, in the ground plan, the Cross of Christ was preached. It is -often said, that the adjacent chapels, more especially the Lady -Chapel, obscured the symbolism. But it must be remembered that a -ground plan can only be judged of in two methods: either from a height -above, for example, the tower of the church; or when marked out on -paper. It is surprising, in either of these cases, how easily the most -complex cathedral resolves itself to the spectator's eyes into a -cross. - -{lxxxv} - -In looking at the details of churches, the Cross is marked on the -Dos-d'ânes and plain coffin lids of the earliest times: it commences -the later inscriptions on brass: it surmounts pinnacle, and gable, and -porch; it is often imprinted on the jambs of the principal entrance, -showing the exact spot touched in the consecration with chrism, -[Footnote 54] and possibly having reference to the blood sprinkled at -the Passover on the Door Post: and finally, in a more august form, is -erected in the churchyard. And here we may notice another curious and -beautiful expression of Catholic feeling. [Footnote 55] - - [Footnote 54: It is proper to distinguish between Dedication - Crosses, which are generally of considerable size, - examples of which may be seen in Moorlinch, Somersetshire, - and those small crosses in door jambs, as in Preston, - Sussex, the use of which is not very clear, but which - were perhaps intended to remind the entering worshipper to - cross himself. At Yatton, Somersetshire, inside the - northern door, and towards the east, is a large - quatrefoil-fashioned cross: this perhaps pointed out a - now destroyed benatura.] - - [Footnote 55: That there are some plain crosses, cannot be - denied--more especially that on which the weathercock is placed. A - little consideration will, perhaps, clear up this difficulty. The - cross may be viewed in two distinct lights. It may either set forth - that on which our Redeemer suffered--in which case it is the symbol - of glory: or it may image that Cross which every true Christian is - to take up--in which case it may still be called the Symbol of - Shame. In the latter signification, it may well be quite plain. But, - inasmuch as our ancestors looked more to the Passion of Christ than - to their own unworthiness, the former symbol is that which generally - occurs. Yet not always on the church spire, perhaps for this - reason:--the spire urges us, by its upward tendency, to press on - towards our heavenly home--a home which can only be reached by the - cheerful bearing of that cross by means of which (as it were) it - points. The cross therefore is here, with propriety, plain.] - -It is very uncommon to find a plain cross surmounting a church: the -whole force of Christian art has sometimes been expended in wreathing -and embellishing the instrument of redemption: flowers, and figures, -and foliage are lavished upon it. And why? Because that which was once -the by-word of Pagans, the instrument of scorn and of suffering, has -become the symbol of Hope and of Glory, of Joy, and of Eternal -Felicity; and its material expression has altered proportionately. -{xxxvi} In that the arms frequently end in leaves and flowers, they -signify the flourishing and continual increase of that Church which -was planted on Mount Calvary. The Crown of Thorns is sometimes -wreathed around them: but so, that it should rather resemble a Crown -of Glory. The instruments of the Passion are, as every one knows, of -the most ordinary occurrence. The commonest of these are--the Cross, -the Crown of Thorns, the Spear, the Scourge, the Nails, and the Sponge -on the pole. But in the Suffolk and Somersetshire churches many others -are added. Their position is various: sometimes, as in Stogumber, -Somersetshire, they appear amidst the foliage of a perpendicular -capital: sometimes, as in the Suffolk churches, they are found in the -open seats: often in bosses, often in brasses, often in stained glass; -and sometimes the angel that supports a bracket holds them portrayed -on a shield. The Five Wounds are also often found. These are -represented by a heart, between two hands and two feet, each pierced; -or by a heart pierced with five wounds, as in a brass at King's -College chapel, Cambridge. The instruments of the Passion may -sometimes be seen amongst the volutes of the stem of the churchyard -cross: examples occur at Belleville, near Havre, in Normandy, and -Santa Cruz, in Madeira. - -Again, the very position of our blessed Saviour on the Cross as -represented in the great rood and in stained glass, is not without a -meaning. In modern paintings, the arms are high above the head, the -whole weight of the body seeming to rest upon them. And this, besides -its literal truth, gives occasion to that miserable display of -anatomical knowledge in which such pictures so much abound. The -Catholic representation pictures the arms as extended horizontally: -thereby signifying how the Saviour, when extended on the Cross, -embraced the {lxxxvii} whole world. [Footnote 56] Thus, as it ever -ought to be, is physical sacrificed to moral truth. Perhaps for a -similar reason S. Longinus is represented as piercing the Right Side, -instead of the Left: and in a representation of the Five Wounds, it is -the right side of the breast that is pierced (as in a brass at -Southfleet, Kent); that being the side of the greatest strength, and -thereby typifying the strength of that love wherewith our Redeemer -loved us. [But this may be doubted. For it appears pretty clear that -the ancient Church considered the Right Side to have been that which -was really pierced. According to modern ideas, the effusion of the -water was not a miracle. S. John undoubtedly considered it not only a -miracle, but one of the most extraordinary which he had to relate, -seeming to stop the mouth of the objector by insisting on the fact, -that he himself was an eye-witness.] In some old roods, a still -further departure was made from literal truth: the Saviour was -represented on the Cross, as a crowned king, arrayed in royal apparel. -[Footnote 57] And his figure was constantly represented as larger than -that of His attendants, His Blessed Mother, and S. John, thereby -signifying his immeasurable superiority over the highest of human -beings. - - [Footnote 56: However, in late stained glass, the modern position is - sometimes found as in a Crucifixion represented in the east window - of the north aisle, in Wiscombe church, Somersetshire. ] - - [Footnote 57: To this we may add the conventional representation of - Royal Saints, such as S. Edmund, wearing their kingly crowns during - their passion. That such conventional symbolism is _natural_ to us - may be shown by alluding (without irreverence in this connection) to - the way in which kings are always figured with crown and orb in - popular prints: and even, as in a sign-post at Leighterton, - Gloucestershire, King Charles II, hiding himself in the Royal Oak, - is arrayed in all the insignia of majesty.] - -Another reference to the Atonement will be found in the deviation -which the line of the chancel often presents from that of the nave. It -is sometimes to the north, but more frequently to the south. -{lxxxviii} There are many more churches in which it occurs than those -who have not examined the subject would believe: perhaps it is not too -much to say that it may be noticed in a quarter of those in England. -Of our cathedrals, it is most strongly marked in York and Lichfield: -among the parish churches in which we have observed it, none have it -so strongly as Eastbourne and Bosham, in Sussex, and S. Michael's at -Coventry: in all of which the most casual glance could not but detect -the peculiarity of appearance it occasions. This arrangement -represents the inclination of our Saviour's Head on the Cross. In -roods the Head generally inclines to the left. - -Mr. Poole, after noticing the fact in York minster, seems inclined to -attribute it to a desire of evading the old foundation lines of that -church, which induced the builders to deviate a little from the -straight line, rather than encounter the difficulty of removing this -obstacle. But in the first place, however much modern church builders -might bethink themselves of such an expedient, it is not at all in the -character of the church architects of other days: and in the second, -the explanation is applicable to York alone, one only out of many -hundred churches so distinguished. - - -IV. The Communion of Saints - -Next, we will notice the effect which the Doctrine of the Communion of -Saints has exercised in the designs of churches. - -In the ground plan of small churches there is little which seems to -bear on this subject. The principal references to departed saints -occur in the stained glass, in the rood screen, in niches, in the -canopies of monuments, and in brasses. Monuments, in particular, often -afford some beautiful ideas, among which we may notice {lxxxix} the -angels which often are seated at the head of the effigy, supporting -the helmet or pillow, and seeming to point out the care of angels for -the saints. In cathedrals, however, the chapels have a very -considerable effect upon the ground plan: though we cannot agree with -Mr. Poole that such a modification of the principal lines of the -building for the reception of these shrines and oratories, is -necessarily uncatholic. He principally objects to the position of the -Lady Chapel at the east end, above, as he expresses it, the High -Altar. Now we believe the Lady Chapel to have occupied that place -merely on grounds of convenience: not from any design--which it is -shocking to imagine--of exalting the Blessed Virgin to any -participation in the honours of the Deity. Sometimes, as at Durham, -this chapel is at the west end: in country churches, it generally -occupied the east end of the north or south aisle: and sometimes is -placed over the chancel, as in Compton, Surrey, Compton Martin, -Somerset, and Darenth, Kent; or over the porch, as at Fordham, -Cambridgeshire. At Bristol cathedral it is on the north side of the -choir. That the position of the Lady Chapel at the east end adds -greatly to the beauty of the building wall hardly be denied on a -comparison of York, or Lincoln, or Peterborough with Lichfield, _as it -now is_. - - -{xc} - -CHAPTER VIII - -EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM CONTINUED - -We come now, according to the plan we laid down, to speak of the -symbolism of some particular features of a church, which do not fall -so well under any of the four heads which we have been considering. -And firstly, of windows. - -The primary idea shadowed forth in every one of the styles, is the -saying of our Lord to His disciples, _ye are the light of the world_. -More simply set forth at first, this notion acquired, in the course of -time, various methods of expression, and was subjected to different -modifications; but we must retain it as the ground work or we shall be -in danger of mistaking the true meaning of ancient church architects. - -In Norman, then, and early English, the single lights north and south, -set forth the Apostles and Doctors who have shined forth in their time -as the lights of the Church: and the rich pattern of flowerwork -wherewith the stained glass in them was decked, represented the -variety of graces in each. But to have symbolised the servants without -the Master, the members without the Head, had been at variance with -all the Catholic Church has ever practised. Looking therefore to the -east end, we behold that well-known feature, the Triplet: setting -{xci} forth the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity. [Footnote 58] Nor is -this all: to denote that all the Church has, and all She is, is from -above, the string course, springing from the eastern triplet, runs -round the whole church (often both within and without,) binding it, as -it were, in and connecting every other light, with those at the east. -Again, the Western Door, as we shall see, symbolised Christ: and two -lights, typical of His two natures, are therefore generally placed -over it. There are, undoubtedly, instances of western triplets: though -we think that the Camden Society has well explained these. - - [Footnote 58: We read, in the legend of S. Barbara, that, being - confined by her father in a room where were two windows only, she - added a third, by way of setting forth this Mystery.] - -In some cases, there is a series of couplets on each side of the -church: and, taking the hint from Durandus, we may interpret this -arrangement of the mission of the Apostles two and two. - -A series of triplets as in Salisbury cathedral, and the Lady Chapel of -Bristol, is very rare: and, of course, not objectionable on any other -grounds than that of the too cheap use of a most beautiful feature. - -So far all is simple: but as we approach the decorated style, the -symbolism becomes excessively complicated. The principal doctrines of -the Catholic Church are set forth in each window: and to unravel the -whole of these is often a task of no small difficulty. We shall -proceed to give a few examples, with the explanation which appears to -us probable: entreating the reader to remember, that if in any -instance our conjectures should appear unfounded, the failure of -probability in one case throws no discredit on the others, and still -less does it invalidate the system. Durandus's silence on the language -of tracery is easily explained by the consideration, that assign as -late a date as we will to the {xcii} publication of his work, it came -forth while the Early English style was yet in existence: and his -silence on triplets only proves, what is well known to -ecclesiologists, that they are far less common in foreign than in our -own architecture. - -In Norman windows the wheel window is conspicuous. This, whether -formed with the _radii_ like those of Barfreston, or of the Temple -church, represent (as we shall presently observe that Norman symbolism -usually _does_ represent) an historical fact: namely, the martyrdom of -S. Catherine. The celebrity of this Virgin Martyr may tend to explain -why she should be so far honoured: a celebrity which has descended to -our own day in the common sign of the Cat and Wheel: as well as the -firework so denominated. - -Of Norman triplets there are not many to which we can refer. The tower -of Winchester, however, presenting one on each face, is a noble -example. The southeastern transept of Rochester, though later, is -equally in point: it contains two triplets, far apart, and one -disposed above the other. The west front of S. Etienne at Caen is a -well-known instance. - -The earliest symbolism of Early English triplets represented the -Trinity alone; the Trinity in Unity was reserved for a somewhat later -period. And this was typified by the hood moulding thrown across the -three lights. At other times a quatre-foiled, or cinque-foiled, circle -was placed at some little distance above the triplet: thus typifying -the Crown which befits the Majesty of the King of Kings. And the same -Crown is often exhibited above the western couplet. But, for as much -as we are 'compelled by the Christian verity to acknowledge every -person by Himself to be God and Lord,' a crown is sometimes -represented over each light of the triplet, as in Wimborne minster. - -{xciii} - -Another method of representing the same doctrine was by a simple -equilateral triangle for a window: whether plain, of which there are -many examples, or with the toothed ornament, as in the famous example -at York minster. - -S. Giles's at Oxford has windows, the tracery of which will serve as -an example of many: it has _three tre_-foiled lights, with _three_ -quatre-foiled circles, arranged triangle-wise in the head. - -This type is a little varied in S. Mary Magdalene's church, in the -same city, by the introduction of the ogee form. - -Berkeley church has a wheel window containing _three_ quatre-foils: -the three spaces left between them and the line being _tre_-foiled. - -The east windows of Dunchurch and Fen Stanton have been explained in -the publications of the Cambridge Camden Society: the former in their -'Few Words to Church-Builders,' the latter in their illustrations of -monumental brasses. Part iv. - -The south transept of Chichester cathedral is a glorious specimen of -decorated symbolism. In the gable is a Marygold, containing two -intersecting equilateral _tri_-angles: the _six_ apices of these are -_sex_-foiled; the interior _hex_-agon is beautifully worked in _six_ -leaves. The lower window seven lights: in the head is an equilateral -spherical _tri_-angle, containing a large _tre_foil, intersected by a -smaller _tre_-foil. Here we have the Holy Trinity, the Divine -Attributes, the perfection of the Deity. - -A window in Merton College chapel has _three_ lights: with a circle in -the head containing _six sex_-foils. - -Broughton, Oxon, has in the head of one of its windows a circle, -containing two intersecting equilateral triangles, the _six_ apices, -and _six_ spaces around, being _tre_-foiled. - -{xciv} - -The east end of Lincoln, though far inferior to the south transept of -Chichester, is nevertheless highly symbolical. The east window of each -of the aisles has _three_ lights, with _three_ foliated circles, -disposed _triangle_-wise in the head. The great east window has eight -lights in two divisions, each whereof has _three_ foliated circles in -the head: and in the apex of the window is a circle containing seven -foliations. The upper window has a circle of eight foliations in the -head: and in the apex of the gable is an equilateral trefoil. - -The next element introduced was the consideration of the Six -Attributes of the Deity. One of the simplest examples was to be found -in the west window of the north aisle of S. Nicholas, at Guildford: a -plain circle, containing six _tre_-foils: these are arranged in two -_tri_-angles, each containing _three tre_-foils, and the two sets are -varied. - -The clerestory of Lichfield cathedral (circ. 1300), is a series of -spherical _tri_-angles, each containing _three tre_-foils. - -A similar clerestory occurs in the north-west transept of Hereford -cathedral, and the same idea is repeated in its triforium: a series of -_three tre_-foiled lights, with _three_ circles in the head. - -The east end of Lichfield symbolises most strikingly the same glorious -doctrine. The apse is _tri_-gonal: the windows of each side are the -same: each is of _three_ lights, with six _tre_-foils (emblematical of -the six attributes) disposed above in the form of an equilateral -_tri_-angle. - -The east end of Chichester is rather earlier, but introduces yet -another element. Here we have a triplet: and at some height above it, -a wheel-window of seven circles: symbolising therefore eternity and -perfection. - -{xcv} - -The triforium and clerestory of Carlisle are singular symbols of the -doctrine of the Trinity. The former has in each bay three adjacent -equal lancets. The latter is a series of triplets; the central window -in each being composed of three lights. We may observe, by the way, -that three _adjacent_ equal lancets are hardly ever found, whatever -the reason may be. We know but of three examples: in the churches of -Bosham, Sussex, Godalming, Surrey, and S. Mary-le-Crypt, Gloucester: -and in all these cases they occupy the same position, the south east -end of the chancel, or chancel aisle. - -Dorchester church, Oxfordshire, has for one of its windows an -equilateral spherical triangle with three heads, or knops, one at each -angle. - -We are now in a purely decorated age. And as one of its earliest -windows we may mention that in the Bishop of Winchester's Palace at -Southwark. It was a wheel, and contained two intersecting equilateral -_tri_-angles: around them were _six sex_-foiled triangles the hexagon -in the centre containing a star of _six_ greater and _six_ smaller -rays. Here, of course, the Blessed Trinity and the divine and human -natures were set forth. [Footnote 59] - - [Footnote 59: We may perhaps be allowed to say a few words here on - the subject of those singular windows which the Cambridge Camden - Society has called _Lychnoscopes_. - - It appears, that in Early English churches, the westernmost window - on the south side of the chancel is both lower than, and in other - ways (particularly by a transom) distinguished from the rest. It is - sometimes merely a square aperture, as in some churches in the Weald - of Sussex: sometimes a small ogee-headed light, as in old Shoreham: - sometimes, where the south side of the chancel is lighted by a - series of lancets, the westernmost, as in Chiddingfold, Sussex, is - transomed, where the others end, and carried down lower; sometimes - the lower part appears to have been _originally_ blocked, as in - Kemerton, Gloucestershire, and Kingstone next Lewes, Sussex: - sometimes there are remains of clamps, as at Buckland, Kent, - sometimes of shutters. Again, sometimes there are two, one north, - the other south of the chancel: sometimes the same arrangement is - found S.E. of the nave. On the other hand, it is never found in any - but a parish church: never in late work: seldom is it ornamented. We - will give a few remarkable instances. I. _Dinder_, Somersetshire. - Here there is a double lychnoscope, north and south: the date is - late Early English, and the specimen is unique from there being a - rude moulding in the window arch. 2. _Othery_, Somersetshire. The - lychnoscope itself is here blocked: it is square-headed, and of two - lights: date probably Early Decorated. The church is cruciform, and - a central perpendicular tower was subsequently erected. One of the - diagonal buttresses is thrown out at a distance of some three feet - from the window, so as to hide it: and an oblique square hole has - been cut through the masonry of the buttress. This is the more - remarkable, because there are stalls in the chancel, of - perpendicular work, which would seem to render any window in that - position useless. 3. _Christon_, Somersetshire. Here, _almost close - to the ground_, is a horizontal slit which appears never to have - been glazed. This is an early Norman church. So at Albury, Surrey, - at the S.E. end of the south aisle. 4. _S. Appolline_, Guernsey. - This church is of the same date as, or may be earlier than, the - last. The windows are rude and square-headed slits: the lychnoscope - is transomed. 5. _Preston_, Sussex. There are three windows in the - south of the chancel, which rise one above the other, like sedilia, - to the east. 6. _Loxton_, Somersetshire. This is an Early English - church with a south western tower serving as porch. From the eastern - side of this a long slit is carried through the nave wall, a - distance of some twenty feet, and exactly commanding a view of the - altar. It is _grated_ at the west end, not glazed: the eastern end - has long been blocked up. Way is made for it by a bulge of the wall - in the angle formed towards the east by the tower and nave. This - seems to form a kind of connecting link between the hagioscope and - the lychnoscope. - - With these windows we will venture to connect those extremely rare - ones, three adjacent, unconnected, equal, lancets, as occurring of - the same date at the same position. There is again another kind of - lychnoscope only found where the chancel has aisles. A panel of the - parclose, or wooden screen, behind the longitudinal stalls, is - sometimes found pierced with a small quatrefoil, at the S.W. part of - the chancel. This is vulgarly called a confessional. It seems, - however, clearly connected with the lychnoscope. Examples are found - at Erith, Kent, and Sundridge in the same county. Perhaps also the - curious slit in the south wall of the chancel of S. Michael's - church, Cambridge, communicating with a south chantry chapel is - another variety. - - From the above facts we deduce the following remarks: 1. That the - necessity for a lychnoscope must in some cases have been very - urgent: as may be proved by the example, at Othery, where a buttress - is much injured to form one. 2. But yet this need was not universal, - because there are many churches in which the arrangement does not - occur. 3. That it appears, strictly speaking, a parochial - arrangement, not being found in cathedral or collegiate churches. 4. - That smaller buildings rather than larger are marked with it: it - seldom occurs where there are aisles to the chancel. 5. That, where - employed, lychnoscopes were only used occasionally; else the - shutters which have evidently sometimes existed, would have been - useless. 6. That they are very seldom ornamented, and never have - stained glass. 7. That in the Perpendicular era they generally, - though not universally, ceased to be used. 8. That, a large sill - seems to have been a requisite to them. 9. That, where the upper - part is glazed, the lower part often was not, as in the Decorated - lychnoscope at Beckford, Gloucestershire. The principal hypotheses - to explain the use of this arrangement are: 1. Dr. Rock's. That it - was a contrivance by which lepers might see the Elevation of the - Host. But the structure of the greater part of these windows forbids - this idea: many instances occur in which it is splayed away from the - Altar, none (except that at Loxton, and a doubtful case at - Winscombe, Somersetshire, where a perpendicular addition has been - made) in which it is splayed towards it. 2. That of the Cambridge - Camden Society, that it was for watching the Paschal light. But - this, besides being _à priori_ improbable is refuted by that at - Othery. Here the eye has to look through two apertures at some - distance from each other, and therefore can command only a very - small field on exactly the opposite side of the chancel. 3. It has - been imagined by some that it was for confession. The idea of - confession near an altar sufficiently refutes itself; but - furthermore, some of these openings are so very low down that the - thing would be impossible. Two solitary facts more, though they - throw no light on the subject, may yet be mentioned. 1. In the - church of S. Amaro, near Funchal, in Madeira, is a grating at the - west-end like that at Loxton. Its use is _now_ said to be to cool - the church, though in that case one should have expected to meet it - elsewhere. 2. In Sennen church by the Land's End, there is said to - have been a lychnoscope (now no longer existing) used to take in the - tithe-milk. We may gather on the whole, 1. that lychnoscopes could - not have been used to look into a church 2. Nor to hand anything in - or out. Both these are sufficiently disproved by Othery, 3. Nor to - speak through. But one can hardly imagine any other use, except it - were to look _out_ of the church. We are inclined to think that it - was in some way connected with the ringing of the bells, or of the - sancte bell. Where the tower is central, we very often find it: as - at Old Shoreham and Alfriston, Sussex: at Loxton it is evidently for - some purpose connected with the tower. So in Beckford, which has a - central tower; and Uffington, Berks, a cross church. And the place - where the sancte bell was rung is exactly between a double - lychnoscope. But what the particular use might have been we will not - pretend to guess. We will conclude this long note by a question as - to the authority for calling the small chancel door, the _Priest's - Door_. It is never (originally) furnished with a lock, but always - with an interior bar, thus showing that it could only have been used - from the inside. So the priest could never have _entered_ the church - by this way, unless the door were previously opened for him.] - [End footnote] - -{xcvi} - -The symbolism of the more complicated decorated windows it is next to -impossible to explain. Carlisle and York have doubtless their -appropriate meaning; but who will now pretend to expound it? - -{xcvii} - -One exception we may make:--the east window of Bristol cathedral. It -is of seven lights, but so much prominence is given to the three -central ones, as strongly to set forth the Most Holy Trinity: over -them is a crown of six leaves and by the numerous winged foliations -around them, the Heavenly Hierarchy may, very probably, be understood. - -{xcviii} - -II. Doors - -Durandus has given us a clue to the symbolical meaning which these -generally present, by directing our attention to that saying of our -Lord's, _I am the door_. And this, uttered as tradition reports it to -have been, in reference to the Gate of the Temple, on which the -Saviour's eyes were then fixed, gives additional force to the -allusion. - -In small churches, doors are seldom the subject of much symbolical -ornament, except in the Norman style; but in cathedrals, some of the -most strikingly figurative arrangements are often thrown into them. -The Person, the Miracles, or the Doctrines of our Lord are here -frequently set forth. He is sometimes, especially in the tympanum of -Norman doors, as at Egleton in Rutland, represented as described in -the Apocalyptic vision; with a sword in His mouth. More frequently, -however, with His Blessed Mother; in order, perhaps, to connect His -_entrance_ into the world with ours into the Church, which He thereby -gathered together. This in the south entrance of Lincoln minster, is -enclosed in a quatre-foil: because the birth of Christ is announced by -the four evangelists; and angels are represented around it in -attitudes of adoration. A singular, and indeed irreverent symbol, is -to be seen in a door of Lisieux church: the Holy Ghost descending on -the Blessed Virgin, and the infant Saviour following Him. In the -entrance to the cloisters of Norwich cathedral, the door arch is -filled by nine niches, the central one being occupied by the Saviour, -the others by saints. But this arrangement is much more common in -French churches: where two, or even three rows of saints in the -architrave are not uncommon: witness the south and west doors of S. -Germain, at Amiens, and a west door of S. Etienne, at Beauvais. {xcix} -This is sometimes, in late Flamboyant work, carried to an absurd -extent: in a south door of Gisors, two niches actually hang down out -of the soffit. Early English doors are generally double, thereby -representing the Two Natures of our Saviour: but embraced by one arch, -to set forth His One Person. So the celebrated door in Southwell -minster: the west door in the Galilee of Ely cathedral: the entrance -to the chapter House, at Salisbury; the west door of the same: so the -decorated west door of York; so the door to the Chapter House there, -of which the inscription truly says: _Ut Rosa Phlos phlorum, sic est -domus ista Domorum:_so the west door and entrance to the Chapter House -of Wells. The west door of Higham Ferrars has the Saviour's triumphal -entrance into Jerusalem, over the double western doors. And this is -the case in one of the doors of Seville cathedral. Both these connect -the ideas of His entrance into the temporal, with that of ours into -the spiritual, Jerusalem. In these symbolical doorways, we have one -proof of the immeasurable superiority of English over French -architecture: compare any of the above named with the celebrated west -door of Amiens, with its twenty-two sovereigns in its soffit. Again, -by way of contrast to the second Adam, by whom we enter into Heaven, -we sometimes, especially in Norman churches, have the Forbidden Tree, -with Adam and Eve in the tympanum: setting forth the one man by whom -sin entered into the world. - -The Crucifixion seldom occurs over doors: while over porches a -crucifix is very common. The cause of the difference is explained by a -consideration that the former are shut, the latter open: and 'when -Thou hadst overcome the sharpness of Death, Thou didst _open_ the -kingdom of heaven to all believers.' Indeed it may almost be asserted -that a crucifix is never seen over a {c} closed door, except where it -forms a part of the usual representation of the Trinity. For the -Trinity is also, in Norman churches, there represented: and that not -inappropriately: inasmuch as the Trinity is the beginning of all -things. A Holy Lamb is sometimes found in Norman tympana: as saith the -Saviour, _I am the door of the sheep_. A hasty glance at Durandus -[Footnote 60] might lead us to imagine that we should find the -Apostles set forth under the similitude of doors: but he there -probably refers to the well-known passage in the Apocalypse. Apoc. -xxi, 14. - - [Footnote 60: Durand. i, 26.] - -This however leads us to another, and that a totally different, -meaning attached to doors. We have already noticed the fact, that many -Norman and Early English mouldings refer to various kinds of -martyrdom: those which do so occur more frequently on doors than -anywhere else; for it is written, 'We must through much tribulation -enter into the kingdom of God.' And here we may observe a very curious -and beautiful progression in symbolism. In the early ages of -Christianity, it was a matter requiring no small courage to make an -open profession of Christianity, to join one's self to the Church -Militant:--and this fact has left its impress in the various -representations of martyrdom surrounding the nave-doors of Norman and -the first stage of Early English churches: as well as in the frightful -forms which seem to deter those who would enter. But in process of -time, as the world became evangelised, to be a member of the visible -Church was an easy matter: the difficulty was transferred from an -entrance into _that_, to the so living, as to have part in the -Communion of Saints:--in other words, to an entrance into the Church -Triumphant. And therefore in late Early English, and Decorated, the -symbols which had occupied the nave-doors in the former period, are -now transferred to the chancel arch. - -{ci} - -The different agricultural operations, the signs of the zodiac, and -occupations of various kinds, sometimes found on the _outside_ of -Norman doors, signify that we must turn our backs on, and leave behind -us, all worldly cares and employments, if we would enter into the -Kingdom of God. In later porches, true love knots are sometimes found -on the bosses: because part of the service of Holy Matrimony was -performed there. The serpent, in which the handle is so universally -fashioned, has probably reference to that text, 'They shall lay their -hands upon serpents,' to signify that God's arm will protect us, when -engaging, or about to engage in, His service. For the serpent with his -tail in his mouth is not a Christian, and indeed by no means a -desirable, emblem of eternity, and therefore the door handle cannot be -so interpreted. - -The doors are of course placed near the west end: for it is only by -way of the Church Militant that we can hope to enter the Church -Triumphant. One door, indeed, the priest's door, conducts at once into -the chancel. Durandus is probably right in interpreting this of -Christ's coming into the world; though it involves a little confusion -of symbolism, inasmuch as the chancel, properly speaking, denotes the -blessed place which He left: not the abode to which he came. It is to -be noted as an instance of the decline of symbolism in the -Perpendicular age, that in churches which have aisles to the chancel -of that date, we sometimes, as at Bitton, Gloucestershire, Godalming, -Surrey, and Wivelsfield and Isfield, Sussex, find an entrance at the -east end of the south aisle. Though used as a priest's door, this is -entirely to be blamed: what shall we say then of modern churches, -which have two doors at the east end, one on {cii} each side of the -altar, as Christchurch, Brighton? In Seville cathedral, a late, -although fine flamboyant building, there are large doors at the east -end of each choir aisle. - -Porches are usually on the south side. For as the east was considered -in an especial manner connected with the Kingdom of Heaven, so was the -north imagined to be under the Prince of the Power of the Air. It is -curious how diametrically opposed in both these ideas were -Christianity and Paganism. For as by the latter the west was known as -'the better country, where lay the Isles of the Blest in their -abundant peace,' so in the north dwelt the deathless and ageless -Hyperboreans: whose state was the model of good government and secure -happiness. That the belief of our ancestors is not yet extinct, a very -slight knowledge of our country churchyards will prove: the north side -of the churchyard has generally not more than one or two graves. To be -buried there is, in the language of our eastern counties, to be buried -_out of Sanctuary_: and the spot is appropriated to suicides, -unbaptised persons, and excommunicates. A particular portion is, in -some churchyards of Devonshire, separated for the second class and -called the _chrisomer_. Where the contrary is the case, it may be -worth inquiring how far it does not arise from the accidental position -of the Churchyard Cross on the north side. There the spell seems -broken: and the villagers' graves cluster around it, as if the -presence of that sacred symbol were a sufficient protection to the -sleeping dust. A remarkable instance of this occurs at Belleville, -between Dieppe and Abbeville, in Normandy. - -The doors in the transepts are, in small churches, almost invariably -east or west: much more frequently the latter. This, however, is -probably not symbolical: but an arrangement adopted to prevent any -resemblance in the porches and transepts:--and it is a rule which -needs to be much impressed on modern church builders. - -{ciii} - -The rule as to the western position of the doors, seems to apply -generally to the churchyard. - -It is worthy of remark that in the matter of doors, Protestantism -presents us, as is so frequently the case, with a very unintended -piece of symbolism. When we see, as in the beautiful church of Bisley, -Gloucestershire, _thirteen_ different openings, with external -staircases, made into the church, through windows and elsewhere, can -we forbear thinking of him who cometh not by the doors into the -sheepfold, but climbeth up some other way? - -III. Chancel Arch and Rood Screen - -We come now to speak of the chancel arch and the rood screen, two of -the most important features in a church. These, as separating the -choir from the nave, denote literally the separation of the clergy -from the laity: but symbolically the division between the Militant and -Triumphant Churches: that is to say, the Death of the Faithful. The -first great symbol which sets this forth, is the Triumphal Cross: the -Image of Him [Footnote 61] who by His Death had overcome Death, and -has gone before His people through the valley of its shadow. - - [Footnote 61: 'Let us consider Him,' says Bishop Hall, 'now, after a - weary conflict with the Devil, looking down from the Triumphal - Chariot of the Cross on His Church.'] - -The images of Saints and Martyrs appear in the lower panelling, as -examples of faith and patience to us. The colours of the rood screen -itself represent their passion and victory: the crimson sets forth the -one, the gold the other. The curious tracery of net-work typifies the -obscure manner in which heavenly things are set forth, while we look -at them from the Church Militant. And for as much as the Blessed -Martyrs passed from this {civ} world to the next through sore -torments, the mouldings of the chancel arch represent the various -kinds of sufferings through which they went. Faith was their support, -and must be ours: and Faith is set forth either in the abstract, by -the limpet moulding on the chancel arch; or on the screen, as in -Bishop's Hull, Somersetshire, by the Creed in raised gilt letters: or -is represented by some notable action of which it was the source: so -in Cleeve, Somersetshire, the destruction of a dragon runs along, not -only the rood screen, but the north parclose also. But in that the -power of evil spirits may be exercised against us till we have left -this world, but not after, horrible forms are sometimes sculptured in -the west side of the chancel arch. The foregoing remarks may perhaps -explain what has been felt by some ecclesiologists as a difficulty: -how it happens, since the chancel is more highly ornamented than the -nave, that it is the western, or nave side, not the eastern or chancel -side, of the chancel arch which invariably receives the greatest share -of ornament. The straitness of the entrance to the Kingdom of Heaven -is set forth by the excessive narrowness of Norman chancel arches. And -the final separation of the Church Triumphant from everything that -defileth was almost invariably represented by the Great Doom painted -in fresco over the rood screen: of which there are still several -examples, as the celebrated one in Trinity church, Coventry: and many -more might be found, if the whitewash in that place were scraped off. -And not only is the judgment of the world, but that of individuals -here set forth: on the south side of the chancel wall of Preston -church, Sussex, is a fresco of S. Michael weighing the souls: the -Devil stands by, eager to secure his prize, but by the intervention of -the Blessed Virgin, the scale preponderates in favour of the sinner. -{cv} There might probably be an altar to the Blessed Virgin under this -picture. Also deeds of faith are represented in similar positions: ---so in the same church on the north chancel wall, is the fresco of -the Martyrdom of S. Thomas of Canterbury. We have already noticed the -triplicity, in some instances, of Norman chancel arches. A very -curious triple chancel arch is to be seen at Capel-le-Ferne, Kent. We -may also refer to those singular double ones, Wells and Finedon, and -in another manner, Darlington, in Durham, and Barton, in Cumberland. -It may be well, finally, to note the entire absence in the ground -plans of our churches of any reference to Purgatory. The only instance -in which chancel and nave are separated by any intervening object, is -the chantry of Bishop Arundell in Chichester cathedral. Of the triple -division of the church by two (so to speak) chancel arches, we have -already spoken. - - - -IV. Monuments - -We now proceed to _Monumental Symbolism_. But it will be proper first -to consider a very curious subject: namely the reason of the -difference between the personages with which the effigies of the -departed were of old time, and are now, surrounded. In the former case -they were always real: Our Lady, S. John, S. Pancras, S. Agatha, and -so on. In the latter, they are always allegorical: Faith, Virtue, -Courage, Eloquence and the like. Nay, in the very ground which is -common to the two--the representations of angels--we may observe a -great difference: in modern monuments any angel is represented: in -those of ancient date the particular one is often named: S. Gabriel, -S. Raphael, etc. Now there are, we think, three good reasons to be -assigned for this. - -{cvi} - -I. The _enlightened_, or in plainer terms, the sceptical character of -the present age. Unaccustomed to view any great examples of heroic -devotion and self-sacrifice now, we naturally, though scarcely -allowing it to ourselves, begin to doubt whether there ever were any -such. In thinking of Patience, our forefathers would naturally have -had S. Vincent presented to their mind: but we, who, some of us have -scarcely heard of his name, and some, are totally ignorant of his -character, have of course no such ideas suggested. So again, where our -ancestors would have represented S. Lawrence, we content ourselves -with a representation of Fidelity. And it is in accordance with this -easy and self-indulgent age, rather to personify a thing, which as -having never had real existence, cannot be brought into comparison -with ourselves, than by representing a really existing person, to run -the risk of a contrast between his virtues and our own. - -2. This allegorising spirit is more in accordance with the general -paganism of our architectural designs: though, be it observed, a -feature of the very worst and most corrupt state of Paganism. It is -worth noting that in heathen countries, evil qualities have always -been personified before good. Paganism like every other false system, -became worst at its close. In the early times of Grecian mythology the -attributes of purity, and truth, and mercy, were so strongly felt to -reside in the gods, that a separate personification of them was -needless: whereas strife, and violence and fury, qualities which had -no place in heaven, demanded, and obtained a separate existence. But -in process of time, when the divinities themselves became invested -with the attributes of sinful humanity, the qualities of goodness -which were no longer supposed theirs, found separate embodiments and -expressions. - -{cvii} - -3. We may assign as a reason for the difference we have noticed the -far greater reality with which our ancestors looked on the connections -subsisting between ourselves and the other world. Thus, tempests and -hurricanes, which we coldly explain on philosophical principles, they -considered as directly proceeding from the violence of evil spirits: -[Footnote 62] --earthquakes and volcanoes they regarded as outbreaks, -so to speak, of that place of punishment, which they believed locally -situated within the earth:--diseases and pestilences they held to be -the immediate work of the devil: madness and lunacy were, in their -view, synonymous with possession. Whether theirs, as it certainly was -the most pious, were not also the most philosophical view, has been so -ably discussed in the 'Church of the Fathers' under the chapter _S. -Anthony in Conflict_, that we need here only allude to it. But the -same spirit led them to adopt the effigies of those saints who had -been members of the same Church Militant with themselves, and who now -were members of that Triumphant Church which they hoped hereafter to -join: and its contrary leads us to adopt the cold, vague, dreamy -unsubstantialities of allegorism. - - [Footnote 62: A Master of Philosophy travelling with others on the - way, when a fearful thunderstorm arose, checked the fear of his - fellows, and discoursed to them of the natural reasons of that - uproar in the clouds, and those sudden flashes wherewith they seemed - (out of the ignorance of causes) to be too much affrighted; in the - midst of his philosophical discourse, he was struck dead with that - dreadful eruption which he slighted. What could this be but the - finger of that God Who will have His works rather entertained with - wonder and trembling than with curious scanning? Neither is it to be - otherwise in those violent hurricanes, devouring earthquakes, and - more than ordinary tempests, and fiery apparitions which we have - seen and heard of; for however there be natural causes given of the - usual events of this kind, yet nothing hinders but the Almighty, for - the manifestations of His power and justice, may set spirits, - whether good or evil, on work, to do the same things sometimes in - more state and magnificence of horror.--Bishop Hall, 'The Invisible - World,' sect. vi.] - -The earliest kind of monumental symbolism is that which represents the -trade or profession of the person commemorated. And these principally -occur on Lombardic slabs and Dos d'Anes. The distaff represents -{cviii} the mother of a family: [Footnote 63] a pair of gloves a -glover: [Footnote 64] so we have a pair of shears: and the like. But -the Cross constantly appears; and in a highly floriated form: -sometimes at its foot are three steps representing the Mount: -sometimes a Holy Lamb. [Footnote 65] And so ecclesiastical personages -have their appropriate symbols: so the chalice or the ring [Footnote -66] represents a priest:--another type is the hand raised in -benediction [Footnote 67] over a chalice: brasses abound in -symbolical imagery. The animal at the feet varies with the varying -circumstances of the deceased: a married lady has the dog, the emblem -of fidelity: with which we may compare the speech of Clytemnestra, of -her absent Lord, [Footnote 68] - - [Greek text] - -There are, doubtless, instances (there is one in Bristol, S. Peter's) -where the unmarried are so represented: but they are very rare, and -quite in the decline of the art. The knight again has, generally, a -terrier at his feet, as the emblem of courage: sometimes the -greyhound, [Footnote 69 ] the symbol of speed. Lord Beaumont -[Footnote 70] has an elephant: it is a bearing in his coat-armour. - - [Footnote 63: See on this subject an interesting article in the - _Church of England Quarterly_, for September, 1841. ] - - [Footnote 64: As in Fletching, Sussex.] - - [Footnote 65: As in Lolworth, Cambridgeshire.] - - [Footnote 66: As in S. Mary, Castlegate, York.] - - [Footnote 67: As in Hedon, Yorkshire.] - - [Footnote 68: Agamemnon, 606. (Ed. Dindorf.)] - - [Footnote 69: As in Sir Grey de Groby, S. Alban's.] - - [Footnote 70: Engraved in the 5th number of the Cambridge Camden - Society's _Illustrations of Monumental Brasses_.] - -Early priests have a lion [Footnote 71] also at their feet; but this -typified their trampling on the devil: as servants of Him concerning -whom it is written, 'And the Devil shall go forth before [Footnote -72] His feet' They have also a dragon for the same reason. And this -position doubtless also has reference to the verse, 'Thou shalt tread -upon the lion [Footnote 73] and adder: the young lion and the dragon -shalt thou trample under feet.' In the decline of the art, effigies -have the crest of the departed at their feet. - - [Footnote 71: As in Watton, Herts, and Cottingham, Yorkshire.] - - [Footnote 72: Habaccuc III. v, _Et egredietur diabolus ante pedes - ejus_.] - - [Footnote 73: Psalm xc. _Qui habitat_.] - -{cix} - -Whether those knights who are represented with crossed legs are to be -considered as crusaders, or at least as having taken the vow, is a -question which has been much discussed. The general belief seems now -to be in the negative:--and Mr. Bloxam in his work on Monumental -Architecture gives it as his opinion that this posture was chosen by -the artist, for the more graceful arrangement of the _surcoat_. And it -is to be remarked that some illuminations, as in the Life of S. Edward -the Confessor, in the Cambridge University Library, represent the -knights as sitting cross legged. For our own part we must confess that -we incline to the old belief:--as better supported by tradition, and -more in accordance with the general principles of Catholic artists. -The knight's hand is sometimes represented as resting on the hilt of -his sword:--or as it is called _drawing it_. We are astonished that a -writer in the _Quarterly Review_ should fall into this popular error: -especially when the idea was completely opposed to the whole course of -his argument. There can be no doubt that this typifies the -accomplishment of the vow, the taking which was set forth by the -crossed legs. The contrary--an act of war in the House of Peace--is -not for a moment to be thought of. As emblematical of deep humility, -some effigies are represented naked: some in shrouds: some, as -emaciated corpse: and sometimes, still more strikingly, the tomb will -be divided into two partitions: and while the departed appears in rich -vests, and with a gorgeous canopy above--below there is a skeleton, or -a worm eaten figure. There is a remarkable instance at Tewkesbury, in -the cenotaph of the last Lord Abbot: and we may refer to the monument -of William Ashton, in S. John's College chapel, Cambridge. - -{cx} - -The symbolism of ecclesiastics, lying principally in their vestments, -does not so much fall within the scope of this essay. The same may be -said of the allusion to the Holy Trinity in the benedictory attitude -of the bishop: and the distinction between the mitred abbot and the -bishop in the former holding his pastoral staff with the crook -inwards, as signifying his dominion to be _internal_, _i.e._ within -his own house;--the latter outwards, to set forth his external -dominion over his diocese. - -The reception of the soul of the departed into Abraham's bosom is -often represented. Sometimes angels are bearing it, in the likeness of -a newborn child, (a figure symbolical of its having now returned into -its baptismal state of purity) and presenting it before the throne. -The founders or rebuilders of churches are known by the building which -they hold in their hands. - -The carving of the _open seats_ is one of those parts of -ecclesiastical symbolism, which it is very hard to explain. The -monsters which constantly occur on them may be perhaps regarded as -typical of the evil thoughts and bad passions which a life of ease and -rest encourages, and it will be observed, that in the choir, a gentler -class of ideas often is suggested: we have here flowers and fruit, and -birds making their nests, and flocks feeding. There, are however, -certain other types to be found here, and also in string courses, and -corbel heads, of which we shall presently speak in terms of -disapprobation. - -Nothing, with this exception, shows the exuberance and beauty of ideas -which distinguished the architects of the ages of Faith--and the depth -and variety of the scriptural knowledge we are pleased to deny -them--than their wood carvings. [Footnote 74] - - [Footnote 74: The astonishing scriptural knowledge of Durandus may - be judged of from the Index at the end of the volume of texts quoted - by him. ] - -{cxi} - -There is perhaps hardly a scriptural subject which they have not -handled: and it requires no small degree of ecclesiastical knowledge -to be able at all to comprehend many of their allusions: while -probably many more are lost to us. The Annunciation is one of the most -favourite topics. The almond tree blossoming in the flower pot--the -bud terminating in a cross or crucifix--the prayer desk at which the -Blessed Virgin kneels--the temple seen in the distance--the Holy Dove -descending on a ray of light--these are its general accompaniments. -The descent of our Saviour into hell--the delivery of souls-- - - 'Magnaque; de magna praeda petita domo:' - -the visions of the Apocalypse: the final doom: the passions and -triumphs of martyrs--all here find their expression. - - -V. Corbels, Gurgoyles, Poppy Heads, etc. - -The corbels which occur in the interior of churches generally -represent the Heavenly Host--often with various instruments of music, -as if taking a share in the devotions of the worshippers. This idea is -most fully and beautifully carried out in late perpendicular roofs: -where the various orders of the heavenly hierarchy hover, with -outstretched wings, over the sacred building--an idea evidently -derived from the cherubim that spread their wings over the ark, and -the apostle's explanation, 'which things the angels desire to look -into.' Often, however, benefactors to the Church are here portrayed. -The gurgoyles, on the contrary, represent evil spirits as flying from -the holy walls: the hideousness of the figures, so often, by modern -connoisseurs, ridiculed or blamed, is therefore not without its -appropriate meaning. - -{cxii} - -We must now say a few words on the least pleasing part of the study of -symbolism: we mean the satirical representations which record the -feuds between the secular and the regular clergy. Thus, in the -churches of the former, we have, principally as stallwork, figures of -a fox preaching to geese: in those of the latter an ass's head under a -cowl: or, which is very frequent, both in woodwork and as a gurgoyle, -the cowled double face. As a specimen of these designs, we may mention -the stalls [Footnote 75] in East Brent, Somersetshire. A fox hung by -a goose, with two cubs yelping at the foot of the gallows, a monkey at -prayers, with an owl perched over his head: another monkey holding a -halbert: a fox with mitre and staff, a young fox in chains, a bag of -money in his right paw, and geese and cranes on each side. To these -objectionable devices we may add those which to us appear simply -profane or indecent: [Footnote 76]such as the baptism of a dog in one -of the Stamford churches, and others in Northampton, S. Peter's, of -Norman date. One of the grossest which we have ever seen is to be -found on the north side of the chancel arch of Nailsea, Somersetshire. - - [Footnote 75: Rutter's _Delineations_, p. 89. ] - - [Footnote 76: It is fair to observe that our designating them so - _may_ be the effect of our own ignorance.] - -On the towers of some Norman churches, the evangelistic symbols are -represented. So in Stow church, Lincolnshire. Tiles ought not to have -the cross on them: for though Christ is indeed the foundation of the -Church, yet these holy symbols should not be exposed to be trodden -under foot. Heraldic devices are here more proper, to signify the -worthlessness of worldly honours in the sight of God. - - - -{cxiii} - - -CHAPTER IX - -SOME OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED - -Several objections to the symbolical system have been noticed and -answered in the course of this treatise. We shall, however, devote a -greater space to the consideration of one difficulty which has often -been raised by opponents, and has often been felt even by such as have -adopted the theory. It is said, for example, that to assert the nave -and two aisles, or a triplet of lancets, to be symbolical of the Most -Holy Trinity, is both false and profane, when, as is almost always the -case, the aisles are much less broad than the nave, and the three -lancets are unequal both in height and breadth: whereas in the Trinity -none is afore or after other, none is greater or less than another. -But the difficulty seems only to arise from carrying the similitude -too far: the point of resemblance is in these cases a single one: the -mere trinity of the arrangement is the only particular which gives -rise to the symbol. 'Three mystic lines approach the shrine,' sings -the poet of the Christian year for Trinity Sunday. The number alone is -answerable for the emblem. We do not deny that an equilateral triangle -is a more perfect symbol of the Blessed Trinity: but even here a -captious man might object to the emblem, because the angles gain -greater or less prominence according to the position in which the -triangle is placed. {cxiv} The Catholic monogram of the Trinity, for -example, assigns to the Father and the Son the upper angles of a -triangle standing on the third point. On the other hand the modern -triangle, generally charged with the Hebrew word Jehovah, has the -third angle uppermost. We can quite conceive these differences being -thought objectionable. The case is not so strong indeed as when the -three members are unequal, but still it is the same in kind and in -reality. - -It is a condition of emblems that the points of similitude must not be -pressed too far. The material Sun indeed typifies the Sun of -Righteousness: but in what particulars? in its being _created_, in its -rising on the dark world _every_ day, in its being matter? Surely not: -but in this one point, that it brings light and heat to the earth. _I -am the Door_, said our Lord. In what particulars, we may again ask? It -would be profane to show by examples that it is only in this point: -that a door is for entrance into a material house just as we enter -into the Church through Christ. The ark, our Church teaches us, was an -emblem of the Church: not in its human building, nor in its final -perishing; but in that it saved souls by water. Did the Paschal Lamb -typify the Immaculate Victim in any thing more than its comparative -purity and its bloody death? We need not multiply such examples. - -But there is another consideration to be adduced. Our Lord's own -parables must not be pressed too far. The history of the five wise and -five foolish virgins, must not be adduced to prove that the number of -the lost will equal that of the saved. This may be dangerous ground, -but the assertion is true. Every parable is figurative to a certain -point, and no further. Not that there is much danger of persons not -knowing where the line is to be drawn: any more than there would be in -the case of { cxv} one of a reverent mind, who was told that the -triplicity of aisles and windows typified a great doctrine. The -_British Critic_ made a very just observation on this point, that it -argued a great blindness of spiritual vision to deny such an emblem, -because the similitude was not complete in all points. Indeed if all -points answered so closely and exactly to each other, it is not clear -how a similitude would differ from a fac-simile. The very notion of a -thing being like another involves the fact that the two are not -identical. Nothing more is found or expected, than a similarity, an -analogy, in certain qualities. For in all symbolism it is quality and -not essence in which resemblance is sought. - -Which leads us to consider another objection sometimes urged to the -effect that if a thing mean one thing it cannot mean another. For -example, if the nave and aisles represent the Holy Trinity, they -cannot also represent the Church Militant here on earth, or in another -point of view the true fold. Again, if the piers and arches set forth -the foundation of the apostles and prophets, they must not bear a part -in the representation of the Trinity together with the cleristory and -triforium. But this difficulty vanishes if we remember that the -resemblance, for the most part, is derived from grouping independent -things together and viewing them in a particular light. We do not deny -the _real_ essential symbolism of a material result: but this its -particular significancy need not obtrude itself at all times: the -thing itself in other combinations, and viewed under other aspects, -may acquire an additional and occasional meaning. For example, it is -the union of the rose, thistle, and shamrock, which is the emblem of -our United Empire: they have each their own figurative sense; in -combination they acquire a new meaning. The harp is not less the -emblem of Ireland, because it must primarily represent music. {cxvi} -Leaven was of old the symbol of wickedness: our Lord spake of the -leaven of the Scribes and Pharisees: yet we hear from His own lips, -The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven. [Footnote 77] - - [Footnote 77: We have the highest authority for believing that one - type can symbolise two things quite independent of each other, in - that the Jewish Sabbath, commanded from Sinai to be observed in - commemoration of the Rest after the Creation, is enforced in - Deuteronomy as the representation of the rest of the children of - Israel from Egyptian bondage. 'Remember,' says Moses, 'that thou - wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the Lord thy God - brought thee out thence through a mighty hand and by a stretched out - arm: _therefore_ the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep the Sabbath - day.'--Deut. v, 15.] - -Another objection is as follows: If this theory be true, how will you -account for churches with nothing but a nave, or with only one aisle; -how for churches with neither cleristory nor triforio; or, on the -other hand, for those with double triforia, or with four or five -aisles? Now we never asserted that it was necessary that all, or -indeed any, given things should be intentionally symbolised. We have -pointed out that some things are essentially symbolical; others -accidentally and occasionally. We might attempt to classify what -_must_ be symbolised in church building, and what _may_ be. But we -decline to do so because we do not think that the principles of -symbolism are yet sufficiently investigated or apprehended. However, -in a general way, _every_ building must, from the nature of things, -have some accidents, as of material, of parts, of plan; every -particular building must have particular accidents, as of use and -purpose. These accidents _must_ be symbolical, from their nature, in a -general way: they may derive, from purpose added to their nature, a -further or modified symbolism in a particular way. With the first sort -it is that Durandus chiefly concerns himself A building must have -walls, must have roof, piers, windows, corners, and floor. For each -then he finds a meaning. {cxvii} He does not quite neglect the second -sort. Early English windows must have a splay: the spire may have a -weathercock: for these then there is an appropriate signification. So -we do not mean to insist that certain things _shall_ be symbolised, we -say they _may_ be symbolised. Perhaps when more is known, we shall be -able to criticise ancient buildings, to show their faults or their -shortcomings in this particular. As it is, we have framed a sort of -_beau ideal_ of a church, fully formed and developed, which we should -propose as a perfect model. We are not qualified as yet to blame the -ancient churches which do not come up to this ideal, but we cannot be -wrong in praising such as do. - -In discussing Mr. Lewis's illustrations of Kilpeck church, we touched -upon the Basilican origin of churches considered as an argument -against the reception of the symbolical theory. Our last remarks will -apply to the same question. It has been thought quite sufficient -ground for turning into ridicule the whole principle, that the Roman -justice halls had three or more aisles, or that a barn or banquetting -room may have three longitudinal divisions. But what if mechanical -convenience suggested the arrangement? (though we do not grant this). -It is clear that many churches, many barns, and many refectories have -never had a triple arrangement. It has never been asserted that every -church shall have nave and aisles: but if a church has nave and aisles -it will be symbolical of a great doctrine; and for this reason it is -better for a church to have nave and aisles. Why do not such writers -argue that the cross form is not symbolical, because many barns are -cruciform? Now it is instructive to observe that there is a great and -obvious utilitarian advantage in this shape for a barn: but not in the -case of churches as _anciently arranged_; in which the transepts were -utterly useless for the {cxviii} accommodation of worshippers; and in -which there is a mechanical evil (as before mentioned) from the -lateral pressure on the lantern piers. Yet it is undeniable that the -cross form was chosen for its symbolical meaning: and this in spite of -mechanical disadvantages. A mechanical reason fails here, as in the -former case, in accounting for the fact. How will they account for the -cross form? Their own argument tells against them. We may still -further remark that in modern times we have had some curious practical -lessons upon this cross form. Messrs Britton and Hosking, in their -atrocious plan for rearranging S. Mary Redcliffe church, unwittingly -testified to the inconvenience, and want of any utilitarian end, of -this plan by placing the pulpit under the lantern, and ranging the -congregation in the four arms so as to face it. On the other hand, -some modern architects confessedly employ the cross form because it -allows of people arranged as in the last case, all seeing the -preacher. But why do they not look deeper into things? Why have the -cross at all? Why not have an amphitheatre, an octagon, an -accoustically designed Mechanic's Institute Lecture Room? Then all -could hear, all could see much better, and the building would not cost -half so much. They may think that they are designing on utilitarian -principles. In truth they are unknowingly, unwillingly, symbolising -the Cross. - - -{cxix} - -CHAPTER X - -DEVELOPMENT OF SYMBOLISM - -It is now our intention to attempt a brief sketch of the history of -symbolism, confining ourselves to its rise, progress, and decline in -England. For of its earlier development we have already had occasion -to speak, both in the first and in the eighth chapter, when we -referred to its use among the primitive Christians, and to such -particulars of information as could be gained concerning it from the -later fathers, and from mediaeval authors. - -Among all nations the facts of Christianity have been received before -its doctrines. The inhabitants of a heathen country are first called -on to believe, as matter of history, that our Blessed Lord was -conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under -Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried, before any attempt is -made to set before them the doctrine of the Atonement, the mystery of -the Trinity, or the compatibility of God's foreknowledge with man's -free action. And it is in the infancy of individuals, as in that of -nations. We may therefore, from all analogy, conclude, that the things -set forth in the earlier development of church art would be facts -rather than doctrines. - -{cxx} - -Now, if we look to Norman buildings, we shall find this to be the -case. Excepting the doctrine of the Holy Trinity (which, after all, -perhaps rather ranks, through all the stages of Christian art, under -the head of essential, than under that of intended symbolism), we -shall find an almost exclusive reference to history, in arrangements -and details. That God was the Creator of heaven and earth, is set -forth in door mouldings, and capitals, sometimes by the heavenly -constellations or signs of the zodiac, sometimes by the animals -brought to Adam to be named, sometimes by the references to -agriculture, which, as we have before seen, often occur. The -Incarnation of our Saviour is set forth, as it has been already -hinted, by representations so physical and earthly, as to be to our -eyes almost profane. The Fall of Man, which appears on the sides of -fonts, well reminds us of that stain which must be washed away in Holy -Baptism. A great many of the events of our Lord's life are sculptured -in various positions: above all, of course, His Passion. Again, duties -are symbolically represented, so in the chancel arch of Egleton, -Rutland, we have the figure of a deacon ringing a bell; doubtless to -remind the worshippers of the duty of attending God's house. And a -still more practical method of representing the evil consequences -attending the breach of duty, and one which speaks much of the -rudeness of the age, is where some local event well-known at the time -of the erection of the church, finds a commemoration in it. Thus -(though at a later epoch) among the capitals of the south transept of -Wells cathedral, the architect has represented a theft, which -doubtless, at the time, had made a considerable noise in that place. -In the first group, a man is seen stealing apples; then follows the -struggle and apprehension: finally, his trial and condemnation. And -such practical admonitions might not have been without their use. -Sometimes they are refined and exalted into such an one as may be seen -in the northern apse of S. Mary's, at Guildford, where heavenly and -earthly judgment are portrayed. {cxxi} Victory over the devil is -singularly enough symbolised in Oxford, S. Peter's, by the piers which -rest on, and crush, a monster. We have before noticed that Norman -architecture, true to its love of facts, delighted in the -representation of instruments of martyrdom, or the deeds of faith, as -the victory of S. George. The final doom was also a favourite subject; -so was the descent of Christ into hell. In fact, its whole character, -whether in string courses, tympana, capitals, or chancel arches, was -graphicalness, and that obtained sometimes at the expense of grace, -sometimes almost at that of decorum, but probably well adapted to the -particular development which the minds of the people had then reached. -One point we must remark, to the eternal honour of the Anglo-Norman, -and indeed also of the Saxon Church, deadly as was the hatred existing -between the two peoples, for at least a hundred and fifty years after -the conquest, it has left no symbolical trace, either in the churches -of the vanquishers, or of the vanquished. Much as the one had -suffered, and much as the other despised the conquered nation, this -feeling vanished in the house of God. - -In advancing to Early English, we still find strong traces of the -historicalism of ornaments, both in some of the mouldings, as in the -toothed, and in the capitals, though the latter begin now to assume a -more allegorical form. Indeed, the observation seems worth making, -that this style is the only one which appears to have dealt much in -allegory, we mean in that sense which we have already attached to the -word. That is, it employs fictitious representations to set forth real -truths; as in Wells cathedral, the fall of the barren tree forms a -beautiful corbel. We do, however, find some traces of this in Norman -work, as the fable of the crow and the fox may occasionally be -discovered in it. {cxxii} The works of the creation were often set -forth, rather with reference to their beauty than from any other -reasons. Such as the birds making their nests in the thick foliage, -flowers, and fruit. Yet, on the whole, facts such as those which -principally occupied the attention of Norman architects, began rather -to find expression among the details, than to usurp any important part -in church arrangement. We are in possession of too little wood work of -this date--and in that many references of this kind were probably to -be found--to be able to speak with so much certainty as we can in the -later styles: but that this was the tendency of the progress of -architecture, it requires but little knowledge to discover. Impressed, -but evidently, now, not only essentially but intentionally, on every -building, was the doctrine of the Ever Blessed Trinity: for triplets -were so common at the east end as to form the rule of Early English -design. Fonts, instead of bearing a representation of the Fall of Man, -and thereby implying our need of regeneration, began to be octagonal, -thereby setting forth the doctrine itself, a strong confirmation of -our previous observation respecting facts and doctrines. The shape of -piers is also to be noticed. For there appears to have been almost a -rule, either that the octagonal and circular shape should alternate; -or that one aisle should present the one kind, the other the other. -This we can hardly, in our present state of knowledge, profess to -explain. Durandus's observations about windows, their splay and -shafts, are very curious: and again, he evidently recognises in the -tiebeams, the knitting together of the elect in one communion and -fellowship: a strong argument, this, that we are justified in -regarding arrangements, which arise from mechanical necessity, as -nevertheless truly and really symbolical. In the bases of piers we now -often find flowers, which indeed, sometimes, as in Rochester -cathedral, occur in transition work; principally the fleur de lys, -which we may interpret to signify that humility is the foundation of -all Christian graces. - -{cxxiii} - -On the whole, however, we conclude that in this style, while churches -taken as a whole became more symbolical, their details, as details, -became less so. - -In proceeding to the next development of Catholic art, we are almost -afraid of expressing a belief, that Decorated, in its early dawn, gave -promise of a brighter day than it ever reached. It had not shown its -wonderful resources and capabilities in windows and flying buttresses, -before the boldness of its capitals and bases began to decline. We can -imagine that, had it so been ordered, Christian architecture might, -about the year 1300, have taken a different direction, and attained to -a glory, inconceivable to us--perhaps attainable only when the whole -Catholic Church shall be at unity. As it is, we cannot but consider, -that about that period, or a few years later, it took a wrong turn, -and being hurried in a short space through the hectic of a rare flush -of beauty, declined thenceforward slowly but surely. Now, if we ask, -why was this? it will lead us to look at Church history as connected -with the development of church architecture. Contemporary with the -change from Saxon to Norman (for we are none of those who hold that -the former extended till Oct. 14, 1065, and the latter began the next -day), was finally the victory of the Anglican Church over Paganism in -the conversion and civilisation of the Danes. Contemporary with the -appearance of Early English, was the great victory of the Church over -Erastianism, by the martyrdom of S. Thomas of Canterbury, and the -abrogation of the constitutions of Clarendon. But, hardly had Early -English finished its course of splendour, when while traces of rare -glory were developing daily, the statute of Mortmain began to tell -upon the Church: {cxxiv} and though the impulse already given yet -continued for some time to act, the end was near. No magnificent -cathedral was built after the full effects--not so much of that act, -as of the Erastianism which contrived and allowed it--were felt. The -nave of Winchester can hardly be called a solitary exception; because, -in truth, it may be doubted whether the pious exertions of William of -Wykeham were not, so far as concerns the actual beauty of his -cathedral, misplaced. Thenceforward, the State interfered more and -more with the Church; and not allowed to carry out her own designs, it -is no wonder if the latter quickly began to forget her own symbolical -language. After, for the first few years of the fourteenth century, -using it with precision and elegance before unattainable, she -thenceforward began to disuse it. We need not give examples of -decorated symbolism, because all that was new in it lay in its -windows: and these we have already discussed at considerable length. -And having sufficiently explained why there should be a decline, we -have only now to examine why that decline should have been so -different in England, France, and Italy. In England, from the time -that Edward IV directed the execution of Archbishop Scrope, when the -State interfered, it was with a strong arm, cramping and confining, -obliging the Church to confine herself to ritual observances, and -forbidding her to expatiate in the grand objects for which she was -ordained. Now could there be a more fitting expression of this than -the Perpendicular style? Does not its stiffness, its failure in -harmony, its want of power and adaptation, its continual introduction -of heraldry, its monotony, its breaking up by hard continued lines, -its shallowness, its meretriciousness, its display--set forth what we -know to have been the character of the contemporary Church? {cxxv } -Above all, do not the reintroduction of Horizontality, the Tudor arch, -the depressed pier, speak of her want of spirituality? Everything -teaches us that there was no want of power in her architects; -considered merely as specimens of art, King's College, and Henry the -Seventh's chapels, are matchless. And here and there we may trace some -tokens of vastness and holiness of conception worthy of a better age; -such as the Suffolk roofs, which, as it has been well said, never -attained their full development. It must be borne in mind, that -Perpendicular [Footnote 78] was the first style, which in its full -development was used first for a secular building. Far be it from us, -however, to depreciate the excessive magnificence it assumes in -shrines and chapels: indeed, this is one of the features which -Decorated has not, and the absence of which in that style renders it -possible to believe that a still more magnificent may be in store for -us. Perpendicular introduced no new element of symbolism. - - [Footnote 78: We deeply regret that the Oxford Architectural Society - should ever have allowed itself to put on paper the opinions - expressed by one of its members, that Perpendicular windows are - those best suited to the spirit of Christian architecture.] - -But if this were the state of the Anglican Church, the Gallican, -though not better off, was acted on in a very different manner. The -State gradually interfered with it, embraced it with its dangerous -friendship, made its observances meaningless, while sustaining their -splendour; secularised its abbeys, by appropriating them to political -ends; made statesmen of its bishops, gave it outside show, while -eating out its heart. Does not Flamboyant express this? A vast -collection of elegant forms, meaninglessly strung together: richness -of ornament, actually weakening construction: vagaries of tracery, as -if the hand possessed of church art were suddenly deprived of church -feelings: nothing plain, simple, intelligible, holy: parts neglected, -parts ostentatious: the west front of Abbeville to a choir that would -disgrace a hamlet. - -{cxxvi} - -In Spain, again, where Christianity unfolded itself later, so also was -church art later in its development. San Miguel, at Seville, which was -actually built in 1305, would, in England, be set down to the date of -about 1180. - -In Italy, where there was no State to interfere with the Church, -Paganism, which had always been more or less at work, sprang up at -once, at the time of the Great Schism, and has ever since prevailed. - -But to return to England. Perpendicular, unable to express any idea by -its ornaments, soon began to imitate those of earlier styles: first -Early English, in the wretched banded capitals of the western -counties, and then Decorated in its windows. While, however, the -Church was yet united with the rest of Christendom, Paganism -interfered but in a very slight degree: the Italian example of Henry -the Seventh's tomb was not followed. Even after the Dissolution, there -were some good churches built: the symbolism which lingered longest -was that of the chancel and nave. Nor was this destroyed summarily: -the importance of the chancel had been gradually, all through the -Perpendicular era, weakened by chancel aisles, and the omission of the -chancel arch: it was but to omit the rood screen and parclose, and (as -at Hawkshead, Lancashire, circ. 1564) the mystical division vanished. - -The symbolisms which Protestantism introduced were few and easily -understood. - -The removal, and material, of the altar, the change of vestments, the -gradual introduction of close pews, the innovation of a reading pew, -were all figurative enough. Something like a return to church art was -made just before the great Rebellion: chancels became elongated, -{cxxvii} altars resumed their old position, copes reappeared, and the -like. Details began to improve: and (which we could hardly have -expected) intentional symbolism is sometimes to be discovered in them. -So, in Baltonsburgh, Somersetshire, a stone pulpit of the date of -1621, has among other devices, an equilateral triangle, containing, -and surrounded by, a _tre_-foil: and evidently setting forth the Holy -Trinity. After the Rebellion, but still more after the Revolution, -those faint traces of symbolism died away into that _ne plus ultra_ of -wretchedness, the Georgian style. - - -{cxxviii} - -CHAPTER XI - -GENERAL CONCLUSION - -It is very remarkable, as has been already observed, that the -buildings of those who most strongly object to the principle of -symbolism, do in effect contain as striking an exemplification of it -as it would be possible to find. - -Let us look at a Protestant place of worship. It is choked up and -concealed by surrounding shops and houses, for religion, nowadays, -must give way to business and pleasure: it stands north and south, for -all idea of fellow-feeling with the Church Catholic is looked on as -mere trifling, or worse: the front which faces the High Street is of -stone, because the uniformity of the street so required it: or (which -is more likely) of stucco, which answers as well, and is cheaper: the -sides, however, are of brick, because no one can see them: there is at -the entrance a large vestibule, to allow people to stand while their -carriages are being called up, and to enter into conversation on the -news of the day, or the merits of the preacher: it also serves the -purpose of making the church warmer, and contains the doors and -staircases to the galleries. On entering, the pulpit occupies the -central position, and towards it every seat is directed: for preaching -is the great object of the Christian ministry: galleries run all round -the building, because hearing is the great object of a Christian -congregation: {cxxix} the altar stands under the organ gallery, as -being of no use, except once a month: there are a few free seats in -out-of-the-way places, where no one could hear, and no pews would be -hired, and therefore no money is lost by making the places free: and -whether the few poor people who occupy them can hear or not, what -matters it? The font, a cast-iron vase on a marble pillar, stands -within the altar rails; because it there takes up no room: the reading -pew is under the pulpit, and faces the congregation; because the -prayers are to be read to them and not addressed to God. Look at this -place on Sunday or Thursday evening. Carriages crash up through the -cast-iron gates, and, amidst the wrangling and oaths of rival -coachmen, deposit their loads at the portico: people come, dressed out -in the full fashion of the day, to occupy their luxurious pew, to lay -their smelling-bottles and prayer-books on its desk, and reclining on -its soft cushions, to confess themselves--if they are in -time--miserable sinners: to see the poor and infirm standing in the -narrow passages, and close their pew doors against them, lest -themselves should be contaminated, or their cushions spoilt, at the -same time beseeching God to give their fellow-creatures the comfort -which they refuse to bestow: the Royal Arms occupy a conspicuous -position; for it is a chapel of the Establishment: there are neat -cast-iron pillars to hold up the galleries, and still neater pillars -in the galleries to hold up the roof; thereby typifying that the whole -existence of the building depends on the good-will of the -congregation: the roof is flat, with an elegant cornice, and serves -principally to support a gas-lighted chandelier: and the -administration of this chapel is carried on by clerk, organist, -beadle, and certain bonnetless pew-openers. - -{cxxx} - -We need not point out how strongly all this symbolises the spiritual -pride, the luxury, the self-sufficiency, the bigotry of the -congregations of too many a pew-rented Episcopal chapel. - -In contrast to this, let us close with a general view of the symbolism -of a Catholic church. - -Far away, and long ere we catch our first view of the city itself, the -three spires of its cathedral, rising high above its din and turmoil, -preach to us of the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity. As we approach, -the transepts, striking out cross-wise, tell of the Atonement: the -Communion of Saints is set forth by the chapels clustering round choir -and nave: the mystical weathercock bids us to watch and pray and -endure hardness: the hideous forms that seem hurrying from the eaves -speak the misery of those who are cast out of the Church: spire, -pinnacle, and finial, the upward curl of the sculptured foliage, the -upward spring of the flying buttress, the sharp rise of the window -arch, the high-thrown pitch of the roof, all these, overpowering the -horizontal tendency of string course and parapet, teach us, that -vanquishing earthly desires, we also should ascend in heart and mind. -Lessons of holy wisdom are written in the delicate tracery of the -windows: the unity of many members is shadowed forth by the multiplex -arcade: the duty of letting our light shine before men, by the pierced -and flowered parapet that crowns the whole. - -We enter. The triple breadth of nave and aisles, the triple height of -pier arch, triforium, and clerestory, the triple length of choir, -transepts, and nave, again set forth the Holy Trinity. And what -besides is there that does not tell of our Blessed Saviour? that does -not point out 'Him first' in the two-fold western door: 'Him last' in -the distant altar: 'Him midst' in the great rood: 'Him without end' in -the monogram carved on boss and corbal, in the Holy Lamb, in the Lion -of the tribe of Judah, in the Mystic Fish? Close by us is the font; -{cxxxi} for by regeneration we enter the Church: it is deep and -capacious; for we are buried in baptism with Christ: it is of stone; -for He is the Rock: and its spiry cover teaches us, if we be indeed -risen from its waters with Him, to seek those things that are above. -Before us, in long drawn vista, are the massy piers, which are the -Apostles and Prophets: they are each of many members, for many are the -graces in every saint: there is delicate foliage round the head of -all; for all were plentiful in good works. Beneath our feet are the -badges of worldly pomp and glory, the charges of kings and nobles and -knights: all in the presence of God as dross and worthlessness. Over -us swells the vast 'valley' of the high-pitched roof: from the -crossing and interlacing of its curious rafters hang fadeless flowers -and fruits which are not of earth: from its hammer-beams project -wreaths and stars, such as adorn heavenly beings: in its centre stands -the Lamb as it had been slain: from around Him the Celestial Host, -cherubim and seraphim, thrones, principalities, and powers, look down -peacefully on the worshippers below. Harpers there are among them -harping with their harps: for one is the song of the Church in earth -and in heaven. Through the walls wind the narrow cloister galleries: -emblems of the path by which holy hermits and anchorites, whose -conflicts were known only to their God, have reached their home. And -we are compassed about with a mighty cloud of witnesses: the rich deep -glass of the windows teems with saintly forms, each in its own fair -niche, all invested with the same holy repose: there is the glorious -company of the apostles: the goodly fellowship of the prophets: the -noble army of martyrs: the shining band of the confessors: the -jubilant chorus of the virgins: there are kings who have long since -changed an earthly for an heavenly crown: and bishops who have given -in a glad account to the Shepherd and Bishop of souls. {cxxxii} But on -none of these things do we rest; piers, arch behind arch, windows, -light behind light, arcades, shaft behind shaft, the roof, bay behind -bay, the saints around us, the heavenly hierarchy above with dignity -of pre-eminence still increasing eastward, each and all, lead on eye -and soul and thought to the image of the crucified Saviour as -displayed in the great east window. Gazing steadfastly on that, we -pass up the nave, that is through the Church Militant, till we reach -the rood screen, the barrier between it and the Church Triumphant, and -therein shadowing forth the death of the faithful. High above it -hangs, on His triumphal cross, the image of Him Who by His death hath -overcome death; on it are portrayed saints and martyrs, His warriors, -who fighting under their Lord have entered into rest and inherit a -tearless eternity. They are to be our examples, and the seven lamps -above them typify those graces of the Spirit, by Whom alone we can -tread in their steps. The screen itself glows with gold and crimson: -with gold, for they have on their heads golden crowns: with crimson, -for they passed the Red Sea of martyrdom to obtain them. And through -the delicate net-work, and the unfolding holy doors, we catch faint -glimpses of the chancel beyond. There are the massy stalls; for in -heaven is everlasting rest: there are the sedilia, emblems of the -seats of the elders round the throne: there is the piscina; for they -have washed their robes and made them white: and there, heart and soul -and life of all, the altar with its unquenched lights, and golden -carvings, and mystic steps, and sparkling jewels: even Christ Himself, -by Whose only merits we find admission to our heavenly inheritance. -Verily, as we think on the oneness of its design, we may say: -_Jerusalem edificatur ut civitas cujus participatio ejus in idipsum_. - - - -{cxxxiii} - -POSTSCRIPTUM - -On concluding their work, which from circumstances that need not be -specified has been a year in the press, the writers must apologise for -the numerous typographical errors which have been allowed to remain. -Their separation from each other, and distance from the printer, must -plead in excuse. - -They take this opportunity of expressing their thanks to the Reverend -Dr. Mill, Christian Advocate of the University of Cambridge, and to F. -A. Paley, Esq., M.A., of S. John's College, Cambridge, Honorary -Secretary of the Cambridge Camden Society, for their advice and -assistance. - -It remains to say that some doubt has been felt by persons who have -read the Introductory Essay in proofs, whether the writers have given -Mr. Pugin sufficient credit for several passages in his works which -seem to _involve_ the principle now contended for. We had thought that -no misapprehension could be feared on this head. It was enough to know -that the principle in question, even though _felt_ (as we indeed -allowed) by this architect, had not been _expressed in terms_. In -short, we took this fact for our ground: that whereas Mr. Pugin's book -professed to assert the _true principles_ of Christian architecture, -yet reality, according to his definition, was not at least so -accurately a 'true principle' as sacramentality. The principles -themselves, as enunciated by Mr. Pugin, apply as well to any secular -building as to a church: they are true for _construction_, but not -adequate in themselves to form a rule for ecclesiastical design. - -Kemerton, _August_ 16, 1843. - -{cxxxiv} - -The following very curious passage ought to have come in at page -lxxvii of the Introductory Essay, but was not accessible at the time. -It is an extract from the 'Fardle of Facions' printed A.D. 1555. - - - -FROM THE 'FARDLE OF FACIONS,' PRINTED 1555 - -Oratories, temples, or places of praier (whiche we calle churches) -might not to be built without the good will of the bishoppe of the -diocese. And when the timbre was redy to be framed, and the foundacion -digged, it behoved them to sende for the bishoppe, to hallowe the -firste corner stone of the foundacion, and to make the signe of the -Crosse thereupon, and to laie it, and directe it juste easte and west. -And then might the masons sette upon the stone, but not afore. This -churche did they use to builde after the facion of a crosse, and not -unlike the shape of a manne. The channcelle (in the whiche is -conteined the highe altare and the quiere) directe fulle in the easte, -representeth the heade, and therefore ought to be somewhat rounde, and -muche shorter than the body of the churche. And yet upon respect that -the heade is the place for the eyes, it ought to be of more lighte, -and to bee seperate with a particion, in the steade of a necke, from -the bodye of the churche. This particion the Latine calleth cancelli, -and out of that cometh our terme channcelle. On eche side of this -channcelle peradventure (for so fitteth it beste) should stand a -turret; as it were for two ears, and in these the belles to be hanged, -to calle the people to service, by daie and by night. Undre one of -these turretts is there commonly a vaulte, whose doore openeth into -the quiere, and in this are laid up the hallowed vesselles and -ornamentes, and other utensils of the churche. We call it a vestrie. -{cxxxv} The other parte oughte to be fitted, that having as it were on -eche side an arme, the reste maye resemble the bodye with the fete -stretched in breadthe, and in lengthe. On eche side of the bodye the -pillers to stande, upon whose coronettes or heades the vaulte or rophe -of the churche maye reste. And to the foote beneth aulters to be -joyned. Those aulters to be orderly alway covered with two aulter -clothes, and garnished with the crosse of Christe, or some little -cofre of reliques. At eche ende a candelsticke, and a booke towarde -the middes. The walls to be painted without and within, and diversely -paineted. That they also should have in every parishe a faire round -stone, made hollowe and fitte to holde water, in the whiche the water -consecrate for baptisme maye be kept for the christening of children. -Upon the right hand of the highe aulter that ther should be an -almorie, either cutte into the walle, or framed upon it, in the whiche -they woulde have the sacrament of the Lorde's bodye, the holy oyle for -the sicke, and chrismatorie, alwaie to be locked. Furthermore they -would that ther should be a pullpite in the middes of the churche, -wherein the prieste maye stonde upon Sondaies and holidays to teache -the people those things that it behoveth them to knowe. The channcelle -to serve only for the priests and clerks; the rest of the temporalle -multitude to be in the bodye of the churche, seperate notwithstanding, -the men on the righte side, and the women on the left. - ----------- - -{1} - -_Here beginneth the First Book of_ GULIELMUS -DURANDUS _his_ RATIONALE _of the_ DIVINE OFFICES. - - - -THE PROEME - -Importance and Difficulty of the Study of Symbolism--Necessity of its -Cultivation by Priests--Consideration of Unlearned Priests--Mystical -and Moral Meaning of the Law--Four-fold Sense of Scripture: the -Historical, the Allegoric, the Tropologic, the Anagogic--Different -Ceremonies used by Different Churches--Name of Rationale, whence -derived--Division of the Work. - - -1. All things, as many as pertain to offices and matters -ecclesiastical, be full of divine significations and mysteries, and -overflow with a celestial sweetness; if so be that a man be diligent -in his study of them, and know how to draw 'honey from the rock, and -oil from the hardest stone.' [Footnote 79] But who 'knoweth the -ordinances of heaven, or can fix the reasons thereof upon the earth?' -[Footnote 80] For he that prieth into their majesty, is overwhelmed by -the glory of them. Of a truth 'the well is deep, and I have nothing to -draw with': [Footnote 81] unless He giveth it unto me Who 'giveth to -all men liberally, and upbraideth not': [Footnote 82] so that 'while -I journey through the mountains' [Footnote 83] I may 'draw water with -joy out of the wells of salvation.' [Footnote 84] {2} Wherefore, -albeit of the things handed down from our forefathers, capable we are -not to explain all, yet if among them there be anything which is done -without reason, it should forthwith be put away. 'Wherefore I, -William, by the alone tender mercy of God, Bishop of the Holy Church -which is in Mende,' [Footnote 85] will knock diligently at the door, -if so be that 'the key of David' [Footnote 86] will open unto me: -that the King may 'bring me in to His treasury,' [Footnote 87] and -show unto me the heavenly pattern which was showed unto Moses in the -Mount: so that I may learn those things which pertain to rites -ecclesiastical, whereof they teach and what they signify: and that I -may be able plainly to reveal and make manifest the reasons of them, -by His help, 'Who hath ordained strength out of the mouth of babes and -sucklings': [Footnote 88] 'Whose spirit bloweth where it listeth,' -[Footnote 89 ] dividing to 'each severally as it will' [Footnote 90] -to the praise and glory of the Trinity. - - [Footnote 79: Deut. xxxii, 13.] - - [Footnote 80: Job xxxviii, 33] - - [Footnote 81: S. John iv, 11.] - - [Footnote 82: S. James i, 5.] - - [Footnote 83: Psalm ciii. Vulgate.] - - [Footnote 84: Isaiah xii, 3. ] - - [Footnote 85: A city of France, and capital of the department of - Lozére, situated on an eminence near the Lot: before the Revolution, - the See of a Bishop. The number of inhabitants is about - 5000.'--Cruttwell's _Gazetteer_, s.v.] - - [Footnote 86: Apocalypse iii, 7.] - - [Footnote 87: Cant, ii, 4.] - - [Footnote 88: Psalm viii, 2. See also Wisdom x, 21.] - - [Footnote 89: S. John iii, 8. ] - - [Footnote 90: I Cor. xii, II.] - -2. Sacraments we have received to be signs or figures, not in -themselves virtues, but the significations of virtues, by which men -are taught as by letters. Now of signs there be that are natural, and -there be that are positive: concerning which, and also of the nature -of a Sacrament, we shall speak hereafter. - -{3} - -3. Therefore the priests and the bishops to whom 'it is given to know -the mysteries of the kingdom of God,' [Footnote 91] as He saith in -Luke, and who be the stewards and dispensers of sacred things, ought -both to understand the sacred mysteries, and to shine in the virtues -which they signify: so that by their light others may be illuminated: -otherwise 'they be blind leaders of the blind.' [Footnote 92] As -saith the Prophet, 'Let their eyes be darkened, that they see not.' -[Footnote 93] But, woe therefore is me! in these days they apprehend -but little of those things which day by day they handle and perform, -what they signify, and wherefore they were instituted: so that the -saying of the Prophet seemeth to be fulfilled, 'As is the people, so -is the priest.' [Footnote 94] For when they bear the bread of -Prothesis [Footnote 95] to the Lord's Table and the Mysteries, they -understand not its signification more than brute beasts which carry -bread for the use of others. Of which ignorance they shall give -account in the day of vengeance and wrath. 'When the cedars of -Paradise shall tremble, what shall the bush of the desert do?' -[Footnote 96] For to them is that saying of the Prophet, 'They have -not known My ways: so I swear in my wrath, if they shall enter into My -rest.' [Footnote 97] - - [Footnote 91: S. Luke viii, 10.] - - [Footnote 92: S. Matthew xv, 14.] - - [Footnote 93: Psalm lxix, 23.] - - [Footnote 94: Isaiah xxiv, 2.] - - [Footnote 95: Here is a distinct reference to the Prothesis: the - more valuable because in writers of the Middle Ages it does not hold - so prominent a place as we might have expected: and the table of - Prothesis appears not to have occupied a certainly defined situation - in Catholic churches. There is also a reference to Lev. xxi, 8, and - the showbread.] - - [Footnote 96: S. Luke xxii, 3.] - - [Footnote 97: Psalm xcv, 11.] - -4. Now the professors of the arts liberal, and of all other arts, seek -how they may clothe, support, and adorn with causes and hidden reasons -those things which be nakedly and without ornament therein set forth; -painters moreover, and mechanics and handicraftsmen of what {4} sort -soever, study in every variety of their works to render and to have at -hand probable reasons thereof. So, also, unseemly is it to the -magistrate to be ignorant of this world's laws; and to the pleader to -know nothing of the law, wherein he is exercised. - -5. But although learning be necessary unto priests for the sake of -doctrine: yet must not scholastics think slightingly of unlettered -priests; according to that saying in Exodus, 'Thou shalt not revile -the gods.' [Footnote 98] Whence, saith S. Augustine, they shall not -deride if they hear the priests and ministers of the Church, either -invoking God with barbarisms and solecisms, or not understanding and -misdividing the words which they pronounce. Not but that such things -are to be corrected; but they must firstly be tolerated of the more -learned. But that which priests ought to learn, shall be said below. - - [Footnote 98: Exodus xxii, 28.] - -6. Furthermore, the symbolism which existeth in things and offices -ecclesiastical, is often not seen, both because figures have departed, -and now it is the time of truth; and also because we ought not to -judaise. But, albeit those types of which the truth is made manifest -have departed, yet even to this time manifold truth is concealed, -which we see not; wherefore the Church useth figures. For so by white -vestments we understand the beauty in which our souls shall be -arrayed, or the glory of our immortality, which we cannot manifestly -behold: and in the Mass, by the oblation on the altar, [Footnote 99] -the Passion of Christ is represented, that it be held in the memory -more faithfully and more firmly. - - [Footnote 99: The prayer of oblation is as follows--'Suscipe, - Sancta Trinitas, hanc oblationem quam Tibi offerimus _ob memoriam - Passionis_, resurrectionis et ascensionis Jesu Christi Domini - nostri,' etc.] - -{5} - -7. Furthermore, of the things which be commanded in the law, some be -moral, and others mystical. They be moral which inform the morals, and -are to be understood in the simple tenour of the words: 'Love God: -honour thy father: thou shalt do no murder,' and such like. Mystical -be such as are typical: where something is set forth beyond the -literal meaning. Of these, some be sacramental, and some ceremonial. -Sacramental be such as may be accounted for, why thus they were -ordered: such as circumcision, and the observance of the Sabbath, and -the like. Ceremonial be they for which no reason can be given. Such -be, 'Thou shalt not plough with an ox and an ass together:' [Footnote -100] Thou shalt not wear a garment of linen and woollen mixed.' -[Footnote 101] - - [Footnote 100: Deut. xxii, 10.] - - [Footnote 101: Deut. xxii, 11.] - -8. Now in things that are moral commands, the law hath received no -change: but in things sacramental and ceremonial its outward form is -altered: yet not one of the mystical significations is done away: for -the law is not done away. Though the 'priesthood being changed, there -is made of necessity a change likewise of the law.' [Footnote 102] - - [Footnote 102: Hebrews vii, 12.] - -9. Now, in Holy Scriptures there be divers senses: as historic, -allegoric, tropologic, and anagogic. Whence, according to Boethius, -all divine authority ariseth from a sense either historical or -allegorical or from both. And according to S. Hierom, we ought to -study Holy Scriptures in three ways:--firstly, according to the -letter; secondly, after the allegory, that is, the spiritual meaning; -thirdly, according to the blessedness of the future. - -{6} - -History is _things signified by words:_ as when a plain relation is -made how certain events took place: as when the children of Israel, -after their deliverance from Egypt, made a tabernacle to the Lord. And -history is derived from [Greek text], which is to gesticulate: -[Footnote 103] whence gesticulators (that is, players) are called -_histriones_. - - [Footnote 103: Here is a notable instance of Durandus's - misderivations, of which we have spoken in the Introduction.] - -10. Allegory is when one thing is said and another meant: as when by -one deed another is intended: which other thing, if it be visible, the -whole is simply an allegory, if invisible and heavenly, an _anagoge_. -Also an allegory is when one state of things is described by another: -as when the patience of Christ, and the sacraments of the Church are -set forth by mystical words or deeds. As in that place: 'There shall -come forth a rod of the stem of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of -his roots:' [Footnote 104] which is in plain language. The Virgin -Mary shall be born of the family of David, who was the son of Jesse. -[This is an example of mysticism in words.] Truth is also set forth by -mystic deeds: as the children of Israel's freedom from Egyptian -slavery, wrought by the blood of a lamb, signifieth that the Church is -freed by the Passion of Christ from demoniacal servitude. [Footnote -105] The word allegory is derived from the Greek _allon_, which means -_foreign_, and _gore_, which is _sense_; that is, a _foreign sense_. - - [Footnote 104: Isaiah xi, 1.] - - [Footnote 105: See Appendix I.] - -{7} - -11. _Tropology_ is an injunction unto morality: or a moral speech, -either with a symbolical or an obvious bearing, devised to evince and -instruct our behaviour. _Symbolical_; as where he saith, 'Let thy -garments be always white: and let the oil of thy head never fail.' -[Footnote 106] That is, let all thy works be pure, and charity never -fail from thy mind. And again, It is fit that David should slay the -Goliath within us: that is, that humbleness may subdue our pride. -_Obvious_ as in that saying, 'Deal thy bread to the hungry.' -[Footnote 107] And in that text: 'Let us not love in word, neither in -tongue: but in deed and truth.' [Footnote 108] Now tropology hath -his name from _tropos_, a turning, and _logos_, which is a discourse. - - [Footnote 106: Ecclesiastes ix, 8. ] - - [Footnote 107: Isaiah lviii, 7.] - - [Footnote 108: 1 S. John iii, 18.] - -12. Anagoge is so called from _ana_, which is upwards, and _goge_, a -leading: as it were an upward leading. Whence the anagogic sense is -that which leadeth from the visible to the invisible: as light, made -the first day, signifieth a thing invisible, namely the angelic nature -which was made in the beginning. _Anagoge_, therefore, is that sense -which leadeth the mind upwards to heavenly things: that is to the -Trinity and the orders of angels, and speaketh concerning future -rewards, and the future life which is in the heaven: and it useth both -obvious and mystical expressions; obvious, as in that saying, 'Blessed -are the pure in heart: for they shall see God:' [Footnote 109] -mystical, as that, 'Blessed are they that have made white their robes: -that they may have right unto the tree of life, and enter in through -the gate into the city.' [Footnote 110] Which signifieth, Blessed -are they who make pure their thoughts, that they may have a right to -see 'God, who is the way, the truth, and the life:' [Footnote 111] -and after the example of the fathers, enter into the kingdom of -heaven. - - [Footnote 109: S. Matthew v, 8.] - - [Footnote 110: Apocalypse vii, 14.] - - [Footnote 111: S. John xiv, 6.] - -{8} - -In like manner, Jerusalem is understood historically of that earthly -city whither pilgrims journey; allegorically, of the Church Militant; -tropologically, of every faithful soul; anagogically, of the celestial -Jerusalem, which is our country. [Footnote 112] Of these things, more -examples may be seen in the lessons for Holy Saturday. [Footnote 113] -But in this work many senses are applied: and speedy changes are made -from one to another, as the diligent reader will perceive. - - [Footnote 112: How beautifully, observes a writer in the _British - Critic_, do old ecclesiastical writers use _patria_ and _domus_ of - our celestial country, and our everlasting home!] - - [Footnote 113: Reference is here apparently made to the fifth - chapter of the book, of Lamentations, which appears as the 3rd - lesson at Matins.] - -13. For as none is prohibited from using divers grounds of exception -and manners of defence, so neither are they forbidden to employ divers -expositions in the praise of God, so that faith be not injured. - -14. Notice must also be taken of the variety of rites used in the -divine worship. For nearly every Church hath her own observances, and -attacheth to them a full meaning of her own: neither is it thought -blameworthy or absurd to worship with various chants, or modulations -of the voice, nor yet with different observances: when the Church -Triumphant herself is surrounded, [Footnote 114] according to the -Prophet, with the like diversity, and in the administration of the -sacraments themselves a variety of customs is tolerated, and that -rightly. - - [Footnote 114: The author appears to refer here to the XLV Psalm, - 'Eructavit cor meum.'] - -{9} - -15. Whence, according to Austin of ecclesiastical institutions in the -divine office, some we have received from Holy Scriptures: some from -the traditions or writings of the apostles, being confirmed by their -successors: some, moreover, of which, however, the institution is -unknown, are confirmed by custom and approved by use: and to them -equal observance is due as to the others. - -16. Let not, then, the reader be angry if he perchance read in this -work of observances which he never saw in his own church: or does not -read of some that are there in use. For we endeavour not to go through -the particular rites of particular places, but those which be more -common and usual: because we labour to set forth that doctrine which -is of universal, and not that which is of particular bearing, nor -would it be possible for us to examine the particular rites of every -church. Therefore we have determined, for the health of our soul and -the benefit of the readers, to set forth and to arrange the secret -mysteries of divine offices in a clear state, to the best of our power -and to inculcate and thoroughly to explain that which appears -necessary for ecclesiastics, towards the understanding of the daily -service: even as it is well known that, when in a different condition -of life, we did faithfully in our _Mirror of Magistrates_ do the like -for the use of those who were employed in secular courts. - -{10} - -17. But it must diligently be noted that in the divine offices -themselves [Footnote 115] many ceremonies there be of usual -employment which have, from their institution, respect neither to a -moral nor mystical signification. Of these, some are known to have -arisen of necessity: some of congruity: some of the difference of the -Old and New Testament; some of convenience; and some for the mere -honour and reverence of the offices themselves: whence saith blessed -Austin, so many things are varied by the different customs of divers -place, that seldom or never can those causes be discovered which men -followed in constituting them. - - [Footnote 115: This passage is worth noting, as showing that our - Author does not proceed with the determination of making a meaning - where he could not find one: but that he is willing to leave much, - explained only in the principles of necessity, or convenience, or - reverence.] - -18. This work is described as a Rationale. For as in the 'breastplate -of judgment' [Footnote 116] which the Jewish high priest wore was -written manifestation and truth, so here the reasons of the variations -in divine offices and their truths are set forth and manifested: which -the prelates and priests of churches ought faithfully to preserve in -the shrine of their breasts: and as in the breastplate there was a -stone by the splendour of which the children of Israel knew that God -was well pleased with them: so also the pious reader who hath been -taught the mysteries of the divine offices from the clearness of this -work will know that God is favourably disposed towards us, unless we -rashly incur His indignation by our offence and fault. The breastplate -was woven of four colours and of gold: and here, as we said before, -the principles on which are founded the variations in ecclesiastical -offices, take the hues of four senses, the historic, the allegoric, -the tropologic, and the anagogic, with faith as the [Footnote 117] -groundwork. - - [Footnote 116: Vulg. In Rationali Judicii. Exodus xxviii, 3.] - - [Footnote 117: Such appears the meaning of this beautiful - comparison. The words are rather obscure, _quatuor sensibus fide - media colorantur_.] - -{11} - -19. It is divided into eight parts: which we shall go through, by the -Lord's favour, in order. The first treateth of churches, and -ecclesiastical places and ornaments: and of consecrations and -sacraments. The second of the members of the Church, and their duties: -the third of sacerdotal and other vestments: the fourth of the Mass, -and of the things therein performed: the fifth of the other divine -offices: the sixth of the Sundays and holydays, and feasts specially -pertaining to our Lord: the seventh of Saints' days, and the feast of -the dedication of a church, and the office of the dead; the eighth of -the method of computing time, and the calendar. - -{12} - -_Tradatus Gulielmi Durandi de ecclesia et ecclesiasticis locis et -sacramentis et ornamentis et de consecrationibus incipit feliciter._ - - - -CHAPTER I - -OF A CHURCH AND ITS PARTS - -Two-fold Meaning of the Word--Different Synonyms for the Term--Form of -a Church--Of the Tabernacle--The Foundation, how to be laid--To Point -East, and Why--The Spiritual Church, how Built up--Of Cement--What -Arms the Spiritual Church Employeth--Of the Materials of the -Tabernacle--Of Shittim Wood--Analogy of a Church with the Human -Body--Of what the Spiritual Church consisteth--Of its Foundations--Of -the Walls--Of the Choir--Of Apses--Of the Cloister Court--Of the -Towers--Of the Cock--Of the Pinnacles--Of the Windows--Of the Lattice -Work--Of the Doors--Of the Piers--Of the Beams--Of the Roof--Of the -Stalls--Of the Pulpit--Of the Rood Loft--Of the Hours--Of the -Sanctuary--Of the Sacristy--Of the Roof Tiles--Of the Lights--Of the -Crosses--Of the Cloister--Of the Bishop's Throne--Why we go together -to Church--Of the Separation of the Women from the Men--Of the -Covering of Women's Heads--Of Speech in Church--Of Immunity for -Malefactors--Why Churches may be rebuilt in other Places. - - -1. First of all, let us consider a church [Footnote 118] and its -parts. The word church hath two meanings: the one, a material -building, wherein the divine offices are celebrated: the other, a -spiritual fabric, which is the collection of the faithful. The Church, -_that_ is the people forming it, is assembled by its ministers, and -collected together into {13} one place by 'Him who maketh men to be of -one mind in an house.' [Footnote 119]For as the material church is -constructed from the joining together of various stones, so is the -spiritual Church by that of various men. - - [Footnote 118: It has been found advisable to print the word church - in the following pages with a great or a small initial letter, - according as 'The Blessed Company of all Faithful People,' or the - material building, were intended.] - - [Footnote 119: Psalm lxviii (_Exsurgat Deus_), 6.] - -2. The Greek _ecclesia_ is in Latin translated by convocation because -it calleth men to itself: the which title doth better befit the -spiritual than the material church. - -The material typifieth the spiritual Church: as shall be explained -when we treat of its consecration. [Footnote 120] Again, the Church -is called Catholic, that is universal, because it hath been set up in, -or spread over, all the world, because the whole multitude of the -faithful ought to be in one congregation, or because in the Church is -laid up the doctrine necessary for the instruction of all. - - [Footnote 120: See below, chapter vi.] - -3. It is also called in Greek _synagoga_, in Latin _congregatio_, -which was the name chosen by the Jews for their places of worship: for -to them the term synagogue more appropriately belongeth, though it be -also applied to a church. But the Apostles never call a church by this -title, perhaps for the sake of distinction. - -4. The Church Militant is also called _Sion_: because, amidst its -wanderings, it expecteth the promise of a heavenly rest: for Sion -signifieth _expectation_. But the Church Triumphant, our future home, -the land of peace, is called Jerusalem: for Jerusalem signifieth _the -vision of peace_. [Footnote 121] - - [Footnote 121: So the hymn in the Parisian Breviary, for the - dedication of a church: - Urbs beata, vera pacis - Visio, Jerusalem.] - -Also, the church is called the _House of God_: also, sometimes, [Greek -text], that is, the _Lord's House_. At others _basilica_ (in Latin, a -royal palace), for the abodes of earthly kings are thus termed: and -how much more fittingly our houses of prayer, the dwelling-places of -the King of Kings! Again, it is called _temple_, from _tectum amplum,_ -{14} where sacrifices are offered to God: and sometimes the -_tabernacle of God_, because this present life is a journey, and a -progress to a lasting country: and a tabernacle is an hostelrie: -[Footnote 122] as will be explained when we speak of the dedication -[Footnote 123] of a church. And why it is called the _Ark of the -Testimony_, we shall say in the ensuing chapter, under the title -Altars. Sometimes it is called _Martyrium_, when raised in honour of -any martyr; sometimes _capella_ [Footnote 124] (chapel), (see under -the head Priest in the second part); sometimes _coenobium_, at others -_sacrificium_; sometimes _sacellum_; sometimes _the house of prayer_: -sometimes _monastery_: sometimes _oratory_. Generally, however, any -place set apart for prayers is called an oratory. Again, the church is -called the _Body of Christ_ sometimes a _virgin_, as the Apostle -saith, 'that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ': -[Footnote 125] sometimes a _bride_, because Christ hath betrothed her -to Himself, as saith the Gospel: 'he that hath the bride is the -bridegroom': [Footnote 126] sometimes a _mother_, for daily in -baptism she beareth sons to God: sometimes a _daughter_, according to -that saying of the Prophet, 'Instead of thy fathers thou shalt have -children': [Footnote 127] sometimes a _widow_, because 'she sitteth -solitary through her afflictions, and, like Rachel, will not be -comforted.' Sometimes she is set forth under the emblem of an -_harlot_, because she is called out of many nations, and because she -closeth not her bosom against any that return to her. - - [Footnote 122: Compare Cicero de Senect. xxiii. Et ex vita ita - discedo tanquam ex hospitio, non tanquam ex domo: commorandi enim - Natura diversorium nobis, non habitandi dedit.] - - [Footnote 123: Chapter vi, sect. 5, ad fin.] - - [Footnote 124: Durandus, II. 10. 8. 'In many places, priests be - called chaplains. For of old the Kings of France, when they went - forth to war, carried with them the Cope of Blessed Martin, which - was kept in a certain tent (where Mass was said), and from the cope - (cappa) the tent was called chapel (capella).' - - We may observe that chapel was used in former times with much - greater latitude than now. An additional aisle or chantry was so - called. So in Haddenham, Cambridgeshire, on a brass in the north - aisle, _Orate pro Aniniabus fundatorum hujus Capellae_: that is, the - aisle itself.] - - [Footnote 125: 2 Cor. xi, 2.] - - [Footnote 126: S. John iii, 29.] - - [Footnote 127: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 16.] - -{15} - -Sometimes she is called a city, because of the communion of her holy -citizens, being defended by the munitions of the Scriptures, whereby -heretics are kept off: having stones and beams of divers kinds, -because the merits of the saints are of divers kinds also, as shall be -said below. Whatever the Jewish Church received by the law, that doth -the Christian Church receive, and with large increase by grace, from -Christ whose bride she is. The setting up of an oratory, or church, is -not new. For the Lord commanded Moses in Mount Sinai, that he should -make a tabernacle of curiously wrought materials. This was divided by -a veil into two parts: the outer, called the holy place, where the -people attended the sacrifices: the inner, the holy of holies, where -the priests and Levites ministered before the Lord (see the Preface to -the Fourth Book and also Appendix A). - -5. This tabernacle having decayed through age, the Lord commanded that -a temple should be built, which Solomon accomplished with wonderful -skill: this also had two parts, like the tabernacle. From both of -these, namely, from the tabernacle and the temple, doth our material -church take its form. In its outer portion, the laity offer their -prayers, and hear the Word. In the sanctuary, the clergy pray, preach, -offer praises and prayers. - -6. The tabernacle, built as it was amidst the journeyings of the -Israelites, is sometimes taken as a type of the world which 'passeth -away, and the lust thereof' [Footnote 128] Whence it was formed with -curtains of four colours, as the world is composed of four elements. -'God,' said the Prophet, 'is in His tabernacle': [Footnote 129] God -is in this world, as in a temple dyed scarlet by the blood of Christ. - - [Footnote 128: S. John ii, 17.] - - [Footnote 129: Psalm xi (_In Domino confido_), 4.] - -{16} - -The tabernacle is, however, more especially symbolical of the Church -Militant, which hath 'here no continuing city, but seeketh one to -come.' [Footnote 130] Therefore is it called a tabernacle, for -tabernacles or tents belong to soldiers: and this saying, God is in -his tabernacle, meaneth, God is among the faithful collected together -in His name. The outer part of the tabernacle, where the people -sacrificed, is the active life, wherein men give themselves up to the -love of their neighbour: the interior, wherein the Levites ministered, -is the contemplative life, where a band of religious men devote -themselves to the love and contemplation of God. The tabernacle gave -place to the temple: because after the warfare cometh the triumph. - - [Footnote 130: Hebrews xiii, 14.] - -7. Now a church is to be built on this fashion: The foundation being -prepared, according to that saying, 'It fell not, for it was founded -upon a rock,' [Footnote 131] the bishop, or a priest [Footnote 132] -as the bishop's deputy, must sprinkle it with holy water, to banish -the foul forms of evil spirits, and lay the first stone, whereon a -cross must be engraved. [Footnote 133] - - [Footnote 131: S. Matthew vii, 25. In general illustration of the - foregoing sections the reader is referred to the first chapter of - the eighth book of Bingham's 'Antiquities.'] - - [Footnote 132: In the account of the dedication of S. Michael the - Archangel, in the Isle of Guernsey, preserved in the 'Black Book of - the Bishop of Coutances,' it appears that the ceremony was performed - by a priest though it is believed that such has seldom been the case - in the Anglican Church. But see chapter vi, section 2. ] - - [Footnote 133: A cross was not only inscribed on the foundation - stone, but a cross was placed where the church was to be: and this - in the Eastern Church; where the _Stauropegia_ was a ceremony of - much importance.] - -8. The foundation must be so contrived, as that the head of the church -may point due east (see Appendix B); that is, to that point of the -heavens, wherein the sun ariseth at the equinoxes; to signify, that -the Church Militant must [Footnote 134] behave herself with -moderation, both in prosperity and adversity: and not towards that -point where the sun ariseth at the solstices, which is the practice of -some. - - [Footnote 134: This passage is valuable as proving that in the - country of our Bishop nothing was known of a practice undoubtedly - prevalent in England; the direction of a church to that part of the - sky in which the sun arose on the Feast of the Patron Saint.] - -{17} - -But if the walls of Jerusalem, 'which is built as a city that is at -unity with itself,' [Footnote 135] were, by the Prophet's command, -raised by the Jews, with how much greater zeal should we raise the -walls of our churches! For the material church, wherein the people -assemble to set forth God's holy praise, symboliseth that Holy Church -which is built in heaven of living stones. - - [Footnote 135: Psalm cxxii (_Laetatus sum_), 3. ] - -9. This is that House of the Lord, built with all strength, 'upon the -foundations of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being -the chief cornerstone. [Footnote 136] Her [Footnote 137] -foundations are in the holy mountains.' The walls built upon these are -the Jews and Gentiles; who come from the four parts of the world unto -Christ, and who have believed, believe, or shall believe on Him. - - [Footnote 136: Eph. ii, 20.] - - [Footnote 137: Psalm lxxxvii (_Fundamenta ejus_), I. ] - -The faithful predestinated to eternal life, are the stones in the -structure of this wall which shall continually be built up unto the -world's end. And one stone is added to another, when masters in the -Church teach and confirm and strengthen those who are put under them: -and whosoever in Holy Church undertaketh painful labours from -brotherly love, he as it were beareth up the weight of stones which -have been placed above him. Those stones which are of larger size, and -polished, or squared, and placed on the outside and at the angles of -the building, are men of holier life than others, who by their merits -and prayers retain weaker brethren in Holy Church. - -10. The cement, without which there can be no stability of the walls, -is made of lime, sand, and water. The lime is fervent charity, which -joineth to itself the sand, that is, undertakings for the temporal -welfare of our brethren: {18} because true charity taketh care of the -widow and the aged, and the infant, and the infirm: and they who have -it study to work with their hands, that they may possess wherewith to -benefit them. Now the lime and the sand are bound together in the wall -by an admixture of water. But water is an emblem of the Spirit. And as -without cement the stones cannot cohere, so neither can men be built -up in the heavenly Jerusalem without charity, which the Holy Ghost -worketh in them. All the stones are polished and squared--that is, -holy and pure, and are built by the hands of the Great Workman into an -abiding place in the Church: whereof some are borne, and bear nothing, -as the weaker members: some are both borne and bear, as those of -moderate strength: and some bear, and are borne of none save Christ, -the corner-stone, as they that are perfect. All are bound together by -one spirit of charity, as though fastened with cement; and those -living stones are knit together in the bond of peace. Christ was our -wall in His conversation: and our outer wall in His Passion. - -11. When the Jews were rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem, their -enemies strove hard to let the works: so that 'they built with one -hand, and held their weapons of war in the other.' And round us too do -enemies gather, while we are building the walls of our Church: our own -sins, or ungodly men, willing to hinder our success. Whence, while we -build our walls, that is, while we add virtue to virtue, we must fight -with the enemy, and grasp our weapons firmly: we must 'take the helmet -of salvation, the shield of faith, the breastplate of righteousness: -and for our sword the word of God,' [Footnote 138] that we may defend -ourselves against them: and God's priest shall be unto us in Christ's -stead, to teach us by his lessons, and defend us by his prayers. - - [Footnote 138: Eph. vi, 16, 17.] - -{19} - -12. Furthermore, of what the tabernacle was made the Lord hath told -us, saying unto Moses, 'Take the first fruits,'--that is, the most -precious gifts--'of the children of Israel: but from him alone who -willingly offereth gold, and silver, and brass, and precious stones, -and purple and linen twice dyed'; namely cloth of the colours of blue, -purple, and scarlet: and of biss, which is a kind of Egyptian linen -white and soft: 'and goat's hair, and rams' skins dyed red,' which we -call Parthian, because the Parthians first dyed them thus, 'and purple -skins and shittim wood' (shittim is the name of a mountain, and also -of a tree: its leaves are like the white thorn, and to be injured -neither by fire nor by decay): 'and oil for the lights, frankincense, -and ointment of a sweet savour, onyx stones, and sard-onyxes, and -jewels: and let them make Me a house, that I may dwell in the midst of -them: and that they may not weary themselves in returning to this -mountain.' [Footnote 139] - - [Footnote 139: Exodus xxv, 2.] - -14. The arrangement of a material church resembleth that of the human -body: the chancel, or place where the altar is, representeth the head: -the transepts, the hands and arms, and the remainder--towards the -west--the rest of the body. The sacrifice of the altar denoteth the -vows of the heart. Furthermore, according to Richard de Sancto -Victore, the arrangement of a church typifieth the three states in the -Church: of virgins, of the continent, of the married. {20} The -sanctuary [Footnote 140] is smaller than the chancel, and this than -the nave: because the virgins are fewer in number [Footnote 141] than -the continent, and these than the married. And the sanctuary is more -holy than the chancel: and the chancel than the nave: because the -order of virgins is more worthy than that of the continent, and the -continent more worthy than the married. - - [Footnote 140: The sanctuary of course means that eastermost - division in churches consisting of three parts, which still remains - in many Norman buildings, and of which Kilpeck, in Herefordshire, - may be taken as a type. These churches are generally apsidal: but - there are instances to the contrary, as Bishopstone, in Sussex. A - view of the sanctum sanctorum and chancel arches in this church is - given in the Cambridge Camden Society's 'Illustrations of Monumental - Brasses,' part iv.] - - [Footnote 141: This passage is somewhat obscure; but the difference - between the virgins and the continent appears to be this: by the - former are meant those who have taken vows of celibacy; by the - latter, those who practise it, without, however, having bound - themselves to it by vow.] - -15. Furthermore, the church consisteth of four walls, that is, is -built on the doctrine of the Four Evangelists; and hath length, -breadth, and height: the height representeth courage, the length -fortitude, which patiently endureth till it attaineth its heavenly -home; the breadth is charity, which, with long suffering, loveth its -friends in God, and its foes for God; and again, its height is the -hope of future retribution, which despiseth prosperity and adversity, -hoping 'to see the goodness of the Lord in the land of the living.' -[Footnote 142] - - [Footnote 142: Psalm xxvii (_Dominus illuminatio_), 13.] - -16. Again, in the temple of God, the foundation is faith, which is -conversant with unseen things: the roof, charity, 'which covereth a -multitude of sins.' [Footnote 143] The door, obedience, of which the -Lord saith, 'If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments.' -[Footnote 144] The pavement, humility, of which the Psalmist saith, -'My soul cleaveth to the pavement.' [Footnote 145] - - [Footnote 143: I S. Peter iv, 8.] - - [Footnote 144: S. Matthew xix, 17.] - - [Footnote 145: Psalm cxix (_Adhaesit pavimento_), 25.] - -17. The four side-walls, the four cardinal virtues, justice, -fortitude, temperance, prudence. Hence the Apocalypse saith, 'The city -lieth four-square.' [Footnote 146] The windows are hospitality with -cheerfulness, and tenderness with charity. - - [Footnote 146: Rev. xxi, 16.] - -{21} - -Concerning this house saith the Lord, 'We will come unto him, and make -our abode with him.' [Footnote 147] But some churches are built in -the shape of a cross, to signify, that we are crucified to the world, -and should tread in the steps of the Crucified, according to that -saying, 'If any man will come after Me, let him deny himself and take -up his cross, and follow Me.' [Footnote 148] Some also are built in -the form of a circle: [Footnote 149] to signify that the Church hath -been extended throughout the circle of the world, as saith the -Psalmist: 'And their words unto the end of the world.' [Footnote -150] Or because from the circle of this world, we reach forth to that -crown of eternity which shall encircle our brows. - - [Footnote 147: S. John xiv, 23.] - - [Footnote 148: S. Matthew xvi, 18.] - - [Footnote 149: This of course refers to the Church of the Holy - Sepulchre, the prototype of these buildings. There are four, as it - is well known, in England yet standing, and two in ruins--namely, - Temple Aslackby, in Lincolnshire, and the church in Ludlow Castle.] - - [Footnote 150: Psalm xix (_Caeli enarrant_), 4.] - -18. The choir is so called from the harmony of the clergy in their -chanting, or from the multitude collected at the divine offices. The -word _chorus_ is derived from _chorea_, or from _corona_. For in early -times they stood like a crown round the altar, and thus sung the -Psalms in one body: but Flavianus and Theodorus taught the antiphonal -method of chanting, having received it from S. Ignatius, who himself -learnt it by inspiration. The two choirs then typify the angels, and -the spirits of just men, while they cheerfully and mutually excite -each other in this holy exercise. Others derive _chorus_ from -_concord_, which consisteth of charity; because he who hath not -charity, cannot sing with the spirit. But what this choir signifieth, -and why the greatest in it sit last, shall be explained in the fourth -book. [Footnote 151] And observe, that when one sings, it is called -in Greek a _monody_, in Latin _tycinium_. When two sing, it is called -_bicinium_; when many, a _chorus_. - - [Footnote 151: We may observe that Prynne perverts the fact, that - the westernmost seats in the choir are the most honourable, to a - depreciation of the Catholic custom of the position of the altar. - See his 'Pacific Examination,' s.v.] - -{22} - -19. The exedra is an apsis, separated a little from a temple or -palace; so called because it projecteth a little from the wall (in -Greek [Greek text]), and signifieth the lay portion of the faithful -joined to Christ and the Church. The crypts, or subterranean caves, -which we find in some churches, are hermits who are devoted to a -solitary life. - -20. The open court signifieth Christ, by Whom an entrance is -administered into the heavenly Jerusalem: this is also called porch, -from _porta_, a gate, or because it is _aperta_, open. - -21. The towers are the preachers and prelates of the Church, which are -her bulwark and defence. Whence the bridegroom in the Canticles saith -to the bride, 'Thy neck is like the tower of David builded for an -armoury.' [Footnote 152] The pinnacles of the towers signify the -life or the mind of a prelate which aspireth heavenwards. - - [Footnote 152: Canticles iv, 4.] - -22. The cock at the summit of the church is a type of preachers. For -the cock, ever watchful even in the depth of night, giveth notice how -the hours pass, wakeneth the sleepers, predicteth the approach of day, -but first exciteth himself to crow by striking his sides with his -wings. There is a mystery conveyed in each of these particulars. The -night is this world: the sleepers are the children of this world who -are asleep in their sins. The cock is the preacher, who preacheth -boldly, and exciteth the sleepers to cast away the works of darkness, -exclaiming, 'Woe to them that sleep! Awake thou that sleepest! -[Footnote 153] And these foretell the approach of day when they speak -of the Day of Judgment, and the glory that shall be revealed: and like -prudent {23} messengers, before they teach others, arouse themselves -from the sleep of sin by mortifying their bodies. Whence the Apostle, -'I keep under my body.' [Footnote 154] And as the weathercock faceth -the wind, they turn themselves boldly to meet the rebellious by -threats and arguments: lest they should be guilty, 'when the wolf -cometh, of leaving the sheep and fleeing.' [Footnote 155] The iron -rod, whereon the cock sitteth, representeth the discourse of the -preacher, that he speaketh not of man but of God: according to that -saying, 'If any man speak, let him speak as the oracles of God.' -[Footnote 156] But in that the iron rod is placed above the cross, on -the summit of the church, it signifieth that Holy Scripture is now -consummated and confirmed. Whence saith our Lord in His Passion, 'It -is finished': and that title is written indelibly over Him. - - [Footnote 153: Eph. v, 14.] - - [Footnote 154: 1 Cor. ix, 27.] - - [Footnote 155: S. John x, 12.] - - [Footnote 156: I S. Peter iv, 11.] - -23. The cone, that is the summit of the church, of great height, and -of round shape, signifieth how perfectly and inviolably the Catholic -faith must be held: which faith except a man do keep whole and -undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. - -24. The glass windows in a church are Holy Scriptures, which expel the -wind and the rain, that is all things hurtful, but transmit the light -of the true Sun, that is, God, into the hearts of the faithful. These -are wider [Footnote 157] within than without, because the mystical -sense is the more ample, and precedeth the literal meaning. Also, by -the windows the senses of the body are signified: which ought to be -shut to the vanities of this world, and open to receive with all -freedom spiritual gifts. - - [Footnote 157: This passage is particularly to be observed, for the - reason given in the Introduction.] - -25. By the lattice work [Footnote 158] of the windows, we understand -the prophets or other obscure teachers of the Church Militant: in -which windows there are often two shafts, signifying the two precepts -of charity, or because the apostles were sent out to preach two and -two. - - [Footnote 158: See Appendix I.] - -{24} - -26. The door of the church is Christ: according to that saying in the -Gospel, 'I am the door.' [Footnote 159] The apostles are also called -doors. - - [Footnote 159: S. John x, 9.] - -27. The piers of the church are bishops and doctors: who specially -sustain the Church of God by their doctrine. These, from the majesty -and clearness of their divine message, are called silver, according to -that in the Song of Songs, 'He made silver columns.' [Footnote 160] -Whence also Moses at the entering in of the tabernacle, placed five -columns, and four before the oracle, that is, the holy of holies. -Although the piers are more in number than seven, yet they are called -seven, according to that saying, 'Wisdom hath builded her house, she -hath hewn out her seven pillars': [Footnote 161] because bishops -ought to be filled with the sevenfold influences of the Holy Ghost: -[Footnote 162] and SS. James and John, as the Apostle testifieth, -'seemed to be pillars.' [Footnote 163] The bases of the columns are -the apostolic bishops, [Footnote 164] who support the frame of the -whole church. The capitals of the piers are the opinions of the -bishops and doctors. For as the members are directed and moved by the -head, so are our words and works governed by their mind. The ornaments -of the capitals are the words of Sacred Scripture, to the meditation -and observance of which we are bound. - - [Footnote 160: Canticles viii, 9.] - - [Footnote 161: Prov. viii, I.] - - [Footnote 162: Compare the _Veni Creator_: - Thou the anointing Spirit art, - Who dost Thy sevenfold gifts impart.] - - [Footnote 163: Gal ii, 9.] - - [Footnote 164: That is, it may be supposed, bishops of those sees - which were founded by the apostles themselves, e.g. Rome, Crete, - Ephesus.] - -28. The pavement of the church is the foundation of our faith. But in -the spiritual Church, the pavement is the poor, of Christ: the poor in -spirit, who humble themselves in all thing: wherefore on account of -their {25} humility they are likened to the pavement. Again, the -pavement, which is trodden under foot, representeth the multitude, by -whose labours the Church is sustained. - -29. The beams [Footnote 165] which join together the church are the -princes of this world or the preachers who defend the unity of the -Church, the one by deed, the other by argument. - - [Footnote 165: _Beams_. That is, probably, tie-beams: here is - another reference to the architectural arrangements of Early English - date.] - -30. The stalls in the church signify the contemplative, in whom God -dwelleth without hindrance, who, from their high dignity and the glory -of eternal life, are compared to gold. Whence He saith in the -Canticles, 'He made a golden seat.' [Footnote 166] - - [Footnote 166: See Appendix I.] - -31. The beams in the church are preachers, who spiritually sustain it. -The vaulting also, or ceiling, representeth preachers, who adorn and -strengthen it, concerning whom, seeing that they are not corruptible -through vice, the bridegroom glorieth in the same Canticles, saying -'the beams of our house are cedar, and its ceiling, fir.' For God hath -built His Church of living stones, and imperishable wood, according to -that saying, 'Solomon made himself a litter of cedar wood;' [Footnote -167] that is, Christ, of His saints who wear the white robe of -chastity. - - [Footnote 167: It is very difficult to find the right meaning of the - word ferculum here. The English version gives the passage from the - Canticles, 'King Solomon made himself a _chariot_ (marg. reading, - _bed_) of the wood of Lebanon. In the extremely beautiful treatise - of Hugo de S. Victore, _De Nuptiis Spiritualibus_(cap. iii), the - _fercula nuptialia_ appear to mean the _marriage feast_, which is to - perform its part in the general _Sensuum refectio_, by its sweet - savours; as the bed or chariot of Solomon is noted for the odour of - its cedar wood. However, the same writer devotes five Tituli of his - _Erudit. Theolog. Ex Miscellan._ namely, lix--lxii of the first - book, and cxxi of the second, to the consideration of this Ferculum - Solomonis: which he decides to be a _lectica sen vehiculum_, a - litter or sedan (such as is now used in Sicily under the name of - _lettiga_), differing from the _lectulus_ or _bed_ (Cant, i, 16), - inasmuch as this denotes the repose of the contemplative life, while - the ferculum typifies the laborious exercise of the active life; and - differing again from the _currus_ or chariot (the only other vehicle - mentioned in Holy Scripture), since the latter is drawn on the earth - with a grating noise, and represents a depraved heart clinging to - earthly things, but the former is borne smoothly and quietly above - the ground, an image of the righteous soul despising earthly and - seeking heavenly things. Lastly, the _ferculum_, or litter, typifies - the Church, from carrying, _a ferendo_, as doth the Church her - children unto Heavenly Rest.] - -{26} - -The chancel, that is, the head of the church, being lower [Footnote -168] than its body, signifieth how great humility there should be in -the clergy, or in prelates, according to that saying, 'And the more -thou art exalted, humble thyself in all things.' The rail, by which -the altar [Footnote 169] is divided from the choir, teacheth the -separation of things celestial from things terrestrial. - - [Footnote 168: The fact that in many unaltered and unmutilated - churches the chancel is lower than the nave, appears to have been - unnoticed by ecclesiologists. Wherever it occurs, William Dowsing, - or some of his puritanical coadjutors, have been supposed agents in - the matter. But there exist chancels, which, whether from the height - of the piscina and sedilia, or on other accounts, cannot have been - lowered, to which nevertheless there is a descent from the nave. - Such an one is that of S. Giles's at Cambridge: and the arrangement - is very common in the little churches of the south-west part of - Sussex.] - - [Footnote 169: This is another very remarkable passage: and one - which proves that the injunction of Abp. Laud for the erection of - altar rails was not a novelty. And though their abolition is much to - be wished, as well from the ugliness of all existing specimens, as - from the irreverence which they seem to pre-suppose, the Church in - England can scarcely be charged with the adoption of an innovation - in giving her sanction to them.] - -32. The seats in the choir admonish us that the body must sometimes be -refreshed: because that which hath not alternate rest wanteth -durability. - -33. The pulpit in the church is the life of the perfect: and is so -called from being public, or placed in a public place. For we read, -'Solomon made a brazen scaffold, and set it in the midst of the -temple, and stood upon it, and stretching forth his hands spake to the -people of God.' Esdras also made a wooden scaffold for speaking: in -which when he stood, he was higher than the rest of the people. -[Footnote 170] - - [Footnote 170: 3 Kings vi, 13.] - -34. The analogium (rood-loft) is so called because in it the Word of -God is read and delivered. Which also is called ambo, from _ambire_, -[Footnote 171] to surround, because it surroundeth him that entereth -in. - - [Footnote 171: This is, of course, a false derivation. The important - subject of Rood-lofts has been treated with admirable learning by - Father Thiers, in his treatise 'Sur les jubés,' to which the reader - is referred. See also Appendix C.] - - {27} - -35. The horologium, by means of which the hours are read, teacheth the -diligence that should be in priests to observe at the proper times the -canonical hours: as he saith, 'Seven times a day do I praise thee.' -[Footnote 172] - - [Footnote 172: Psalm (cxix), _Beati immaculati_, 164.] - -36. The tiles [Footnote 173] of the roof which keep off the rain are -the soldiers, who preserve the Church from paynim, and from enemies. - - [Footnote 173: This passage deserves to be noticed, as proving that - lead was not the only roofing employed in the Norman churches.] - -37. The circular staircases, which are imitated from Solomon's temple, -are passages which wind among the walls, and point out the hidden -knowledge which they only have who ascend to celestial things. -Concerning the steps, by which ascent is made to the altar, hereafter. - -38. The sacristy, or place where the holy vessels are deposited, or -where the priest putteth on his robes, is the womb of the Blessed -Mary, where Christ put on his robes of humanity. The priest, having -robed himself, cometh forth into the public view, because Christ, -having come from the womb of the Virgin, proceeded forth into the -world. - -The bishop's throne in the church is higher than the rest. - -39. Near to the altar, which signifieth Christ, is placed the piscina, -or lavacrum, that is, the pity of Christ, in which the priest washeth -his hands, thereby denoting that by baptism and penitence we are -purged from the filth of sin: which is drawn from the Old Testament. -For he saith in Exodus, 'And Moses made a laver of brass, with his -basin, in the which Aaron the priest and his sons should wash, before -they went up to the altar, that they might offer an offering. -[Footnote 174] - - [Footnote 174: Exodus xxxviii, 8.] - -{28} - -40. The lamp in the church is Christ: as He saith, 'I am the light of -the world'; [Footnote 175] and again, 'That was the true light.' -[Footnote 176] 'Or the light in a church may denote the apostles and -other doctors, by whose doctrine the Church is enlightened, as the sun -and moon: concerning whom saith the Lord, 'Ye are the light of the -world: [Footnote 177] that is, an example of good works. Wherefore -He saith to them in His admonitions, 'Let your light shine before -men.' [Footnote 178] But the Church is enlightened by the precepts -of the Lord; wherefore it saith in the before-quoted place, 'Speak -unto the sons of Aaron that they offer oil-olive most pure, that the -lamp may burn continually in the tabernacle of the testimony.' -[Footnote 179] Moses made also seven lights, which are the seven gifts -of the Holy Ghost: for they in the darkness of this world shine forth -with brightness: and they rest in candlesticks, because in Christ -rested 'the spirit of wisdom and knowledge, the spirit of counsel and -might, the spirit of learning and piety, the spirit of the fear of the -Lord, by which He preached wisdom to the captives.' [Footnote 180] -The number of lights showeth the number of graces in the faithful. - - [Footnote 175: S. John viii, 12.] - - [Footnote 176: S. John i, 6.] - - [Footnote 177: S. Matthew v, 14.] - - [Footnote 178: S. Matthew v, 16.] - - [Footnote 179: Lev. xxiv, 2.] - - [Footnote 180: Isaiah lxi, i.] - -41. In many places a triumphal cross is placed in the midst of the -church; to teach us, that from the midst of our hearts we must love -the Redeemer: who, after Solomon's pattern, 'paved the midst of his -litter (_ferculum_) with love for the daughters of Jerusalem:' -[Footnote 181] and that all, seeing the sign of victory, might -exclaim. Hail, thou Salvation of the whole world, Tree of our -Redemption: and that we should never forget the love of God, who, to -redeem His servants, gave His only son, that we might imitate Him -crucified. But the cross is exalted on high, to signify the victory of -Christ. Why a church is ornamented within and not without, shall be -said hereafter. - - [Footnote 181: Cantic. iii, 10.] - -{29} - -42. The cloisters, as Richard, Bishop of Cremona, testifieth, had -their rise either in the watchings of the Levites around the -tabernacle, or from the chambers of the priests, or from the porch of -Solomon's temple. 'For the Lord commanded Moses, that he should not -number the Levites with the rest of the children of Israel; but should -set them over the tabernacle of the testimony to carry it and to keep -it.' [Footnote 182] On account of which divine commandment, while -the Holy Mysteries are in celebration, the clergy should in the church -stand apart from the laity. Whence the Council of Mayence ordained -that the part which is separated with rails from the altar should be -appropriated altogether to the priests choral. Furthermore, as the -church signifieth the Church Triumphant, so the cloister signifieth -the celestial Paradise, where there will be one and the same heart in -fulfilling the commands of God and loving Him: where all things will -be possessed in common, because that of which one hath less, he will -rejoice to see more abounding in another, for 'God shall be all in -all.' [Footnote 183] Therefore the regular clergy who live in the -cloisters, and are of one mind, rising to the service of God and -leaving worldly things, lead their lives in common. The various -offices in the cloister signify the different mansions, and the -difference of rewards in the Kingdom: for 'In My Father's House are -many mansions,' [Footnote 184] saith our Lord. But in a moral sense -the cloister is the contemplative state, into which the soul betaking -itself, is separated from the crowd of carnal thoughts, and meditateth -on celestial things only. In this cloister there are four sides: -denoting, namely, contempt of self, contempt of the world, love of -God, love of our neighbour. Each side hath his own row of Columns. -Contempt of self hath humiliation of soul, mortification of the flesh, -humility of speech, and the like. The base of all the columns is -patience. - - [Footnote 182: Numbers i, 47; xviii, 6.] - - [Footnote 183: I Corinth, xv, 28.] - - [Footnote 184: S. John xv, 2.] - -{30} - -43. In this cloister the diversity of office-chambers is the diversity -of virtues. The chapter-house is the secret of the heart: concerning -this, however, we shall speak differently hereafter. The refectory is -the love of holy meditation. The cellar, Holy Scripture. The -dormitory, a clean conscience. The oratory, a spotless life. The -garden of trees and herbs, the collection of virtues. The well, the -dew of God's heavenly gifts; which in this world mitigateth our -thirst, and hereafter will quench it. - -44. The Episcopal throne, which according to the injunctions of Saint -Peter has been of old consecrated in each city (as shall be said -below), the piety of our forefathers dedicated, not in memory of -confessors, but to the honour of apostles and martyrs, and especially -of the Blessed Virgin Mary. - -45. But we therefore go to church, that we may there ask for the -pardon of our sins, and assist in the divine praises: as shall be said -in the proeme of the fifth book, and that there we may hear God's -proceedings [Footnote 185] with the good and the ill, and learn and -receive the knowledge of God, and that we may there feed on the Lord's -body. - - [Footnote 185: Such is probably the meaning of the passage. The - original is _ut iti bona sive mala judicia audiamus_.] - -46. In church, men and women sit apart: which, according to Bede, we -have received from the custom of the ancients: and thence it was that -Joseph and Mary lost the Child Jesus; since the one who did not behold -Him in his own company, thought Him to be with the other. . . . But -the men remain on the southern, the {31} women on the northern side: -[Footnote 186] to signify that the saints who be most advanced in -holiness should stand against the greater temptations of this world: -and they who be less advanced, against the less; or that the bolder -and the stronger sex should take their place in the position fittest -for action: because the Apostle saith, 'God is faithful, Who will not -suffer you to be tempted above that ye are able.' [Footnote 187] To -this also pertaineth the vision of S. John, who 'beheld a mighty angel -placing his right foot in the sea.' [Footnote 188] For the stronger -members are opposed to the greater dangers. But, according to others, -the men are to be in the fore part [_i.e._ eastward], the women -behind: because 'the husband is the head of the wife,' [Footnote -189] and therefore should go before her. - - [Footnote 186: This is the practice in some parts of England even to - this day: more especially in Somersetshire. Bp. Montague in his - 'Visitation Articles' (reprinted Camb. 1841) asks (p. 17), 'Do men - and women sit together in those seats indifferently and - promiscuously? or (as the fashion was of old), do men sit together - upon one side of the church, and women upon the other?' And, indeed, - of old there was a still further separation on each side, into the - married and unmarried. The restoration of the practice recommended - by Bp. Montague is much to be wished.] - - [Footnote 187: 1 Corinth, x, 13.] - - [Footnote 188: Apocalypse x, 7.] - - [Footnote 189: Eph. v, 23.] - -47. A woman must cover her head in the church, because she is not the -image of God, and because by woman sin began. And therefore in the -church, out of respect for the priest, who is the vicar of Christ, in -his presence, as before a judge, she hath her head covered, and not at -liberty: and on account of the same reverence she hath not the power -of speaking in the church before him. Of old time, men and women -wearing long hair stood in church with uncovered heads glorying in -their locks: which was a disgrace unto them. - -48. But what should be our conversation in church the Apostle -teacheth, saying, 'Speaking to yourselves in psalms and hymns and -spiritual songs.' [Footnote 190] Whence we must, when we be there, -abstain from superfluous words: {32} according to that saying of S. -Chrysostome, When thou goest into a king's palace, set in order thy -conversation and thy habit. For the angels of the Lord are there: and -the House of God is full of incorporeal virtues. [Footnote 191] And -the Lord saith to Moses, and so doth the angel to Joshua, 'Put off thy -shoes from off thy feet: for the place where thou standest is holy -ground.' [Footnote 192] - - [Footnote 190: Coloss. iii, 16.] - - [Footnote 191: The passage referred to is as follows:--' Regiam - quidem ingrediens, et habitu et aspectu et incessu et omnibus aliis - te ornas et componis: Hic autem vera est Regia et plane hic talia - qualia caelestia:--et rides? Atque scio quidem quod tu non vides. - Audi autem quod ubique adsunt angeli, et maxima in Domo Dei - adsistunt Regis, et omnia sunt impleta incorporeis illus - Potestatibus.] - - [Footnote 192: Exod. iii, 5. Josh, v, 15.] - -49. In the last place, a consecrated church defendeth murderers who -take sanctuary in it from losing life or limb, provided that they have -not offended in it, or against it. Whence it is written that 'Joab -fled to the tabernacle, and laid hold on the horns of the altar.' -[Footnote 193] The same privilege is possessed also by an -unconsecrated church, if the divine offices be therein celebrated. - - [Footnote 193: 2 Kings i, 28.] - -50. But the body of Christ received by such persons, doth not defend -them nor those who fly to it: partly because the privilege is granted -to a church as a church: and therefore not to be misbestowed on other -things: partly because that food is the support of the soul, and not -of the body: whence it freeth the soul and not the body. - -51. Churches are moved from one place to another on three accounts. -First, on account of the necessity arising from persecutors: secondly, -on account of the difficulty of access or habitation, such as the -unwholesomeness of air: thirdly, when they are oppressed with the -society of evil men: and then with the consent of the Pope or the -bishop. Wherefore he that entereth into a church fortifieth himself -with the sign of the cross, shall be said in the proeme of the fifth -book.' [Footnote 194] - - [Footnote 194: See Appendix.] - -{33} - -CHAPTER II - -OF THE ALTAR - -The First Builders of Altars--The Difference between Altare and -Ara--Various Significations of Various Kinds of Altars--The Ark of the -Testimony--It is preserved in the Lateran Church--What a Man needeth -that he may be the Temple of God--What the Table Signifieth--Of the -Candlestick--Of the Ark--Of the Altar--Of the Altar Cloths--Of Steps -to the Altar. - - -I. The altar hath a place in the church on three accounts, as shall be -said in speaking of its dedication. We are to know that Noe -[Footnote 195] first, then Isaac [Footnote 196] and Abraham [Footnote -197] and Jacob made, as we read, altars: which is only to be -understood of stones set upright, on which they offered and slew the -victims and burnt them with fire laid beneath them. Also Moses made an -altar [Footnote 198] of shittim wood: and the same was made as an -altar of incense, and covered with pure gold: as we read in the xxvth -chapter of Exodus, where also the form of the altar is described. From -these of the ancient fathers, the altars of the moderns have their -origin, being erected with four horns at the corners. Of which some -are of one stone, and some are put together of many. - - [Footnote 195: Gen. viii, 20.] - - [Footnote 196: Gen. xxvi, 25. xxxiii, 20.] - - [Footnote 197: Gen. xiii, 18.] - - [Footnote 198: Exodus xxvii, i.] - -2. And sometimes the words altare and ara are used in the same sense. -Yet is there a difference. For _altare_, derived from _alta res_, or -_alta ara_, is that on which {34} the priests burnt incense. But -_ara_, which is derived from _area_, or from _ardeo_, is that on which -sacrifices were burnt. [Footnote 199] - - [Footnote 199: The true ecclesiastical distinction between _altare_ - and _ara_ is that the former means the altar of the true God, and is - therefore alone used in the Vulgate, answering to the Greek [Greek - text], as opposed to ara ([Greek text]), an altar with an image - above it. See _Mede_. Folio 386. ] - -3. And note, that many kinds of altars are found in Scripture: as a -higher, a lower, an inner, an outer; of which each hath both a plain -and a symbolical signification. The higher altar is God the Trinity: -of which it is written, 'Thou shalt not go up by steps to my altar.' -[Footnote 200] And it also signifieth the Church Triumphant: of which -it is said, 'Then shall they offer bullocks upon mine altar.' -[Footnote 201] But the lower altar is the Church Militant, of which it -is said, 'If thou wilt make an altar of stone, thou shalt not make it -of hewn stone.' [Footnote 202] Also it is the table of the temple. -Of which he saith, 'Appoint a solemn day for your assembly even unto -the horns of the altar.' [Footnote 203] And in the Third of Kings, -it is said that Solomon made a golden altar. [Footnote 204 ] But the -interior altar is a clean heart, as shall be said below. It is also a -type of faith in the incarnation, of which in Exodus, 'An altar of -earth ye shall make Me.' [Footnote 205] And an interior altar is the -altar of the cross. This is the altar on which they offered the -evening sacrifice. Whence in the Canon of the Mass it is said, _Jube -hoc in sublime Altare Tuum perferri_. [Footnote 206] Moreover the -external altar representeth the sacraments of the Church: of which it -is said, 'Even thine altars, O Lord of hosts, my King, and my God.' -[Footnote 207] Again, the altar is our mortification in our heart, in -which carnal motions are consumed by the fervour of the Holy Spirit. - - [Footnote 200: Exodus XX, 26.] - - [Footnote 201: Psalm li (_Miserere mei_), 19.] - - [Footnote 202: Exodus XX, 25.] - - [Footnote 203: Psalm cxviii (_Confitemini_), 27.] - - [Footnote 204: III Kings vi. 22.] - - [Footnote 205: Exodus xx 26.] - - [Footnote 206: This prayer, which immediately precedes the - Commemoration of the Dead, runs thus: Supplices Te rogamus, - omnipotens Deus, jube hoc perferri per manus Sancti Angeli Tui, in - conspectu Divinae Majestatis Tuae: ut quotquot ex hac Altaris - participatione sacrosanctum Filii Tui Corpus et Sanguinem - sumpserimus, omni benedictione caelesti et gratia repleamur. Per.] - - [Footnote 207: Psalm lxxxiv (_Quam dilecta_), 4.] - -{35} - -4. Secondly, it also signifieth the Spiritual Church: and its four -horns teach how she hath been extended into the four quarters of the -world. Thirdly, it signifieth Christ, without whom no gift is offered -acceptable to the Father. Whence also the Church addresseth her -prayers to the Father through Christ alone. Fourthly, it signifieth -the body of Christ, as shall be explained in the fifth book. Fifthly, -it signifieth the table at which Christ did feast with His disciples. - -5. It is written in Exodus, that in the Ark of the Testament or of the -Testimony the witness was laid up: [Footnote 208] that is, the tables -on which the law was written: and it is said that the _Testimony_ was -there laid up, because it was a bearing witness that the law imprinted -on our hearts by nature God had reimprinted by writing. Also, there -was laid up the golden pot full of manna, for a testimony that He had -given the children of Israel bread from heaven. And the rod of Aaron, -for a testimony that all power is from God. And the second tables of -the law, in testimony of the covenant in which they had said, 'All -that the Lord hath spoken we will do.' [Footnote 209] And on these -accounts it is called the Ark of the Testimony or Testament; and also -the tabernacle of the testimony thence deriveth its title. But over -the ark was made a mercy seat: of which we shall speak in the proeme -of the fourth book. In imitation whereof some churches have over the -altar an ark or tabernacle, in which the body of the Lord and relics -are preserved. The Lord also commanded that a candlestick should be -made of beaten pure gold. It is written in the third book of Kings, -that in the Ark of the Covenant was nothing else than the two tables -of stone which Moses put therein in Horeb: when the Lord made a -covenant with the children of Israel in the day that they came out of -the land of Egypt. - - [Footnote 208: Exodus xxv, 16.] - - [Footnote 209: Exodus xix, 8.] - -{36} - -6. And note that in the time of S. Silvester, Pope, [Footnote 210] -Constantine the Emperor built the Lateran church, in which he placed -the Ark of the Testament, which the Emperor Titus had brought from -Jerusalem, and the golden candlestick with his seven branches. In -which ark are these things: the rings and the staves of gold: the -tables of the testimony: the rod of Aaron: manna: barley loaves: the -golden pot: the seamless garment: the reed: a garment of S. John -Baptist, and the scissors with which the hair of S. John the -Evangelist was shorn. - - [Footnote 210: It is very remarkable that no notice whatever is - taken of these relics by Ciampini in his very minute description of - the Lateran Basilica: although in his account both of this, and of - all the other Basilican churches built by Constantine, he copies - _verbatim_ the list of the donations of the Emperor which is given - in the life of Pope S. Sylvester, compiled by an unknown librarian - of the Vatican. It is clear that either Durandus was misinformed, or - that the present passage is corrupt. Again, it is not likely that - the vest of S. John Baptist, or the scissors of S. John Evangelist - would have been kept in the ark besides its proper contents. Yet - Durandus had obviously some facts to go upon, since the Lateran - Church, having been originally dedicated to the Saviour, was now - under the Invocation of the two SS. John; and the sufferings of both - these saints were depicted in a very ancient mosaic, those of the - Evangelist having over them the following inscription, which we give - as describing a Confession of this _Martyr in will_, now little - known. - - Martyrii calicem bibit hic Athleta Johannes - Principium Verbi cernere qui meruit. - Verberat hunc fuste Proconsul, _forfice tondet_, - Quem fervens oleum laedere non valuit. - Conditus hic oleum, dolium, cruor, atque capilli, - Quae consecrantur libera Roma tibi. - - To return, we may be satisfied that these Jewish memorials did not - exist, since Ciampini, while composing his account, consulted the - former writers upon the Lateran Basilica; viz. the poet Prudentius, - an unedited MS. of Panvinius, Severanus De Septem Urbis Ecclesiis, - and the work of Caesar Cardinal Rasponus.] - -7. Man, if he hath an altar, a table, a candlestick, and an ark, he is -the temple of God. He must have an altar, whereon rightly to offer and -rightly to distribute. The altar is our heart, on which we ought to -offer. {37} Whence the Lord commandeth in Exodus: 'Thou shalt offer -burnt offerings on mine altar.' [Footnote 211] Since from the heart -words, set on fire of charity, ought to proceed. _Holocaust_ is -derived from _holos, whole_, and _cauma, a burning:_ therein -signifying a thing wholly burnt. On this altar we must rightly offer, -and we must rightly divide. We offer rightly when we bring any good -thought to perfection. But we do not rightly divide if we do it not -discreetly. For a man often thinketh to do good, and doeth ill: and -sometimes with one hand he doeth good and with the other ill; and thus -himself buildeth, and himself knocketh down. But we then rightly -divide when the good which we do we attribute, not to ourselves, but -to God alone. - - [Footnote 211: Exodus ix, 2.] - -8. It behoveth also man to have a table, whence he may take the bread -of the Word of God. By the table we understand Holy Scripture, -concerning which the Psalm, 'Thou preparest a table before me in the -presence of mine enemies.' [Footnote 212] That is, Thou hast given me -Scripture against the temptations of the devil. This table then we -must have, that is, must lay up in our minds, that thence we may take -the Word of God. Of the deficiency of this bread saith Jeremiah: 'The -little ones sought bread, and there was none to break it unto them. -[Footnote 213] It behoveth man likewise to have a candlestick, that he -may shine with good works. - - [Footnote 212: Psalm xxiii (_Dominus regit me_), 5.] - - [Footnote 213: Jeremiah xvi, 7.] - -9. A candlestick that giveth light without is a good work, which by -its good example inflameth others. Of which it is said, 'No man -lighteth a candle and putteth it under a bushel, but in a -candlestick.' [Footnote 214] This candle, according to the Word of -the Lord, is a good intention: of which He saith Himself: 'Thine eye -is a light.' [Footnote 215] But the eye is the intention. {38} -Therefore we ought not to put the candle under a bushel, but in a -candlestick. Because, if we have a good intention, we ought not to -hide it: but to manifest our good deeds to others, for a light and an -example. - - [Footnote 214: S. Matthew v, 15.] - - [Footnote 215: S. Matthew vi, 22.] - -10. Man must also have an ark. Now _area_ is derived from _arcendo_: -discipline, therefore, and regular life may be called the ark; by -which crimes are driven away (_arcentur_) from us. Now in the ark were -the rod, the tables, and the manna: because in the regular life there -must be the rod of correction, that the flesh may be chastised; and -the table of love, that God may be loved. For in the tables of the law -were written the commands which pertain to the love of God. Therein -must also be the manna of divine sweetness: that we may 'taste and see -how gracious the Lord is: for it is good to have to do with Him.' -[Footnote 216] According to that proverb of the prudent woman, 'She -tasted and saw that it was good.' [Footnote 217] Therefore, that we -may be the temple of God, let us have in ourselves an altar of -oblation, lest we appear empty in His presence, according to that -saying, 'Thou shalt not appear empty before the presence of thy God': -[Footnote 218] let us have a table for refection lest we faint, -through hunger, in the way: as saith the Evangelist, 'If I send them -away empty, they will faint in the way,' [Footnote 219] a -candlestick by good works that we be not idle, as he saith in -Ecclesiasticus, 'Idleness hath taught much mischief,' [Footnote 220] -let us have an ark, that we be not as sons of Belial, that is, -undisciplined, and without the yoke: for discipline is necessary, as -the Psalmist teacheth, saying, 'Be instructed, lest He be angry.' -[Footnote 221] Concerning which, and other ornaments, we shall speak -in the following chapter. - - [Footnote 216: Psalm xxxiv (_Benedicam Dominum_), 8.] - - [Footnote 217: Prov. xxxi, 18. Marg. reading.] - - [Footnote 218: Exodus xxiii, 15.] - - [Footnote 219: S. Mark viii, 3.] - - [Footnote 220: Ecclesiasticus xxii, 2.] - - [Footnote 221: Psalm ii (_Quare fremuerunt_), 12.] - -{39} - -11. He buildeth this altar who adorneth his heart with true humility -and other virtues. Whence Gregory: He who gathereth together virtues -without humility, is as he who scattereth dust to the wind. For by the -altar he understandeth our heart, as it shall be said when we treat of -the dedication of the altar: it is in the middle of the body, as the -altar is in the middle of the church. [Footnote 222] - - [Footnote 222: Lev. vi, 9.] - -12. Concerning which altar the Lord commandeth in Leviticus: 'The fire -shall always be burning upon Mine altar.' [Footnote 223] The fire is -charity. The altar is a clean heart. The fire shall always burn on the -altar, because charity should always burn in our hearts. Whence -Solomon in the Canticles: 'Many waters cannot extinguish charity,' -[Footnote 224] for that which ever burneth cannot be extinguished. Do -thou, therefore, as the prophet commandeth, keep holy day and a solemn -assembly, even to the horns of the altar: because the rest of thy -thoughts will keep holy day. Concerning this the Apostle showeth 'unto -us a more excellent way.' [Footnote 225] He calleth charity a more -excellent way, because she is above all virtues: and whoever -possesseth her possesseth all virtues. This is the short word that the -Lord speaketh over the earth: which is so short that it only saith, -'Have charity, and do whatsoever thou wilt. For from these two -commandments hang all the law and the prophets.' [Footnote 226] - - [Footnote 223: Canticles viii, 7.] - - [Footnote 224: I Corinth xii, 31.] - - [Footnote 225: S. Matthew xxii, 40.] - - [Footnote 226: See Appendix I.] - -13. Or by the altar we understand the soul of every man, which is by -the Lord built up of various living stones, which are various and -different virtues. - -14. Furthermore, the white cloths wherewith the altar is covered -signify the flesh of the Saviour, that is, His humanity: because it -was made white with many toils, as also the flesh of Christ born of -earth, that is, of Mary, {40} which attained through many tribulations -to the glory of the Resurrection, and the purity and joy of -immortality. [Concerning which the Son exulteth, saying to the Father, -'Thou hast girded me with gladness, and exalted Me on every side.' -[Footnote 227] When, therefore, the altar is covered, it signifieth -the joining of the soul to an immortal and incorruptible body.] -[Footnote 228] Again, the altar is covered with white and clean -cloths, because the pure heart is adorned with good works. Whence the -Apocalypse: 'And put on white garments, that the shame of thy -nakedness do not appear.' [Footnote 229] And Solomon: 'Let thy -garments be always white,' [Footnote 230] that is, let thy works be -clean. [But it little profiteth him that approacheth to the altar to -have high dignity, and a life sunk low in sins. Whence Benedict: It is -a monstrous thing, exalted faith, and abandoned life. The highest step -and the lowest state, is mighty authority joined with instability of -soul. [Footnote 231]] The silken coverings placed over the altar are -the ornaments of divers virtues wherewith the soul is adorned. The -hanging wherewith the altar is beautified setteth forth the saints, as -below shall be said. [The beginning and the end of the Mass take place -at the right side of the altar: the middle portion at the left: as -shall be said when we treat of the changes of the priest. The ancients -made their altars concave; as it is written in Ezekiel, that in the -altar of God was a trench. And this, according to Gregory, lest the -wind should scatter the sacrifices laid upon it. Also he saith in -Ezekiel that the inner part of the altar was bent downwards in all its -circumference. [Footnote 232] - - [Footnote 227: Psalm lxxi (_Juste, Domine_), 21. ] - - [Footnote 228: This passage does not appear in the edition of - Durandus published at Venice, in 1609.] - - [Footnote 229: Apocalypse iii, 18.] - - [Footnote 230: Ecclesiastes ix, 8.] - - [Footnote 231: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.] - - [Footnote 232: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.] - -{41} - -15. But the steps to the altar [spiritually set forth the apostles and -martyrs of Christ, who for His love poured out their blood. The bride -in the Canticles of Love calleth it a purple ascent. Also, the fifteen -virtues are set forth by them: which were also typified by the fifteen -steps by which they went up to the temple of Solomon:] [Footnote -233] and by the prophet in fifteen Psalms of degrees, therein setting -forth that he is blest who maketh ascents in his heart. This was the -ladder that Jacob beheld: 'And his top reached to the heavens.' By -these steps the ascent of virtues is sufficiently made manifest, by -which we go up to the altar, that is, to Christ: according to that -saying of the Psalmist, 'They go from virtue to virtue.' [Footnote -234] And Job, 'I will seek him through all my steps.' Yet it is said -in Exodus, 'Neither shalt thou go up by steps to my altar, that thy -nakedness be not discovered thereon.' [Footnote 235] For perhaps the -ancients did not as yet use trousers. In the Council of Toledo, it is -decreed that the priest, who for the sake of grief at the misfortune -of another, strippeth the altar or any image of its garments, [or -girdeth himself with a mourning vest, or with thorns, [Footnote 236]] -or extinguisheth the lights of the church, shall be deposed. But if -his church be undeservedly spoiled, he is allowed to do this for -grief: or, according to some, he may on the day of the Passion of our -Lord make bare the altars as a sign of grief. Which is, however, -reprobated by the Council of Lyons. Lastly, altars which have been -built at the instigation of dreams, or the empty revelations of men, -are altogether reprobated. - - [Footnote 233: This passage also is not found in the Venetian - edition.] - - [Footnote 234: Psalm lxxxiv (_Quam dilecta_), 7] - - [Footnote 235: Exodus xx, 26.] - - [Footnote 236: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.] - - -{42} - - -CHAPTER III - -OF PICTURES, AND IMAGES, AND CURTAINS, -AND THE ORNAMENTS OF CHURCHES - -Use of Pictures and Curtains--Objections against the Use, answered-- -Place of Pictures--The Saviour, how Represented--The Angels--The -Evangelists--The Apostles--The Patriarchs--S. John Baptist-- -Martyrs--Confessors--Institution of Pictures--Of Crowns--Of -Paradise--Of the General Ornament of Churches--Of Pyxes--Of -Relicaries--Of Candlesticks--Of Cups--Of the Cross--Of Altar Cloths -and Veils--The Treasures of the Church, when Displayed, and why--Of -Ostrich Eggs--Of Vessels for the Holy Mysteries--Of Chalices--General -Observations on the Respect due to Church Ornaments. - - -1. Pictures and ornaments in churches are the lessons and the -Scriptures of the laity. Whence Gregory: It is one thing to adore a -picture, and another by means of a picture historically to learn what -should be adored. For what writing supplieth to him which can read, -that doth a picture supply to him which is unlearned, and can only -look. Because they who are uninstructed thus see what they ought to -follow: and _things_ are read, though letters be unknown. True is it -that the Chaldeans, which worship fire, compel others to do the same, -and burn other idols. But Paynim adore images, as icons, and idols; -which Saracens do not, who neither will possess nor look on images, -grounding themselves on that saying, 'Thou shalt not make to thyself -any graven image, nor the likeness of anything that is in heaven -above, nor in the earth beneath, nor in the waters {43} under the -earth,' [Footnote 237] and on other the like authorities: these they -follow incontinently, casting the same in our teeth. But we worship -not images, nor account them to be gods, nor put any hope of salvation -in them: for that were idolatry. Yet we adore them for the memory and -remembrance of things done long agone. [Footnote 238 ] Whence the -verse, [Footnote 239] - - What time thou passest by the rood, bow humbly evermore; - Yet not the rood, but Him which there was crucified, adore. - -And again: [Footnote 240] - - That thing, which hath his being given, 'tis fond for God to own: - A form material, carved out by cunning hands, in stone. - -And again: [Footnote 241] - - The form is neither God nor man, which here thou dost behold: - He very God and Man, of whom thou by that form art told. - - [Footnote 237: Exodus xx, 4.] - - [Footnote 238: _Veneramur_.--We here use the word _adore_ in the - sense given to it by the great and good Bishop Montague, in his - 'Just Treatise of Invocation': where he says, speaking of the - Saints, 'I do admire, reverence, _adore_ them in their kind.'] - - [Footnote 239: - Effigiem Christi, quum transis, pronus honora: - Non tamen effigiem, sed quem designat, adora.] - - [Footnote 240: - Esse Deum, ratione caret, cui consulit esse: - Materiale lapis, effigale manus.] - - [Footnote 241: - Nec Deus est, nec homo, quam praesens cernis imago; - Sed Deus est et Homo, quem sacra figurat imago. - - The later editions add-- - Nam Deus est, quod imago docet, sed non Deus ipse; - Hunc videas, sed mente colas, quod noscis in ipsa.] - -2. The Greeks, moreover, employ painted representations, painting, it -is said, only from the navel upwards, that all occasion of vain -thoughts may be removed. But they make no carved image, as it is -written, 'Thou shalt not make a graven image.' [Footnote 242] And -again: 'Thou shalt not make an idol, nor a graven image.' [Footnote -243] And again, 'Lest ye be deceived, and make a graven image.' -[Footnote 244] And again: 'Ye shall not make unto you gods of silver: -[Footnote 245] {44} neither shall ye make with Me gods of gold.' So -also the Prophet, 'Their idols are silver and gold, the work of man's -hand. They that make them are like unto them: and so are all they that -put their trust in them.' [Footnote 246] And again: 'Confounded be -all they that worship graven images: and that put their glory in their -idols.' [Footnote 247] - - [Footnote 242: Deut. v, 8.] - - [Footnote 243: Lev. xxvi. 1.] - - [Footnote 244: Deut. iv, 16.] - - [Footnote 245: Exodus xx, 20.] - - [Footnote 246: Psalm cxv, 4.] - - [Footnote 247: Psalm xcvii, 7.] - -3. Also, Moses saith to the children of Israel, 'Lest perchance thou -shouldest be deceived, and shouldest worship that which the Lord thy -God hath created.' [Footnote 248] Hence also was it that Hezekiah -King of Judah brake in pieces the brazen serpent which Moses set up: -because the people, contrary to the precepts of the law, burnt incense -to it. - - [Footnote 248: Deut. iv, 19.] - -4. From these forementioned and other authorities, the excessive use -of images is forbidden. The Apostle saith also to the Corinthians, 'We -know that an idol is nothing in the world: and there is no god but -One.' [Footnote 249] For they who are simple and infirm may easily -by an excessive and indiscreet use of images, be perverted to -idolatry. Whence he saith in Wisdom, 'There shall be no respect of the -idols of the nations, which have made the creatures of God hateful, -and temptations for the souls of men, and snares for the feet of the -unwise.' [Footnote 250] [Footnote 251] But blame there is none in a -moderate use of pictures, to teach how ill is to be avoided, and good -followed. - - [Footnote 249: I Corinth, viii, 4.] - - [Footnote 250: Wisdom xiv, 11.] - - [Footnote 251: A more solemn protest against the sin of idolatry can - hardly be found than the above passage: and they who brand every - return to, and every wish for the restoration of, Catholic - practices, by so hateful a name, would do well to bear it in mind.] - -{45} - -Whence saith the Lord to Ezekiel, 'Go in, and behold the abominations -which these men do. And he went in, and saw the likeness of reptiles -and beasts, and the abominations, and all the idols of the house of -Israel portrayed on the wall.' [Footnote 252] Whence saith Pope -Gregory in his Pastorale, When the forms of external objects are drawn -into the heart, they are as it were painted there, because the -thoughts of them are their images. Again, He saith to the same -Ezekiel, 'Take a tile, and lay it before thee, and describe in it the -city Jerusalem.' [Footnote 253] But that which is said above, that -pictures are the letters of the laity explaineth that saying in the -Gospel, 'He saith. They have Moses and the prophets: let them hear -them.' [Footnote 254] Of this, more hereafter. The Agathensian -[Footnote 255] Council forbids pictures in churches: and also that -that which is worshipped and adored should be painted on the walls. -But Gregory saith, that pictures are not to be put away because they -are not to be worshipped: for paintings appear to move the mind more -than descriptions; for deeds are placed before the eyes in paintings, -and so appear to be actually carrying on. But in description, the deed -is done as it were by hearsay: which affecteth the mind less when -recalled to memory. Hence, also, is it that in churches we pay less -reverence to books than to images and pictures. - - [Footnote 252: Ezekiel viii, 10.] - - [Footnote 253: Ezekiel iv, 1.] - - [Footnote 254: S. Luke xvi, 29.] - - [Footnote 255: A.D. 605] - -5. Of pictures and images some are above the church, as the cock and -the eagle: some without the church, namely, in the air in front of the -church, as the ox and the cow: others within, as images, and statues, -and various kinds of painting and sculpture: and these be represented -either in garments, or on walls, or in stained glass. Concerning some -of which we have spoken in treating of the church: and how they are -taken from the tabernacle of Moses and the temple of Solomon. For -Moses made carved work, and Solomon made carved work, and pictures, -and adorned the walls with paintings and frescoes. - -{46} - -6. The image of the Saviour is more commonly represented in churches -three ways: as sitting on [Footnote 256] His throne, or hanging on -His cross, or lying on the bosom of His Mother. - - [Footnote 256: Durandus had doubtless in his mind the ancient mosaic - over the apsides of the earliest churches in Rome. The extremely - beautiful one in San Clemente represents our Lord as crucified. The - frescoes with which the walls of our own churches were anciently - adorned, seem usually to have represented the Saviour as seated on - the Throne of His Majesty. In the chancel of Widford, Herts, is, or - was till lately, a fresco of the Saviour seated on a rainbow, a - sword proceeding from His mouth, His feet and His hands pierced. In - Alfriston, Sussex, there was, we believe, before it was whitewashed - over by Bishop Buckner's order, a painting of a similar kind. There - is a singular, and, we believe, undescribed painting over the altar - in Llandanwg church, Merion. The Saviour is seated in judgment, as - before: at His side is His Blessed Mother in a kneeling posture: - around Him are angels blowing trumpets, and S. Peter in - eucharistical vestments. There is a representation of the souls - under the altar. Below are devils torturing souls in cauldrons of - brimstone. The evangelistic symbols are also represented. - - In a fresco at Beverstone, Gloucestershire, our Saviour is - represented on the Cross, with blood flowing from His side into a - chalice. (See App. I.) There are remains also of a crucifixion in - fresco, in the exquisite, but desecrated chapel of Prior Crauden, in - the Deanery, Ely. On the Iconostasis of the Greco-Russian Church, - all the three positions are to be found. - - In stained glass, the Crucifixion generally supplies the place of - any other representation of the Saviour. Brasses occasionally, as a - very curious one in Cobham, Surrey, represent His nativity or - epiphany: but most commonly the Crucifixion, or a Trinity. - - There can be no doubt, that many of the most graphic pictures in our - old poets owed their origin to the then undestroyed fresco paintings - of churches. Some painting, like that above described, of hell, very - probably suggested the noble lines of Spenser (i. ix. 50. 6): - - He showed him painted in a table plaine. - The damned ghosts that doe in torments waile. - And thousand feends that doe them endless paine - With fire and brimstone, which for ever shall remaine. - - Who can estimate the effect of such pictorial representations on the - minds of our ancestors? or the good which might be the result, if - our churches were again frescoed with similar subjects, wrought with - the genius and Catholic feeling of an Overbeck or Cornelius?] - [End footnote] - -And because John Baptist pointed to Him, saying, 'Behold the Lamb of -God,' [Footnote 257] therefore some represented Christ under the form -of a lamb. - - [Footnote 257: S. John i, 29.] - - -{47} - -But because the light passeth away, and because Christ is very man, -therefore, saith Adrian, Pope, He must be represented in the form of a -man. A holy lamb must not be depicted on the cross, as a principal -object: but there is no let when Christ hath been represented as a -man, to paint a lamb in a lower or less prominent part of the picture: -since He is the true Lamb which 'taketh away the sins of the world.' -In these and divers other manners is the image of the Saviour painted, -on account of diversity of significations. - -7. Represented in the cradle, the artist commemorateth His nativity: -on the bosom of His Mother, His childhood: the painting or carving His -cross signifieth His Passion (and sometimes the sun and moon are -represented on the cross itself, as suffering an eclipse): when -depicted on a flight of steps, His ascension is signified: when on a -state or lofty throne, we be taught His present power: as if He said, -'All things are given to Me in heaven and in earth:' [Footnote 258] -according to that saying, 'I saw the Lord sitting upon His throne:' -[Footnote 259] that is, reigning over the angels: as the text, 'Which -sitteth upon the cherubim.' [Footnote 260] Sometimes He is -represented as He was seen of Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, on the -mountain: when 'under His feet was as it were a paved work of sapphire -stones, and as the body of heaven in His clearness:' [Footnote 261] -and as 'they shall see,' as saith S. Luke, 'the Son of Man coming in -the clouds with power and great glory. [Footnote 262] Wherefore -sometimes He is represented surrounded by the seven angels that serve -Him, and stand by His throne, each being portrayed with six wings, -according to the vision of Isaiah, 'And by it stood the seraphim: each -one had six wings: with twain he covered his face, and with twain he -covered his feet, and with twain he did fly.' [Footnote 263] - - [Footnote 258: S. Matt, xxviii, 18.] - - [Footnote 259: Isaiah vi, 1.] - - [Footnote 260: Psalm lxxx, 1.] - - [Footnote 261: Exodus xxiv, 10.] - - [Footnote 262: S. Matthew xxiv, 30.] - - [Footnote 263: Isaiah vi, 2.] - -{48} - -8. The angels are also represented as in the flower of youthful age: -for they never grow old. [Footnote 264] Sometimes S. Michael is -represented trampling the dragon, according to that of John, 'There -was war in heaven: Michael fought with the dragon.' Which was to -represent the dissensions of the angels: the confirmation of them that -were good, and the ruin of them that were bad: or the persecution of -the faithful in the Church Militant. Sometimes the twenty-four elders -are painted around the Saviour, according to the vision of the said -John, with 'white garments, and they have on their heads crowns of -gold.' [Footnote 265]By which are signified the doctors of the Old -and New Testament; which are twelve, on account of faith in the Holy -Trinity preached through the _four_ quarters of the world: or -twenty-four, on account of good works, and the keeping of the gospels. -[Footnote 266] If the seven lamps be added, the gifts of the Holy -Spirit are represented: if the sea of glass, baptism. [Footnote 267] - - [Footnote 264: Many of our readers will call to mind the peculiar - expression always given to the countenances of angels in Catholic - illuminations or paintings, a conventional propriety uniformly - neglected by modern artists. The same character was beautifully - given in the relieved figures of angels upon the shrine of S. Henry - lately exhibiting in London.] - - [Footnote 265: Apocalypse xii, 7.] - - [Footnote 266: Apocalypse iv, 4.] - - [Footnote 267: This very obscure passage is an instance of the - symbolism in the combination of numbers. It seems to mean that faith - in the Holy Trinity preached through the four quarters of the world, - may be represented by three multiplied into four or twelve: and - again, this symbolical fact multiplied by general good works and - keeping of the Gospels, may be set forth in twenty-four. It is to be - remarked that the princeps edition alone gives _Evangeliorum_: the - later have _Evangelistarum_, which with _observantia_ is scarcely - intelligible. Compare S. August, Expos. in Psalm lxxxvi. Non solum - ergo illi duodecim (sc. Apostoli) et Apostolus Paulus, sed quotquot - judicaturi sunt, propter significationem universitatis ad sedes - duodenas pertinent . . . partes enim mundi quatuor sunt, Oriens, - Occidens, Aquilo, et Meridies. Istae quatuor partes assidue - inveniuntur in Scripturis. Ab istis quatuor ventus, sicut dixit - Dominus in Evangelio vocatur Ecclesia. Quomodo vocatur? Undique in - Trinitate vocatur. Quatuor ergo ter ducta duodecim inveniuntur. See - also S. Isidore, Alleg. in S. S. folio 353, C. D.] - -9. Sometimes also representation is made of the four living creatures -spoken of in the visions of Ezekiel and the aforesaid John: the face -of a man and the face of a {49} lion on the right,--the face of an ox -on the left, and the face of an eagle above the four. These be the -Four Evangelists. Whence they be painted with books by their feet, -because by their words and writings they have instructed the minds of -the faithful, and accomplished their own works. Matthew hath the -figure of a man, Mark of a lion. These be painted on the right hand: -because the nativity and the resurrection of Christ were the general -joy of all: whence in the Psalms: 'And gladness at the morning.' -[Footnote 268] But Luke is the ox: because he beginneth from Zachary -the priest, and treateth more specially of the Passion and Sacrifice -of Christ: now the ox is an animal fitted for sacrifice. He is also -compared to the ox, because of the two horns,--as containing the two -testaments; and the four hoofs, as having the sentences of the four -Evangelists. [Footnote 269]By this also Christ is figured, who was -the sacrifice for us: and therefore the ox is painted on the left -side, because the death of Christ was the trouble of the apostles. -Concerning this, and how blessed Mark [Footnote 270] is depicted, in -the seventh part. But John hath the figure of the eagle: because, -soaring to the utmost height, he saith, 'In the beginning was the -word.' [Footnote 271] - - [Footnote 268: Psalm xxx (_Exaltabo Te_), 5. These symbols, however, - were not at first definitely settled, and as we are informed by S. - Austin, the lion was sometimes given to S. Matthew and the angel and - or man, to S. Mark. The reasons of the appropriation of the various - symbols are beautifully expressed in a hymn quoted in the Camden's - Society's 'Illustrations of Monumental Brasses,' Part I, p. 30.] - - [Footnote 269: This passage is very obscure. Durandus's words are, - _quasi quatuor evangelistorum sententias_. We cannot but think that - the two sentences have been misplaced. The sense is then plain. - Christ is also signified by the ox--as containing in Himself the Law - and the Gospel--and accomplishing that which is written of Him by - the four Evangelists, e.g. His promises of the descent of the Holy - Ghost, of being always with His Church, etc. S. Peter Chrysologus, - Sermo v. de Christo, Hic est _Vitulus_, qui in Epulam nostram - quotidie, et jugiter immolatur.] - - [Footnote 270: S. Mark is painted with a contracted brow, a large - nose, fair eyes, bald, a long beard, fair complexion, of middle age, - with a few grey hairs. Durand. vii, 44, 4.] - - [Footnote 271: S. John i, 1.] - -{50} - -This also representeth Christ, 'Whose youth is renewed like the -eagle's': [Footnote 272] because, rising from the dead, He ascendeth -into heaven. Here, however, it is not portrayed as by the side, but as -above, since it denoteth the ascension, and the word pronounced of -God. But how, since each of the living creatures hath four faces and -four wings, they can be depicted, shall be said hereafter. [Footnote -273] - - [Footnote 272: Psalm ciii (_Benedic, anima mea_), 5.] - - [Footnote 273: Durandus, book vii, 44, 'S. Matthew is signified by a - man, because his Gospel is principally occupied concerning the - humanity of Christ: whence his history beginneth from his human - pedigree. S. Mark by a lion, which roareth in the desert: for he - chiefly describeth the Resurrection: whence his Gospel is read on - Easter day. But the lion is said to rouse his whelps on the third - day after their birth. His Gospel beginneth, 'The voice of one - crying in the wilderness.' S. Luke by the ox, an animal fit for - sacrifice: because he dwelleth on the Passion of Christ. S. John by - the eagle, because he soareth to the Divinity of Christ, while the - others walk with their Lord on earth. The Evangelists be likewise - set forth by the four rivers of Paradise: John by Pison; Matthew by - Gihon; Luke by Euphrates; Mark by Tigris:--as is clearly proved by - Innocent III, in a certain sermon on the Evangelists.'--We may add, - that the finest representation of the evangelistic symbols with - which we are acquainted in this country', occurs in the chancel of - Oxted church, Surrey.] - -10. Sometimes there are painted around, or rather beneath, the -Apostles; who were His witnesses by deed and word to the ends of the -earth: and they are portrayed with long hair, as Nazarenes, that is, -holy persons. For the law of the Nazarenes was this: from the time of -their separation from the ordinary life of man, no razor passed upon -their heads. They are also sometimes painted under the form of twelve -sheep: because they were slain like sheep for the Lord's sake: and -sometimes the twelve tribes of Israel are so represented. When, -however, more or less sheep than twelve are painted, then another -thing is signified, according to that saying of Matthew, 'When the Son -of Man shall come in His glory--then shall He sit on the throne of His -glory: and before Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall -separate them one from the other, as a {51} shepherd divideth the -sheep from the goats.' [Footnote 274] How the Apostles Bartholomew -and Andrew are to be painted, shall be said hereafter. [Footnote 275] - - [Footnote 274: S. Matthew xxv, 1.] - - [Footnote 275: S. Bartholomew is represented with black and - grizzled hair, fair complexion, large eyes, straight nose, long - beard, few grey hairs, moderate height, with a high white neck, - clothed in purple, with a white pall, having purple gems at each - angle. Durand. vii, 25, 2. - - S. Andrew had a dark complexion, long beard, moderate height. This - is therefore said, that ye may know how he ought to be painted: - which should be known of the other apostles and saints. Durand. vii, - 38, i.] - -11. And note that the patriarchs and prophets are painted with wheels -in their hands. Some of the apostles with books and some with wheels: -namely, because before the advent of Christ the faith was set forth -under figures, and many things were not yet made clear; to represent -this, the patriarchs and prophets are painted with wheels, to signify -that imperfect knowledge. But because the apostles were perfectly -taught of Christ, therefore the books, which are the emblems of this -perfect knowledge, are open. But because some of them reduced their -knowledge in writing, to the instruction of others, therefore -fittingly they are represented with books in their hands like doctors. -So Paul, and the Evangelists, Peter, James, and Jude. But others, who -wrote nothing which has lasted, or been received into the canon by the -Church, are not portrayed with books but with wheels, as a type of -their preaching. Whence the Apostle to the Ephesians, 'And he gave -some apostles, and some prophets, and some evangelists, and some -pastors and teachers for the work of the ministry.' [Footnote 276] - - [Footnote 276: Ephes. iv, 11.] - -12. But the Divine Majesty is also portrayed with a closed book in the -hands: 'which no man was found worthy to open but the Lion of the -tribe of Juda.' [Footnote 277] And sometimes with an open book: that -in it every one may read that 'He is the Light of the world': -[Footnote 278] and the Way, the Truth, and the Life': [Footnote 279] -and the Book of Life [is also portrayed]. But why Paul is represented -at the right, and Peter at the left of the Saviour, we shall show -hereafter. - - [Footnote 277: Apocalypse v, 2.] - - [Footnote 278: S. John viii, 12.] - - [Footnote 279: S. John xiv, 6.] - -{52} - -13. John Baptist is painted as a hermit. - -14. Martyrs with the instruments of their torture: as S. Laurence with -the gridiron: S. Stephen with stones: and sometimes with palms, which -signify victory, according to that saying, 'The righteous shall -flourish like a palm-tree: [Footnote 280] as a palm-tree [Footnote -281] flourishes, so his memory is preserved. Hence is it that palmers, -they who come from Jerusalem, bear palms in their hands in token that -they have been the soldiers of that King Who was gloriously received -in the earthly Jerusalem with palms: and Who afterwards, having in the -same city subdued the devil in battle, entered the palace of heaven in -triumph with His angels, where the just shall flourish like a -palm-tree, and shall shine like stars. - - [Footnote 280: Psalm xcii, 12.] - - [Footnote 281: This explanation differs from that usually received: - namely, that the righteous flourishes best in adversity: as the - palm-tree grows fasteth when loaded with weights.] - -15. Confessors are painted with their insignia, as bishops with their -mitres, abbots with their hoods: and some with lilies, [Footnote 282] -which denote chastity. Doctors with books in their hands: virgins, -according to the Gospel, [Footnote 283] with lamps. - - [Footnote 282: So in the beautiful hymn at Lauds in the - commemoration of a virgin martyr, of the Parisian Breviary: - - Liliis Sponsus recubat, rosisque; - Tu, tuo semper bene fida Sponso - Et rosas Martyr, simul et dedisti - _Lilia Virgo_.] - - [Footnote 283: S. Matthew xxv, 1.] - -16. Paul with a book and a sword: with a book, as a doctor, or with -reference to his conversion: with a sword as [Footnote 284] a soldier. -Whence the verse: - - The sword denotes the ire of Saul, - The book, the power converting Paul. - - [Footnote 284: This is undoubtedly a mistake: the sword represents - in this case, as in others, the instrument of martyrdom.] - -{53} - -17. Generally the effigies of the holy fathers are portrayed on the -walls of the church, or on the back panels of the altar, or on -vestments, or in other various places, so that we may meditate -perpetually, not indiscreetly or uselessly, on their holiness. Whence -in Exodus it is commanded by the divine law, that in the breast of -Aaron, the breastplate of judgment should be bound [Footnote 285] -with strings: because fleeting thoughts should not occupy the mind of -a priest, which should be girt by reason alone. In this breastplate -also, according to Gregory, the names of the twelve patriarchs are -commanded to be carefully inscribed. - - [Footnote 285: Exodus xxviii, 22.] - -18. To bear the fathers thus imprinted on the breast, is to meditate -on the lives of ancient saints without intermission. But then doth the -priest walk blamelessly when he gazeth continually on the example of -the fathers which have gone before, when he considereth without -ceasing the footsteps of the saints, and represseth unholy thoughts, -lest he wander beyond the limits of right reason. - -19. It is to be noted that the Saviour is always represented as -crowned, as if he said, 'Come forth, children of Jerusalem, and behold -King Solomon in the diadem with which his mother crowned him.' -[Footnote 286] But Christ was triply crowned. First by His Mother on -the day of His conception, with crown of pity: which was a double -crown: on account of what He had by nature, and what was given Him: -therefore also it is called a diadem, which is a double crown. -Secondly, by His step-mother in the day of His Passion, with the crown -of misery. Thirdly, by His Father in the day of His Resurrection, with -the crown of glory: whence it is written, 'O Lord, {54} Thou hast -crowned Him with glory and honour.' [Footnote 287] Lastly, He shall be -crowned by His whole family, in the last day of Revelation, with the -crown of power. For He shall come with the judges of the earth to -judge the world in righteousness. So also all saints are portrayed as -crowned, as if they said: Ye children of Jerusalem, behold the martyrs -with the golden crowns wherewith the Lord hath crowned them. And in -the book of Wisdom: 'The just shall receive a kingdom of glory, and a -beautiful diadem from the hand of their God.' [Footnote 288] - - [Footnote 286: Canticles iii, 11.] - - [Footnote 287: Psalm viii (_Domine Dominus_), 5.] - - [Footnote 288: Wisdom v, 16.] - -20. But their crown is made in the fashion of a round shield: because -the saints enjoy the divine protection. Whence they sing with joy: -'Lord, Thou hast crowned us with the shield of Thy favour.' [Footnote -289] But the crown of Christ is represented under the figure of a -cross: [Footnote 290] and is thereby distinguished from that of the -saints: because by the banner of His cross He gained for Himself the -glorification of His humanity, and for us freedom from our captivity, -and the enjoyment of everlasting life. But when any living [Footnote -291]prelate or saint is portrayed, the glory is not fashioned in the -shape of a shield, but four-square: that he may be shown to flourish -in the four cardinal virtues: as it is contained in [Footnote 292] -the legend of blessed Gregory. - - [Footnote 289: Psalm v (_Verba mea_), 12.] - - [Footnote 290: See Appendix I.] - - [Footnote 291: This does not appear to have prevailed in England. - The nearest contemporary effigy of a saint which we have observed in - stained glass, is that of S. Thomas, of Hereford, in the church of - Cothelstone, Somersetshire. Here the glory is, as usual, of the - circular form. As also in the fresco of the martyrdom of S. Thomas - of Canterbury, in Preston church. Sussex, which is nearly - contemporary. (See Appendix 1.)] - - [Footnote 292: This refers to the account given by Paulus Diaconus - of the visible effulgence which surrounded the head of this great - doctor when he was dictating his works.] - -{55} - -21. Again, sometimes Paradise is painted in churches, that it may -attract the beholders to a following after its rewards: sometimes -hell, that it may terrify them by the fear of punishment.' [Footnote -293] Sometimes flowers [Footnote 294] are portrayed, and trees: to -represent the fruits of good works springing from the roots of -virtues. - - [Footnote 293: A monk named Constantine set before the prince those - judgments of God which are in all the world, and the retribution of - the life to come: his discourse powerfully affected the heathen - monarch (Vladimir, afterwards S. Vladimir); and this was - particularly the case when the monk pointed out to him on an icon, - which represented the Last Judgment, the different lot of the good - and the wicked. "Good to those on the right hand--woe to those on - the left," exclaimed Vladimir, deeply affected.'--Mouravieff's - 'Hist, of the Russian Church,' p. 11, On which his translator, the - Rev. R. W. Blackmore, sensibly remarks, 'Whatever may be the right - view of the abstract question respecting icons, and the showing - outward respect to them, the Russians at least cannot reasonably be - blamed for revering a usage which was made the means, in part at - least, of so blessed a result as the conversion of the great Prince - Vladimir, the Constantine of their church and nation.'] - - [Footnote 294: This flower work is excessively common in Norman - churches: that of S. Sepulchre's, at Cambridge, was a notable - example of it. ] - -22. Now the variety of pictures denoteth the diversity of virtues. For -'to one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom: to another the word -of knowledge,' etc. [Footnote 295] But virtues are represented under -the forms of women: because they soothe and nourish. Again, by the -ceilings or vaultings, which are for the beauty of the house, the more -unlearned servants of Christ are set forth, who adorn the Church, not -by their learning, but by their virtues alone. - - [Footnote 295: I Corinth, xii, 8. ] - -The carved images which project from the walls, appear as it were to -be coming out of it: because when by reiterated custom virtues so -pertain to the faithful, that they seem naturally implanted in them, -they are exercised in all their various operations. How a synagogue is -depicted, shall be said hereafter: as also how the pall of the Roman -Pontiff: and the year [Footnote 296]and the zodiacal signs and its -months. But the diverse histories of the Old and New Testaments may -be represented after the fancy of the painter. For - - Pictoribus atque poetis - Quod libet [Footnote 297] addendi semper fuit seque potestas. - - [Footnote 296: These are often to be found round Norman doors: as in - that of S. Laurence, at York, and Egleton, Rutland.] - - [Footnote 297: A false reading, of course; yet not without its - appropriate sense--the power of _adding_ any ornamental circumstance - to the main subject.] - -{56} - -23. Furthermore, the ornaments of the church consist of three -things:--the ornaments of the nave, [Footnote 298]the choir, and the -altar. The ornaments of the nave consist in dorsals, tapestry, -mattings, and cushions of silk, purple, and the like. The ornaments of -the choir consist in dorsals, tapestry, carpets, and cushions. Dorsals -are hangings of cloth at the back of the clergy. Mattings, for their -feet. Tapestry is likewise strewed under the feet, particularly under -the feet of bishops, who ought to trample worldly things under their -feet. Cushions are placed on the seats or benches of the choir. - - [Footnote 298: _Ecclesiae:_ here undoubtedly the nave: as often - _church_ is so used in our prayer-book.] - -24. But the ornament of the altar consists in portfolios, altar -cloths, relicaries, candlesticks, crosses, an orfray, banners, -missals, coverings, and curtains. - -25. And notice, that the portfolio in which the consecrated host is -kept, signifieth the frame of the blessed Virgin, concerning which it -is said in the Psalms, 'Arise, O Lord into Thy resting place.' -[Footnote 299] Which sometimes is of wood: sometimes of white ivory: -sometimes of silver: sometimes of gold: sometimes of crystal: and -according to the different substances of which it is made, designateth -the various dignities of the body of Christ. Again, the pyx which -containeth the host, whether consecrated or not consecrated, typifieth -the human memory. For a man ought to hold in remembrance continually -the benefits of God, as well temporal, which are represented by the -unconsecrated, as spiritual, which are set forth by the consecrated -host. {57} Which was also set forth by the urn in which God commanded -that the manna should be deposited: which, albeit it was temporal, -prefigured nevertheless this our spiritual sacrifice, when the Lord -commanded that it should be laid up for an everlasting memorial unto -future generations. But the pyx, being placed on the altar, which is -Christ, signifieth apostles and martyrs. And the altar cloths and -coverings are confessors and virgins, or all saints: of whom saith the -Prophet to the Lord, 'Thou shalt be clothed with them as with a -garment.' And of these we have spoken above. - - [Footnote 299: Psalm cxxxii (_Domine, memento_), 8.] - -26. Now there is a difference between _phylacterium_ and -_phylacteria_. _Phylacterium_ is a scroll on which the ten -commandments were written: and this kind of scroll the Pharisees used -to wear on the front part of their garments, as a sign of devotion. -Whence in the Gospel, 'They make broad their phylacteries.' -[Footnote 300] And the word is derived from _philare_, which is _to -keep_, and _teras_, which is _law_. But _phylacteria_ (a relicary) is -a vessel of silver or gold, or crystal, or ivory, or some substance of -the same kind, in which the ashes and relics of the saints are kept. -For when Vigilantius called the faithful _Cinericii_, [Footnote 301] -because they preserved the ashes themselves, to testify contempt of -his decision, it was ordered by the Church that they should be -honourably preserved in precious vessels. And the name is derived from -_philare_, which is to _preserve_, and _teron_, which is an extremity, -because in them some {58} portion of the extremities of the bodies of -saints is preserved: such as a tooth or a finger, or somewhat of the -like kind. Over the altar in some churches also is placed a shrine: of -which we have spoken in our section on the Altar. - - [Footnote 300: S. Matthew xxiii, 5.] - - [Footnote 301: Ais, Vigilantium, qui [Greek text] hoc vocatur nomine - (nam Dormitantius rectius diceretur), os foetidum rursum aperire, et - putorem spurcissimum contra sanctorum martyrum proferre relliquias, - et nos, qui eas suscepimus, appellare _cinerarios_.--S. Hieron, in - Epp. See also the 'Church of the Fathers,' 2nd ed. chapter xv.] - -27. At the horns of the altar [Footnote 302] two candlesticks are -placed to signify the joy of Jews and Gentiles at the nativity of -Christ: which candlesticks, by means of a flint, have their wicks -lighted. For the angel saith to the shepherds, 'I bring you good -tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people: for to you is born -this day the Saviour of the world. [Footnote 303] He is the true -_Isaac_, [Footnote 304] which being interpreted, is laughter. Now the -light of the candlestick is the faith of the people. For to the Jewish -people, saith the Prophet, 'Arise, shine, for thy light is come: and -the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee.' [Footnote 305] But to the -Gentiles the Apostle saith, 'Ye were sometimes darkness, but are now -light in the Lord.' [Footnote 306] For before the birth of Christ a -new star appeared to the wise men, according to the prophecy of -Balaam. 'There shall rise,' saith he, 'a star out of Jacob, and a -sceptre out of Israel.' [Footnote 307] Concerning this we have also -spoken in our section of the Altar. - - [Footnote 302: This use of _two_ candlesticks is very remarkable: as - giving fresh authority to the custom of the English Church. ] - - [Footnote 303: S. Luke ii, 10.] - - [Footnote 304: Genesis xvii, 17, 19.] - - [Footnote 305: Isaiah lx, 1. ] - - [Footnote 306: Ephes. V, 8. ] - - [Footnote 307: Numbers xxiv, 7.] - -28. The snuffers or scissors for trimming the lamps are the divine -words by which men amputate the legal titles of the law, and reveal -the shining spirit, according to that saying, 'Ye shall eat old store, -and bring forth the old because of the new.' [Footnote 308] The -vessels in the which the wicks, when snuffed, are extinguished, are -the hearts of the faithful, which admit the legal observance to the -letter. - - [Footnote 308: Leviticus xxvi, 10.] - -{59} - -29. Again, the tongs, by the double tooth of which the fire is -arranged, are preachers; who instruct us by the accordant pages of -both Testaments, and by their behaviour setting us right, inflame us -to the practice of charity. - -30. But the scuta, that is cups, of equal size at top and bottom, made -for warming water, are those doctors who do not conceal the treasure -of their hearts: but 'bring forth out of it things new and old': -[Footnote 309] as a 'candle which is not put under a bushel, but in a -candlestick,' [Footnote 310]that they who are in the house of the -Lord may receive the light and the heat of the Holy Ghost. - - [Footnote 309: S. Matthew xiii, 52.] - - [Footnote 310: S. Matthew v, 15.] - -31. The cross also is to be placed on the altar that the cross-bearers -may thence raise it: in which action we commemorate how Simon the -Cyrenian took the cross from the shoulders of Christ and bore it. -Between the two candlesticks the cross is placed on the altar: because -Christ standeth in the church, the Mediator between two peoples. For -He is the Corner-stone, 'Who hath made both one': [Footnote 311] to -Whom the shepherds came from Judaea, and the wise men from the East. -Concerning this we shall hereafter speak in another sense, when -treating of the priest's approach to the altar. - - [Footnote 311: Ephesians ii, 14.] - -32. Again, the front of the altar is ornamented with an orfray. As it -is written: 'Thou shalt make Me an altar, and shalt make a crown in a -circle about it of four fingers' breadth.' [Footnote 312] The altar, -ye know, sometimes signifieth the heart: in which the sacrifice of -true faith must be offered by contrition: and then the orfray -signifieth the taking in hand of a good occupation: wherewith we ought -to adorn our foreheads, that we may give light to others. Sometimes -the altar signifieth Christ: and then by the orfray the ornament of -charity {60} is fitly represented. For as gold hath the superiority -over all metals, so hath charity over other virtues. Whence the -Apostle, in the first to the Corinthians: 'But the greatest of these -is charity.' [Footnote 313] For our faith ought to be adorned with -the orfray of charity, that we may be ready to lay down our lives for -Christ's sake. Banners are also suspended above the altars: that in -the church that triumph of Christ may evermore be held in mind, by -which we also hope to triumph over our enemy. - - [Footnote 312: Exodus xxvii, 4.] - - [Footnote 313: I Corinth, xiii, 13.] - -33. The book of the Gospel is fixed on the altar, because the Gospel -hath Christ for its author, and beareth witness, to Him. Which book is -therefore adorned on his outside, for the cause that we shall make -mention of hereafter. Next, the vessels and utensils in the house of -the Lord had their origin from Moses and Solomon: which in the Old -Testament were many and diverse, as it is written in Exodus, and -having divers significations, concerning which, for the sake of -brevity, we will not in this place treat. - -34. Now all things which pertain to the ornament of a church, must be -removed or covered over in the season of Lent: which according to some -taketh place on Passion Sunday, because after that time the Divinity -of Christ was hidden and concealed in Him. For He gave Himself up to -be betrayed and scourged, as if He were only man, and had not in Him -the virtue of divinity: whence in the Gospel of this day it is -written, 'But Jesus hid Himself, and went out of the temple.' -[Footnote 314] - - [Footnote 314: S. John viii, 59.] - -Then therefore the crosses are covered, that is, the virtue of His -divinity is hidden. Others do this from the first Sunday of Lent: -because after that time the Church beginneth to treat of His Passion. -Whence in that time the cross must not be borne in procession {61} -from the church, except it be covered; and, according to the use of -some places, two coverings or curtains are then only retained: of -which the one is hung all round the choir, the other is suspended -between the altar and the choir: that those things which be within the -Holy of Holies may not appear. In that the Sanctuary and Cross are -then veiled, we be taught the letter of the Law, that is, its carnal -observance, or that the understanding of Holy Scriptures before the -Passion of Christ was veiled, hidden, and obscure: and that in that -time there was a veil: that is, men had an obscurity before their -eyes. It signifieth also the sword which was set before the gate of -Paradise: because the carnal observance we have spoken of, and this -obscurity, and the sword at the gate of Paradise, were removed by the -Passion of Christ. Therefore the curtains and veils of this kind are -removed on Good Friday. But in that in the Old Testament, there were -beasts that chewed the cud, and cleft the hoof, as oxen used in -ploughing, that is discerning and spiritually perceiving the mysteries -of Scripture: therefore in Lent only a few priests, to whom 'it is -given to know the mysteries of the Kingdom of God' [Footnote 315] go -behind the veil. - - [Footnote 315: St. Matthew xiii, 11.] - -35. Concerning this it is to be noted that there be three kinds of -veils which be hung in churches: that which concealeth the mysteries: -that which divideth the sanctuary from the clergy: that which divideth -the clergy from the laity. The first denoteth the law: the second -denoteth our unworthiness, in that we are unworthy, nay unable to -behold things celestial. The third is the coercion of our carnal -pleasures. The first, namely, the curtain that is hung from each side -of the altar, when the priest goeth into the holy place, is typified -by that which is written in Exodus. {62} 'Moses put a veil over his -face, for the children of Israel could not sustain the brightness of -His countenance.' [Footnote 316] And as the Apostle saith, 'Even to -this day is this veil over the hearts of the Jews. [Footnote 317] The -second, namely the curtain that in the office of the Mass during Lent -is suspended before the altar, was set forth by the veil which was -hung up in the tabernacle, and divided the Holy of Holies from the -holy place, as shall be declared in the proeme to the fourth part: by -which the ark was concealed from the people: and it was wrought -cunningly, and adorned with a fair variety of devices. This was it -that was rent in the Passion of the Lord: and after its pattern, the -curtains at this day are cunningly wrought with divers patterns. -Concerning the aforesaid veil, and of what sort the curtains ought to -be, it is written in Exodus. The third kind of veil deriveth its -origin from thence, that the _peribolus_ in the primitive Church, or -wall which encompasseth the choir, was only raised as far as the -elevation of the choir; [Footnote 318] which even to this day is -observed in some churches: which was done that the people {63} seeing -the clergy singing psalms, might follow their good example. But at -this time as it were a veil or wall is suspended or interposed between -the clergy and the laity, that they may not be able to behold each -other: as if to say, in very deed, 'turn away mine eyes, lest they -behold vanity.' [Footnote 319] - - [Footnote 316: Exodus xxxiv, 33.] - - [Footnote 317: 2 Corinth, iii, 15.] - - [Footnote 318: There is much difficulty in this passage. We conceive - that Durandus while writing it had in his mind's eye the arrangement - of many of the Basilican churches, in which the choir was raised - over the crypt (called Confessio, or Martyrium), in which the ashes - of the saints were laid, and was detached from the nave by two - flights of steps, one on each side of the descent to this - undercroft. In this case the _appodiation_ would mean the elevation - of the choir, itself considered as a sufficient distinction from the - nave. The usual representations of Basilican churches, however, - always show some rails, or cancelli, besides this _appodiation_. The - learned Father Thiers devotes the third section of his 'Dissertation - sur la Clôture du Choeur des Eglises' to the consideration of this - passage. 'Guillaume Durand, Evêque de Mande, assure que dans la - Primitive Eglise, le choeur etait séparé de la Nef par une _muraille - d'appui_, afin que le peuple voiant la Clergé chanter les louanges - de Dieu en fût édifié. Mais comme il parle d'un fait beaucoup - éloigné de son tems, et qui n'est attache par aucun ancien auteur, - je ne pense pas que l'on doive faire grande fonds sur son - temoignage.' We suspect that Thiers is wrong in construing - _appodiatio_ by _muraille d'appui:_ the latter would well express - the real Basilican arrangement, with which the translator was - probably acquainted. Durandus, therefore, is wrong in his fact; and - Thiers wrong in his understanding of Durandus, as well as in the - theory stated in the next section, that 'Depuis Constantin le choeur - de quelques Eglises etoit distingue de la Nef par des tapisseries ou - des voiles.' For he grounds this chiefly on the next assertion of - Durandus about the use curtains, 'hoc tempore, vers la fin du 13 - siecle.' If we did not know from facts that before this time - roodscreens were in ordinary use, the words of Durandus _velum aut - murus_ would show us that he means the _wall_ to be taken - metaphorically for a _veil_. And so Thiers may have seen, since he - concludes his section thus--' Mais peut être que Theodoret parle - des tapisseries et Durand des voiles qui convroient la Clôture du - Choeur par le dedans, et que sous ces tapisseries et ces voiles il y - avoit une veritable clôture de balustres, ou de muraillcs pleines.'] - - [Footnote 319: Psalm cxix (_Beati immaculati_), 37.] - -36. But on Holy Saturday all the curtains are taken away, because on -the Passion of the Lord the veil of the temple was rent: and by that -thing the spiritual intelligence of the Law was revealed unto us, -which till that time lay hid, as is said afore: and the door of the -kingdom of heaven is opened, and power was given unto us, that we -cannot be overcome of our carnal concupiscence, unless we ourselves do -yield. But the veil which separateth the sanctuary from the choir, is -drawn or lifted up at vespers on every Saturday of Lent: when the -office of the Sunday is begun, that the clergy may be able to look -into the sanctuary: because the Sunday commemorateth the Resurrection. - -37. This therefore is done on the six Sundays of Lent: because there -was no age in which joy, and that joy eternal, was not made in some -sort manifest, that joy which is concealed in heaven, as is signified -by that veil. Thence is it that we fast not on the Sundays, and this -on account of the glory of the Resurrection. For the first Sunday -signifieth the joy which our parents enjoyed in the Paradise before -the fall. {64} The second Sunday signifieth the joy of the few who -were preserved in the ark of Noah, when all else were drowned in the -deluge. The third, the gladness of the children of Israel, when in the -time of Joseph others were afflicted with famine. The fourth, their -joy when they lived with all peace under Solomon. [Footnote 320] The -fifth, their gladness when returning from the Babylonian captivity. -The sixth, that of the disciples from the Resurrection to the -Ascension: when the bridegroom was with them in presence. - - [Footnote 320: 3 Kings iv, 20.] - -38. In feasts likewise of nine lessons, [Footnote 321] when they -occur in Lent, the before-mentioned veil is raised and lifted up. But -this is not of the institution of the earliest times, because then no -feast was celebrated in Lent. But then on whatever day a feast -occurred, commemoration was made of it on the Saturday and Sunday -following, according to the canon of Pope Martin; and so in the xiiith -book of Burchardus. [Footnote 322] And all this on account of the -sadness of that time. Afterwards the contrary use prevailed: that -feasts of nine lessons occurring in Lent should be solemnly observed, -and a fast nevertheless kept. - - [Footnote 321: For an explanation of the whole Catholic system of - feasts, double, semi-double, and simple, the reader is referred to - the _Tracts for the Times_, vol. iii.] - - [Footnote 322: S. Burchardus of Worms flourished in 1025: and is - not to be confounded with John Burchardus, who wrote an explanation - of the Mass for the use of the Venetian Church, which was published - in 1559.] - -39. Again, on festivals curtains are hung up in churches, for the sake -of the ornament they give; and that by visible, we may be led to -invisible beauty. These curtains are sometimes tinctured with various -hues, as is said afore: so that by the diversity of the colours -themselves we may be taught that man, who is the temple of God, should -be ordained by the variety and diversity of virtues. {65} A white -curtain signifieth pureness of living: a red, charity: a green, -contemplation: a black, mortification of the flesh: a livid-coloured, -tribulation. Besides this, over white curtains are sometimes suspended -hangings of various colours: to signify that our hearts ought to be -purged from vices: and that in them should be the curtains of virtues, -and the hangings of good works. - -40. Moreover, on the Feast of the Nativity of the Lord some churches -exhibit no hangings: some poor, and some good. Those which have none, -signify our shame; for even if we are filled with the greatest joy at -the birth of a Saviour, [Footnote 323] we ought not, however, to be -without shame that such was our sin that the 'Son of God emptied -Himself on our account, and took upon Him the form of a servant.' -[Footnote 324] And on that account also we solemnise His Passion not -with joy, but with a severe fast; whereas when we celebrate the -passion of other saints we do it with gladness, and indulge ourselves -somewhat in meat and drink, as shall be said in the sixth book. But -our Lord's Passion is a source of shame to us on account of our sins. -The saints, on the other hand, died not for our sins, but suffered for -Christ. Those churches which on the Nativity suspend curtains of poor -texture thereby typify that Christ did then 'take upon Himself the -form of a servant, [Footnote 325 ] and was clothed in miserable rags. -Those which employ richer hangings, set forth by them the gladness -arising from the Birth of a King: and teach what manner of persons we -ought to be in our reception of so great a Guest. - - [Footnote 323: In accordance with this feeling, the first Psalm at - the second vespers of the nativity in the Benedictine Breviary is - the _De profundis_.] - - [Footnote 324: Philip, ii, 7.] - - [Footnote 325: Philip, ii, 7.] - -{66} - -41. In some churches the altar at Easter-tide is decked with precious -hangings, and veils of three colours are placed over it: red, pale, -and black, which denote three seasons. When the first lesson and its -response are finished, the black veil is removed; which signifieth the -time before the Law. When the second lesson and its response are -finished, the pale veil is removed: which signifieth the time of the -Law. The third being finished, the red is removed, which setteth forth -the time of Grace: that is, that by the Passion of Christ an entrance -is administered unto us to the Holy of Holies and to eternal glory. -But concerning the coverings and cloths of the altars we have spoken -in our sections on the same. - -42. On high feasts, the treasures of the church are brought forth on -three accounts. Firstly, by way of safeguard: that it may be made -manifest that he who hath them in charge hath been careful in his care -of them. Secondly, for the more reverence of the solemnity. Thirdly, -for the memory of their oblation; namely, for the commemoration of -them that bestowed them on the church. - -But in that the church is gloriously adorned within and not without, -it is thereby signified that 'all its glory is from within.' [Footnote -326] For although its outward appearance be despicable, the soul which -is the seat of God is illuminated from within: according to that -saying, 'I am black but comely.' [Footnote 327] And the Lord saith to -the Prophet: 'I have a goodly heritage.' [Footnote 328] Which the -Prophet considering in his mind, saith, 'Lord, I have loved the beauty -of Thine house': [Footnote 329] which is spiritually adorned by -Faith, Hope, and Charity. Sometimes the church, both material and -spiritual, hath need to be cleansed: concerning which in the seventh -book. - - [Footnote 326: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit_), 6.] - - [Footnote 327: Cantic. i, 5.] - - [Footnote 328: The bishop probably refers to Psalm xvi (_Conserva - me_), 6. The words in reality spoken by David are understood by him - as if spoken by the Almighty.] - - [Footnote 329: Psalm xxvi (_Judica me_), 8.] - -{67} - -In some churches two eggs of ostriches and other things which cause -admiration, and which are rarely seen, are accustomed to be suspended: -that by their means the people may be drawn to church, and have their -minds the more affected. - -43. Again, some say that the ostrich, as being a forgetful bird, -'leaveth her eggs in the dust': [Footnote 330] and at length, when -she beholdeth a certain star, returneth unto them, and cheereth them -by her presence. Therefore the eggs [Footnote 331] of ostriches are -hung in churches to signify that man, being left of God on account of -his sins, if at length he be illuminated by the Divine Light, -remembereth his faults and returneth to Him, Who by looking on him -with His Mercy cherisheth him. As it is written in Luke that after -Peter had denied Christ, the 'Lord turned and looked upon Peter.' -[Footnote 332] Therefore be the aforesaid eggs suspended in churches, -this signifying, that man easily forgetteth God, unless being -illuminated by a star, that is, by the Influence of the Holy Spirit, -he is reminded to return to Him by good works. - - [Footnote 330: Job xxxix, 14.] - - [Footnote 331: Perhaps this custom was introduced by the Crusaders. - 'As the ostrich is good for food, so, it seems, are its eggs: to say - nothing of their being objects of attention, as being used much in - the East by way of ornament; for they are hung up in their places of - public worship, along with many lamps.' Harmer's 'Observations,' - vol. iv, p. 336, who refers to Pococke's 'Travels,' vol. i, p. 31, - and imagines that Dr. Chandler, in his travels in Asia Minor, was - mistaken when he supposed that the Turkish Mosque of Magnesia was - ornamented with lamps pendent from the ceiling intermixed with balls - of polished ivory, p. 267. Ostrich eggs might easily be mistaken for - ivory balls. The following passage from De Moleon is curious: 'At - the conclusion of matins,' he says, speaking of the rites of S. - Maurice at Angers on Easter Day, 'two chaplains take their place - behind the altar curtains. Two corbeliers (_Cubiculares_) in - dalmatics, amices, and _mitellae_, with gloves on their hands, - present themselves before the altar. The chaplains chant. _Quem - quaeritis_? The corbeliers representing the Maries, reply, Jesum - _Nazarenum Crucifixum._ The others answer, _Resurrexit, non est - hic_. The corbeliers take from the altar _two_ ostrich eggs wrapped - in silk, and go forth, chanting, _Alleluia resurrexit_ Dominus, - _resurrexit Leo Fortis_, Christus, _Filius_ Dei.'--_Voyag. Lit._ p. - 98. ] - - [Footnote 332: S. Luke xxii, 61.] - -{68} - -44. Now in the Primitive Church, the sacrifice was offered in vessels -of wood, and common vests: for then were 'chalices of wood, and -priests of gold': whereof the contrary is now. But Severinus, Pope, -decreed that it should be offered in glass: [Footnote 333] but -because such vessels were easily broken, therefore, Urban, Pope, and -the Council [Footnote 334] of Rheims decreed that gold or silver -vessels should be used: or on account of poverty, tin, which rusteth -not: but not in wood nor in brass. Therefore it might not be in glass -on account of the danger of effusion: nor of wood since being porous -and spongy, it absorbeth the blood: nor of brass nor of bronze, the -rust of which is unseemly. - - [Footnote 333: See Martene, Tom. IV, ii, 9; the _Ducretum_, fol. - 395.] - - [Footnote 334: 'A.D. 874, Vid. Concil. Coll. Reg. Tom. I. p. 288.' - See also P. Tunoc. iv, Ep. ad Otton. Carel. xiii _Hardouin_ vii, - 365.] - -45. And note that the name of chalice is derived from the Old -Testament: whence Jeremiah, 'Babylon is a golden chalice that maketh -drunk the nations.' [Footnote 335] And David: 'In the hand of the -Lord is a chalice, and the wine thereof is red': [Footnote 336] and -in another place, 'I will receive the chalice of salvation, and will -call on the name of the Lord.' [Footnote 337] Again, in the Gospel: -'Are ye able to drink the chalice that I shall drink?' [Footnote -338] And again, 'When He had taken the chalice He gave thanks.' -[Footnote 339] A golden chalice signifieth the 'treasures of wisdom -that be hid in Christ.' [Footnote 340] A silver chalice denoteth -purity from sin. A chalice of tin denoteth the similitude of sin and -punishment. For tin is as it were halfway between silver and lead: and -the Humanity of Christ, albeit it were not lead, that is, sinful, yet -was it like to sinful flesh. And therefore not silver: and although -impassible for His own sin, passible He was for ours: since 'He thus -took our infirmities, and bare our sicknesses.' [Footnote 341] -Concerning the Chalice and the Paten we shall speak hereafter. - - [Footnote 335: Jeremiah li, 7.] - - [Footnote 336: Psalm lxxv (_Confitebimur_), 8.] - - [Footnote 337: Psalm cxvi (_Dilexi_), 13.] - - [Footnote 338: S. Matthew x, 22.] - - [Footnote 339: S. Matthew xxvi, 27. ] - - [Footnote 340: Coloss. ii, 3.] - - [Footnote 341: S. Matthew viii, 17.] - -{69} - -46. But if anyone, through cause of his little religion, should say -that the Lord commanded Moses to make all the vessels of the -Tabernacle for every use and ceremony whatever, of brass, as it is -written in the eight and twentieth chapter of Exodus, and that -precious vessels of this sort, 'could be sold for much, and given to -the poor,' [Footnote 342] he is like Judas, and acteth contrarywise -to the woman which brought the alabaster box of ointment. This we -reply to him: not that God is better pleased with gold than brazen -ornaments: but that when men offer to God that which they value, by -the worship of the Almighty they vanquish their own avarice. Moreover, -these offices of divine piety be moral, and significative of future -glory. Whence also under the old law the priest's garments were to be -made of gold, and jacinth, and purple, and scarlet twice dyed, and -woven linen, and other precious things: that thereby might be made -manifest with how great diversity of virtues the priest ought to -shine: and it was also commanded that the altar, and the mercy-seat, -and the candlestick, and the other vessels and ornaments of the altar -should be made of gold and silver. The Tabernacle also was to be made -of divers precious materials, as is said in our section concerning the -Church. Also the high priest under the Law used divers precious -ornaments, as we have both noted, and shall hereafter note. - - [Footnote 342: S. Matthew xxvi, 9.] - -47. Moreover, it was forbidden in the Council of Orleans, [Footnote -343] that the divine ornaments should be used for the adorning of -nuptials, lest they should be polluted by the touch of the wicked, or -by the pomp of secular luxury. By this doubtless it is shown that a -chasuble, or any other ornament intended for the divine mysteries, -must not be made out of a common person's vest. - - [Footnote 343: A.D. 535. Decret. viii. See also the Council of - Tribur. A. D. 1036.] - -{70} - -48. Stephen, Pope, moreover, forbade that anyone should have the use -of the vests of a church, or of those things which be touched by -religious men alone, for other purposes: lest that vengeance come upon -these transgressors which befel Belshazzar the King. [Footnote 344 ] - - [Footnote 344: Daniel v, i.] - -49. Also Clement, Pope, forbade that the dead should be buried or -wrapped or covered, they or their bones, with the altar cloth, or -covering for the chalice, or napkin wherewith the priest washeth his -hands before consecrating. - -50. But when the palls, that is the corporals, and the veils, that is -the ornaments of the altar, or the curtains hanging over it shall have -become unclean, the deacons with their ministers shall wash them -within the sanctuary, and not without. But when the veils, used in the -service of the altar, be washed, let there be a new basin. And let the -palls, that is the corporals, be washed in another basin. And let the -veils for doors, that is, the curtains which are hung up in churches -at high feasts, and in Lent, be washed in another. This is it that was -decreed of the Council of Lerida: [Footnote 345] that for washing -the corporal, and the altar palls certain vessels be appropriated and -kept within the church: in which nothing else ought to be washed. But -according to the afore-mentioned Clement, if the altar pall or -covering, or the covering of the seat where the priest sitteth, in his -holy vests, or of the candlestick, or the veil, that is the cloth or -curtains hanging over the altar be consumed by old age, let them be -burnt; and their ashes cast in the baptistery, or on the wall, or in -the drains, where there is no treading of passers by. And note that -ecclesiastical ornaments be consecrated: as shall be said under the -section of Consecrations and Unctions. - - [Footnote 345: 'A.D. 524, Concil. Coll. Reg. Tom XI, p. 24.'] - -{71} - - -CHAPTER IV - -OF BELLS - - -Bells, what and where first used--Why Blessed--Analogy between Bells -and Trumpets--Mystical Signification--Of the Bell-Frame--Of the -Bell-Ropes--Use of Bells at the Canonical Hours--Six kinds of -Bells--Bells when Silent--Of the Passing Bell--Of the Prayer Bell--Of -the Storm Bell. - - - -1. Bells are brazen vessels, and were first invented in Nola, a city -of Campania: wherefore the larger bells are called _Campanae_, from -Campania the district, and the smaller _Nolae_, from Nola the town. - -2. The reason for consecrating and ringing bells is this: that by -their sound the faithful may be mutually cheered on towards their -reward; that the devotion of faith may be increased in them; that -their fruits of the field, their minds and their bodies may be -defended; that the hostile legions and all the snares of the Enemy may -be repulsed; that the rattling hail, the whirlwinds, and the violence -of tempests and lightning may be restrained; the deadly thunder and -blasts of wind held off; the spirits of the storm and the powers of -the air overthrown; and that such as hear them may flee for refuge to -the bosom of our holy Mother the Church, bending every knee before the -standard of the sacred rood. These several reasons are given in the -office for the blessing of bells. [Footnote 346] - - [Footnote 346: See the account of the consecration of several - churches in the island of Guernsey, taken from the Black Book of the - Diocese of Contances, in a paper by the Rev. W. C. Lukis, B.A., - Trinity College, published in the First Part of the Transactions of - the Cambridge Camden Society.] - -{72} - -3. You must know that bells, by the sound of which the people -assembleth together to the church to hear, and the clergy to preach, -'in the morning the mercy of God and His power by night, [Footnote -347] do signify the silver trumpets, by which under the Old Law the -people were called together unto sacrifice. (Of these trumpets we -shall speak in our sixth book.) For just as the watchmen in a camp -rouse one another by trumpets, so do the ministers of the Church -excite each other by the sound of bells to watch the livelong night -against the plots of the devil. Wherefore our brazen bells are more -sonorous than the trumpets of the Old Law, because then God was known -in Judea only, but now in the whole earth. They be also more durable: -for they signify that the preaching of the New Testament will be more -lasting than the trumpets and sacrifices of the Old Law, namely, even -unto the end of the world. - - [Footnote 347: Psalm xcii (_Bonum est confiteri_), 2] - -4. Again bells do signify preachers, who ought after the likeness of a -bell to exhort the faithful unto faith: the which was typified in that -the Lord commanded Moses to make a vestment for the high priest, -having seventy-two bells to sound when the high priest entered into -the Holy of Holies. [Footnote 348] Also the cavity of the bell -denoteth the mouth of the preacher, according to the saying of the -Apostle, 'I am become as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal.' -[Footnote 349] - - [Footnote 348: Exodus xxviii, 35.] - - [Footnote 349: I Cor. xiii, 1.] - -5. The hardness of the metal signifieth fortitude in the mind of the -preacher: whence saith the Lord, 'Behold I have made thy face strong -against their faces.' [Footnote 350] The clapper or iron, which by -striking on either side maketh the sound, doth denote the tongue of -the teacher, the which with the adornment of learning doth cause both -Testaments to resound. - - [Footnote 350: Ezekiel iii, 8.] - -{73} - -6. Wherefore a prelate which hath not the skill of preaching will be -like unto a bell without a clapper: according to that saying of -Gregory, 'A priest, if he knoweth not how to preach nor what voice of -exhortation he can deliver, is a dumb preacher, and also as a dumb dog -which cannot bark.' The striking the bell denoteth that a preacher -ought first of all to strike at the vices in himself for correction, -and then advance to blame those of others: lest indeed, contrary to -the teaching of the Apostle, 'when he hath preached to others, he -himself should be a castaway.' [Footnote 351] Which also the Psalm -doth testify, 'But unto the ungodly, saith God: why dost thou preach -my laws, and takest my covenant in thy mouth?' [Footnote 352] Because -truly by the example of his own suffering he often gaineth access to -those whom by the learning of his discourse he cannot move. The link -by which the clapper is joined or bound unto the bell is moderation: -by which, namely, by the authority of Scripture, the tongue of the -preacher who wisheth to draw men's hearts is ruled. [Footnote 353] - - [Footnote 351: I Corinthians ix, 27.] - - [Footnote 352: Psalm I (_Deus deorum_), 16. ] - - [Footnote 353: The passage is very unintelligible in the original, - and is probably corrupted or transposed.] - -7. The wood of the frame upon which the bell hangeth, doth signify the -wood of our Lord's Cross: which is on this account suspended on high, -because the Cross is preached by the ancient Fathers. The pegs by -which the wooden frame is joined together or fastened, are the Oracles -of the Prophets. The iron cramps by which the bell is joined with the -frame, denote charity, by which the preacher being joined indissolubly -unto the Cross, doth boast and say, 'God forbid that I should glory -save in the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ.' [Footnote 354] The -hammer affixed to the frame by which the bell is struck, signifieth -the right mind of the preacher, by which he himself, holding fast to -the Divine commands, doth by frequent striking inculcate the same on -the ears of the faithful. - - [Footnote 354: Gal. vi, 14. _Cavilla_ is thus explained by Belethus. - Expl. Divin. Off. xxiv. Cavilla, sic enim ferrum illud pensile - vocat, quod Graeci rectius [Greek text] nominant, cujus pulsu - campana sonum reddit.] - -{74} - -8. The rope hanging from this, by which the bell is struck, is -humility, or the life of the preacher: the same rope also showeth the -measure of our own life. Besides these, since the rope hath its -beginning from the wood upon which the bell hangeth, by which is -understood our Lord's Cross, it doth thus rightly typify Holy -Scripture which doth flow down from the wood of the Holy Cross. As -also the rope is composed of three strands, so doth the Scripture -consist of a Trinity: namely, of history, allegory, and morality. -Whence, the rope coming down from the wooden frame into the hand of -the priest is Scripture descending from the mystery of the Cross into -the mouth of the preacher. Again, the rope reacheth unto the hands by -which it is grasped, because Scripture ought to proceed unto good -works. Also the raising and the lowering of the rope in ringing doth -denote that Holy Scripture speaketh sometimes of high matters, -sometimes of low: or that the preacher speaketh sometimes lofty things -for the sake of some, and sometimes condescendeth for the sake of -others: according to that saying of the Apostle: 'Whether we exalt -ourselves it is for God, or whether we humble ourselves it is for -you.' [Footnote 355] Again, the priest draweth the rope downwards, -when he descendeth from contemplation unto active life: but is himself -drawn upward when under the teaching of Scripture he is raised in -contemplation. Also he draweth it downwards when he understandeth the -Scripture according to the 'letter which killeth'; he is drawn upwards -{75} when he expoundeth the same according to the Spirit. Again, -according to Gregory, he is drawn downwards and upwards when he -measureth himself in Scripture, namely, how much he still lieth in the -depths and how much he advanceth in doing good. - - [Footnote 355: This appeals to be a reference to 2 Cor. v, 13.] - -Furthermore, when the bell doth sound from the pulling of its rope, -the people are gathered in one for the exposition of Holy Scripture, -the preacher is heard, and the people are united in the bond of faith -and charity. Therefore when a priest acknowledgeth unto himself that -he is a debtor unto preaching, he must not withdraw himself from -calling men together by his bells, just as also the sons of Aaron did -sound their silver trumpets. He therefore moveth the ropes who doth of -his office call his brethren or the people together. - -The ring (or pully) in the length of the rope, through which in many -places the rope is drawn, is the crown of reward, or perseverance unto -the end, or else is Holy Scripture itself. Moreover, Savinianus, Pope, -hath commanded that the hours of the day should be struck in churches. - -{76} - -9. And note that bells are commonly rung for the Divine Offices -[Footnote 356] twelve times during the twelve hours of the day: -namely, once at prime, and in like manner once at the last hour, -because all things come from one God, and God is One, All in All. At -tierce they are rung three times, for the second, third, and fourth -hours which are then chanted. In like manner three times at sexts, for -the fifth, sixth, and seventh hours. Also three times at nones for the -three hours. But at vespers, which is the twelfth hour, not one only -but many times are they rung, because in the time of grace the -preaching of the Apostles was multiplied. Also in the night for matins -they are rung often, because we ought often to call out, 'Wake, thou -that sleepest, and arise from the dead.' [Footnote 357] - - [Footnote 356: The reader will scarcely need reminding that the day - is canonically divided into two parts of twelve hours each, - beginning' at six o'clock respectively. Prime therefore is at our six - a.m., tierce at nine, sexts at twelve, nones at three p.m., vespers - at six p.m., and compline at bedtime. - - Haec sunt septenis propter quae psallimus horis. - _Matutina_ ligat Christum, qui crimina purgat: - _Prima_ replet sputis; causam dat _Tertia_ Mortis: - _Sexta_ Cruci nectit: latus Ejus _Nona_ bipertit: - _Vespera_ deponit: tumulo _Completa_ reponit. - - Which may thus be translated; - - At _matins_ bound: at _prime_ revil'd: condemn'd to death at _tierce_: - Nail'd to the cross at _sexts_: at _nones_ His blessed side they pierce: - They take him down at _vesper_-tide; in grave at _compline_ lay - Who thenceforth bids His Church to keep her sevenfold hours alway. - - The twelve hours of the night are divided into three nocturns, which - may be supposed to be said at twelve, two, and four, and are - immediately followed by lauds at five. Nocturns and lauds (together - called matins), with the six hours above-mentioned, make the seven - canonical hours. On this subject we can but refer our readers to the - extremely beautiful fifth book of Durandus, and particularly his - first chapter, in which all the pregnant symbolism of the canonical - hours is set forth. Hugo de Sancto Victore has briefly touched upon - the same in the third chapter of the _In Speculum Ecclesiae_, but - nearly the whole of his account is contained in Durandus. See also - S. Isidore 'De Eccles. Offic.' lib, I, cap. xix--xxiii; and Belethus - whose account is valuable for its conciseness. 'Explic. Divin. - Offic.' Caps, xxi--xxix. - - The twelve ringings mentioned in the text as being in 'the twelve - hours of the _day_' are thus to be made out. At prime, one; at - tierce, three; at sexts, three; at nones, three; at vespers, one - (the ringing 'many times' being only thus accounted); and at the - last hour, one; in whole twelve, Hugo de S. Victor has a passage - almost identical with this. 'The bells be also rung twelve times. At - prime, once, and again at the last hour once; because all things be - from One God, and the Same will be All in All. But at tierce, three - times for the second, third, and fourth hours; and so at sexts, for - three hours, namely, the seventh, eighth, and ninth; but at vespers - many times, because in the time of grace the preaching of the - Apostles was multiplied. Also at matins oftentimes, because we - should often exclaim, 'Arise, thou that sleepest.' It will be - observed that this passage is corrupt, nones being omitted, and its - three hours given to sexts. Matins also, as in the text, are - belonging to the twelve hours of the _night_.] - [End Footnote] - - [Footnote 357: Eph, v, 14.] - -{77} - -10. Commonly also they be rung three times at nocturns. First with a -_squilla_ [Footnote 358] or hand-bell, which by its sharp sound -signifieth Paul preaching acutely. The second ringing signifieth -Barnabus joined to his company. The third intimateth that, when the -'Jews put from them the word of God, the Apostles turned themselves to -the Gentiles,' whom also they instructed in the faith of the Trinity -by the doctrine of the four Evangelists. Whence also some do use, -_four_ peals. - - [Footnote 358: _Squilla_ is properly a _sea onion_. We conceive that - the sort of a bell here meant is a kind of hand-bell, formed out of - a hollow ball of metal, furnished with a slit for the sound, and - with a loose pellet inside. This answers to the squilla in shape and - utters a very shrill sound. We find below that it was used chiefly - in the refectory. So in a note to Martener vol iv, p. 32, we read - 'ad gratiarum actionem Sacrista sciliam (the other form of squillam) - pulsabat. Cons. S. Benigni, cap. 9. Fratribus exeuntibus de prandio - sive de coena sciliam pulsare non negligat Hebdomadarius Sacrista.'] - -11. And note that there be six kinds of bells which be used in the -church; namely, the _squilla_, the _cymbalum_, the _nola_, the -_nolula_ (or double _campana_), the _signum_ [and the _campana_]. The -squilla is rung in the _triclinium_, that is, in the refectory; the -cymbalum in the cloister; the nola in the choir; the nolula or double -campana in the clock, the campana in the campanile, the signum in the -tower. Either of these, however, may be called generally a bell. And -these be known by diverse names, because the preachers signified -thereby be necessary for diverse ends. - -12. During the whole Septuagesima, in the which Quadragesima [or Lent] -is contained, on common days the bells be not chanted, nor chimed, but -tolled, that is rung singly, at the hours of the day, or at matins. -[Footnote 359] In well-ordered churches, they be struck twice at -prime; first to call unto prayer, secondly to begin: three times at -tierce, according to the number of hours then struck, {78} as was said -above; once to call to prayer, twice to assemble them together, thrice -to begin. In like manner it is done at sexts and nones. But for matins -the same bells are rung and in the same order. For a mass or for -vespers only two bells be rung. But in smaller churches they simply -ring the bells as aforesaid, and this on the common days. But on -Sundays and holy days, they chime them, as at other times. For because -preachers who be figured by bells, do the more abound in a season of -grace, and 'are instant in season,' therefore on festivals which -pertain to grace, the bells do sound more pressingly and are rung for -a longer time, to arouse those 'that sleep and be drunken,' lest they -sleep beyond measure. But what is signified by the ringing of bells -when the Te Deum is chanted we shall speak hereafter. [Footnote 360] - - [Footnote 359: It is to be remarked that throughout this chapter - there is no allusion to ringing the bells by raising them and - causing them to revolve on axes as practised in England. This and - the beautiful science of bell-ringing consequent on it are peculiar - to ourselves. The method of sounding the bells here understood is by - a hammer acting on the rim, or by pulling the clapper, as is used - with us for chimes, and where the bell frame is weak. This accounts - for the much larger bells which are found abroad, and which were - never meant to be poised and swung. Owing to the above difference - between the Continental and English methods of bell-ringing, it is - not easy to express the difference between _simpulsare, compulsare_, - and _depulsare_. - - _Depulsare_ is to ring by tying a rope to the _clapper_ of a bell, - and pulling the rope to and fro: we have accordingly translated it, - to chant a _bell_. - - _Simpulsare_ is to ring by tying a rope to the hammer, and pulling - it back; this we have translated _to toll_. Tolling is of course - performed by swinging the bell round: but as there is no English - word which expresses _simpulsare_, we thought it better to use an - old term in a new sense, than to coin a new one. - - _Compulsare_ is to do to several bells what _depulsare_ is to do to - one: and we have translated it to _chime_. - - _Pulsare_ we have translated _to ring_. - - It may be worthy of remark, how completely the ringing of the bells - is here considered a part of the priest's office.] - [End footnote] - - [Footnote 360: In Book V, chapter iii, '_of Nocturns_,' Durandus - says, 'When the nocturns be finished, the bells be rung and the _Te - Deum laudamus_ is chanted with uplift voice, to denote that the - Church doth openly and wonderfully laud God in the time of grace, - and to show that if by good works we answer rightly to holy - doctrine, we shall attain to singing heavenly praises in concert - with the angels. The chant also is then made with a loud voice, to - signify the joy of the woman at finding the lost 'piece of silver.' - And the versicle _Day by day we magnify Thee_, and the following, be - chanted still more loudly to set forth the gratulations of the - neighbours over the finding of the piece of silver: and the ringing - of the bells representeth the calling together of the neighbours. In - some churches also the candles be lighted, because the woman also - 'lighted a candle and sought diligently till she found it.' This - also signifieth that the Church Catholic is drawn by Christ out of - hell. And the hymn itself representeth the future joy and gladness, - which the Church resting from her labours shall attain in the day of - judgment.' Hugo de S. Victore, and Belethus agree as to this ringing - of the bells at matins: a practice of which perhaps we may find the - shadow in our own use in many places of ringing the bells at eight - o'clock on Sunday mornings, to which day our services are now - chiefly confined.] - -{79} - -13. Moreover, the bells ought to be rung when anyone is dying, that -the people hearing this may pray for him. [Footnote 361] For a woman -indeed they ring twice, because she first caused the bitterness of -death: for she first alienated mankind from God; wherefore the second -day had no benediction. [Footnote 362] But for a man they ring three -times, because the Trinity was first shown in man. For Adam was first -formed from the earth, then the woman from Adam, afterwards was man -created from both, and so there is therein a trinity. But if the dying -man be an ecclesiastic, they toll so many times as he hath received -orders. And at the last time they ought to chime, that so the {80} -people may know for whom they have to pray. The bells ought also to be -chimed when the corpse is brought to the church, and when carried out -from the church to the grave. - - [Footnote 361: For an account of the 'passing-bell,' and the - authority for its right use among ourselves, the reader is referred - to Bp. Montague's 'Articles of Inquiry.' Camb. 1841, pp. 76, 116. It - is to be observed that the bells are here said to be rung, not - _tolled_, as is generally the case now. Many will remember a - beautiful passage upon this custom in one of the Rev. F. E. Paget's - 'Tales of the Village.' The practice of their distinguishing the sex - of the dying person is still in most places retained.] - - [Footnote 362: '_Wherefore the second day had no benediction_.' It - will be observed that of this day only it is not said expressly that - 'God saw that it was good.' We give a chapter of Hugo S. Victore - upon this question. - - 'But it is admirable wherefore God did not see the works of the - second day that they were good: since in each other day He is said - to have seen them, and that they were good. For either it was not - His work, and so not good; or if it were His work, it was good. But - if it was good, it was also His work: and then He saw it was good, - Who could not be ignorant what it was, whether good or bad. - Wherefore then is it not said here as elsewhere "God saw that it was - good?" For if this be said elsewhere only because the work was made, - why ought it not also to be said here since it was made? Perhaps - because _dual_ is the sign of division; since it first recedeth from - _unity_: and so here we perceive some sacrament. Thus the works of - the second day be not praised, not because they were not good, but - because they were signs of evil. For God made His first works "and - behold they were all very good:" in the which neither was corruption - present, nor perfection absent. But afterwards cometh the devil and - man, and they also made their works: and these second works came - after the first; the evil after the good: and God was unwilling to - behold these works because they were evil; but beholding them by His - wisdom, He disapproved them by his judgment.' 'De Sacramentis,' Lib. - i, Pars I, cap. xx. S. Isodore (Sentent. I, xx de Mundo) does not - allude to this, nor S. Augustin upon Genesis.] - -14. Also bells be rung at processions, that the evil spirits may hear -them and flee, as shall be said hereafter. [Footnote 363] For they do -fear when the trumpets of the Church Militant, that is the bells, be -heard, like as a tyrant doth fear when he heareth on his own land the -trumpets of any potent king his foe. - - [Footnote 363: 'The bells be rung in processions. For as an earthly - monarch hath in his army royal insignia, namely trumpets and - banners; so Christ the Eternal King hath in His Church Militant - bells for trumpets, and crosses for banners. Thus the ringing of the - bells doth signify the prophets, who foretold the advent of Christ.' - Durandus, book iv, chapter 6, 'Of the priest's approach to the - altars,' sec. 19. The same idea is applied by Belethus to the matin - bells in his 24th chapter.] - -15. And this is the reason also why the Church, when she seeth a -tempest to arise, doth ring the bells; namely, that the devils hearing -the trumpets of the Eternal King, which be the bells, may flee away -through fear and cease from raising the storm; and that the faithful -also may be admonished at the ringing of the bells and be provoked to -be urgent in prayer for the instant danger. [Footnote 364] - - [Footnote 364: See note I to this chapter.] - -But for three days before Easter the bells be silent, as shall be said -hereafter. [Footnote 365] Also the bells be silent in time of an -interdict, because often for the fault of those put under them the -tongue of the preachers is hindered; according to that of the Prophet, -'I will make thy tongue cleave to the roof of thy mouth, for they are -a rebellious house'; [Footnote 366] that is, for the people are -disobedient. - - [Footnote 365: See Appendix.] - - [Footnote 366: Ezekiel iii, 26.] - -The Church also hath organs, of which we shall speak hereafter. -[Footnote 367] - - [Footnote 367: Durandus, in his fourth book, chapter xxxiv, '_Of the - Sanctus_,' says, 'Moreover in this conceit of angels and men, the - organs do from time to time add their harmony: the which was - introduced by David and Solomon, who did cause hymns to be sung at - the sacrifice of the Lord, with the concert of organs and other - instruments of music, and the people also to join in chorus.'] - -{81} - -CHAPTER V - -OF CEMETERIES AND OTHER PLACES, SACRED AND RELIGIOUS - -Holiness of Places; its Origin--Difference between Sacred, Holy, and -Religious--Different Names for Cemetery--First use of Cemeteries--Who -are not to be Buried in the Church--Ancient Method of Burial--Who are -to be Buried in a Cemetery. - - -1. Now we will Speak of cemeteries and other sacred and religious -places. Of consecrated places, some be appropriated to human -necessity, others to prayers. Those of the first sort be a -_xenodochium_ or _xenostorium_, which is the same: a _vasochonium_, a -_gerontocomium_, an _orphanotrophium_, a _brephotrophiuin_. For holy -fathers and religious princes have founded places of this kind, where -the poor, the pilgrims, old men, orphans, infants, men past work, the -halt, the weak, and the wounded should be received and attended. And -note that _geronta_ in Greek is the same as _senex_ in Latin. - -But of places appropriated to prayer, there be that are _sacred_, -there be that are _holy_, and there be that are _religious_. - -{82} - -2. _Sacred_ be they which by the hands of the bishop have duly been -sanctified and set apart to the Lord, and which be called by various -names, as hath been said in the section on Churches. _Holy_ be they -which have immunity or privilege: and be set apart for the servitors -or ministers of the Church, concerning which, under threat of condign -punishment, either by the canon law or by special privilege, it is -ordained that no man shall presume to violate them. Such be the courts -of churches, and in some places the cloisters, within which be the -houses of the canons. To which when criminals of whatever kind betake -themselves they have safety. And so according to the statutes of the -civil law be the gates and theatres of cities. - -3. _Religious_ places be they where the entire body of a man, or at -least the head is buried: because no man can have two sepulchres. But -the body or any member without the head doth not make the place -wherein it is buried religious. But according to the civil law the -corpse of a Jew, or paynim, or unbaptised infant maketh the place of -its sepulchre religious: yet by the Christian religion and the -canonical doctrine the body of a Christian alone maketh it so. And -note that whatever is _sacred_ is _religious_; but the contrary -holdeth not. But the afore-named religious place hath divers -appellations: such be _cemetery, polyandrum_, or _andropolis_ (which -is the same thing), _sepulchrum, mausoleum_ (which is also the same), -_dormitorium, tumulus, monumentum, ergastulum, pyramid, sarcophagus, -bustum, urna, spelunca_. - -4. _Cemetery_ hath its name from _cimen_ which is _sweet_, and -_sterion_, which is a _station_: for there the bones of the departed -rest sweetly, and expect the advent of their Saviour. Or because there -be therein _cimices_, that is reptiles of intolerable odour. - -5. _Poliantrum_, from _pollutum antrum_, on account of the carcases of -men therein buried. Or _poliantrum_ signifieth a multitude of men, -from _polus_, which is a _plurality_, and _andros_, which is a man; -and therefore a cemetery is so called on account of the number of men -therein buried.' [Footnote 368] - - [Footnote 368: It has been thought right to give a few of the - bishop's derivations, lest his translators should be accused of - concealing a circumstance which may weaken, with some, his testimony - on other points (though, as we have before shown, most unjustly): it - has not, however, been thought necessary to follow him through all - his names of a cemetery: since to do so would be a mere waste of the - reader's time.] - -{83} - -[Sections 6 to 10 elided.] - -11. Cemeteries are said to have their beginning from Abraham, who -bought a field from Hebron: in which was a double cave, [Footnote -369] where he and Sarah were buried: there also Isaac and Jacob were -buried: there also Adam and Eve. [Footnote 370] Therefore there was a -double cave there: since they who buried therein were placed side by -side, every man and his wife; or the men in the one, and their wives -in the other: or because everyone there interred had a double cave, -after the fashion of a chair. Whence saith Hierome, Three patriarchs -are buried in the city Hebron, with their three wives. But they were -buried as it were in a sitting posture: the upper part of the cave -held the trunk from the loins: the lower the thighs and legs. - - [Footnote 369: Genesis xxiii, 9: 'We take this word Machpelah for a - proper name, as many others do: but the Talmudists generally think - it to have been a double cave, as the lxx also, with the vulgar - Latin, understand it. Yet they cannot agree in what sense it was so: - whether they went through one cave into another, or there was one - above the other.'--Bishop Patrick, s.l.] - - [Footnote 370: One might almost have thought that this is a false - reading for _Leah and Rebecca_. For the common tradition was that - Adam and Eve were buried in Mount Calvary: so that where the first - Adam fell before death, the second Adam triumphed over death. And - the bishop speaks below of _three_ patriarchs, and their _three_ - wives buried in Machpelah: which is at variance with the text as it - stands: but would agree with the proposed emendation. - - Yet S. Isidore says, 'De morte Abrahae,' fol. 295: 'Sepultusque est - in spelunca duplici; in cujus interiore parte Adam esse positum - traditio Hebraeorum testatur.' S. Victor upon Spelunca duplex: - 'Domus quaedam fuit subterranea, in qua erat solarium, et multi - fuerant sepulti, in ea et diversis foveis et subter et supra;' and - in another place, 'Spelunca in qua est sepulta spiritualem designat - vitam, quae est occulta: quae recte duplex vocatur; propter bonam - actionem et contemplationem.'] - -{84} - -12. But all men ought not to be buried promiscuously in the church: -for it seemeth that that place of sepulchre profiteth not. Lucifer was -thrown down from Heaven, and Adam cast out of Paradise; and what -places be better than these? Also Joab was slain in the Tabernacle, -and Job triumphed in the dunghill. Nay rather, it is to his hurt if a -man unworthy or a sinner be buried in a church. We read in the -'Dialogues' of Blessed Gregory, book the fourth, chapter the -fifty-sixth, that when a certain man of notorious wickedness -[Footnote 371] had been buried in the church of S. Faustinus at -Brescia, in the same night Blessed Faustinus appeared to the warden of -the church, saying, Speak unto the bishop that he cast out the body; -otherwise he shall die in thirty days. Now the warden feared to tell -the thing to the bishop: and the bishop on the thirtieth day suddenly -departed out of this life. It is also written in the same book, -chapter the fifty-seventh, that another wicked man was buried in a -church, and that afterwards his body was found outside the church, the -cerecloths remaining in their own place. And Austin says, they who are -guilty of notorious sins, if they be buried in the church by their own -desire, shall be judged for their presumption; for the sacredness of -the place doth not free those whom the accusation of temerity -condemns. - - [Footnote 371: A similar story has been parodied in the 'Ingoldsby - Legends': a work which for irreverence and profanity has hardly an - equal. Disgraceful as it would be to any author, it is trebly so, if - (as it is said) that author is a clergyman.] - -No body, therefore, ought to be buried in a church, or near an altar, -where the Body and Blood of our Lord are made, except the bodies of -holy fathers, who be called patrons, that is defenders, who defend the -whole country with their merits, and bishops, and abbots, and worthy -presbyters, and laymen of eminent sanctity. But all ought to be buried -about the church, or in the court of the cloisters, or in the porch: -or in the exedroe and apses which are joined to the church, or in the -cemetery. {85} Some also say that a space of thirty feet round the -church ought to be set apart for that purpose. But others say that the -space enclosed by the circuit which the bishop makes around the church -must suffice for this. S. Augustine saith in his book 'On the Care of -the Dead,' towards the end, that to be buried near the tombs of -martyrs advantageth the dead in this, that by commending him to the -guardianship of the martyrs, the earnestness of our supplication for -him may be increased. - -13. Of old time men were buried in their own houses: but on account of -the stench thereby engendered, it was decreed that they should be -buried without the city, and certain places should be set apart by -sanctification for that purpose. But noblemen were buried in -mountains, both in the middle of them and at the foot: and also under -mounds raised of their own expense. [Footnote 372] But if anyone be -slain in besieging a town, where there is no cemetery, let him be -buried where he can. But if a merchantman or pilgrim die by sea, and -any inhabited land be near, let him be buried in it: but if no port be -near, let him be buried in some island. If, however, land cannot be -seen, let a little house of timbers (if they can be had) be made for -him, and let him be cast into the sea. - - [Footnote 372: _Sub propriis podiis_. For some account of the - curious word _podium_, whence _pew_ or _pue_ is derived, see the - Cambridge Camden Society's 'History of Pews' (or the 'Supplement,' - pp. 6, 7).] - -14. In a Christian cemetery none may be buried but a baptised -Christian: nor yet every such an one neither: one, namely, slain in -the act of sin, if it be mortal sin, as if he were slain in adultery, -or theft, or some forbidden amusement. And also where a man is found -dead, there let him be buried, on account of the doubtful cause of his -death. {86} But if anyone dieth suddenly in games accustomably used, -as the game of ball, he may be buried in the cemetery, because it was -not his desire to injure anyone: but because he was occupied in -worldly matters, some say that he ought to be buried without psalms -and the other obsequies of the dead. But if anyone attacking another -in a strife or tumult dieth impenitent, and hath not sought the -priest, he ought not, as some say, to be buried in the cemetery: nor -yet he who hath committed suicide. But if anyone dieth, not from any -manifest cause, but from the visitation of God alone, he can be buried -in a cemetery. For the just man, in what hour soever he dieth, is -saved. The rather if he were following some lawful occupation. To -defenders of justice and those who are engaged in a pious fight, the -cemetery and the office of burial are freely conceded: yet they who -come to a violent death are not borne into the church, lest the -pavement be polluted with blood. But if anyone returning from any -place of fornication be slain in the way, or be slain anywhere, where -by unforeseen case, he hath tarried, he is not to be buried in the -common cemetery; and this if it can be proved, by evidence sufficient -for a court of law, that he had not confessed after the act of -fornication nor was contrite: otherwise he ought to be buried. - -15. Again, a woman who dieth in child-birth ought not to be carried -into the church, as some say, but her obsequies must be said without -the church, to which I agree not: otherwise it would be as if she died -in fault. Whence she may allowably be borne into the church. - -16. But stillborn and unbaptised children are to be buried without the -cemetery. Some say, however, that they should be buried with the -mother as being a part of her body. - -17. A man and wife are to be buried in the same sepulchre, after the -example of Abraham and Sarah (unless a wish be specially expressed to -the contrary). {87} Whence also Tobias commanded his son, that when -his mother had accomplished her days, he should bury her in the same -grave with himself. [Footnote 373] Also everyone is to be buried in -the sepulchre of his fathers, unless from a principle of devotion he -hath chosen another sepulchre. But it was decreed in the Moguntine -Council, that they who have paid the extreme penalty for their crimes, -if they have confessed, or have desired to confess and have -communicated, may be buried in the cemetery, and the Mass and -oblations may be offered for them. How the human body is to be buried, -shall be said under the section of the Office for the Dead. - - [Footnote 373: Tobit xiv, 10] - - -{88} - -CHAPTER VI - -OF THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH - -Rise of the Dedication of Churches--By whom Performed--Particulars of -Consecration--The Twelve Crosses--Banners--Dedication--Re-consecration -Considered--Reconciliation--In what Cases--Of Scandals ---Reconciliation of Cemeteries. - -1. Twice in the former part of this treatise we have described the -material church and the altar; it followeth that we must add something -about their dedication: stating, - - I. Whence the consecration of churches hath its origin. - II. At whose hands a church is consecrated. - III. For what reason. - IV. In what form; and what is signified, as well by the dedication - itself, as by each of the ceremonies observed therein. - - Of the offices for the festival of the dedication of a church we - shall speak in the seventh book. [Footnote 374] - - [Footnote 374: Appendix H.] - -2. We have first to state whence the dedication of churches hath had -its rise. Upon which, note that under the teaching of the Lord, Moses -made the tabernacle, and consecrated it together with its table of -show-bread, and altar, and brazen vessels, and utensils for performing -the divine worship. {89} And these he not only consecrated with -prayers to God, but also anointed, at the command of the Lord, with -sacred oil. For [Footnote 375] we read that the Lord taught Moses to -prepare a chrism, with which to anoint the tabernacle and the ark of -the testimony at the time of their dedication. Solomon also the son of -David, at the command of the Lord, completed the temple and its altar, -and consecrated what was still necessary for the performance of the -divine worship; as it is written in the third book of Kings. -[Footnote 376] Nebuchadnezzar the king also summoned all his satraps, -chief men, and governors to the dedication of the golden image which -he had made. [Footnote 377] The Jews therefore, as we read in -Burchardus, [Footnote 378] used to have the places in which they -sacrificed to the Lord consecrated by divine petitions, nor used they -to offer gifts to God in any places but such as were dedicated unto -Him. If then they who were in bondage to the shadow of the Law used to -do this, how much the more ought we, to whom the truth hath been made -manifest--'grace and truth came by Jesus Christ' [Footnote 379]--to -build temples to the Lord, and adorn them as best we may, and devoutly -and solemnly consecrate (according to the institution of Pope Felix -III) [Footnote 380] by divine prayers and holy unctions both them and -their altars and vessels, and vestments also, and other utensils for -fulfilling the divine service? - - [Footnote 375: Exodus xxx, 23-34.] - - [Footnote 376: I Kings iii, 6.] - - [Footnote 377: Daniel iii, 2.] - - [Footnote 378: Book iii, ch. I. ] - - [Footnote 379: S. John i, 17.] - - [Footnote 380: 'The solemnities of the consecration of churches and - of priests ought to be celebrated year by year, after the example of - our Lord Himself, Who at the feast of the Dedication of the Temple - did set us a pattern of this in that He celebrated this festival - with the rest of the people; as it is written in S. John, "And it - was at Jerusalem the feast of the Dedication, and it was winter, and - Jesus walked in the Temple in Solomon's porch." Felix Papa in - 'Epist. ad Episc. per divers, provincias,' cap. i.] - -{90} - -Again, when once in Syria, in the city of Baruth, the Jews had -trampled underfoot an image of the Crucified, and had pierced its -side, there soon came forth therefrom blood and water. But the Jews -marvelled at this spectacle, and their sick when anointed with this -blood were freed from all their infirmities: by reason of which all, -having received the faith of Christ, were baptised, and proceeded to -consecrate their synagogues into churches. And hence hath grown the -custom that churches should be consecrated, whereas before this altars -alone used to be consecrated. On account of this miracle also the -Church ordained that a memorial of the Lord's Passion should be made -on the fifth day before the Calends of December: and for the same -reason the church was consecrated to the honour of the Saviour, in -which a vessel containing some of the blood is preserved, and a solemn -festival is celebrated on that day. [Footnote 381] - - [Footnote 381: The editors have not been able to find any other - account of this legend.] - -3. Secondly, it is to be noted that a bishop alone can dedicate -churches and altars: since he beareth the image and figure of the -Chief Bishop, Christ, dedicating spiritually, without Whom we can do -nothing stable in the Church: whence He hath Himself said, 'Without Me -ye can do nothing'; [Footnote 382] and the Psalm saith, 'Unless the -Lord build the house their labour is but lost that build it: -[Footnote 383] hence the Council of Carthage prohibiteth a priest from -doing this, nor can this office be deputed to anyone of an inferior -order. - - [Footnote 382: S. John xvii, 5.] - - [Footnote 383: Psalm cxxvii (_Nisi Dominus_), I.] - -4. Further, as the Sacred Canons instruct us, a church must not be -dedicated, unless it be first endowed, and that from goods lawfully -acquired. For we read how when a certain bishop was consecrating a -church built out of the fruits of usury and pillage, he saw behind the -altar the devil in a pontifical vestment, standing in the bishop's -throne: who said unto the bishop, Cease from {91} consecrating the -church: for it pertaineth to my jurisdiction, since it is built from -the fruits of usuries and robberies. Then the bishop and the clergy -having fled thence in fear, immediately the devil destroyed that -church, with a great noise. - -5. Again, a church which hath been erected from the profit of avarice -must not be consecrated; nor one for which a sufficient endowment hath -not been assigned; nor one in which a paynim or an infidel hath been -buried, until he shall have been cast forth thence, and the church -reconciled, the walls and timbers having been first scraped. The case -is the same also with respect to an excommunicate person. But if a -woman with child be buried there, though she be not removed, the -church may be consecrated, even if the child hath not been baptised. - -Although certain learned authors have written otherwise the church may -also be consecrated on ordinary days as well as on Sundays: and more -bishops than one and more altars than one may be consecrated at the -same time by the same person in one church. - -6. Thirdly, we have to say for what reason a church is dedicated: and -indeed there be five reasons. First, that the devil and his power may -be entirely expelled from it. Gregory relateth in a dialogue, in his -third book, that when a certain church of the Arians having been -restored to the Orthodox was being consecrated, and relics of S. -Sebastian and the Blessed Agatha had been conveyed thither, the people -there assembled of a sudden perceived a swine to be running to and fro -among their feet; the which regaining the doors of the church could be -seen of none, and moved all to marvel. Which sign the Lord showed for -this cause, that it might be manifest to all that the unclean -inhabitant had gone forth from that place. {92} But in the following -night a great noise was made on the roof of the same church, as if -someone were running confusedly about upon it. The second night the -uproar was much greater. On the third night also so vast a noise was -heard as if the whole church had been overthrown from its foundations: -but it immediately ceased and no further inquietude of the old enemy -hath appeared in it. Secondly, that those who fly for refuge to it may -be saved, as we read in the Canons of Gregory. And with this view Joab -fled into the tabernacle and laid hold of the horns of the altar. -Thirdly, that prayers may be heard there. Whence in the prayer of the -Mass of Dedication it is said, 'Grant that all who shall meet together -here to pray may obtain, whatsoever be their trials, the benefits of -the consolation.' Thus also Solomon prayed at the dedication of the -Temple, as we read in the eighth chapter of the third book of Kings. -[Footnote 384] Fourthly, that praises may there be offered to God, as -has been already mentioned under the head of the Church. Fifthly, that -there the sacraments of the Church may be administered. From which the -church itself is called a tabernacle, as it were the hostelrie of God, -in which the divine sacraments be contained and adminstered. -[Footnote 385] - - [Footnote 384: I Kings viii, 30.] - - [Footnote 385: See chapter i, 4.] - -7. Fourthly, we have to speak of the manner in which a church is -consecrated. All being excluded from the church, a single deacon -remaining shut up within, the bishop with his clergy before the doors -of the church proceedeth to bless water mixed with salt. In the -meanwhile within the building twelve lamps be burning before twelve -crosses which be depicted on the walls of the church. Next, the -bishop, the clergy and people following him and performing the circuit -of the church, sprinkleth from a rod of hyssop the external walls with -{93} holy water; and as he arriveth each time at the door of the -church he striketh the threshold with his pastoral staff, saying, -'Lift up your heads, O ye gates,' etc. The deacon from within -answereth, 'Who is the King of Glory?' To whom the Pontiff, 'The Lord -of Hosts,' etc. But the third time, the door being thrown open, the -bishop entereth the church with a few of his attendants, the clergy -and people remaining without, and saith, 'Peace be to this house'; and -then the Litanies. Next on the pavement of the church, let a cross be -made of ashes and sand; upon which the whole alphabet is described in -Greek and Latin characters. [Footnote 386] And then he sanctifieth -more water with salt and ashes and wine, and consecrateth the altar. -Lastly, he anointeth with chrism the twelve crosses depicted on the -wall. - - [Footnote 386: See the Appendix on the 'Dedication of a Church'] - -8. In good truth whatsoever things be here done visibly, God by His -invisible power worketh the same in the soul which is the temple of -the true God: in which Faith layeth the foundation, Hope buildeth up, -and Charity perfecteth. For the Catholic Church herself, made one out -of many living stones, is the Temple of God, because many temples make -one temple, of which the true God is one, and the Faith one. The -house, therefore, must be dedicated; the soul sanctified. - -9. And it is to be observed that consecration effecteth two things; -for it appropriateth the material church itself to God, and doth -insinuate our own betrothal, as well namely of the church as of the -faithful soul. For a house not consecrated is as a damsel designed for -some man, but not furnished with dowry or united in the commerce of -wedlock. But in consecration it is endowed, and passeth into the -proper spouse of Jesus Christ, which further to violate is sacrilege. -For it ceaseth to be the resort of demons, as is evident in the -consecration of that temple, which used formerly to be called the -Pantheon, or place of all demons. [Footnote 387] - - [Footnote 387: 'Pope Boniface the Fourth did consecrate to the most - Blessed Virgin and All Saints the famous monument of Agrippa, the - _Pantheon_, having purified it from the base herd of vain gods.' - _Ciampini_ IV, vi, 55. This is now called Santa Maria Rotonda. - Doard.] - -{94} - -10. First, however, we have to speak of the benediction of water, -concerning which the Lord saith, 'Unless a man be born again of water -and of the Spirit, he cannot enter the Kingdom of Heaven.' [Footnote -388] For water which is designed for washing the body, hath merited to -receive from God so great a virtue, that as it washeth the body from -impurities, so also it should cleanse the soul from sins. It is -manifest indeed that this water, by the aspersion of which a church is -consecrated, signifieth baptism, because in some sort the church -itself is baptised; and the church itself assuredly denoteth that -Church which is contained in it, namely, the multitude of the -faithful. Whence also it is called a church because it contains the -Church; the thing containing, namely, for the thing contained. - - [Footnote 388: S. John iii, 5.] - -11. But we must inquire wherefore salt is to be mixed with this water, -since our Saviour, speaking of baptism, made no mention of salt. For -He saith not 'unless a man be born again of salt water or water mixed -with salt,' or anything of this sort: but He said 'unless a man be -born again of water and of the Holy Spirit,' etc. And the very same -inquiry may be made concerning oil and chrism. But we must note that -salt in the divine language is often put for wisdom; according to that -saying, 'Let your speech be savoured with salt' And the Lord saith to -His disciples, 'Have salt in yourselves and have peace one with -another.' [Footnote 389] And again, 'Ye are the salt of the earth; -but if the salt have lost its savour wherewithal shall it be salted?' -[Footnote 390] Hence also it is that {95} according to the law no -victim was offered without salt, but salt was a part of every -sacrifice. From all which passages it is clearly shown that salt is -put for wisdom. And wisdom indeed is the seasoning of all virtues, as -salt is of all meats. Hence therefore it is that no one is baptised -before he hath tasted salt; and in order that even infants may have by -the symbolical meaning of the sacrament that which they cannot have in -fact, the water is not blessed without a mixture of salt. Of the -second benediction of water we shall speak in the following treatise. - - [Footnote 389: S. Mark ix, 50.] - - [Footnote 390: S. Mark v, 13.] - -12. Again, the trine aspersion within and without with hyssop and holy -water signifieth the threefold immersion in baptism. And it is done -for three reasons. First, to drive away evil spirits. For holy water -availeth from its own proper virtue to drive away demons. Whence in -the Office for Exorcising the Water we say--'that this water may -become exorcised in order to put to flight all the power of the enemy, -and may avail to eradicate the enemy himself,' etc. Secondly, for the -cleansing and expiation of the church itself. For all earthly things -be corrupted and defiled by reason of sin. Hence it is also that in -the Law almost everything was cleansed by water. Thirdly, to remove -all malediction, and to bring in a blessing instead. For the earth -from the beginning received the curse with all its fruits, because -that the great deceit was made out of its fruit. But water hath not -been under any curse. Hence it is that our Lord ate fish, but we do -not read expressly that he ate flesh, unless of the Paschal Lamb; and -this on account of the precept of the Law, as an example, namely, -sometimes to abstain from lawful things, sometimes to eat the same. -Again, the aspersion in going the circuit signifieth that the Lord -having a care of His own, sendeth His angel round about them that fear -Him. - -{96} - -13. But the three responses which be chanted in the meantime testify -the joy of the three ages of men receiving the faith, namely, Noah, -Daniel, and Job. And since at this invocation the grace of Faith, -Hope, and Charity, is poured out as the sprinkling is directed to the -foot and middle part, as well as to the upper part of the walls. We -will now also speak of the interior aspersion. (Of the virtue of the -hyssop, we will speak under the next head.) - -14. But the trine circuit, which the bishop maketh while sprinkling, -denoteth the thrice-repeated circuit which Christ made for the -sanctification of the Church. The first was that by which He came down -from heaven to the world: the second in which He descended into hell -from the world: the third in which returning from hell and rising -again He ascended into heaven. The trine circuit also showeth that -that church is dedicated to the honour of the Trinity. It showeth also -the three states of such as shall be saved in the Church, which be the -virgins, the continent, the married: which also the arrangement of the -material church itself showeth, as hath been said under the head of -the Church. - -15. Moreover, the trine striking on the lintel of the door signifieth -the threefold right which Christ hath in His Church why it ought to be -opened unto Him. For it hath from Him Creation, Redemption, and -promise of Glorification. For the bishop representeth Christ, and the -rod His power. Again, by the triple striking of the door with the -pastoral staff, the preaching of the Gospel is understood. For what -else is the pastoral rod than the divine Word? According to that of -Esaias, 'He shall smite the earth with the rod,' _i.e._ the word, 'of -His mouth,' etc. [Footnote 391] Wherefore to strike the door with the -rod is to strike the ears of the hearers by the word of preaching. -{97} For the ears are the gates by which we bring in the words of holy -preachings to the hearts of the hearers. Whence in the Psalm, 'Who -liftest me up from the gates of death that I may show all Thy praises -within the ports of the daughter of Sion.' [Footnote 392] For what -are the gates of the daughter of Sion but the ears and hearing of the -faithful? Thirdly, the trine striking with the staff, and the opening -of the gates, signifieth that by the preaching of the pastors the -unbelieving shall come to the agreement of the Faith. For by it the -gates of justice be opened, and they that enter therein do confess the -faith. Whence the Psalm, 'Open unto me the gates of righteousness: I -will go into them and I will praise the Lord: this is the gate of the -Lord, the righteous shall enter into it.' [Footnote 393] Wherefore -the bishop striketh the lintel, namely, of reason, saying, 'Lift up -your heads, ye princes,' that is, ye evil spirits: or rather, 'Lift -up, ye men,' that is, remove the gates, that is, your ignorances, -namely, from your hearts. [Footnote 394] - - [Footnote 391: Isaiah xi, 4.] - - [Footnote 392: Ps. ix (_Confitebor tibi_), 13, 14.] - - [Footnote 393: Ps. cxviii (_Confitemini Domino_), 19, 20.] - - [Footnote 394: Ps. xxiv (_Domini est terra_), 'Attollite portas - principes vestras.'] - -16. Again, the question of the deacon shut up within answering in the -character of the people, 'Who is the King of glory?' is the ignorance -of the people which knoweth not Who He is Who ought to enter. - -17. The opening of the doors is the ejection of sin. Rightly, -therefore, doth the bishop strike three times, because that number is -most known and most sacred; and in any consecration the bishop ought -to smite the doors three times, because without the invocation of the -Trinity, there can be no sacrament in the Church. - -18. The threefold proclamation, 'Lift up your heads,' etc., signifieth -the threefold power of Christ, that, namely, which He hath in heaven, -and in the earth, and in hell. Whence it is said in the hymn for the -Ascension, 'That the threefold frame of things, whether heavenly, -earthly, or infernal, may bow the head, having been subdued. -[Footnote 395] - - [Footnote 395: This hymn, by S. Gregory, is used in the office of - matins in the Roman Breviary.] - -{98} - -19. Next the bishop entereth by the open door to denote that if he -duly exercise his office, nothing can resist him; according to that -saying, 'Lord, who shall resist Thy power?' And he entereth, -accompanied by two or three, that in the mouth of two or three -witnesses every word of the consecration may stand sure. Or else -because the Lord in His Transfiguration, in the presence of a few, -prayed for the Church. And the bishop as he entereth saith, 'Peace be -to this house and to all them that dwell therein'; because Christ -entering the world made peace between God and man; for He came that He -might reconcile us to God the Father. - -20. After this while the Litany is being said the bishop prostrateth -himself and prayeth for the sanctification of the house. For Christ -also humbling Himself before His Passion prayed for His disciples and -'them that should believe through His word,' saying, 'Father, sanctify -them in Thy name.' [Footnote 396] But after he hath risen up he -prayeth without benediction, since he saith not 'The Lord be with -you'; because the Church is not yet as it were baptised, and because -Catechumens only are not worthy that this mark of approval should be -given to them, since they are not yet sanctified: but nevertheless -prayer is to be made for them. - - [Footnote 396: S. John xvii.] - -21. The clergy praying and chanting the Litany representeth the -Apostles who intercede with God for the sanctification of the Church -and of souls. - -{99} - -The alphabet is written on the pavement of the church in this manner. -A cross made with ashes and sand is described athwart the church, upon -which cross of dust the alphabet is written in the shape of a cross in -letters of Greek and Latin, but not of Hebrew, because the Jews have -departed from the faith; and it is written with the pastoral staff. - -22. This alphabet written upon the cross representeth three things. -First, the writing made in Greek and Latin characters in the shape of -a cross representeth the conjunction or union in faith of both people, -namely, the Jews and the Greeks, which is made through the Cross of -Christ: according to the saying that Jacob blessed his sons with his -hands crossed. But the cross itself or the legend that is described in -a direction athwart the church, namely, the one arm from the left -corner of the east to the right of the west, and the other from the -right of the east to the left of the west, [Footnote 397] signifieth -that that people, which was before on the right is now made on the -left, and that which was first is now made last, and the converse: and -this owing to the power of the Cross. For Christ passing from the -east, left the Jews on His left hand, because they were unbelieving, -and came to the Gentiles, to whom, though they had been in the west, -He grants to be on the right hand: and at length returning from the -Gentiles, who are situated at the right hand of the east, He visited -the Jews in the left corner of the west; who it is evident are worse -than He before found the Gentiles. But on this account the characters -are written obliquely and in the shape of a cross, and not in a -straight line, because such an one as doth not receive the mystery of -the Cross and doth not believe that he must be saved by the Passion of -Christ, is not able to attain to this holy wisdom. Wisdom will not -enter into the evil-disposed mind, and where Christ is not the -foundation, no edifice can be built upon it. - - [Footnote 397: We understand this to mean that the cross described - in the church is a saltire, or S. Andrew's Cross, and not a plain - one. Upon this again consult the Appendix.] - -{100} - -23. Secondly, the writing of the alphabet representeth the page of -both Testaments, because they be fulfilled by the Cross of Christ. For -the veil of the temple was rent asunder at His Passion, because then -the Scriptures were opened, and the Holy of Holies revealed. Whence He -Himself said when dying, 'It IS FINISHED.' In these few letters also -all knowledge is contained; and the alphabet is written crosswise, -because one Testament is contained in the other. For there was a wheel -within a wheel. - -24. Thirdly, it representeth the articles of faith; for the pavement -of the church is the foundation of our faith. The elements written -thereon, are the articles of faith, in which ignorant men and -neophytes from both peoples be instructed in the Church; who indeed -ought to esteem themselves dust and ashes. Just as Abraham saith in -the xviii chapter of Genesis, 'Shall I speak to my Lord, who am but -dust and ashes?' Wherefore the writing of the alphabet on the pavement -is the simple teaching of faith in the human heart. - -25. The _sambuca_ or staff, with which the alphabet is written, -showeth the doctrine of the apostles, or the mystery of the teachers, -by which the conversion of the Gentiles hath been effected, and the -perfidy of the Jews. Afterwards approaching the altar the bishop -standeth, and beginneth by saying, 'O God, make speed to save us;' -because he is then beginning the principal part of office. And the -versicle, 'Glory be to the Father,' etc., is then said. - -26. Because this benediction is used to set forth the glory of the -Trinity, Alleluia is not then uttered, as will be set forth in the -next chapter. Then the bishop consecrateth the altar, for which he -blesseth other water, as {101} shall also be declared in the next -chapter. With which water also, after that the altar hath been -sprinkled seven times, the whole interior of the church is sprinkled -three times, as at first without any distinction between greater and -smaller stones, since 'there is no respect of persons with God.' For -this reason is the interior sprinkled, to signify that an external -ablution profiteth nothing without an internal charity. And for this -reason three times, because, as hath been premised, that aspersion -signifieth the aspersion and cleansing of baptism, which is conferred -through the invocation of the Trinity, according to the saying, 'Go ye -and teach all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father, and -of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost:' [Footnote 398] for since a -church cannot be immersed in water as a man in baptism is immersed, it -is on this account sprinkled three times with water, as if in the -place of a threefold immersion. - - [Footnote 398: S. Matt, xxviii, 19.] - -27. Again, the bishop performeth the aspersion proceeding from the -east to the west and once through the middle in the form of the cross; -because Christ gave instructions to baptise the whole of Judea and all -nations in the name of the Trinity, to which baptism He gave efficacy -in the ministry of His Passion, beginning from the Jews, from whom He -had His birth. And what remains of the water is poured away at the -foot of the altar, as shall be mentioned in the next chapter. Some, -however, do not bless any fresh water, but perform the whole office -with that which was blessed at first. In the meanwhile, however, the -choir is chanting the Psalm _Exsurgat Deus_ ('let God arise and let -His enemies be scattered,' etc.), and the _Qui habitat_ ('whoso -dwelleth,' etc.), in which mention is made of the church and its -consecration, as is plain in that verse, 'He is the God {102} that -maketh 'men to be of one mind in an house.' [Footnote 399] But the -bishop saith, 'My house shall be called an house of prayer,' because -it is his duty to cause that the church should be a house of God, not -of merchandise. - - [Footnote 399: Psalm lxviii (_Exsurgat Deus_), v, 5.] - -28. Next, when the altar hath been anointed with chrism, the twelve -crosses painted on the walls of the church are also anointed. But the -crosses themselves be painted; first, as a terror to evil spirits, -that they, having been driven forth thence, may be terrified when they -see the sign of the cross, and may not presume to enter therein again; -secondly, as a mark of triumph. For crosses be the banners of Christ, -and the signs of his triumph. [Footnote 400] Crosses therefore are -with reason painted there that it may be made manifest that that place -hath been subdued to the dominion of Christ. - - [Footnote 400: Compare the hymn, _Vexilla Regis prodeunt_.] - -29. For even in the pomp of an earthly sovereign it is customary when -any city hath been yielded, for the imperial standard to be set up -within it. And to represent the same thing, Jacob is said to have set -up the stone, which he had placed under his head, as a historical, -traditional, and triumphal monument. [Footnote 401] - - [Footnote 401: Genesis xxviii.] - -30. Thirdly, that such as look on them may call to mind the Passion of -Christ, by which he hath consecrated His Church, and their belief in -His Passion. Whence it is said in the Canticles, 'place me as a signet -upon thy arm,' etc. [Footnote 402] The twelve lights placed before -these crosses signify the twelve Apostles who have illumined the whole -world by the faith of the Crucified, and whose teaching hath dispersed -the darkness: whence Bernard saith, 'All prophecy is verified in the -faith of the crucified One;' and the Apostle, 'I determined not to -know anything among you except Jesus Christ and Him crucified.' -[Footnote 403] {103} Wherefore the crosses on the four walls of the -church are lighted up and anointed with chrism, because the apostles -preaching the mystery of the cross have by the faith of Christ -illumined the four quarters of the earth unto knowledge, have lighted -them up unto love, have anointed them unto purity of conscience--which -is signified by the oil; and unto the savour of a good -reputation--which is signified by the balsam. In addition to this, -after the anointing of the altar, the altar itself and the church are -ornamented; the lamps lighted up; a Mass is said, in which the priest -useth different vestments from those which he hath used in the -aspersion, as shall be explained in the sequel. - - [Footnote 402: Cant, viii, 6.] - - [Footnote 403: I Cor, ii, 2.] - -31. Lastly, it is to be noted that a church is said to be consecrated -in the blood of someone; whence, according to Pelagius and Pope -Nicholas, the Roman Church was consecrated in the martyrdom of the -Apostles, Peter and Paul. [Footnote 404] A church therefore is -consecrated in the way just described; and an altar, as will be set -forth in the next chapter; and a cemetery and other things, as is -declared under the head of its consecration. And although we read in -the Old Testament that the Temple was consecrated three times: first, -in the month of September; secondly, in March under Darius; thirdly, -in December by Judas Maccabaeus. - - [Footnote 404: This passage is obscure. A confession or martyrium - was built over the place of S. Peter's martyrdom in the earliest - times, and is now covered by the Vatican. See Ciampini de Vaticana - Basilica. The expression probably means, in honour of the - martyrdom.] - -32. Yet a church once consecrated, is not to be consecrated again -unless it shall have been profaned, which happeneth in three ways. -First, if it hath been burnt so as that all the walls or the greater -part of them be destroyed. But if only the roof or some part of it -hath been burnt, the walls remaining entire, or at least only {104} -partially destroyed, it need not be reconsecrated. Secondly, if the -whole church or the greater part of it hath fallen to the ground at -the same time, and hath been repaired entirely or not with the -original stones. For the consecration of a church consisteth mainly in -the exterior anointings, and in the conjunction and arrangement of the -stones. If, however, all the walls shall have fallen in, not at the -same time, but in succession, and shall have been repaired, the church -is to be considered the same. And so it need not be reconsecrated, but -only exorcised with water and reconciled by the solemnisation of a -Mass: however, some learned authors have said that it ought to be -reconsecrated. Thirdly, a church must be reconsecrated, if it be -doubtful whether it ever hath been consecrated, should there remain no -writing or painting or inscription to that effect, nor even a single -eye-witness, nor yet an ear-witness, who (as some say) would be -sufficient. - -33. An altar also which hath been once consecrated must not be -consecrated again unless it should happen that it become profaned. -Which taketh place first if the table, that is the upper surface on -which the principal part of the consecration is bestowed, be moved or -changed in its form, or broken beyond measure, for instance above a -half. However, a disproportion of this sort may rightly be referred to -the decision of the bishop. The same also is especially the case, if -the whole structure of the altar hath been moved and repaired. -Nevertheless, the church is not to be reconsecrated on account of -either the movement or the breaking of the structure of the altar: -because the consecration of an altar and of a church be two different -things. So conversely if when the church is entirely destroyed the -altar be not injured, the church only is to be repaired, and the altar -not reconsecrated although in such case it is fitting that it be -washed with exorcised water. - -{105} - -34. Further, when the chief altar hath been consecrated the inferior -altars are not the less to be consecrated: although some have said -that it is sufficient for the rest to be pointed out with the finger -while the former is under consecration. - -35. If, however, the altar hath suffered a trifling injury, it is not -on this account to be reconsecrated. - -Secondly, an altar is reconsecrated, if the _seal_ of the altar--that -is the little stone by which the sepulchre or cavity in which the -relics be deposited is closed or sealed--be moved or broken. And the -cavity itself is made sometimes on the top part of the block, and -sometimes no other seal is put over it, but the _table_, being placed -over it, is considered as the seal. But sometimes it is placed in the -hinder part, and sometimes in the front: and in the same cavity the -bishop's letters of consecration be generally carefully deposited in -testimony of the consecration: containing his own name and that of the -other bishops present at the consecration: and declaring in honour of -what saint the altar is consecrated, and also the church itself, when -both be consecrated at the same time, and the year also and day of -consecration. - -Thirdly, an altar is reconsecrated, if the junction of the seal to the -cavity, or of the _table_ to the block, where there is no other seal -than this slab, be disturbed; or if any of the stones of the junction -or the block, which toucheth either the table or the seal, be either -disturbed or broken. For in the conjunction of the seal and cavity, -and of the table and block or inferior structure, the consecration is -most especially perceived. - -{106} - -Fourthly, an altar is reconsecrated, if to it or to the conjunction of -the table with the under structure so great an enlargement be made as -that it loseth its original form, since the form giveth the existence -to the thing. Yet it doth not become profaned on account of a trifling -enlargement: but in that case the sacred part draweth over to itself -the part not sanctified: so long as the conjunction of the top slab -and under structure be not greatly changed. - -Fifthly, an altar, just as a church, is reconsecrated in cases of -doubt. - -Sixthly, a travelling altar, if the stone be removed from the wood in -which it is inserted, which in some sort representeth its _seal_, and -be replaced again in the same or in other wood, some think should be -reconsecrated, but others only reconciled. But although it be often by -the command of the bishop transferred from place to place, and carried -on a journey (on which account it is called a portable or a travelling -altar) yet it is not reconsecrated in consequence of this, nor yet -reconciled. - -36. But if a consecrated chalice be regilt, is it therefore to be -reconsecrated? It seemeth so, since it appeareth to become a new -chalice. For he who doth renew the old fashion of a work seemeth to -make a new work: and he doth remake, who doth mend a thing already -made. And assuredly consecration doth pertain to the outer surface. -And hence it is that I have said above that a church, if its walls be -stripped of their outer coat, must be reconsecrated. - -37. The converse is nevertheless true, that neither on account of -whitewashing or painting the walls, nor of any small addition to them, -is a church to be reconsecrated; as I have already said. Wherefore, if -the shape of the chalice be not changed, it remaineth the same -chalice, and is not to be reconsecrated; just as also a church being -repaired, since it remaineth the same church, is not to be -reconsecrated, as aforesaid. {107} But if the former shape be changed, -the case were otherwise, since, as I have said, the shape giveth -existence to the thing. Nevertheless, it is decent, as well by reason -of its contact with unclean hands as also of the increment of -unconsecrated matter, that a chalice, being regilded, should be washed -with exorcised water before that the most Holy Body and Blood of the -Lord be sacrificed therein. Let us now say something about -Reconciliation. - -38. Upon this head it is to be noted that the spiritual temple, which -is man, is ofttimes polluted. Whence we do read in the twentieth of -Leviticus what men be polluted, and how they may not enter the church -until they be washed with water and cleansed: as also in the -nineteenth of Numbers, 'He that toucheth the dead body of a man shall -be unclean .... wherefore he shall purify himself and wash his clothes -and bathe himself in water and shall be clean.' And the Prophet saith, -'Thou shalt purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean. [Footnote -405] - - [Footnote 405: Psalm li (_Miserere mei_), 7.] - -39. The material temple also, which as Pope Gregory doth testify, is -the church, is sometimes polluted, as we do read in Leviticus. -[Footnote 406] Whence saith the Prophet, 'Thy holy temple have they -defiled and made Jerusalem an heap of stones.' [Footnote 407] And the -material temple is also washed with water in order to be reconciled. -[Footnote 408] Reconciliation is also effected by the celebration of a -Mass, and the aspersion of water duly consecrated with salt, wine, and -ashes. For by the salt, is signified discretion; by the water, the -people; by the wine, the Divinity; by the ashes, the remembrance of -the Passion of Christ; by the wine mixed with water, the union of -Godhead and Manhood. - - [Footnote 406: Levit. xv, 31.] - - [Footnote 407: Psalm lxxix (_Deus, venerunt_), I. ] - - [Footnote 408: Some of our readers may not know that reconciliation - is the technical term for the restoring a desecrated church to a - state fit for the performance of the divine offices.] - -{108} - -These things, therefore, be put together to denote that the people, -being cleansed by a discerning remembrance of the Passion of Christ, -are made one with Him. Also if the church hath once been consecrated, -the reconciliation can be made by a bishop only. And albeit he might -devolve upon a fellow-bishop the whole office, namely, both the -blessing of the water and the reconciliation; or the benediction of -the water only; or even the reconciliation alone with water blessed -beforehand by himself; yet can neither be devolved upon a mere priest, -unless perchance this be competent to him by a special privilege. But -if the church hath not been consecrated, it ought, according to the -Constitution of Gregory, to be washed forthwith with exorcised water: -the which washing some do affirm may be done by a mere priest, though -at the bidding of the bishop: since it hath to be done by exorcised -water, which every priest may use. Yet some skilful men of the highest -authority have written that it is safer for this also to be done by -none but a bishop, and that this may not be devolved by him to a -priest; for certain canons do call exorcised water that which is -solemnly blessed with wine and ashes:--and this is true indeed in -regard of a church which although not consecrated hath been dedicated -unto God. For it is otherwise with a mere oratory, which is neither a -holy nor a religious place, inasmuch as any man doth order it at his -will--at least for prayers, albeit perchance not for celebration -without the license of the diocesan--and at his will assigneth the -same place to another use. - -40. A church then is to be reconsecrated in the aforesaid case: and -also if any uncleanness be committed therein, whether by clerk, -layman, heretic, or paynim. But albeit some wise men have thought -otherwise, we opine that the case is different in regard of -unintentional pollution. [Footnote 409] - - [Footnote 409: The editors have ventured to make a few omissions in - this and some of the following sections.] - -{109} - -41. A church also must be reconciled on account of any homicide, in -any way intentionally committed therein, whether with or without the -shedding of blood: and also, besides homicide, for any violence or -injurious shedding of human blood, whether from a wound or not, or -from the nose or the mouth. For we read in the Old Testament, in the -fourteenth and fifteenth of Leviticus, how that any man shedding -blood, or polluted in divers ways, may not enter the temple. If, -however, without violence or injury blood should flow in any natural -way whatsoever within the church; or if any animal should be slain -therein, or if anyone should die suddenly, or be killed by a falling -stone or timber, or by lightning; for these and the like occasions the -church is not reconciled. Nor again, if anyone, having been wounded -elsewhere, should flee to a church and die there even with great -effusion of blood: since then the homicide is not committed in the -church. But conversely, if anyone having been wounded in a church -dieth without, or even if blood flow from the wound away from the -church, the case is otherwise, even if the blood did not flow at all -within the church: since the law regardeth the blow which causeth the -wound. But and if blood be shed or other pollutions be caused on the -roof of a church, no reconciliation is made, because the deed is -committed without the church. - -42. But if theft and rapine be committed in a church, it is reconciled -by the custom which usually obtaineth in such matters. And some do -affirm that the same ought to be done in any case of violence -committed therein without the shedding of blood; for example, if -anyone having taken refuge therein should be drawn forth with -violence. Also if anyone should break into the church or any quarrel -should be tumultuously carried on, though without shedding of blood: -or if anyone should be grievously beaten therein, so as his bones -should be broken, or he be covered with weals and bruises, though -without blood; {110} or again, if anyone, being condemned while -present in a church either to death or mutilation, be led forth to go -to the place of execution. But since these cases be not expressed in -the law, it is not necessary for the church to be solemnly reconciled -by the bishop. Yet we think it is decent for it to be washed by the -priest with exorcised water at the command of the bishop: and the same -is to be said, if the church being a long-time without roof or doors, -should have been open to all impurities, to animals and the natural -use of men, as if a common inn: nor perchance would it be amiss for it -in such case to be solemnly reconciled by the bishop. Again, if -anyone, slain without the church, be shortly borne into the church, -and there the murderer or anyone else thinking he will not die should -inflict on his yet warm body a blow causing blood to flow, then the -church must be reconciled, as well by reason of the horror and -abomination, as of the violence and intention of sinning: for though a -dead man be not a man, yet is his human blood shed there by violence; -and to the corpse itself is violence, horror, and injury offered. But -the case is otherwise if anyone, having died a natural death, be, -through respect of, and honour to his body, dismembered in the church -or disembowelled, that perhaps one part may be buried in one place, -and another in another. - -43. A church must also be reconciled, in which an infidel, or one -publicly excommunicated be buried; and then the walls are to be -scraped. - -In the aforesaid cases, however, in which a church is to be -reconciled, it is requisite that the fact causing the reconciliation -should be known at least by report. - -{111} - -44. For this is a scandal to the church, the horror and abomination of -baseness and sin and violence committed in a sacred place, or in a -church: wherein the pardon for offences is besought, wherein there -ought to be a refuge of defence, wherein is offered the saving -sacrifice for sins, wherein also those that flee for refuge be saved, -and praises be rendered unto God. Furthermore, the intention and -design of sinning mortally therein do cause a church to be reconciled. -But if this design be hidden, reconciliation is not necessary, since -the church itself, being holy, cannot be polluted; nay, the holiness -of the place itself doth do away with the infamy: albeit some do think -the contrary of this, as that it ought to be reconciled at least -privately, so that the delinquents be not exposed. - -45. For reconciliation is performed for an example and warning, that -all who behold the church, which hath in no wise sinned, washed and -purified for the delict of another, may reflect how they themselves -must work out the expiation of their own sins. - -46. Also a cemetery, in which a paynim, or an infidel or one -excommunicate be buried, is to be reconciled; the bones, however, of -the paynim, if they can be distinguished from those of the faithful, -being interred elsewhere. A cemetery also is reconciled in the -above-mentioned cases, in which a church is to be reconciled: for a -cemetery enjoyeth the same privileges as doth a church, as we shall -say in the chapter of Sacred Unctions; for it is a holy place from the -time of its benediction; and it is reconciled by the bishop, just as a -church, by the aspersion of water, blessed with wine and ashes. - -47. But this is to be noted, that in whatsoever part of the church or -the cemetery the violence or pollution be committed, both the church -and the cemetery, and also the several parts of either, by reason of -their contiguity, are understood to be violated. This first hath of -late been set straight by Pope Boniface. For albeit the consecrations -of the church, the altar, and the cemetery be diverse, yet is the -immunity of them one and the same and is not to be restricted to any -one of them separately, nor to any individual part of either. {112} -This indeed is true if the church and cemetery be adjacent: but if the -one be at a distance from the other, one may well be violated without -the other. If therefore when one is violated or polluted, the other be -also violated and polluted; by the like reason, if one only be -reconciled the other is also taken to be reconciled: since nothing is -more natural than that everything should be loosed in the same method -as it is bound, and that the relation of binding and loosing should be -the same. Wherefore when the cemetery is violated or polluted, it -sufficeth that the church be reconciled. There be nevertheless some -who do affirm simply that by the pollution of the one, the other is in -no wise polluted, and by consequence that each should be reconciled -separately. Yet these doth the authority of the Pontifical oppose, in -which is found a special form for the reconciliation of a cemetery. -Lastly, if a church or a cemetery, or any such thing, be consecrated -or blessed by a bishop under excommunication, these, some affirm, do -not require reconciliation, since sacraments administered by such in -the form of the Church be valid. But since (as aforesaid) one or more -excommunicate persons do profane a cemetery or church, much more -indeed do the external sacraments and benedictions, which proceed from -the hands and mouth of an excommunicate person, appear so far as -pertaineth to their own merits to be contaminated and to stink before -God. Wherefore it is decent that we should reconcile them before the -faithful use these sacraments; as in truth the reading of the sacred -canons doth evidently teach. For the Lord saith by the Prophet, 'I -will curse your blessings.' [Footnote 410] - - [Footnote 410: Malachi ii. 2.] - - -{113} - -CHAPTER VII - -OF THE CONSECRATION OF AN ALTAR - -Rise of the Consecration of Altars--Manner of the Same--The -Benediction of Water--The Aspersions--The Hyssop--Consideration of -Relics--The Altar must be of Stone--The Incense--The Benediction of -Church Ornaments. - -1. Not only is a church consecrated, but also the altar: and this for -three reasons. First, with regard to the sacrament thereon to be -offered to God. Noah [Footnote 411] built an altar to the Lord, and -offered a sacrifice upon it, taking some of all clean birds and -beasts. But this sacrament is the Body and Blood of Christ which is -sacrificed in remembrance of the Lord's Passion, according to the -command, 'This do in commemoration of Me.' [Footnote 412] - - [Footnote 411: Genesis viii.] - - [Footnote 412: S. Luke xxii, 19.] - -2. Secondly, with regard to the invocation in that place of the name -of God: whence [Footnote 413] Abraham built an altar to God who -appeared unto him, and called there upon the name of the Lord. But -this invocation, which takes place over the altar, is properly called -the Mass. - - [Footnote 413: Genesis xii.] - -3. Thirdly, with regard to chanting: 'He gave him patience against his -enemies, and caused singers also to stand before the altar, that by -their voices they might make sweet melody.' [Footnote 414] - - [Footnote 414: Eccles. xlvii, 9.] - -{114} - -4. The consecration of an altar is performed in this method and order. -The bishop beginneth, 'O God, make speed to save us.' Afterwards he -blesseth the water, and then at the four horns [Footnote 415] of the -altar he describeth four crosses with the consecrated water. Next, he -goeth round the altar seven times, and sprinkleth the _table_ -[Footnote 416] of the altar seven times with holy water, by means of -an aspersory of hyssop. The church also is again sprinkled, and the -remainder of the water is poured at the foot of the altar: and then -four crosses be made with chrism at the four corners of the sepulchre -in which the relics are to be deposited; and the relics themselves be -placed in a case, together with three grains of frankincense, and so -be buried in the sepulchre. Then is placed upon the sepulchre its -cover, [Footnote 417] strengthened in the middle by the sign of the -cross: afterwards the stone, which is called the table, is fitted to -the top of the altar, and when fitted is anointed with oil in five -places, and in the same way is further anointed afterwards with -chrism, as hath been said when speaking about oil. The altar also is -confirmed in front by the chrism applied in the form of the cross, and -incense is burnt upon it in the five places. After this the altar is -covered up, and is spread with clean cloths, and then at length the -sacrifice is celebrated upon it. Now let us follow out each of the -above-mentioned ceremonies in succession. - - [Footnote 415: The word _horn_ appears to be used simply for - _corner_, evidently with reference to the altar of the temple, which - had raised projections, or horns at its angles.] - - [Footnote 416: We shall use the word _table_ to denote the _mensa_ - or upper surface of the altar, on which the chief part of the - ceremonies of consecration were performed.] - - [Footnote 417: This passage is obscure, and receives no light from - other ritualists who have not spoken much on the consecration of - altars. From the 25 of the chapter we apprehend that this slab, or - cover of the sepulchre, was marked with a cross of chrism before it - was fitted on to the cavity.] - -{115} - -5. First, then, it is to be noted, that an altar is consecrated by the -unction of chrism and act of blessing intervening, and that it is only -and entirely of stone. The bishop standing up beginneth, 'O God, make -speed to save us,' because the Lord Himself saith, 'Without Me ye can -do nothing.' [Footnote 418] - - [Footnote 418: S. John xv, 5.] - -6. And because this dedication signifieth that those must be baptised, -who, after receiving the faith, are preparing themselves to fight, and -who are still situated amongst the sighs and struggles of this world; -on this account the Alleluia is omitted, since those who be not -baptised be not worthy to join in the praises of angels: whence it is -written in Tobit, 'And all her streets shall say Alleluia.' -[Footnote 419] But after that the consecration of the church or of the -altar is completed, the Alleluia is chanted, because the delusions of -devils having been expelled, God shall be praised thereupon. For -Christ even when approaching to the altar of the cross in order to -manifest the glory of His Eternity, paid the penalty of death: not -until after His resurrection sang He Alleluia. - - [Footnote 419: Tobit xiii, 18.] - -7. Secondly, with respect to the blessing of water, it is to be noted -that this kind of exorcising water is performed in order to expel the -enemy from it. In which blessing four things be necessary; namely, -water, wine, salt, and ashes. And this for three reasons. - -8. (i) Because there be four things which expel the enemy. The first -is the outpouring of tears, which is denoted by the water: the second -is the exultation of the soul, which is denoted by the wine: the third -is natural discretion, which by the salt; the fourth, a profound -humility, which is signified by the ashes. Wherefore the water is -penitence, the wine exaltation of mind, the salt wisdom (as was shown -in the preceding chapter), the ashes the humility of penitence. Whence -it is said of the Ninevites that their 'king rose up from his throne, -and clothed himself with sackcloth, and sat in ashes.' [Footnote 420] -{116} Hence also David saith, 'For I have eaten ashes as it were -bread.' [Footnote 421] Hence also Abraham saith, 'Shall I speak to -my Lord, who am but dust and ashes?' [Footnote 422] - - [Footnote 420: Jonah iii, 6.] - - [Footnote 421: Psalm cii (_Domine exaudi_), 9.] - - [Footnote 422: Genesis xviii, 27.] - -9. (ii) In a second sense water is the people or mankind, because many -waters are many peoples; wine is the Deity; salt, the teaching of the -divine law which is the salt of the covenant; ashes, that which -preserveth the remembrance of the Lord's Passion. Wine mixed with -water, is Christ, God and Man. For by means of faith in the Lord's -Passion (_ashes_), which is had through the teaching of the Divine Law -(_salt_), the people, denoted by the water, is joined through the -union of faith, to its Head, God and Man. - -10. (iii) In a third method we may say also that this consecrated -water signifieth the Holy Spirit, without Whose influence nothing ever -is sanctified, and without Whose grace there is no remission of sins. -That the Holy Spirit is called water, truth itself showeth when He -saith, 'Whosoever believeth in Me, out of his belly shall flow rivers -of living water': [Footnote 423] which the Evangelist explaining -saith, 'This He spake of the Holy Ghost which they should receive who -believed upon Him.' - - [Footnote 423: S. John vii, 38, 39.] - -11. And note the order of the sacrament; the church is consecrated -outwardly by water, inwardly by the Spirit. For this is what the Lord -saith, 'Unless a man shall be born again of water and of the Holy -Ghost,' etc. [Footnote 424] Here is the water: here the Holy Spirit. -For in the sacrament of baptism, neither is the water without the -Spirit, nor the Spirit without the water: which element indeed the -Spirit Himself did sanctify, when in the first creation of the world -'He moved upon the face {117} of the waters.' [Footnote 425] With -this water therefore, both the altar itself and the whole interior of -the church is sprinkled, when both it and the altar are dedicated on -the same occasion. - - [Footnote 424: S. John iii, 5.] - - [Footnote 425: Genesis i, 2.] - -12. Although therefore the Spirit and water would suffice for the -perfect operation of baptism and the consecration of a church, yet the -holy fathers who have made this constitution, wished to satisfy us not -only in those particulars which pertain to the efficacy of the -sacraments, but in those also which relate to its greater -sanctification: and on this account they have added salt, wine, oil, -ashes, and chrism. (For Philip, when he baptised the eunuch, had -neither oil nor chrism.) Therefore not one of these ingredients ought -to be wanting; and they ought all to be mixed together, because the -people of God, which is the Church, is neither sanctified nor released -from sins without the union of these qualities. On this I shall treat -also in the chapter upon consecrations. With respect to water indeed -the case is evident, because 'unless a man be born again,' etc. - -13. With respect to the salt also; because without the seasoning of -faith, which is typified by the salt, no one shall ever be saved, -albeit he be sprinkled by the water of baptism. Also with respect to -wine, by means of which the spiritual intelligence of the divine law -is denoted. Whence the Lord at the marriage in Cana turned the water -into wine. But if anyone shall not have been sprinkled with this, that -is, shall not have drunk of this or have believed those who offered it -to him to drink, he shall not attain to the blessedness of eternal -life. The aspersion of ashes also, by which the humility of penitence -is understood, is so necessary, that without it there is no remission -of sins in adults; for through it they come to baptism, and it is the -sole refuge for such as have sinned {118} after baptism. Whence not -without reason is baptism called from it: the Lord speaking in the -gospel concerning John Baptist 'that he came into the whole region of -Galilee, preaching the baptism of repentance for the remission of -sins.' [Footnote 426] Note also that there be four kinds of -consecrated water, of which we shall speak in the fourth book, and at -the head of 'The aspersion of holy water.' [Footnote 427] - - [Footnote 426: S. Mark i, 4.] - - [Footnote 427: There be four kinds of holy water, one, by the which - is made the judgment of expurgation, which is no longer used; a - second, which doth sanctify in the consecration of a church or an - altar; a third, with which aspersions be made in the church; and a - fourth, the water of baptism.'--Durandus, Lib. IV, iv, 10.] - -14. When all these ingredients have been mixed, the bishop maketh four -crosses with this water at the four horns of the altar, and one in the -middle; [Footnote 428] the four crosses represent the fourfold -charity which they ought to have who approach the altar, viz., love -for God, themselves, their friends, and their enemies. Of which four -corners of charity it is said in Genesis, 'Thou shalt spread into the -east, and the west, and the north, and the south': and for this reason -be the four crosses made at the four corners to show that Christ, by -His Cross, hath saved the four quarters of the world. Secondly, they -be made to point out that we ought to bear the cross of the Lord in -four ways; namely, in our heart by meditation, in our mouth by -confession, in our body by mortification of the flesh, in our face by -constant impression. The cross in the middle of the altar signifieth -the Passion which Christ underwent in the middle of the earth, by -which He worked out salvation in the middle of the earth; that is, in -Jerusalem. - - [Footnote 428: The _tables_, or upper slabs of the altar, were - inscribed with five crosses, one at each corner and one in the - middle: as are also the altar stones which are found in the middle - of the frightful wooden altars abroad at this day. See an - interesting list of altar slabs in the 'Few Hints' of the Cambridge - Camden Society.] - -{119} - -15. Next, the bishop goeth seven times round the altar, (i) Firstly, -to signify that he ought to exercise care for all, and to keep himself -vigilant, which is denoted by the act of going round. Whence at that -time they chant, 'The watchmen that went about the city found me.' -[Footnote 429] For a bishop ought to watch anxiously over the flocks -committed to him: for as Gilbert saith, 'A ridiculous thing it is, a -blind watchman, a lame leader, a negligent prelate, an untaught -teacher, and a dumb preacher.' - - [Footnote 429: Cant. v, 7.] - -16. (ii) Secondly, the seven circuits of the altar do signify the -seven meditations which we ought to entertain respecting the sevenfold -virtue of the humility of Christ, and of which we ought to make -frequent circuits in our minds. The first virtue is, that from being -rich He became poor; the second, that He was laid in a manger: the -third, that he was subject to His parents; the fourth, that He bowed -His Head under the hand of a slave; the fifth, that He bore with a -thief and a betrayer as a disciple; the sixth, that He stood gentle -before an unrighteous judge; the seventh, that He mercifully prayed -for them that crucified Him. - -17. (iii) Thirdly, by the seven circuits be indicated the seven -journeys of Christ. The first was from heaven to the Virgin's womb; -the second, thence into the manger; the third, from the manger into -the world; the fourth, from the world to the cross; the fifth, from -the cross to the sepulchre; the sixth, from the sepulchre to the place -of spirits; the seventh, from the place of spirits to heaven. - -18. After this, the bishop sprinkleth the altar. But what the altar -signifieth in a temple, the Apostle telleth us: 'For the Temple of God -is holy, which temple ye are.' [Footnote 430] Wherefore, if we be the -Temple of God, 'we {120} have an altar.' [Footnote 431] Our altar is -our heart: for the heart is in a man what the altar is in a temple. On -this altar is made the sacrifice of praise and joy, according to the -saying of the Psalmist: 'The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit,' -etc. [Footnote 432] On this altar is made the commemoration of the -Body and Blood of Christ. From it do prayers rise to heaven, because -God looketh to the heart. This altar, therefore, is sprinkled with -water when the hearts of men, by means of the preaching of the gospel, -are cleansed from sin. For preaching is water, according to that -saying: 'All ye that thirst, come to the waters.' [Footnote 433] By -this water, therefore, that is, by the preaching of the gospel and the -sanctification of the Holy Ghost, both the altar of the heart and the -whole man are cleansed and sanctified. For the altar of the heart is -consecrated by the conception of fear, inviting to good, and by the -affection of love, confirming to the better. 'For the fear of the Lord -is the beginning of wisdom.' [Footnote 434] - - [Footnote 430: 2 Cor. vi, 16.] - - [Footnote 431: Heb. xiii, 10.] - - [Footnote 432: Ps. li (_Miserere mei Deus_), 17.] - - [Footnote 433: Isaiah lv, 1.] - - [Footnote 434: Ps. cxi (_Confitebor tibi_), 10.] - -19. But the altar is sprinkled seven times with water to notify that -in baptism the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit be conferred. By this -also it is set forth that we ought to have a remembrance of the Lord's -Passion. For the seven aspersions of water be the seven outpourings of -the Blood of Christ. The first whereof was at circumcision; the second -in prayer, when His sweat was as drops of blood; the third, at the -scourging; the fourth, from the crown of thorns; the fifth, from His -pierced hands; the sixth, when His feet were nailed to the cross; the -seventh, when His side was opened. Some, however, sprinkle three -times, because we baptise in the name of the Holy Trinity; or because -the church is cleansed from sins of thought, word, and deed; whence -also at that time the _Miserere mei_ is said. - -{121} - -20. Moreover, these aspersions be made with an aspersory made of -hyssop, by which herb, because it is lowly, the lowliness of Christ is -conveniently represented: since the above-mentioned effusions of blood -were accompanied by the hyssop, of the humility and inextinguishable -love of Christ by which the Catholic Church being sprinkled is -purified. This herb also groweth naturally upon rock: and lowliness of -disposition hath grown upon Christ the rock. For according to the -Apostle, 'That rock was Christ.' [Footnote 435] It is also of a warm -nature; and the humility of Christ inflameth cold hearts to the -practice of works of love. Its roots also penetrate the rocks; and -humility breaketh through the hardest of obstinacy. It availeth for -diseases of the breast and against swelling: so doth humility heal the -swelling of pride. The former also is born from, and rooted in, the -earth: whence by it the whole multitude of the faithful may be -understood; and those especially be figured by the hyssop, who, rooted -and grounded in Christ, cannot be plucked up or separated from His -love. By whom what can we understand better than the bishops and -presbyters, because the more dignity they obtain in the Church, the -more firmly ought they to cleave to the faith of Christ. By these -assuredly is the water aspersed; by and through these be the faithful -of Christ baptised; to these is it given to perfect the sacrament of -baptism. - - [Footnote 435: I Corinthians x, 4.] - -21. But whilst the altar is being sprinkled with water the bishop -chanteth, 'My house shall be called an house of Prayer,' etc., -[Footnote 436] and again, 'I will tell out thy name to my brethren.' -[Footnote 437] And because without God no work is perfectly -consummated, he prayeth that those who enter therein to seek for -blessings may be heard. - - [Footnote 436: S. Matthew xxi, 13.] - - [Footnote 437: Psalm xxii (_Deus Deus meus_), 22.] - -{122} - -Afterwards, when the church and altar are consecrated at the same -time, the whole church is sprinkled with that water, as was discussed -in the preceding chapter, which being done, the bishop approacheth the -altar repeating Psalms, and what remains of the water is poured away -at the foot of the altar, as in the old Testament [Footnote 438] what -remained of the blood was poured away at the bottom of the altar; by -which it is signified that the remainder in so great a sacrament, -which is beyond human power, is given over unto God, Who is the Chief -High Priest, Whose part it is to supply the defect of other priests. -But the sepulchre or cavity in which relics ought to be deposited, -signifieth the golden pot full of manna, which was placed in the ark -of the testimony, as hath been explained under the head of the Altar. - - [Footnote 438: Exodus xxix, 12.] - -22. A sepulchre of this sort, which by some is termed a _confession_, -is our heart; and it is consecrated by four crosses made with chrism, -because there be four virtues described in the book of wisdom--namely, -Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance, and Justice--with which our heart is, -as it were, anointed, when it is prepared by the gift of the Holy -Spirit to receive the mysteries of the heavenly secrets. But this -sepulchre is made sometimes at the upper part of the altar, sometimes -in the front side of it. - -23. Without the relics of saints, or, where they cannot be had, -without the body of Christ, [Footnote 439] there is no consecration -of a fixed altar: but there may be of a travelling or portable one. -Relics in truth are, after the example of both Testaments, evidences -of the suffering of martyrs and lives of confessors; which things be -left to us as examples. These we enclose in a case, because we retain -them, in order to imitate them in our heart: but if we hear and -understand and do no works, {123} it tendeth rather to damnation than -to salvation; because 'not the hearers of the law are just before God, -but the doers only'; [Footnote 440] whence the Apostle saith, 'Be ye -imitators of me as I am also of Christ.' [Footnote 441] - - [Footnote 439: See chapter ii.] - - [Footnote 440: Romans ii, 13.] - - [Footnote 441: I Corinthians xi, 1.] - -24. But the solemn carrying of relics is in imitation of what is read -in the xxv chapter of Exodus. In the ark of the testament there were -two golden rings, going through the whole thickness of the wood, and -through these were put the staves of shittim wood overlaid with gold, -by which the ark was borne. And before the bishop entereth the church -he goeth round it with the relics in order that they may be protectors -of that church. We read also in the viii chapter of the third book of -Kings that at the dedication of the temple 'there were assembled -together all the elders of Israel, with the chiefs of the tribes, and -the heads of families to King Solomon in Jerusalem, to carry the ark -of the covenant of the Lord; and there came all the elders of Israel, -and the priests brought in the ark of the covenant of the Lord into -his place, into the oracle of the house, to the most holy place, even -under the wings of the cherubims. For the cherubims spread forth their -two wings over the place of the ark, and the cherubims covered the ark -and the staves thereof above. And King Solomon, and all the -congregation of Israel that were assembled unto him, marched with him -before the ark.' [Footnote 442] In remembrance of this event, the -prelates, great men, and people [Footnote 443] of the province meet -together, even at this day, for the dedication of churches, and follow -in procession him that consecrateth: and relics are solemnly carried -by priests under a pavilion or canopy. Afterwards the bishop, before -he entereth the church with these, addresseth the people. For Solomon -also, after the ark had been {124} carried, 'turned his face about, -and blessed all the congregation of Israel,' and prayed for such as -should pray in the church. 'For all the congregation of Israel stood, -and Solomon said, Blessed be the Lord God of Israel,' etc., as is read -in the same place. [Footnote 444 ] - - [Footnote 442: I Kings viii, 2, 6, 7.] - - [Footnote 443: The Venice edition of 1609 reads _Apostoli_ here.] - - [Footnote 444: I Kings, viii.] - -25. But the relics of saints are enclosed in a case together with -three grains of frankincense, because we ought to retain in our -recollection the examples of the saints, together with faith in the -Trinity, that is, in the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. For we ought to -believe one God, one faith, one baptism, because 'the just liveth by -faith,' [Footnote 445] without which, as the Apostle hath said, 'It -is impossible to please God.' [Footnote 446] There is placed upon -and fitted to the sepulchre itself a certain board fortified by the -sign of the cross made with chrism. [Footnote 447] For by chrism is -understood the gift of the Holy Spirit, with which this board, that is -charity, is anointed; because our heart is fortified by the grace of -the Holy Spirit to observance of the heavenly mysteries. The board -therefore fortified by this sign is placed over the relics, because by -the example of the saints is inflamed charity, 'which covereth a -multitude of sins,' [Footnote 448] just as also the board covereth -the relics. Whence saith the Apostle, 'The love of God is spread -abroad in our hearts by the Holy Spirit which is given unto us.' -[Footnote 449] But this slab or stone containeth, or is called, the -_seal_ of the sepulchre; as saith Pope Alexander III. - - [Footnote 445: Romans i, 17.] - - [Footnote 446: Hebrews xi 6.] - - [Footnote 447: See above, section 4, note 7.] - - [Footnote 448: I S. Peter iv, 8.] - - [Footnote 449: Romans v, 5.] - -After this, however, the stone, which is called the _table_ of the -altar, is fitted to the top of the altar; by which we may understand -the perfection and solidity of the knowledge of God; and it ought to -be of stone, not because of the hardness, but the solidity of faith. -Just as the Lord said unto Peter, 'Thou art Peter, and upon this -rock'--that is, upon this firmness of faith--'I will build My Church.' -[Footnote 450] - - [Footnote 450: S Matthew xvi, 18.] - -{125} - -26. For as this _table_ is the completion and finishing of the altar, -so is the knowledge of God the confirmation and perfection of all good -gifts. Whence in the book of Wisdom it is said unto the Lord, 'For to -know Thee is perfect wisdom, and to know Thy justice and Thy virtue is -the root of immortality.' [Footnote 451] The Lord saith by Jeremiah, -'Let him that glorieth glory in this, that he understandeth and -knoweth Me.' [Footnote 452] - - [Footnote 451: Wisdom xv, 3.] - - [Footnote 452: Jeremiah ix, 24.] - -27. Or, again, by this stone itself is understood Christ, of Whom the -Apostle saith, 'Jesus Christ Himself being the chief corner-stone.' -[Footnote 453] By the stone indeed the humanity of Christ is denoted. -Concerning which we read in Daniel that a stone was cut out of the -rock without hands--because Christ was born of the Blessed Virgin (who -for the excellency of her virtues is called a Mountain), without human -agency--and, becoming a huge mountain, filled the whole earth. -Concerning which it is said also by the Psalmist, 'The stone which the -builders refused hath become the head stone of the corner:' -[Footnote 454] since Christ--Whom the builders, that is the Jews, -refused, saying, 'We will not have this man to reign over us' -[Footnote 455] --hath been made the head of the corner. Because as -saith the Apostle, 'God hath exalted Him, and given Him,' [Footnote -456] etc. Or else by this stone, which ought to be great and wide, -charity is understood, as was stated before; since the command of -charity is wide, extending even unto our enemies; according to that -precept of our Lord, 'Love your enemies.' [Footnote 457] - - [Footnote 453: Ephesians ii, 20.] - - [Footnote 454: Psalm cxviii (_Confitemini Domino_), 22.] - - [Footnote 455: S. Luke xix, 14.] - - [Footnote 456: Philippians ii. 10.] - - [Footnote 457: S. Matthew v, 44.] - -{126} - -28. Altars therefore, unless they be of stone, are not anointed, -because Christ signified by the altar is the Stone growing into a -mountain: as it is said, The mountain itself is fat, 'being anointed -with the oil of gladness, above his fellows.' [Footnote 458] -Nevertheless we read in Exodus that the Lord ordered the altars to be -made of shittim wood, which does not decay; [Footnote 459] and the -Latern altar is of wood. Solomon also made an altar of gold, as we -read in the eighth chapter of the third book of Kings: but these -things were done for a type. [Footnote 460] And in the county of -Province, in the castle of S. Mary by the Sea, there is also an altar -of earth, which Mary Magdalene, and Martha and Mary the mother of -James, and Mary the mother of Salome, made there. [Footnote 461] -After this, the altar having been sprinkled and baptised with water, -it remaineth for it to be anointed with oil and chrism. The bishop -then poureth over it oil and chrism, and chanteth, 'Jacob set up the -stone for a memorial, and poured oil upon it.' [Footnote 462] For -that church hath been the memorial of other churches; 'For the law -hath gone out from Sion, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.' -[Footnote 463] - - [Footnote 458: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 8.] - - [Footnote 459: Exodus xxvii, I, etc.] - - [Footnote 460: The same examples are briefly adduced in the notes to - the Decretal. Ciampini describes the wooden altar of the Lateran, - and mentions its numerous escapes from fire. It was made of - firewood, because 'abies non cedit vermibus unquam, nec putret - facile.' See also Stephen Durantus, _De Rit. Ecc. Cathol._Lib. I, - xxv, 3, quoting from De Turrecremata, about the Lateran altar, and - generally about the subject of this chapter.] - - [Footnote 461: According to the Golden Legend, S. Mary Magdalene, - with other saints, amongst whom was S. Lazarus, were placed by the - Jews in a ship which was borne by the sea to Marseilles. The country - was converted, and S. Lazarus became the first bishop. The people of - Vezelay, in Burgundy, also claimed the honour of possessing the - relics of S. Mary Magdalene. Durandus, a native of Provence, gives - it to the latter country. This curious passage of our author seems - to have been overlooked by some who have attempted to adjust the - dispute.] - - [Footnote 462: Genesis xxviii, 18.] - - [Footnote 463: Isaiah ii, 3.] - -29. But first he maketh upon it the five crosses, with the oil of the -sick, according to the Roman order; but according to the use of some -other Churches, with both sorts of oil; one cross in the middle, and -four at the corners: afterwards, he maketh the same number of crosses -in the same way with chrism. {127} By the oil assuredly is understood -the grace of the Holy Ghost, of which saith Esaias the Prophet, 'The -yoke shall be destroyed because of the anointing.' [Footnote 464] For -as the bishop poureth oil upon the altar, so Christ, who is the Chief -High Priest, poureth His grace upon our altar, which is our heart: for -He is the distributor of all graces through the Holy Ghost, as saith -the Apostle, 'To one is given the word of wisdom, to another the word -of knowledge, to another faith, to another the gift of healing,' etc. -[Footnote 465] And just as the bishop, by means of oil, cleanseth the -_table_ of the altar, so also cloth the Holy Ghost purify our heart -from all vices and sins. - - [Footnote 464: Isaiah x, 27.] - - [Footnote 465: I Corinthians xii, 8.] - -30. Christ also was anointed with oil, not with visible oil indeed, -but with invisible; that is with the grace of the Holy Ghost. Whence -David, 'The Lord thy God hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness -above thy fellows'; [Footnote 466] that is above all the saints who -have been partakers of His Grace, that is, Christ. Whence unction more -expressedly agreeth with Christ (the Anointed One) than with others, -because God hath anointed Him above all others to have the fulness of -good things, and therefore his name is interpreted 'The Anointed.' -Unction also with oil signifieth mercy, according to that saying of -the Evangelist, 'Anoint thy head with oil, and wash thy face': -[Footnote 467] because as oil is among fluids, so is mercy superior -among good works. For whatever liquid you pour upon oil, yet it always -swimmeth at the top. Of mercy it is written, 'The Lord is loving unto -every man, and His mercy is over all His works,' [Footnote 468] and -'Mercy rejoiceth against judgment.' [Footnote 469] With this oil, -therefore, is the {128} altar of our 'heart anointed, that being -always mindful of mercy, we may never lose the effect of the aspersion -of water, and of regeneration and of baptism. - - [Footnote 466: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 8.] - - [Footnote 467: S. Matthew vi, 17.] - - [Footnote 468: Psalm cxlv (_Exaltabo te Deus_), 9.] - - [Footnote 469: S. James ii, 13.] - -31. The five crosses made with the oil signify that we ought always to -have a remembrance of the five wounds of Christ, which He suffered for -our sakes upon the Cross. For He suffered five wounds; namely, in His -hands, His feet, and in His side. - -32. They denote further the five feelings of pity which be necessary -for us. For it is necessary for a man to pity Christ, by sympathising -in His Passion: whence Job, in the person of Christ, saith, 'Pity me, -pity me,' etc. [Footnote 470] A man must also pity his neighbours -whose calamities he seeth; whence in Ecclesiasticus, 'The pity of a -man towards his neighbour.' [Footnote 471] And a man must pity -himself: and this in three ways; namely, for the sins of commission, -by bewailing them; whence Jeremiah, 'There is no one who hath -penitence for his sin, saying, What have I done?' [Footnote 472] ---for his sins of omission: whence Isaiah, 'Woe is me, for I have held -my peace,' [Footnote 473] that is, for I have not spoken; as if he -should say, For I have omitted the good that I might have done:--and -for good deeds done for less pure motives; whence S. Luke saith, 'When -we have done all good deeds, we must say that we are unprofitable -servants,' etc.; [Footnote 474] as if we should say, We have done -good, but not well, not purely, and therefore we have done it -unprofitably; just as anyone giving alms for vain glory doth good -indeed, but not well and not purely. Of this threefold compassion it -is said in Ecclesiasticus, 'Have pity on thy soul and please God;' -[Footnote 475] because true compassion of mind ought to coexist with -the exhibition of good works. {129} Wherefore the crosses be twice -made; the first time of oil, the second of chrism: whence the Psalm, -'A good man is merciful and lendeth'; [Footnote 476] that is, pitieth -in mind, and lendeth in deed. And since it sufficeth not to have -compassion in mind together with the exhibition of good deeds, without -the savour of a good report, according to that saying of the gospel, -'Let your light so shine before men that they may glorify God'; -[Footnote 477] therefore the crosses be made with chrism, which -consisteth of balsam and oil. - - [Footnote 470: Job xix, 21.] - - [Footnote 471: Eccles. xviii, 12--_Vulgate_.] - - [Footnote 472: Jeremiah viii, 6.] - - [Footnote 473: Isaiah vi, 5--_Vulgate_.] - - [Footnote 474: S. Luke xvii, 10.] - - [Footnote 475: Eccles. xxx, 24--_Vulgate_.] - - [Footnote 476: Psalm cxii (_Beatus vir_), 5.] - - [Footnote 477: S. Matthew v. 16.] - -33. Balsam indeed, on account of its good odour, signifieth good -report; oil, on account of its brightness, signifieth the clearness of -conscience which we ought to have: according to the saying of the -Apostle, 'Our rejoicing is this, the testimony of our conscience.' -[Footnote 478] Again, balsam is properly conjoined with oil, because -good report is added to mercifulness. - - [Footnote 478: 2 Corinthians i, 12.] - -34. Again, by the five crosses made of oil and of chrism the five -senses of our body be understood, which are doubled and made into ten, -because by properly using the senses of our body, we both keep -ourselves, and confirm others by our example and teaching in -well-doing. Whence that good trader boasted, saying, 'Behold I have -gained five more talents.' [Footnote 479] But whilst these -anointings are going on, they chant, 'The Lord thy God hath anointed -thee,' [Footnote 480] which was said of Christ. - - [Footnote 479: S. Matthew xxv, 20.] - - [Footnote 480: Hebrews i, 9.] - -The altar therefore is anointed three times; twice with oil, and once -with chrism; because the Church is marked by Faith, Hope, and Charity, -which last is greater than the others. And while the chrism is used -they chant, 'See the smell of my son is as the smell of a field.' -[Footnote 481] This field is the Church, which is verdant with -flowers, which shineth in virtues, which is fragrant with good works; -{130} and wherein be the roses of martyrs, the lilies of virgins, the -violets of confessors, and the verdure of beginners in the faith. -After the unction there is incense burnt, which signifieth the -devotion of prayer. For he that hath the seven gifts of the Holy -Ghost, and is made like unto God, is able to offer unto Him devout -prayer, of which he hath this similitude. - - [Footnote 481: Genesis xxvii, 27.] - -35. It is burnt in five places, namely, at the four corners and in the -middle, because we ought so to exercise the five senses of the body -that the report of our good works may extend to our neighbours. Of -which saith the Apostle, 'We are the sweet savour of Christ in every -place.' [Footnote 482 ] And in the Gospel, 'Let your light so shine -before men,' etc. Besides this, the frequent use of incense is the -continual mediation of Christ the Priest, and our High Priest, for us -unto God the Father. - - [Footnote 482: 2 Corinthians, ii, 15.] - -36. To describe a cross with the incense, is to exhibit His Passion to -the Father and Him interceding for us. The burning incense plenteously -in the middle and at the corners is to multiply prayers through -Jerusalem and in the Catholic Church. - -37. Next to this the bishop confirmeth the altar with the sign of the -cross, saying, 'Confirm this altar, O Lord,' etc. And this -confirmation performed by the bishop with chrism on the front of the -stone, signifieth the confirmation which is performed daily by the -Holy Spirit, through charity, upon the altar of the heart, so that no -tribulation should avail to separate our heart from the love of God: -whence saith the Apostle, 'Who shall separate us from the love of -Christ? shall tribulation?' etc.' [Footnote 483] Then there is added -the _Gloria Patri_ in praise of the Trinity. - - [Footnote 483: Romans viii, 35.] - -{131} - -38. The last benediction of the altar signifieth that final -benediction when it shall be said, 'Come, ye blessed of my Father,' -etc. [Footnote 484] Afterwards the altar is wiped over with a white -linen cloth, to notify that we ought to cleanse our heart by chastity -of life. Then the vessels, vestments, and linen cloths, devoted to the -divine worship are blessed. For Moses also during the forty days was -instructed by the Lord to provide linen cloths and the ornaments -necessary for the Temple. - - [Footnote 484: S. Matthew xx, 34.] - -39. Assuredly, thus to bless the utensils is to refer all our works -unto the Lord. After this, the altar is covered with white and clean -cloths: concerning which ceremony we have spoken under the head of the -Altar. Lastly, the church is ornamented and the lamps are lighted: for -then shall the works of the just shine forth, 'Then shall the just -shine, as sparks run swiftly among the stubble.' [Footnote 485] And -then upon the altar, consecrated after this order, the Mass is -celebrated and the sacrifice offered unto the Most Highest: that -sacrifice, namely, of which the Prophet speaketh, 'The sacrifices of -God are a broken spirit; a broken and a contrite heart, O God, Thou -wilt not despise': [Footnote 486] as shall be declared in the -introduction to the fourth book. [Footnote 487] For consecration -ought not to be performed without a Mass, according to Pope Gelasius, -[Footnote 488] because then there is revealed a sacrament, which hath -been hidden from the angels even from the beginning. - - [Footnote 485: Wisdom iii, 7.] - - [Footnote 486: Psalm li (_Miserere mei Deus_). 17.] - - [Footnote 487: The blessed Bernard saith, My brethren, let us in - sacrificing add the sacrifice of praise unto our words, let us add - sense to sense, affection unto affection, exaltation unto - exaltation, maturity unto maturity, and humility unto humility. - Wherefore, he that is about to celebrate must offer unto the Highest - that sacrifice of which the Psalmist speaketh, 'The sacrifices of - God are a troubled spirit.' And again, 'Offer unto God the sacrifice - of thanksgiving.' And the Apostle, 'Present your bodies a living - sacrifice holy acceptable unto God which is your reasonable service, - mortifying upon the altar of your heart your members which are upon - the earth; fornication, uncleanness, inordinate affection, evil - concupiscence, and covetousness, which is idolatry'; in order to - sacrifice yourselves with a pure heart and chaste body unto - God.--Proem, lib. iv, 17.] - - [Footnote 488: Quoted also in the Decretal _De Consecrat. Distinct._ - I.] - -{132} - -And observe, that in the aspersion of the church the bishop useth only -the linen and inferior vestments: but at the Mass he is adorned with -pontifical and precious vestments, because the high priest in the law -used to expiate the sanctuary in a linen ephod, and afterwards used to -offer the ram for the burnt offering being washed and arrayed in the -high priest's vestments. But because he used to send forth the -scapegoat after the expiation being clothed in the same linen ephod, -on this account some, in the consecration of fonts and immersion of -the catechumens where their sins are transferred, do use the simple -linen vestments. - -{133} - -CHAPTER VIII - -OF CONSECRATIONS AND UNCTIONS - -Of Chrism--Of the name Christ, and of Christians--The Heresy of the -Arnaldistae--The Anointing of Priests--Of Bishops--Of Kings--Of the -Consecration of Chalices and Patens--Of Extreme Unction--Of the -Benediction of Church Ornaments. - - -1. We read that the Lord commanded Moses [Footnote 489] to make a -chrism, with which unguent to anoint the tabernacle at the time of the -dedication, and the ark of the testimony, and the table, together with -the vessels; and with which also the priests and kings should be -anointed. Yet Moses himself is not said to have been anointed, except -with a spiritual unction, as also was Christ. - - [Footnote 489: Exodus xxx, 22.] - -2. Christ hath willed that we should be anointed with a material -unction in order that we may by it obtain the spiritual unction: and -on this account our loving Mother, the Church, provideth different -sorts of unction. Upon which let us here touch lightly, Saying-- - - I. What unctions of this sort signify. - II. Of what they be made. - III. Of the unction before baptism. - IV. Of the unction after baptism, which is performed - by the bishop on the forehead. - V. Of the unction in ordination. - -{134} - - VI. Of the unction in consecrating bishops and princes. - VII. Of the unction of a church, altar, chalice, and - other ecclesiastical instruments. - VIII. Of extreme unction. - IX. Of the consecration and benediction of a cemetery, - vestments, and other ecclesiastical ornaments. - X. Of the consecration and benediction of virgins. - -3. Firstly; with respect to the first, then, it is to be noted that -there be two kinds of unction: an _external_, which is material or -corporeal, and visible; and an _internal_, which is spiritual and -invisible. The body is anointed visibly with the external unction; the -heart invisibly by the internal. Of the first, the Apostle S. James -saith, 'Is any sick among you? Let him call for the elders of the -Church; and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name -of the Lord; and the prayer of faith shall save the sick.' [Footnote -490] Of the second the Apostle S. John saith, 'But the anointing which -ye have received of Him abideth in you, and ye need not that any man -teach you: but the same anointing teacheth you of all things.' -[Footnote 491] The external unction is a sign of the internal. But the -internal is not only a sign, that is a thing signified, but a -sacrament also; because if it be worthily received, it either -effecteth, or without doubt increaseth, that which it doth -signify--for instance, healing: according to the saying, 'They shall -lay their hands upon the sick, and they shall be healed.' [Footnote -492] - - [Footnote 490: S. James v, 14.] - - [Footnote 491: I S. John ii, 27.] - - [Footnote 492: See Acts xxviii, 8.] - -Secondly; with respect to the second point, you must know that in -making use of the external and visible unction, two sorts of oil are -consecrated: namely, holy oil, or the oil of the catechumens, with -which catechumens are anointed; and the oil of the sick, with which -the sick are anointed. Of which kind of unction the authority of S. -James quoted above doth speak, 'Is any sick among you,' etc. - -{135} - -But in what way the benediction of these two sorts of oil and of -chrism is performed will be declared in the sixth book in the chapter -upon the Fifth Day of the Holy Week. [Footnote 493] - - [Footnote 493: It has not been thought necessary to translate the - passages referred to.] - -4. But is it asked why the sick and the catechumens are anointed with -oil? I answer, in order that the invisible benefits may be more easily -received through the visible signs: for as oil by expelling weakness -refresheth the wearied limbs, and as it from its own natural qualities -affordeth light, so it is to be believed that unction with consecrated -oil, the which is a type of faith expelling sin, doth impart health to -the soul and doth afford it light. Herein the visible oil is in the -outward sign, the invisible oil in the inward sacrament; and the -spiritual oil is within. For the oil of the sick we have received -authority from the apostles; for the oil of the catechumens from -apostolical men. - -5. And although God can grant the spiritual oil without the material, -yet because the apostles have used this rite in the case of the sick, -and apostolical men in the case of catechumens, this practice which -their authority hath consecrated cannot be omitted without sin (as -hath been said in the chapter upon the Altar): just as anciently the -just pleased God without circumcision; but after it had been enjoined -them to be circumcised, such as omitted this rite were subjected to -sin. - -Thirdly; we have to speak of the unction before baptism. And indeed in -the New Testament not only kings and priests be anointed, as hath been -already said, but also--(because Christ by His Blood hath made us -kings and priests, that is, royal priests, unto our God, as the {136} -Apostle S. Peter saith, [Footnote 494] 'Ye are a chosen generation,' -that is, chosen out from the tribes of men, 'a royal priesthood,' that -is, governing yourselves well)--also, I say, all Christians be -anointed twice before their baptism with consecrated oil--first, on -the breast: secondly, between the shoulders: and twice after their -baptism, with holy chrism--first, on the crown of the head; and -secondly, by the bishop on the forehead. - - [Footnote 494: I S. Peter ii, 9.] - -6. And, according to Augustine, the first three unctions have been -introduced rather by use than by any written authority. The candidate -for baptism is anointed with oil--first, on the breast, in which is -the locality of the heart; first, in order that by the gift of the -Holy Ghost he may cast away error and ignorance and embrace a right -faith; because 'the just liveth by faith,' [Footnote 495] and 'with -the heart we believe unto justification.' [Footnote 496] But he is -anointed between the shoulders, in order that he may, by the grace of -the Holy Ghost, shake off indifference and sloth, and practise good -works (because 'faith without works is dead'),' [Footnote 497] so -that by means of sacraments of faith there may result a purity of -thoughts. On the breast, again, that by the practising of good works -there may arise a boldness of labour: between the shoulders, to the -end that 'faith (according to the Apostle) may work by love.' -[Footnote 498] The oil therefore is carried over from the heart to the -shoulders, since faith, which is conceived in the mind, is perfected -in works (because, that is, faith consisteth in making our _deeds_ -like our _words_). [Footnote 499] But the person after baptism is -anointed by the priest on the head with chrism, that 'he may be ready -always to give an answer to every man that asketh him a reason for the -faith that is in him,' [Footnote 500] because by {137} the head is -understood the mind: as it is written, 'The eyes,' that is the -understanding, 'of the wise are in his head,' [Footnote 501] that is, -his mind; of which mind, the superior part is reason and the inferior -sensuality. Hence, by the crown, which is the upper part of the head, -is well represented reason, which is the superior part of the mind. Of -this we shall speak in the sixth book also, under the head of Easter -Eve, in which confirmation is treated of. [Footnote 502] But this is -the reason that before baptism one is anointed with consecrated oil, -and after baptism with holy chrism; because chrism is competent to a -Christian alone. - - [Footnote 495: Habakkuk ii, 4.] - - [Footnote 496: Romans x, 10.] - - [Footnote 497: S. James ii, 26.] - - [Footnote 498: Gal. v, 6.] - - [Footnote 499: This clause does not occur in the _Princeps_ - Edition.] - - [Footnote 500: S. Peter iii, 15.] - - [Footnote 501: Ecclesiasticus ii, 14.] - - [Footnote 502: The passage referred to speaks of the diverse graces - conferred by the several unctions, and does not illustrate our more - particular object.] - -7. For Christ is so named from _chrism_, or rather _chrism_ is so -called from Christ, not according to the form of the name only, but -according to the rational order of faith. For _Christians_ are called -from Christ, as _the anointed_ would be derived from the Anointed One, -namely, Christ; so that all may unite in the odour of that unguent, -namely, Christ, Whose name is as oil poured out: but according to the -power of the word, _Christians_ are called so from _chrism_, according -to Isidorus. [Footnote 503] This subject is treated in the -introduction to the second book. [Footnote 504] - - [Footnote 503: 'For Christ is named of _chrism_, and meaneth the - Anointed One. For it was commanded the Jews to make a holy unguent - for such as were called unto the priesthood or the kingdom: and as - now the vestment of purple is unto kings the mark of kingly power, - so upon these did the unction with sacred unguent bestow the name - and kingly power: and hence were they called _Christi_, from - _chrism_, which is unction. For _chrisma_ in Greek is _unctio_ in - Latin. And this unction did aptly give this name unto our Lord, - because He was anointed of the Father by the Spirit, as is said in - the Acts of the Apostles, "Against Thy Holy Child Jesus, Whom Thou - hast anointed, were they gathered together": not, that is, with - visible oil, but with the gift of grace, which is denoted by the - visible oil.' S. Isidore of Seville, _Orig_. vii, 2. See also - _Orig_. vii, 4, and _De Off. Ecc._ i, 1.] - - [Footnote 504: 'Christians be named from Christ, and Christ from - _chrism_, being _anointed_. For He was anointed by God from the - beginning "with the oil of gladness above His fellows." In the Old - Testament priests and kings be called _Christs_ (or Anointed), - because they were anointed with a temporal unction. As it is - written, "Touch not my Christs" (_i.e._ mine anointed). Wherefore, - Christ is not a peculiar name of our Saviour, but is a common - appellation of dignity. But the name Jesus is peculiar to the person - of our Saviour alone, and was given Him, as the Evangelist doth - testify by the angel, Gabriel, at the Conception, and by men at His - Circumcision.'--Durand. _loco cit._ This will explain the reason, - to many persons so puzzling, why it is only to the name of Jesus - that our Church, after the Apostle, commands due obeisance to be - made: and will reprove the erroneous, though pious, zeal which makes - so many of the poor even now bow at the other names of our Blessed - Lord.] - -{138} - -8. Again, according to Augustine, the first unction with oil showeth -us to be prepared fully to hear the faith, and called to the sweet -odour of Christ, and warned to renounce the devil. The second unction, -according to Rabanus, is upon the breast and between the shoulders, -that we may be fortified on both sides by faith, and confirmed by the -grace of God for the performance of good works. For by the breast is -rightly understood the virtue of faith: but by the shoulders--upon -which any burden is borne--the strength and working of a man: -according to that saying, 'They bind heavy burdens and lay them on the -shoulders of men,' etc. [Footnote 505] A man is anointed therefore on -the breast and between the shoulders, that both in thought and deed he -may relinquish the works of the devil, and become capable of -understanding the Word of God, and strong enough to bear its yoke and -the burden of the law. - - [Footnote 505: S. Matthew xxiii, 4.] - -9. But the unction upon the crown, that is the top part of the head -over the brain, is performed according to the same authority in order -that he who is so anointed may become a partaker of the heavenly -kingdom: and because the soul of the baptised person is espoused unto -the Head, that is Christ, therefore this unction is made with chrism, -compounded of oil and balsam, in order that we may know that the Holy -Ghost, Who worketh invisibly, is given unto him: for oil, as we said -above, cherisheth the wearied limbs and affordeth light. {139} But -balsam giveth it a sweet odour. If so be the limbs of the soul be -wearied, when it repenteth of having acted in opposition to God, the -Holy Ghost cometh to it, giving light to its understanding and showing -it that its sins are, or may be, forgiven, and bestowing on it good -works which breathe out a sweet odour amongst others: all which is -denoted by the fragrant balsam. Also because the seat of -high-mindedness, which according to the name is always seeking higher -things, appears to exist in the head, therefore the unction on this -part is rightly performed in the form of the cross and in token of -humility. - -10. Pope Sylvester appointed that this unction might be administered -by priests upon occasion of death: whence it is likely that before his -time [Footnote 506] the anointing both of the crown of the head and -of the forehead was reserved for the bishop. For when the bosom of the -Church was extended, and bishops could no longer be at hand for each -individual in confirmation, he then ordered, lest any should perish -without the unction of chrism, that all should be anointed on the -crown of the head over the brain, which is the seat of wisdom, at the -hands of a priest, for the increasing of strength and grace. Whence if -afterwards they should have died, saith Richard (of Cremona), they -shall receive an increase of grace and glory. - - [Footnote 506: S. Sylvester was the contemporary of Constantine. - _Circa_ A.D. 325.] - -11. Yet nevertheless we believe that a man may be saved by baptism -alone even without the unction, and that the Holy Ghost is given -without the laying on of hands to such as God may will, as we read in -the Acts of the Apostles. - -{140} - -12. Yet the faithless heretics, the Arnaldistae, [Footnote 507] -assert that men never receive the Holy Ghost through the baptism of -water; and that Samaritans who were baptised did not receive Him until -they received the laying on of hands. Both these unctions are -administered, according to Rabanus, in the form of the cross, that the -devil, whose vessel the person is, recognising the sign of his own -discomfiture, the sign of the Holy Cross, may know that from that -moment the vessel is Another's, being alienated from him. - - [Footnote 507: Our author mentions another heresy of the Arnaldistae - in the 19th section of the proem of book iv. These heretics were the - followers of Arnaldus de Brixio (of Bresse), a disciple of Abelard. - His opinions were condemned in the second General Lateran Council, - 1139.--_Baron. Sub. Anno._ tom. xviii. See also S. Bernard, _Epist_. - 195.] - -13. According to the same writer the unction on the breast is -afterwards administered with invocation of the Trinity, in order that -no remains of the hidden enemy may abide therein, but the mind be -comforted in the faith of the Holy Trinity, and receive and understand -the commandments of God. Therefore each of the faithful is anointed -first twice with oil, next in like manner twice with chrism. First in -baptism on the crown of the head: secondly after baptism, namely at -confirmation, on his forehead: because to the apostles also was the -Holy Ghost twice given, as will be set forth in the sixth book on Holy -Saturday. [Footnote 508] - - [Footnote 508: It has not been judged necessary to translate the - passages referred to, for the same reason as stated above in note - 13.] - -Fourthly; in the fourth place we were to speak of the unction which is -administered by the bishop on the forehead of such as have been -baptised: but of this we shall speak in the same place. [Footnote -509] - - [Footnote 509: It has not been judged necessary to translate the - passages referred to, for the same reason as stated above in note - 13.] - -14. Fifthly; in the fifth place, with respect to the unction of -ordination, it is to be noted that the hands of the priest are -anointed by the bishop, that he may know that he in this sacrament -doth receive by the Holy Ghost the power and grace of consecrating. -Whence the bishop, whilst anointing them, saith: 'Deign, O Lord, by -means of this unction and our benediction to consecrate and sanctify -these hands, that whatsoever they consecrate may be consecrated, and -whatsoever they bless may be blessed in the name of the Lord.' {141} -And for this cause devout men kiss the hands of priests immediately -after their ordination, believing by this to become partakers of their -prayers and blessings. And the anointing is with holy oil, because -they ought to work with their hands the works of mercy with all their -might towards all men: for the works are denoted by the hands; mercy -by the oil. Whence the good Samaritan coming near to the wounded man -poured wine and oil into his wounds. The hands are anointed with oil -also that they may be supple for offering the host unto God for the -sins of men, and that they may be open to all acts of piety and not be -kept dry and clenched. For both these things, namely the grace of -healing and the charity of loving, are denoted by the oil. Wherefore -further the laying on of hands, together with oil upon the heads of -such as be ordained, is done because by the hands the operation, by -the fingers the gifts, of the Holy Ghost, and by the head the mind, be -understood. The hand then is laid on because it is sent forth imbued -with the gifts of the Holy Ghost to perform the works of Christ. - -15. Sixthly, with respect to the unction of bishops and of temporal -princes, it is to be known that the former hath derived its origin -from the Old Testament. For in the 21st chapter of Leviticus the high -priest is said to be he 'upon whose head the anointing oil is poured,' -[Footnote 510] and whose hands were consecrated in priesthood. A -bishop, however, is anointed with chrism, which (as we said before) is -composed of oil and balsam; and he is anointed therewith both -outwardly, and inwardly in his heart, in order that by the inward oil -he have a clear conscience towards God, and by the outward oil may -have the odour of good report towards his neighbour: which is {142} -denoted by the balsam. The Apostle saith of a clear conscience, 'For -our rejoicing is this the testimony of our conscience.' [Footnote -511] 'For the king's daughter is all glorious within,' [Footnote -512] that is, her glory proceedeth from within. Concerning the odour -of a good report the same Apostle saith, 'For in every place we are -unto God a sweet savour of Christ,' that is, an example and imitation, -and, 'to some we are the savour of life unto life,' etc., [Footnote -513] as if he had said, we are an example of love and a good opinion -leading unto eternal life, 'and to others a savour of death unto -death,' that is, of hatred and evil opinion leading unto eternal -death. - - [Footnote 510: Leviticus xxi, 10.] - - [Footnote 511: 2 Corinthians i, 12.] - - [Footnote 512: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 14.] - - [Footnote 513: 2 Corinthians ii, 15.] - -16. For a bishop ought to have in himself 'a good report' both of them -which are within and 'them which are without'; [Footnote 514] so -that one curtain, that is, the faithful, may draw on the other -curtain, that is, the unbeliever, namely, unto belief; [Footnote -515] and 'he that heareth,' namely, by learning and believing, 'say, -come,' [Footnote 516] namely, by preaching and teaching. With this -unguent be the head and hands of a bishop consecrated: for by the head -is understood the mind, as the gospel saith, 'anoint,' [Footnote -517] that is, humble, 'thy head, and wash thy face,' that is, thy -conscience, namely, with tears: by the hands be denoted good works, as -is said in the Canticles, 'my hands,' that is, my good works, 'dropped -with myrrh,' that is, gave to others a good example. [Footnote 518] - - [Footnote 514: I Timothy iii, 7.] - - [Footnote 515: There appears to be here some mystical reference to - the coupling of the curtains of the tabernacle. See Exod. xxvi.] - - [Footnote 516: Apocalypse xxii, 17.] - - [Footnote 517: S. Matthew vi, 17.] - - [Footnote 518: Canticles v, 5.] - -17. The head, therefore, is anointed with the balsam of charity, (i) -That the bishop may love God with his whole heart and with his whole -mind and whole soul, and also, after the example of Christ, 'love his -neighbours as,' that is, as much as, 'himself.' For according to {143} -Gregory, oil on the head is charity in the soul, (ii) Secondly, the -head is anointed by reason of authority and dignity; since not only -bishops but also kings are consecrated. (iii) Thirdly, to show that a -bishop representeth the person of Christ, as being his vicar, of whom -it is said by the Prophet, 'it is like the precious ointment upon the -head.' [Footnote 519] For the head of man is Christ, the head of -Christ is God: Who saith of Himself, 'the Spirit of the Lord is upon -Me, because He hath anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor.' -[Footnote 520] For Christ, our Head, was anointed with the invisible -oil He intercedeth for the Church Universal, a bishop for that Church -committed unto him. - - [Footnote 519: Psalm cxxxiii (_Ecce quani bonum_), 2.] - - [Footnote 520: Isaiah lxi, 1.] - -18. But his _hands_ also are anointed, on account of his mystery and -office; and for the anointing of these, which do signify works, is -employed _oil_, that is, the chrism of piety and mercy, (i) First, in -order that the bishop may 'do good unto all men, and especially unto -them that are of the household of faith,' [Footnote 521] his hands -should be closed to none, but be open to all; according to the saying, -'He hath opened his hands to the poor, and extended his arm to the -destitute.' [Footnote 522] A hand that is dried up, that is -avaricious, that is tenaciously held clenched, cannot be opened: -therefore his hands are anointed, in order that they may be healed and -opened, and may bestow alms on the indigent. (ii) Secondly, to show -that he hath received the power of blessing and consecrating. Whence -the consecrating bishop, when he anointeth them, saith, 'Deign, O -Lord, to consecrate and sanctify these hands,' and so forth, as we -quoted above. (iii) That they may be clean for offering sacrifices for -sins. And note, that although a bishop's hands were anointed with oil -beforehand when he was ordained a priest, yet {144} they be again -anointed with chrism when he is consecrated a bishop. Herein by the -hands are typified good works; by the oil, the abundance of the Holy -Ghost of grace; by the balsam, which is mixed with the oil in making -the chrism, the savour of good report; as in Ecclesiasticus, 'My sweet -odour is as myrrh unmixed.' [Footnote 523] Wherefore because in the -works of bishops and other superiors there ought to appear more than -in their inferiors the gifts of the Holy Ghost and the savour of good -report; according to that saying, 'For we are unto God a sweet savour -of Christ'; [Footnote 524] for even in the heavenly hierarchy the -superior angels excel the inferior in blessings and grace; hence, -therefore, at their consecration as bishops their hands, already -anointed with oil, are with reason again anointed with chrism. - - [Footnote 521: Galatians vi, 10.] - - [Footnote 522: Proverbs xxxi, 20.] - - [Footnote 523: Ecclesiasticus xxiv, 15.] - - [Footnote 524: 2 Corinthians ii, 15.] - -19. The thumb also is fortified with chrism, that the laying on of the -thumb may profit all men for salvation. - -20. Further, in the Old Testament, not only was a priest anointed, but -also a king and prophet: as we find in the books of Kings. Whence the -Lord enjoined Elias, 'Go return on thy way to the wilderness of -Damascus: and when thou comest, anoint Hazael to be king over Syria; -and Jehu the son of Nimshi shalt thou anoint to be king over Israel; -and Elisha the son of Shaphat of Abel-Meholah shalt thou anoint to be -prophet in thy room.' [Footnote 525] Samuel also anointed David to -be king. But after that Jesus of Nazareth, 'Whom (as we read in the -Acts of the Apostles) God anointed with the Holy Ghost, was anointed -with oil above his fellows, [Footnote 526] Who is (according to the -Apostle) 'the Head of the Church, which is also His body'; [Footnote -527] after this the anointing of a sovereign was transferred from the -head to the arm: whence princes since the time of Christ are not {145} -anointed on the head but on the arm, or on the shoulder; by which -parts of the body kingly power is aptly represented, as we read, 'and -the government was laid upon his shoulder': [Footnote 528 ] to -signify the same, Samuel caused the shoulder to be laid before Saul, -when he placed him at the head of the table before those who had been -bidden. [Footnote 529] But in the case of a bishop the sacramental -anointing is applied to the _head_, because in his episcopal office he -representeth the Head of the Church, that is, Christ. - - [Footnote 525: I Kings xix, 15.] - - [Footnote 526: See Acts iv, 27, and Hebrews i, 9.] - - [Footnote 527: Ephesians v, 23.] - - [Footnote 528: Isaiah ix, 6.] - - [Footnote 529: I Samuel x, 24.] - -21. There is this difference, then, between the anointing of a bishop -and a prince, that the head of the bishop is consecrated with chrism, -while the arm of the prince is anointed with oil: to show, namely, how -great a difference there is between the authority of a bishop and the -power of a prince. And observe that, as we read in the gospel, -[Footnote 530] a certain man called his servants and gave unto them -ten talents. Herein the calling of a servant is the canonical election -of a bishop, which taketh place according to the calling of the Lord -Who called Aaron. A talent is given to him, when he who hath laid his -hands upon him giveth him the text of the gospel, saying, 'Go and -preach.' And the bishop himself, according to the use of some -churches, when first he entereth his see, carrieth the gospels in his -bosom, showing his talent as if to trade with it. In some churches -also when the archbishop giveth the bishop his pastoral staff, he -saith, 'Go and preach,' and he immediately blesseth the people: by -which is represented that Moses was sent into Egypt with a rod. - - [Footnote 530: S. Matthew xxv.] - -{146} - -22. Furthermore, bishops on the day of their consecration have been -wont to ride on horses covered with white robes; to represent that -which we read in the Apocalypse, 'The armies which are in heaven -follow him riding on white horses.' [Footnote 531] The armies which -are in heaven are good and just men and prelates, who as these -heavenly riders do daily follow God in all good works: who for this -reason are said to be in heaven, because they love and seek after -heavenly things alone; whence the Apostle saith, 'Our conversation is -in heaven.' [Footnote 532] These armies, that is good and just men -and prelates, follow Jesus, whensoever they vanquish vices in -themselves by discipline, in their neighbours by admonition. Whence S. -James saith, 'He which converteth the sinner from the error of his way -shall save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins.' -[Footnote 533] These armies have white horses and chaste bodies. - - [Footnote 531: Apocalypse xix, 14.] - - [Footnote 532: Philippians iii, 20.] - - [Footnote 533: S. James v, 20.] - -23. The bodies of good men are also called horses, because, just as -horses are governed by the will of the rider, so are the bodies of the -just ruled according to the will of Christ. These horses ought to be -white, or covered with white trappings: that is, the bodies of just -men and prelates ought to be chaste and pure. For if they be not pure -they cannot follow Christ. And S. Peter saith, 'Christ also suffered -for us, leaving us an example that we should follow His steps, who did -not sin, neither was guile found in his mouth.' [Footnote 534] -Further, the clergy of the holy Roman Church, by the grant of the -Emperor Constantine, do ride upon horses adorned with trappings of the -most snowy white. On what day a bishop ought to be consecrated, and -why a copy of the gospels is put upon his shoulders in consecration, -shall be declared in the second book, under the chapter upon Bishops. -[Footnote 535] - - [Footnote 534: I S. Peter ii, 21.] - - [Footnote 535: The consecration of a bishop, in the which the Holy - Ghost is present unto such as receive it worthily, is administered - always on the Lord's day, and at the third hour. For bishops do - obtain the office of apostles, unto whom the Holy Ghost was given on - the Day of Pentecost and at the third hour. When a bishop is to be - ordained, the suffragans of the province should assemble with their - metropolitan, and two bishops place and hold a volume of the gospels - above his head and neck, or upon his shoulders, one shedding the - benediction over him, and the rest, such as are present, touching - his head with their hands. This book is held above his head; first, - that the Lord may confirm the gospel in his heart; secondly, that he - may understand by this, unto what burthen and labour he is - subjected: because everyone that is pre-eminent, that is, a prelate, - is more troubled with griefs than rejoiced with honours; thirdly, to - denote that he ought not to be backward to carry with him everywhere - the burthen of the preaching of the gospel; fourthly, to admonish - him to submit himself more than ever to the yoke, and to obey the - gospel.--_Rationale_, Book II, c. xi, 6.] - -{147} - -Seventhly, we have to speak of the unction of altars, chalices, and -other instruments of the church; which according to the rule are -anointed at their dedication; and this not only from the command of -the divine law, but also because Moses 'sprinkled with blood the -tabernacle and all the vessels of the ministry, and almost all things -are by the law cleansed with blood;' [Footnote 536] and also again -after the example of S. Sylvester, who when he consecrated an altar -used to anoint it with chrism. For the Lord commanded Moses to make -oil of unction with which to anoint the tabernacle of the testimony, -the table, the ark of the covenant, the candlestick, and other -furniture as aforesaid. Which unctions are performed on things that -have not been anointed, to show greater reverence to them and to -bestow more grace upon them. And of these unctions we have spoken and -shall again speak in their right places. But the sacrament of unction -hath indeed some further effect and meaning both in the Old and New -Testament: whence the Church doth not Judaize, when she observeth the -unctions in her sacraments, as some old writers, who know neither the -Scripture nor the power of God, do falsely say. Of the unctions of the -church and altar we have spoken under their own heads. - - [Footnote 536: Hebrews ix, 2.] - -{148} - -24. Further the paten is consecrated and anointed for the -administration of the body of Christ, who willed to be sacrificed upon -the altar of the cross for the salvation of all men. 'Almighty God -also did order the flour to be brought to His Altar scattered on -golden and silver patens. The chalice also is consecrated and -anointed, that by the grace of the Holy Ghost it may be made a new -sepulchre of the body and blood of Christ, and then He, Himself, may -deign to make it overflow with his virtue, as He made the cup of -Melchizedech, His servant, to flow over. - -25. Eighthly; in the eighth place we have to speak of extreme unction, -which from the institution of Pope Felix the Fourth, and from the -command of the Apostle S. James, is administered unto such as are at -the point to die. Concerning which some say that it is not so properly -a sacrament as the anointing of the forehead or any other part with -chrism, because (as they assert) it may be repeated and since there is -offered a prayer over the man; a circumstance which is not a condition -of a sacrament. This unction also may be administered by a single -priest if more cannot be present: and by it venial sins are remitted, -according to S. James, 'If any rich among you,' etc., as before, 'and -if he have committed sins they shall be forgiven him.' [Footnote -537] And this unction is applied to divers parts of the body or the -limbs, for reasons which may be gathered from the prayers then used; -and especially on those parts in which the five senses chiefly reside, -that whatever sins the rich man may have committed by means of these -may be abolished by virtue of this unction. Concerning some other -rules we ordinarily read, that the party to be anointed must be at the -least eighteen years of age, and that he ought to be anointed in -sickness once only during a year, though he may be sick many times, -and that no one must be anointed, unless, being in his senses, he -shall have first demanded it either by words or signs:-- {149} and -besides this, that the shoulders ought not to be anointed, because -they were anointed in baptism, and that a confirmed person ought not -to be anointed on his forehead but on his temples, and a priest's -hands ought to be anointed on the backs and not inside, because they -were anointed on the inside at his ordination:--and that one who hath -been once anointed by a bishop ought not in respect to him to be -further anointed by a priest:--and that if a sick man who hath been -anointed should recover, the anointed places should be washed, and the -water used be thrown into the fire; but should he depart, his body -ought not to be washed because of the recent unction. But if the sick -man be at the point of death, he should be immediately anointed lest -he die without the unction. Besides this, some penitents, and dying -men, put on sackcloth and lay themselves down on ashes as we shall -explain in the sixth book, when we speak of Ash Wednesday. [Footnote -538] - - [Footnote 537: S. James v, 24.] - - [Footnote 538: 'On this day also ashes are blessed, and scattered - over the head in token of humiliation. "Dust thou art, and unto dust - thou shalt return," was said unto Adam (Gen. iv). And Job "repented - in dust and ashes" (Job xlii, 6). And the Lord saith, "In the house - of Aphrah (marg. read dust) roll thyself in the dust" (Mic. i 10). - Also in Judith we read, "The children of Israel humbled themselves - in fasting, and dust on their heads" (Chronicles iv). And Abraham - saith, "Shall I speak unto the Lord, who am but dust and ashes?" - (Gen. 18). And "Mordecai put on sackcloth with ashes" (Esther iv, - i). And "the daughters of Zion have cast ashes on their heads" - (Samuel iii). Hence, we read in the Pontifical, penitents and the - dying, in token of repentance and humility and that they are dust - and ashes, do prostrate themselves in ashes and put on sackcloth--an - use drawn from the Old Testament. For we read in Isaiah the - fifty-eighth, that penitents do lie in sackcloth and ashes. And - Hieremiah saith the same in the twenty-fifth chapter, "Wallow - yourselves in the ashes, for the days are accomplished." Also in the - third of Jonah, "The king of Ninevah put on sackcloth and sat in - ashes." Also in the Lamentations, "The virgins of Jerusalem are - clothed in sackcloth."'--_Rationale_ vi, 28, 18.] - -{150} - -26. Ninthly, a cemetery, which enjoyeth the same privileges as a -church, is also consecrated and blessed; just as the Lord blessed by -the hands of his servants Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the land bought -for a burial ground from the sons of Ephron. It is blessed also in -order that it may cease from that time forward to be the abode of -unclean spirits, and that the bodies of the faithful may therein rest -in peace until the day of judgment; unless the bodies of paynims or -infidels, or even of excommunicate persons should be buried there, -until they shall be cast out thence. - -27. This also is to be noted, that the palls of the altar, the -priestly vestments, and ecclesiastical ornaments of this kind are to -be blessed. For we have already read that Moses, by command of the -Lord, consecrated the tabernacle with divine prayers, together with -the table and altar, and vessels and utensils for performing the -divine worship. If therefore the Jews, who served the 'shadow of the -Law and of good things to come,' [Footnote 539] did this, how much -the more ought we to do it to whom the truth hath been made known by -Christ! Whence we read in the last chapter but one of Exodus, 'Moses -blessed all the vessels of the ministry.' [Footnote 540] And should -an additional piece or a fringe be attached to it, it is proved by the -testimony of right that the blessing need not on this account be -repeated. But the reason why these things and other like things are -consecrated is evidently gathered from the forms of blessing them. Of -the sacred vestments we shall speak in the introduction to the third -book. [Footnote 541] And observe: That the blessing or consecration -of a church, and of vestments, and of ecclesiastical ornaments is not -performed as if they were capable of receiving grace, for they are -inanimate: but this practice is introduced, because as men are, so -also are these things, by the act of blessing and consecration -rendered suitable and fit for divine worship, and are {151} made of -greater holiness. Whereas on _persons_ greater grace is bestowed by -unction and benediction. But some in the benediction of ornaments, let -fall their hands, of which we shall speak in the second book under the -head of the Deacon. [Footnote 542] - - [Footnote 539: Hebrews x, 1.] - - [Footnote 540: Exodus xxxix.] - - [Footnote 541: The history, use, and symbolism of the sacred - vestments would themselves require a volume to be fully - illustrated.] - - [Footnote 542: Observe that when a person in confirmation is - blessed on the forehead, and when salt, and water, and palls, and - vestments, and the like be consecrated, the hands are held over - them, because there is a certain virtue in consecrated hands, which - is as it were stirred up when benediction is poured out over - anything with the hands suspended in this way. Whence the Apostle - admonishing his disciple Timothy, saith, "I put thee in remembrance - that thou stir up the gift of God, which is in thee, by the laying - on of my hands." So that devotion may be stirred up in the body by - the suspension of hands, just as in the heart by the effect. For - virtue existeth not only in animate things, but also in inanimate. - Whence some do affirm that by the virtue of a church, if anyone - entereth therein from devotion, his venial sins be forgiven. Again, - the hands are thus held in cases of exorcism especially, as if the - priest by the bodily act would put to flight and threaten the devil - by the virtue of the consecration of his hands.'--Durandus ii, 9, - 16.] - -Tenthly, we were to speak of the consecration of Virgins, but of this -we shall treat in the preface to the second book. [Footnote 543] - - [Footnote 543: This point is not sufficiently connected with our - subject to need illustration.] - - -{152} - - -CHAPTER IX - -OF THE SACRAMENTS OF THE CHURCH - -Difference between a Sacrament and a Mystery--Distinction of Sacraments ---Of Matrimony--Of the Ring--Of Second Marriages--Why Sacraments -were Instituted. - - -1. With respect to the sacraments of the Church, it is to be noted -that, according to Gregory, there is a _sacrament_ in any celebration -when an outward act is so performed as that we receive inwardly some -degree of the thing signified; the which is to be received holily and -worthily. Also a _mystery_ is that which the Holy Ghost worketh -secretly, and invisibly, so as to sanctify by His operation, and bless -by His sanctification. A mystery is said to exist in sacraments; a -ministry only in ornaments. - -2. But, according to Augustine, a sacrament is a visible sign of an -invisible grace. Again, a sacrifice is visible; a sacrament invisible. -Again, the same sign is a thing which bringeth under cognisance some -thing different from itself over and above the outward appearance -which it presenteth to the senses. - -3. A sacrament is said also to be a sign of a sacred thing, or a -sacred concealment of a thing. Of this we shall further speak in the -fourth book, under the seventh part of the Canon of the Mass, upon the -word 'the mystery of faith,' and under the head of the Oblation. -[Footnote 544] - - [Footnote 544: The seventh part of the Canon of the Mass is, - 'Likewise after supper He took the cup into His holy and venerated - hands; and when He had given thanks, He blessed it and gave it to - His disciples, saying, Take and drink ye all of this; for this is - the chalice of My blood, of the New and Everlasting Testament, the - _mystery of faith_, which is shed for you and for many for the - remission of sins: Do this as oft as ye shall drink it in - remembrance of me.'--See _Rationale_ iv. 42, 20.] - -{153} - -4. Some of the sacraments be of necessity only; some of dignity and -necessity; some of order and necessity; some of dignity and choice; -and some of choice only. The sacrament of necessity only is baptism, -which when administered by anyone, so it be in the form of the Church, -in the greatest extremity profiteth unto salvation. And it is said to -be 'of necessity,' because without it no one can be saved, if it be -neglected through contempt. Of this sacrament we shall speak in the -sixth book, under the head of Holy Saturday. [Footnote 545] The -sacrament of dignity and necessity is confirmation: of dignity, -because it is conferred by the bishop alone; of necessity, because he -who neglecteth it through contempt of it, cannot be saved. Of this -also we shall speak under the head just specified. - - [Footnote 545: The chapter referred to treats of holy baptism - doctrinally, and does not therefore fall within the province of this - volume.] - -5. The sacraments of order and dignity are Penance, the Eucharist, and -Extreme Unction. Of order; because they ought only to be administered -by such as are rightly ordained according to the Church's power of the -keys; except in necessity, in which one may _confess_ even unto a -layman: of necessity; since such as neglect them through contempt of -them cannot be saved. About penance, see the sixth book, upon the -fifth day of Holy Week, the _Caena Domini_: [Footnote 546] about the -Eucharist, we shall speak in the fourth book, upon the Canon; -[Footnote 547] about Extreme Unction we have spoken in the preceding -chapter. - - [Footnote 546: What we call _Maunday Thursday_, from _Mandatum - novum_ ('A new commandment I give unto you,' etc.), which the Church - of England retains as a Lesson for the day, is more properly called - _The Caena Domini_, or _Lord's Supper_, in remembrance (as Bishop - Andrewes says) _of the mighty mystery of Thy holy body and precious - blood, instituted on the evening of this day_.--See S. Isidore, _De - Offic. Eccles._ i, 28. The chapter referred to (73 of the sixth - book), shows that penitents were restored to communion on this day, - and with what ceremonies.] - - [Footnote 547: These, besides their great length, are not required - for the explication of our more immediate subject.] - -{154} - -6. But the sacrament of dignity and choice is Orders: of dignity; -because conferred by bishops alone, and because no one is admitted -thereunto save a worthy person and in a worthy way: of choice; because -anyone may be saved without it. Of this we shall speak in the preface -to the second book. [Footnote 548] - - [Footnote 548: These, besides their great length, are not required - for the explication of our more immediate subject.] - -7. The sacrament of choice only is matrimony; and it is said to be of -choice, because anyone may be saved without it. Indeed a man seeking -to marry is not inclined to tend towards the kingdom of heaven. - -With respect to this it is to be remarked that, according to the -canons, the solemnity of marriage ought not to be celebrated from -Septuagesima Sunday, because it is a season of sorrow, until the -octave of Easter, nor in the three weeks before the Feast of S. John. -[Footnote 549] But according to the custom of the Catholic Church, -marriages may be solemnised in the church from the morrow of Low -Sunday, namely, from the octave of Easter, until the first Rogation -Day. And from the morning of the first Rogation Day this rite is -prohibited until the octave of Whitsuntide inclusively: and so saith -Pope Clement in his Decretal. Again, marriages ought not to be -celebrated {155} from the First Sunday in Advent until the Epiphany: -nor would they have been allowed until the octave of the Epiphany had -not the Lord honoured a marriage with His presence, and even with a -miracle. [Footnote 550] Whence they then chant, 'To-day the Church is -united to her Heavenly Spouse.' Some, however, say that it is more -holy to extend this prohibition unto the octave of the Epiphany. - - [Footnote 549: Bp. Cosins says that marriages are not to be - solemnised from Advent Sunday, until eight days after (or the octave - of) the Epiphany; from Septuagesima Sunday until eight days after - Easter; and from Rogation Sunday until Trinity Sunday. Some of these - being times of solemn fasting and abstinence, some of holy festivity - and joy, both fit to be spent in such holy exercises, without other - avocations. See his 'Devotions,' republished by Messrs Rivington.] - - [Footnote 550: We are accustomed to celebrate only the manifestation - of Christ to the Gentiles, on the Epiphany. But S. Isidore (_De Off. - Ecc._ i, 26) gives two other objects of commemoration upon this day: - viz. the baptism of our Lord, and his first miracle at the marriage - in Cana. And so the hymn in the Breviary: - - Ibant Magi, quam viderant, - Lumen requirunt lumine, - Lavacra puri gurgitis - Peccata quae non detulit, - Novum genus potentiae! - Vinumque jussa fundere - Stellam sequentes praeviam; - Deum fatentur munere. - Caelestis Agnus attigit; - Nos abluendo sustulit. - Aquae rubescunt hydriae, - Nutavit unda originem. - - Our own Church, however, retains the old Gospel for the second - Sunday after the Epiphany.] - -In the aforesaid times, therefore, marriages are not to be contracted; -because these seasons are set apart for prayer. - -8. [Footnote 551] But although the solemnising of marriages is -prohibited in these intervals, yet a contract of marriage holds good -at whatever time it may have been duly made. But in that it is ordered -by the canons that weddings should not be celebrated in the three -weeks before the Festival of S. John Baptist, the rule was made that -men might be more at leisure for prayer. For the Church had formerly -appointed two periods of forty days, besides the great one of -Lent:--the one preceding the nativity, usually called S. Martin's, and -lasting from his day to the nativity; [Footnote 552] the other, -forty days before the Feast of S. John Baptist:--in which men should -give especial heed unto prayers, alms, and fastings. But in regard of -the frailty of man, these two seasons have been reduced to one, and -that one again divided into the three weeks of advent, and three -before the nativity of S. John: at which times men ought to fast and -abstain from marriage. - - [Footnote 551: A few passages have been omitted in the course of - this chapter.] - - [Footnote 552: Martinmas is the 11th November. The forty days are - not exactly made out between this and the Nativity. ] - -{156} - -9. According to S. Isidore (of Seville), women wear veils, when they -are married, so that they may know that they must always be subject to -their husbands: and because Rebecca, when she saw Isaac, veiled -herself. The same saith also that married persons after the -benediction are coupled by a fillet, to show that they must not break -the tie, that is the fidelity, of conjugal unity. And the same fillet -is both white and purple mixed; because the white signifieth purity of -life, and purple their lawful raising of offspring: so that by this -symbol, their continuance and mutual 'defrauding one another for a -time is signified, as well as their coming together again' [Footnote -553] and return afterwards to conjugal duties. - - [Footnote 553: See S. Paul I Corinthians vii, 5. The whole of this - passage is quoted from S. Isidore, who is, however, more - circumstantial than Durandus, and much more elegant and intelligible - in his language. The extreme corruption of the printed copies of our - author may be exemplified by referring the reader to the original in - S. Isidore.--_De Off. Eccles._ ii, 19. See also Hugo de S. Victore, - _Exercit. Theol. Summ. Sent._, Tract vii.] - -10. Also in that at the beginning of the ceremony the husband giveth a -ring to the bride, this is done as a sign of mutual love, or rather in -order that their hearts may be united by the same pledge. And the same -ring is put on the fourth finger, because (as some say) a certain vein -runneth through it which reacheth to the heart. Also one Protheus is -said to have first made a ring of iron as a pledge of love, and to -have enclosed an adamant therein: and from this he founded the custom -of betrothing brides, because as iron subdueth all things, so doth -love conquer all things, since nothing is more violent than its -ardour. - -{157} - -11. And as an adamant cannot be broken, so love cannot be overcome: -for love is as strong as death. Therefore also he founded the custom -of putting the ring on the ring-finger through which a vein passeth to -the heart. Afterwards, however, golden rings were substituted for -iron, and were set with gems, instead of adamant, because as gold -excelleth other metals, so doth love excel all other blessings. And as -gold is set off by the gems, so is conjugal love by other virtues. But -the word _nuptials_ (marriage) is so called according to Ambrose, a -_nubendo_ (from covering the head). For brides are wont to veil the -head and abstain from speaking. Whence also Rebecca, when she saw -Isaac to whom she was about to be espoused, began to veil her face. -For bashfulness ought to precede marriage, inasmuch as bashfulness -more highly commendeth wedlock itself: and the bride should appear -rather to be sought by the husband, than herself to have sought after -him. . . . - -12. We have further to note that a threefold spiritual sacrament is -signified by the consummation of marriage. The first sacrament is the -spiritual union of the soul to God, through faith, love, and charity; -or the union of will, namely charity which consisteth in the spirit, -between God and a just soul. Whence saith the Apostle, 'but he that is -joined unto the Lord is one spirit.' [Footnote 554] This sacrament -is signified by the union of soul which takes place at the first -betrothal in carnal matrimony. The second is the union of the human -nature with the divine, which took place in the incarnation of the -Word of God; or the conformity of nature, which existeth in the flesh, -between Christ and His Holy Church. To which that saying referreth, -'The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us.' [Footnote 555] The -third sacrament is the unity of the Church, gathered out of all -nations and subjected to one spouse, namely Christ. This sacrament is -typified in the case of such as, having had one wife and her a virgin, -have afterwards been admitted into holy orders. - - [Footnote 554: I Corinthians vi, 17.] - - [Footnote 555: S. John i, 14.] - -{158} - -13. But when anyone yieldeth to a second marriage, he giveth up this -unity, and the signification of this third sacrament does not hold in -his case: wherefore marriage should not advance beyond _one_, because -such advance cannot signify unity. Besides, by a second marriage he -departeth from the union of his former marriage: but the Church ever -since she hath united herself to Christ, hath never departed from Him, -neither hath Christ ever departed from her. Wherefore one who hath -twice married cannot signify such an unity. Whence also deservedly -from the defect of this sacramental signification marriage cannot be -repeated. - -14. Note also this, that according to the statute of the Council of -Carthage the bridegroom and bride are to be presented by the parents -or bridesmen unto the priest in order to be blessed. And having -received the blessing, out of reverence to it, they do not consummate -the marriage till the next day. - -15. Again by the appointment of Pope Evaristus marriages are to be -blessed by the priest not without prayers and offerings. However, a -man and woman who contract a second marriage must not be blessed by -the priest, since, they having been already blessed, the ceremony may -not be repeated. Nor ought marriages to be blessed unless both parties -are still unmarried, for the reason given in the preface to the second -book. [Footnote 556] - - [Footnote 556: It is laid down that a _widow_ on taking the vows is - not veiled by the bishop, as is the case with a virgin. 'A priest,' - Durandus continues, 'is prohibited from taking a part in second - marriages and from giving the benediction to such as are twice - married. But a widow taking the vows is married as it were twice, - first to her late husband, and secondly unto Christ in her - profession, wherefore the veil of consecration, or even of - profession, is not given unto her, but she herself takes it from the - altar. . . . Yet in the Pontifical, according to the Roman Order, we - find the benediction of a widow professing continence, and also of - her veil. For the Lord also comforted the widow of Serepta by the - hand of Elias the prophet. And I have myself seen in the city (Rome, - of course) the [Cardinal] Bishop of Ostia bless two widows among the - virgins who took the vows' (Proem. II, c. 47).] - -{159} - -And any priest who shall have given the blessing in such a second -marriage is to be suspended from his office and benefice and to be -sent to the apostolical see; a custom this, introduced as an -incitement to continence. According to the custom of some places, if -anyone contracts a second marriage with an unmarried woman the -benediction is repeated: but this does not avail unless our Lord the -Pope know of it and approve it. Some also say that if any unmarried -persons were not blessed when they contracted marriages, they may when -marrying a second time receive the benediction; but if they were -blessed at first, it cannot be repeated at a second marriage even -though the first were never consummated. Of the benediction of virgins -we shall speak in the preface and the second book. [Footnote 557] - - [Footnote 557: See chap. viii, note 57.] - -16. But it is to be noted that one sacrament may be more worthy than -another in four ways: namely, in efficacy, as baptism; in sanctity, as -the eucharist; in significancy, as marriage (though some do not admit -this way); in the dignity of the administrator, as confirmation and -orders. - -17. But is it asked why sacraments are appointed, when without them -God could have given eternal life and His Grace unto mankind? I -answer, for three reasons. First, for our humiliation; in order that -when man reverently humbleth himself by the command of God unto -insensible and inferior things, he may from this obedience become more -acceptable unto Him. Secondly, for our instruction; that by that which -is seen objectively in a visible form, our mind may be instructed in -that invisible virtue, which is to be perceived within. {160} Thirdly, -for our exercising: in order that, since man ought not to be idle, -there may be set before him a useful and healthy exercise in the -sacraments; so that he may avoid vain and hurtful occupation. -According to that saying, 'Always be doing some good work, that the -devil may find you occupied.' Wherefore, as we said in the foregoing -chapter, they must never be neglected. - - -END OF THE FIRST BOOK - -{161} - -EPILOGUE TO THE WHOLE WORK [Footnote 558] - - [Footnote 558: Job xxxviii, 31. See the Proeme towards the - beginning.] - -Let none imagine that in the foregoing work the divine offices be -sufficiently set forth, lest by extolling that which is human, he -rashly depreciate that which is divine. For in the divine offices of -the Mass, so many and so great be the mysteries involved, that none, -unless he be taught of the spirit, is sufficient to explain them. 'For -who knoweth the ordinances of heaven, or can explain the reasons of -them upon earth? [Footnote 559] For he that prieth into their -Majesty is overwhelmed by their glory. But I, who cannot from the -weakness of mine eyes behold the sun in his brightness, have looked on -these mysteries, as through a glass, darkly: and, not penetrating into -the interior of the palace, but sitting at the door, have done -diligently, as I could, not sufficiently, as I would. For on account -of the innumerable and inevitable business of the Apostolic See, -[Footnote 560] pressing on me daily, like a flood, and holding down -the mind of him that would diligently rise to a contemplation of -heavenly things: I, perplexed as it were, and entangled in the knots -of various employments, could not have the leisure that I wished for, -and could scarcely either dictate what I had composed, or compose what -I had conceived. {162} For the mind that is divided in several trains -of thought hath less power in each. Wherefore I not only ask pardon of -the courteous reader, but implore the assistance of a friendly -corrector. For I cannot deny that many things are inserted in this -book which may be blamed, and that justly and without temerity. But if -anything worthy be found in it, let the praise thereof be ascribed -entirely to Divine Grace: for 'every good gift, and every perfect gift -is from above, and cometh down from the Father of Light.' [Footnote -561] But let that which is unworthy, be set down to human -insufficiency, 'for the corruptible body presseth down the soul, and -the earthly tabernacle weigheth down the mind that museth upon many -things.' [Footnote 562] That which is worthy hath been taken from the -sayings of others, whose words I have introduced, rather by way of -recital [Footnote 563] after than of approval. I have collected from -diverse books, the manner of the honey making bee, not without profit, -of those things which divine grace hath held forth to me: and this -doctrine, flowing with sweetness like the honeycomb, I offer, trusting -in God's help, to those who desire to meditate on the divine offices: -expecting this reward alone of my great toil among men, that they will -pray earnestly to the merciful Judge for the pardon of my -transgressions. - - GULIELMI DURANDI, _Epi Mimatensis Liber de ecclesiis et ornamentis - ecclesiasticis explicit feliciter_. - - [Footnote 559: See the Preface.] - - [Footnote 560: Book viii, chap. 14.] - - [Footnote 561: S. James i, 17.] - - [Footnote 562: Wisdom ix, 17.] - - [Footnote 563: The passage seems corrupt: but the sense appears to - be, 'reciting them, as testimonies in my favour, and not presuming - to add my testimony to their worth.] - - -{163} - -SUPPLEMENT - - -[For the avoiding continual reference, for the extreme beauty of the -treatise itself, for its value as an older document than the -'Rationale,' and for the advantage of comparison with the latter in -subject, sentiment, style, and often language, the Editors have -subjoined a translation of the first and second chapters of the -'Mystical Mirror of the Church' of Hugo de Sancto Victore.] - - (_Folio Edition_, 237 E) - -A Prologue to the 'Mystical Mirror of the Church,' made by Master Hugh -of S. Victor. - -Your love hath asked of me to treat of the sacraments of the Church, -and to set forth unto you their mystical sweetness. But since with the -more willingness, because with the more ease and boldness I do evolve -(after my custom) points of logic rather than of theology; I began to -doubt whether to withstand your admonition or the rather to write. But -when I presently remembered how that every good thing when shared with -others becometh more bright and beautiful when it is shared, I -incontinently betook myself to my pen, having invoked the aid of 'Him -Who openeth and no man shutteth, and shutteth and no man openeth.' -[Footnote 564] Wherefore I have put into the lips of your -understanding the tractate which you did desire, flowing within with -nectar like the honeycomb: and the same, because therein ye may see as -in a mirror what every thing in the church doth mystically denote, I -have called 'The Mystical Mirror of a Church.' - - [Footnote 564: Apocalypse iii, 7.] - -{164} - - - -CHAPTER I - -OF A CHURCH - - - -The material church in which the people cometh together to praise God, -signifieth the Holy Catholic Church, which is builded in the heavens -of living stones. This is the Lord's house which is firmly builded. -The 'chief corner-stone is Christ.' _Upon_ this, not _besides_ this, -is the 'foundation of the apostles and prophets'; as it is written, -'Her foundations are upon the holy hills.' [Footnote 565] The walls -builded thereon, be the Jews and Gentiles coming from the four -quarters of the world unto Christ. All the stones be polished and -squared; that is, all the saints be pure and firm: the which also be -placed so as to last for ever by the hands of the Chief Workman. Of -these some be borne and do not bear, as the more simple folk in the -Church; some be borne and do also bear, as the middling sort; others -do only bear, and be not borne, save by Christ alone. Who is the -single Cornerstone. And in this house by how much anyone doth differ -from and excel others, by so much being the more humble doth he hold -up more of the building. One charity doth join all together after the -fashion of cement: and the living stones be bound together by the bond -of peace. The towers be the preachers and the prelates of the Church: -who are her wards and defence. - - [Footnote 565: Psalm lxxx (_Fundamenta ejus_), I.] - -{165} - -Whence saith the bridegroom unto his spouse in the Song of Songs: 'Thy -neck is like the tower of David builded for an armoury.' [Footnote -566] The cock which is placed thereon representeth preachers. For the -cock in the deep watches of the night divideth the hours thereof with -his song: he arouseth the sleepers; he foretelleth the approach of -day; but first he stirreth up himself to crow by the striking of his -wings. Behold ye these things mystically: for not one is there without -meaning. The sleepers be the children of this world, lying in sins. -The cock is the company of preachers, which do preach sharply, do stir -up the sleepers to cast away the works of darkness, crying, 'Woe to -the sleepers: awake thou that sleepest'; which also do foretell the -coming of the light, when they preach of the day of judgment and -future glory. But wisely before they preach unto others do they rouse -themselves by virtues from the sleep of sin, and do chasten their -bodies. Whence saith the Apostle, 'I keep under my body and bring it -into subjection. [Footnote 567] The same also do turn themselves to -meet the wind when they bravely do contend against and resist the -rebellious by admonition and argument, lest they should seem to flee -when the wolf cometh. The iron rod upon which the cock sitteth, -showeth the straightforward speech of the preacher; that he doth not -speak from the spirit of man, but according to the scriptures of God: -as it is said, 'If any man speak, let him speak as the oracles of -God.' [Footnote 568] In that this rod is placed above the cross, it -is shown that the words of Scripture be consummated and confirmed by -the cross: whence our Lord said in His Passion, 'It is finished.' -[Footnote 569] And His title was indelibly written over Him. - - [Footnote 566: Cant. iv, 4. ] - - [Footnote 567: I Corinthians ix, 27.] - - [Footnote 568: I S. Peter iv, 2.] - - [Footnote 569: S. John xix.] - -{166} - -The ball (_tholus_) upon which the cross is placed doth signify -perfection by its roundness: since the Catholic faith is to be -preached and held perfectly and inviolably: 'Which faith, except a man -do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish -everlastingly.' Or else the ball doth signify the world redeemed by -the price of the Cross: on which account the cross is placed over it. -The cock being set over the cross signifieth that the preacher ought -to make sure this point, that Christ redeemed the world by His Cross. -The pinnacle and turret show the mind or life of a prelate who tendeth -unto things above. The bells, by the voice of which the people are -called together unto the church, typify also preachers: the which -being necessary for many uses, are called by many names. The clapper, -which causeth the sound from the two sides of the bell, is the tongue -of the preacher which causeth both Testaments to resound. The wooden -frame, whence the bell hangeth, signifieth the Cross; the cramps, -charity; by which charity the preacher, being fast bound to the Cross, -boasteth, saying, 'God forbid that I should glory save in the Cross of -our Lord Jesus Christ' [Footnote 570] The rope is the life and -humility of the preacher. Whence the Apostle saith, 'He condescendeth -towards others. Whether we exalt ourselves it is for God; whether we -abase ourselves it is for you.' [Footnote 571] The rings on the rope -are perseverance and the crown of reward. The glazed windows of the -church be the Holy Scriptures, which do ward off the wind and the -rain, that is, do repel all hurtful things; and when they do transmit -the brightness of the True Sun by day into the church, they do give -light to them that be therein. These be wider within than without, -because the sense mystical is more ample and more pre-eminent than the -sense literal. These be frequented of preachers, 'who do fly as a -cloud and as the doves to the windows.' [Footnote 572] - - [Footnote 570: Galatians vi, 14.] - - [Footnote 571: 2 Corinthians v, 13. Vulgate.] - - [Footnote 572: Isaiah lx, 8.] - -{167} - -Also by the windows the five senses of the body be signified: which -ought to be narrow without, lest they should take in vanities, but -should be wide within to receive spiritual good. The door is Christ: -whence the Lord saith in the Evangele, 'I am the door.' [Footnote -573] The pillars be doctors; who do hold up spiritually the temple of -God by their doctrine, as do the evangelists also the throne of God. -These, for the harmony of divine eloquence, be called silver columns: -according to that of the Song of Songs, 'He made the pillars thereof -of silver.' [Footnote 574] The stalls do denote the contemplative: -in whom God doth rest without offence. These, for that they do -contemplate the highest divinity and glory of the eternal life, be -compared unto gold: whence in the aforesaid Song of Songs it is said, -'He made a golden bed.' [Footnote 575] The beams be such as -spiritually sustain the Church: the ceilings such as adorn it and -strengthen it; of the which (because they be not corrupted by vices) -the bride glorieth in the same Canticles, saying, 'The beams of our -house are cedar and our rafters of fir.' [Footnote 576] For God hath -built His Church of living stones and imperishable wood: according to -that, 'Solomon made himself a litter of the wood of Lebanon; -[Footnote 577] that is Christ of His saints made white by chastity. -The chancel, when lower than the body of the church, showeth -mystically how great humility ought to be in the clergy: according to -the saying, 'The greater thou art the more humble thyself.' [Footnote -578] The altar signifieth Christ, without Whom no acceptable gift is -offered unto the Father. Whence the Church uttereth her prayers unto -the Father _through_ Christ. The vestments with which the altar is -adorned be the saints of whom the Prophet speaketh unto God, saying, -'Thou shalt surely clothe Thee with them all as with an ornament.' -[Footnote 579] - - [Footnote 573: S. John x.] - - [Footnote 574: Cant, iii, 10.] - - [Footnote 575: Cant, iii, 10.] - - [Footnote 576: Cant, i, 17.] - - [Footnote 577: Cant, iii, 9.] - - [Footnote 578: Eccles. iii, 18.] - - [Footnote 579: Isaiah xlix, 18.] - -{168} - -The steps by which we ascend unto the altar do spiritually denote the -apostles and martyrs of Christ who have shed their blood for the love -of Him. The bride in the Canticles saith, 'The ascent unto it is -purple, the midst thereof being paved with love.' [Footnote 580] -Furthermore, the fifteen virtues be expressed by the fifteen steps -with which they went up unto the temple of Solomon: and the same be -shown by the prophet in the fifteen continuous Psalms, which the -righteous man hath disposed as steps or degrees in his heart. -[Footnote 581] This is the ladder which Jacob saw, the top of which -touched the heavens. The lights of the church be they by whose -doctrine the Church shineth as the sun and the moon; unto whom it is -said by our Lord's voice, [Footnote 582] 'Ye are the light of the -world.' They be also the examples of good works: whence He saith in -His admonitions, 'Let your light so shine before men.' [Footnote -583] In that the church is adorned joyfully within but not without, is -shown morally that its 'Glory is all from within.' [Footnote 584] -For although it be contemptible externally, yet doth it shine within -in the soul, which is the abode of God: whence the Church saith, 'I am -black but comely.' [Footnote 585] And again, 'Yea, I have a goodly -heritage.' [Footnote 586] Which the Prophet considering, saith, -'Lord, I have loved the habitation of Thy house: and the place where -Thine honour dwelleth,' [Footnote 587] which place also Faith, Hope, -and Charity do spiritually adorn. - - [Footnote 580: Cant, iii, 10. Vulgate.] - - [Footnote 581: The fifteen Psalms, cxx-cxxxiv of our version, are - called Songs of Degrees.] - - [Footnote 582: S. Matthew v.] - - [Footnote 583: Ibid.] - - [Footnote 584: Here is an allusion to Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor - meum_), 14. ] - - [Footnote 585: Cant, i, 5.] - - [Footnote 586: Psalm xvi (_Conserva me Domine_), 7.] - - [Footnote 587: Psalm xxvi (_Judica me Domine_), 8. ] - -{169} - -The cross of triumph is placed in the middle of the church, because -the Church loveth her Redeemer in the middle of her heart, and 'the -midst thereof is paved with love for the daughters of Jerusalem.' -[Footnote 588] The which as a sign of victory, let all who see say one -and all, 'Hail, salvation of the whole world: hail, life-giving Tree!' -Wherefore, lest we should ever forget the love of God for us, 'Who -gave his only-begotten Son' to redeem us His servants, the Church -armeth herself in her bosom and forehead with this sign, signifying -that the mystery of the cross must always be believed by us in our -heart, and confessed openly with our mouth. The figure of which went -before her in Egypt. But when we cross ourselves from the forehead -downwards, and then from the left to the right, we do set forth this -mystery, that God 'bowed the heavens and came down,' to teach us to -prefer things eternal unto things temporal. But by this sign the army -of the devil is overthrown; the Church triumpheth, 'terrible as an -army with banners.' [Footnote 589] 'How dreadful is this place: this -is none other but the house of God.' [Footnote 590] And the Hymn -saith, 'The banners of the King come forth: the Cross unfolds its -mystery.' [Footnote 591] Round this do the heavenly legions rally. Of -this it is written, 'I saw the holy city. New Jerusalem, coming down -from God out of heaven.' [Footnote 592] - - [Footnote 588: Cant. iii, 10.] - - [Footnote 589: Cant, vi, 10.] - - [Footnote 590: Genesis xxviii, 17.] - - [Footnote 591: The hymn, _Vexilla Regis_, occurs in the office for - Passion Sunday.] - - [Footnote 592: Apoc. xxi, 2.] - -For the Church is militant here; in her home she doth reign: a part is -in pilgrimage, a part in glory. That which is in pilgrimage coming up -from her exile through the desert, doth sigh for her home, from the -'waters of Babylon for the heavenly Jerusalem;' while the other part, -continually seeing peace, doth hold perpetual festival. Thus the -heavenly city of Jerusalem is called the 'vision of peace.' -[Footnote 593] - - [Footnote 593: See note 4 on the _Rationale_, I. i, p. 13.] - -{170} - -How glorious is her kingdom, 'glorious things are spoken of thee, thou -city of God.' [Footnote 594] Her guardians be the citizens of -heaven, the legions of angels with the glorious company of the -apostles, the prophets, and the patriarchs, the armies of martyrs -robed in purple, the flowers of virgins, the verdant choir of -confessors, compassed about with the universal assembly of all the -saints, chaste and glorified! And this wondrous court of heaven is yet -more wondrously adorned by that one incomparable jewel, the Virgin -Mother, 'whose like there ne'er hath been, whose like there ne'er -shall be.' But how great is the admiration of all in beholding the -King Himself, and how harmonious be the songs in praise of Him; this -is known to those alone, who have deserved to stand amongst the happy -throng, and to behold the mystery of the Trinity and the glory of -Christ: Who is encircled by the angelic choirs; upon Whom the angels -desire continually to gaze. To behold this the Immortal King face to -face, the Church below is preparing herself: and while she keepeth -here her feasts of time, she is remembering the festivals of her home -and of eternity; in which the bridegroom is hymned by angelical -instruments. And all the saints continually celebrating the day of -great festivity 'which the Lord hath made,' cease not in their nuptial -songs to laud the eternal bridegroom, the beautiful in form above the -sons of men; Him who hath chosen the Church for Himself of His free -mercy. Of whom, as He had seen her from eternity, He saith, 'I will -get Me to the mountain of myrrh, and to the hill of frankincense and -will speak unto my spouse.' [Footnote 595] For whom 'He came forth -as a bridegroom out of His chamber, and rejoiced as a giant to run his -course'; [Footnote 596] when He went forth from His Father, and -returned unto His Father--went forth indeed even unto Hades, returned -unto the Throne of God--to make all His elect, from the beginning even -unto the end of the world, one kingdom in the vision of the Supreme -Trinity: in which is glorified 'one God world without end.' - - [Footnote 594: Psalm lxxxvii (_Fundamenta ejus_), 2.] - - [Footnote 595: Cant, iv, 6.] - - [Footnote 596: Psalm xix (_Caeli enarrant_), 5.] - -{171} - - - -CHAPTER II - -OF THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH - - - -With what carefulness and love Christ doth adorn the bride for Himself -and prepare her for her heavenly dedication, is in part signified by -the consecration of the material church. The bishop compasseth the -church to be dedicated three times, sprinkling it with holy water, the -clergy and people following him. - -239 A. In the meanwhile without and within there be burning twelve -lamps. So often as he cometh to the door (which for a mystical reason -is shut), the bishop smiteth the lintel with his pastoral staff, -saying 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lift up, ye -everlasting doors, and the King of Glory shall come in.' [Footnote -597] - - [Footnote 597: Psalm xxiv (_Domini est terra_).] - -The deacon answereth, 'Who is the King of Glory?' To whom the bishop, -'The Lord of Hosts: He is the King of Glory.' At the third time, the -door being thrown open, he entereth with the clergy and people, -saying, 'Peace be to this house.' Then he performeth the other -ceremonies which pertain to dedication. But whatever things be here -done visibly, the same doth God work by His invisible power in the -soul, which is the true Temple of God: wherein Faith layeth the -foundation, Hope raiseth the buildings, and Charity finisheth it. Also -the Church Catholic herself, being made one out {172} of many stones, -is the temple of God; because many temples make one temple, of which -there is one Lord and one Faith. Wherefore the house must be -dedicated; the soul sanctified. Water is penitence: salt, wisdom; the -threefold aspersion, the threefold immersion in baptism; the twelve -lights, the twelve apostles, preaching the mystery of the Cross; the -bishop, Christ; his staff, Christ's power; the three strokes on the -door, Christ's dominion over all things in heaven, earth, and hell: -'that all the threefold frame of things may bow the knee to Him, their -Lord.' Again, the question of the deacon within is the ignorance of -the people; the opening of the door, the ejection of sin. The bishop -entering, prayeth for peace on the house, and Christ entering the -world maketh peace between God and men. Then prostrate he prayeth unto -the Lord for its sanctification: and so Christ, humbled in His -Passion, prayed for His disciples and them that should believe, -saying, 'Father, sanctify them in Thy truth.' [Footnote 598] - - [Footnote 598: S. John xvii.] - -Arising he does not give the salutation but only prayeth: because they -who be not yet sanctified must not be blessed but only prayed for. The -writing the alphabet upon the pavement is the simple teaching of faith -in the heart of man. The line drawn from the left corner of the east -unto the right corner of the west, and the other line from the right -of the east unto the left of the west, do express the Cross, and also -the gathering in of both peoples: according as Jacob blessed the -children of Joseph with his hands crossed. [Footnote 599] - - [Footnote 599: Genesis xxviii] - -For although Christ passing from the east did leave the Jews, because -they would not believe, on His left hand, and did come unto the -Gentiles; to whom, though they had been in the west. He granteth to be -on the right hand: yet will he again, passing from the Gentiles who be -placed in the {173} right of the east, visit the Jews in the left hand -corner: who, it is evident, be worse than He first found the Gentiles. -The staff with which the alphabet is described typifieth the ministry -of teachers, by which the conversion of the Gentiles is effected and -that of Jews perfected. In that afterwards the bishop standing before -the altar saith, 'O God, make speed to save us'; he doth signify those -who having received the faith are preparing themselves to fight. And -because they be still in conflict, and as it were amongst sighs, the -Alleluia is not yet added. After this the water is blessed with salt -and ashes; wine mixed with water being also added. The water is the -people; the salt, doctrine; the ashes, the remembrance of the Passion -of Christ. The wine mixed with water is Christ, God and Man; the wine -His Godhead, the water His Manhood. Thus the people is sanctified by -the doctrines of faith and remembrance of the Passion, being united -with its Head both God and Man. Whence the altar and the church be -sprinkled within; to show that within, as without, the spiritual -Church must be sanctified. The aspersory, made of hyssop, denoteth -humility; with which grace the Catholic Church being sprinkled is -purified. The bishop compasseth the church in lustration and as if -bestowing his care upon all. In the meanwhile is chanted the Psalm, -'Let God arise and his enemies be scattered,' with its proper response -and antiphon, which is followed by another, 'Whoso dwelleth under the -defence of the most high.' Then the bishop chanteth, 'My House shall -be called an House of Prayer,' and also, 'I will tell out thy name -among my brethren.' And because no work can prosper without God, he -prayeth in conclusion that they may be heard who shall enter therein -to pray for blessings. After this he approacheth unto the altar, -saying, 'I will go up unto the altar of the Lord,' with the whole -Psalm: and what remains of the water {174} he poureth away at the base -of the altar, committing unto God that which surpasseth human -abilities in so great a sacrament. After this the altar is wiped with -a linen cloth. The altar is Christ, the cloth is his flesh, brought by -the beating of His Passion unto the whiteness and glory of -immortality. Next the bishop offereth upon the altar frankincense, -which is burnt in the shape of a cross in the middle thereof; and at -its four corners he maketh crosses with sanctified oil. Then upon each -of the four walls of the church there be made three crosses with the -same oil: and the consecration being thus finished, the altar is -covered with a white veil. Incense, prayers, and oil do denote the -grace of the Holy Ghost. Whose fulness--'like the precious ointment -upon the head that ran down unto the beard: even unto Aaron's beard,' -[Footnote 600] --came down upon the apostles and their disciples: who -preached the mystery of the Cross through the four quarters of the -world, the Lord working with them. The white covering doth typify the -joy of immortality: concerning which the Son exulteth, saying unto the -Father, 'Thou hast put off my sackcloth, and girded me with gladness.' -[Footnote 601] - - [Footnote 600: Psalm cxxxiii (_Ecce quam bonum_), 2.] - - [Footnote 601: Psalm xxx (_Exaltabo te Domine_), 12.] - - - -{175} - -APPENDIX A - -CHANCELS - - - -'The temple of old was divided into two parts by a veil hung in the -middle thereof. The first part was called the Holy Place, but the -inner part the Holy of Holies. Whatever part then of the office of the -Mass cometh before the secret [Footnote 602] is performed as it were -in the outer place: but the secret itself within the Holy of Holies. -There were in the Holy of Holies the altar of incense, the ark of the -testimony, the mercy-seat above the ark, and over this two cherubims -of glory with their faces looking towards each other. Herein the high -priest entered alone once in the year, having the names of the -patriarchs written upon the breastplate of judgment and the -shoulderplates, and bearing a censer of burning coals and blood, and -incense, which with prayer he placed in the thurible until the cloud -of incense covered him. [Footnote 603] - - [Footnote 602: After the _Sanctus_, which, as we shall find, was - performed with the full choir and the accompaniment of organs, came - the _secret_, which embraced the whole _Canon of the Mass_, - performed by the celebrant alone, and the celebration of the Holy - Eucharist. 'It is called the secret because these things be hidden - from us, since the nature of man can in no wise fully comprehend so - great a mystery: for the denoting of which it is rightly performed - secretly. To signify the same also, the priest when entering upon - the secret is veiled as it were with the side curtains.' See other - mystical reasons adduced in the remainder of this passage, Book IV, - Chapter 35, and in Chapter 39 an account of the side curtains. Upon - the use of these see also the _Dublin Review_, vol. x, p. 339. ] - - [Footnote 603: See Leviticus xvi; Exodus xxviii, xxxix, and xl.] - -{176} - -Afterwards he sprinkled the mercy-seat and the altar with blood, and -then he went out to the people, and washed his vestments in the -evening. These were types of old, but they have ceased since the -things signified thereby have come. But thus the former temple doth -denote the present church; the Holy of Holies, heaven; the high -priest, Christ; the blood, His Passion; the coals, His love; the -thurible. His flesh; the burning incense, prayers of sweet savour; the -altar, the hosts of heaven; the ark, Christ in His humanity; the -mercy-seat, God the Father; the two cherubims, the twain Testaments, -the which do look towards each other because the two do agree; the -vestments which be washed, mankind. Wherefore consider what things -were done of old, and what things Christ hath done, and then see how -the minister of the Church doth represent the same in the office of -the Mass. By the ark also is signified the humility of Christ, from -which through his mercy all good hath come unto us' (Durandus, Book -IV, Preface 13, 14). - -In the next section the same subject is further illustrated, though -without reference to the immediate subject of this appendix, the -necessity of the division of every church into a chancel and nave. - -The reader may consult a most interesting series of chapters in Hugo -de Sancto Victore (Tituli ii-viii, Ex. Misc. II, Lib. IV) upon this -subject: the passages are far too long for insertion here. - -The _absolute necessity_ of this twofold division is a point which it -is more than painful at this time to have to prove. It is only within -the last two centuries that our own or any branch of the Church -Catholic has dared to depart from an usage which, if any, has -universality, antiquity, and consent on its side, and of whose -authority was never any doubt in the Church. {177} For some of the -arguments which have been adduced in the present controversy we must -refer to the publications of the Cambridge Camden Society, and -particularly the _Ecclesiologist_. There is nothing more wanted than a -careful treatise on the subject which shall in a compendious form put -this and several points depending upon it, such as orientation itself, -and praying towards the east, in a clear light. - - - - - -APPENDIX B - -ORIENTATION - -'Furthermore albeit God is everywhere, yet ought the priest at the -altar and in the offices to pray towards the east: according to the -constitutions of Vigilius, Pope. Whence in churches which have the -doors at the west, he that celebrateth turneth in the salutations to -the people: but in churches which have the entrance at the east, -[Footnote 604] as at Rome, there is no need in the salutations for -turning round, because the priest always turneth to the people. The -temple also of Solomon, and the tabernacle of Moses had their entrance -from the east. Pray we therefore towards the east, being mindful, -firstly, that He, Who is the splendour of eternal light, hath -illuminated 'them [Footnote 605] that sit in darkness and the shadow -of death, rising with healing in his wings': [Footnote 606] of whom -it is said, 'Behold the man, whose name is the East.' [Footnote 607] -For the which cause he saith in the book of Wisdom, [Footnote 608] -{178} 'We ought to pray eastward, where the light ariseth.' Not -because the Divine Majesty is locally in the east: which is -potentially and essentially in all places; as it is written, 'Do not I -fill [Footnote 609] heaven and earth'; and in like manner speaketh -the Prophet, [Footnote 610] 'If I ascend into heaven. Thou art there: -if I go down to hell, Thou art there also': but because to those 'who -fear His name shall [Footnote 611] the sun of righteousness arise,' -'which lighteth every man that Cometh into the world.' [Footnote -612] - - [Footnote 604: S. John Lateran is an instance. We may observe that - the reasons for the orientation of churches must have been very - strong to have caused an universal disregard of an example thus set - at the centre of Western Christendom.] - - [Footnote 605: S. Luke i, 79.] - - [Footnote 606: Malachi iv, 2.] - - [Footnote 607: Zechariah vi, 12. ] - - [Footnote 608: Wisdom xvi, 28.] - - [Footnote 609: Jeremiah xxiii, 24.] - - [Footnote 610: Psalm cxxxix (_Domine probasti_), 7.] - - [Footnote 611: Malachi iv, 2.] - - [Footnote 612: S. John i, 9.] - -Secondly, that our souls be thereby taught to turn themselves to the -things that are more desirable. - -Thirdly, because they who praise God ought not to turn their backs on -Him. - -Fourthly, according to Joannes Damascenus (who giveth also the three -following reasons), [Footnote 613] to show that we seek our country. - - [Footnote 613: _Quatuor orationes._ We should probably read, - _rationes_.] - -Fifthly, that we may look upon Christ crucified, who is the True East. - -Sixthly, that we may prove that we expect Him to come to be our Judge. -For Damascenus saith in that place, 'God planted a garden eastward'; -[Footnote 614] whence man's sin made him an exile, and instead of -Paradise made him to dwell in the west: therefore, looking to our -ancient home, we pray towards the east. - - [Footnote 614: Genesis ii, 8.] - -Seventhly, because our Lord, at His Crucifixion, looked towards the -east: and also when he ascended into heaven. He ascended towards the -east: and thus the apostles adored Him: and thus 'He shall come again -in like manner as they saw Him go into heaven.' [Footnote 615] - - [Footnote 615: Acts i, 11.] - -Eighthly, Daniel likewise in the Jewish captivity prayed towards the -temple. - -{179} - -Yet Augustine saith that 'no Scripture hath taught us to pray towards -the east' [He, however, says also, 'Though I find not a thing on -record in Scripture, yet I receive it as proceeding from the apostles -if the Universal Church embrace it'] [Footnote 616] (Durandus V, ii, -57). - - [Footnote 616: This section is in several places corrupt: for - example--from Damascenus the quotation in the sixth head belongs - properly to the seventh. - - Our readers may perhaps be reminded of the anecdote of the good Earl - of Derby (who, if the Reformed Church in England should ever have a - calendar of her own, will assuredly be one of its martyrs), when on - the scaffold. The church of Bolton was in sight: and the Earl - requested that he might be allowed to kneel on the western side of - the block, so that the last object on which his eyes were fixed - might be God's house. His executioners showed their poor malice to - the last, by denying him this wish.] - -S. Isidore has a curious passage about orientation. A place, he says, -designed so as to face the east was called _templum_, from -_contemplating_. Of which there were four parts; the front facing the -east, the back the west, the right hand the south, and the left hand -the north: whence also when they builded temples, they took their east -at the equinox, so that lines drawn from east to west would make the -sections of the sky on the right and left hands equal, in order that -he who prayed might look at the direct east (Orig. XV, iv). - - - -APPENDIX C - -ON THE DESIGN OF THE ANALOGIUM, AMBO OR ROOD LOFT, -AND THE READING OF THE GOSPEL FROM IT - - -1. We have noted afore, that the priest, in the celebration of Mass, -when it is not High Mass, himself readeth the gospel. But when a -bishop or priest celebrateth High Mass with the highest solemnity, -then, in some churches, as at Rome, the deacon having kissed the {180} -right hand of the bishop, taketh the book of the gospel from the -altar, and giveth it to the sub-deacon to bear, and asketh and -receiveth the bishop's or priest's blessing. But in other churches, he -first asketh for the blessing before he taketh the book. The -benediction having been bestowed, the deacon proceedeth along the -south side [Footnote 617] of the choir to the rood loft, and before -him goeth the sub-deacon with the volume of the gospel, and before him -the incense-bearer with incense; and before him the torch-bearer with -lighted tapers, and before him in some churches the banner of the -cross: and thus they ascend the rood loft. And the deacon readeth the -gospel: the which being finished, they return to the priest or bishop -together. Which things we will more particularly go through. It is -also to be noted, that in some churches, the deacon, when about to go -to the rood loft, beginneth the antiphon which followeth benedictus in -the nocturns, and while he is going thither, it is taken up, and -finished by the chorus, to set forth charity: and it is sung without -instruments, to denote that God commandeth us to have love alone. And -now is the figure changed: for the deacon, who before represented S. -John Baptist, now setteth forth S. John Evangelist: because 'the law -and the prophets were until John: [Footnote 618] and after him the -kingdom of heaven is preached.' - - [Footnote 617: As is well known, double staircases to rood lofts - appear to have been almost as common in England as single ones: and - there are sometimes, especially in Norfolk churches, two - corresponding rood turrets.] - - [Footnote 618: 2 S. Luke xvi, 16.] - -2. And the word _evangelium_ meaneth good tidings; from [Greek text], -well, and [Greek text], a messenger. For the preaching of Christ and -His apostles is indeed a gospel, as proclaiming Life after death, Rest -after labour, a Kingdom after slavery. - -{181} - -3. And ye are to wit, that as the head hath pre-eminence over the -other members of the body, and as the other members obey it: so the -gospel is the principal thing of all that are said in the office of -the Mass, and hath the pre-eminence, and whatever things be there -read, or sung, they consent to it, as may well be perceived. - -4. The deacon therefore first kisseth the hand of the bishop in -silence, because the preacher must proclaim the gospel for the sake of -eternal glory, as saith the spouse in the Canticles, 'His right hand -shall embrace me.' [Footnote 619] Also because the angel which came -to announce the glory of Christ's Resurrection did sit on the right -hand, clothed in white. [Footnote 620] In other churches, however, he -doth not kiss, but only bowing asketh for a blessing. But the -sub-deacon or deacon doth not kiss the hands, but the feet, of the -Roman Pontiff, that he may exhibit the greatest reverence to the -greatest bishop, and show that he is His Vicar, Whose feet the woman -that was a sinner kissed. [Footnote 621] For his footstool is to be -adored because it is holy. Whose feet also, when He had risen from the -dead, the woman held and adored. Generally, none ought to kiss the -hand of the Roman Pontiff, unless when he receiveth something from his -hands, or giveth something to them: to show that we ought on both -accounts to give thanks unto Him, Who giveth to all of His own, and -receiveth from none. - - [Footnote 619: Canticles ii, 6.] - - [Footnote 620: S. Mark xvi, 5.] - - [Footnote 621: S. Luke vii, 37.] - -5. The deacon incontinently thereafter taketh the book of the gospel -from the altar, because the 'Law shall go forth out of Sion, and the -Word of the Lord from Jerusalem': [Footnote 622] not the Mosaic Law -which went forth of Sinai, but the Gospel Law, of which the Prophet -saith, 'Behold the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new -covenant with the house of Jacob and with the house of Israel.' -[Footnote 623] - - [Footnote 622: Micah iv, 2.] - - [Footnote 623: Jeremiah xxxi, 31.] - -{182} - -The book is also taken from the altar, because the apostles received -the gospel from the altar, when they went about preaching the Passion -of Christ. Or the altar in this place signifieth the Jews, from whom -the kingdom of God is taken, and given unto a nation that will do its -fruits: and from this, that the gospel is taken from the altar, we -learn, that it is the Word of God, which is signified by the altar, -according to that saying, 'An altar of earth shall ye make unto me.' -[Footnote 624] - - [Footnote 624: Exodus xx, 24.] - -6. But he taketh it, according to some, from the right side of the -altar: because the Church of the Jews, whence our Church springeth, -was situate in the east: and placeth it on the left, as it is written, -'His left hand is under my head, and his right hand doth embrace me': -[Footnote 625] and that for a threefold cause. Firstly, the gospel -teacheth that things celestial, which be signified by the right, be -preferred to things terrestrial, which the left hand setteth forth. -Secondly, the book is inclined on the left shoulder, to signify that -the preaching of Christ shall pass from the Gentiles, as it is -written: 'In those days Israel shall be saved.' [Footnote 626] -Thirdly, because in temporal life, which is set forth by that side, -needful is it that Christ should be preached: and the book of the -gospel is in some churches adorned on the outside with gold and gems. -But the book remaineth on the altar, from the time that the priest -goeth there, till the gospel be read, because it, in this respect, -signifieth Jerusalem: since the gospel was first preached in -Jerusalem, and remained there from the advent of the Lord till it was -published to the Gentiles. As he saith, 'From Sion shall go forth the -laws.' [Footnote 627] For Jerusalem was the place of the Passion, -which is also set forth by the altar. - - [Footnote 625: Canticles ii, 6.] - - [Footnote 626: Romans xi, 26.] - - [Footnote 627: Micah iv, 2.] - -{183} - -7. Thereafter he seeketh the benediction: because none must preach -unless he be sent. According to that saying, 'How shall they preach, -except they be sent?' [Footnote 628] And the Lord saith to His -disciples, 'Pray ye therefore the Lord of the harvest that He may send -forth labourers into His harvest.' [Footnote 629] But Esaias, when -he had heard the voice of the Lord, saying, 'Whom shall I send, and -who will go for us?' [Footnote 630] made answer and said, 'Here am -I, send me.' And the Lord said, 'Go and tell this people,' etc. - - [Footnote 628: Romans x, 15.] - - [Footnote 629: S. Matt, ix, 38.] - - [Footnote 630: Isaiah vi, 8, 9.] - -8. Again, Moses prefigured this kind of blessing: who, when he had -ascended unto the mountain, received the tables of the law and the -blessing, and gave the commandment to the people. And the Lord also -Himself blessed the order of deacons, and gave it the Holy Spirit and -sent it to preach through the whole world. The bishop therefore, or -the priest, visibly blesseth the deacon who is about to read the -gospel, which he did not do to the sub-deacon when about to read the -epistle, because Christ sent the law and the prophets, which be -signified by the epistle, while he remained hidden from the world: but -after that he had visited it, and conversed with men He sent forth His -apostles and evangelists, and taught them, saying, 'Go and teach, -saying, the kingdom of heaven is at hand.' [Footnote 631] 'And they -went through the villages, evangelising, and doing cures everywhere.' -And he sendeth him to read the gospel, to note that Christ sent the -apostles to preach the kingdom of God. - - [Footnote 631: S. Matthew x, 7.] - -9. But the deacon, laying up in his heart the things which were said -in the benediction, must study to show himself pure in heart, clean in -words, chaste in deed, that he may be able to set forth the gospel -worthily, because the fountain of living waters, that is, the gospel, -doth not flow freely, except from Libanus, that is, from a chaste -heart, and a pure mouth. {184} For praise is not seemly in the mouth -of a sinner; nay rather of the sinner saith God, 'What hast thou to do -to set forth My ordinances, and take My covenant into thy mouth.' -[Footnote 632] And therefore he is fortified by the sign of the cross, -and then having received license and benediction, as is aforesaid, and -having made the sign of the cross, that he may walk in safety, -proceedeth to the rood loft in silence, with his eyes fixed on the -ground: bearing, according to the custom of some churches, nothing in -his hand, as the Lord commanded the apostles whom He sent to preach -the kingdom of God. 'Take,' saith He, 'nothing for the journey, and -salute no one.' [Footnote 633] But in other churches the deacon -beareth a book, as shall be said hereafter. But when he cometh to the -rood loft, he saluteth it, as entering into a house to which he -offereth peace, and passeth from the right side of the choir to the -left, as he had before transferred the book from the right to the left -side. For when the Jews had refused the Word of God, it was preached -to the Gentiles, who are understood by the left side. - - [Footnote 632: Psalm 1 (_Deus Deorum_) 16.] - - [Footnote 633: S. Matthew x, 10.] - -10. In the Roman Church, and in certain others, the sub-deacon -ascendeth the rood loft one way, [Footnote 634] and the deacon -another: because the one proceedeth to an increase of knowledge by -teaching, the other by learning: and because the minister by the merit -of his works, and the preacher by the merit of his words, proceedeth -to an increase of righteousness. Whence the Psalmist: 'Thy -righteousness standeth like the mountains of God': [Footnote 635] but -they both return to the bishop by the same way, because by final -perseverance they attain their reward, {185} as the Lord testifieth, -saying: 'He that endureth to the end, the same shall be saved.' -[Footnote 636] And that preaching sufficeth not without good deeds. -For 'Jesus began both to do and to teach.' [Footnote 637] Therefore -the preacher returneth by the same way by the which the minister had -gone up. Moreover, he that is about to read the gospel goeth and -ascendeth by one way, and returneth by another, according to that -saying, 'They returned into their own country another way': -[Footnote 638] because the apostles did first preach to the Jews and -then to the Gentiles: as it is written, 'Since ye have cast from you -the Word of God,' [Footnote 639] and the rest. - - [Footnote 634: _Per dextram partem._ We are to imagine, in the whole - of this description, the spectators supposed to face the altar. So - in the fifteenth chapter of this book, the epistle is said to be - read _in dextera parte_.] - - [Footnote 635: Psalm xxxvi (_dixit injustus_), 6. ] - - [Footnote 636: S. Matthew x, 22.] - - [Footnote 637: Acts i, 1] - - [Footnote 638: S. Matthew ii, 12.] - - [Footnote 639: Acts xiii, 46.] - -11. The sub-deacon precedeth the deacon (because John and his -preaching preceded Christ and His preaching), carrying in some -churches a cushion; which he may place under the book. By the cushion, -on which the book resteth, be set forth the temporal things of life, -as it is written: 'If we have sown spiritual things, is it a great -matter if we reap your temporal things?' [Footnote 640] For -according to the Apostle, 'They which serve the altar, eat of the -altar.' [Footnote 641] For 'the labourer is worthy of his hire.' -[Footnote 642] And the Lord taught us the law, 'Thou shalt not muzzle -the ox when it treadeth out the corn.' [Footnote 643] Again, a -cushion is placed under the book to denote that which the Lord saith, -'My yoke is easy, and My burden light.' [Footnote 644] Austin saith, -'To this yoke whosoever is subject, hath all things subject to him.' - - [Footnote 640: I Corinth, ix, 11.] - - [Footnote 641: I Corinth, ix, 13. ] - - [Footnote 642: S. Luke x, 7.] - - [Footnote 643: Deuteron. xxv, 4.] - - [Footnote 644: S. Matthew xi, 30.] - -The cushion therefore denoteth the sweetness and pleasure that ariseth -from the commands of God. Whence the Prophet, 'Thou, O God, hast of -Thy goodness prepared for the poor.' [Footnote 645] - - [Footnote 645: Psalm lxviii (_Exurgat Deus_), 10.] - -{186} - -And again, 'O how sweet are Thy words unto my taste.' [Footnote 646] -Yet in the Roman Church, the deacon goeth first, as the teacher: -sub-deacon followeth as the learner: the one precedeth, that he may -preach, the other followeth, that he may minister. But after the -reading of the Gospel, the sub-deacon, as being now sufficiently -instructed, returneth first, having in his hand the gospel, as -bringing back the gospel as the fruit of his ministrations: according -to that which the Lord promised: 'He that receiveth a prophet in the -name of a prophet shall receive a prophet's reward.' [Footnote 647] -Whom therefore the deacon sendeth aforehand to the bishop, to show -that he is bringing back the fruit of his preaching: concerning which -the Lord commanded, 'I have called you that ye should go and bring -forth fruit, and that your fruit should remain.' [Footnote 648] -Moreover, the deacon, bearing back the cushion and gospel, signifieth -that the preacher ought, by his good works, to offer his life to God. -Whence the Apostle, 'Whatsoever ye do in word and deed, do all in the -name of our Lord Jesus Christ.' [Footnote 649] - - [Footnote 646: Psalm cxix (_Beati immaculati_), 103.] - - [Footnote 647: S. Matthew x. 41.] - - [Footnote 648: S. John xv, 16.] - - [Footnote 649: Colos. iii 17.] - -12. The deacon also sendeth aforehand the thurible with incense, -because the works of Christ preceded His doctrine. As it is written, -'Jesus began to do, and to teach.' But the thurible with incense -signifieth prayer with devotion, which the faithful then chiefly ought -to employ when they hear the word of God. Again, he doth it, because -the preacher must send forth the sweet odour of good works: according -to that saying of the Apostle: 'We are a sweet savour of Christ in -every place.' [Footnote 650] He whose life is despised needs is it -that His preaching also is contemned. - - [Footnote 650: 2 Corinth, ii, 15.] - -. . . . . . - -{187} - -The cross precedeth the gospel in token that the preacher must follow -the Crucified. Whence the Lord saith to Peter, 'Follow Me.' After -this, the deacon ascendeth the _ambo_ [the rood loft]. - -17. Now _ambo_ meaneth the pulpit, whence the gospel is read, so -called from _ambio_ [to surround] because that place is surrounded -with steps. In some churches also there be two ascents, one left, -namely towards the east, where the deacon ascendeth; one to the right, -namely towards the west, where he descendeth. - -. . . . . - -18. He ascendeth that he may read the gospel with a loud and clear -voice: as that which is to be heard of all, according to that saying -of the Prophet, 'O thou that evangelisest to Sion, get thee up into -the high mountain.' [Footnote 651] - - [Footnote 651: Isaiah xi, 9.] - -. . . . . . - -Also that we may imitate our Lord, Who went up into a mountain, -[Footnote 652] that He might preach the gospel. The gospel is also -read in a lofty and eminent place, because it hath been preached -throughout all the world: as it is written: 'Their sound is gone out -unto all lands.' [Footnote 653] But the epistle is read in a lower -place, as typifying the law, which was confined to Judea alone, as it -is written: 'In Jewry is God known.' [Footnote 654] - - [Footnote 652: S. Matthew v, i.] - - [Footnote 653: Psalm xix (_Coeli enarrant_), 4.] - - [Footnote 654: Psalm lxxv (_Notus in Judea_), I.] - -. . . . . - -19. But in a Mass of requiem the gospel is not read in that exalted -place, but at the altar, to signify that preaching profiteth not the -departed. - -. . . . . - -20. Also the gospel is read from an eagle, according to that saying, -'He came flying upon the wings of the winds.' [Footnote 655] And the -eagle itself is covered with a covering of cloth or silk, on certain -feasts, to signify the softness of the heart: as he saith, 'I will -take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and will give you a heart -of flesh.' [Footnote 656] - - [Footnote 655: Psalm xviii (_Diligam Te_), 10] - - [Footnote 656: Ezekiel xi, 19. ] - -. . . . . - -{188} - -21. But he that readeth the gospel passeth to the left side: and -setteth his face to the north, that the saying may be fulfilled, which -is written, 'I will say to the north give up, and to the south keep -not back' [Footnote 657] (Durandus, Book IV, chap. xxiv). - - [Footnote 657: Isaiah xliii, 6.] - - - -APPENDIX D - -ON THE SIGN OF THE CROSS - - - -In the second chapter of his fifth book Durandus enters at great -length into this subject. The reason for making the sign is to drive -away evil spirits, who, as S. Chrysostome says, 'always flee when they -see the sign of the cross, as fearing that staff by which they have -been wounded.' The pole on which the brazen serpent was raised, the -crossing of Jacob's hands when blessing Joseph's children, the mark -_tau_ (Ezekiel ix, 4) on the forehead, and the seal on the forehead in -the Apocalypse, are some of the representations of the cross here -alleged. The cross is to be made with three fingers, that is, the -thumb and two fingers, in honour of the Trinity. The Jacobites and -Eutychians use only one finger. Next the different methods of crossing -are discussed. The sign ought to be made at the end of the gospel, the -creeds, the Lord's Prayer, the _Gloria in excelsis_, the _Sanctus_, -the _Agnus Dei_, the _Benedictus_, _Magnificat_, _Nunc dimittis_, at -the beginning of the hours, the end of the Mass, when the priest gives -the benediction, and whenever mention is made of the Cross of the -Crucified. See also our author in his sixth book _De die Parasceu_. - -{189} - -APPENDIX E - -ON THE FOUR COLOURS USED IN CHURCH HANGINGS, ETC. - - -1. There be four principal colours, by which, according to the -diversity of days, the Church distinguisheth her vestments: to wit, -white, red, black, and green. For we read that in the garments of the -law there were four colours, fine linen, purple, jacinth, scarlet. The -Roman Church also useth violet and saffron, as shall be said below. - -2. White vestments be used in the festivals of holy confessors, and -virgins which be not martyrs, on account of their integrity and -innocence. For it is written, 'Her Nazarites were whiter than snow.' -[Footnote 658] And again: 'They shall walk with Me in white: -[Footnote 659] for they are virgins: and follow the Lamb whithersoever -He goeth.' On account of the same thing white is used on the festivals -of angels; concerning whom the Lord saith to Lucifer: [Footnote 660] - - [Footnote 658: Lamentations iv, 7.] - - [Footnote 659: The bishop here confuses two passages, Apocal. iii, - 4, and xiv, 4. Of the same subject Laevinus Torrentius says - beautifully in his hymn on the Holy Innocents: - - Ergo supremi parte coeli, lactea qua lucidum fulget via, - Qua picta dulci stillat uva nectare, et nectar exhalant rosae, - Loeti coronis luditis, et insignium mixti puellarum choris - Sacrum canentes itis agnum candido quacunque praecedat pede.] - - [Footnote 660: A misquotation of the bishop's. The words are - addressed to Job. Job xxxviii, 7.] - -{190} - - -'Where wast thou .... when the morning stars sang together?' Also in -all the festivals of the Holy Mother of God. In the feast of All -Saints: yet some then use red. In the principal festival of S. John -Evangelist. [Footnote 661] In the conversion of S. Paul. In the -cathedra of S. Peter. [Footnote 662] Also from the vigil of the -nativity of our Lord to the octave of the Epiphany: both inclusive; -excepting the festivals of the martyrs included in that period. -[Footnote 663] In the nativity of our Lord, and also of His -Forerunner, because each was born pure. 'For the Lord rode upon a -light cloud,' [Footnote 664] that is, took unto Himself sinless -humanity, 'and entered Egypt,' that is, came into the world: as saith -the angel to the virgin, 'The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the -power of the Highest shall overshadow thee.' [Footnote 665] But -John, although he were born in sin, was sanctified from the womb: -according to that saying, 'Before thou camest forth from the womb I -sanctified thee.' [Footnote 666] And the angel saith to Zecharias, -'He shall be filled with the Holy Ghost from his mother's womb.' -[Footnote 667] Also white is used in the Epiphany, on account of the -splendour of that star which led the wise men, as saith the Prophet, -'and the Gentiles shall come to thy light, [Footnote 668] and kings -to the brightness of thy rising.' In the purification also, on account -of the purity of the Virgin Mary: which, according to Simeon, gave -birth to 'a light to lighten the Gentiles, and the glory of Thy people -Israel.' [Footnote 669] - - [Footnote 661: That is, on the 27th of December, the day of his - 'deposition': the other feast, kept in memory of his deliverance - from the boiling oil, before the Latin gate, and therefore called - _S. Joannes ante Portam Latinam_, is the 5th of May.] - - [Footnote 662: The 22nd of February.] - - [Footnote 663: Which are S. Stephen, the Holy Innocents, S. Thomas - of Canterbury.] - - [Footnote 664: Isaiah xix, 3.] - - [Footnote 665: S. Luke i; 35.] - - [Footnote 666: Jeremiah i, 3.] - - [Footnote 667: S. Luke i, 15.] - - [Footnote 668: Isaiah Ix, 3.] - - [Footnote 669: A very harsh construction: but surely preferable to - that by which the Blessed Virgin herself is spoken of as the - promised light.] - -{191} - -On Maundy Thursday, to set forth the anointing, which is consecrated -to the purification of the soul. For the gospel on that day -principally setteth forth purity; 'He that is washed needeth not save -to wash his feet, but is clean every whit': and again, 'If I wash thee -not, thou hast no part with me.' [Footnote 670] It is also used with -the office of the Mass from Easter Eve until the octave of the -Ascension inclusive: except on the rogation days and intervening -festivals of martyrs. On Easter Day, on account of the angel who -brought the tidings of the Resurrection, who appeared in white -garments: concerning whom Matthew testifieth, saying, 'His countenance -was as lightning, and his garment white as snow': [Footnote 671] and -also because children, when baptised, are clothed in white. So also on -the Ascension, because of the bright cloud in which Christ ascended. -'For two men stood by them in white garments, which also said. Ye men -of Galilee,' [Footnote 672] etc. - - [Footnote 670: S. John xiii, 10.] - - [Footnote 671: S. Matthew xxviii, 3.] - - [Footnote 672: Acts i, 11.] - -3. And this is to be noted, that albeit in the consecration of -bishops, the vestments be of the colour suitable for the day, at the -dedication of a church they be ever white, on what day soever the -ceremony be celebrated: since in the consecration of a bishop the Mass -of the day is sung, but in the dedication of a church, the Mass of -dedication is sung. For the Church is called by the title of a virgin: -according to that saying of the Apostle, 'For I have betrothed you to -one man, that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ.' -[Footnote 673] Concerning which saith the bridegroom in the Canticles: -'Thou art altogether fair, my love, and there is no spot in thee.' -[Footnote 674] But this vestment ought to be white, to signify that -her garments must at all times be pure, that is, her life must be -spotless. Also in the octaves of those of the aforesaid feasts which -have octaves, the white colour is used. - - [Footnote 673: 2 Corinthians ii, 11.] - - [Footnote 674: Canticles i, 15.] - -{192} - -4. Scarlet vestments are used on the festivals of the apostles, -evangelists, and martyrs, on account of the blood of their passion, -which they poured out for Christ. For 'these be they which came out of -great tribulation.' [Footnote 675] Except on the feast of the -innocents, as shall be said below. Also on the feast of the Cross, -because Christ on the cross poured out His blood for us. Whence the -Prophet, 'Wherefore is thine apparel red, as one that treadeth out the -wine vat?' [Footnote 676] But according to others, we then use white -vestments: because it is not the feast of the passion, but of the -invention, or exaltations. [Footnote 677] Also from the vigil of -Pentecost to Trinity Sunday inclusively: and this on account of the -fervour of the Holy Ghost, which appeared in fiery tongues on the -apostles. 'For there appeared unto them divers tongues as of fire.' -[Footnote 678] Whence the Prophet: 'He sent a fire in their bones.' -Although in the martyrdom of SS. Peter and Paul both red and white be -used: and in the nativity of S. John Baptist, white: but in his -decollation, red. - - [Footnote 675: Apocalypse vii, 14.] - - [Footnote 676: Isaiah lxiii, 2.] - - [Footnote 677: Both retained by our Church. The former (May 3) - instituted in commemoration of the discovery of the True Cross, by - S. Helena: the other (Sept. 14), which regulates the ember days in - that month, in honour of its recapture from Chosroes by the Emperor - Heraclius. ] - - [Footnote 678: Acts i, 1.] - -5. But when her festivity is celebrated, who was both a virgin and -martyr, the martyrdom taketh precedence of the virginity; because it -is a sign of the most perfect love: according as the Truth saith, -'Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for -his friends.' [Footnote 679] Wherefore on the commemoration of All -Saints, some use scarlet: but others, and among them the Roman Church, -white: at which time the Church saith, 'They shall walk in the sight -of the Lamb with white garments: and palms in their hands.' -[Footnote 680] - - [Footnote 679: S. John xv, 13.] - - [Footnote 680: Apocalypse vii, 9.] - - - -{193} - -Whence the spouse saith in the Canticles: 'My beloved is white and -ruddy: white in His confessors and virgins, ruddy in His apostles and -martyrs.' For these are the flowers of roses, and the lilies of the -valley. Again they who use scarlet on the feast of All Saints, do it -with that intent because that feast was first instituted in honour of -All Martyrs. [Footnote 681] But answer may be made that it was also -in honour of the blessed Virgin: and that at the present time, after -the decree of S. Gregory VII, the Church keepeth that day holy to the -memory of confessors and virgins. Also, the octaves of these days -follow the colour of the feasts themselves. - - [Footnote 681: This alludes to the history of the feast of All - Saints. Pope Boneface obtained a grant of the Pantheon from the - Emperor Phocas: and dedicated it in honour of S. Mary and All - Martyrs. This was on the 11th of May: and the feast of All Martyrs - was kept on that day under the title of _S. Maria ad Martyres_. S. - John, having confessed before the Latin gate on the 6th, the feast - was subsequently kept on that day. But Gregory IV transferred it to - Nov. 1st, because the harvest was then gathered in: and because the - feast of All Apostles being kept on May 1st, the other would answer - to it half-yearly. _All Martyrs_ occurs, in a solitary instance, as - an English dedication: _All Apostles_ not to be found in this - country, has been adopted in Germany. ] - -6. Black is used on Good Friday: and on days of abstinence and -affliction: and also in rogations. Moreover, in those processions -which the Roman Pontiff maketh with bare feet: and in Masses of -requiem, and Septuagesima to Easter Eve. For the spouse saith in the -Canticles, 'I am black but comely,' [Footnote 682] etc. But on the -feast of the Innocents, some use black on account of sadness, some -scarlet. The former allege the text, 'In Rama was a voice heard,' -[Footnote 683] etc. And for the same cause canticles of joy are -omitted: and the mitre is brought without the orfrey, on account of -the martyrdoms to which the Church hath principally an eye, when she -saith, 'I saw beneath the throne the souls,' [Footnote 684] etc. - - [Footnote 682: Canticles i, 5.] - - [Footnote 683: Jeremiah xxxi, 15; S. Matthew ii, 18.] - - [Footnote 684: Apocalypse vi, 9.] - -{194} - -(So also on Sunday, Laetare [Footnote 685] Jerusalem, the Roman -Pontiff beareth a mitre, beautified with the orfrey, on account of the -joy which the golden [Footnote 686] rose signifieth, but on account -of the time being one of sadness, he weareth black vestments.) But the -Roman Church, when the festival falleth on a week-day, useth violet, -but on the octave, red. - - [Footnote 685: Palm Sunday.] - - [Footnote 686: This refers to the celebrated golden rose blessed by - the Roman Pontiff on that day: and sent in token of approval to some - Catholic prince. Some of our readers may remember that which was - lately exhibited along with the golden altars of Basle.] - -7. In fine, on common days green vestments be employed: because green -is the middle colour between black, white, and red; and specially -between the octave of Epiphany and Septuagesima: and between Pentecost -and Advent, in the Sunday office, this colour is used. - -8. As he saith, 'Cypress with nard, nard and crocus.' [Footnote 687] -To these four colours be the others referred; to wit, the scarlet to -the red, [Footnote 688] the violet to the black, the fine linen to -the white, the saffron to the green. But some refer the roses to -martyrs, the saffron to confessors, the lilies to virgins. - - [Footnote 687: Canticles iii, 6. But the quotation is not exact.] - - [Footnote 688: This passage seems very corrupt.] - -9. It is not unmeet to use the violet on those days for which black is -appointed. Whence the Roman Church useth it from the first Sunday in -Advent, to the Mass of the vigil of the nativity, inclusive: and from -Septuagesima to Easter Eve exclusive. But on the feasts of Saints on -Septuagesima and Advent, violet or black is not to be used. And note -that on Easter Eve in the whole office before Mass violet is used, -except that the deacon who blesseth the taper, and the sub-deacon who -ministereth, wear a white dalmatic and tunic, respectively: because -that benediction pertaineth to the Resurrection, as doth also the -Mass. But the benediction being finished, the deacon putteth off the -dalmatic, and putteth on a violet chesible: the sub-deacon, however, -changeth not his vestments. {195} Some also use white in the -procession on Palm Sunday: and in the blessing of the boughs, and -while the hymn _Gloria, laus, et honor_, is sung, on account of the -joy of that festivity. But the Roman Church useth violet: as it doth -also in the procession on Candlemas Day; because that office treateth -of the anxious expectation of Simeon, and savoureth of the Old -Testament. - -10. It also useth that colour in the September ember days, and on the -vigils of saints, when the Mass is of the vigil: and on the rogation -days, and in Mass on S. Mark's Day. [Footnote 689] For when we fast, -then we bring under our flesh, that it may be conformed to that of -Christ, 'By the lividness of whose stripes we be healed.' [Footnote -690] - - [Footnote 689: Whether there be any superstitious fasting on S. - Mark's Day?' is a question which sometimes occurs in the Visitation - Articles of Archbp. Parker and his contemporaries.] - - [Footnote 690: Isaiah liii, 5.] - -The which to express we use violet, which is a pale, and as it were, a -livid colour (Durandus, Book III, 18). - - - -APPENDIX F - -OF BELLS BEING NOT RUNG FOR THREE DAYS BEFORE EASTER - -'On these three days the bells be silent, because the apostles and -preachers and others who be understood by bells were then silenced. -For the sound of bells doth signify the sound of preaching: of which -it is said, "Their sound hath gone out into all lands." For at that -time they no longer went round the towns and villages preaching the -gospel, but "after they had sung an hymn they went out with Jesus to -the Mount of Olives." To whom when the Lord had said, "Behold he is at -hand {196} that doth betray Me," they slumbered for sadness, and -ceased from praises. Whence also from compline, or vespers, when our -Lord was betrayed beginneth the silence of the bells. Others, however, -do not sound their bells beyond prime of this fifth day of passion -week.' (Durandus, Book VI, 72, 73). - - - - - -APPENDIX G - -The authority for the dedication festival is our Lord's observing the -feast of the dedication of the Temple. This festival has an octave: as -also had the Jewish feast, though the Passover and feast of -Tabernacles had not. - -'But this festival specially denoteth that eternal dedication, in -which that other church, the holy soul, shall be so dedicated and -united to God that it shall never be transferred to other uses: which -will take place in the octave of the Resurrection.' The Psalms for the -office of the festival are the _Domini est terra, Judica me Domine, -Deus noster refugium, Magnus Dominus, Quam dilecta, Fundamenta ejus_, -and _Domine Deus_ (Durandus, Book VII, 48). - - - - - -APPENDIX H - -ON THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH - - - -The following particulars are extracted and condensed from Martene's -invaluable work: and as his account is not easily accessible, and -somewhat long, it has been thought well to subjoin them here. - -{197} - -Churches were often, in the primitive ages, dedicated by more than one -bishop. Constantine having completed a magnificent church at -Jerusalem, invited the prelates, then assembled in council at Tyre, to -assist in its consecration (Euseb. _Vit. Const._ iv, 43; Sozomen. i, -46). - -Constantius his son, having finished a church erected by his father at -Antioch, Eusebius of Nicomedia, the intruding patriarch of -Constantinople, summoned a council under pretence of consecrating the -church, however much in reality to decide against the Catholic -doctrine of Consubstantiality. Ninety-seven bishops were present -(Sozomen. iii, 5). - -So it was also in the Western Church. This is proved by the Preface to -the Fourth Council of Aries, holden in 524: which begins, 'When the -priests of the Lord had assembled in the will of God to the dedication -of the church of S. Mary at Aries.' - -In the time of S. Louis, Pope Pascal I consecrated the church of S. -Vincent, with the Sacred College of Bishops and Cardinals. About the -year 1015, the crypt of the monastery of S. Michael was consecrated by -S. Bernard of Hildersheilm and two other bishops; and three years -afterwards, the church being finished, it was consecrated by the same -S. Bernard with three other bishops (_Vita S. Bernardi._ cap. xxxix, -xl). - -All these bishops took an actual part in the service. In the -consecration of the church of Mans, in 1120, the high altar was -consecrated by Gilbert, Archbishop of Mans: S. Julians by Galfred of -Rouen: Hildebert of Mans consecrated S. Mary's; Reginald of Anglers -that of the Holy Cross. There is a fine passage to the same point in -Sugerius's book on the dedication of the church of S. Denis: 'Right -early in the morning,' saith he, 'archbishops and bishops, archdeacons -and abbots, and other venerable persons, who had lived of their proper -{198} expense, bore themselves right bishopfully; and took their -places on the platform raised for the consecration of the water, and -placed between the sepulchres of the holy martyrs and S. Saviour's -altar. Then might ye have seen, and they who stood by saw, and that -with great devotion, such a band of so venerable bishops, arrayed in -their white robes, sparkling in their pontifical robes and precious -orfreys, grasp their pastoral staves, call on God in holy exorcism, -pace around the consecrated enclosure, and perform the nuptials of the -Great King with such care, that it seemed as though the ceremony were -performed by a chorus of angels, not a band of men. The crowd, in -overwhelming magnitude, rolled around to the door; and while the -aforesaid episcopal band were sprinkling the walls with hyssop, the -king and his nobles drive them back, repress them, guard the portals.' - -Yet the principal actor on the occasion was the bishop of the diocese. -The thirty-sixth canon of the second Council of Aries decrees, 'If a -bishop be minded to build a church in another diocese, let its -dedication be reserved for the diocesan.' S. Columbanus, being only a -priest, dedicated the church of S. Aurelia (Walfrid. Strabo. _Vita S. -Gallo_, cap. vi). - -The preceding night was spent either in the church or in neighbouring -churches in a solemn vigil. S. Ambrose testifies that this was done on -occasions of the dedication of the Ambrosian church (_Epist_. 22, _ad -Marcellina_). So S. Gregory of Mans, in his dedication of the church -of S. Julian, removed the relics of that saint into the church of S. -Martin, and there kept vigil (_De Glor. Mart_, ii, 34). - -Relics were considered indispensably necessary: so S. Paulinus -(_Epist_, xxxii, _ad Sever_.) This church was dedicated in the name of -Christ, the Saint of saints, the Martyr of martyrs, the Lord of lords, -and was honoured {199} with the relics of the blessed apostles. See -also the beautiful epistle of S. Ambrose, translated in 'The Church of -the Fathers.' The phrase was, _Consecrare ecclesiam de reliquiis Beati -n_. - -Yet some churches were consecrated without relics. The second Nicene -Council decreed that in this case they should be supplied. Those -portions of the consecrated elements were placed with these: to which -perhaps that expression of S. Chrysostom is to be referred--'What is -the altar by nature but a stone? But it is made holy, when it hath -once received the body of Christ.' - -These relics occupied different positions. In the church of S. -Benedict, consecrated by Pope Alexander II, there were relics in the -chapel-apse of S. John, in the bases of the piers, in the four angles -of the bell tower, in the cross on the western gable, in the cross of -the tower (_Chron. Cass_, iii, 30). - -Ashes were sprinkled on the floor, and the bishop with his pastoral -staff wrote on them the alphabet, sometimes in Latin alone, sometimes -in Greek also. - -The whole ceremony concluded with the endowment of the church: or, as -it was termed, presenting its dowry. - -By way of setting before our readers as clearly as possible the -ancient form of dedication, we have chosen, among ten forms preserved -by Martene, that of S. Dunstan. - -_Here beginneth the order of the dedication of a church. The bishops -and other ministers of the church advance singing the antiphon_, -'Zaccheus, make haste and come down,' etc. - -Prevent us, O Lord, in all our, etc. - -{200} - -_Then twelve candles are to be lighted, and placed round the church, -with the antiphon_, three from the east, three from the west, three -from the north, three from the south. - -God, which by the preaching of Thine apostles, didst open to Thy -Church the Kingdom of Heaven, and didst call them the Lights of the -world, grant, we beseech Thee, that being assisted by their prayers, -by whose teaching we are guided, and splendour illuminated, we may -make these our actions pleasing to Thy Divine Majesty. - -_Here followeth the Litany: the priests going thrice round the church, -and beginning from that door at which they be after to enter, namely, -the south door._ - -O Christ, hear us, etc. - -Prevent us, O Lord, with Thy tender mercy, and by the intercession of -Thy saints, receive our prayers graciously. - -Let our prayers, O Lord, come up before Thee, and expel all wickedness -from Thy Church. - -God, which rulest heaven and earth, graciously give us the aid of Thy -defence. - -_Then one of the deacons entering the church, and shutting the door -standeth before it, the others remaining without: and the bishop -striking it with his staff, saith:_ - -Lift up your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lift up, ye everlasting -doors, and the King of Glory shall come in. - -_The deacon within answereth_, and saith: Who is the King of Glory? - -_The Bishop._ Lift up, etc. - -_The Deacon._ Who is, etc. - -_The Bishop._ Lift up, etc. - -_The Deacon._ Who is, etc. - -_Chorus._ The Lord of Hosts, He is the King of Glory. - -{201} - -_The bishop again striking the door it is opened: and he entereth: the -chorus singing after him_, Lift up your heads, etc., _to the end of -the Psalm_. - -_The Bishop_. The Lord be with you. - -_Response_. And with thy spirit. - -_The Bishop_. Let us pray: - -We beseech Thee, O Lord, of Thy mercy, to enter Thy house, and to make -for Thyself an habitation in the hearts of the faithful. Through, etc. - -_Then the bishop entereth the choir, saying:_ - -Peace be to this house, and to all that are in it; peace to them that -come in, and to them that go out. - -Bless, O Lord, this house, which the sons of men have built for Thee: -hear those which shall come up to this place: hear their prayers in -the lofty throne of Thy glory. - -_The clerks begin the Litany; the bishop, with certain priests and -deacons, remaining prostrate at the altar._ - -Lord have mercy upon us, etc. - -_As soon as_ Agnus Dei _is said, the bishop, rising, saith:_ - -Let us pray. - -Be Thou exalted. Lord, in Thine own strength, etc. - -_Then the bishop shall write the alphabet along the pavement,_ -[Footnote 691] _first from east to west, then from north to south, the -chorus saying the Psalm_, Fundamenta ejus. - - [Footnote 691: In the treatise of the Mart. Remigius, _De - Dedicatione Ecciesiae_, we have the following explanation of this - singular custom: 'A thing which might appear puerile, unless it had - been instituted by men, great in dignity, spiritual in life, - apostolical in discipline. In all things of this kind, the Lord by - His example hath gone before us: and what He hath done, remaineth - unchangeable in his successors. What is understood by the alphabet - save the beginnings and rudiments of sacred doctrine? Whence S. - Paul, "Ye have need that one teach you again, which be the first - principles of the oracles of God." Therefore the bishop writeth the - alphabet, to signify that he teacheth the pure doctrine of the - gospel. He writeth the alphabet twice, and that in the figure of a - cross, to signify that the Passion of Christ is set forth by the - gospel in its purity. He writeth it in the angles of the church, - because by them be set forth the four corners of the world. He - beginneth from the east, because the gospel began from the Jews.' - - There is probably some reference to the Saviour's stooping down, and - writing in the sand. We may also compare those singular and rare - bells, in which the only inscription round the crown consists of the - letters of the alphabet.] - -{202} - -_The Bishop_. O God, make speed, etc. - -_Response_. O Lord, make haste, etc. - -_The Bishop_. Glory be, etc. - -_Response_. As it, etc. - -_Then followeth the exorcism of the salt, and the water, and the -ashes._ - -_Then the bishop maketh the sign of the cross at the four corners of -the altar, with hyssop, going round it seven times. The chorus sing -the Psalm_, Miserere mei Deus. _Then the bishop sprinkleth the water -three times round the church: the chorus singing_ Deus noster -refugium. _Then the bishop sprinkleth the water over the altar: the -chorus singing_ Qui habitat. _Then the bishop sprinkleth the whole -church inside with the water thrice: to signify the Church's inward -faith in the Trinity: and once outside, to signify the one baptism. -The chorus sing_ Fundamenta ejus; _and while the priests are ascending -the turrets,_ Jacob beheld a ladder, etc., _and the Psalm_ Deus noster -refugium. - -_Then the bishop entereth the church: and sprinkleth water on the -pavement in the form of a cross: the chorus singing_ Benedicite, omnia -opera. - -_The Bishop._ Lift up your hearts. - -_Response._ We lift, etc. - -_The Bishop._ Let us give thanks, etc. - -_Response._ It is meet, etc. - -_Then the bishop goeth to the altar, and poureth the remainder of the -water at its base._ - -_Then he blesseth the altar-stone, the altar clothes, the sacerdotal -vestments, the corporal, the paten, the chalice, the thurible._ - -_Here followeth the Mass of Dedication._ - -_The post communion ended, the Bishop saith:_ - -{203} - -Incline, O Lord, Thine ears unto me, and hear me: Look down, O Christ, -from heaven, on thy flock and thy sheep: stretch Thine hand over them: -bless their bodies and their souls: that in the communion of the -saints they may receive celestial benediction, light angelical, the -Holy Ghost, the Paraclete. Amen. - -They who be regenerate of water and the Holy Ghost who be redeemed on -earth by Thy precious blood, who have received Thy sign on their -foreheads, grant them to be Thine on the day of judgment. Amen. - -And as Thou didst bless patriarchs and prophets and apostles, martyrs -and confessors, virgins and priests, so bless this flock, who are -assembled to-day in Thy name in this church. Amen. - -And as by Thine angel Thou didst free the three children from the -burning fiery furnace, so free this flock from everlasting death and -the power of the devil, and from earthly lusts and all manner of -weaknesses. Amen. - -Spare their faults, remit their sins, and present them pure and -undefiled in the day of judgment: as Thou didst receive Enoch and -Elias into the kingdom of heaven. Amen. - -God Almighty bless and keep you, and make this house to shine with the -glory of His presence, and open the eyes of His pity upon it day and -night. Amen. - -And grant of His mercy, that all, who have assembled together at this -dedication, by the intercession of Blessed N., and all other saints -whose relics rest here, may obtain the remission of their sins. Amen. - -That ye may be made a holy temple in the spirit, where the Holy -Trinity may ever deign to dwell; and after this short life ye may -attain to everlasting felicity. Amen. - -Which He grant. Who liveth and reigneth, world without end. Amen. - -{204} - - - -APPENDIX I - -ADDENDA - - - -Page 6.--It shows how little Durandus can rightly be charged with -fancifulness, when we find him classing among ceremonial precepts, -rites for which the Rabbis and many modern expositors have given a -symbolical reason. - -Page 23.--'The lattice work of the windows.' Wrongly translated in -Lewis, 'the screens before the windows.' - -Page 25.--This passage proves that in the time and country of Durandus -seats or chairs except in the choir were unknown. Though in England -Early English or Early Decorated open seats do occur, as in -Clapton-in-Gordan, Somersetshire, they are very rare, and take up much -less of the church than is the case in later examples. See 'Hist, of -Pews,' 3rd ed., pp. 19, 20, 79. - -Page 39.--The reader is aware that the words _in medio_ of the early -Christian altars gave rise to the warmest disputes between the -Puritans and the Catholics of the 17th century. The Puritans insisted -that they meant in the _body_ of the church: the Catholics generally, -and more particularly that most able defender of altars, Dr. Laurence, -insisted that when the fathers spoke of an alter _in medio_, they only -meant one so placed as to be where all might see it. The words -undoubtedly may bear this meaning: yet perhaps it is better to -understand them, as they must be understood in this passage of -Durandus, of an altar placed in the chord of the segment of a circle -formed by the apse. See _Ecclesiologist_, vol. ii, p. 13. - -Page 46, note 20.--This is a mistake. The fresco alluded to represents -a priest repeating the Pater Noster (which is written in his open -book) at the N. W. angle of an altar. Upon the altar are two -candlesticks and a ciborium: rising out of the latter is the figure of -our Blessed Lord. There can be no doubt of the objectionable nature of -such a representation. - -Page 54--The nimbus of the Saviour, it is perhaps needless to observe -in explanation, is always inlaid, as it were, with a cross: at least -the exceptions are excessively rare. - -Page 54--These 'carved figures' probably signify the corbels. - -Page 54, note 54.--There is a valuable article on the nimbus by M. -Didron from the _Revue Générale de l'Architecture_ in the _Literary -Gazette_ for Dec. 1842. An example is there given of the square nimbus -in the case of Pope Nicholas, as represented in a contemporary MS. The -whole is well worth reading. - -Page 102.--Dedication crosses. We have seen a valuable example of -these in the church of Moorlinch, Somersetshire. There are four -circles containing crosses pattées on the north and south sides of the -chancel; and two at the east end, in all ten: the other two have -disappeared. - -Page 146.--The bodies of good men called horses. The same idea is -worked out at great length in S. Chrysostom's earlier homilies on the -Statues. - -{205} - -Page 170.--But how great is the admiration, etc. Compare S. -Hildebert's hymn, _Exrta portam_, towards the conclusion: - - Qauntum tui gratulentur, - Quam festive conviventur - Quis affectus eos stringat, - Et quae gemma muros pingat, - Quis chalcedon, quis jacintus, - _Norunt isti, quis sunt intus!_ - -The last line has the same beautiful turn with the expression of Hugh -of S. Victor. - -Page 180.--Most of the following practices are observed to this day in -the Metropolitical Church of Seville. There are two ambones, but no -rood loft: the sub-deacon chants the epistle by himself, in the -southern ambo; the deacon, preceded by a taper, chants the gospel from -the northern. - -Page 182.--So S. Bernard in his commentary on that verse of the 90th -Psalm, 'A thousand shall fall at thy side, and ten thousand at thy -right hand.' - - -{206} - -{207} - -INDEX - - -Abbots, how represented, 52 -Agathensian, the Council, 45 -Agnus Dei, The, 47 -Alexander, Pope, 124 -Alphabet, inscription of, 98 -Allegory, 6 -Altar candlesticks, 58 -Altar rails, 26 -Altars, stripped on Good Friday, 61 -Altars, their consecration, 113 -Altars, why encircled seven times at consecration, 119 -Altare distinguished from ara, 34 -Anagoge, 7 -Analogium, _see_ Rood Loft -Angels, how represented, 47 -Antioch, Council of, 197 -Antiphonal chanting, 21 -Apostles, the, how represented, 50 -Appodiatio, explained, 62 -Ark of Testimony 35 - its contents, 36 -Aries, Fourth Council of, 197 -Arnaldistae, 139 -Augustine, S., 49, 84, 85, 136, 152 - -Basilica, 13 -Baruth, legend of, 89 -Bell rope, 74 -Bells, when first used, 71 - what they signify, 72 - silent, when, 196 -Bernard, S., 131, 139 -Beverstone church, 46 -Bishop, the consecration of a, 145 -Bishopstone, 19 -Black, when used, 194 -Boneface IV', Pope, 94 -Breastplate, how made, 10 -Burchardus, S., 64 -Burial of heretics in cemeteries, 111 - -Cambridge Camden Society, 85 -Cambridge, S. Sepulchre, 55 -Cambridge, S. Giles, 26 -Capella, whence derived, 14 -Carthage, Council of, 158 -Cavilla, 74 -Cellar, 30 -Cement, its symbolism, 17 -Cemetery, 82 -Coenobium, 14 -Chalices, their materials, 68 -Chancels, lower than nave, 26 -Chancels, 175 -Chancel, more holy than nave, 20 -Chrism, 137 -Christmas, how churches are to be adorned at, 65 -Chrysologus, S. Peter, 49 -Church, its meanings, 12 -Churches, when to be moved, 32 -Clement, S., of Rome, 46 -Cloister, 29 -Cobham church, 46 -Cothelstone church, 54 -Cock, the, 165 -Commands, moral, 5 -Cone, 23 -Confessors, how represented, 52 -Consecration of a church, 88 -Constantine builds a church at Jerusalem. 197 -Cosins, Bishop, 154 - -{208} - -Ciampini, 103, 126 -Cross, the sign of the, 188 -Cross triumphal, 28 -Cross churches, 21 -Crosses, the five, that mark an altar, 114 -Crypts, 22 -Curtains, of the tabernacle, 15 -Cymbalum, 77 - -Dedication crosses, 98 -Degrees, songs of, 43 -Depulsare distinguished from compulsare, 78 -Derby, the Earl of, 179 -Divine Majesty, the, how represented, 53 -Division, of the whole work, 11 -Door, 24 -Dormitory, 30 -Dorsals, 56 -Dowsing, William, 26 -Dunstan, S., his form of dedication, 199 -Durandus, his many occupations, 161 -Dying, the, lay in sackcloth and ashes, 149 - -Egleton church, 55 -Epiphany, what events celebrated thereon, 155 -Evangelistic symbols, 48 -Evaristus, Pope, 158 -Exeter cathedral, 21 -Extreme unction, 139, 148 - -Faustinus, S., his legend, 84 -Felix III, Pope, 89 -Ferculum, 28, 167 -Frescoes, 45 - -Glass, 23 -Gospel, the, fixed on the altar, 60 - why not read from the rood loft in a Mass of requiem, 187 -Green, when used, 194 -Gregory, S., 54, 73, 75, 91, 152 -Greeks, the, how they paint saints, 43 - -Haddenham, 14 -Henry, S., his shrine, 48 -Holy, distinguished from _sacred_, 81 -Horologium, 27 -Horses, the bodies of good men, why so called, 146 -Hours, the, explained, 75 -Hugh of S. Victor, his 'Mystical Mirror' 163 -Human body, its resemblance to a church, 19 -Hyssop, its virtues, 95 - -Idolatry, a protest against, 44 -Ingoldsby Legends, their profanity, 84 -Isidore, S., 83, 137, 155, 156 - -Jerusalem, its variety of significations, 8 - rebuilt, 18 -John, S., Evangelist, his confessions, 38 -Journeys, the Saviour's seven, 119 - -Kilpeck church, 19 -Kyriake, 13 - -Lateran, S. John, its altar to the west, 177 -Lattice-work, 23 -Litter, 34, 167 -Llandanwg church, 46 -Ludlow church, 21 -Lyons, Council of, 41 - -Machpelah, 83 -Mans, dedication of a church there, 198 -Marriages, when forbidden, 154 - second, 159 -Martyrs, how represented, 52 -Martyrium, 14 -Mary, S., Magdalene, 126 -Maundy Thursday, 153 -Mende, 2 -Mirror of Magistrates, 9 -Moleon, De, his 'Voyage Liturgique,' 67 -Montague, Bishop, 31 -Murderers, limits of right of sanctuary. 32 -Mystical, its meaning, 5 - -Nola, 77 -Nolula, 77 -Nimbus, the, 54 - -Orientation, 19, 177, seq. -Orfrey, the, 59 -Ornaments of churches not to be profaned, 69 -Ostrich eggs, why hung in churches, 67 -Oxted church, 50 - -Palmers, 52 -Paradise, how represented, 54 - -{209} - -Parthian skins, 19 -Patriarchs, how represented, 51 -Pavement, 24 -Phylacterium, difference between it and phylacteria, 57 -Pictures, their use, 45 -Piers, 24 -Piscina, 27 -Pity, how five-fold, 130 -Podium, 85 -Portfolio, the, what it represents, 56 -Priests, unlettered, 4 - allowed to consecrate churches, 16 -Prophets, how represented, 51 -Preston church, 54 -Prothesis, table of, 3 -Prynne, 21 -Pyx, the, 56 -Pulpit, 26 - -Rationale, reason of the name, 10 -Reconciliation of a church, 107 -Reconsecration, when to be practised, 105 -Remigius Monk, 201 -Relics required for the consecration of a church, 198 -Richard of Cremona, 139 -Ring, the wedding, 156 -Ringing, various kinds of, 77 -Rod of weathercock, 23 -Rood loft, 26 - turrets, two, common in Norfolk, 180 -Round churches, 21 - -Sacraments defined, 152 - their nature, 2 -Sacramental, distinguished from ceremonial, 5 -Sugerius, 197 -Sambuca, the, 100 -Sanctuary, the, 20 -Saviour, our, various representations of, 46 -Savinianus, Pope, 75 -Scarlet, when used, 189 -Scuta, the, 59 -Seal, the, of an altar, 105 -Second Day, why it had no blessing. 79 -Senses of Holy Scripture, 5 -Separation of men and women, 30 -Signum, 77 -Sion, distinguished from Jerusalem, 13 -Snuffers, the, 58 -Sacristy, 27 -Stalls, 25 -Squilla, 76 -Stephen, Pope, 70 -Stones of a church, their symbolism, 17 -Sylvester, S., 139 -Synagogue never applied to a church, 13 - -Te Deum, method of chanting, 78 -Temple, Aslackby church, 21 -Thiers, Father, 26 -Tie-beams, 25 -Tiles, 27 -Toledo, Council of, 41 -Tongs, the, 59 -Torrentius, Laevinus, 189 -Towers, 22 -Treasures of the church, why exhibited, 66 - -Unctions, 134 - -Variety of rites, 8 -Veils, their various kinds, 61 -Vigilantius, 57 -Vigil, of the dedication of a church, 198 -Violet, when used, 193 -Virgins, difference between and continent, 20 - how represented, 52 -Vladimir, S., his conversion, 55 - -Walls, why four, 20 -Water, Holy, 115, 171 -Weathercock, 22 -White cloths cover the altar, why, 40 -White, when used, 189 -Widford church, 46 -Women, their heads to be uncovered, 31 - -York, S. 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