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diff --git a/43319-0.txt b/43319-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9c720bb --- /dev/null +++ b/43319-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12473 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43319 *** + +[Transcriber's notes:] + + This work is derived from files on the Internet Archive: + http://archive.org/details/symbolismofchurc00dura + + Page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed in curly + braces, e.g. {99}. They have been located where page breaks occurred + in the original book. + + The honorific "Mr" is without a following period in the original. + The period has been inserted in this transcription. + +[End Transcriber's notes.] + + +THE SYMBOLISM + +OF + +_Churches and Church Ornaments_ + + + +A TRANSLATION OF THE FIRST BOOK OF THE + + + +_Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ + + + +WRITTEN BY + +WILLIAM DURANDUS + +SOMETIME BISHOP OF MENDE + + +_WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY AND NOTES_ + +BY + +THE REV. JOHN MASON NEALE, B.A. + +AND + +THE REV. BENJAMIN WEBB, B.A. + +OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE + + +_New York_ + +CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS + +743 AND 745 BROADWAY + +1893 + + + +DEDICATED TO + +THE CAMBRIDGE CAMDEN SOCIETY + + +BY + + +TWO OF ITS FOUNDERS + +{vii} + +PREFACE + +The interest which has lately been displayed, as on all subjects +connected with Ecclesiology, so more especially on the symbolical +bearing of Church Architecture, has led us to imagine that a +translation of the most valuable work on Symbolism which the middle +ages can furnish, might not, at the present time, be unacceptable to +churchmen. + +Written, however, at a period when Christian Architecture had not +attained its full glory, it necessarily leaves untouched many +arrangements of similar tendency, subsequently adopted; addressed to +those who had not yet learnt to doubt everything not formally proved, +it assumes many points which may now seem to require confirmation: and +composed for the use of a clergy habituated to a most figurative +ritual, it passes over much as well known, which is now forgotten or +neglected. On these accounts we have considered it necessary to prefix +an Essay on the subject; in which we have endeavoured to prove that +Catholic Architecture must necessarily be symbolical; to answer the +more common objections to the system; and to elucidate it by reference +to actual examples, and notices of the figurative arrangements of our +own churches. We have also added notes, where any obscurity seemed +{viii} to require explanation; and we have, both in them and in the +Appendix, thrown together such passages from Martene, Beleth, S. +Isidore of Seville, Hugo de S. Victore, and other writers, as tended +to explain and to enforce the remarks of Durandus. + +With reference to the author himself, but little is known; and that +little has been told before. + +William Durandus was born at Puy-moisson, in Provence, about the year +1220. A legend of his native country is told in the present work. +[Footnote 1] He became the pupil of Henry de Luza, afterwards Cardinal +of Ostia; and taught canon law at Modena. On this subject he composed +a most learned work, the _Speculum Juris_; from which he obtained the +title of _Speculator_: as also another treatise called _Repertorium +Juris_: and a _Breviarium Glossarum in Textum Juris Canonici_. His +high attainments marked him [Footnote 2] out for the office of +Chaplain to Pope Clement IV. + + [Footnote 1: See p. 126] + + [Footnote 2: _Mutata fortuna_, says Doard: to what this refers, we + know not.] + +He was afterwards Auditor of the Sacred Palace; and Legate to Pope +Gregory X at the Council of Lyons. He was then made Captain of the +Papal forces; in which post he assisted at the reduction of several +rebellious cities, and behaved with great courage. He finally became +Bishop of Mende in 1286. While in this post, and resident at Rome (for +he did not personally visit his diocese till 1291, the administration +of the diocese being perhaps left to a nephew of the same name, who +succeeded him), he finished the work, of the first book of which a +translation is presented to the reader. But it probably {ix} was +commenced before; for we find from a passage in its latter half, that +so far had been written during the course of this same year 1286. And +there is no difficulty in the title, _Episcopus Miniatensis_, which he +gives himself in the Proeme, as this could easily have been added +afterwards. But it was certainly published, as Martene observes, +before 1295; because Durandus speaks of the Feasts of the Holy +Apostles as _semi-doubles_, whereas in that year, by a constitution of +Pope Urban, they were commanded to be observed as doubles. The time at +which the treatise was written more especially demands our attention; +because, did we imagine it only a few years later than it really was, +we might well be astonished at finding no reference to the Symbolism +of the Decorated Style. The interruptions amidst which the _Rationale_ +was written are feelingly alluded to by its author, in the Epilogue +(p. 161). He also wrote a treatise _De Modo Concilii Generalis +habendi,_ probably either suggested by, or preparatory to, that of +Lyons. He afterwards went on an embassy from the Pope to the Sultan; +and is by some said to have ended this life at Nicosia in Cyprus. But +the fact is not so: for having governed his diocese ten years, and +having refused the proffered Archbishopric of Ravenna, he departed at +Rome on the Feast of All Saints, 1296, being buried in the Church of +Sancta Maria super Minervam, where his monument is yet to be seen, +with the following inscription:-- + +{x} + + Hic jacet egregius doctor proesul Mimatensis, + Nomine Duranti Guillelmus regula morum: + Splendor honestatis et casti candor amoris + Altum consiliis spatiosum mente serenum + Hunc insignibat immotum turbine mentis. + Mente pius, sermone gravis, gressuque modestus, + Extitit infestus super hostes more leonis: + Indomitos domuit populos, ferroque rebelles, + Impulit, Ecclesiae victor servire coëgit. + Comprobat officiis, paruit Romania sceptro + Belligeri comitis Martini tempore quarti: + Edidit in Jure librum, quo jus reperitur: + Et Speculum Juris, et patrum Pontificale: + Et Rationale Divinorum patefecit: + Instruxit clerum scriptis, monuitque statutis: + Gregorii deni, Nicolai scita perenni + Glossa diffudit populis, sensusque profundos: + Jure dedit mentes et corpus luce studentum: + Quem memori laude genuit Provincia dignum: + Et dedit a Podio Missone diaecesis ilium: + Inde Biterrensis, praesignis curia Papae: + Dum foret ecclesiae Mimatensis sede quietus, + Hunc vocat octavus Bonifacius; altius ilium + Promovet; hic renuit Ravennae praesul haberi. + Fit comes invictus simul hinc et marchio tandem, + Et Romam rediit: Domini sub mille trecentis + (Quatuor amotis) annis: tumulante Minerva. + Surripit hunc festiva dies, & prima Novembris. + Guadia cum Sanctis tenet Omnibus inde sacerdos: + Pro quo perpetuo datur haec celebrare capella. + + +The _Rationale_ was the first work, from the pen of an uninspired +writer, ever printed. The _editio princeps_ appeared at the press of +Fust in 1459; being preceded only by the Psalters of 1457 and 1459. It +is, of course, of the most extreme rarity: the beauty of the +typography has seldom been exceeded. Chalmers mentions, besides this, +thirteen editions in the fifteenth, and thirteen in the sixteenth +century: all of them are very rare. + +{xi} + +The editions with which we are acquainted, are those of Rome 1473; +Lyons 1503, 1512, 1534, 1584; Antwerp 1570; Venice 1599, 1609. The +translation has been made from the editions of 1473 and 1599. The +former is a magnificent specimen of typography: the words are +excessively contracted; and there are double columns to each page. Our +copy is partially illuminated; and the binding is ornamented with a +border of the Evangelistic Symbols. The latter contains also the first +edition of the work of Beleth, and is a reprint of Doard's Lyons +edition of 1565. Doard dedicated it to his brother, Bishop of +Marseilles; and prefixed a Preface, in which he bestows a well-merited +eulogium on Durandus, and mentions the care taken in correcting and +revising the work. He also added some notes, of little worth. The +Venice reprint is so vicious a specimen of typography, that from it +alone the sense could in many places hardly be explained. Our copy +belonged to Bishop White Kennett, who appears to have studied it +diligently. + +We must now say a few words as on our own share in the work. With +respect to the Introduction, fully convinced as we are of the truth +and importance of the general principle maintained in it, we do not +wish to press, as matter of certainty, all or any of the minor details +into which that theory is carried. We believe, indeed, that the more +the subject has been studied, the more truthful our views will appear +to be: but we wish the reader to bear in mind, that the weakness of +any portion of them is no argument against their reception, as a +whole. At the same time, none can be more aware than ourselves how +much more ably such views might have been advocated: we have not, +however, spared {xii} time or pains in the study of the subject; 'and +if we have done meanly, it is that we could attain unto.' + +In the Translation, we have endeavoured, too often unsuccessfully, to +retain the beautiful simplicity of the original. In the obscure +passages, of which there are not a few, we have mentioned the +difficulty in the notes, lest the reader, by our mistake, should be +led into error himself. + +The quotations from Holy Scripture are given in the authorised +version, except where, to bring out the author's full meaning, it was +necessary to have recourse to the Vulgate; and we have then translated +literally from that. + +We have felt no small pleasure in thus enabling this excellent +prelate, though at so far distant a land from his own, and after a +silence of nearly six hundred years, being dead, yet to speak: and if +the following pages are at all useful in pointing out the sacramental +character of Catholic art, we shall be abundantly rewarded, as being +fellow-workers with him in the setting forth of one, now too much +forgotten, Church principle. + + J. M. N. + B. W. + +_Michaelmas_, 1842. + + + +INTRODUCTORY ESSAY + +---- + +SACRAMENTALITY: A PRINCIPLE OF +ECCLESIASTICAL DESIGN + + + +ANALYSIS OF THE INTRODUCTORY ESSAY + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + 1. Spread of the study of Church Architecture. + + 2. Obvious, but indefinable, difference between old and new churches. + Wherein this consists. + Not in association, + Nor in correctness of details, + Nor in the Picturesque, + Nor in the Mechanical advantages, + But in Reality considered, in an enlarged view, as Sacramentality. + + 3. This probable, + from examples, and + promises in Holy Scripture. + Catholic consent, + examples to the contrary, + philosophical reasons. + + 4. Enunciation of the subject. + + 5. Writers on the subject, + Pugin, Poole, Lewis, Coddington, the writers of the + Cambridge Camden Society. + + +A. ARGUMENTS FOR SYMBOLISM. + + I. A PRIORI. + + Symbolising spirit of Catholic Antiquity, in + (a) Interpretation of Holy Scriptures. + (b) Analogy of the Jewish Ceremonies. + (c) Private manners. + (d) Emblems in Catacombs, etc. + (e) Symbolical interpretation of Heathen writers. + + II. ANALOGICAL. + i. Examples of other nations. + (a) Jews. + (1) Temple rites. + (2) Legal observances. + (3) Sacred books. + + (b) Turks. + + (c) Infidels. + (1) Hindu and Egyptian Mythology + (2) Persian Poetry. + + (d) Heretics. + +{xvi} + + ii. From Nature. + (a) Trinity. + (b) Resurrection. + (c) Self-sacrifice, + + iii. From Art. + (a) Sculpture, + (b) Painting. + (c) Music. + (d) Language of Flowers. + + iv. Parabolical teaching. + + + III. PHILOSOPHICAL. + + Objective answering to Subjective. + All effect sacramental of the efficient. + Sacramentality of all Religion. + Ritualism peculiarly and necessarily sacramental. + Church Architecture, a condition of Ritualism. + Necessities induce accidents: and these material expressions. + Example: + Necessities of Ritualism, and their expressions in earlier + and later ages. + Hence Symbolism. + Essential. + Intended. + Conventional, which again becomes intended. + + + IV. ANALYTICAL. + 1. Cruciformity. + 2. Ascent to Altar. + 3. Orientation. + 4. Verticality. + + V. INDUCTIVE. + Express and continuous testimony. + (a) Apostolical Constitutions. + (b) Eusebius. + (c) Symbolical writers. + Actual examples. + + VI. RECAPITULATION. + + + B. EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM. + I. DOCTRINES. + (a) The Holy Trinity, set forth in + i. Nave and Two Aisles. + ii. Chancel, Nave and Apse, + iii. Clerestory, Triforium, and Pier Arches, + iv. Triple windows. + v. Altar steps. + vi. Triplicity of mouldings, + vii. Minor details. + + (b) Regeneration. + i. The octagonal form of Fonts, + ii. The octagonal form of Piers, + iii. Fishes. + (c) Atonement. + i. Cruciformity. + ii. Deviation of Orientation. + iii. Double Cross, + iv. The threat Rood. + v. Details. + + (d) Communion of Saints. + + II. DETAILS. + (a) Windows: a series of examples. + (b) Doors. + i. Norman tympana. + ii. Double doors in Early English. + (a) These explained in two ways, + (1) Christ's entrance into the world. + (2) Our entrance into the kingdom of heaven. + (b) Difference between mouldings of Chancel arches and doors. + (c) Porches. + (d) Chancel Arch and Rood Screen. + (e) Monuments. + (a) Difference of ancient and modern symbolism in these, + (1) Sceptical character of the present age. + (2) Paganism of modern design. + (3) Reality of ancient design. + (b) Historical details of Monuments. + (f) Gurgoyles and Poppyheads. + (g) Flowers used in architecture. + + C. OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. + 1. Inequality of type and antitype. + 2. Difference of Symbolism in the same arrangement. + 3. Mechanical origin. + + D. HISTORY OF SYMBOLISM. + 1. Norman; as symbolising facts. + 2. Early English; as symbolising doctrines. + 3. Decorated; as symbolising the connection of doctrines. + 4. Perpendicular; as symbolising the progress of Erastianism. + 5. Flamboyant, etc. + 6. Post Reformation Symbolism. + + E. CONCLUSION. + Contrast between a modern and ancient Church. + + + +_Laus Deo_ + + +{xix} + +INTRODUCTORY ESSAY + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +The study of Church Architecture has within the last few years become +so general, and a love for it so widely diffused, that whereas, in a +former generation it was a task to excite either, in the present it is +rather an object to direct both. An age of church-building, such as +this, ought to produce good architects, not only from the great +encouragement given to their professional efforts, but from the +increasing appreciation of the principles and powers of their art. And +yet it cannot be denied, however we may account for the fact, that (at +least among those for whom we write, the members of our own +communion), no architect has as yet arisen, who appears destined to be +the reviver of Christian art. It is not that the rules of the science +have not been studied, that the examples bequeathed to us have not +been imitated, that the details are not understood. We have (though +they are but few) modern buildings of the most perfect proportions, of +the most faultless details, and reared with lavish expense. It is that +there is an undefined--perhaps almost undefinable--difference between +a true 'old church,' and the most perfect of modern temples. In the +former, at least till late in the Perpendicular era, we feel that, +however {xx} strange the proportions, or extraordinary the details, +the effect is church-like. In the latter, we may not be able to blame; +but from a certain feeling of unsatisfactoriness, we cannot praise. + +The solution of the problem,--What is it that causes this difference? +has been often attempted, sometimes with partial, but never with +complete, success. That most commonly given is the following:--The +effect of association in old buildings,--the mellowing power of +time,--the evident antiquity of surrounding objects,--the natural +beauties of foliage, moss, and ivy, that require centuries to reach +perfection;--as on the other hand, the bareness, the newness, nay even +the sharpness and vigour of new work; these, it is said, are +sufficient to stamp a different character on each. There is doubtless +something in this; but that it is not the whole cause is evident from +the fact, that give a modern church all the above mentioned advantages +on paper, and an experienced eye will soon detect it to be modern. + +Those writers who, as Grose, Milner, and Carter, lived before the +details of Christian art were understood, seem to have placed its +perfection in a thorough knowledge of these: experience has proved +them wrong. Others, as Mr. Petit, [Footnote 3] have made a kind of +ideal picturesque; and, having exalted the phantasm into an idol, have +fallen down and worshipped it. Others, again, have sought for an +explanation of the difficulty in mathematical contrivance and +mechanical ingenuity; and the result has been little more than the +discovery of curious eave-drains, and wonderful cast-iron roof-work. +Lastly, Mr. Pugin (_cum talis sis, utinain noster esses!_) has placed +the thing required in _Reality_. {xxi} That is, to quote his own +words, in making these the two great rules of design:-- +1. That there should be no features about a building which are not +necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety: +2. That all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential +construction of a building.' [Footnote 4] And we may add, as a +corollary, still quoting the same writer:--'The smallest detail should +have a meaning or serve a purpose: the construction itself should vary +with the material employed: and the designs should be adapted to the +material in which they are to be executed.' Still, most true and most +important as are these remarks, we must insist on one more axiom, +otherwise Christian art will but mock us, and not show us wherein its +great strength lieth. + + [Footnote 3: See the review of his work in the _Ecclesiologist_, + vol. i, pp. 91-105.] + + [Footnote 4: Pugin's 'True Principles,' p. 1.] + +A Catholic architect must be a Catholic in heart. Simple knowledge +will no more enable a man to build up God's material, than His +spiritual temples. In ancient times, the finest buildings were +designed by the holiest bishops. Wykeham and Poore will occur to every +churchman. And we have every reason to believe, from God's Word, from +Catholic consent, and even from philosophical principles, that such +must always be the case. + +Holy Scripture, in mentioning the selection of Bezaleel and Aholiab, +as architects of the Tabernacle, expressly asserts them to have been +filled 'with the Spirit of God in wisdom, and in understanding, and in +knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship, to devise cunning works, +to work in gold, and in silver and in brass, and in cutting of stones +to set them, and in carving of timber, to work in all manner of +workmanship.' And this indeed is only a part of the blessing of the +pure in heart: they see God, the Fountain of Beauty, even in this +life; as they shall see Him, the Fountain of Holiness, in the {xxii} +next. From Catholic consent we may learn the same truth. Why else was +Ecclesiastical Architecture made a part of the profession of Clerks, +than because it was considered that the purity and holiness of that +profession fitted them best for so great a work? [Footnote 5] + + [Footnote 5: Compare the general drift of the Address to Paulinus. + _Eusebius_. H. E. X. 4.] + +Nay, we have remarkable proofs that feeling without knowledge will do +more than knowledge without feeling. There are instances of +buildings--Lisbon cathedral and S. Peter's College chapel, Cambridge, +are cases in point--which, with Debased or Italian details, have +nevertheless Christian effect. And we have several similar cases, more +particularly in the way of towers. + +Now, allowing the respectability, which attaches itself to the +profession of a modern architect, and the high character of many in +that profession, none would assert that they, as a body, make it a +matter of devotion and prayer; that they work for the Church alone +regardless of themselves; that they build in faith, and to the glory +of God. + +In truth, architecture has become too much a profession: it is made +the means of gaining a livelihood, and is viewed as a path to +honourable distinction, instead of being the study of the devout +ecclesiastic, who matures his noble conceptions with the advantage of +that profound meditation only attainable in the contemplative life, +who, without thought of recompense or fame, has no end in view but the +raising a temple, worthy of its high end, and emblematical of the +faith which is to be maintained within its walls. It is clear that +modern architects are in a very different position from their +predecessors, with respect to these advantages. We are not prepared to +say that none but monks ought to design churches, or that it is +impossible for a professional {xxiii} architect to build with the +devotion and faith of an earlier time. But we do protest against the +merely business-like spirit of the modern profession, and demand from +them a more elevated and directly religious habit of mind. We surely +ought to look at least for church-membership from one who ventures to +design a church. There cannot be a more painful idea than that a +separatist should be allowed to build a House of God, when he himself +knows nothing of the ritual and worship of the Church from which he +has strayed; to prepare both font and altar, when perchance he knows +nothing of either Sacrament but that he has always despised them. Or, +again, to think that any churchman should allow himself to build a +conventicle, and even sometimes to prostitute the speaking +architecture of the Church to the service of Her bitterest enemies! +What idea can such a person have formed of the reality of church +architecture? Conceive a churchman designing a triple window, admitted +emblem of the Most Holy Trinity, for a congregation of Socinians! We +wish to vindicate the dignity of this noble science against the +treason of its own professors. If architecture is anything more than a +mere trade; if it is indeed a liberal, intellectual art, a true branch +of poesy, let us prize its reality and meaning and truthfulness, and +at least not expose ourselves by giving to two contraries one and the +same material expression. + +It is objected that architects have a right to the same professional +conscience that is claimed, for instance, by a barrister. To which we +can only reply, that it must be a strange morality which will justify +a pleader in violating truth; and how much worse for an architect to +violate truth in things immediately connected with the House and +worship of God? It may be asked, Do we mean to imply then that a +church architect ought never {xxiv} to undertake any secular building? +Perhaps, as things are, we cannot expect so much as this now: but we +can never believe that the man who engages to design union-houses, or +prisons, or assembly-rooms, and gives the dregs of his time to +church-building, is likely to produce a good church, or, in short, can +expect to be filled from above with the Spirit of Wisdom. The church +architect must, we are persuaded, make very great sacrifices: he must +forego all lucrative undertakings, if they may not be carried through +upon those principles which he believes necessary for every good +building; and particularly if the end to be answered, or the wants to +be provided for, are in themselves unjustifiable or mischievous. Even +in church-building itself, he must see many an unworthy rival +preferred to him, who will condescend to pander to the whims and +comfort of a church-committee, will suit his design to any standard of +ritualism which may be suggested by his own ignorance, or others' +private judgment, who will consent to defile a building meant for +God's worship with pews and galleries and prayer-pulpits and +commodious vestries. But hard as the trial may be, a church architect +must submit to it, rather than recede from the principles which he +knows to be the very foundation of his art. We would go further even, +and deny the possibility of any architect's success in all the +different styles of Pointed architecture, not to mention the orders of +Greece and Rome, Vitruvian, Palladian, Cinque Cento, Wrennian, nay +even Chinese, Swiss, Hindoo, and Egyptian at once. We have not even +now exhausted the list of styles in which a modern architect is +supposed to be able to design. It is even more absurd than if every +modern painter were expected, and should profess, to paint equally +well in the styles of Perugino, Francia, Raphael, Holbein, Claude, the +Poussins, Salvator Rosa, Correggio, Van Eyck, {xxv} Teniers, Rubens, +Murillo, Reynolds, West, Gainsborough, Overbeck, and Copley Fielding +all at once! An architect ought indeed to be acquainted, and the more +the better, with all styles of building: but if architecture, as we +said before, is a branch of poesy, if the poet's mind is to have any +individuality, he must design in one style, and one style only. For +the Anglican architect, it will be necessary to know enough of the +earlier styles to be able to restore the deeply interesting churches, +which they have left us as precious heirlooms; enough of the Debased +styles, to take warning from their decline: but for his own style, he +should choose the glorious architecture of the fourteenth century; +and, just as no man has more than one hand-writing, so in this one +language alone will he express his architectural ideas. + +We cannot leave this topic without referring to what the Cambridge +Camden Society has said with respect to architectural competition. +[Footnote 6] _It is a fact_ that at this time many competing designs +are manufactured in an architect's office, by some of his clerks, as +if by machinery: if a given plan is chosen, the architect is summoned, +and sees _his_ (!) design for the first time, when he is introduced to +the smiling committee-men. It is another fact that there is at this +time in London a small body of persons, with no other qualification +than that of having been draughtsmen in an architect's office, who +_get up_ a set of competing designs for any aspirant who chooses to +give them a few instructions, and to pay them for their trouble. How +much it is to be wished that there were some examination of an +architect's qualifications, before he should be allowed to assume the +name! It seems strange that the more able members of the profession do +not themselves feel some _esprit de corps_, and do not at {xxvi} least +endeavour to claim for their art its full dignity and importance. We +fear however that very few, as yet, take that _religions_ view of +their profession, which we have shown to be seemly, even if not +essential. If, however, we succeed in proving that religion enters +very largely into the principles of church architecture, a religious +_ethos_, we repeat, is _essential_ to a church architect. At all +events, in an investigation into the differences between ancient and +modern church architecture, the contrast between the ancient and +modern builders could not be overlooked: and it is not too much to +hope that some, at least, may be struck by the fact, that the deeply +religious habits of the builders of old, the hours, the cloister, the +discipline, the obedience, resulted in their matchless works; while +the worldliness, vanity, dissipation, and patronage of our own +architects issue in unvarying and hopeless failure. + + [Footnote 6: See _Ecclesiologist_, vol. i, pp. 69, 85.] + +We said that there were philosophical reasons for the belief that we +must have architects--before we can have buildings--like those of old. +If it be true that an esoteric signification, or, as we shall call it, +_Sacramentality_, [Footnote 7] ran through all the arrangements and +details of Christian architecture, emblematical of Christian +discipline, and suggested by Christian devotion; then must the +discipline have been practised, and the devotion felt, before a +Christian temple can be reared. That this esoteric meaning, or +symbolism, does exist, we are now to endeavour to prove. + + [Footnote 7: It may be proper to distinguish between five terms, too + generally vaguely employed in common, and which we shall often have + occasion to use: we mean, _allegorical, symbolical, typical, + figurative_, and _sacramental_. + + 'Allegory employs fictitious things and personages to shadow out the + truth: Symbolism uses real personages and real actions (and real + things) as symbols of the truth:' _British Critic_, No. lxv. p. 121. + Sacramentality is symbolism applied to the truth [Greek text], the + teaching of the Church, by the hands of the teacher: a Type is a + symbol intended from the first: a Figure is a symbol not discovered + till after the thing figurative has had a being.] + +{xxvii} + +We assert, then, that _Sacramentality_ is that characteristic which so +strikingly distinguishes ancient ecclesiastical architecture from our +own. By this word we mean to convey the idea that, by the outward and +visible form, is signified something inward and spiritual: that the +material fabric symbolises, embodies, figures, represents, expresses, +answers to, some abstract meaning. Consequently, unless this ideal be +itself true, or be rightly understood, he who seeks to build a +Christian church may embody a false or incomplete or mistaken ideal, +but will not develope the true one. Hence, while the Parthenon, or a +conventicle, or a modern church, may be conceived to have, on the one +hand, so much _truthfulness_, as to symbolise respectively the +graceful, but pagan, worship of Athene--the private judgment of the +dissenter--and the warped or ill-understood or puritanised religious +ethos of the modern churchman; and, on the other hand, to have so much +_reality_ as to carry out most satisfactorily Mr. Pugin's canons; yet, +inasmuch as in neither case was the builder's ideal the true one, so +in neither case is his architecture in any way adapted to, or an +embodiment of, the ideal of the Church. Reality, then, is not of +itself sufficient. What can be more _real_ than a pyramid, yet what +less Christian? It must be Christian reality, the true expression of a +true ideal, which makes Catholic architecture what it is. This +Christian reality, we would call _Sacramentality_; investing that +symbolical truthfulness, which it has in common with _every_ true +expression, with a greater force and holiness, both from the greater +purity of the perfect truth which it embodies, and from the +association which this name will give it with those adorable and +consummate examples of the same {xxviii} principle, infinitely more +developed, and infinitely more holy in the spiritual grace which they +signify and convey,--the Blessed Sacraments of the Church. + +The modern writers who have treated on Symbolism seem to have taken +respectively very partial views of the subject. Mr. Pugin does not +seem in his books to recognise the particular principle which we have +enunciated. We have shown that his law about Reality is true so far as +it goes, but that it does not go far enough. He himself, for example, +is now contemplating a work on the reality of domestic, as before of +ecclesiastical, architecture. Now, nothing can be more true, nothing +more useful, than this. Yet even he does not seem to have discerned +that as contact with the Church endues with a new sanctity, and +elevates every form and every principle of art: so in a peculiar sense +the sacred end to which church architecture is subservient, elevates +and sanctifies that reality which must be a condition of its goodness +in common with _all_ good architecture; in short, raises this +principle of Reality into one of Sacramentality. We should be sorry to +assert that Mr. Pugin does not feel this, though we are not aware that +he has expressed it in his writings: but in his most lasting writings, +his churches namely, it is clear that the principle, if not +intentionally even, and if only incompletely, has not been without a +great influence on that master mind. Yet even in these we could point +to details, and in some of his earlier works to something more than +details, which shew that there is something wanting; that in the bold +expedients and fearless licence which his genius has led him to +employ, he has occasionally gone wrong; not from the fact of his +departure from strict precedent, and his vindication of a certain +architectural freedom, but because in these escapements from +authority, he has not invariably kept in view the { xxix} principle +now advocated. However the author of the 'True Principles' might point +to his churches, to prove that a reverent and religious mind, employed +in administering to the material wants of the Church, (even though +that reverence be misapplied, and that Church in a schismatical +position), cannot fail to succeed, at least in some degree, in +stamping upon his work the impress of his own faith and zeal, and in +making it, at least to some extent, a living development and +expression of the true ideal. + +Mr. Poole, the author of the 'Appropriate Character of Church +Architecture,' would appear to believe the symbolism of details rather +than any general principle. He was the first, we think, to reassert +that the octagonal form of fonts was figurative of Regeneration. In +the latter edition of his Book he has adopted several of the +symbolical interpretations advanced by the writers of the Cambridge +Camden Society. + +Mr. Lewis, in his illustrations of Kilpeck church (in an appendix to +which he has printed a translation of some part of the 'Rationale' of +our author), has given a treatise on symbolism generally, and has +applied his principles to the explanation of the plan and details of +that particular church. His book excited some attention at the time of +publication, and was met by considerable ridicule in many quarters. To +this we think it was fairly open, since the author did not seem to +have grasped the true view of the subject. He appears to believe that, +from the very first, _all_ church architecture was _intentionally_ +symbolical. Now this is an unlikely supposition, inasmuch as till +church architecture was fully developed, we do not think that its real +significancy was understood to its full extent by those who used it. +That it was, in its imperfect state, symbolical, we should be the last +to deny; but it seems more in accordance {xxx} with probability, and +more in analogy with the progress of other arts, to believe that at +first certain given wants induced and compelled certain adaptations to +those wants: which then _did_ symbolise the wants themselves; and +which afterwards became intentionally symbolical. Now such a view as +this will explain satisfactorily how a Christian church might be +progressively developed from a Basilican model. Mr. Hope, in his essay +on Architecture, carries us back to the very earliest expedient likely +to be adopted by a savage to protect him from weather, and from this +derives every subsequent expansion of the art. Which may be true, and +probably is true, so far at least as this: that, however first +acquired, the elementary knowledge of any method of building would be, +like all other knowledge, continually receiving additions and +improvements, till from the first bower of branches sprang the +Parthenon, and from that again Cologne or Westminster. But then it is +clearly necessary to show some moral reason for so strange a +development, so complete a change of form and style. Now the theory +that the ethos of Catholic architects working upon the materials made +to hand, namely, the ancient orders of pagan architecture and (say) +the Basilican plan, gradually impressed itself upon these unpromising +elements, and progressively developed from them a transcript of that +ethos in Christian architecture, is intelligible at least, and +presents no such difficulty as Mr. Lewis's supposition that ancient +architects (he does not say when, or how long--but take Kilpeck church +and say _Norman_ architects) designed intentionally on symbolical +principles. We want in this case to be informed when the change took +place, from what period architects began to symbolise intentionally, +at what time they forgot the traditions of church-building, which they +must have had, and commenced to carry new principles into practice. +{xxxi} Nor, on this supposition, do we see why there should have been +any progressive development, why the Basilican and Debased-Pagan +trammels were not cast away at once; nor why, if the _ideal_ of the +Norman architect was true and perfect (that is if he were a true +Catholic), its expression should not have been so too: nor why any +Norman symbolism, thus originated, should ever have been discarded (as +it has been in later styles), instead of remaining an integral and +essential part of the material expression of the Church's mind. Now +our view appears to be open to no such objection. On the one hand +there are given materials to work upon, and on the other a given +spirit which is to mould and inform the mass. The contest goes on: +mind gradually subdues matter, until in the complete development of +Christian architecture we see the projection of the mind of the +Church. It is quite in analogy with the history and nature of the +Church, and with the workings of God's providence with respect to it, +that there should be this gradual expansion and development of truth. +We foresee the objection that will be raised against fixing on any +period as that of the full ripeness of Christian art, and are prepared +for many sneers at our advocacy of the perfection of the Edwardian +architecture. But we are assured that, if there is any truth (not to +say in what is advanced in this essay, but) in what has ever been +proposed by any who have appreciated the genius of Pointed +Architecture--to confine ourselves to our own subject--no other period +can be chosen at which all conditions of beauty, of detail, of general +effect, of truthfulness, of reality are so fully answered as in this. +And from this spring two important considerations. Firstly, the +decline of Christian art--which may be traced from this very period, +if architecture be tried by any of the conditions which have been laid +down--was confessedly {xxxii} coincident with, and (if what we have +said is true) was really symbolical of, those corruptions, which ended +in the great rending of the Latin Church; the effects of, and +penalties for, which remain to this day in full operation in the whole +of Western Christendom. Secondly, the Decorated style may be indeed +the finest development of Christian architecture which the world has +yet seen; but it does not follow that it is the greatest perfection +which shall ever be arrived at. No: we too look forward, if it may be, +to the time when even a new style of church architecture shall be +given us, so glorious and beautiful and true, that Cologne will sink +into a fine example of a transitional period, when the zeal and faith +and love of the reunited Church shall find their just expression in +the sacramental forms of Catholic art. + +But besides the above objection to Mr. Lewis's theory we may mention +the arbitrary way in which he determines on things which are to be +symbolised, and then violently endeavours to find their expected +types. This is quite at variance with the practice of any sober +symbolist; and more especially (as we shall hereafter have occasion to +point out) with that of Durandus. This forced sort of symbolism +naturally leads to a disregard of precedent and authority: and +accordingly we remember to have heard of a design by this gentleman +for the arrangement of a chancel which professed to symbolise certain +facts and doctrines; but which, whatever might be the ingenuity of the +symbolism, was no less opposed to the constant rule of arrangement in +ancient churches, than it was practically absurd and inconvenient for +the purpose which it was meant to answer. Indeed, while Mr. Lewis +insists strongly on the symbolising of facts, he does not succeed in +grasping any general principle, any more than he sees the {xxxiii} +difficulty there is in the way of our receiving his supposition of an +intention to symbolise from the first. No architect ever sat down with +an analysed scheme of doctrines which he resolved to embody in his +future building: in this, as in any other department of poesy, the +result is harmonious, significant, and complete, and may be resolved +into its elements, though these elements might never have been laid by +the poet as the foundation upon which to raise his superstructure. +That were like De La Harpe's theory that an epic poet should first +determine on his moral, and then draw out such a plan for his poem as +may enable him to illustrate that moral. [Footnote 8] + + [Footnote 8: It is with pain that we have spoken of Mr. Lewis at + all, because every Ecclesiologist owes him a debt for his great + boldness in turning the public attention to the subject of + symbolism. Yet we believe that a prejudice has been excited by him + against that subject which it will be hard to get over; for we are + constrained to say, that greater absurdities were never printed than + some which have appeared in his book. His explanations of the west + end of Kilpeck church--his cool assumption when any bracket appears + more puzzling than usual that it is of later work, and therefore not + explainable--his random perversions of Scripture--his puerile + conceits about the door--deserve this criticism. This same south + door he extols as a perfect mine of ecclesiastical information, + while he confesses himself unable to explain the symbols wrought on + the two orders of the arch--that is about two-thirds of the whole! + It is strange, too, that in his restoration of the church, he should + have forgotten all about the bells--and have violated a fundamental + canon of symbolism, by terminating his western gable in a plain + Cross.] + +The writers of the Cambridge Camden Society have carried out the +system more fully and consistently than any others. It has evidently +grown upon them, during the process of their inquiries: yet in their +earliest publications, we trace, though more obscurely, the same +thing. Their 'Few Words to Church-Builders' acknowledged the principle +to a far greater length; and the _Ecclesiologist_ has always acted +upon it, even when not expressly referring to it. As a necessary +consequence, they were the first who dwelt on the absolute necessity +of a distinct and spacious chancel; the first who recommended, and +{xxxiv} where they could, insisted on, the re-introduction of the +rood-screen; and the first to condemn the use of western triplets. The +position and shape of the font, the necessity of orientation, and some +few details, they have, but only in common with others, urged. + +The Oxford Architectural Society have never recognised any given +principles: and in consequence Littlemore is proposed by them as a +model--a church either without, or else all, chancel; and either way a +solecism. + +As might have been expected from a separatist, Rickman, in his +treatise, gives not a single line to the principle for which we +contend. Mr. Bloxam, in his excellent little work, though often +referring to it--more especially in the later editions which have +appeared since the labours of the Cambridge Camden Society--yet +hardly gives it that prominence which we might have expected from one +who possesses so just an idea of mediaeval arrangements and art. + +Among the chief opposers of the system we may mention Mr. Coddington +of Ware, who sees perfection in the clumsiness of Basilican +arrangements, and schism in the developed art of the middle ages. This +writer, as it has been observed in the _Ecclesiologist_, contends for +two things:--1. That one great object of Romanism was to abolish the +distinction between the clergy and laity: 2. That another great object +of the same Church, acting by its monks, (or, as he calls them, +schismatical communities) was to exalt the clergy unduly above the +laity. The former assertion he does not attempt to prove: the latter +he supports by pointing to the arrangement of the rood-screen, which, +therefore, like the French Ambonoclasts, he wishes to pull down both +in cathedrals and churches. + +{xxxv} + +This brief review of the principal writers who have treated on the +Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments, concludes our first +chapter. In it we have endeavoured to point out an acknowledged +desideratum; to shew what suppositions have been advanced on the +subject; to set forth wherein, and for what reason, they fail of being +satisfactory; to enunciate the principle of _Sacramentality_ as +essential for the full appreciation and successful imitation of +ancient church architecture; and finally, in referring to the works of +some later symbolists, to shew why their hypotheses are incomplete or +untenable. We have also brought under review the glaring contrasts +between the methods of life of an ancient and modern architect; and, +if we may so say, between the machinery of designing and the habit of +mind in the two cases. We shall now proceed to examine those arguments +which may lead us to suspect that some such principle as +Sacramentality really exists. + + + +{xxxvi} + +CHAPTER II + +THE ARGUMENT A PRIORI + +It will first be proper to consider whether, regarding the subject _à +priori_, that is, looking at the habits and manners of those among +whom the symbolical system originated, if it originated anywhere, we +have reason to think them at all likely to induce that system. Now, as +matter of fact, we know that the train of thought, the every-day +observances, above all, the religious rites of the early Christians, +were in the highest degree figurative. The rite of Baptism gave the +most forcible of all sanctions to such a system; and while it +sanctioned, it also suggested, some of the earliest specimens of +Christian symbolism. Hence, when that rite was found to be, so to +speak, connected with the word formed by the initial letters of our +Blessed Saviour's name and titles, arose the Mystic Fish: hence, as we +shall see, the octagonal baptistery and font. Indeed, almost every +great doctrine had been symbolised at a very early period of +Christianity. The Resurrection was set forth in the Phoenix, rising +immortal from its ashes: the meritorious Passion of our Saviour, by +the Pelican, feeding its young with its own blood: the Sacrament of +the Holy Eucharist, by grapes and wheatears, or again by the blood +flowing from the heart and feet of the Wounded Lamb into a chalice +beneath: the Christian's renewal of strength {xxxvii} thereby in the +Eagle, which descending grey and aged into the ocean, rises thence +with renewed strength and vigour: the Church, by the Ark, and the +vessel [Footnote 9] in which our Lord slept: the Christian's purity +and innocence by the Dove: [Footnote 10] again, by the same symbol +the souls [Footnote 11] of those who suffered for the Truth: again, +though perhaps not so early, the Holy Spirit: the Apostles were also +set forth as twelve Doves: [Footnote 12] the Ascension of our +Saviour by the Flying Bird; concerning which S. Gregory [Footnote +13] teaches, 'rightly is our Redeemer called a Bird, Whose Body +ascended freely into heaven': Martyrs also by birds let loose; for so +Tertullian, [Footnote 14] 'There is one kind of flesh of fishes, that +is of those who be regenerate by Holy Baptism; but another of birds, +that is of martyrs.' + + [Footnote 9: Naviculum quippe ecclesiam cogitate,--turbulentum mare + hoc seculum.----_S. Aug. de Verb Dom_.] + + [Footnote 10: + Quaeque super signum resident coeleste Columbae, + Simplicibus produnt regna patere Dei. + _S. Paulin. ep. 12, ad Sever_.] + + [Footnote 11: Cum nollet idolis sacrificare (sc. S. Reparata) ecce, + gladio percutitur: cujus anima in Columbae specie de corpore egredi, + coelumque conscendere visa est.--_Martyrol. Rom. viii. Id. Oct._ + Emicat inde Columba repens, + Martyris os nive candidior + Visa relinquere, et astra sequi: + Spiritus hic erat Eulaliae + Lacteolus, celer, innocuus. + _Pruden. Perist. Hymn. 9._ + + Compare also the Passion of S. Potitus,--Act. SS. Bollandi, 13 Jan. + So, in the cemetery of S. Calistus, a piece of glass was found by + Boldetti, on which S. Agnes was represented between two doves, the + symbols of her Virginity and Martyrdom.] + + [Footnote 12: + Crucem corona lucido cingit globo + Cui coronas sunt corona Apostoli, + Quorum figura est in columbarum choro. + (S. Paulin. Epp.)] + + [Footnote 13: In Evang. 29.] + + [Footnote 14: De Resurrect. 52.] + +{xxxviii} + +The caged bird is symbolical of the contrary; this has been found upon +the phial containing the blood of a martyr. Of this, Boldetti says, +'It is represented on the mosaic of the ancient Tribune of S. Mary +beyond Tiber; one being seen at the side of Isaiah the Prophet, the +other at that of the Prophet Jeremiah.' In the same way, partridges +and peacocks, each with its own meaning are represented. So, again, +lions, tigers, horses, oxen, strange fishes, and marine monsters, +represent the fearful martyrdoms to which God's servants were exposed: +a point which the reader will do well to bear in mind, because in +treating of Norman mouldings we shall have occasion again to refer to +this matter. So, again, the extended hand symbolised Providence. We +have also the seven stars, the moon, and many other symbols of a +similar kind. Nor must we forget the _Agnus Dei_, by which our Blessed +Lord Himself was represented; nor the _Pastor Bonus_, in which His own +parable was still further parabolised. The Christian gems found in the +Catacombs are all charged with some symbolical device. Upon these is +the ship for the Church, the palm for the martyr, and the instrument +of torture: as well as the sacred monogram expressing our Saviour's +name. The same symbol blazed on the _labarum_ of the first Christian +Emperor; and the very coins symbolically showed that the Church had +subdued the kingdoms of this world. That fearful heresy, Gnosticism, +which arose from an over-symbolising, shows, nevertheless how deeply +the principle, within due limits, belonged to the Church. The Gnostic +gems exhibit the most monstrous perversions of symbolical +representations: the medals of Dioclesian bear a lying symbol of a +crushed and expiring Christianity. Later still, new symbols were +adopted: mosaics, illuminations, ornaments, all bore some holy +emblems. The monogram _ihs_ found in every church in Western +Christendom: the corresponding symbol stamps the Eucharistic wafers of +the East. [Footnote 15] + + [Footnote 15: See on this subject the Cambridge Camden Society's + 'Argument for the Greek Origin of the Monogram IHS.'] + +{xxxix} + +The symbols of the Evangelists were also of very early date, though +not, in all cases, appropriated as now: for the angel and the lion +fluctuated between S. Matthew and S. Mark. Numbers, too, were fruitful +of allegorical meaning; and the most ingenious combinations were used +to elicit an esoteric meaning from them. By _one_, the Unity of the +Deity was understood: by _two_, the divine and human Natures of the +Saviour: by _three_, of course, the doctrine of the Most Holy Trinity: +by _four_, the doctrine of the Four Evangelists: by _six_, the +Attributes of the Deity: _seven_ represented the sevenfold graces of +the Holy Spirit: _eight_ (for a reason hereafter to be noticed), +Regeneration: _twelve_, the glorious company, the Apostles, and, +tropologically, the whole Church. And when a straightforward reference +to any of these failed, they were added or combined, till the required +meaning was obtained. A single instance may suffice:--S. Augustine, +writing on that passage of S. Paul's, 'What? know ye not that the +saints shall judge the world?' after explaining (_Expos. super Psalm_. +lxxxvi) the twelve thrones, which our Saviour mentions, of the whole +Church, as founded by and represented in the Apostles, finds a further +meaning. 'The parts of the world be four; the east, the west, the +north, and the south:' and (adds the Father) 'they are constantly +named in Holy Writ. From these four winds, saith the Lord in the +Gospel, shall the elect be gathered together: whence the Church is +called from these four parts. Called, and how? By the Trinity. It is +not called, except by Baptism, in the name of the Father, and of the +Son, and of the Holy Ghost. So four, multiplied by three, make +twelve.' In accidental numbers, too, a meaning was often found. No +wonder that some beheld, in the three hundred and eighteen trained +servants wherewith Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, routed the +combined kings, a type of the three hundred and eighteen Fathers of +Nicaea, by whom the Faithful rose triumphant over the Arian heresy. + +{xl} + +Again, types and emblems without number were seen in the language of +the Psalmist, occurring so continuously in the services of the Church. +'His faithfulness shall be thy buckler,' gives rise to a fine allegory +of S. Bernard's, drawn from the triangular shape of the buckler used +at the time when that Father wrote; even as we still see it, in the +effigies of early knights. It protects the upper part of the body +completely: the feet are less completely shielded. And so, remarks the +saint, does God's providence guard His people from spiritual dangers, +imaged by those weapons which attack the upper, or more vital parts of +the body: but from temporal adversities He hath neither promised, nor +will give so complete protection. + +To mention the symbolism which attached itself to the worship of the +early Church, would be to go through all its rites. Confirmation and +Matrimony, and, above all, Baptism, were attended by ceremonies in the +highest degree symbolical. But it is needless to dwell on them; enough +has been said to prove the attachment which the Catholic Church has +ever evinced to symbolism. + +But the Sign of the Cross is that which gave the greatest scope to +symbolism.--Our readers will probably remember the passage of +Tertullian in which he says, 'we cross ourselves when we go out, and +when we come in; when we lie down, and when we rise up,' etc. Indeed, +as in everything they used, so in everything they saw, the Sign of the +Cross. The following lines from Donne are much to the purpose: + +{xli} + + Since Christ embraced the Cross itself, dare I + His Image, th' Image of His Cross, deny? + Would I have profit by the Sacrifice, + And dare the chosen Altar to despise? + It bore all other sins, but is it fit + That it should bear the sin of scorning it? + Who from the picture would avert his eye, + How should he fly His pains, Who there did die? + From me no pulpit, nor misgrounded law. + Nor scandal taken, shall this Cross withdraw: + It shall not--nor it cannot--for the loss + Of this Cross were to me another Cross: + Better were worse: for no affliction. + No cross were so extreme, as to have none. + Who can blot out the Cross, which th' instrument + Of God dewed on him in the Sacrament? + Who can deny me power and liberty + 'To stretch mine arms, and mine own Cross to be? + Swim--and at every stroke thou art thy Cross: + The mast and yard are theirs whom seas do toss. + Look down, thou seest our crosses in small things, + Look up, thou seest birds fly on crossed wings. + +We will mention but one symbolical feature more in the trains of +thought which were common among the early Christians. We refer to the +esoteric meaning which was supposed to exist in the writings of +heathen authors: as for example, when the Pollio of Virgil was +imagined to point to the Saviour, and the Fortunate Isles of Pindar to +Paradise. It were easy but needless to dwell on this subject. The few +instances we have given are already amply sufficient to prove to some, +to remind others, how symbolical was the religion of the early Church, +and (we think) to establish our case _à priori_. + +{xlii} + +CHAPTER III + +THE ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY + +Having dealt with the argument _à priori_, we now proceed to show +that, from analogy, it is highly probable that the teaching of the +Church, as in other things, so in her material buildings, would be +symbolical. + +Firstly, let us look at other nations, and other religions. It need +not be said that the symbolism of the Jews was one of the most +striking features of their religion. It would be unnecessary to go +through their tabernacle and temple rites, their sacrificial +observances, and their legal ceremonies. The Passover, the cleansing +of the leper, the scape goat, the feast of tabernacles, the morning +and evening sacrifice, the Sabbatical year, the Jubilee, were all in +the highest degree figurative. The very stones in the breastplate have +each, according to the Rabbis, their mystical signification. And, as +if still further to teach them the sacramentality, not only of things, +but of events, it pleased God to make all their most famous ancestors, +chiefs, and leaders, _e.g._ Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, +Joshua, David, most remarkable types of the Messiah: nay, from the +beginning the principal doctrines of Christianity were, in some form +or other, set forth. Regeneration and the Church, in the Flood and the +Ark: the Bread and Wine in the Manna and the Stricken Rock: the two +dispensations in Sarah and {xliii} Hagar. Indeed the immense extent of +symbolism in the Old Testament was the mine of the Fathers. Every day +they brought to light some new wealth; and, if we press the symbolism +of the Church further than it was actually intended, we are only +treading in the steps of her bishops and doctors. For while, of +course, in commenting on and explaining the sacrifice of Isaac, the +covenant of circumcision, the captivity and exaltation of Joseph, they +were only developing the real meaning which God seems to have intended +should be set forth by those events, there are,--as we have already +hinted,--many instances where their piety found an interpretation +which was perhaps never intended. Thus, because Job, while all else +that belonged to him was restored double, had only the same number of +children which he had lost--they have argued, that thus the separate +existence of souls was represented, as the Patriarch could not be said +to have lost those who were in another state of existence. + +And if in the Old Testament we find authority for the principle of +symbolism, much more do we in the New. We shall presently have +occasion to allude to the rise and progress of the sacramentality of +Baptism: we may now refer more particularly to the frequency with +which S. Paul symbolises the enactments of the law; as in the case of +the ox forbidden, while treading out the corn, to be muzzled. So +again, the Revelation is nothing but one continued symbolical poem. +The parabolic teaching of our Lord we shall presently notice. + +To this we may add, the exoteric and esoteric signification of certain +books, _e.g._, the Song of Solomon: the double interpretation of many +of the prophecies, primarily of the earthly, principally of the +heavenly Jerusalem: we may refer to the symbolical meaning attached, +under the Christian dispensation, to certain previously {xliv} +established rites, as, for instance. Holy Matrimony. With symbolical +writings, enactments, events, personages, observances, buildings, +vestments, for her guides and models, how could the Church Catholic +fail of following symbolism, as a principle and a passion? + +But not only is Christianity symbolical: every development of religion +is, and must necessarily be so. On the Grecian mythology, we shall +have occasion to say something more presently. The symbolism of Plato, +and still further development by Proclus and the later philosophers of +his school, will occur to every one. If it be asserted that the more +it was touched and acted on by Christianity, the more symbolical did +it become,--we only reply, So much the more to the purpose of our +argument. But not only in Roman and Grecian Paganism is this the case. +The Hindoo religion has much of symbolism; and some of its most +striking fables, derived from whatever source--whether from unwritten +tradition, or from contact with the Jews--possess this character +wonderfully. Take, for instance, the example of Krishna suffering, and +Krishna triumphant; represented, in the one case, by the figure of a +man enveloped in the coils of a serpent, which fastens its teeth in +his heel; in the other, by the same man setting his foot on, and +crushing the head of the monster. Now here, it is true, the doctrine +symbolised has long been forgotten among those with whom the legend is +sacred: we, on the contrary, have a very plain reference to the +promise concerning the Seed of the Woman and the serpent's head. This +is an instance of the fact, that Truth will live in a symbolical, long +after it has perished in every other form: and doubtless, when the +time for the conversion of India shall have arrived, thousands will +receive the truth the more willingly, in that they have had a +representation of it, distorted it is true, but not destroyed, set, +for so many centuries, before their eyes. {xlv} Some truths, +accidentally impressed on a symbolical observance, may still live, +that otherwise must have perished: just as the only memory of some of +the beings that existed before the flood, is to be found in the +petrified clay on which they accidentally happened to set their feet. + +The Mahometan religion has also, though in an inferior degree, its +symbolism; and the reason of its inferiority in this respect is +plain--because, namely, it is a religion of sense. Now Catholicity, +which teaches men constantly to live above their senses, to mortify +their passions, and to deny themselves;--nay even Hindooism, which, so +far as it approximates to the truth, preaches the same doctrine, must +constantly lead men by the seen to look on to the unseen. If +everything material were not made sacramental of that which is +immaterial, so, as it were, bearing its own corrective with its own +temptation, man could hardly fail of walking by sight, rather than by +faith. But now, the Church, not content with warning us that we are in +an enemy's country, boldly seizes on the enemy's goods, converting +them to her own use. Symbolism is thus the true Sign of the Cross, +hallowing the unholy, and making safe the dangerous: the true salt +which, being cast in, purified the unhealthy spring: the true meal +which removed death from the Prophet's provision. Others may amuse +themselves by asserting that the Church in all that she does and +enacts, is not symbolical:--we bless God for the knowledge that she +is. + +We need not dwell on the symbolism of heretics, insomuch as we shall +have occasion to refer to it in other parts of this essay. We will +rather notice, that those to whom we have been but now referring, +heathens and Mahomedans, have a way of discovering a subtle {xlvi} +symbolism in things which in themselves were not intended to have any +deeper meaning. We may mention the odes of Hafiz--the Anacreon, or +rather perhaps, the Stesichorus, of Persia. These poems, speaking to +the casual reader of nothing but love, and wine, and garlands, and +rosebuds, are seriously affirmed, by Persian critics, to contain a +deep esoteric reference to the communion of the soul with God; just as +it has been wildly supposed, that under the name of Laura, Petrarch in +fact only expressed that Immortal Beauty after which the soul of the +Christian is constantly striving, and to which it is constantly +advancing. So in Dante, Beatrice is not only the poet's earthly love, +but, as it has been well shown by M. Ozanam, the representative of +Catholic theology. + +To dwell on the symbolism of Nature would lead us too far from our +point. But we must constantly bear in mind that Nature and the Church +answer to each other as implicit and explicit revelations of God. +Therefore, whatever system is seen to run through the one, in all +probability runs through the other. Now, that the teaching of Nature +is symbolical, none, we think, can deny. Shall we then wonder that the +Catholic Church is in all her art and splendour sacramental of the +Blessed Trinity, when Nature herself is so? Shall God have denied this +symbolism to the latter, while He has bestowed it on the former? Shall +there be a trinity of effect in every picture, a trinity of tone in +every note, a trinity of power in every mind, a trinity of essence in +every substance,--and shall not there be a trinity in the arrangements +and details of church art? It were strange if the servant could teach +what the mistress must be silent upon: that Natural Religion should be +endued with capabilities not granted to Revealed Truth. + +{xlvii} + +Is not, again, the doctrine of the Resurrection wonderfully set forth +by Nature? This symbolism is the more remarkable, in that to the +ancients the rising of the sun and the bursting forth of the leaf must +have appeared false symbolism, although they knew too well that of +which autumn and evening were typical. So, to quote only one other +example, the law of self-sacrifice is beautifully shadowed out by the +grain that 'unless it die, abideth alone; but if it die, bringeth +forth much fruit.' We may argue next from the analogy of all art. +Sculpture, perhaps, has least to offer in our support. But in painting +we may refer to the conventional colours appropriated to various +personages; and the mechanical symbolism of poetry is known to all. +Nor must we forget the conventional use of language. Archaisms, +studied inversions, quaint phrases, and the like, have always been +affected by those who were treating of high and holy subjects. None +has employed these with happier effect than Spenser, whose language, +it need not be said, never was and never could have been really used. +The solemnising effect of a judicious employment of this artifice is +nowhere more strongly felt than in works of Divinity. Compare for +example the English language, where the conventional Thou is always +addressed to the Deity, and where a stern simplicity runs through the +whole of our Divine Offices, with the French which can only employ +_Vous_ in prayer, and with the Portuguese, where, in the authorised +translation of the Holy Scriptures, Apostles, and Prophets--nay, our +Blessed Lord Himself, speak in the polite phrases of conversational +elegance. [Footnote 16] + + [Footnote 16: It is on grounds similar to these, that, in our + translation of Durandus, we have adopted that conventional style + which has been objected to by some recent critics:--not that anyone + ever naturally conversed or wrote in it, but for the sake of + producing the effect which the subject seems to require. The + brilliancy of a summer's day is beautiful in its place: admitted + into a cathedral, it would be totally out of character.] + +{xlviii} + +Music, however, has the strongest claims to our notice. We know, for +example, that each instrument symbolises some particular colour. So, +according to Haydn, the trombone is deep red--the trumpet, +scarlet--the clarionet, orange--the oboe, yellow--the bassoon, deep +yellow--the flute, sky blue--the diapason, deep blue--the double +diapason, purple--the horn, violet:--while the violin is pink--the +viola, rose--the violoncello, red--and the double-bass, crimson. This +by many would be called fanciful:--therefore let us turn to a passage +of Haydn's works, and see if it will hold. Let us examine the sun-rise +in the 'Creation.' At the commencement, as it has been well observed, +our attention is attracted by a soft-streaming sound from the violins, +scarcely audible, till the pink rays of the second violin diverge into +the chord of the second, to which is gradually imparted a greater +fulness of colour, as the rose violas and red violoncellos steal in +with expanding beauty, while the azure of the flute tempers the +mounting rays of the violin: as the notes continue ascending to the +highest point of brightness, the orange of the clarionet, the scarlet +of the trumpet, the purple of the double diapason, unite in increasing +splendour--till the sun appears at length in all the refulgence of +harmony. + +This may serve as a specimen of the manner in which the expressions of +one art may be translated into that of another, because they each and +all symbolise the same abstraction. + +Again, the language of flowers is a case much in point. This is a +species of symbolism which has prevailed among all nations, and which +our devout ancestors were not slow in stamping with the impress of +religion. Witness, for example, the _Herb Trinity_, now generally +called _Heartsease_, the _Passion Flower_, and the _Lacrima Christi_. +And in the present day, who knows not that {xlix} the rose is for +beauty--the violet for modesty--the sunflower for faithfulness--the +forget-me-not for remembrance--the pansy for thought--the cypress for +woe--the yew for trueheartedness--the everlasting for immortality? +The flowers introduced into the ornament of churches we shall consider +presently. + +Furthermore, whatever was the character of our Lord's teaching--such +is likely to be that of His Church. If the former were plain, +unadorned, setting forth naked truths in the fewest and simplest +words; then we allow that there is a _primâ facie_ argument against +the system which we are endeavouring to support. But if it were +parabolic, figurative, descriptive, allegorical--why should not the +Church imitate her Master? His parables are at once the surest +defence, and the most probable originators, of her symbolism. + +We shall have occasion in another place to draw from a consideration +of the nature of our Lord's parables an argument in behalf of +symbolism against one of the most formidable objections that has been +raised against the system. It would here be sufficient for our purpose +to notice the figurative character of our Lord's general teaching. But +we have His own authority for much more than a general adoption of +such a principle. Tradition hands down that He was within sight of the +Temple when he pointed towards it, and uttered those gracious words, +_I am the Door_. Be this as it may, we have from it a sufficient +precedent to justify us in seeking for an emblematical meaning in the +external world, and more particularly in the material sanctuary. S. +Paul, on the same principle, allegorises the Jewish Temple, detail by +detail:--the Holy of Holies was heaven; the High Priest, Christ; the +veil, even his flesh. It is inconceivable that the Temple should be so +symbolical, and so holy that our Lord Himself cleansed it from its +defiling {l} money-changers: and yet that a Christian church, wherein +the Great Sacrifice is commemorated and our Lord is peculiarly +present, should be less symbolical--particularly when its arrangement +is in exact conformity to that of the temple, [Footnote 17] --or +should be less holy. At any rate the _Door_ must be significant: at +any rate the Altar, which S. Paul claims for the Christian Church, in +opposition to those who 'serve the tabernacle.' + + [Footnote 17: See Appendix A. ] + +Again, the holy Sacraments of the Church are examples, in the highest +degree, of this principle of figurative or symbolical teaching. They, +indeed, are not only signs of unseen things, but the channels and +instruments of grace. The latter quality we do not claim for the +speaking symbolism of a material church: but architecture is an emblem +of the invisible abstract, no less than Holy Baptism and the Lord's +Supper. Besides the two Sacraments [Greek text] our Church recognises +other offices, such as Marriage, Confirmation, and the like, as +Sacramentals. In short the whole Church system is figurative from +first to last: not indeed therefore the less real, actual, visible, +and practical; but rather the more real and practical, because its +teaching and discipline are not merely material and temporary, but +anticipative of the heavenly and eternal. This quality then of +symbolism cannot be denied to one, and a most important, expression of +the teaching of the Church, namely its architecture. The cathedral (to +repeat the general in the particular) is not the less material, the +less solid, the less real, because we see in it the figurative +exhibition of the peculiarities of our religion and the articles of +our creed. + + +{li} + + +CHAPTER IV + +PHILOSOPHICAL REASONS FOR BELIEVING IN SYMBOLISM + +We now propose to offer a few remarks on the philosophical reasons +there seem to be for concluding that Ecclesiastical Architecture has +some esoteric meaning, some figurative adaptation, more than can be +appreciated, or even discerned, by the casual observer, to the uses +which produced it, and which have always regulated it. We venture to +approach this consideration, however, rather from a feeling that our +Essay would be incomplete without some reference to this kind of +argument, than from any idea of our own ability to treat on subjects +so abstract and infinite; and fearing that we may not be able clearly +to express or dissect those thoughts which, nevertheless, appear to +our own minds both true and very important. + +It is little better than a truism to assert that there is an intimate +correspondence and relation between cause and effect: yet this thought +opens the way to a very wide field of speculation. Mind cannot act +upon matter without the material result being closely related to the +mental intention which originated it: the fact that anything exists +adapted to a certain end or use is alone enough to presuppose the end +or use, who can see a [Greek text], without distinguishing its +relation to the {lii} want or necessity which brought about [Greek +text]? In short, the [Greek text], whatever it may be, not only +answers to that which called it forth, but, in some sort, represents +materially, or symbolises, the abstract volition or operation of the +mind which originated it. Show us a pitcher, a skewer, or any of the +simplest utensils designed for the most obvious purposes: do not the +cavity of the one, and the piercing point of the other, at once set +forth and symbolise the [Greek text] which was answered in their +production? Now, from this thought, we might proceed to trace out the +truthfulness and reality of every [Greek text] considered in relation +to the [Greek text]; for even a deceptive thing is true and real in +its relation to the mental intention of deceiving: but we intend +merely to consider the way in which the abstract movements or [Greek +text] of mind are _symbolised_ by the material operations or results +which they have produced. In other words, we would allege that +everything material is symbolical of some mental process, of which it +is Indeed only the development: that we may see in everything outward +and visible some inward and spiritual meaning. It is this which makes +'books in everything': finding in everything objective the material +exhibition of the subjective and unseen; not claiming for the abstract +mind an independence of matter, but acknowledging its union with it; +and thus learning from the speculations of reason, to perceive the +fitness for our nature of that system of sacramentality in which God +has placed us, and to bless Him more and more for the Church, a +sacramental institution, and for _the_ Sacraments [Greek text], which +it conveys. This method of viewing the subject will be our excuse for +attempting on the one hand to learn by analysis from a material church +itself, considered objectively, the symbolism which may be supposed to +have directed its design; and on the other {liii} hand to show from +the abstract necessities of the case that a material church might have +been expected to be symbolically designed. But if this theory of +symbolism gives light and meaning and connection to the acknowledged +facts, whether abstract or material, with which we have to do; while +no other view will explain _all_ the phenomena;--it certainly +recommends itself by its simplicity and harmony to a general +reception. Considered in this light, the whole group of separate facts +become linked together and adjusted, and so resolve themselves into a +great fabric of truth, which (like the Pyramid of Cheops) is +consistent and real and intelligible, when seen from any point, under +any circumstances, or in any light. + +But if it be granted that there is this mutual connection between the +abstract and its material exhibition in every case, it will be readily +admitted that a principle of sacramentality must be especially a +condition of all religious acts. If we were merely spirits, without +bodies or any necessary connection with matter, it would be possible +perhaps for us to worship the Great Spirit in an abstract way by a +sort of volition of devotion; but not being so, our souls cannot +engage in adoration without the company of their material home. Hence +every effort of devotion is attended by some bodily act. Whether we +lift our eyes or hands to heaven, or kneel in prayer, we show forth +this necessity of our being: our body has sinned, has been redeemed, +will be punished or glorified, no less than the soul: it must +therefore worship with the soul. Now the symbolism of the bodily acts +of devotion is understood by all. We have even personated Prayer by a +prostrate figure with uplifted hands. [Footnote 18] + + [Footnote 18: The necessity which the body seems to feel for this + symbolism may be seen in the constantly occurring fact, that in + making signs, whether of inquiry or adieu, to a person at a + distance, we naturally speak the words, though inaudible to him, + which the gestures we use express.] + +{liv} + +It has been felt not only right but necessary, in all ages and places, +to accompany the inward feeling of devotion with some outward +manifestation of it. In other words, all religious actions are from +their nature symbolical and figurative. But if the most obvious +corporeal accompaniments to spiritual worship show this clearly, how +much more evidently must all ritual systems appear to be symbolical? A +system of worship, whether heathen, Christian, or heretical, is only +the development and methodising of the simplest figurative acts of +devotion; the whole affected by the peculiar relation between the +object of adoration and the worshippers which in each particular +system may have been pre-supposed. Why does the Mussulman take off his +shoes, kneel on his carpet towards Mecca, and perform his stated +ablutions? Is not each act in itself figurative and full of meaning? +How could such a system, or any other system, have been originated, +but with some intended typification of certain given facts or +doctrines or feelings? Why does the heartless Quaker go with covered +head into his bare conventicle, and sit in enforced silence? He will +answer, to express his independence of idle forms, the spirituality of +his worship, his repudiation of any media in his intercourse with the +Divine Being. We thank him for his admission of a symbolical purpose, +but we read the symbolism differently. We perceive it to express +clearly enough the presumptuous pride and vanity of his sect, his +rejection of all Sacraments, and his practical disbelief in the +Communion of Saints. Again, is the pulpit of the Brownist symbolical; +and shall not our font and altar be so at least as much? The Catholic +ritual is indeed symbolical from first to last. Without the clue to +its figurative meaning, we should never have understood its pregnant +truthfulness and force. {lv} No one, in short, ever ventured to regard +the ancient ritual as anything but highly figurative: this was claimed +as its highest excellence by its observers and commentators, this was +ridiculed and despised by the enemies of the Church; but was confessed +by all. The more anyone meditates on the ancient ritual of the Church, +the more this will be found not only the most prominent +characteristic, but the only satisfactory explanation of many +otherwise unintelligible requirements. This is not the place to go at +any length into the consideration of the whole symbolism of the ritual +system: it will be enough if it is granted that some prescribed +ritual, however meagre, must be a necessary part of all religion; and +that every such system is in some degree figurative or symbolical. Now +to apply this to church architecture. No one will deny that, in a +general point of view, the form of our churches is adapted to certain +wants, and was chosen for this very adaptation. Indeed this is allowed +by modern writers and builders: who defend a church which has no more +than an altar-recess, on this very ground, that there is no longer any +want of a deep chancel. 'I object to aisles,' says a modern architect, +'because the great end of a church is to be an auditorium.' 'The cross +form,' says another, 'I always adopt, because then everyone can see +the preacher if I place the pulpit in the middle.' But why not take a +circle or octagon at once, or the form which is always adopted for the +lecture-rooms at Mechanics' Institutes? For these plans are obviously +_most_ convenient for hearing and seeing. But then, everyone knows +that these are not _church_ forms. The modern builder then, +trammelled, at least in this respect, by rule and precedent, chooses +the cruciform plan, not (perhaps) for its true symbolism; but, by a +wrong arrangement of this plan, still further symbolises (for example) +his own undue estimation of the ordinance {lvi} of preaching. So true +it is that those who would most object to symbolism, as a rule of +design, are themselves (did they but know it) symbolising, in every +church they build, their own arbitrary and presumptuous ideas on the +subject. It is not our intention to prove here, (what has been pointed +out, however, many times), the duty incumbent upon us of following in +our modern churches the ancient principles of design: we are not +writing with the immediate practical end of improving modern church +architecture; but are endeavouring to illustrate the symbolical +principles of ancient design. We shall, however, before finishing this +chapter, choose an example, which will apply to us, as well as to any +other branch of the Church, to show how essentially church +architecture in that respect at least is a part of the Ritual system. +And if Catholic worship is expressed and represented by Catholic +ritual, and if church architecture is a part of this ritual, then is +church architecture itself an expression and exponent of Catholic +worship. A conclusion this which will well warrant the very strong +language in which the Cambridge Camden Society have always asserted +the great importance of this art, and have exacted from its professors +such qualifications of personal holiness and liturgical knowledge as +are no less above the attainment than the aspirations of the modern +school. + +It may not be clear to some how in any sense architecture can be +called symbolical, or the outward sign of something invisible: or +rather what the process is by which a given arrangement, suggested +perhaps by some necessity, becomes in turn suggestive and figurative +of the very purpose for which it was planned. But let us take the case +of a theatre. Here it is clearly necessary that there shall be a stage +or orchestra, accommodation for spectators, and means of easy exit. +{lvii} Accordingly every theatre displays all these requisites. And +does not the building then in turn emblem the purpose for which it was +planned? The ruins of Roman theatres are not uncommon: do we fail to +be recalled by them to the idea of the Roman stage? are not the +several parts of the material building highly figurative and +suggestive of the rules and orders of the abstract drama? + +With respect to churches: let us suppose the institution and ritual of +the Church to be what we know it was; and that we have to adapt some +architectural arrangement to the performance of this ritual. Is there +anything which will dictate any general form rather than another? +Surely there is. We will not speak now of the propriety of setting +aside a place for the celebration of the Holy Eucharist, or of the +propriety of retaining the plan of the typical Temple; but we are +considering simply what is required by practical necessity. The +worshippers who are to assemble in our church are not all on an +equality. There are some who are endowed with high privileges as being +those consecrated to the immediate service of the sanctuary. In early +times so real a thing was the distinction between the clergy and the +laity, that the Church being divided into these two classes, the +material edifice displayed a like division: and the nave and chancel +preach to posterity the sacredness of Holy Orders, and the mutual +duties arising from the relation in which the flock stand to their +shepherds. But in early ages the laity were not all classed _en masse_ +as with us now. Among them were the Faithful, the Catechumens, who had +not yet been admitted to Holy Baptism, and the Penitents or those who +had lapsed. True to itself, church architecture provided then a +separate place for each of these divisions. Does not the ground plan +of such a church symbolise minutely the then state of church +discipline and the {lviii} conditions of church worship? The reality +and meaning of such an arrangement may be shown thus also. After the +Reformation the great distinction between clergy and laity became lost +or undervalued: accordingly the chancel-screens in many places +disappeared, as symbolical in their absence as in their existence. But +still there was a necessity for some material arrangement to protect +the Altar from insult: and so altar rails came in, manifest symbols of +that spirit which made their introduction allowable, if indeed not +necessary: [Footnote 19] still these very rails, and the penned up +reading-pew, teach that the clergy, at least when performing a +function, are divided from the laity. + + [Footnote 19: In the correspondence of the Rev. W. Humphrey, whose + atrocious treatment by the Church Missionary Society has so lately + excited the indignation of all true churchmen, it appears that one + of the noble designs of this zealous priest was to restore for the + peculiar congregation over which he was appointed, consisting of + Faithful, Catechumens, and Unbelievers, the distinct arrangement of + the ancient Church: the modern plan of having but one area for the + lay worshippers being found inconvenient and injurious. That is to + say, our modern church arrangement may suit and does symbolise the + present state of the Church with us, but does not suit and does not + symbolise the state of the missionary Church of India.] + +Now it is of no consequence whatever, whether the early builders of +churches intended this particular arrangement to be symbolical. The +arrangement being adopted becomes necessarily, even if +unintentionally, symbolical, by the process we have endeavoured to +trace, and so things essentially symbolical give rise to intended +symbolism: for it is a simple historical fact that the weathercock, +whatever practical utility may have first suggested its use and +peculiar form, has been for many centuries placed on the church spire +for its _intentional symbolism_. [Footnote 20]And the process is +repeated: for suppose one only of the conventional symbolical meanings +of the weathercock had been discovered: the thoughtful mind {lix} goes +on to find out other figurative senses in which its use is +appropriate, and these conventional meanings become in their turn +intentionally symbolised by future church builders. This may be +illustrated also in the following way: The Jews, in the rite of +Baptism, had probably no other idea than a reference to 'the mystical +washing away of sins.' But when S. Paul had once given to that rite +the new idea of a burial with Christ in the Baptismal water, and a +rising again with Him, this typical meaning became an example of +intended symbolism to all those who should hereafter use it. + + [Footnote 20: See Rationale, p. 27.] + +As we began this part of our subject with hesitation, so we finish it +with some degree of apprehension. To some what has been said may seem +more than ordinarily visionary and ridiculous: yet others, we hope, +will feel that, however feebly and inadequately expressed, there is +some truth in what has been advanced concerning the relation between +the material and immaterial: that the latter welding and moulding the +former into an expression of itself, makes it in turn a type of that +which it expresses. So that if on the one hand, to take our particular +branch of the subject, the theoretical ritual and ordinances of +religion imply and require certain peculiar adaptations of the +material building in which they are to be celebrated; then in turn the +circumstances of the material fabric suggest and symbolise the +peculiar conditions of ritual which induced them. In short we have +endeavoured to prove that from our very nature every outward thing is +symbolical of something inward and spiritual: but, above all things, +outward religious actions are sacramental; and particularly _any_ +prescribed ritual, of which the first characteristic is that it is +figurative: that the Catholic ritual is eminently symbolical, and from +its nature very strikingly influences all its material appliances: +that church architecture is the {lx} eldest daughter of Ritual: that +the process, according to which architecture was influenced by the +requirements of Ritualism was at first as simple as that by which the +form of a theatre sprang from the conditions which were to be +fulfilled by its builder: that thus a church (built in the fully +developed style of Christian architecture) even if not built with any +intention of symbolising, (though it is an historical fact that the +symbolism of each part was known and received _before_ the erection of +any church of this style,) became nevertheless essentially a +'petrifaction of our religion': a fact which, once admitted and +realised, becomes to succeeding church builders, whether they will or +not, a rule and precedent for intentional symbolical design. + + +{lxi} + +CHAPTER V + +THE ANALYTICAL ARGUMENT + +We must arrive at the same conclusion, if we consider the subject in +an analytical way. For example: suppose a person, hitherto +unacquainted not only with the general peculiarities of Christian +churches, but also with Christianity itself, were to enter a +cathedral; or (which will be a fairer case) were to visit a Catholic +country, and examine its churches as a whole, would he not, if +possessed of only ordinary intelligence, observe that the cross form, +for example, was of most common occurrence, and, in the case of the +larger buildings, was perhaps the only plan adopted? And would he not +then naturally inquire why there should be this marked preference for +a form, in itself inconvenient for purposes of hearing or seeing, +[Footnote 21] and open to great mechanical objections, such as the +almost resistless pressure of the four arms on the piers which stand +at the angles of intersection? + + [Footnote 21: That is, a Catholic _arrangement_ of the church being + presumed.] + +But if he learnt that the religion for which these temples were +designed was that of the Cross, he would at once see the propriety of +this ground plan, and would confidently and truly conclude that this +form was chosen in order to bring the Cross, by this symbolism, +vividly and constantly before the eyes of the worshippers. To deny +intended symbolism, in the case of such a person, would {lxii} clearly +be absurd: shall it be less obvious to us? Our traveller would +probably, being satisfied on this point, examine these buildings more +closely. He would find an altar raised conspicuously above the +surrounding level; and for this he might discover a practical reason; +but why in so many cases (so many as well nigh to make a rule) are the +steps either _three_ or some multiple of three? Surely the fundamental +doctrine of the Holy Trinity would, if explained to him, sufficiently +account for this all but universal arrangement. Why, again, in every +case does a screen separate one part of the church from the other? +When our inquirer learns the principle of the separation of laity and +clergy, this arrangement also will be at once intelligible and +figurative. How unreasonable would the position of the font by the +door appear to him, till he learnt the symbolical reason for its being +placed there! And we may here remark that the practice of the last +generation in removing old fonts, or using basins for substitutes, or +in placing new fonts, near the altar, shows clearly enough that +convenience and utility would have pointed out a very different place +for the font from what is assigned by the canon, on symbolical +grounds; grounds adduced in this case, as it would seem, to give +weight to a decision so clearly opposed to all merely practical and +obvious reasons. Again, the marked deviation of the orientation of the +chancel from that of the nave, would be quite inexplicable till the +beautiful and affecting symbolism of the arrangement were pointed out. + +Again, it has not been left merely to the meditative ecclesiologist to +observe that Christian architecture has as decided a characteristic of +verticality, as Pagan architecture had of horizontalism. A mere artist +could not fail of marking the contrast between Beauvais and the +temples of Paestum. {lxiii } The contrast must then be admitted: but +how must we explain it? Surely no accident could have developed the +grovelling Pagan into the aspiring Gothic. What mechanical reasons +could produce Westminster from even the Parthenon? But is not the +phenomenon explained when we see in towering pier, spire, and +pinnacle, the symbolical exhibition of that religion which alone +aspires to things above, nay more, the figurative commemoration of +that Resurrection itself, which alone originates, and only justifies, +the same heavenward tendency. But if this be true; if these +acknowledged peculiarities in Christian architecture be utterly +unintelligible on any other supposition than this of a symbolical +meaning, surely it is not unreasonable to receive so ready a solution +of the difficulty: and, the principle admitted, why may not reasons of +the same figurative nature be assigned for other arrangements, in +themselves on any other interpretation not only meaningless but +obviously useless or absurd? + + +{lxiv} + +CHAPTER VI + +THE INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT + +We have next to show, by a process of induction, that some principles +of symbolism have always been observed in designing churches: that is +to say, that without any actual acquaintance with the plan, details or +arrangement of existing churches, we might gather from other sources, +not only the probability, but the fact, that there was some reason +(not merely mechanical or accidental) for the selection and universal +observation of particular forms and ornaments, and peculiar rules of +distribution. + +First, we shall refer to the celebrated passage of S. Clement of Rome, +[Footnote 22] about performing the Divine Offices decently and in +order, as to time, and place, and circumstance. 'Where and by whom God +willeth these to be performed He hath Himself defined by His most +supreme will.' 'But where,' says Mede, [Footnote 23] (discussing the +passage with the view of establishing a particular point, namely, +bowing towards the altar) 'hath the Lord defined these things, unless +He hath left us to the analogy of the Old Testament?' + + [Footnote 22: S. Clem. Rom., ad Corinth. I, 40.] + + [Footnote 23: Mede, in Epist. lviii Folio, Lib. iv.] + +{lxv} + +This indeed is obviously S. Clement's meaning: and not to go at any +length into the consideration of all the particular forms or +ceremonies of the Old dispensation which were perpetuated in the +New--as the threefold Ministry deduced by S. Jerome, from the High +Priest, Priests, and Levites; the Canonical Hours; the Gospel +anciently laid on the altar, answering to the Two Tables, and the +like--it will be sufficient to refer once more to the remarkable +parallel between a Christian church and the Jewish Temple. [Footnote +24] There can be little doubt that Mede proved his point of the +propriety of genuflexion towards the altar. We are contending for a +much simpler thing: for no more indeed than the concession of a +probability that in the earliest Christian churches there was at least +this resemblance to the Temple; that there should be in both a Holy of +Holies and an outer-court. Supposing this distinction to have been +only made by a curtain, our point is nevertheless gained; and we would +rest here on this one particular of resemblance only (though others +might be insisted on); because, any one designed parallel being +granted, the inference for others is easy. And here it will be enough +to observe that the almost constant practice in ancient writers of +applying to some one part of a Christian church a name or names +derived directly from the _Holy of Holies_ is a strong argument in our +favour: though the passages are often too incidental to be adduced as +evidence of an intended symbolism. [Footnote 25] But, we repeat, the +fact that a particular part of a church--(if we were now arguing for +rood screens, we {lxvi} should show that any such distinction of parts +made a _screen of some sort_ necessary, even if we did not know what +sort of screens really existed)--the fact that a particular part of a +church was distinguished by names directly carrying us back to the +exactly corresponding particular part in the Temple, shows that in the +arrangement at least, if not in the building, of the earliest churches +there was, at least in this one point, an intention to produce an +antitype to the typical Tabernacle. It is observed in a note to +Neander's history [Footnote 26] that if the interpretation of +Michaelis be received there is evidence of a Christian church being +built at Edessa, A.D. 202, with three parts, expressly after the model +of the Temple. + + [Footnote 24: See this carried out by Durandus. Appendix A.] + + [Footnote 25: Compare, amongst others, S. Cyprian, Ep. 55; Euseb. x, + 4. [Greek text]; Id. vii, 18. [Greek text] (the word used in the lxx + for the _Sanctuary_)'. S. Dionys. Areop., Ep. 8, ad Demoph.; S. + Athanas., _Edit, Commel._ Tom. ii, p. 255; Theod. H. E. iv, 17, v, + 18; Concil. Tours. (A. D. 557). can. 4; S. Germ. Constant. _In + Theor. rer. Eccles._; Card. Bona. _Rer Liturg._i, xxv, II; Dionys. + _Hierarch._ cap. 2; S. Chrysost. Lib vi, _De Sacerdotio._] + + [Footnote 26: Rose's Neander, i, 246.] + +Whatever may be the authority allowed to the Apostolical +Constitutions, the fact that they touch at some length upon the form +of churches is enough for our purpose. 'The church,' [Footnote 27] +they say, 'must be oblong in form, and pointing to the East' The +oblong form was meant to symbolise a ship, [Footnote 28] the ark +which was to save us from the stormy world. It would be perfectly +unnecessary to support this obvious piece of symbolism by citations. +The orientation is an equally valuable example of intended symbolism. +We gain an additional testimony to this from the well-known passage of +Tertullian, [Footnote 29] (a.d. 200,) about 'The house of our Dove.' +Whether this corrupt extract be interpreted with Mede or Bingham, +there can be no doubt that its {lxvii} _in lucem_ means that the +church should face the East or dayspring. The praying towards the East +was the almost invariable custom in the Early Churches, and as +symbolical as their standing in prayer upon the Festivals of the +Resurrection. [Footnote 30] So common was orientation in the most +ancient churches, that Socrates [Footnote 31] mentions particularly +the church at Antioch as having its 'position reversed; for the altar +does not look to the east but to the west.' This rule appears to have +been more scrupulously followed in the East than in the West; though +even in Europe examples to the contrary are exceptions. + + [Footnote 27: Apost. Const, 2, 57, (61.)] + + [Footnote 28: See also what is said on this point by Buscemi, in his + Notizie della Basilica di San Pietro, ch. iii, p. 7. The church of + SS. Vincenzo and Anastatio at Rome, near S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane, + built by Honorius I, (A.D. 630) has its wall _curved_ like the ribs + of a ship. The constitution itself refers to the resemblance of this + oblong form to a ship. See also S. Clem. Alex., _Paedag_, iii, 246.] + + [Footnote 29: Tertull. advers. Valent., cap. 2.] + + [Footnote 30: See Origen, _Hom_. 5, in _Numer_. cap, 4. Tertull. + _Apol_. cap. 16, and _Ad Nation_, i, 13. S. Clem. Alex. _Strom_, + vii, _ante med._ quoted by Mede.] + + [Footnote 31: Hist. Eccles. Lib. v, cap. [Greek text].] + +The Apostolical Constitution in its other directions about the +position of the bishop, priests, and deacons, and the separate +stations for the sexes, shows (as Father Thiers [Footnote 32] has +remarked) that there was even then a marked distinction between the +clergy and laity though the method of division is not described. At +any rate, what has been here adduced--compiled from notes taken some +time since for another object, and without access (from accidental +circumstances) to a library--seems enough to show that in the +earliest notices of Christian churches there is distinct intimation of +at least three particulars of intended symbolism. + + [Footnote 32: Thiers, _Dissert, de la Clôture du Choeur des + Eglises._cap. 2.] + +The circular form given to the church of the Holy Sepulchre was of +course appropriate enough in that particular case, where the sepulchre +would naturally become the centre. The circular churches of Europe +were again imitated from this. The Cross form would appear to have +made its first appearance in Constantinople: that is, in the city +which was the first to take a completely Christian character. {lxviii} +For example, the church of the Apostles built by Constantine was +cruciform: and the symbolism of this is pointed out by S. Gregory +Nazianzen in his poem, 'the Dream of Anastasia,' quoted by Bingham. +[Footnote 33] So Evagrius describes the church of S. Simon Stylites, +as cited by Buscemi, [Footnote 34] who also mentions a Cross church +founded by King Childebert, about the year 550. The cathedral of +Clermont, mentioned by S. Gregory of Tours, and the church of SS. +Nazarius and Celsus at Ravenna, both founded about 450, were +cruciform. More than this, we have examples of an oblong church being +_intentionally_ made cruciform by the addition of _apsides_, as at +Blachernoe by Justin Junior, instanced by Bingham out of Cedrenus and +Zonaras. This has been remarked also in the case of some Italian +churches: though the early churches of the West seemed to have +retained the oblong form, even when the details and general +arrangement were Byzantine, as in the _Capella Regia_ at Messina; the +more remarkable from the peculiar influence of Constantinople in the +island of Sicily. But in either case there was a symbolising intention +on the part of the founders of churches. + + [Footnote 33: Carm. ix, tom ii, p. 79. [Greek text]] + + [Footnote 34: Notizie etc. Note al Lib. 1, capo terzo. Nota 10 p. 15.] + +There is mention also of octagonal churches, as at Antioch and +Nazianzum: but these seem to have been mere exceptions; and perhaps +from being coupled with fonts in the inscription quoted by Mr. Poole +from Gruter, may have been intended to symbolise Regeneration. The +first two lines are as follows:-- + + Octachorum sanctos templum surrexit in usus: + Octagonus fons est munere dignus eo. + +{lxix} + +Bingham mentions that the oblong form was sometimes called [Greek +text] which he explains as intimating that they had void spaces for +deambulation. [Footnote 35] It seems however more likely that the +name was derived from the resemblance between this form of church and +a stadium; the apsidal end answering to the curve round the goal. + + [Footnote 35: Book viii, 3, following Leo Allatius and Suicer.] + +Some objection may be raised to our theory because Bingham, from whom +of course almost all the existing passages in ancient writers about +the form of churches might be gathered, does not recognise any such +principles, and rather seems on the other hand to believe that there +was at first no rule or law on these points. But it is not detracting +from his fame for almost consummate learning to question whether his +practical knowledge of church architecture, ancient or modern, was +very deep. It might be shown indeed to be far otherwise. But at any +rate the principle now contended for never entered his mind, or he +would have seen that some of the very passages he adduces to show that +the form of ancient churches was accidental, because (for example) +they were often made out of Basilicae or even heathen temples, really +tell against such a supposition. He quotes from Socrates [Footnote +36] a description of the conversion of a Pagan island to Christianity, +about 380, and the turning the heathen temple into a church. But the +words of the original, given in our note, are very remarkable: 'The +guise of the temple they transformed unto the type (or pattern) of a +church.' We want to prove nothing more than that there was _some_ type +of a church. It was not a mere ejection of idols that was required to +make a temple into a church: but some change of form and arrangement. +So also in a passage from Sozomen (vii, 15), 'The temple of Dionysus +which {lxx} they had, was changed in fittings ([Greek text]) into a +church.' Again, a very interesting passage about the conversion of +Iberia by means of a female captive in the time of Constantine is +cited from Theodoret, [Footnote 37] to show that churches _did exist_ +at that date. But we find a particular form of building clearly +alluded to in the original: and, more than this, 'He Who filled +Bezaleel with a wise spirit for building, judged this captive also +worthy of grace, so as to design the divine temple. And so she +designed, and they built.' And this passage brings us at once to the +famous panegyric on Paulinus, Bishop of Tyre, and builder of the +church there preserved by Eusebius. In this speech the prelate is +throughout supposed to have been inspired for his work, and is +compared to Bezaleel, Solomon and Zerubbabel, the builders of the +Tabernacle, and the First and Second Temples. And not only is the +general spirit assumed to be a directly religious one: but the details +are described as having a symbolical meaning. + + [Footnote 36: Socrates iv, 24, [Greek text].] + + [Footnote 37: Theodoret I. xxiv. [Greek text]] + +In the comparison between the material temple and the 'living temple' +the Spiritual Church, there are several points worthy of observation. +The symbolical explanation of the corner stone as our Lord, of the +foundation as the Apostles and Prophets, of the stones as the members +of the Church, are of course taken directly from Holy Scripture. It is +scarcely necessary to remark the great authority for considering the +fabric of the church as symbolical which these passages convey. Many +of our readers will remember how S. Hermas carries out into +considerable detail the same idea. But the Panegyrist in Eusebius +distinctly refers to 'the most {lxxi} inward recesses [of that +spiritual temple] which are unseen of the many, and are essentially +holy and holy of holies'; [Footnote 38] that is, of course, to a +Sanctuary; which he goes on to describe as having 'sacred inclosures,' +and as being accessible to the priest alone; with a distinct reference +to S. Paul's [Footnote 39] illustration taken from the Jewish +Temple. Again he proceeds to compare the Bishop Paulinus with the +'great High Priest,' not only in being permitted to enter the holy of +holies, but in doing what Christ has done, just as the Son did what He +saw the Father do. 'Thus he, looking with the pure eyes of his mind +unto the Great Teacher, whatsoever he seeth Him doing, as if making +use of archetypal patterns, has, by building ([Greek text]) as much +like them as possible, wrought out images of them as closely as can +be; having in no respect fallen short of Bezaleel, whom God Himself, +having filled him with the Spirit of wisdom and knowledge and other +skilful and scientific lore, called to be the builder of the material +expression of the heavenly types in the symbols of the temple. In this +way then Paulinus also, carrying wholly like a graven image in his +soul Christ Himself, the Word, the Wisdom the Light . . . has +constructed this magnificial temple of the most High God, resembling +in its nature the pattern of the better (temple) as a visible (emblem) +of that which is invisible.' [Footnote 40] + + [Footnote 38: Euseb. H. E., x, 4, 21.] + + [Footnote 39: Hebrews, ix, 6, 7.] + + [Footnote 40: Euseb. X, iv, 24, 25.] + +This remarkable passage appears to assert (i) the inspiration of the +architect, (ii) the fact of this heavenly type, which (iii) material +churches ought to follow; and (iv) the general symbolism of the +Spiritual Church by the visible fabric. We must pass over a great deal +of this oration, with a general request that such as are interested in +this discussion will read the whole in the original for the sake of +seeing its general spirit and bearing. {lxxii } The description of the +details is of great interest. The arrangement of the porticoes, etc., +is of course quite adapted to the wants of the Church in that age: it +is fair to own that the chief entrance appears to have faced the East +in this church. Mention is made also of seats in order for the bishops +and presbyters, and of the altar in the midst: the whole being +encompassed with wooden network, exquisitely worked, in order to be +made inaccessible to the multitude. [Footnote 41] Further on +[Footnote 42] we read that Paulinus rebuilt his church, 'such as he +had been taught from the delineation of the holy oracles.' And again, +'More wonderful than wonders are the _archetypes_, and the intelligent +and godlike _prototypes_ and _patterns_ (of earthly church building): +namely, I say, the renewing of the divine and reasonable building in +the soul'; [Footnote 43] assuming that material churches are but +copies from some heavenly type. Again, a passage, in which the ruined +fabric and the persecuted Church are mixed up, speaks of the Church as +'having been made after the image of God,' [Footnote 44] and more to +the same effect. The symbolical prophecy of the 'fair edification' of +the Gentile Church [Footnote 45] is quoted as being almost literally +fulfilled in the Tyrian church, and is still further symbolised by the +Panegyrist. [Footnote 46] The four-square atrium is said to set forth +the four Gospels of the scripture. [Footnote 47] + + [Footnote 41: Euseb. H. E., x, 43] + + [Footnote 42: Ibid 53.] + + [Footnote 43: Ibid 54.] + + [Footnote 44: Ibid 57.] + + [Footnote 45: Isaiah liv, 11.] + + [Footnote 46: Euseb. X. iv, 60.] + + [Footnote 47: Ibid 61.] + +The whole arrangement of the church is symbolised at much length, as +setting forth the different divisions of the laity and the states of +the faithful with respect to advance in holiness. The great portico +symbolised God the Father: the side porticoes the other Two Persons of +the Most Holy Trinity. The seats represented the souls of the +faithful, upon which, {lxxiii} as on the Day of Pentecost, the cloven +tongues would descend and _sit_ upon each of them. 'The revered and +great and only altar, what could this be but the spotlessness of soul +and holiness of holies of the common Priest of us all?' [Footnote 48] +Once more, the parallel between the spiritual and the material +Churches being continued, the Word, the Great Demiurgus of all things, +is said to have Himself made upon earth a copy of the heavenly pattern +which is the Church of the Firstborn written in heaven, Jerusalem that +is above, Sion the Mount of God, and the city of the living God. + + [Footnote 48: Euseb. H. E., x, 65.] + +It appears then that throughout this description a symbolical meaning +is found attached to the material church: and this not far-fetched or +now first fancifully imagined; but appealing, as it seems, to what the +auditors would be prepared to grant, and admitted by the historian +without a comment, as one specimen of a class. + +We have before remarked that every notice of the particular +distribution of a church for the reception of the different classes of +Christians, may be taken as an argument on our side: for if it can be +shown that the form of churches was not arbitrary, but was adapted to +certain peculiar wants, it must be granted that there was some +particular law of design, and that law connected with Ritual: and +then, as before pointed out, this arrangement becomes itself +symbolical, and that _intentionally_. We shall only refer here to a +passage quoted by Bingham, [Footnote 49] in which S. Gregory +Thaumaturgus describes the places in church assigned respectively to +the five degrees of Penitents. Mede [Footnote 50] argues for the +_existence_ of churches in the first three centuries, from the +universal custom of praying towards the East, the necessity of {lxxiv} +providing distinct places for the Penitents, Hearers, Catechumens, and +Faithful, and from the patterns of the Jewish _proseuchae_ and +synagogues. But all these arguments seem to tell as much for some +particular form of churches as for their existence: that is they prove +that the earliest churches were designed on rules which, even if not +intentionally symbolical (though we have shown that many were so), +became by a natural process intentional among later church-builders. + + [Footnote 49: Greg. Nyssen, iii, 567.] + + [Footnote 50: Discourse of Churches, Folio Edn., p. 333.] + +So also with respect to the great division into nave and sanctuary by +a screen of some sort: concerning which the passages that might be +cited from ancient writers would be innumerable. We shall only give +one quoted by Father Thiers from a Poem of S. Gregory of Nazianzum, in +which the _balustrade_ or rood-screen is said to be 'between two +worlds, the one immovable, the other changeful; the one of gods (or +heaven) the other of mortals (or earth); that is to say between the +choir and the nave, between the clergy and the laity.' + +We have attempted to prove then that the earliest Christian churches +were designed, or described, symbolically: by showing that there was a +reason for their shape, whether oblong, cruciform, or circular; for +their main division into choir and nave, and their subdivision for the +penitents: for their orientation; and even to some extent for their +minor internal arrangements: and that some type or pattern of a church +was universally recognised. [Footnote 51] + + [Footnote 51: Much stress is laid by some on the acknowledged + Bascilican origin of churches as an argument against the principle + here contended for. But we find a great authority on the Antiquities + of Christian Rome deciding differently: 'There seems to be in the + building of churches, as in the mosaics, and other works of art of + the old Christian times in Rome one constant type in which the art + of building could show little freedom or variety.-- _Beschreibung + der Stadt Rom. Basiliken._vol, i, p. 430.] + +{lxxv} + +It would require more reading than we can boast of to give a catena of +writers who have asserted the symbolism of churches. But if the point +has been in any way proved for the first four centuries, enough will +have been done: since from that period we can trace from existing +edifices the gradual relinquishment of the peculiar Basilican plan, +and general adoption of the Latin Cross, or oblong, in the West, while +the East consistently retained the Greek Cross. We observe it stated +[Footnote 52] that Mr. E. Sharpe, in a paper read before the Cambridge +Camden Society, described the gradual _typical_ additions' to the +Basilican ground plan. Indeed symbolism, to any extent, once made +known, must have become a rule and precedent to later church +architects. + + [Footnote 52: Ecclesiologist, vol. i, p. 120.] + +S. Isidore, of Seville, incidentally mentions many symbolical +arrangements: they will be found in the notes to the text of the +Rationale. Many pieces of symbolism are to be found incidentally in +the Decretum of Gratian. + +In mentioning Durandus himself, it seems proper to anticipate an +objection which may occur to some readers. The authority, it may be +said, of that writer must be very small who can give such absurd +derivations as _cemeterium_ from _cime, altare_ from _alta res, +allegory_ from _allon_ and _gore_. But it must be remembered, firstly, +that in the thirteenth century, Greek was a language almost unknown in +Europe: next, that our author nowhere professes an acquaintance with +it: further, that the science of derivation was hardly understood till +within the last few years: and lastly, that Cicero's authority led +Durandus into some errors; for instance, his derivation of _templum_ +from _tectum amplum_. + +One proof of the _reality_ of Durandus's principles we must not fail +to notice. It is the express allusion which he makes to, and the +graphical description which he {lxxvi} gives of, that which we know to +have been the style of architecture employed in his time. The tie +beams, the deeply splayed windows, the interior shafts, all prove that +we are engaged with a writer of Early English date. + +It is very remarkable, that Durandus, S. Isidore, Beleth, and the +rest, seem to quote from some canons of church symbolism now unknown +to us. Their words are often, even where they are not very connected +nor intelligible, the same. One example may suffice. 'In that this +rod,' says Hugh of S. Victor, 'is placed above the Cross, it is shown +that the words of Scripture be consummated and confirmed by the Cross: +whence our Lord said in His Passion, "It is Finished." _And His Title +was indelibly written over Him_' (p. 200). 'In that the iron rod,' +says Durandus, 'is placed above the Cross, on the summit of the +church, it signifieth that Holy Scripture is now consummated and +confirmed. Whence saith our Lord in his Passion, "It is Finished," +_and that Title is written indelibly over Him_(p. 28). The following, +by way of another instance, is the symbolical [Footnote 53] +description of a church, written on a fly-leaf, at the beginning of a +MS. 'Psalterium Glossatum,' in the public library at Boulogne, though +formerly in that of S. Bertin's Abbey, at S. Omer. + + [Footnote 53: _British Magazine_, 1843, p. 393.] + +The text is either of the tenth or eleventh century; but it will be +seen that the words of Durandus, writing at so great a distance of +time and place, are nearly the same in some passages. + + Fundamentum ipsius Camerae est Fides. + Altitudo ejus est Spes. + Latitudo ejus est Caritas. + Longitudo ejus est Perseverantia. + Latera ejus sunt Concordia et Pax. +{lxxvii} + Frontes ipsius sunt Justicia & Veritas. + Pulchritudo ejus est exemplum bonorum operum. + Fenestrae ejus sunt dicta sanctorum. + Pavimentum ejus est humilitas cordis. + Camera est conversatio coelestis. + Pilastri ejus sunt spiritales virtues. + Columnae ejus sunt boni pontifices & sacerdotes. + Interlegatio ejus est vinculum pacis. + Tectum ejus est fidelis dispensator. + * isces ejus sunt mediatio celestis. + Mensa Christi est in camera bona conversatio. + Ministerium Christi in camera sua est bona memoria. + Facinus Christi est bona voluntas. + Canterellus Christi est nitor conscientiae. + Cathedra Christi est serenitas mentis. + Sponsa Christi est sancta anima. + Camerariae Christi spiritales virtutes sunt: + Prima Sancta Caritas dicta est; illa Christi regit cameram. + Secunda est Sancta Humilitas; illa est thesauraria in camera Christi + Tertia est Sancta Patientia; illa facit luminaria in camera Christi. + Quarta Sancta Puritas; illa scopat cameram Christi. + +But besides, and in our opinion stronger than this express and +continuous testimony to the fact that Catholic architecture is +symbolical, we have the testimony of all other branches of Catholic +art, which none ever did, or could deny to be figurative and +sacramental. Let us take merely the rites which accompany the close of +Easter week. We enter a darkened church, illuminated only by the +lighted 'Sepulchre': we hear the history of the Passion chaunted by +three voices in three recitatives: we have the most mournfully +pathetic strain for the 'Reproaches' which perhaps the human mind ever +imagined:--we pray for Pagans--and we kneel; we pray for Turks--and we +kneel; we pray for the Jews, and we kneel not; in abhorrence of the +mockery that bowed the knee to the King of the Jews. We enter that +church again, now perfectly darkened, except for the one lamp that +renders the lectern and the books {lxxviii} thereon just visible: the +solemn litanies seem in that obscurity, and amidst the silent crowd of +worshippers, more solemn than usual. There is a short pause: then in +one second, priests and people, voices and instruments, burst forth +with the Easter Alleluia: light pours in from every window of the +cathedral: showers of rose leaves fall from the roof: bells--silent +for three long days, peal from every church tower: guns fire and +banners wave: _Dominus resurrexit vere, Alleluia, et apparuit Sinioni +Alleluia_. + +Now, without being concerned to defend, or the contrary, any or all of +these ceremonies, we ask:--Is it possible to conceive that the Church +which invented so deeply symbolical a system of worship--should have +rested content with an unsymbolical building for its practice? This +consideration, perhaps, belongs to the analogical branch of our essay: +yet it may also find a place here, as one of the strongest parts of +the inductive argument. + +Seeing then that there are strong reasons _à priori_ for believing +that the ritual and architecture of the Church would partake of a +decidedly symbolical character: that by the analogy of the practice +amongst all religionists, of the operations of God in nature, of the +conditions of Art, and especially of the whole sacramental system of +the Church, it is likely that church architecture itself would be +sacramental: that from the nature of things everything material is in +some sort sacramental, and a material fabric essentially figurative of +the purpose for which it was designed: that an actual Christian church +(taken as we find it) has such accidents as can be explained on no +other than a symbolical supposition, and might be analysed into just +those elements from which, by induction, we first constructed an +hypothetical Christian church: and lastly, that from express and +{lxxix} continuous historical testimony without any actual +acquaintance with existing fabrics we might have deduced that the +material church would be itself, to some extent, a figurative +expression of the religion for the celebration of which it was +constructed: it does not seem too much to assert that Christian +architecture owes its distinctive peculiarities to its sacramental +character, and that consequently we can neither appreciate ancient +examples nor hope to rival them, at least in their perfection, without +taking into account this principle of their design. In other words, +the cause of that indefinable difference between an ancient and modern +church which we were led to discover at the beginning of this +treatise, is neither association of ideas nor correctness of detail, +nor picturesqueness, nor of a mechanical nature, but (in the most +general point of view) is the sacramentality, the religious symbolism, +which distinguished and sanctified this as every other branch of +mediaeval art. + + +{lxxx} + +CHAPTER VII + +EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM + +In endeavouring shortly to develop the practice of symbolism, +according to our view of the subject, we are fully aware that to those +who have never yet bestowed a thought upon it, we shall appear mere +visionaries or enthusiasts. It has been the fashion of late to smile +at the whole theory, as amusing and perhaps beautiful: but quite +unpractical and indeed impracticable. We cannot hope to convince by +aesthetics those who are deaf to more direct arguments, and who refuse +to view everything, as churchmen ought to do, through the medium of +the Church. But those who agree with us in the latter duty, will +perhaps suffer themselves to think twice on what will be advanced +before they condemn it. + +We shall consider the practice of symbolism as connected with, 1. The +Holy Trinity; 2. Regeneration; 3. The Atonement; 4. The Communion of +Saints; and then we shall notice several parts of a church, such as +windows, doors, etc., with their specific symbolical meaning. + +The doctrine of the Holy Trinity has left, as might be expected, +deeper traces in the structure of our churches than any other +principles of our faith. We have already noticed that possibly the +Basilican arrangement might be providentially ordered with reference +to this. {Ixxxi} In Saxon times we find the idea carried out, not only +by the Nave and two Aisles, but also by the triple division in length, +into Nave, Chancel, and Sanctum Sanctorum. This triple division is +most frequently given in Norman buildings, by a central tower; with +chancel and nave: we also find in this style a triple chancel arch, an +arrangement never occurring at a later epoch. Thus length and breadth +were made significant of this Mystery; nor was height less so. The +clerestory, the triforium, and the piers cannot fail to suggest it. +Indeed, where a triforium was not needed, there is often, as at Exeter +and Wells, an arrangement of arcading in niches to resemble it, made +that the triplicity might be retained. It is only in late +Perpendicular, such as the nave of Canterbury cathedral, that the +arrangement is omitted: there the eye is at once dissatisfied. Again, +the triple orders of moulding, which are so much more frequent than +any other number, may be supposed to refer to the same thing. The +altar steps, three, or some multiple of three, certainly do. So do the +three fingers with which Episcopal Benediction is given. And this is a +very early symbolism. It occurs in illuminated MS. We may mention one +(Harl. 5540) of the thirteenth century, where it forms a part of the +first letter of S. John's gospel. So, as we shall presently see, are +Eastern triplets. And reference is constantly made to the same +doctrine in bosses: we may mention as a remarkable instance one that +occurs in Stamford, S. Mary's, a figure with an equilateral triangle +in its mouth: thereby setting forth the duty of the preacher to +proclaim the doctrine of the Trinity. In large churches, the three +towers undoubtedly proclaim the same doctrine. We shall hereafter show +that neither in nave and aisles, in triplets, or any thing else, is +the _inequality_ any thing else than what might have been expected. + +{lxxxii} + +II. The Doctrine of Regeneration + +We know, as a fact, that from the earliest times, baptisteries and +fonts were octagonal. We know also that the reason assigned, if not by +S. Ambrose himself at least by one of his contemporaries, for this +form was, that the number eight was symbolical of Regeneration. For as +the old Creation was complete in seven days, so the number next +ensuing may well be significative of the new. + +Now none can deny that very much the greater number of fonts are in +this shape. To prove this we will refer to those selected by the +Cambridge Camden Society in the appendix to the second edition of +their 'Few Words to Church-Builders.' There we find. + + Octagonal. Of all other shapes + + In Norman 15 43 + Early English 19 30 + Decorated 24 1 + Perpendicular 57 2 + Total 115 76 + +Now, it is to be remembered, that the superior convenience of a +cylindrical or circular form, together with the wont of Norman +architects rather to symbolise facts than doctrine, accounts for the +comparatively small number of octagonal fonts in that style: in later +ages their preponderance is overwhelming. + +The symbolism sculptured on the sides of the font hardly falls under +our consideration in this place. And besides, it has been fully +detailed in the publications of the Cambridge Camden Society, and of +Mr. Poole. Whether the general octagonal uses of piers may not arise +from a similar design, we do not pretend to decide. + +{lxxxiii} + +One of the most apposite illustrations in _corbels_, consists in three +fishes intertwined in an equilateral triangle; and thus typifying our +regeneration in the Three Persons of the Ever-Blessed Trinity. For it +need not be said, that the fish is the emblem of the Christian, as +being born again of water. The mystical vesica piscis of this form () +wherein the Divinity, and (more rarely) the Blessed Virgin are +represented has no reference, except in its name to a fish; but +represents the almond, the symbol of virginity, and self-production. + + +III. The Atonement + +We will notice in the third place, the symbolical representation of +the great doctrine of the Atonement, in the ground lines and general +arrangement of our churches. + +As soon as ever Christianity possessed temples of her own, the +cruciform shape was, we have seen, sometimes adopted. And so, as we +all know, has it continued down to the present day. England, perhaps, +has fewer examples of cross churches than any other country: the +proportion of those which bear this shape being not so much as one in +ten. In France, on the contrary, the ratio would probably be inverted. +Into the reason of this remarkable difference we shall not now +inquire: but will merely remark, that many churches which do not, in +an exterior view, appear cruciform, are nevertheless, from their +internal arrangements, really so. The transepts do not project beyond +the aisles: but have distinct transept arches, and a window of much +larger dimensions than those in the aisles. This principally occurs in +city churches, or where the founders were confined for want of room. +And this is the case as well in churches which have aisles to the +chancel, as in Godalming, Surrey, as where the nave alone has them, +{lxxxiv} as in Holy Rood, Southampton. They will be distinguished +readily on the outside by the northern and southern gable. In some +cathedral churches, there is a double cross: in York, this perhaps +signifies the metro-political dignity of that church; in other cases, +it was probably merely a method of imparting greater dignity to the +building. Some churches--though they are not frequent--are in the form +of a Greek Cross: that is, the four arms are all of equal length. +Darlington, Durham, is an example: in this case there is a central +tower. In some, as at Westminster, Gloucester, and S. Albans, the +choir runs westward of the transept; in Seville, almost the whole of +the choir is locally in the nave; in others, as Ely, it does not +extend westward so far. These peculiarities, curious in themselves, do +not affect the symbolism: and probably no modification of meaning is +to be attached to them. + +Mr. Lewis has asserted, that in early churches, a cross was marked on +the pavement, the upper part running into the chancel, the arms +extending into the transepts, and the body occupying the nave. And +some such arrangement, or rather the traces of it, we have ourselves +perhaps noticed. The reason it was given up, was probably the anathema +pronounced by the second OEcumenical Council, on those who should +tread on that holy symbol. + +Thus, in the ground plan, the Cross of Christ was preached. It is +often said, that the adjacent chapels, more especially the Lady +Chapel, obscured the symbolism. But it must be remembered that a +ground plan can only be judged of in two methods: either from a height +above, for example, the tower of the church; or when marked out on +paper. It is surprising, in either of these cases, how easily the most +complex cathedral resolves itself to the spectator's eyes into a +cross. + +{lxxxv} + +In looking at the details of churches, the Cross is marked on the +Dos-d'ânes and plain coffin lids of the earliest times: it commences +the later inscriptions on brass: it surmounts pinnacle, and gable, and +porch; it is often imprinted on the jambs of the principal entrance, +showing the exact spot touched in the consecration with chrism, +[Footnote 54] and possibly having reference to the blood sprinkled at +the Passover on the Door Post: and finally, in a more august form, is +erected in the churchyard. And here we may notice another curious and +beautiful expression of Catholic feeling. [Footnote 55] + + [Footnote 54: It is proper to distinguish between Dedication + Crosses, which are generally of considerable size, + examples of which may be seen in Moorlinch, Somersetshire, + and those small crosses in door jambs, as in Preston, + Sussex, the use of which is not very clear, but which + were perhaps intended to remind the entering worshipper to + cross himself. At Yatton, Somersetshire, inside the + northern door, and towards the east, is a large + quatrefoil-fashioned cross: this perhaps pointed out a + now destroyed benatura.] + + [Footnote 55: That there are some plain crosses, cannot be + denied--more especially that on which the weathercock is placed. A + little consideration will, perhaps, clear up this difficulty. The + cross may be viewed in two distinct lights. It may either set forth + that on which our Redeemer suffered--in which case it is the symbol + of glory: or it may image that Cross which every true Christian is + to take up--in which case it may still be called the Symbol of + Shame. In the latter signification, it may well be quite plain. But, + inasmuch as our ancestors looked more to the Passion of Christ than + to their own unworthiness, the former symbol is that which generally + occurs. Yet not always on the church spire, perhaps for this + reason:--the spire urges us, by its upward tendency, to press on + towards our heavenly home--a home which can only be reached by the + cheerful bearing of that cross by means of which (as it were) it + points. The cross therefore is here, with propriety, plain.] + +It is very uncommon to find a plain cross surmounting a church: the +whole force of Christian art has sometimes been expended in wreathing +and embellishing the instrument of redemption: flowers, and figures, +and foliage are lavished upon it. And why? Because that which was once +the by-word of Pagans, the instrument of scorn and of suffering, has +become the symbol of Hope and of Glory, of Joy, and of Eternal +Felicity; and its material expression has altered proportionately. +{xxxvi} In that the arms frequently end in leaves and flowers, they +signify the flourishing and continual increase of that Church which +was planted on Mount Calvary. The Crown of Thorns is sometimes +wreathed around them: but so, that it should rather resemble a Crown +of Glory. The instruments of the Passion are, as every one knows, of +the most ordinary occurrence. The commonest of these are--the Cross, +the Crown of Thorns, the Spear, the Scourge, the Nails, and the Sponge +on the pole. But in the Suffolk and Somersetshire churches many others +are added. Their position is various: sometimes, as in Stogumber, +Somersetshire, they appear amidst the foliage of a perpendicular +capital: sometimes, as in the Suffolk churches, they are found in the +open seats: often in bosses, often in brasses, often in stained glass; +and sometimes the angel that supports a bracket holds them portrayed +on a shield. The Five Wounds are also often found. These are +represented by a heart, between two hands and two feet, each pierced; +or by a heart pierced with five wounds, as in a brass at King's +College chapel, Cambridge. The instruments of the Passion may +sometimes be seen amongst the volutes of the stem of the churchyard +cross: examples occur at Belleville, near Havre, in Normandy, and +Santa Cruz, in Madeira. + +Again, the very position of our blessed Saviour on the Cross as +represented in the great rood and in stained glass, is not without a +meaning. In modern paintings, the arms are high above the head, the +whole weight of the body seeming to rest upon them. And this, besides +its literal truth, gives occasion to that miserable display of +anatomical knowledge in which such pictures so much abound. The +Catholic representation pictures the arms as extended horizontally: +thereby signifying how the Saviour, when extended on the Cross, +embraced the {lxxxvii} whole world. [Footnote 56] Thus, as it ever +ought to be, is physical sacrificed to moral truth. Perhaps for a +similar reason S. Longinus is represented as piercing the Right Side, +instead of the Left: and in a representation of the Five Wounds, it is +the right side of the breast that is pierced (as in a brass at +Southfleet, Kent); that being the side of the greatest strength, and +thereby typifying the strength of that love wherewith our Redeemer +loved us. [But this may be doubted. For it appears pretty clear that +the ancient Church considered the Right Side to have been that which +was really pierced. According to modern ideas, the effusion of the +water was not a miracle. S. John undoubtedly considered it not only a +miracle, but one of the most extraordinary which he had to relate, +seeming to stop the mouth of the objector by insisting on the fact, +that he himself was an eye-witness.] In some old roods, a still +further departure was made from literal truth: the Saviour was +represented on the Cross, as a crowned king, arrayed in royal apparel. +[Footnote 57] And his figure was constantly represented as larger than +that of His attendants, His Blessed Mother, and S. John, thereby +signifying his immeasurable superiority over the highest of human +beings. + + [Footnote 56: However, in late stained glass, the modern position is + sometimes found as in a Crucifixion represented in the east window + of the north aisle, in Wiscombe church, Somersetshire. ] + + [Footnote 57: To this we may add the conventional representation of + Royal Saints, such as S. Edmund, wearing their kingly crowns during + their passion. That such conventional symbolism is _natural_ to us + may be shown by alluding (without irreverence in this connection) to + the way in which kings are always figured with crown and orb in + popular prints: and even, as in a sign-post at Leighterton, + Gloucestershire, King Charles II, hiding himself in the Royal Oak, + is arrayed in all the insignia of majesty.] + +Another reference to the Atonement will be found in the deviation +which the line of the chancel often presents from that of the nave. It +is sometimes to the north, but more frequently to the south. +{lxxxviii} There are many more churches in which it occurs than those +who have not examined the subject would believe: perhaps it is not too +much to say that it may be noticed in a quarter of those in England. +Of our cathedrals, it is most strongly marked in York and Lichfield: +among the parish churches in which we have observed it, none have it +so strongly as Eastbourne and Bosham, in Sussex, and S. Michael's at +Coventry: in all of which the most casual glance could not but detect +the peculiarity of appearance it occasions. This arrangement +represents the inclination of our Saviour's Head on the Cross. In +roods the Head generally inclines to the left. + +Mr. Poole, after noticing the fact in York minster, seems inclined to +attribute it to a desire of evading the old foundation lines of that +church, which induced the builders to deviate a little from the +straight line, rather than encounter the difficulty of removing this +obstacle. But in the first place, however much modern church builders +might bethink themselves of such an expedient, it is not at all in the +character of the church architects of other days: and in the second, +the explanation is applicable to York alone, one only out of many +hundred churches so distinguished. + + +IV. The Communion of Saints + +Next, we will notice the effect which the Doctrine of the Communion of +Saints has exercised in the designs of churches. + +In the ground plan of small churches there is little which seems to +bear on this subject. The principal references to departed saints +occur in the stained glass, in the rood screen, in niches, in the +canopies of monuments, and in brasses. Monuments, in particular, often +afford some beautiful ideas, among which we may notice {lxxxix} the +angels which often are seated at the head of the effigy, supporting +the helmet or pillow, and seeming to point out the care of angels for +the saints. In cathedrals, however, the chapels have a very +considerable effect upon the ground plan: though we cannot agree with +Mr. Poole that such a modification of the principal lines of the +building for the reception of these shrines and oratories, is +necessarily uncatholic. He principally objects to the position of the +Lady Chapel at the east end, above, as he expresses it, the High +Altar. Now we believe the Lady Chapel to have occupied that place +merely on grounds of convenience: not from any design--which it is +shocking to imagine--of exalting the Blessed Virgin to any +participation in the honours of the Deity. Sometimes, as at Durham, +this chapel is at the west end: in country churches, it generally +occupied the east end of the north or south aisle: and sometimes is +placed over the chancel, as in Compton, Surrey, Compton Martin, +Somerset, and Darenth, Kent; or over the porch, as at Fordham, +Cambridgeshire. At Bristol cathedral it is on the north side of the +choir. That the position of the Lady Chapel at the east end adds +greatly to the beauty of the building wall hardly be denied on a +comparison of York, or Lincoln, or Peterborough with Lichfield, _as it +now is_. + + +{xc} + +CHAPTER VIII + +EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM CONTINUED + +We come now, according to the plan we laid down, to speak of the +symbolism of some particular features of a church, which do not fall +so well under any of the four heads which we have been considering. +And firstly, of windows. + +The primary idea shadowed forth in every one of the styles, is the +saying of our Lord to His disciples, _ye are the light of the world_. +More simply set forth at first, this notion acquired, in the course of +time, various methods of expression, and was subjected to different +modifications; but we must retain it as the ground work or we shall be +in danger of mistaking the true meaning of ancient church architects. + +In Norman, then, and early English, the single lights north and south, +set forth the Apostles and Doctors who have shined forth in their time +as the lights of the Church: and the rich pattern of flowerwork +wherewith the stained glass in them was decked, represented the +variety of graces in each. But to have symbolised the servants without +the Master, the members without the Head, had been at variance with +all the Catholic Church has ever practised. Looking therefore to the +east end, we behold that well-known feature, the Triplet: setting +{xci} forth the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity. [Footnote 58] Nor is +this all: to denote that all the Church has, and all She is, is from +above, the string course, springing from the eastern triplet, runs +round the whole church (often both within and without,) binding it, as +it were, in and connecting every other light, with those at the east. +Again, the Western Door, as we shall see, symbolised Christ: and two +lights, typical of His two natures, are therefore generally placed +over it. There are, undoubtedly, instances of western triplets: though +we think that the Camden Society has well explained these. + + [Footnote 58: We read, in the legend of S. Barbara, that, being + confined by her father in a room where were two windows only, she + added a third, by way of setting forth this Mystery.] + +In some cases, there is a series of couplets on each side of the +church: and, taking the hint from Durandus, we may interpret this +arrangement of the mission of the Apostles two and two. + +A series of triplets as in Salisbury cathedral, and the Lady Chapel of +Bristol, is very rare: and, of course, not objectionable on any other +grounds than that of the too cheap use of a most beautiful feature. + +So far all is simple: but as we approach the decorated style, the +symbolism becomes excessively complicated. The principal doctrines of +the Catholic Church are set forth in each window: and to unravel the +whole of these is often a task of no small difficulty. We shall +proceed to give a few examples, with the explanation which appears to +us probable: entreating the reader to remember, that if in any +instance our conjectures should appear unfounded, the failure of +probability in one case throws no discredit on the others, and still +less does it invalidate the system. Durandus's silence on the language +of tracery is easily explained by the consideration, that assign as +late a date as we will to the {xcii} publication of his work, it came +forth while the Early English style was yet in existence: and his +silence on triplets only proves, what is well known to +ecclesiologists, that they are far less common in foreign than in our +own architecture. + +In Norman windows the wheel window is conspicuous. This, whether +formed with the _radii_ like those of Barfreston, or of the Temple +church, represent (as we shall presently observe that Norman symbolism +usually _does_ represent) an historical fact: namely, the martyrdom of +S. Catherine. The celebrity of this Virgin Martyr may tend to explain +why she should be so far honoured: a celebrity which has descended to +our own day in the common sign of the Cat and Wheel: as well as the +firework so denominated. + +Of Norman triplets there are not many to which we can refer. The tower +of Winchester, however, presenting one on each face, is a noble +example. The southeastern transept of Rochester, though later, is +equally in point: it contains two triplets, far apart, and one +disposed above the other. The west front of S. Etienne at Caen is a +well-known instance. + +The earliest symbolism of Early English triplets represented the +Trinity alone; the Trinity in Unity was reserved for a somewhat later +period. And this was typified by the hood moulding thrown across the +three lights. At other times a quatre-foiled, or cinque-foiled, circle +was placed at some little distance above the triplet: thus typifying +the Crown which befits the Majesty of the King of Kings. And the same +Crown is often exhibited above the western couplet. But, for as much +as we are 'compelled by the Christian verity to acknowledge every +person by Himself to be God and Lord,' a crown is sometimes +represented over each light of the triplet, as in Wimborne minster. + +{xciii} + +Another method of representing the same doctrine was by a simple +equilateral triangle for a window: whether plain, of which there are +many examples, or with the toothed ornament, as in the famous example +at York minster. + +S. Giles's at Oxford has windows, the tracery of which will serve as +an example of many: it has _three tre_-foiled lights, with _three_ +quatre-foiled circles, arranged triangle-wise in the head. + +This type is a little varied in S. Mary Magdalene's church, in the +same city, by the introduction of the ogee form. + +Berkeley church has a wheel window containing _three_ quatre-foils: +the three spaces left between them and the line being _tre_-foiled. + +The east windows of Dunchurch and Fen Stanton have been explained in +the publications of the Cambridge Camden Society: the former in their +'Few Words to Church-Builders,' the latter in their illustrations of +monumental brasses. Part iv. + +The south transept of Chichester cathedral is a glorious specimen of +decorated symbolism. In the gable is a Marygold, containing two +intersecting equilateral _tri_-angles: the _six_ apices of these are +_sex_-foiled; the interior _hex_-agon is beautifully worked in _six_ +leaves. The lower window seven lights: in the head is an equilateral +spherical _tri_-angle, containing a large _tre_foil, intersected by a +smaller _tre_-foil. Here we have the Holy Trinity, the Divine +Attributes, the perfection of the Deity. + +A window in Merton College chapel has _three_ lights: with a circle in +the head containing _six sex_-foils. + +Broughton, Oxon, has in the head of one of its windows a circle, +containing two intersecting equilateral triangles, the _six_ apices, +and _six_ spaces around, being _tre_-foiled. + +{xciv} + +The east end of Lincoln, though far inferior to the south transept of +Chichester, is nevertheless highly symbolical. The east window of each +of the aisles has _three_ lights, with _three_ foliated circles, +disposed _triangle_-wise in the head. The great east window has eight +lights in two divisions, each whereof has _three_ foliated circles in +the head: and in the apex of the window is a circle containing seven +foliations. The upper window has a circle of eight foliations in the +head: and in the apex of the gable is an equilateral trefoil. + +The next element introduced was the consideration of the Six +Attributes of the Deity. One of the simplest examples was to be found +in the west window of the north aisle of S. Nicholas, at Guildford: a +plain circle, containing six _tre_-foils: these are arranged in two +_tri_-angles, each containing _three tre_-foils, and the two sets are +varied. + +The clerestory of Lichfield cathedral (circ. 1300), is a series of +spherical _tri_-angles, each containing _three tre_-foils. + +A similar clerestory occurs in the north-west transept of Hereford +cathedral, and the same idea is repeated in its triforium: a series of +_three tre_-foiled lights, with _three_ circles in the head. + +The east end of Lichfield symbolises most strikingly the same glorious +doctrine. The apse is _tri_-gonal: the windows of each side are the +same: each is of _three_ lights, with six _tre_-foils (emblematical of +the six attributes) disposed above in the form of an equilateral +_tri_-angle. + +The east end of Chichester is rather earlier, but introduces yet +another element. Here we have a triplet: and at some height above it, +a wheel-window of seven circles: symbolising therefore eternity and +perfection. + +{xcv} + +The triforium and clerestory of Carlisle are singular symbols of the +doctrine of the Trinity. The former has in each bay three adjacent +equal lancets. The latter is a series of triplets; the central window +in each being composed of three lights. We may observe, by the way, +that three _adjacent_ equal lancets are hardly ever found, whatever +the reason may be. We know but of three examples: in the churches of +Bosham, Sussex, Godalming, Surrey, and S. Mary-le-Crypt, Gloucester: +and in all these cases they occupy the same position, the south east +end of the chancel, or chancel aisle. + +Dorchester church, Oxfordshire, has for one of its windows an +equilateral spherical triangle with three heads, or knops, one at each +angle. + +We are now in a purely decorated age. And as one of its earliest +windows we may mention that in the Bishop of Winchester's Palace at +Southwark. It was a wheel, and contained two intersecting equilateral +_tri_-angles: around them were _six sex_-foiled triangles the hexagon +in the centre containing a star of _six_ greater and _six_ smaller +rays. Here, of course, the Blessed Trinity and the divine and human +natures were set forth. [Footnote 59] + + [Footnote 59: We may perhaps be allowed to say a few words here on + the subject of those singular windows which the Cambridge Camden + Society has called _Lychnoscopes_. + + It appears, that in Early English churches, the westernmost window + on the south side of the chancel is both lower than, and in other + ways (particularly by a transom) distinguished from the rest. It is + sometimes merely a square aperture, as in some churches in the Weald + of Sussex: sometimes a small ogee-headed light, as in old Shoreham: + sometimes, where the south side of the chancel is lighted by a + series of lancets, the westernmost, as in Chiddingfold, Sussex, is + transomed, where the others end, and carried down lower; sometimes + the lower part appears to have been _originally_ blocked, as in + Kemerton, Gloucestershire, and Kingstone next Lewes, Sussex: + sometimes there are remains of clamps, as at Buckland, Kent, + sometimes of shutters. Again, sometimes there are two, one north, + the other south of the chancel: sometimes the same arrangement is + found S.E. of the nave. On the other hand, it is never found in any + but a parish church: never in late work: seldom is it ornamented. We + will give a few remarkable instances. I. _Dinder_, Somersetshire. + Here there is a double lychnoscope, north and south: the date is + late Early English, and the specimen is unique from there being a + rude moulding in the window arch. 2. _Othery_, Somersetshire. The + lychnoscope itself is here blocked: it is square-headed, and of two + lights: date probably Early Decorated. The church is cruciform, and + a central perpendicular tower was subsequently erected. One of the + diagonal buttresses is thrown out at a distance of some three feet + from the window, so as to hide it: and an oblique square hole has + been cut through the masonry of the buttress. This is the more + remarkable, because there are stalls in the chancel, of + perpendicular work, which would seem to render any window in that + position useless. 3. _Christon_, Somersetshire. Here, _almost close + to the ground_, is a horizontal slit which appears never to have + been glazed. This is an early Norman church. So at Albury, Surrey, + at the S.E. end of the south aisle. 4. _S. Appolline_, Guernsey. + This church is of the same date as, or may be earlier than, the + last. The windows are rude and square-headed slits: the lychnoscope + is transomed. 5. _Preston_, Sussex. There are three windows in the + south of the chancel, which rise one above the other, like sedilia, + to the east. 6. _Loxton_, Somersetshire. This is an Early English + church with a south western tower serving as porch. From the eastern + side of this a long slit is carried through the nave wall, a + distance of some twenty feet, and exactly commanding a view of the + altar. It is _grated_ at the west end, not glazed: the eastern end + has long been blocked up. Way is made for it by a bulge of the wall + in the angle formed towards the east by the tower and nave. This + seems to form a kind of connecting link between the hagioscope and + the lychnoscope. + + With these windows we will venture to connect those extremely rare + ones, three adjacent, unconnected, equal, lancets, as occurring of + the same date at the same position. There is again another kind of + lychnoscope only found where the chancel has aisles. A panel of the + parclose, or wooden screen, behind the longitudinal stalls, is + sometimes found pierced with a small quatrefoil, at the S.W. part of + the chancel. This is vulgarly called a confessional. It seems, + however, clearly connected with the lychnoscope. Examples are found + at Erith, Kent, and Sundridge in the same county. Perhaps also the + curious slit in the south wall of the chancel of S. Michael's + church, Cambridge, communicating with a south chantry chapel is + another variety. + + From the above facts we deduce the following remarks: 1. That the + necessity for a lychnoscope must in some cases have been very + urgent: as may be proved by the example, at Othery, where a buttress + is much injured to form one. 2. But yet this need was not universal, + because there are many churches in which the arrangement does not + occur. 3. That it appears, strictly speaking, a parochial + arrangement, not being found in cathedral or collegiate churches. 4. + That smaller buildings rather than larger are marked with it: it + seldom occurs where there are aisles to the chancel. 5. That, where + employed, lychnoscopes were only used occasionally; else the + shutters which have evidently sometimes existed, would have been + useless. 6. That they are very seldom ornamented, and never have + stained glass. 7. That in the Perpendicular era they generally, + though not universally, ceased to be used. 8. That, a large sill + seems to have been a requisite to them. 9. That, where the upper + part is glazed, the lower part often was not, as in the Decorated + lychnoscope at Beckford, Gloucestershire. The principal hypotheses + to explain the use of this arrangement are: 1. Dr. Rock's. That it + was a contrivance by which lepers might see the Elevation of the + Host. But the structure of the greater part of these windows forbids + this idea: many instances occur in which it is splayed away from the + Altar, none (except that at Loxton, and a doubtful case at + Winscombe, Somersetshire, where a perpendicular addition has been + made) in which it is splayed towards it. 2. That of the Cambridge + Camden Society, that it was for watching the Paschal light. But + this, besides being _à priori_ improbable is refuted by that at + Othery. Here the eye has to look through two apertures at some + distance from each other, and therefore can command only a very + small field on exactly the opposite side of the chancel. 3. It has + been imagined by some that it was for confession. The idea of + confession near an altar sufficiently refutes itself; but + furthermore, some of these openings are so very low down that the + thing would be impossible. Two solitary facts more, though they + throw no light on the subject, may yet be mentioned. 1. In the + church of S. Amaro, near Funchal, in Madeira, is a grating at the + west-end like that at Loxton. Its use is _now_ said to be to cool + the church, though in that case one should have expected to meet it + elsewhere. 2. In Sennen church by the Land's End, there is said to + have been a lychnoscope (now no longer existing) used to take in the + tithe-milk. We may gather on the whole, 1. that lychnoscopes could + not have been used to look into a church 2. Nor to hand anything in + or out. Both these are sufficiently disproved by Othery, 3. Nor to + speak through. But one can hardly imagine any other use, except it + were to look _out_ of the church. We are inclined to think that it + was in some way connected with the ringing of the bells, or of the + sancte bell. Where the tower is central, we very often find it: as + at Old Shoreham and Alfriston, Sussex: at Loxton it is evidently for + some purpose connected with the tower. So in Beckford, which has a + central tower; and Uffington, Berks, a cross church. And the place + where the sancte bell was rung is exactly between a double + lychnoscope. But what the particular use might have been we will not + pretend to guess. We will conclude this long note by a question as + to the authority for calling the small chancel door, the _Priest's + Door_. It is never (originally) furnished with a lock, but always + with an interior bar, thus showing that it could only have been used + from the inside. So the priest could never have _entered_ the church + by this way, unless the door were previously opened for him.] + [End footnote] + +{xcvi} + +The symbolism of the more complicated decorated windows it is next to +impossible to explain. Carlisle and York have doubtless their +appropriate meaning; but who will now pretend to expound it? + +{xcvii} + +One exception we may make:--the east window of Bristol cathedral. It +is of seven lights, but so much prominence is given to the three +central ones, as strongly to set forth the Most Holy Trinity: over +them is a crown of six leaves and by the numerous winged foliations +around them, the Heavenly Hierarchy may, very probably, be understood. + +{xcviii} + +II. Doors + +Durandus has given us a clue to the symbolical meaning which these +generally present, by directing our attention to that saying of our +Lord's, _I am the door_. And this, uttered as tradition reports it to +have been, in reference to the Gate of the Temple, on which the +Saviour's eyes were then fixed, gives additional force to the +allusion. + +In small churches, doors are seldom the subject of much symbolical +ornament, except in the Norman style; but in cathedrals, some of the +most strikingly figurative arrangements are often thrown into them. +The Person, the Miracles, or the Doctrines of our Lord are here +frequently set forth. He is sometimes, especially in the tympanum of +Norman doors, as at Egleton in Rutland, represented as described in +the Apocalyptic vision; with a sword in His mouth. More frequently, +however, with His Blessed Mother; in order, perhaps, to connect His +_entrance_ into the world with ours into the Church, which He thereby +gathered together. This in the south entrance of Lincoln minster, is +enclosed in a quatre-foil: because the birth of Christ is announced by +the four evangelists; and angels are represented around it in +attitudes of adoration. A singular, and indeed irreverent symbol, is +to be seen in a door of Lisieux church: the Holy Ghost descending on +the Blessed Virgin, and the infant Saviour following Him. In the +entrance to the cloisters of Norwich cathedral, the door arch is +filled by nine niches, the central one being occupied by the Saviour, +the others by saints. But this arrangement is much more common in +French churches: where two, or even three rows of saints in the +architrave are not uncommon: witness the south and west doors of S. +Germain, at Amiens, and a west door of S. Etienne, at Beauvais. {xcix} +This is sometimes, in late Flamboyant work, carried to an absurd +extent: in a south door of Gisors, two niches actually hang down out +of the soffit. Early English doors are generally double, thereby +representing the Two Natures of our Saviour: but embraced by one arch, +to set forth His One Person. So the celebrated door in Southwell +minster: the west door in the Galilee of Ely cathedral: the entrance +to the chapter House, at Salisbury; the west door of the same: so the +decorated west door of York; so the door to the Chapter House there, +of which the inscription truly says: _Ut Rosa Phlos phlorum, sic est +domus ista Domorum:_so the west door and entrance to the Chapter House +of Wells. The west door of Higham Ferrars has the Saviour's triumphal +entrance into Jerusalem, over the double western doors. And this is +the case in one of the doors of Seville cathedral. Both these connect +the ideas of His entrance into the temporal, with that of ours into +the spiritual, Jerusalem. In these symbolical doorways, we have one +proof of the immeasurable superiority of English over French +architecture: compare any of the above named with the celebrated west +door of Amiens, with its twenty-two sovereigns in its soffit. Again, +by way of contrast to the second Adam, by whom we enter into Heaven, +we sometimes, especially in Norman churches, have the Forbidden Tree, +with Adam and Eve in the tympanum: setting forth the one man by whom +sin entered into the world. + +The Crucifixion seldom occurs over doors: while over porches a +crucifix is very common. The cause of the difference is explained by a +consideration that the former are shut, the latter open: and 'when +Thou hadst overcome the sharpness of Death, Thou didst _open_ the +kingdom of heaven to all believers.' Indeed it may almost be asserted +that a crucifix is never seen over a {c} closed door, except where it +forms a part of the usual representation of the Trinity. For the +Trinity is also, in Norman churches, there represented: and that not +inappropriately: inasmuch as the Trinity is the beginning of all +things. A Holy Lamb is sometimes found in Norman tympana: as saith the +Saviour, _I am the door of the sheep_. A hasty glance at Durandus +[Footnote 60] might lead us to imagine that we should find the +Apostles set forth under the similitude of doors: but he there +probably refers to the well-known passage in the Apocalypse. Apoc. +xxi, 14. + + [Footnote 60: Durand. i, 26.] + +This however leads us to another, and that a totally different, +meaning attached to doors. We have already noticed the fact, that many +Norman and Early English mouldings refer to various kinds of +martyrdom: those which do so occur more frequently on doors than +anywhere else; for it is written, 'We must through much tribulation +enter into the kingdom of God.' And here we may observe a very curious +and beautiful progression in symbolism. In the early ages of +Christianity, it was a matter requiring no small courage to make an +open profession of Christianity, to join one's self to the Church +Militant:--and this fact has left its impress in the various +representations of martyrdom surrounding the nave-doors of Norman and +the first stage of Early English churches: as well as in the frightful +forms which seem to deter those who would enter. But in process of +time, as the world became evangelised, to be a member of the visible +Church was an easy matter: the difficulty was transferred from an +entrance into _that_, to the so living, as to have part in the +Communion of Saints:--in other words, to an entrance into the Church +Triumphant. And therefore in late Early English, and Decorated, the +symbols which had occupied the nave-doors in the former period, are +now transferred to the chancel arch. + +{ci} + +The different agricultural operations, the signs of the zodiac, and +occupations of various kinds, sometimes found on the _outside_ of +Norman doors, signify that we must turn our backs on, and leave behind +us, all worldly cares and employments, if we would enter into the +Kingdom of God. In later porches, true love knots are sometimes found +on the bosses: because part of the service of Holy Matrimony was +performed there. The serpent, in which the handle is so universally +fashioned, has probably reference to that text, 'They shall lay their +hands upon serpents,' to signify that God's arm will protect us, when +engaging, or about to engage in, His service. For the serpent with his +tail in his mouth is not a Christian, and indeed by no means a +desirable, emblem of eternity, and therefore the door handle cannot be +so interpreted. + +The doors are of course placed near the west end: for it is only by +way of the Church Militant that we can hope to enter the Church +Triumphant. One door, indeed, the priest's door, conducts at once into +the chancel. Durandus is probably right in interpreting this of +Christ's coming into the world; though it involves a little confusion +of symbolism, inasmuch as the chancel, properly speaking, denotes the +blessed place which He left: not the abode to which he came. It is to +be noted as an instance of the decline of symbolism in the +Perpendicular age, that in churches which have aisles to the chancel +of that date, we sometimes, as at Bitton, Gloucestershire, Godalming, +Surrey, and Wivelsfield and Isfield, Sussex, find an entrance at the +east end of the south aisle. Though used as a priest's door, this is +entirely to be blamed: what shall we say then of modern churches, +which have two doors at the east end, one on {cii} each side of the +altar, as Christchurch, Brighton? In Seville cathedral, a late, +although fine flamboyant building, there are large doors at the east +end of each choir aisle. + +Porches are usually on the south side. For as the east was considered +in an especial manner connected with the Kingdom of Heaven, so was the +north imagined to be under the Prince of the Power of the Air. It is +curious how diametrically opposed in both these ideas were +Christianity and Paganism. For as by the latter the west was known as +'the better country, where lay the Isles of the Blest in their +abundant peace,' so in the north dwelt the deathless and ageless +Hyperboreans: whose state was the model of good government and secure +happiness. That the belief of our ancestors is not yet extinct, a very +slight knowledge of our country churchyards will prove: the north side +of the churchyard has generally not more than one or two graves. To be +buried there is, in the language of our eastern counties, to be buried +_out of Sanctuary_: and the spot is appropriated to suicides, +unbaptised persons, and excommunicates. A particular portion is, in +some churchyards of Devonshire, separated for the second class and +called the _chrisomer_. Where the contrary is the case, it may be +worth inquiring how far it does not arise from the accidental position +of the Churchyard Cross on the north side. There the spell seems +broken: and the villagers' graves cluster around it, as if the +presence of that sacred symbol were a sufficient protection to the +sleeping dust. A remarkable instance of this occurs at Belleville, +between Dieppe and Abbeville, in Normandy. + +The doors in the transepts are, in small churches, almost invariably +east or west: much more frequently the latter. This, however, is +probably not symbolical: but an arrangement adopted to prevent any +resemblance in the porches and transepts:--and it is a rule which +needs to be much impressed on modern church builders. + +{ciii} + +The rule as to the western position of the doors, seems to apply +generally to the churchyard. + +It is worthy of remark that in the matter of doors, Protestantism +presents us, as is so frequently the case, with a very unintended +piece of symbolism. When we see, as in the beautiful church of Bisley, +Gloucestershire, _thirteen_ different openings, with external +staircases, made into the church, through windows and elsewhere, can +we forbear thinking of him who cometh not by the doors into the +sheepfold, but climbeth up some other way? + +III. Chancel Arch and Rood Screen + +We come now to speak of the chancel arch and the rood screen, two of +the most important features in a church. These, as separating the +choir from the nave, denote literally the separation of the clergy +from the laity: but symbolically the division between the Militant and +Triumphant Churches: that is to say, the Death of the Faithful. The +first great symbol which sets this forth, is the Triumphal Cross: the +Image of Him [Footnote 61] who by His Death had overcome Death, and +has gone before His people through the valley of its shadow. + + [Footnote 61: 'Let us consider Him,' says Bishop Hall, 'now, after a + weary conflict with the Devil, looking down from the Triumphal + Chariot of the Cross on His Church.'] + +The images of Saints and Martyrs appear in the lower panelling, as +examples of faith and patience to us. The colours of the rood screen +itself represent their passion and victory: the crimson sets forth the +one, the gold the other. The curious tracery of net-work typifies the +obscure manner in which heavenly things are set forth, while we look +at them from the Church Militant. And for as much as the Blessed +Martyrs passed from this {civ} world to the next through sore +torments, the mouldings of the chancel arch represent the various +kinds of sufferings through which they went. Faith was their support, +and must be ours: and Faith is set forth either in the abstract, by +the limpet moulding on the chancel arch; or on the screen, as in +Bishop's Hull, Somersetshire, by the Creed in raised gilt letters: or +is represented by some notable action of which it was the source: so +in Cleeve, Somersetshire, the destruction of a dragon runs along, not +only the rood screen, but the north parclose also. But in that the +power of evil spirits may be exercised against us till we have left +this world, but not after, horrible forms are sometimes sculptured in +the west side of the chancel arch. The foregoing remarks may perhaps +explain what has been felt by some ecclesiologists as a difficulty: +how it happens, since the chancel is more highly ornamented than the +nave, that it is the western, or nave side, not the eastern or chancel +side, of the chancel arch which invariably receives the greatest share +of ornament. The straitness of the entrance to the Kingdom of Heaven +is set forth by the excessive narrowness of Norman chancel arches. And +the final separation of the Church Triumphant from everything that +defileth was almost invariably represented by the Great Doom painted +in fresco over the rood screen: of which there are still several +examples, as the celebrated one in Trinity church, Coventry: and many +more might be found, if the whitewash in that place were scraped off. +And not only is the judgment of the world, but that of individuals +here set forth: on the south side of the chancel wall of Preston +church, Sussex, is a fresco of S. Michael weighing the souls: the +Devil stands by, eager to secure his prize, but by the intervention of +the Blessed Virgin, the scale preponderates in favour of the sinner. +{cv} There might probably be an altar to the Blessed Virgin under this +picture. Also deeds of faith are represented in similar positions: +--so in the same church on the north chancel wall, is the fresco of +the Martyrdom of S. Thomas of Canterbury. We have already noticed the +triplicity, in some instances, of Norman chancel arches. A very +curious triple chancel arch is to be seen at Capel-le-Ferne, Kent. We +may also refer to those singular double ones, Wells and Finedon, and +in another manner, Darlington, in Durham, and Barton, in Cumberland. +It may be well, finally, to note the entire absence in the ground +plans of our churches of any reference to Purgatory. The only instance +in which chancel and nave are separated by any intervening object, is +the chantry of Bishop Arundell in Chichester cathedral. Of the triple +division of the church by two (so to speak) chancel arches, we have +already spoken. + + + +IV. Monuments + +We now proceed to _Monumental Symbolism_. But it will be proper first +to consider a very curious subject: namely the reason of the +difference between the personages with which the effigies of the +departed were of old time, and are now, surrounded. In the former case +they were always real: Our Lady, S. John, S. Pancras, S. Agatha, and +so on. In the latter, they are always allegorical: Faith, Virtue, +Courage, Eloquence and the like. Nay, in the very ground which is +common to the two--the representations of angels--we may observe a +great difference: in modern monuments any angel is represented: in +those of ancient date the particular one is often named: S. Gabriel, +S. Raphael, etc. Now there are, we think, three good reasons to be +assigned for this. + +{cvi} + +I. The _enlightened_, or in plainer terms, the sceptical character of +the present age. Unaccustomed to view any great examples of heroic +devotion and self-sacrifice now, we naturally, though scarcely +allowing it to ourselves, begin to doubt whether there ever were any +such. In thinking of Patience, our forefathers would naturally have +had S. Vincent presented to their mind: but we, who, some of us have +scarcely heard of his name, and some, are totally ignorant of his +character, have of course no such ideas suggested. So again, where our +ancestors would have represented S. Lawrence, we content ourselves +with a representation of Fidelity. And it is in accordance with this +easy and self-indulgent age, rather to personify a thing, which as +having never had real existence, cannot be brought into comparison +with ourselves, than by representing a really existing person, to run +the risk of a contrast between his virtues and our own. + +2. This allegorising spirit is more in accordance with the general +paganism of our architectural designs: though, be it observed, a +feature of the very worst and most corrupt state of Paganism. It is +worth noting that in heathen countries, evil qualities have always +been personified before good. Paganism like every other false system, +became worst at its close. In the early times of Grecian mythology the +attributes of purity, and truth, and mercy, were so strongly felt to +reside in the gods, that a separate personification of them was +needless: whereas strife, and violence and fury, qualities which had +no place in heaven, demanded, and obtained a separate existence. But +in process of time, when the divinities themselves became invested +with the attributes of sinful humanity, the qualities of goodness +which were no longer supposed theirs, found separate embodiments and +expressions. + +{cvii} + +3. We may assign as a reason for the difference we have noticed the +far greater reality with which our ancestors looked on the connections +subsisting between ourselves and the other world. Thus, tempests and +hurricanes, which we coldly explain on philosophical principles, they +considered as directly proceeding from the violence of evil spirits: +[Footnote 62] --earthquakes and volcanoes they regarded as outbreaks, +so to speak, of that place of punishment, which they believed locally +situated within the earth:--diseases and pestilences they held to be +the immediate work of the devil: madness and lunacy were, in their +view, synonymous with possession. Whether theirs, as it certainly was +the most pious, were not also the most philosophical view, has been so +ably discussed in the 'Church of the Fathers' under the chapter _S. +Anthony in Conflict_, that we need here only allude to it. But the +same spirit led them to adopt the effigies of those saints who had +been members of the same Church Militant with themselves, and who now +were members of that Triumphant Church which they hoped hereafter to +join: and its contrary leads us to adopt the cold, vague, dreamy +unsubstantialities of allegorism. + + [Footnote 62: A Master of Philosophy travelling with others on the + way, when a fearful thunderstorm arose, checked the fear of his + fellows, and discoursed to them of the natural reasons of that + uproar in the clouds, and those sudden flashes wherewith they seemed + (out of the ignorance of causes) to be too much affrighted; in the + midst of his philosophical discourse, he was struck dead with that + dreadful eruption which he slighted. What could this be but the + finger of that God Who will have His works rather entertained with + wonder and trembling than with curious scanning? Neither is it to be + otherwise in those violent hurricanes, devouring earthquakes, and + more than ordinary tempests, and fiery apparitions which we have + seen and heard of; for however there be natural causes given of the + usual events of this kind, yet nothing hinders but the Almighty, for + the manifestations of His power and justice, may set spirits, + whether good or evil, on work, to do the same things sometimes in + more state and magnificence of horror.--Bishop Hall, 'The Invisible + World,' sect. vi.] + +The earliest kind of monumental symbolism is that which represents the +trade or profession of the person commemorated. And these principally +occur on Lombardic slabs and Dos d'Anes. The distaff represents +{cviii} the mother of a family: [Footnote 63] a pair of gloves a +glover: [Footnote 64] so we have a pair of shears: and the like. But +the Cross constantly appears; and in a highly floriated form: +sometimes at its foot are three steps representing the Mount: +sometimes a Holy Lamb. [Footnote 65] And so ecclesiastical personages +have their appropriate symbols: so the chalice or the ring [Footnote +66] represents a priest:--another type is the hand raised in +benediction [Footnote 67] over a chalice: brasses abound in +symbolical imagery. The animal at the feet varies with the varying +circumstances of the deceased: a married lady has the dog, the emblem +of fidelity: with which we may compare the speech of Clytemnestra, of +her absent Lord, [Footnote 68] + + [Greek text] + +There are, doubtless, instances (there is one in Bristol, S. Peter's) +where the unmarried are so represented: but they are very rare, and +quite in the decline of the art. The knight again has, generally, a +terrier at his feet, as the emblem of courage: sometimes the +greyhound, [Footnote 69 ] the symbol of speed. Lord Beaumont +[Footnote 70] has an elephant: it is a bearing in his coat-armour. + + [Footnote 63: See on this subject an interesting article in the + _Church of England Quarterly_, for September, 1841. ] + + [Footnote 64: As in Fletching, Sussex.] + + [Footnote 65: As in Lolworth, Cambridgeshire.] + + [Footnote 66: As in S. Mary, Castlegate, York.] + + [Footnote 67: As in Hedon, Yorkshire.] + + [Footnote 68: Agamemnon, 606. (Ed. Dindorf.)] + + [Footnote 69: As in Sir Grey de Groby, S. Alban's.] + + [Footnote 70: Engraved in the 5th number of the Cambridge Camden + Society's _Illustrations of Monumental Brasses_.] + +Early priests have a lion [Footnote 71] also at their feet; but this +typified their trampling on the devil: as servants of Him concerning +whom it is written, 'And the Devil shall go forth before [Footnote +72] His feet' They have also a dragon for the same reason. And this +position doubtless also has reference to the verse, 'Thou shalt tread +upon the lion [Footnote 73] and adder: the young lion and the dragon +shalt thou trample under feet.' In the decline of the art, effigies +have the crest of the departed at their feet. + + [Footnote 71: As in Watton, Herts, and Cottingham, Yorkshire.] + + [Footnote 72: Habaccuc III. v, _Et egredietur diabolus ante pedes + ejus_.] + + [Footnote 73: Psalm xc. _Qui habitat_.] + +{cix} + +Whether those knights who are represented with crossed legs are to be +considered as crusaders, or at least as having taken the vow, is a +question which has been much discussed. The general belief seems now +to be in the negative:--and Mr. Bloxam in his work on Monumental +Architecture gives it as his opinion that this posture was chosen by +the artist, for the more graceful arrangement of the _surcoat_. And it +is to be remarked that some illuminations, as in the Life of S. Edward +the Confessor, in the Cambridge University Library, represent the +knights as sitting cross legged. For our own part we must confess that +we incline to the old belief:--as better supported by tradition, and +more in accordance with the general principles of Catholic artists. +The knight's hand is sometimes represented as resting on the hilt of +his sword:--or as it is called _drawing it_. We are astonished that a +writer in the _Quarterly Review_ should fall into this popular error: +especially when the idea was completely opposed to the whole course of +his argument. There can be no doubt that this typifies the +accomplishment of the vow, the taking which was set forth by the +crossed legs. The contrary--an act of war in the House of Peace--is +not for a moment to be thought of. As emblematical of deep humility, +some effigies are represented naked: some in shrouds: some, as +emaciated corpse: and sometimes, still more strikingly, the tomb will +be divided into two partitions: and while the departed appears in rich +vests, and with a gorgeous canopy above--below there is a skeleton, or +a worm eaten figure. There is a remarkable instance at Tewkesbury, in +the cenotaph of the last Lord Abbot: and we may refer to the monument +of William Ashton, in S. John's College chapel, Cambridge. + +{cx} + +The symbolism of ecclesiastics, lying principally in their vestments, +does not so much fall within the scope of this essay. The same may be +said of the allusion to the Holy Trinity in the benedictory attitude +of the bishop: and the distinction between the mitred abbot and the +bishop in the former holding his pastoral staff with the crook +inwards, as signifying his dominion to be _internal_, _i.e._ within +his own house;--the latter outwards, to set forth his external +dominion over his diocese. + +The reception of the soul of the departed into Abraham's bosom is +often represented. Sometimes angels are bearing it, in the likeness of +a newborn child, (a figure symbolical of its having now returned into +its baptismal state of purity) and presenting it before the throne. +The founders or rebuilders of churches are known by the building which +they hold in their hands. + +The carving of the _open seats_ is one of those parts of +ecclesiastical symbolism, which it is very hard to explain. The +monsters which constantly occur on them may be perhaps regarded as +typical of the evil thoughts and bad passions which a life of ease and +rest encourages, and it will be observed, that in the choir, a gentler +class of ideas often is suggested: we have here flowers and fruit, and +birds making their nests, and flocks feeding. There, are however, +certain other types to be found here, and also in string courses, and +corbel heads, of which we shall presently speak in terms of +disapprobation. + +Nothing, with this exception, shows the exuberance and beauty of ideas +which distinguished the architects of the ages of Faith--and the depth +and variety of the scriptural knowledge we are pleased to deny +them--than their wood carvings. [Footnote 74] + + [Footnote 74: The astonishing scriptural knowledge of Durandus may + be judged of from the Index at the end of the volume of texts quoted + by him. ] + +{cxi} + +There is perhaps hardly a scriptural subject which they have not +handled: and it requires no small degree of ecclesiastical knowledge +to be able at all to comprehend many of their allusions: while +probably many more are lost to us. The Annunciation is one of the most +favourite topics. The almond tree blossoming in the flower pot--the +bud terminating in a cross or crucifix--the prayer desk at which the +Blessed Virgin kneels--the temple seen in the distance--the Holy Dove +descending on a ray of light--these are its general accompaniments. +The descent of our Saviour into hell--the delivery of souls-- + + 'Magnaque; de magna praeda petita domo:' + +the visions of the Apocalypse: the final doom: the passions and +triumphs of martyrs--all here find their expression. + + +V. Corbels, Gurgoyles, Poppy Heads, etc. + +The corbels which occur in the interior of churches generally +represent the Heavenly Host--often with various instruments of music, +as if taking a share in the devotions of the worshippers. This idea is +most fully and beautifully carried out in late perpendicular roofs: +where the various orders of the heavenly hierarchy hover, with +outstretched wings, over the sacred building--an idea evidently +derived from the cherubim that spread their wings over the ark, and +the apostle's explanation, 'which things the angels desire to look +into.' Often, however, benefactors to the Church are here portrayed. +The gurgoyles, on the contrary, represent evil spirits as flying from +the holy walls: the hideousness of the figures, so often, by modern +connoisseurs, ridiculed or blamed, is therefore not without its +appropriate meaning. + +{cxii} + +We must now say a few words on the least pleasing part of the study of +symbolism: we mean the satirical representations which record the +feuds between the secular and the regular clergy. Thus, in the +churches of the former, we have, principally as stallwork, figures of +a fox preaching to geese: in those of the latter an ass's head under a +cowl: or, which is very frequent, both in woodwork and as a gurgoyle, +the cowled double face. As a specimen of these designs, we may mention +the stalls [Footnote 75] in East Brent, Somersetshire. A fox hung by +a goose, with two cubs yelping at the foot of the gallows, a monkey at +prayers, with an owl perched over his head: another monkey holding a +halbert: a fox with mitre and staff, a young fox in chains, a bag of +money in his right paw, and geese and cranes on each side. To these +objectionable devices we may add those which to us appear simply +profane or indecent: [Footnote 76]such as the baptism of a dog in one +of the Stamford churches, and others in Northampton, S. Peter's, of +Norman date. One of the grossest which we have ever seen is to be +found on the north side of the chancel arch of Nailsea, Somersetshire. + + [Footnote 75: Rutter's _Delineations_, p. 89. ] + + [Footnote 76: It is fair to observe that our designating them so + _may_ be the effect of our own ignorance.] + +On the towers of some Norman churches, the evangelistic symbols are +represented. So in Stow church, Lincolnshire. Tiles ought not to have +the cross on them: for though Christ is indeed the foundation of the +Church, yet these holy symbols should not be exposed to be trodden +under foot. Heraldic devices are here more proper, to signify the +worthlessness of worldly honours in the sight of God. + + + +{cxiii} + + +CHAPTER IX + +SOME OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED + +Several objections to the symbolical system have been noticed and +answered in the course of this treatise. We shall, however, devote a +greater space to the consideration of one difficulty which has often +been raised by opponents, and has often been felt even by such as have +adopted the theory. It is said, for example, that to assert the nave +and two aisles, or a triplet of lancets, to be symbolical of the Most +Holy Trinity, is both false and profane, when, as is almost always the +case, the aisles are much less broad than the nave, and the three +lancets are unequal both in height and breadth: whereas in the Trinity +none is afore or after other, none is greater or less than another. +But the difficulty seems only to arise from carrying the similitude +too far: the point of resemblance is in these cases a single one: the +mere trinity of the arrangement is the only particular which gives +rise to the symbol. 'Three mystic lines approach the shrine,' sings +the poet of the Christian year for Trinity Sunday. The number alone is +answerable for the emblem. We do not deny that an equilateral triangle +is a more perfect symbol of the Blessed Trinity: but even here a +captious man might object to the emblem, because the angles gain +greater or less prominence according to the position in which the +triangle is placed. {cxiv} The Catholic monogram of the Trinity, for +example, assigns to the Father and the Son the upper angles of a +triangle standing on the third point. On the other hand the modern +triangle, generally charged with the Hebrew word Jehovah, has the +third angle uppermost. We can quite conceive these differences being +thought objectionable. The case is not so strong indeed as when the +three members are unequal, but still it is the same in kind and in +reality. + +It is a condition of emblems that the points of similitude must not be +pressed too far. The material Sun indeed typifies the Sun of +Righteousness: but in what particulars? in its being _created_, in its +rising on the dark world _every_ day, in its being matter? Surely not: +but in this one point, that it brings light and heat to the earth. _I +am the Door_, said our Lord. In what particulars, we may again ask? It +would be profane to show by examples that it is only in this point: +that a door is for entrance into a material house just as we enter +into the Church through Christ. The ark, our Church teaches us, was an +emblem of the Church: not in its human building, nor in its final +perishing; but in that it saved souls by water. Did the Paschal Lamb +typify the Immaculate Victim in any thing more than its comparative +purity and its bloody death? We need not multiply such examples. + +But there is another consideration to be adduced. Our Lord's own +parables must not be pressed too far. The history of the five wise and +five foolish virgins, must not be adduced to prove that the number of +the lost will equal that of the saved. This may be dangerous ground, +but the assertion is true. Every parable is figurative to a certain +point, and no further. Not that there is much danger of persons not +knowing where the line is to be drawn: any more than there would be in +the case of { cxv} one of a reverent mind, who was told that the +triplicity of aisles and windows typified a great doctrine. The +_British Critic_ made a very just observation on this point, that it +argued a great blindness of spiritual vision to deny such an emblem, +because the similitude was not complete in all points. Indeed if all +points answered so closely and exactly to each other, it is not clear +how a similitude would differ from a fac-simile. The very notion of a +thing being like another involves the fact that the two are not +identical. Nothing more is found or expected, than a similarity, an +analogy, in certain qualities. For in all symbolism it is quality and +not essence in which resemblance is sought. + +Which leads us to consider another objection sometimes urged to the +effect that if a thing mean one thing it cannot mean another. For +example, if the nave and aisles represent the Holy Trinity, they +cannot also represent the Church Militant here on earth, or in another +point of view the true fold. Again, if the piers and arches set forth +the foundation of the apostles and prophets, they must not bear a part +in the representation of the Trinity together with the cleristory and +triforium. But this difficulty vanishes if we remember that the +resemblance, for the most part, is derived from grouping independent +things together and viewing them in a particular light. We do not deny +the _real_ essential symbolism of a material result: but this its +particular significancy need not obtrude itself at all times: the +thing itself in other combinations, and viewed under other aspects, +may acquire an additional and occasional meaning. For example, it is +the union of the rose, thistle, and shamrock, which is the emblem of +our United Empire: they have each their own figurative sense; in +combination they acquire a new meaning. The harp is not less the +emblem of Ireland, because it must primarily represent music. {cxvi} +Leaven was of old the symbol of wickedness: our Lord spake of the +leaven of the Scribes and Pharisees: yet we hear from His own lips, +The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven. [Footnote 77] + + [Footnote 77: We have the highest authority for believing that one + type can symbolise two things quite independent of each other, in + that the Jewish Sabbath, commanded from Sinai to be observed in + commemoration of the Rest after the Creation, is enforced in + Deuteronomy as the representation of the rest of the children of + Israel from Egyptian bondage. 'Remember,' says Moses, 'that thou + wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the Lord thy God + brought thee out thence through a mighty hand and by a stretched out + arm: _therefore_ the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep the Sabbath + day.'--Deut. v, 15.] + +Another objection is as follows: If this theory be true, how will you +account for churches with nothing but a nave, or with only one aisle; +how for churches with neither cleristory nor triforio; or, on the +other hand, for those with double triforia, or with four or five +aisles? Now we never asserted that it was necessary that all, or +indeed any, given things should be intentionally symbolised. We have +pointed out that some things are essentially symbolical; others +accidentally and occasionally. We might attempt to classify what +_must_ be symbolised in church building, and what _may_ be. But we +decline to do so because we do not think that the principles of +symbolism are yet sufficiently investigated or apprehended. However, +in a general way, _every_ building must, from the nature of things, +have some accidents, as of material, of parts, of plan; every +particular building must have particular accidents, as of use and +purpose. These accidents _must_ be symbolical, from their nature, in a +general way: they may derive, from purpose added to their nature, a +further or modified symbolism in a particular way. With the first sort +it is that Durandus chiefly concerns himself A building must have +walls, must have roof, piers, windows, corners, and floor. For each +then he finds a meaning. {cxvii} He does not quite neglect the second +sort. Early English windows must have a splay: the spire may have a +weathercock: for these then there is an appropriate signification. So +we do not mean to insist that certain things _shall_ be symbolised, we +say they _may_ be symbolised. Perhaps when more is known, we shall be +able to criticise ancient buildings, to show their faults or their +shortcomings in this particular. As it is, we have framed a sort of +_beau ideal_ of a church, fully formed and developed, which we should +propose as a perfect model. We are not qualified as yet to blame the +ancient churches which do not come up to this ideal, but we cannot be +wrong in praising such as do. + +In discussing Mr. Lewis's illustrations of Kilpeck church, we touched +upon the Basilican origin of churches considered as an argument +against the reception of the symbolical theory. Our last remarks will +apply to the same question. It has been thought quite sufficient +ground for turning into ridicule the whole principle, that the Roman +justice halls had three or more aisles, or that a barn or banquetting +room may have three longitudinal divisions. But what if mechanical +convenience suggested the arrangement? (though we do not grant this). +It is clear that many churches, many barns, and many refectories have +never had a triple arrangement. It has never been asserted that every +church shall have nave and aisles: but if a church has nave and aisles +it will be symbolical of a great doctrine; and for this reason it is +better for a church to have nave and aisles. Why do not such writers +argue that the cross form is not symbolical, because many barns are +cruciform? Now it is instructive to observe that there is a great and +obvious utilitarian advantage in this shape for a barn: but not in the +case of churches as _anciently arranged_; in which the transepts were +utterly useless for the {cxviii} accommodation of worshippers; and in +which there is a mechanical evil (as before mentioned) from the +lateral pressure on the lantern piers. Yet it is undeniable that the +cross form was chosen for its symbolical meaning: and this in spite of +mechanical disadvantages. A mechanical reason fails here, as in the +former case, in accounting for the fact. How will they account for the +cross form? Their own argument tells against them. We may still +further remark that in modern times we have had some curious practical +lessons upon this cross form. Messrs Britton and Hosking, in their +atrocious plan for rearranging S. Mary Redcliffe church, unwittingly +testified to the inconvenience, and want of any utilitarian end, of +this plan by placing the pulpit under the lantern, and ranging the +congregation in the four arms so as to face it. On the other hand, +some modern architects confessedly employ the cross form because it +allows of people arranged as in the last case, all seeing the +preacher. But why do they not look deeper into things? Why have the +cross at all? Why not have an amphitheatre, an octagon, an +accoustically designed Mechanic's Institute Lecture Room? Then all +could hear, all could see much better, and the building would not cost +half so much. They may think that they are designing on utilitarian +principles. In truth they are unknowingly, unwillingly, symbolising +the Cross. + + +{cxix} + +CHAPTER X + +DEVELOPMENT OF SYMBOLISM + +It is now our intention to attempt a brief sketch of the history of +symbolism, confining ourselves to its rise, progress, and decline in +England. For of its earlier development we have already had occasion +to speak, both in the first and in the eighth chapter, when we +referred to its use among the primitive Christians, and to such +particulars of information as could be gained concerning it from the +later fathers, and from mediaeval authors. + +Among all nations the facts of Christianity have been received before +its doctrines. The inhabitants of a heathen country are first called +on to believe, as matter of history, that our Blessed Lord was +conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under +Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried, before any attempt is +made to set before them the doctrine of the Atonement, the mystery of +the Trinity, or the compatibility of God's foreknowledge with man's +free action. And it is in the infancy of individuals, as in that of +nations. We may therefore, from all analogy, conclude, that the things +set forth in the earlier development of church art would be facts +rather than doctrines. + +{cxx} + +Now, if we look to Norman buildings, we shall find this to be the +case. Excepting the doctrine of the Holy Trinity (which, after all, +perhaps rather ranks, through all the stages of Christian art, under +the head of essential, than under that of intended symbolism), we +shall find an almost exclusive reference to history, in arrangements +and details. That God was the Creator of heaven and earth, is set +forth in door mouldings, and capitals, sometimes by the heavenly +constellations or signs of the zodiac, sometimes by the animals +brought to Adam to be named, sometimes by the references to +agriculture, which, as we have before seen, often occur. The +Incarnation of our Saviour is set forth, as it has been already +hinted, by representations so physical and earthly, as to be to our +eyes almost profane. The Fall of Man, which appears on the sides of +fonts, well reminds us of that stain which must be washed away in Holy +Baptism. A great many of the events of our Lord's life are sculptured +in various positions: above all, of course, His Passion. Again, duties +are symbolically represented, so in the chancel arch of Egleton, +Rutland, we have the figure of a deacon ringing a bell; doubtless to +remind the worshippers of the duty of attending God's house. And a +still more practical method of representing the evil consequences +attending the breach of duty, and one which speaks much of the +rudeness of the age, is where some local event well-known at the time +of the erection of the church, finds a commemoration in it. Thus +(though at a later epoch) among the capitals of the south transept of +Wells cathedral, the architect has represented a theft, which +doubtless, at the time, had made a considerable noise in that place. +In the first group, a man is seen stealing apples; then follows the +struggle and apprehension: finally, his trial and condemnation. And +such practical admonitions might not have been without their use. +Sometimes they are refined and exalted into such an one as may be seen +in the northern apse of S. Mary's, at Guildford, where heavenly and +earthly judgment are portrayed. {cxxi} Victory over the devil is +singularly enough symbolised in Oxford, S. Peter's, by the piers which +rest on, and crush, a monster. We have before noticed that Norman +architecture, true to its love of facts, delighted in the +representation of instruments of martyrdom, or the deeds of faith, as +the victory of S. George. The final doom was also a favourite subject; +so was the descent of Christ into hell. In fact, its whole character, +whether in string courses, tympana, capitals, or chancel arches, was +graphicalness, and that obtained sometimes at the expense of grace, +sometimes almost at that of decorum, but probably well adapted to the +particular development which the minds of the people had then reached. +One point we must remark, to the eternal honour of the Anglo-Norman, +and indeed also of the Saxon Church, deadly as was the hatred existing +between the two peoples, for at least a hundred and fifty years after +the conquest, it has left no symbolical trace, either in the churches +of the vanquishers, or of the vanquished. Much as the one had +suffered, and much as the other despised the conquered nation, this +feeling vanished in the house of God. + +In advancing to Early English, we still find strong traces of the +historicalism of ornaments, both in some of the mouldings, as in the +toothed, and in the capitals, though the latter begin now to assume a +more allegorical form. Indeed, the observation seems worth making, +that this style is the only one which appears to have dealt much in +allegory, we mean in that sense which we have already attached to the +word. That is, it employs fictitious representations to set forth real +truths; as in Wells cathedral, the fall of the barren tree forms a +beautiful corbel. We do, however, find some traces of this in Norman +work, as the fable of the crow and the fox may occasionally be +discovered in it. {cxxii} The works of the creation were often set +forth, rather with reference to their beauty than from any other +reasons. Such as the birds making their nests in the thick foliage, +flowers, and fruit. Yet, on the whole, facts such as those which +principally occupied the attention of Norman architects, began rather +to find expression among the details, than to usurp any important part +in church arrangement. We are in possession of too little wood work of +this date--and in that many references of this kind were probably to +be found--to be able to speak with so much certainty as we can in the +later styles: but that this was the tendency of the progress of +architecture, it requires but little knowledge to discover. Impressed, +but evidently, now, not only essentially but intentionally, on every +building, was the doctrine of the Ever Blessed Trinity: for triplets +were so common at the east end as to form the rule of Early English +design. Fonts, instead of bearing a representation of the Fall of Man, +and thereby implying our need of regeneration, began to be octagonal, +thereby setting forth the doctrine itself, a strong confirmation of +our previous observation respecting facts and doctrines. The shape of +piers is also to be noticed. For there appears to have been almost a +rule, either that the octagonal and circular shape should alternate; +or that one aisle should present the one kind, the other the other. +This we can hardly, in our present state of knowledge, profess to +explain. Durandus's observations about windows, their splay and +shafts, are very curious: and again, he evidently recognises in the +tiebeams, the knitting together of the elect in one communion and +fellowship: a strong argument, this, that we are justified in +regarding arrangements, which arise from mechanical necessity, as +nevertheless truly and really symbolical. In the bases of piers we now +often find flowers, which indeed, sometimes, as in Rochester +cathedral, occur in transition work; principally the fleur de lys, +which we may interpret to signify that humility is the foundation of +all Christian graces. + +{cxxiii} + +On the whole, however, we conclude that in this style, while churches +taken as a whole became more symbolical, their details, as details, +became less so. + +In proceeding to the next development of Catholic art, we are almost +afraid of expressing a belief, that Decorated, in its early dawn, gave +promise of a brighter day than it ever reached. It had not shown its +wonderful resources and capabilities in windows and flying buttresses, +before the boldness of its capitals and bases began to decline. We can +imagine that, had it so been ordered, Christian architecture might, +about the year 1300, have taken a different direction, and attained to +a glory, inconceivable to us--perhaps attainable only when the whole +Catholic Church shall be at unity. As it is, we cannot but consider, +that about that period, or a few years later, it took a wrong turn, +and being hurried in a short space through the hectic of a rare flush +of beauty, declined thenceforward slowly but surely. Now, if we ask, +why was this? it will lead us to look at Church history as connected +with the development of church architecture. Contemporary with the +change from Saxon to Norman (for we are none of those who hold that +the former extended till Oct. 14, 1065, and the latter began the next +day), was finally the victory of the Anglican Church over Paganism in +the conversion and civilisation of the Danes. Contemporary with the +appearance of Early English, was the great victory of the Church over +Erastianism, by the martyrdom of S. Thomas of Canterbury, and the +abrogation of the constitutions of Clarendon. But, hardly had Early +English finished its course of splendour, when while traces of rare +glory were developing daily, the statute of Mortmain began to tell +upon the Church: {cxxiv} and though the impulse already given yet +continued for some time to act, the end was near. No magnificent +cathedral was built after the full effects--not so much of that act, +as of the Erastianism which contrived and allowed it--were felt. The +nave of Winchester can hardly be called a solitary exception; because, +in truth, it may be doubted whether the pious exertions of William of +Wykeham were not, so far as concerns the actual beauty of his +cathedral, misplaced. Thenceforward, the State interfered more and +more with the Church; and not allowed to carry out her own designs, it +is no wonder if the latter quickly began to forget her own symbolical +language. After, for the first few years of the fourteenth century, +using it with precision and elegance before unattainable, she +thenceforward began to disuse it. We need not give examples of +decorated symbolism, because all that was new in it lay in its +windows: and these we have already discussed at considerable length. +And having sufficiently explained why there should be a decline, we +have only now to examine why that decline should have been so +different in England, France, and Italy. In England, from the time +that Edward IV directed the execution of Archbishop Scrope, when the +State interfered, it was with a strong arm, cramping and confining, +obliging the Church to confine herself to ritual observances, and +forbidding her to expatiate in the grand objects for which she was +ordained. Now could there be a more fitting expression of this than +the Perpendicular style? Does not its stiffness, its failure in +harmony, its want of power and adaptation, its continual introduction +of heraldry, its monotony, its breaking up by hard continued lines, +its shallowness, its meretriciousness, its display--set forth what we +know to have been the character of the contemporary Church? {cxxv } +Above all, do not the reintroduction of Horizontality, the Tudor arch, +the depressed pier, speak of her want of spirituality? Everything +teaches us that there was no want of power in her architects; +considered merely as specimens of art, King's College, and Henry the +Seventh's chapels, are matchless. And here and there we may trace some +tokens of vastness and holiness of conception worthy of a better age; +such as the Suffolk roofs, which, as it has been well said, never +attained their full development. It must be borne in mind, that +Perpendicular [Footnote 78] was the first style, which in its full +development was used first for a secular building. Far be it from us, +however, to depreciate the excessive magnificence it assumes in +shrines and chapels: indeed, this is one of the features which +Decorated has not, and the absence of which in that style renders it +possible to believe that a still more magnificent may be in store for +us. Perpendicular introduced no new element of symbolism. + + [Footnote 78: We deeply regret that the Oxford Architectural Society + should ever have allowed itself to put on paper the opinions + expressed by one of its members, that Perpendicular windows are + those best suited to the spirit of Christian architecture.] + +But if this were the state of the Anglican Church, the Gallican, +though not better off, was acted on in a very different manner. The +State gradually interfered with it, embraced it with its dangerous +friendship, made its observances meaningless, while sustaining their +splendour; secularised its abbeys, by appropriating them to political +ends; made statesmen of its bishops, gave it outside show, while +eating out its heart. Does not Flamboyant express this? A vast +collection of elegant forms, meaninglessly strung together: richness +of ornament, actually weakening construction: vagaries of tracery, as +if the hand possessed of church art were suddenly deprived of church +feelings: nothing plain, simple, intelligible, holy: parts neglected, +parts ostentatious: the west front of Abbeville to a choir that would +disgrace a hamlet. + +{cxxvi} + +In Spain, again, where Christianity unfolded itself later, so also was +church art later in its development. San Miguel, at Seville, which was +actually built in 1305, would, in England, be set down to the date of +about 1180. + +In Italy, where there was no State to interfere with the Church, +Paganism, which had always been more or less at work, sprang up at +once, at the time of the Great Schism, and has ever since prevailed. + +But to return to England. Perpendicular, unable to express any idea by +its ornaments, soon began to imitate those of earlier styles: first +Early English, in the wretched banded capitals of the western +counties, and then Decorated in its windows. While, however, the +Church was yet united with the rest of Christendom, Paganism +interfered but in a very slight degree: the Italian example of Henry +the Seventh's tomb was not followed. Even after the Dissolution, there +were some good churches built: the symbolism which lingered longest +was that of the chancel and nave. Nor was this destroyed summarily: +the importance of the chancel had been gradually, all through the +Perpendicular era, weakened by chancel aisles, and the omission of the +chancel arch: it was but to omit the rood screen and parclose, and (as +at Hawkshead, Lancashire, circ. 1564) the mystical division vanished. + +The symbolisms which Protestantism introduced were few and easily +understood. + +The removal, and material, of the altar, the change of vestments, the +gradual introduction of close pews, the innovation of a reading pew, +were all figurative enough. Something like a return to church art was +made just before the great Rebellion: chancels became elongated, +{cxxvii} altars resumed their old position, copes reappeared, and the +like. Details began to improve: and (which we could hardly have +expected) intentional symbolism is sometimes to be discovered in them. +So, in Baltonsburgh, Somersetshire, a stone pulpit of the date of +1621, has among other devices, an equilateral triangle, containing, +and surrounded by, a _tre_-foil: and evidently setting forth the Holy +Trinity. After the Rebellion, but still more after the Revolution, +those faint traces of symbolism died away into that _ne plus ultra_ of +wretchedness, the Georgian style. + + +{cxxviii} + +CHAPTER XI + +GENERAL CONCLUSION + +It is very remarkable, as has been already observed, that the +buildings of those who most strongly object to the principle of +symbolism, do in effect contain as striking an exemplification of it +as it would be possible to find. + +Let us look at a Protestant place of worship. It is choked up and +concealed by surrounding shops and houses, for religion, nowadays, +must give way to business and pleasure: it stands north and south, for +all idea of fellow-feeling with the Church Catholic is looked on as +mere trifling, or worse: the front which faces the High Street is of +stone, because the uniformity of the street so required it: or (which +is more likely) of stucco, which answers as well, and is cheaper: the +sides, however, are of brick, because no one can see them: there is at +the entrance a large vestibule, to allow people to stand while their +carriages are being called up, and to enter into conversation on the +news of the day, or the merits of the preacher: it also serves the +purpose of making the church warmer, and contains the doors and +staircases to the galleries. On entering, the pulpit occupies the +central position, and towards it every seat is directed: for preaching +is the great object of the Christian ministry: galleries run all round +the building, because hearing is the great object of a Christian +congregation: {cxxix} the altar stands under the organ gallery, as +being of no use, except once a month: there are a few free seats in +out-of-the-way places, where no one could hear, and no pews would be +hired, and therefore no money is lost by making the places free: and +whether the few poor people who occupy them can hear or not, what +matters it? The font, a cast-iron vase on a marble pillar, stands +within the altar rails; because it there takes up no room: the reading +pew is under the pulpit, and faces the congregation; because the +prayers are to be read to them and not addressed to God. Look at this +place on Sunday or Thursday evening. Carriages crash up through the +cast-iron gates, and, amidst the wrangling and oaths of rival +coachmen, deposit their loads at the portico: people come, dressed out +in the full fashion of the day, to occupy their luxurious pew, to lay +their smelling-bottles and prayer-books on its desk, and reclining on +its soft cushions, to confess themselves--if they are in +time--miserable sinners: to see the poor and infirm standing in the +narrow passages, and close their pew doors against them, lest +themselves should be contaminated, or their cushions spoilt, at the +same time beseeching God to give their fellow-creatures the comfort +which they refuse to bestow: the Royal Arms occupy a conspicuous +position; for it is a chapel of the Establishment: there are neat +cast-iron pillars to hold up the galleries, and still neater pillars +in the galleries to hold up the roof; thereby typifying that the whole +existence of the building depends on the good-will of the +congregation: the roof is flat, with an elegant cornice, and serves +principally to support a gas-lighted chandelier: and the +administration of this chapel is carried on by clerk, organist, +beadle, and certain bonnetless pew-openers. + +{cxxx} + +We need not point out how strongly all this symbolises the spiritual +pride, the luxury, the self-sufficiency, the bigotry of the +congregations of too many a pew-rented Episcopal chapel. + +In contrast to this, let us close with a general view of the symbolism +of a Catholic church. + +Far away, and long ere we catch our first view of the city itself, the +three spires of its cathedral, rising high above its din and turmoil, +preach to us of the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity. As we approach, +the transepts, striking out cross-wise, tell of the Atonement: the +Communion of Saints is set forth by the chapels clustering round choir +and nave: the mystical weathercock bids us to watch and pray and +endure hardness: the hideous forms that seem hurrying from the eaves +speak the misery of those who are cast out of the Church: spire, +pinnacle, and finial, the upward curl of the sculptured foliage, the +upward spring of the flying buttress, the sharp rise of the window +arch, the high-thrown pitch of the roof, all these, overpowering the +horizontal tendency of string course and parapet, teach us, that +vanquishing earthly desires, we also should ascend in heart and mind. +Lessons of holy wisdom are written in the delicate tracery of the +windows: the unity of many members is shadowed forth by the multiplex +arcade: the duty of letting our light shine before men, by the pierced +and flowered parapet that crowns the whole. + +We enter. The triple breadth of nave and aisles, the triple height of +pier arch, triforium, and clerestory, the triple length of choir, +transepts, and nave, again set forth the Holy Trinity. And what +besides is there that does not tell of our Blessed Saviour? that does +not point out 'Him first' in the two-fold western door: 'Him last' in +the distant altar: 'Him midst' in the great rood: 'Him without end' in +the monogram carved on boss and corbal, in the Holy Lamb, in the Lion +of the tribe of Judah, in the Mystic Fish? Close by us is the font; +{cxxxi} for by regeneration we enter the Church: it is deep and +capacious; for we are buried in baptism with Christ: it is of stone; +for He is the Rock: and its spiry cover teaches us, if we be indeed +risen from its waters with Him, to seek those things that are above. +Before us, in long drawn vista, are the massy piers, which are the +Apostles and Prophets: they are each of many members, for many are the +graces in every saint: there is delicate foliage round the head of +all; for all were plentiful in good works. Beneath our feet are the +badges of worldly pomp and glory, the charges of kings and nobles and +knights: all in the presence of God as dross and worthlessness. Over +us swells the vast 'valley' of the high-pitched roof: from the +crossing and interlacing of its curious rafters hang fadeless flowers +and fruits which are not of earth: from its hammer-beams project +wreaths and stars, such as adorn heavenly beings: in its centre stands +the Lamb as it had been slain: from around Him the Celestial Host, +cherubim and seraphim, thrones, principalities, and powers, look down +peacefully on the worshippers below. Harpers there are among them +harping with their harps: for one is the song of the Church in earth +and in heaven. Through the walls wind the narrow cloister galleries: +emblems of the path by which holy hermits and anchorites, whose +conflicts were known only to their God, have reached their home. And +we are compassed about with a mighty cloud of witnesses: the rich deep +glass of the windows teems with saintly forms, each in its own fair +niche, all invested with the same holy repose: there is the glorious +company of the apostles: the goodly fellowship of the prophets: the +noble army of martyrs: the shining band of the confessors: the +jubilant chorus of the virgins: there are kings who have long since +changed an earthly for an heavenly crown: and bishops who have given +in a glad account to the Shepherd and Bishop of souls. {cxxxii} But on +none of these things do we rest; piers, arch behind arch, windows, +light behind light, arcades, shaft behind shaft, the roof, bay behind +bay, the saints around us, the heavenly hierarchy above with dignity +of pre-eminence still increasing eastward, each and all, lead on eye +and soul and thought to the image of the crucified Saviour as +displayed in the great east window. Gazing steadfastly on that, we +pass up the nave, that is through the Church Militant, till we reach +the rood screen, the barrier between it and the Church Triumphant, and +therein shadowing forth the death of the faithful. High above it +hangs, on His triumphal cross, the image of Him Who by His death hath +overcome death; on it are portrayed saints and martyrs, His warriors, +who fighting under their Lord have entered into rest and inherit a +tearless eternity. They are to be our examples, and the seven lamps +above them typify those graces of the Spirit, by Whom alone we can +tread in their steps. The screen itself glows with gold and crimson: +with gold, for they have on their heads golden crowns: with crimson, +for they passed the Red Sea of martyrdom to obtain them. And through +the delicate net-work, and the unfolding holy doors, we catch faint +glimpses of the chancel beyond. There are the massy stalls; for in +heaven is everlasting rest: there are the sedilia, emblems of the +seats of the elders round the throne: there is the piscina; for they +have washed their robes and made them white: and there, heart and soul +and life of all, the altar with its unquenched lights, and golden +carvings, and mystic steps, and sparkling jewels: even Christ Himself, +by Whose only merits we find admission to our heavenly inheritance. +Verily, as we think on the oneness of its design, we may say: +_Jerusalem edificatur ut civitas cujus participatio ejus in idipsum_. + + + +{cxxxiii} + +POSTSCRIPTUM + +On concluding their work, which from circumstances that need not be +specified has been a year in the press, the writers must apologise for +the numerous typographical errors which have been allowed to remain. +Their separation from each other, and distance from the printer, must +plead in excuse. + +They take this opportunity of expressing their thanks to the Reverend +Dr. Mill, Christian Advocate of the University of Cambridge, and to F. +A. Paley, Esq., M.A., of S. John's College, Cambridge, Honorary +Secretary of the Cambridge Camden Society, for their advice and +assistance. + +It remains to say that some doubt has been felt by persons who have +read the Introductory Essay in proofs, whether the writers have given +Mr. Pugin sufficient credit for several passages in his works which +seem to _involve_ the principle now contended for. We had thought that +no misapprehension could be feared on this head. It was enough to know +that the principle in question, even though _felt_ (as we indeed +allowed) by this architect, had not been _expressed in terms_. In +short, we took this fact for our ground: that whereas Mr. Pugin's book +professed to assert the _true principles_ of Christian architecture, +yet reality, according to his definition, was not at least so +accurately a 'true principle' as sacramentality. The principles +themselves, as enunciated by Mr. Pugin, apply as well to any secular +building as to a church: they are true for _construction_, but not +adequate in themselves to form a rule for ecclesiastical design. + +Kemerton, _August_ 16, 1843. + +{cxxxiv} + +The following very curious passage ought to have come in at page +lxxvii of the Introductory Essay, but was not accessible at the time. +It is an extract from the 'Fardle of Facions' printed A.D. 1555. + + + +FROM THE 'FARDLE OF FACIONS,' PRINTED 1555 + +Oratories, temples, or places of praier (whiche we calle churches) +might not to be built without the good will of the bishoppe of the +diocese. And when the timbre was redy to be framed, and the foundacion +digged, it behoved them to sende for the bishoppe, to hallowe the +firste corner stone of the foundacion, and to make the signe of the +Crosse thereupon, and to laie it, and directe it juste easte and west. +And then might the masons sette upon the stone, but not afore. This +churche did they use to builde after the facion of a crosse, and not +unlike the shape of a manne. The channcelle (in the whiche is +conteined the highe altare and the quiere) directe fulle in the easte, +representeth the heade, and therefore ought to be somewhat rounde, and +muche shorter than the body of the churche. And yet upon respect that +the heade is the place for the eyes, it ought to be of more lighte, +and to bee seperate with a particion, in the steade of a necke, from +the bodye of the churche. This particion the Latine calleth cancelli, +and out of that cometh our terme channcelle. On eche side of this +channcelle peradventure (for so fitteth it beste) should stand a +turret; as it were for two ears, and in these the belles to be hanged, +to calle the people to service, by daie and by night. Undre one of +these turretts is there commonly a vaulte, whose doore openeth into +the quiere, and in this are laid up the hallowed vesselles and +ornamentes, and other utensils of the churche. We call it a vestrie. +{cxxxv} The other parte oughte to be fitted, that having as it were on +eche side an arme, the reste maye resemble the bodye with the fete +stretched in breadthe, and in lengthe. On eche side of the bodye the +pillers to stande, upon whose coronettes or heades the vaulte or rophe +of the churche maye reste. And to the foote beneth aulters to be +joyned. Those aulters to be orderly alway covered with two aulter +clothes, and garnished with the crosse of Christe, or some little +cofre of reliques. At eche ende a candelsticke, and a booke towarde +the middes. The walls to be painted without and within, and diversely +paineted. That they also should have in every parishe a faire round +stone, made hollowe and fitte to holde water, in the whiche the water +consecrate for baptisme maye be kept for the christening of children. +Upon the right hand of the highe aulter that ther should be an +almorie, either cutte into the walle, or framed upon it, in the whiche +they woulde have the sacrament of the Lorde's bodye, the holy oyle for +the sicke, and chrismatorie, alwaie to be locked. Furthermore they +would that ther should be a pullpite in the middes of the churche, +wherein the prieste maye stonde upon Sondaies and holidays to teache +the people those things that it behoveth them to knowe. The channcelle +to serve only for the priests and clerks; the rest of the temporalle +multitude to be in the bodye of the churche, seperate notwithstanding, +the men on the righte side, and the women on the left. + +---------- + +{1} + +_Here beginneth the First Book of_ GULIELMUS +DURANDUS _his_ RATIONALE _of the_ DIVINE OFFICES. + + + +THE PROEME + +Importance and Difficulty of the Study of Symbolism--Necessity of its +Cultivation by Priests--Consideration of Unlearned Priests--Mystical +and Moral Meaning of the Law--Four-fold Sense of Scripture: the +Historical, the Allegoric, the Tropologic, the Anagogic--Different +Ceremonies used by Different Churches--Name of Rationale, whence +derived--Division of the Work. + + +1. All things, as many as pertain to offices and matters +ecclesiastical, be full of divine significations and mysteries, and +overflow with a celestial sweetness; if so be that a man be diligent +in his study of them, and know how to draw 'honey from the rock, and +oil from the hardest stone.' [Footnote 79] But who 'knoweth the +ordinances of heaven, or can fix the reasons thereof upon the earth?' +[Footnote 80] For he that prieth into their majesty, is overwhelmed by +the glory of them. Of a truth 'the well is deep, and I have nothing to +draw with': [Footnote 81] unless He giveth it unto me Who 'giveth to +all men liberally, and upbraideth not': [Footnote 82] so that 'while +I journey through the mountains' [Footnote 83] I may 'draw water with +joy out of the wells of salvation.' [Footnote 84] {2} Wherefore, +albeit of the things handed down from our forefathers, capable we are +not to explain all, yet if among them there be anything which is done +without reason, it should forthwith be put away. 'Wherefore I, +William, by the alone tender mercy of God, Bishop of the Holy Church +which is in Mende,' [Footnote 85] will knock diligently at the door, +if so be that 'the key of David' [Footnote 86] will open unto me: +that the King may 'bring me in to His treasury,' [Footnote 87] and +show unto me the heavenly pattern which was showed unto Moses in the +Mount: so that I may learn those things which pertain to rites +ecclesiastical, whereof they teach and what they signify: and that I +may be able plainly to reveal and make manifest the reasons of them, +by His help, 'Who hath ordained strength out of the mouth of babes and +sucklings': [Footnote 88] 'Whose spirit bloweth where it listeth,' +[Footnote 89 ] dividing to 'each severally as it will' [Footnote 90] +to the praise and glory of the Trinity. + + [Footnote 79: Deut. xxxii, 13.] + + [Footnote 80: Job xxxviii, 33] + + [Footnote 81: S. John iv, 11.] + + [Footnote 82: S. James i, 5.] + + [Footnote 83: Psalm ciii. Vulgate.] + + [Footnote 84: Isaiah xii, 3. ] + + [Footnote 85: A city of France, and capital of the department of + Lozére, situated on an eminence near the Lot: before the Revolution, + the See of a Bishop. The number of inhabitants is about + 5000.'--Cruttwell's _Gazetteer_, s.v.] + + [Footnote 86: Apocalypse iii, 7.] + + [Footnote 87: Cant, ii, 4.] + + [Footnote 88: Psalm viii, 2. See also Wisdom x, 21.] + + [Footnote 89: S. John iii, 8. ] + + [Footnote 90: I Cor. xii, II.] + +2. Sacraments we have received to be signs or figures, not in +themselves virtues, but the significations of virtues, by which men +are taught as by letters. Now of signs there be that are natural, and +there be that are positive: concerning which, and also of the nature +of a Sacrament, we shall speak hereafter. + +{3} + +3. Therefore the priests and the bishops to whom 'it is given to know +the mysteries of the kingdom of God,' [Footnote 91] as He saith in +Luke, and who be the stewards and dispensers of sacred things, ought +both to understand the sacred mysteries, and to shine in the virtues +which they signify: so that by their light others may be illuminated: +otherwise 'they be blind leaders of the blind.' [Footnote 92] As +saith the Prophet, 'Let their eyes be darkened, that they see not.' +[Footnote 93] But, woe therefore is me! in these days they apprehend +but little of those things which day by day they handle and perform, +what they signify, and wherefore they were instituted: so that the +saying of the Prophet seemeth to be fulfilled, 'As is the people, so +is the priest.' [Footnote 94] For when they bear the bread of +Prothesis [Footnote 95] to the Lord's Table and the Mysteries, they +understand not its signification more than brute beasts which carry +bread for the use of others. Of which ignorance they shall give +account in the day of vengeance and wrath. 'When the cedars of +Paradise shall tremble, what shall the bush of the desert do?' +[Footnote 96] For to them is that saying of the Prophet, 'They have +not known My ways: so I swear in my wrath, if they shall enter into My +rest.' [Footnote 97] + + [Footnote 91: S. Luke viii, 10.] + + [Footnote 92: S. Matthew xv, 14.] + + [Footnote 93: Psalm lxix, 23.] + + [Footnote 94: Isaiah xxiv, 2.] + + [Footnote 95: Here is a distinct reference to the Prothesis: the + more valuable because in writers of the Middle Ages it does not hold + so prominent a place as we might have expected: and the table of + Prothesis appears not to have occupied a certainly defined situation + in Catholic churches. There is also a reference to Lev. xxi, 8, and + the showbread.] + + [Footnote 96: S. Luke xxii, 3.] + + [Footnote 97: Psalm xcv, 11.] + +4. Now the professors of the arts liberal, and of all other arts, seek +how they may clothe, support, and adorn with causes and hidden reasons +those things which be nakedly and without ornament therein set forth; +painters moreover, and mechanics and handicraftsmen of what {4} sort +soever, study in every variety of their works to render and to have at +hand probable reasons thereof. So, also, unseemly is it to the +magistrate to be ignorant of this world's laws; and to the pleader to +know nothing of the law, wherein he is exercised. + +5. But although learning be necessary unto priests for the sake of +doctrine: yet must not scholastics think slightingly of unlettered +priests; according to that saying in Exodus, 'Thou shalt not revile +the gods.' [Footnote 98] Whence, saith S. Augustine, they shall not +deride if they hear the priests and ministers of the Church, either +invoking God with barbarisms and solecisms, or not understanding and +misdividing the words which they pronounce. Not but that such things +are to be corrected; but they must firstly be tolerated of the more +learned. But that which priests ought to learn, shall be said below. + + [Footnote 98: Exodus xxii, 28.] + +6. Furthermore, the symbolism which existeth in things and offices +ecclesiastical, is often not seen, both because figures have departed, +and now it is the time of truth; and also because we ought not to +judaise. But, albeit those types of which the truth is made manifest +have departed, yet even to this time manifold truth is concealed, +which we see not; wherefore the Church useth figures. For so by white +vestments we understand the beauty in which our souls shall be +arrayed, or the glory of our immortality, which we cannot manifestly +behold: and in the Mass, by the oblation on the altar, [Footnote 99] +the Passion of Christ is represented, that it be held in the memory +more faithfully and more firmly. + + [Footnote 99: The prayer of oblation is as follows--'Suscipe, + Sancta Trinitas, hanc oblationem quam Tibi offerimus _ob memoriam + Passionis_, resurrectionis et ascensionis Jesu Christi Domini + nostri,' etc.] + +{5} + +7. Furthermore, of the things which be commanded in the law, some be +moral, and others mystical. They be moral which inform the morals, and +are to be understood in the simple tenour of the words: 'Love God: +honour thy father: thou shalt do no murder,' and such like. Mystical +be such as are typical: where something is set forth beyond the +literal meaning. Of these, some be sacramental, and some ceremonial. +Sacramental be such as may be accounted for, why thus they were +ordered: such as circumcision, and the observance of the Sabbath, and +the like. Ceremonial be they for which no reason can be given. Such +be, 'Thou shalt not plough with an ox and an ass together:' [Footnote +100] Thou shalt not wear a garment of linen and woollen mixed.' +[Footnote 101] + + [Footnote 100: Deut. xxii, 10.] + + [Footnote 101: Deut. xxii, 11.] + +8. Now in things that are moral commands, the law hath received no +change: but in things sacramental and ceremonial its outward form is +altered: yet not one of the mystical significations is done away: for +the law is not done away. Though the 'priesthood being changed, there +is made of necessity a change likewise of the law.' [Footnote 102] + + [Footnote 102: Hebrews vii, 12.] + +9. Now, in Holy Scriptures there be divers senses: as historic, +allegoric, tropologic, and anagogic. Whence, according to Boethius, +all divine authority ariseth from a sense either historical or +allegorical or from both. And according to S. Hierom, we ought to +study Holy Scriptures in three ways:--firstly, according to the +letter; secondly, after the allegory, that is, the spiritual meaning; +thirdly, according to the blessedness of the future. + +{6} + +History is _things signified by words:_ as when a plain relation is +made how certain events took place: as when the children of Israel, +after their deliverance from Egypt, made a tabernacle to the Lord. And +history is derived from [Greek text], which is to gesticulate: +[Footnote 103] whence gesticulators (that is, players) are called +_histriones_. + + [Footnote 103: Here is a notable instance of Durandus's + misderivations, of which we have spoken in the Introduction.] + +10. Allegory is when one thing is said and another meant: as when by +one deed another is intended: which other thing, if it be visible, the +whole is simply an allegory, if invisible and heavenly, an _anagoge_. +Also an allegory is when one state of things is described by another: +as when the patience of Christ, and the sacraments of the Church are +set forth by mystical words or deeds. As in that place: 'There shall +come forth a rod of the stem of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of +his roots:' [Footnote 104] which is in plain language. The Virgin +Mary shall be born of the family of David, who was the son of Jesse. +[This is an example of mysticism in words.] Truth is also set forth by +mystic deeds: as the children of Israel's freedom from Egyptian +slavery, wrought by the blood of a lamb, signifieth that the Church is +freed by the Passion of Christ from demoniacal servitude. [Footnote +105] The word allegory is derived from the Greek _allon_, which means +_foreign_, and _gore_, which is _sense_; that is, a _foreign sense_. + + [Footnote 104: Isaiah xi, 1.] + + [Footnote 105: See Appendix I.] + +{7} + +11. _Tropology_ is an injunction unto morality: or a moral speech, +either with a symbolical or an obvious bearing, devised to evince and +instruct our behaviour. _Symbolical_; as where he saith, 'Let thy +garments be always white: and let the oil of thy head never fail.' +[Footnote 106] That is, let all thy works be pure, and charity never +fail from thy mind. And again, It is fit that David should slay the +Goliath within us: that is, that humbleness may subdue our pride. +_Obvious_ as in that saying, 'Deal thy bread to the hungry.' +[Footnote 107] And in that text: 'Let us not love in word, neither in +tongue: but in deed and truth.' [Footnote 108] Now tropology hath +his name from _tropos_, a turning, and _logos_, which is a discourse. + + [Footnote 106: Ecclesiastes ix, 8. ] + + [Footnote 107: Isaiah lviii, 7.] + + [Footnote 108: 1 S. John iii, 18.] + +12. Anagoge is so called from _ana_, which is upwards, and _goge_, a +leading: as it were an upward leading. Whence the anagogic sense is +that which leadeth from the visible to the invisible: as light, made +the first day, signifieth a thing invisible, namely the angelic nature +which was made in the beginning. _Anagoge_, therefore, is that sense +which leadeth the mind upwards to heavenly things: that is to the +Trinity and the orders of angels, and speaketh concerning future +rewards, and the future life which is in the heaven: and it useth both +obvious and mystical expressions; obvious, as in that saying, 'Blessed +are the pure in heart: for they shall see God:' [Footnote 109] +mystical, as that, 'Blessed are they that have made white their robes: +that they may have right unto the tree of life, and enter in through +the gate into the city.' [Footnote 110] Which signifieth, Blessed +are they who make pure their thoughts, that they may have a right to +see 'God, who is the way, the truth, and the life:' [Footnote 111] +and after the example of the fathers, enter into the kingdom of +heaven. + + [Footnote 109: S. Matthew v, 8.] + + [Footnote 110: Apocalypse vii, 14.] + + [Footnote 111: S. John xiv, 6.] + +{8} + +In like manner, Jerusalem is understood historically of that earthly +city whither pilgrims journey; allegorically, of the Church Militant; +tropologically, of every faithful soul; anagogically, of the celestial +Jerusalem, which is our country. [Footnote 112] Of these things, more +examples may be seen in the lessons for Holy Saturday. [Footnote 113] +But in this work many senses are applied: and speedy changes are made +from one to another, as the diligent reader will perceive. + + [Footnote 112: How beautifully, observes a writer in the _British + Critic_, do old ecclesiastical writers use _patria_ and _domus_ of + our celestial country, and our everlasting home!] + + [Footnote 113: Reference is here apparently made to the fifth + chapter of the book, of Lamentations, which appears as the 3rd + lesson at Matins.] + +13. For as none is prohibited from using divers grounds of exception +and manners of defence, so neither are they forbidden to employ divers +expositions in the praise of God, so that faith be not injured. + +14. Notice must also be taken of the variety of rites used in the +divine worship. For nearly every Church hath her own observances, and +attacheth to them a full meaning of her own: neither is it thought +blameworthy or absurd to worship with various chants, or modulations +of the voice, nor yet with different observances: when the Church +Triumphant herself is surrounded, [Footnote 114] according to the +Prophet, with the like diversity, and in the administration of the +sacraments themselves a variety of customs is tolerated, and that +rightly. + + [Footnote 114: The author appears to refer here to the XLV Psalm, + 'Eructavit cor meum.'] + +{9} + +15. Whence, according to Austin of ecclesiastical institutions in the +divine office, some we have received from Holy Scriptures: some from +the traditions or writings of the apostles, being confirmed by their +successors: some, moreover, of which, however, the institution is +unknown, are confirmed by custom and approved by use: and to them +equal observance is due as to the others. + +16. Let not, then, the reader be angry if he perchance read in this +work of observances which he never saw in his own church: or does not +read of some that are there in use. For we endeavour not to go through +the particular rites of particular places, but those which be more +common and usual: because we labour to set forth that doctrine which +is of universal, and not that which is of particular bearing, nor +would it be possible for us to examine the particular rites of every +church. Therefore we have determined, for the health of our soul and +the benefit of the readers, to set forth and to arrange the secret +mysteries of divine offices in a clear state, to the best of our power +and to inculcate and thoroughly to explain that which appears +necessary for ecclesiastics, towards the understanding of the daily +service: even as it is well known that, when in a different condition +of life, we did faithfully in our _Mirror of Magistrates_ do the like +for the use of those who were employed in secular courts. + +{10} + +17. But it must diligently be noted that in the divine offices +themselves [Footnote 115] many ceremonies there be of usual +employment which have, from their institution, respect neither to a +moral nor mystical signification. Of these, some are known to have +arisen of necessity: some of congruity: some of the difference of the +Old and New Testament; some of convenience; and some for the mere +honour and reverence of the offices themselves: whence saith blessed +Austin, so many things are varied by the different customs of divers +place, that seldom or never can those causes be discovered which men +followed in constituting them. + + [Footnote 115: This passage is worth noting, as showing that our + Author does not proceed with the determination of making a meaning + where he could not find one: but that he is willing to leave much, + explained only in the principles of necessity, or convenience, or + reverence.] + +18. This work is described as a Rationale. For as in the 'breastplate +of judgment' [Footnote 116] which the Jewish high priest wore was +written manifestation and truth, so here the reasons of the variations +in divine offices and their truths are set forth and manifested: which +the prelates and priests of churches ought faithfully to preserve in +the shrine of their breasts: and as in the breastplate there was a +stone by the splendour of which the children of Israel knew that God +was well pleased with them: so also the pious reader who hath been +taught the mysteries of the divine offices from the clearness of this +work will know that God is favourably disposed towards us, unless we +rashly incur His indignation by our offence and fault. The breastplate +was woven of four colours and of gold: and here, as we said before, +the principles on which are founded the variations in ecclesiastical +offices, take the hues of four senses, the historic, the allegoric, +the tropologic, and the anagogic, with faith as the [Footnote 117] +groundwork. + + [Footnote 116: Vulg. In Rationali Judicii. Exodus xxviii, 3.] + + [Footnote 117: Such appears the meaning of this beautiful + comparison. The words are rather obscure, _quatuor sensibus fide + media colorantur_.] + +{11} + +19. It is divided into eight parts: which we shall go through, by the +Lord's favour, in order. The first treateth of churches, and +ecclesiastical places and ornaments: and of consecrations and +sacraments. The second of the members of the Church, and their duties: +the third of sacerdotal and other vestments: the fourth of the Mass, +and of the things therein performed: the fifth of the other divine +offices: the sixth of the Sundays and holydays, and feasts specially +pertaining to our Lord: the seventh of Saints' days, and the feast of +the dedication of a church, and the office of the dead; the eighth of +the method of computing time, and the calendar. + +{12} + +_Tradatus Gulielmi Durandi de ecclesia et ecclesiasticis locis et +sacramentis et ornamentis et de consecrationibus incipit feliciter._ + + + +CHAPTER I + +OF A CHURCH AND ITS PARTS + +Two-fold Meaning of the Word--Different Synonyms for the Term--Form of +a Church--Of the Tabernacle--The Foundation, how to be laid--To Point +East, and Why--The Spiritual Church, how Built up--Of Cement--What +Arms the Spiritual Church Employeth--Of the Materials of the +Tabernacle--Of Shittim Wood--Analogy of a Church with the Human +Body--Of what the Spiritual Church consisteth--Of its Foundations--Of +the Walls--Of the Choir--Of Apses--Of the Cloister Court--Of the +Towers--Of the Cock--Of the Pinnacles--Of the Windows--Of the Lattice +Work--Of the Doors--Of the Piers--Of the Beams--Of the Roof--Of the +Stalls--Of the Pulpit--Of the Rood Loft--Of the Hours--Of the +Sanctuary--Of the Sacristy--Of the Roof Tiles--Of the Lights--Of the +Crosses--Of the Cloister--Of the Bishop's Throne--Why we go together +to Church--Of the Separation of the Women from the Men--Of the +Covering of Women's Heads--Of Speech in Church--Of Immunity for +Malefactors--Why Churches may be rebuilt in other Places. + + +1. First of all, let us consider a church [Footnote 118] and its +parts. The word church hath two meanings: the one, a material +building, wherein the divine offices are celebrated: the other, a +spiritual fabric, which is the collection of the faithful. The Church, +_that_ is the people forming it, is assembled by its ministers, and +collected together into {13} one place by 'Him who maketh men to be of +one mind in an house.' [Footnote 119]For as the material church is +constructed from the joining together of various stones, so is the +spiritual Church by that of various men. + + [Footnote 118: It has been found advisable to print the word church + in the following pages with a great or a small initial letter, + according as 'The Blessed Company of all Faithful People,' or the + material building, were intended.] + + [Footnote 119: Psalm lxviii (_Exsurgat Deus_), 6.] + +2. The Greek _ecclesia_ is in Latin translated by convocation because +it calleth men to itself: the which title doth better befit the +spiritual than the material church. + +The material typifieth the spiritual Church: as shall be explained +when we treat of its consecration. [Footnote 120] Again, the Church +is called Catholic, that is universal, because it hath been set up in, +or spread over, all the world, because the whole multitude of the +faithful ought to be in one congregation, or because in the Church is +laid up the doctrine necessary for the instruction of all. + + [Footnote 120: See below, chapter vi.] + +3. It is also called in Greek _synagoga_, in Latin _congregatio_, +which was the name chosen by the Jews for their places of worship: for +to them the term synagogue more appropriately belongeth, though it be +also applied to a church. But the Apostles never call a church by this +title, perhaps for the sake of distinction. + +4. The Church Militant is also called _Sion_: because, amidst its +wanderings, it expecteth the promise of a heavenly rest: for Sion +signifieth _expectation_. But the Church Triumphant, our future home, +the land of peace, is called Jerusalem: for Jerusalem signifieth _the +vision of peace_. [Footnote 121] + + [Footnote 121: So the hymn in the Parisian Breviary, for the + dedication of a church: + Urbs beata, vera pacis + Visio, Jerusalem.] + +Also, the church is called the _House of God_: also, sometimes, [Greek +text], that is, the _Lord's House_. At others _basilica_ (in Latin, a +royal palace), for the abodes of earthly kings are thus termed: and +how much more fittingly our houses of prayer, the dwelling-places of +the King of Kings! Again, it is called _temple_, from _tectum amplum,_ +{14} where sacrifices are offered to God: and sometimes the +_tabernacle of God_, because this present life is a journey, and a +progress to a lasting country: and a tabernacle is an hostelrie: +[Footnote 122] as will be explained when we speak of the dedication +[Footnote 123] of a church. And why it is called the _Ark of the +Testimony_, we shall say in the ensuing chapter, under the title +Altars. Sometimes it is called _Martyrium_, when raised in honour of +any martyr; sometimes _capella_ [Footnote 124] (chapel), (see under +the head Priest in the second part); sometimes _coenobium_, at others +_sacrificium_; sometimes _sacellum_; sometimes _the house of prayer_: +sometimes _monastery_: sometimes _oratory_. Generally, however, any +place set apart for prayers is called an oratory. Again, the church is +called the _Body of Christ_ sometimes a _virgin_, as the Apostle +saith, 'that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ': +[Footnote 125] sometimes a _bride_, because Christ hath betrothed her +to Himself, as saith the Gospel: 'he that hath the bride is the +bridegroom': [Footnote 126] sometimes a _mother_, for daily in +baptism she beareth sons to God: sometimes a _daughter_, according to +that saying of the Prophet, 'Instead of thy fathers thou shalt have +children': [Footnote 127] sometimes a _widow_, because 'she sitteth +solitary through her afflictions, and, like Rachel, will not be +comforted.' Sometimes she is set forth under the emblem of an +_harlot_, because she is called out of many nations, and because she +closeth not her bosom against any that return to her. + + [Footnote 122: Compare Cicero de Senect. xxiii. Et ex vita ita + discedo tanquam ex hospitio, non tanquam ex domo: commorandi enim + Natura diversorium nobis, non habitandi dedit.] + + [Footnote 123: Chapter vi, sect. 5, ad fin.] + + [Footnote 124: Durandus, II. 10. 8. 'In many places, priests be + called chaplains. For of old the Kings of France, when they went + forth to war, carried with them the Cope of Blessed Martin, which + was kept in a certain tent (where Mass was said), and from the cope + (cappa) the tent was called chapel (capella).' + + We may observe that chapel was used in former times with much + greater latitude than now. An additional aisle or chantry was so + called. So in Haddenham, Cambridgeshire, on a brass in the north + aisle, _Orate pro Aniniabus fundatorum hujus Capellae_: that is, the + aisle itself.] + + [Footnote 125: 2 Cor. xi, 2.] + + [Footnote 126: S. John iii, 29.] + + [Footnote 127: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 16.] + +{15} + +Sometimes she is called a city, because of the communion of her holy +citizens, being defended by the munitions of the Scriptures, whereby +heretics are kept off: having stones and beams of divers kinds, +because the merits of the saints are of divers kinds also, as shall be +said below. Whatever the Jewish Church received by the law, that doth +the Christian Church receive, and with large increase by grace, from +Christ whose bride she is. The setting up of an oratory, or church, is +not new. For the Lord commanded Moses in Mount Sinai, that he should +make a tabernacle of curiously wrought materials. This was divided by +a veil into two parts: the outer, called the holy place, where the +people attended the sacrifices: the inner, the holy of holies, where +the priests and Levites ministered before the Lord (see the Preface to +the Fourth Book and also Appendix A). + +5. This tabernacle having decayed through age, the Lord commanded that +a temple should be built, which Solomon accomplished with wonderful +skill: this also had two parts, like the tabernacle. From both of +these, namely, from the tabernacle and the temple, doth our material +church take its form. In its outer portion, the laity offer their +prayers, and hear the Word. In the sanctuary, the clergy pray, preach, +offer praises and prayers. + +6. The tabernacle, built as it was amidst the journeyings of the +Israelites, is sometimes taken as a type of the world which 'passeth +away, and the lust thereof' [Footnote 128] Whence it was formed with +curtains of four colours, as the world is composed of four elements. +'God,' said the Prophet, 'is in His tabernacle': [Footnote 129] God +is in this world, as in a temple dyed scarlet by the blood of Christ. + + [Footnote 128: S. John ii, 17.] + + [Footnote 129: Psalm xi (_In Domino confido_), 4.] + +{16} + +The tabernacle is, however, more especially symbolical of the Church +Militant, which hath 'here no continuing city, but seeketh one to +come.' [Footnote 130] Therefore is it called a tabernacle, for +tabernacles or tents belong to soldiers: and this saying, God is in +his tabernacle, meaneth, God is among the faithful collected together +in His name. The outer part of the tabernacle, where the people +sacrificed, is the active life, wherein men give themselves up to the +love of their neighbour: the interior, wherein the Levites ministered, +is the contemplative life, where a band of religious men devote +themselves to the love and contemplation of God. The tabernacle gave +place to the temple: because after the warfare cometh the triumph. + + [Footnote 130: Hebrews xiii, 14.] + +7. Now a church is to be built on this fashion: The foundation being +prepared, according to that saying, 'It fell not, for it was founded +upon a rock,' [Footnote 131] the bishop, or a priest [Footnote 132] +as the bishop's deputy, must sprinkle it with holy water, to banish +the foul forms of evil spirits, and lay the first stone, whereon a +cross must be engraved. [Footnote 133] + + [Footnote 131: S. Matthew vii, 25. In general illustration of the + foregoing sections the reader is referred to the first chapter of + the eighth book of Bingham's 'Antiquities.'] + + [Footnote 132: In the account of the dedication of S. Michael the + Archangel, in the Isle of Guernsey, preserved in the 'Black Book of + the Bishop of Coutances,' it appears that the ceremony was performed + by a priest though it is believed that such has seldom been the case + in the Anglican Church. But see chapter vi, section 2. ] + + [Footnote 133: A cross was not only inscribed on the foundation + stone, but a cross was placed where the church was to be: and this + in the Eastern Church; where the _Stauropegia_ was a ceremony of + much importance.] + +8. The foundation must be so contrived, as that the head of the church +may point due east (see Appendix B); that is, to that point of the +heavens, wherein the sun ariseth at the equinoxes; to signify, that +the Church Militant must [Footnote 134] behave herself with +moderation, both in prosperity and adversity: and not towards that +point where the sun ariseth at the solstices, which is the practice of +some. + + [Footnote 134: This passage is valuable as proving that in the + country of our Bishop nothing was known of a practice undoubtedly + prevalent in England; the direction of a church to that part of the + sky in which the sun arose on the Feast of the Patron Saint.] + +{17} + +But if the walls of Jerusalem, 'which is built as a city that is at +unity with itself,' [Footnote 135] were, by the Prophet's command, +raised by the Jews, with how much greater zeal should we raise the +walls of our churches! For the material church, wherein the people +assemble to set forth God's holy praise, symboliseth that Holy Church +which is built in heaven of living stones. + + [Footnote 135: Psalm cxxii (_Laetatus sum_), 3. ] + +9. This is that House of the Lord, built with all strength, 'upon the +foundations of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being +the chief cornerstone. [Footnote 136] Her [Footnote 137] +foundations are in the holy mountains.' The walls built upon these are +the Jews and Gentiles; who come from the four parts of the world unto +Christ, and who have believed, believe, or shall believe on Him. + + [Footnote 136: Eph. ii, 20.] + + [Footnote 137: Psalm lxxxvii (_Fundamenta ejus_), I. ] + +The faithful predestinated to eternal life, are the stones in the +structure of this wall which shall continually be built up unto the +world's end. And one stone is added to another, when masters in the +Church teach and confirm and strengthen those who are put under them: +and whosoever in Holy Church undertaketh painful labours from +brotherly love, he as it were beareth up the weight of stones which +have been placed above him. Those stones which are of larger size, and +polished, or squared, and placed on the outside and at the angles of +the building, are men of holier life than others, who by their merits +and prayers retain weaker brethren in Holy Church. + +10. The cement, without which there can be no stability of the walls, +is made of lime, sand, and water. The lime is fervent charity, which +joineth to itself the sand, that is, undertakings for the temporal +welfare of our brethren: {18} because true charity taketh care of the +widow and the aged, and the infant, and the infirm: and they who have +it study to work with their hands, that they may possess wherewith to +benefit them. Now the lime and the sand are bound together in the wall +by an admixture of water. But water is an emblem of the Spirit. And as +without cement the stones cannot cohere, so neither can men be built +up in the heavenly Jerusalem without charity, which the Holy Ghost +worketh in them. All the stones are polished and squared--that is, +holy and pure, and are built by the hands of the Great Workman into an +abiding place in the Church: whereof some are borne, and bear nothing, +as the weaker members: some are both borne and bear, as those of +moderate strength: and some bear, and are borne of none save Christ, +the corner-stone, as they that are perfect. All are bound together by +one spirit of charity, as though fastened with cement; and those +living stones are knit together in the bond of peace. Christ was our +wall in His conversation: and our outer wall in His Passion. + +11. When the Jews were rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem, their +enemies strove hard to let the works: so that 'they built with one +hand, and held their weapons of war in the other.' And round us too do +enemies gather, while we are building the walls of our Church: our own +sins, or ungodly men, willing to hinder our success. Whence, while we +build our walls, that is, while we add virtue to virtue, we must fight +with the enemy, and grasp our weapons firmly: we must 'take the helmet +of salvation, the shield of faith, the breastplate of righteousness: +and for our sword the word of God,' [Footnote 138] that we may defend +ourselves against them: and God's priest shall be unto us in Christ's +stead, to teach us by his lessons, and defend us by his prayers. + + [Footnote 138: Eph. vi, 16, 17.] + +{19} + +12. Furthermore, of what the tabernacle was made the Lord hath told +us, saying unto Moses, 'Take the first fruits,'--that is, the most +precious gifts--'of the children of Israel: but from him alone who +willingly offereth gold, and silver, and brass, and precious stones, +and purple and linen twice dyed'; namely cloth of the colours of blue, +purple, and scarlet: and of biss, which is a kind of Egyptian linen +white and soft: 'and goat's hair, and rams' skins dyed red,' which we +call Parthian, because the Parthians first dyed them thus, 'and purple +skins and shittim wood' (shittim is the name of a mountain, and also +of a tree: its leaves are like the white thorn, and to be injured +neither by fire nor by decay): 'and oil for the lights, frankincense, +and ointment of a sweet savour, onyx stones, and sard-onyxes, and +jewels: and let them make Me a house, that I may dwell in the midst of +them: and that they may not weary themselves in returning to this +mountain.' [Footnote 139] + + [Footnote 139: Exodus xxv, 2.] + +14. The arrangement of a material church resembleth that of the human +body: the chancel, or place where the altar is, representeth the head: +the transepts, the hands and arms, and the remainder--towards the +west--the rest of the body. The sacrifice of the altar denoteth the +vows of the heart. Furthermore, according to Richard de Sancto +Victore, the arrangement of a church typifieth the three states in the +Church: of virgins, of the continent, of the married. {20} The +sanctuary [Footnote 140] is smaller than the chancel, and this than +the nave: because the virgins are fewer in number [Footnote 141] than +the continent, and these than the married. And the sanctuary is more +holy than the chancel: and the chancel than the nave: because the +order of virgins is more worthy than that of the continent, and the +continent more worthy than the married. + + [Footnote 140: The sanctuary of course means that eastermost + division in churches consisting of three parts, which still remains + in many Norman buildings, and of which Kilpeck, in Herefordshire, + may be taken as a type. These churches are generally apsidal: but + there are instances to the contrary, as Bishopstone, in Sussex. A + view of the sanctum sanctorum and chancel arches in this church is + given in the Cambridge Camden Society's 'Illustrations of Monumental + Brasses,' part iv.] + + [Footnote 141: This passage is somewhat obscure; but the difference + between the virgins and the continent appears to be this: by the + former are meant those who have taken vows of celibacy; by the + latter, those who practise it, without, however, having bound + themselves to it by vow.] + +15. Furthermore, the church consisteth of four walls, that is, is +built on the doctrine of the Four Evangelists; and hath length, +breadth, and height: the height representeth courage, the length +fortitude, which patiently endureth till it attaineth its heavenly +home; the breadth is charity, which, with long suffering, loveth its +friends in God, and its foes for God; and again, its height is the +hope of future retribution, which despiseth prosperity and adversity, +hoping 'to see the goodness of the Lord in the land of the living.' +[Footnote 142] + + [Footnote 142: Psalm xxvii (_Dominus illuminatio_), 13.] + +16. Again, in the temple of God, the foundation is faith, which is +conversant with unseen things: the roof, charity, 'which covereth a +multitude of sins.' [Footnote 143] The door, obedience, of which the +Lord saith, 'If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments.' +[Footnote 144] The pavement, humility, of which the Psalmist saith, +'My soul cleaveth to the pavement.' [Footnote 145] + + [Footnote 143: I S. Peter iv, 8.] + + [Footnote 144: S. Matthew xix, 17.] + + [Footnote 145: Psalm cxix (_Adhaesit pavimento_), 25.] + +17. The four side-walls, the four cardinal virtues, justice, +fortitude, temperance, prudence. Hence the Apocalypse saith, 'The city +lieth four-square.' [Footnote 146] The windows are hospitality with +cheerfulness, and tenderness with charity. + + [Footnote 146: Rev. xxi, 16.] + +{21} + +Concerning this house saith the Lord, 'We will come unto him, and make +our abode with him.' [Footnote 147] But some churches are built in +the shape of a cross, to signify, that we are crucified to the world, +and should tread in the steps of the Crucified, according to that +saying, 'If any man will come after Me, let him deny himself and take +up his cross, and follow Me.' [Footnote 148] Some also are built in +the form of a circle: [Footnote 149] to signify that the Church hath +been extended throughout the circle of the world, as saith the +Psalmist: 'And their words unto the end of the world.' [Footnote +150] Or because from the circle of this world, we reach forth to that +crown of eternity which shall encircle our brows. + + [Footnote 147: S. John xiv, 23.] + + [Footnote 148: S. Matthew xvi, 18.] + + [Footnote 149: This of course refers to the Church of the Holy + Sepulchre, the prototype of these buildings. There are four, as it + is well known, in England yet standing, and two in ruins--namely, + Temple Aslackby, in Lincolnshire, and the church in Ludlow Castle.] + + [Footnote 150: Psalm xix (_Caeli enarrant_), 4.] + +18. The choir is so called from the harmony of the clergy in their +chanting, or from the multitude collected at the divine offices. The +word _chorus_ is derived from _chorea_, or from _corona_. For in early +times they stood like a crown round the altar, and thus sung the +Psalms in one body: but Flavianus and Theodorus taught the antiphonal +method of chanting, having received it from S. Ignatius, who himself +learnt it by inspiration. The two choirs then typify the angels, and +the spirits of just men, while they cheerfully and mutually excite +each other in this holy exercise. Others derive _chorus_ from +_concord_, which consisteth of charity; because he who hath not +charity, cannot sing with the spirit. But what this choir signifieth, +and why the greatest in it sit last, shall be explained in the fourth +book. [Footnote 151] And observe, that when one sings, it is called +in Greek a _monody_, in Latin _tycinium_. When two sing, it is called +_bicinium_; when many, a _chorus_. + + [Footnote 151: We may observe that Prynne perverts the fact, that + the westernmost seats in the choir are the most honourable, to a + depreciation of the Catholic custom of the position of the altar. + See his 'Pacific Examination,' s.v.] + +{22} + +19. The exedra is an apsis, separated a little from a temple or +palace; so called because it projecteth a little from the wall (in +Greek [Greek text]), and signifieth the lay portion of the faithful +joined to Christ and the Church. The crypts, or subterranean caves, +which we find in some churches, are hermits who are devoted to a +solitary life. + +20. The open court signifieth Christ, by Whom an entrance is +administered into the heavenly Jerusalem: this is also called porch, +from _porta_, a gate, or because it is _aperta_, open. + +21. The towers are the preachers and prelates of the Church, which are +her bulwark and defence. Whence the bridegroom in the Canticles saith +to the bride, 'Thy neck is like the tower of David builded for an +armoury.' [Footnote 152] The pinnacles of the towers signify the +life or the mind of a prelate which aspireth heavenwards. + + [Footnote 152: Canticles iv, 4.] + +22. The cock at the summit of the church is a type of preachers. For +the cock, ever watchful even in the depth of night, giveth notice how +the hours pass, wakeneth the sleepers, predicteth the approach of day, +but first exciteth himself to crow by striking his sides with his +wings. There is a mystery conveyed in each of these particulars. The +night is this world: the sleepers are the children of this world who +are asleep in their sins. The cock is the preacher, who preacheth +boldly, and exciteth the sleepers to cast away the works of darkness, +exclaiming, 'Woe to them that sleep! Awake thou that sleepest! +[Footnote 153] And these foretell the approach of day when they speak +of the Day of Judgment, and the glory that shall be revealed: and like +prudent {23} messengers, before they teach others, arouse themselves +from the sleep of sin by mortifying their bodies. Whence the Apostle, +'I keep under my body.' [Footnote 154] And as the weathercock faceth +the wind, they turn themselves boldly to meet the rebellious by +threats and arguments: lest they should be guilty, 'when the wolf +cometh, of leaving the sheep and fleeing.' [Footnote 155] The iron +rod, whereon the cock sitteth, representeth the discourse of the +preacher, that he speaketh not of man but of God: according to that +saying, 'If any man speak, let him speak as the oracles of God.' +[Footnote 156] But in that the iron rod is placed above the cross, on +the summit of the church, it signifieth that Holy Scripture is now +consummated and confirmed. Whence saith our Lord in His Passion, 'It +is finished': and that title is written indelibly over Him. + + [Footnote 153: Eph. v, 14.] + + [Footnote 154: 1 Cor. ix, 27.] + + [Footnote 155: S. John x, 12.] + + [Footnote 156: I S. Peter iv, 11.] + +23. The cone, that is the summit of the church, of great height, and +of round shape, signifieth how perfectly and inviolably the Catholic +faith must be held: which faith except a man do keep whole and +undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. + +24. The glass windows in a church are Holy Scriptures, which expel the +wind and the rain, that is all things hurtful, but transmit the light +of the true Sun, that is, God, into the hearts of the faithful. These +are wider [Footnote 157] within than without, because the mystical +sense is the more ample, and precedeth the literal meaning. Also, by +the windows the senses of the body are signified: which ought to be +shut to the vanities of this world, and open to receive with all +freedom spiritual gifts. + + [Footnote 157: This passage is particularly to be observed, for the + reason given in the Introduction.] + +25. By the lattice work [Footnote 158] of the windows, we understand +the prophets or other obscure teachers of the Church Militant: in +which windows there are often two shafts, signifying the two precepts +of charity, or because the apostles were sent out to preach two and +two. + + [Footnote 158: See Appendix I.] + +{24} + +26. The door of the church is Christ: according to that saying in the +Gospel, 'I am the door.' [Footnote 159] The apostles are also called +doors. + + [Footnote 159: S. John x, 9.] + +27. The piers of the church are bishops and doctors: who specially +sustain the Church of God by their doctrine. These, from the majesty +and clearness of their divine message, are called silver, according to +that in the Song of Songs, 'He made silver columns.' [Footnote 160] +Whence also Moses at the entering in of the tabernacle, placed five +columns, and four before the oracle, that is, the holy of holies. +Although the piers are more in number than seven, yet they are called +seven, according to that saying, 'Wisdom hath builded her house, she +hath hewn out her seven pillars': [Footnote 161] because bishops +ought to be filled with the sevenfold influences of the Holy Ghost: +[Footnote 162] and SS. James and John, as the Apostle testifieth, +'seemed to be pillars.' [Footnote 163] The bases of the columns are +the apostolic bishops, [Footnote 164] who support the frame of the +whole church. The capitals of the piers are the opinions of the +bishops and doctors. For as the members are directed and moved by the +head, so are our words and works governed by their mind. The ornaments +of the capitals are the words of Sacred Scripture, to the meditation +and observance of which we are bound. + + [Footnote 160: Canticles viii, 9.] + + [Footnote 161: Prov. viii, I.] + + [Footnote 162: Compare the _Veni Creator_: + Thou the anointing Spirit art, + Who dost Thy sevenfold gifts impart.] + + [Footnote 163: Gal ii, 9.] + + [Footnote 164: That is, it may be supposed, bishops of those sees + which were founded by the apostles themselves, e.g. Rome, Crete, + Ephesus.] + +28. The pavement of the church is the foundation of our faith. But in +the spiritual Church, the pavement is the poor, of Christ: the poor in +spirit, who humble themselves in all thing: wherefore on account of +their {25} humility they are likened to the pavement. Again, the +pavement, which is trodden under foot, representeth the multitude, by +whose labours the Church is sustained. + +29. The beams [Footnote 165] which join together the church are the +princes of this world or the preachers who defend the unity of the +Church, the one by deed, the other by argument. + + [Footnote 165: _Beams_. That is, probably, tie-beams: here is + another reference to the architectural arrangements of Early English + date.] + +30. The stalls in the church signify the contemplative, in whom God +dwelleth without hindrance, who, from their high dignity and the glory +of eternal life, are compared to gold. Whence He saith in the +Canticles, 'He made a golden seat.' [Footnote 166] + + [Footnote 166: See Appendix I.] + +31. The beams in the church are preachers, who spiritually sustain it. +The vaulting also, or ceiling, representeth preachers, who adorn and +strengthen it, concerning whom, seeing that they are not corruptible +through vice, the bridegroom glorieth in the same Canticles, saying +'the beams of our house are cedar, and its ceiling, fir.' For God hath +built His Church of living stones, and imperishable wood, according to +that saying, 'Solomon made himself a litter of cedar wood;' [Footnote +167] that is, Christ, of His saints who wear the white robe of +chastity. + + [Footnote 167: It is very difficult to find the right meaning of the + word ferculum here. The English version gives the passage from the + Canticles, 'King Solomon made himself a _chariot_ (marg. reading, + _bed_) of the wood of Lebanon. In the extremely beautiful treatise + of Hugo de S. Victore, _De Nuptiis Spiritualibus_(cap. iii), the + _fercula nuptialia_ appear to mean the _marriage feast_, which is to + perform its part in the general _Sensuum refectio_, by its sweet + savours; as the bed or chariot of Solomon is noted for the odour of + its cedar wood. However, the same writer devotes five Tituli of his + _Erudit. Theolog. Ex Miscellan._ namely, lix--lxii of the first + book, and cxxi of the second, to the consideration of this Ferculum + Solomonis: which he decides to be a _lectica sen vehiculum_, a + litter or sedan (such as is now used in Sicily under the name of + _lettiga_), differing from the _lectulus_ or _bed_ (Cant, i, 16), + inasmuch as this denotes the repose of the contemplative life, while + the ferculum typifies the laborious exercise of the active life; and + differing again from the _currus_ or chariot (the only other vehicle + mentioned in Holy Scripture), since the latter is drawn on the earth + with a grating noise, and represents a depraved heart clinging to + earthly things, but the former is borne smoothly and quietly above + the ground, an image of the righteous soul despising earthly and + seeking heavenly things. Lastly, the _ferculum_, or litter, typifies + the Church, from carrying, _a ferendo_, as doth the Church her + children unto Heavenly Rest.] + +{26} + +The chancel, that is, the head of the church, being lower [Footnote +168] than its body, signifieth how great humility there should be in +the clergy, or in prelates, according to that saying, 'And the more +thou art exalted, humble thyself in all things.' The rail, by which +the altar [Footnote 169] is divided from the choir, teacheth the +separation of things celestial from things terrestrial. + + [Footnote 168: The fact that in many unaltered and unmutilated + churches the chancel is lower than the nave, appears to have been + unnoticed by ecclesiologists. Wherever it occurs, William Dowsing, + or some of his puritanical coadjutors, have been supposed agents in + the matter. But there exist chancels, which, whether from the height + of the piscina and sedilia, or on other accounts, cannot have been + lowered, to which nevertheless there is a descent from the nave. + Such an one is that of S. Giles's at Cambridge: and the arrangement + is very common in the little churches of the south-west part of + Sussex.] + + [Footnote 169: This is another very remarkable passage: and one + which proves that the injunction of Abp. Laud for the erection of + altar rails was not a novelty. And though their abolition is much to + be wished, as well from the ugliness of all existing specimens, as + from the irreverence which they seem to pre-suppose, the Church in + England can scarcely be charged with the adoption of an innovation + in giving her sanction to them.] + +32. The seats in the choir admonish us that the body must sometimes be +refreshed: because that which hath not alternate rest wanteth +durability. + +33. The pulpit in the church is the life of the perfect: and is so +called from being public, or placed in a public place. For we read, +'Solomon made a brazen scaffold, and set it in the midst of the +temple, and stood upon it, and stretching forth his hands spake to the +people of God.' Esdras also made a wooden scaffold for speaking: in +which when he stood, he was higher than the rest of the people. +[Footnote 170] + + [Footnote 170: 3 Kings vi, 13.] + +34. The analogium (rood-loft) is so called because in it the Word of +God is read and delivered. Which also is called ambo, from _ambire_, +[Footnote 171] to surround, because it surroundeth him that entereth +in. + + [Footnote 171: This is, of course, a false derivation. The important + subject of Rood-lofts has been treated with admirable learning by + Father Thiers, in his treatise 'Sur les jubés,' to which the reader + is referred. See also Appendix C.] + + {27} + +35. The horologium, by means of which the hours are read, teacheth the +diligence that should be in priests to observe at the proper times the +canonical hours: as he saith, 'Seven times a day do I praise thee.' +[Footnote 172] + + [Footnote 172: Psalm (cxix), _Beati immaculati_, 164.] + +36. The tiles [Footnote 173] of the roof which keep off the rain are +the soldiers, who preserve the Church from paynim, and from enemies. + + [Footnote 173: This passage deserves to be noticed, as proving that + lead was not the only roofing employed in the Norman churches.] + +37. The circular staircases, which are imitated from Solomon's temple, +are passages which wind among the walls, and point out the hidden +knowledge which they only have who ascend to celestial things. +Concerning the steps, by which ascent is made to the altar, hereafter. + +38. The sacristy, or place where the holy vessels are deposited, or +where the priest putteth on his robes, is the womb of the Blessed +Mary, where Christ put on his robes of humanity. The priest, having +robed himself, cometh forth into the public view, because Christ, +having come from the womb of the Virgin, proceeded forth into the +world. + +The bishop's throne in the church is higher than the rest. + +39. Near to the altar, which signifieth Christ, is placed the piscina, +or lavacrum, that is, the pity of Christ, in which the priest washeth +his hands, thereby denoting that by baptism and penitence we are +purged from the filth of sin: which is drawn from the Old Testament. +For he saith in Exodus, 'And Moses made a laver of brass, with his +basin, in the which Aaron the priest and his sons should wash, before +they went up to the altar, that they might offer an offering. +[Footnote 174] + + [Footnote 174: Exodus xxxviii, 8.] + +{28} + +40. The lamp in the church is Christ: as He saith, 'I am the light of +the world'; [Footnote 175] and again, 'That was the true light.' +[Footnote 176] 'Or the light in a church may denote the apostles and +other doctors, by whose doctrine the Church is enlightened, as the sun +and moon: concerning whom saith the Lord, 'Ye are the light of the +world: [Footnote 177] that is, an example of good works. Wherefore +He saith to them in His admonitions, 'Let your light shine before +men.' [Footnote 178] But the Church is enlightened by the precepts +of the Lord; wherefore it saith in the before-quoted place, 'Speak +unto the sons of Aaron that they offer oil-olive most pure, that the +lamp may burn continually in the tabernacle of the testimony.' +[Footnote 179] Moses made also seven lights, which are the seven gifts +of the Holy Ghost: for they in the darkness of this world shine forth +with brightness: and they rest in candlesticks, because in Christ +rested 'the spirit of wisdom and knowledge, the spirit of counsel and +might, the spirit of learning and piety, the spirit of the fear of the +Lord, by which He preached wisdom to the captives.' [Footnote 180] +The number of lights showeth the number of graces in the faithful. + + [Footnote 175: S. John viii, 12.] + + [Footnote 176: S. John i, 6.] + + [Footnote 177: S. Matthew v, 14.] + + [Footnote 178: S. Matthew v, 16.] + + [Footnote 179: Lev. xxiv, 2.] + + [Footnote 180: Isaiah lxi, i.] + +41. In many places a triumphal cross is placed in the midst of the +church; to teach us, that from the midst of our hearts we must love +the Redeemer: who, after Solomon's pattern, 'paved the midst of his +litter (_ferculum_) with love for the daughters of Jerusalem:' +[Footnote 181] and that all, seeing the sign of victory, might +exclaim. Hail, thou Salvation of the whole world, Tree of our +Redemption: and that we should never forget the love of God, who, to +redeem His servants, gave His only son, that we might imitate Him +crucified. But the cross is exalted on high, to signify the victory of +Christ. Why a church is ornamented within and not without, shall be +said hereafter. + + [Footnote 181: Cantic. iii, 10.] + +{29} + +42. The cloisters, as Richard, Bishop of Cremona, testifieth, had +their rise either in the watchings of the Levites around the +tabernacle, or from the chambers of the priests, or from the porch of +Solomon's temple. 'For the Lord commanded Moses, that he should not +number the Levites with the rest of the children of Israel; but should +set them over the tabernacle of the testimony to carry it and to keep +it.' [Footnote 182] On account of which divine commandment, while +the Holy Mysteries are in celebration, the clergy should in the church +stand apart from the laity. Whence the Council of Mayence ordained +that the part which is separated with rails from the altar should be +appropriated altogether to the priests choral. Furthermore, as the +church signifieth the Church Triumphant, so the cloister signifieth +the celestial Paradise, where there will be one and the same heart in +fulfilling the commands of God and loving Him: where all things will +be possessed in common, because that of which one hath less, he will +rejoice to see more abounding in another, for 'God shall be all in +all.' [Footnote 183] Therefore the regular clergy who live in the +cloisters, and are of one mind, rising to the service of God and +leaving worldly things, lead their lives in common. The various +offices in the cloister signify the different mansions, and the +difference of rewards in the Kingdom: for 'In My Father's House are +many mansions,' [Footnote 184] saith our Lord. But in a moral sense +the cloister is the contemplative state, into which the soul betaking +itself, is separated from the crowd of carnal thoughts, and meditateth +on celestial things only. In this cloister there are four sides: +denoting, namely, contempt of self, contempt of the world, love of +God, love of our neighbour. Each side hath his own row of Columns. +Contempt of self hath humiliation of soul, mortification of the flesh, +humility of speech, and the like. The base of all the columns is +patience. + + [Footnote 182: Numbers i, 47; xviii, 6.] + + [Footnote 183: I Corinth, xv, 28.] + + [Footnote 184: S. John xv, 2.] + +{30} + +43. In this cloister the diversity of office-chambers is the diversity +of virtues. The chapter-house is the secret of the heart: concerning +this, however, we shall speak differently hereafter. The refectory is +the love of holy meditation. The cellar, Holy Scripture. The +dormitory, a clean conscience. The oratory, a spotless life. The +garden of trees and herbs, the collection of virtues. The well, the +dew of God's heavenly gifts; which in this world mitigateth our +thirst, and hereafter will quench it. + +44. The Episcopal throne, which according to the injunctions of Saint +Peter has been of old consecrated in each city (as shall be said +below), the piety of our forefathers dedicated, not in memory of +confessors, but to the honour of apostles and martyrs, and especially +of the Blessed Virgin Mary. + +45. But we therefore go to church, that we may there ask for the +pardon of our sins, and assist in the divine praises: as shall be said +in the proeme of the fifth book, and that there we may hear God's +proceedings [Footnote 185] with the good and the ill, and learn and +receive the knowledge of God, and that we may there feed on the Lord's +body. + + [Footnote 185: Such is probably the meaning of the passage. The + original is _ut iti bona sive mala judicia audiamus_.] + +46. In church, men and women sit apart: which, according to Bede, we +have received from the custom of the ancients: and thence it was that +Joseph and Mary lost the Child Jesus; since the one who did not behold +Him in his own company, thought Him to be with the other. . . . But +the men remain on the southern, the {31} women on the northern side: +[Footnote 186] to signify that the saints who be most advanced in +holiness should stand against the greater temptations of this world: +and they who be less advanced, against the less; or that the bolder +and the stronger sex should take their place in the position fittest +for action: because the Apostle saith, 'God is faithful, Who will not +suffer you to be tempted above that ye are able.' [Footnote 187] To +this also pertaineth the vision of S. John, who 'beheld a mighty angel +placing his right foot in the sea.' [Footnote 188] For the stronger +members are opposed to the greater dangers. But, according to others, +the men are to be in the fore part [_i.e._ eastward], the women +behind: because 'the husband is the head of the wife,' [Footnote +189] and therefore should go before her. + + [Footnote 186: This is the practice in some parts of England even to + this day: more especially in Somersetshire. Bp. Montague in his + 'Visitation Articles' (reprinted Camb. 1841) asks (p. 17), 'Do men + and women sit together in those seats indifferently and + promiscuously? or (as the fashion was of old), do men sit together + upon one side of the church, and women upon the other?' And, indeed, + of old there was a still further separation on each side, into the + married and unmarried. The restoration of the practice recommended + by Bp. Montague is much to be wished.] + + [Footnote 187: 1 Corinth, x, 13.] + + [Footnote 188: Apocalypse x, 7.] + + [Footnote 189: Eph. v, 23.] + +47. A woman must cover her head in the church, because she is not the +image of God, and because by woman sin began. And therefore in the +church, out of respect for the priest, who is the vicar of Christ, in +his presence, as before a judge, she hath her head covered, and not at +liberty: and on account of the same reverence she hath not the power +of speaking in the church before him. Of old time, men and women +wearing long hair stood in church with uncovered heads glorying in +their locks: which was a disgrace unto them. + +48. But what should be our conversation in church the Apostle +teacheth, saying, 'Speaking to yourselves in psalms and hymns and +spiritual songs.' [Footnote 190] Whence we must, when we be there, +abstain from superfluous words: {32} according to that saying of S. +Chrysostome, When thou goest into a king's palace, set in order thy +conversation and thy habit. For the angels of the Lord are there: and +the House of God is full of incorporeal virtues. [Footnote 191] And +the Lord saith to Moses, and so doth the angel to Joshua, 'Put off thy +shoes from off thy feet: for the place where thou standest is holy +ground.' [Footnote 192] + + [Footnote 190: Coloss. iii, 16.] + + [Footnote 191: The passage referred to is as follows:--' Regiam + quidem ingrediens, et habitu et aspectu et incessu et omnibus aliis + te ornas et componis: Hic autem vera est Regia et plane hic talia + qualia caelestia:--et rides? Atque scio quidem quod tu non vides. + Audi autem quod ubique adsunt angeli, et maxima in Domo Dei + adsistunt Regis, et omnia sunt impleta incorporeis illus + Potestatibus.] + + [Footnote 192: Exod. iii, 5. Josh, v, 15.] + +49. In the last place, a consecrated church defendeth murderers who +take sanctuary in it from losing life or limb, provided that they have +not offended in it, or against it. Whence it is written that 'Joab +fled to the tabernacle, and laid hold on the horns of the altar.' +[Footnote 193] The same privilege is possessed also by an +unconsecrated church, if the divine offices be therein celebrated. + + [Footnote 193: 2 Kings i, 28.] + +50. But the body of Christ received by such persons, doth not defend +them nor those who fly to it: partly because the privilege is granted +to a church as a church: and therefore not to be misbestowed on other +things: partly because that food is the support of the soul, and not +of the body: whence it freeth the soul and not the body. + +51. Churches are moved from one place to another on three accounts. +First, on account of the necessity arising from persecutors: secondly, +on account of the difficulty of access or habitation, such as the +unwholesomeness of air: thirdly, when they are oppressed with the +society of evil men: and then with the consent of the Pope or the +bishop. Wherefore he that entereth into a church fortifieth himself +with the sign of the cross, shall be said in the proeme of the fifth +book.' [Footnote 194] + + [Footnote 194: See Appendix.] + +{33} + +CHAPTER II + +OF THE ALTAR + +The First Builders of Altars--The Difference between Altare and +Ara--Various Significations of Various Kinds of Altars--The Ark of the +Testimony--It is preserved in the Lateran Church--What a Man needeth +that he may be the Temple of God--What the Table Signifieth--Of the +Candlestick--Of the Ark--Of the Altar--Of the Altar Cloths--Of Steps +to the Altar. + + +I. The altar hath a place in the church on three accounts, as shall be +said in speaking of its dedication. We are to know that Noe +[Footnote 195] first, then Isaac [Footnote 196] and Abraham [Footnote +197] and Jacob made, as we read, altars: which is only to be +understood of stones set upright, on which they offered and slew the +victims and burnt them with fire laid beneath them. Also Moses made an +altar [Footnote 198] of shittim wood: and the same was made as an +altar of incense, and covered with pure gold: as we read in the xxvth +chapter of Exodus, where also the form of the altar is described. From +these of the ancient fathers, the altars of the moderns have their +origin, being erected with four horns at the corners. Of which some +are of one stone, and some are put together of many. + + [Footnote 195: Gen. viii, 20.] + + [Footnote 196: Gen. xxvi, 25. xxxiii, 20.] + + [Footnote 197: Gen. xiii, 18.] + + [Footnote 198: Exodus xxvii, i.] + +2. And sometimes the words altare and ara are used in the same sense. +Yet is there a difference. For _altare_, derived from _alta res_, or +_alta ara_, is that on which {34} the priests burnt incense. But +_ara_, which is derived from _area_, or from _ardeo_, is that on which +sacrifices were burnt. [Footnote 199] + + [Footnote 199: The true ecclesiastical distinction between _altare_ + and _ara_ is that the former means the altar of the true God, and is + therefore alone used in the Vulgate, answering to the Greek [Greek + text], as opposed to ara ([Greek text]), an altar with an image + above it. See _Mede_. Folio 386. ] + +3. And note, that many kinds of altars are found in Scripture: as a +higher, a lower, an inner, an outer; of which each hath both a plain +and a symbolical signification. The higher altar is God the Trinity: +of which it is written, 'Thou shalt not go up by steps to my altar.' +[Footnote 200] And it also signifieth the Church Triumphant: of which +it is said, 'Then shall they offer bullocks upon mine altar.' +[Footnote 201] But the lower altar is the Church Militant, of which it +is said, 'If thou wilt make an altar of stone, thou shalt not make it +of hewn stone.' [Footnote 202] Also it is the table of the temple. +Of which he saith, 'Appoint a solemn day for your assembly even unto +the horns of the altar.' [Footnote 203] And in the Third of Kings, +it is said that Solomon made a golden altar. [Footnote 204 ] But the +interior altar is a clean heart, as shall be said below. It is also a +type of faith in the incarnation, of which in Exodus, 'An altar of +earth ye shall make Me.' [Footnote 205] And an interior altar is the +altar of the cross. This is the altar on which they offered the +evening sacrifice. Whence in the Canon of the Mass it is said, _Jube +hoc in sublime Altare Tuum perferri_. [Footnote 206] Moreover the +external altar representeth the sacraments of the Church: of which it +is said, 'Even thine altars, O Lord of hosts, my King, and my God.' +[Footnote 207] Again, the altar is our mortification in our heart, in +which carnal motions are consumed by the fervour of the Holy Spirit. + + [Footnote 200: Exodus XX, 26.] + + [Footnote 201: Psalm li (_Miserere mei_), 19.] + + [Footnote 202: Exodus XX, 25.] + + [Footnote 203: Psalm cxviii (_Confitemini_), 27.] + + [Footnote 204: III Kings vi. 22.] + + [Footnote 205: Exodus xx 26.] + + [Footnote 206: This prayer, which immediately precedes the + Commemoration of the Dead, runs thus: Supplices Te rogamus, + omnipotens Deus, jube hoc perferri per manus Sancti Angeli Tui, in + conspectu Divinae Majestatis Tuae: ut quotquot ex hac Altaris + participatione sacrosanctum Filii Tui Corpus et Sanguinem + sumpserimus, omni benedictione caelesti et gratia repleamur. Per.] + + [Footnote 207: Psalm lxxxiv (_Quam dilecta_), 4.] + +{35} + +4. Secondly, it also signifieth the Spiritual Church: and its four +horns teach how she hath been extended into the four quarters of the +world. Thirdly, it signifieth Christ, without whom no gift is offered +acceptable to the Father. Whence also the Church addresseth her +prayers to the Father through Christ alone. Fourthly, it signifieth +the body of Christ, as shall be explained in the fifth book. Fifthly, +it signifieth the table at which Christ did feast with His disciples. + +5. It is written in Exodus, that in the Ark of the Testament or of the +Testimony the witness was laid up: [Footnote 208] that is, the tables +on which the law was written: and it is said that the _Testimony_ was +there laid up, because it was a bearing witness that the law imprinted +on our hearts by nature God had reimprinted by writing. Also, there +was laid up the golden pot full of manna, for a testimony that He had +given the children of Israel bread from heaven. And the rod of Aaron, +for a testimony that all power is from God. And the second tables of +the law, in testimony of the covenant in which they had said, 'All +that the Lord hath spoken we will do.' [Footnote 209] And on these +accounts it is called the Ark of the Testimony or Testament; and also +the tabernacle of the testimony thence deriveth its title. But over +the ark was made a mercy seat: of which we shall speak in the proeme +of the fourth book. In imitation whereof some churches have over the +altar an ark or tabernacle, in which the body of the Lord and relics +are preserved. The Lord also commanded that a candlestick should be +made of beaten pure gold. It is written in the third book of Kings, +that in the Ark of the Covenant was nothing else than the two tables +of stone which Moses put therein in Horeb: when the Lord made a +covenant with the children of Israel in the day that they came out of +the land of Egypt. + + [Footnote 208: Exodus xxv, 16.] + + [Footnote 209: Exodus xix, 8.] + +{36} + +6. And note that in the time of S. Silvester, Pope, [Footnote 210] +Constantine the Emperor built the Lateran church, in which he placed +the Ark of the Testament, which the Emperor Titus had brought from +Jerusalem, and the golden candlestick with his seven branches. In +which ark are these things: the rings and the staves of gold: the +tables of the testimony: the rod of Aaron: manna: barley loaves: the +golden pot: the seamless garment: the reed: a garment of S. John +Baptist, and the scissors with which the hair of S. John the +Evangelist was shorn. + + [Footnote 210: It is very remarkable that no notice whatever is + taken of these relics by Ciampini in his very minute description of + the Lateran Basilica: although in his account both of this, and of + all the other Basilican churches built by Constantine, he copies + _verbatim_ the list of the donations of the Emperor which is given + in the life of Pope S. Sylvester, compiled by an unknown librarian + of the Vatican. It is clear that either Durandus was misinformed, or + that the present passage is corrupt. Again, it is not likely that + the vest of S. John Baptist, or the scissors of S. John Evangelist + would have been kept in the ark besides its proper contents. Yet + Durandus had obviously some facts to go upon, since the Lateran + Church, having been originally dedicated to the Saviour, was now + under the Invocation of the two SS. John; and the sufferings of both + these saints were depicted in a very ancient mosaic, those of the + Evangelist having over them the following inscription, which we give + as describing a Confession of this _Martyr in will_, now little + known. + + Martyrii calicem bibit hic Athleta Johannes + Principium Verbi cernere qui meruit. + Verberat hunc fuste Proconsul, _forfice tondet_, + Quem fervens oleum laedere non valuit. + Conditus hic oleum, dolium, cruor, atque capilli, + Quae consecrantur libera Roma tibi. + + To return, we may be satisfied that these Jewish memorials did not + exist, since Ciampini, while composing his account, consulted the + former writers upon the Lateran Basilica; viz. the poet Prudentius, + an unedited MS. of Panvinius, Severanus De Septem Urbis Ecclesiis, + and the work of Caesar Cardinal Rasponus.] + +7. Man, if he hath an altar, a table, a candlestick, and an ark, he is +the temple of God. He must have an altar, whereon rightly to offer and +rightly to distribute. The altar is our heart, on which we ought to +offer. {37} Whence the Lord commandeth in Exodus: 'Thou shalt offer +burnt offerings on mine altar.' [Footnote 211] Since from the heart +words, set on fire of charity, ought to proceed. _Holocaust_ is +derived from _holos, whole_, and _cauma, a burning:_ therein +signifying a thing wholly burnt. On this altar we must rightly offer, +and we must rightly divide. We offer rightly when we bring any good +thought to perfection. But we do not rightly divide if we do it not +discreetly. For a man often thinketh to do good, and doeth ill: and +sometimes with one hand he doeth good and with the other ill; and thus +himself buildeth, and himself knocketh down. But we then rightly +divide when the good which we do we attribute, not to ourselves, but +to God alone. + + [Footnote 211: Exodus ix, 2.] + +8. It behoveth also man to have a table, whence he may take the bread +of the Word of God. By the table we understand Holy Scripture, +concerning which the Psalm, 'Thou preparest a table before me in the +presence of mine enemies.' [Footnote 212] That is, Thou hast given me +Scripture against the temptations of the devil. This table then we +must have, that is, must lay up in our minds, that thence we may take +the Word of God. Of the deficiency of this bread saith Jeremiah: 'The +little ones sought bread, and there was none to break it unto them. +[Footnote 213] It behoveth man likewise to have a candlestick, that he +may shine with good works. + + [Footnote 212: Psalm xxiii (_Dominus regit me_), 5.] + + [Footnote 213: Jeremiah xvi, 7.] + +9. A candlestick that giveth light without is a good work, which by +its good example inflameth others. Of which it is said, 'No man +lighteth a candle and putteth it under a bushel, but in a +candlestick.' [Footnote 214] This candle, according to the Word of +the Lord, is a good intention: of which He saith Himself: 'Thine eye +is a light.' [Footnote 215] But the eye is the intention. {38} +Therefore we ought not to put the candle under a bushel, but in a +candlestick. Because, if we have a good intention, we ought not to +hide it: but to manifest our good deeds to others, for a light and an +example. + + [Footnote 214: S. Matthew v, 15.] + + [Footnote 215: S. Matthew vi, 22.] + +10. Man must also have an ark. Now _area_ is derived from _arcendo_: +discipline, therefore, and regular life may be called the ark; by +which crimes are driven away (_arcentur_) from us. Now in the ark were +the rod, the tables, and the manna: because in the regular life there +must be the rod of correction, that the flesh may be chastised; and +the table of love, that God may be loved. For in the tables of the law +were written the commands which pertain to the love of God. Therein +must also be the manna of divine sweetness: that we may 'taste and see +how gracious the Lord is: for it is good to have to do with Him.' +[Footnote 216] According to that proverb of the prudent woman, 'She +tasted and saw that it was good.' [Footnote 217] Therefore, that we +may be the temple of God, let us have in ourselves an altar of +oblation, lest we appear empty in His presence, according to that +saying, 'Thou shalt not appear empty before the presence of thy God': +[Footnote 218] let us have a table for refection lest we faint, +through hunger, in the way: as saith the Evangelist, 'If I send them +away empty, they will faint in the way,' [Footnote 219] a +candlestick by good works that we be not idle, as he saith in +Ecclesiasticus, 'Idleness hath taught much mischief,' [Footnote 220] +let us have an ark, that we be not as sons of Belial, that is, +undisciplined, and without the yoke: for discipline is necessary, as +the Psalmist teacheth, saying, 'Be instructed, lest He be angry.' +[Footnote 221] Concerning which, and other ornaments, we shall speak +in the following chapter. + + [Footnote 216: Psalm xxxiv (_Benedicam Dominum_), 8.] + + [Footnote 217: Prov. xxxi, 18. Marg. reading.] + + [Footnote 218: Exodus xxiii, 15.] + + [Footnote 219: S. Mark viii, 3.] + + [Footnote 220: Ecclesiasticus xxii, 2.] + + [Footnote 221: Psalm ii (_Quare fremuerunt_), 12.] + +{39} + +11. He buildeth this altar who adorneth his heart with true humility +and other virtues. Whence Gregory: He who gathereth together virtues +without humility, is as he who scattereth dust to the wind. For by the +altar he understandeth our heart, as it shall be said when we treat of +the dedication of the altar: it is in the middle of the body, as the +altar is in the middle of the church. [Footnote 222] + + [Footnote 222: Lev. vi, 9.] + +12. Concerning which altar the Lord commandeth in Leviticus: 'The fire +shall always be burning upon Mine altar.' [Footnote 223] The fire is +charity. The altar is a clean heart. The fire shall always burn on the +altar, because charity should always burn in our hearts. Whence +Solomon in the Canticles: 'Many waters cannot extinguish charity,' +[Footnote 224] for that which ever burneth cannot be extinguished. Do +thou, therefore, as the prophet commandeth, keep holy day and a solemn +assembly, even to the horns of the altar: because the rest of thy +thoughts will keep holy day. Concerning this the Apostle showeth 'unto +us a more excellent way.' [Footnote 225] He calleth charity a more +excellent way, because she is above all virtues: and whoever +possesseth her possesseth all virtues. This is the short word that the +Lord speaketh over the earth: which is so short that it only saith, +'Have charity, and do whatsoever thou wilt. For from these two +commandments hang all the law and the prophets.' [Footnote 226] + + [Footnote 223: Canticles viii, 7.] + + [Footnote 224: I Corinth xii, 31.] + + [Footnote 225: S. Matthew xxii, 40.] + + [Footnote 226: See Appendix I.] + +13. Or by the altar we understand the soul of every man, which is by +the Lord built up of various living stones, which are various and +different virtues. + +14. Furthermore, the white cloths wherewith the altar is covered +signify the flesh of the Saviour, that is, His humanity: because it +was made white with many toils, as also the flesh of Christ born of +earth, that is, of Mary, {40} which attained through many tribulations +to the glory of the Resurrection, and the purity and joy of +immortality. [Concerning which the Son exulteth, saying to the Father, +'Thou hast girded me with gladness, and exalted Me on every side.' +[Footnote 227] When, therefore, the altar is covered, it signifieth +the joining of the soul to an immortal and incorruptible body.] +[Footnote 228] Again, the altar is covered with white and clean +cloths, because the pure heart is adorned with good works. Whence the +Apocalypse: 'And put on white garments, that the shame of thy +nakedness do not appear.' [Footnote 229] And Solomon: 'Let thy +garments be always white,' [Footnote 230] that is, let thy works be +clean. [But it little profiteth him that approacheth to the altar to +have high dignity, and a life sunk low in sins. Whence Benedict: It is +a monstrous thing, exalted faith, and abandoned life. The highest step +and the lowest state, is mighty authority joined with instability of +soul. [Footnote 231]] The silken coverings placed over the altar are +the ornaments of divers virtues wherewith the soul is adorned. The +hanging wherewith the altar is beautified setteth forth the saints, as +below shall be said. [The beginning and the end of the Mass take place +at the right side of the altar: the middle portion at the left: as +shall be said when we treat of the changes of the priest. The ancients +made their altars concave; as it is written in Ezekiel, that in the +altar of God was a trench. And this, according to Gregory, lest the +wind should scatter the sacrifices laid upon it. Also he saith in +Ezekiel that the inner part of the altar was bent downwards in all its +circumference. [Footnote 232] + + [Footnote 227: Psalm lxxi (_Juste, Domine_), 21. ] + + [Footnote 228: This passage does not appear in the edition of + Durandus published at Venice, in 1609.] + + [Footnote 229: Apocalypse iii, 18.] + + [Footnote 230: Ecclesiastes ix, 8.] + + [Footnote 231: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.] + + [Footnote 232: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.] + +{41} + +15. But the steps to the altar [spiritually set forth the apostles and +martyrs of Christ, who for His love poured out their blood. The bride +in the Canticles of Love calleth it a purple ascent. Also, the fifteen +virtues are set forth by them: which were also typified by the fifteen +steps by which they went up to the temple of Solomon:] [Footnote +233] and by the prophet in fifteen Psalms of degrees, therein setting +forth that he is blest who maketh ascents in his heart. This was the +ladder that Jacob beheld: 'And his top reached to the heavens.' By +these steps the ascent of virtues is sufficiently made manifest, by +which we go up to the altar, that is, to Christ: according to that +saying of the Psalmist, 'They go from virtue to virtue.' [Footnote +234] And Job, 'I will seek him through all my steps.' Yet it is said +in Exodus, 'Neither shalt thou go up by steps to my altar, that thy +nakedness be not discovered thereon.' [Footnote 235] For perhaps the +ancients did not as yet use trousers. In the Council of Toledo, it is +decreed that the priest, who for the sake of grief at the misfortune +of another, strippeth the altar or any image of its garments, [or +girdeth himself with a mourning vest, or with thorns, [Footnote 236]] +or extinguisheth the lights of the church, shall be deposed. But if +his church be undeservedly spoiled, he is allowed to do this for +grief: or, according to some, he may on the day of the Passion of our +Lord make bare the altars as a sign of grief. Which is, however, +reprobated by the Council of Lyons. Lastly, altars which have been +built at the instigation of dreams, or the empty revelations of men, +are altogether reprobated. + + [Footnote 233: This passage also is not found in the Venetian + edition.] + + [Footnote 234: Psalm lxxxiv (_Quam dilecta_), 7] + + [Footnote 235: Exodus xx, 26.] + + [Footnote 236: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.] + + +{42} + + +CHAPTER III + +OF PICTURES, AND IMAGES, AND CURTAINS, +AND THE ORNAMENTS OF CHURCHES + +Use of Pictures and Curtains--Objections against the Use, answered-- +Place of Pictures--The Saviour, how Represented--The Angels--The +Evangelists--The Apostles--The Patriarchs--S. John Baptist-- +Martyrs--Confessors--Institution of Pictures--Of Crowns--Of +Paradise--Of the General Ornament of Churches--Of Pyxes--Of +Relicaries--Of Candlesticks--Of Cups--Of the Cross--Of Altar Cloths +and Veils--The Treasures of the Church, when Displayed, and why--Of +Ostrich Eggs--Of Vessels for the Holy Mysteries--Of Chalices--General +Observations on the Respect due to Church Ornaments. + + +1. Pictures and ornaments in churches are the lessons and the +Scriptures of the laity. Whence Gregory: It is one thing to adore a +picture, and another by means of a picture historically to learn what +should be adored. For what writing supplieth to him which can read, +that doth a picture supply to him which is unlearned, and can only +look. Because they who are uninstructed thus see what they ought to +follow: and _things_ are read, though letters be unknown. True is it +that the Chaldeans, which worship fire, compel others to do the same, +and burn other idols. But Paynim adore images, as icons, and idols; +which Saracens do not, who neither will possess nor look on images, +grounding themselves on that saying, 'Thou shalt not make to thyself +any graven image, nor the likeness of anything that is in heaven +above, nor in the earth beneath, nor in the waters {43} under the +earth,' [Footnote 237] and on other the like authorities: these they +follow incontinently, casting the same in our teeth. But we worship +not images, nor account them to be gods, nor put any hope of salvation +in them: for that were idolatry. Yet we adore them for the memory and +remembrance of things done long agone. [Footnote 238 ] Whence the +verse, [Footnote 239] + + What time thou passest by the rood, bow humbly evermore; + Yet not the rood, but Him which there was crucified, adore. + +And again: [Footnote 240] + + That thing, which hath his being given, 'tis fond for God to own: + A form material, carved out by cunning hands, in stone. + +And again: [Footnote 241] + + The form is neither God nor man, which here thou dost behold: + He very God and Man, of whom thou by that form art told. + + [Footnote 237: Exodus xx, 4.] + + [Footnote 238: _Veneramur_.--We here use the word _adore_ in the + sense given to it by the great and good Bishop Montague, in his + 'Just Treatise of Invocation': where he says, speaking of the + Saints, 'I do admire, reverence, _adore_ them in their kind.'] + + [Footnote 239: + Effigiem Christi, quum transis, pronus honora: + Non tamen effigiem, sed quem designat, adora.] + + [Footnote 240: + Esse Deum, ratione caret, cui consulit esse: + Materiale lapis, effigale manus.] + + [Footnote 241: + Nec Deus est, nec homo, quam praesens cernis imago; + Sed Deus est et Homo, quem sacra figurat imago. + + The later editions add-- + Nam Deus est, quod imago docet, sed non Deus ipse; + Hunc videas, sed mente colas, quod noscis in ipsa.] + +2. The Greeks, moreover, employ painted representations, painting, it +is said, only from the navel upwards, that all occasion of vain +thoughts may be removed. But they make no carved image, as it is +written, 'Thou shalt not make a graven image.' [Footnote 242] And +again: 'Thou shalt not make an idol, nor a graven image.' [Footnote +243] And again, 'Lest ye be deceived, and make a graven image.' +[Footnote 244] And again: 'Ye shall not make unto you gods of silver: +[Footnote 245] {44} neither shall ye make with Me gods of gold.' So +also the Prophet, 'Their idols are silver and gold, the work of man's +hand. They that make them are like unto them: and so are all they that +put their trust in them.' [Footnote 246] And again: 'Confounded be +all they that worship graven images: and that put their glory in their +idols.' [Footnote 247] + + [Footnote 242: Deut. v, 8.] + + [Footnote 243: Lev. xxvi. 1.] + + [Footnote 244: Deut. iv, 16.] + + [Footnote 245: Exodus xx, 20.] + + [Footnote 246: Psalm cxv, 4.] + + [Footnote 247: Psalm xcvii, 7.] + +3. Also, Moses saith to the children of Israel, 'Lest perchance thou +shouldest be deceived, and shouldest worship that which the Lord thy +God hath created.' [Footnote 248] Hence also was it that Hezekiah +King of Judah brake in pieces the brazen serpent which Moses set up: +because the people, contrary to the precepts of the law, burnt incense +to it. + + [Footnote 248: Deut. iv, 19.] + +4. From these forementioned and other authorities, the excessive use +of images is forbidden. The Apostle saith also to the Corinthians, 'We +know that an idol is nothing in the world: and there is no god but +One.' [Footnote 249] For they who are simple and infirm may easily +by an excessive and indiscreet use of images, be perverted to +idolatry. Whence he saith in Wisdom, 'There shall be no respect of the +idols of the nations, which have made the creatures of God hateful, +and temptations for the souls of men, and snares for the feet of the +unwise.' [Footnote 250] [Footnote 251] But blame there is none in a +moderate use of pictures, to teach how ill is to be avoided, and good +followed. + + [Footnote 249: I Corinth, viii, 4.] + + [Footnote 250: Wisdom xiv, 11.] + + [Footnote 251: A more solemn protest against the sin of idolatry can + hardly be found than the above passage: and they who brand every + return to, and every wish for the restoration of, Catholic + practices, by so hateful a name, would do well to bear it in mind.] + +{45} + +Whence saith the Lord to Ezekiel, 'Go in, and behold the abominations +which these men do. And he went in, and saw the likeness of reptiles +and beasts, and the abominations, and all the idols of the house of +Israel portrayed on the wall.' [Footnote 252] Whence saith Pope +Gregory in his Pastorale, When the forms of external objects are drawn +into the heart, they are as it were painted there, because the +thoughts of them are their images. Again, He saith to the same +Ezekiel, 'Take a tile, and lay it before thee, and describe in it the +city Jerusalem.' [Footnote 253] But that which is said above, that +pictures are the letters of the laity explaineth that saying in the +Gospel, 'He saith. They have Moses and the prophets: let them hear +them.' [Footnote 254] Of this, more hereafter. The Agathensian +[Footnote 255] Council forbids pictures in churches: and also that +that which is worshipped and adored should be painted on the walls. +But Gregory saith, that pictures are not to be put away because they +are not to be worshipped: for paintings appear to move the mind more +than descriptions; for deeds are placed before the eyes in paintings, +and so appear to be actually carrying on. But in description, the deed +is done as it were by hearsay: which affecteth the mind less when +recalled to memory. Hence, also, is it that in churches we pay less +reverence to books than to images and pictures. + + [Footnote 252: Ezekiel viii, 10.] + + [Footnote 253: Ezekiel iv, 1.] + + [Footnote 254: S. Luke xvi, 29.] + + [Footnote 255: A.D. 605] + +5. Of pictures and images some are above the church, as the cock and +the eagle: some without the church, namely, in the air in front of the +church, as the ox and the cow: others within, as images, and statues, +and various kinds of painting and sculpture: and these be represented +either in garments, or on walls, or in stained glass. Concerning some +of which we have spoken in treating of the church: and how they are +taken from the tabernacle of Moses and the temple of Solomon. For +Moses made carved work, and Solomon made carved work, and pictures, +and adorned the walls with paintings and frescoes. + +{46} + +6. The image of the Saviour is more commonly represented in churches +three ways: as sitting on [Footnote 256] His throne, or hanging on +His cross, or lying on the bosom of His Mother. + + [Footnote 256: Durandus had doubtless in his mind the ancient mosaic + over the apsides of the earliest churches in Rome. The extremely + beautiful one in San Clemente represents our Lord as crucified. The + frescoes with which the walls of our own churches were anciently + adorned, seem usually to have represented the Saviour as seated on + the Throne of His Majesty. In the chancel of Widford, Herts, is, or + was till lately, a fresco of the Saviour seated on a rainbow, a + sword proceeding from His mouth, His feet and His hands pierced. In + Alfriston, Sussex, there was, we believe, before it was whitewashed + over by Bishop Buckner's order, a painting of a similar kind. There + is a singular, and, we believe, undescribed painting over the altar + in Llandanwg church, Merion. The Saviour is seated in judgment, as + before: at His side is His Blessed Mother in a kneeling posture: + around Him are angels blowing trumpets, and S. Peter in + eucharistical vestments. There is a representation of the souls + under the altar. Below are devils torturing souls in cauldrons of + brimstone. The evangelistic symbols are also represented. + + In a fresco at Beverstone, Gloucestershire, our Saviour is + represented on the Cross, with blood flowing from His side into a + chalice. (See App. I.) There are remains also of a crucifixion in + fresco, in the exquisite, but desecrated chapel of Prior Crauden, in + the Deanery, Ely. On the Iconostasis of the Greco-Russian Church, + all the three positions are to be found. + + In stained glass, the Crucifixion generally supplies the place of + any other representation of the Saviour. Brasses occasionally, as a + very curious one in Cobham, Surrey, represent His nativity or + epiphany: but most commonly the Crucifixion, or a Trinity. + + There can be no doubt, that many of the most graphic pictures in our + old poets owed their origin to the then undestroyed fresco paintings + of churches. Some painting, like that above described, of hell, very + probably suggested the noble lines of Spenser (i. ix. 50. 6): + + He showed him painted in a table plaine. + The damned ghosts that doe in torments waile. + And thousand feends that doe them endless paine + With fire and brimstone, which for ever shall remaine. + + Who can estimate the effect of such pictorial representations on the + minds of our ancestors? or the good which might be the result, if + our churches were again frescoed with similar subjects, wrought with + the genius and Catholic feeling of an Overbeck or Cornelius?] + [End footnote] + +And because John Baptist pointed to Him, saying, 'Behold the Lamb of +God,' [Footnote 257] therefore some represented Christ under the form +of a lamb. + + [Footnote 257: S. John i, 29.] + + +{47} + +But because the light passeth away, and because Christ is very man, +therefore, saith Adrian, Pope, He must be represented in the form of a +man. A holy lamb must not be depicted on the cross, as a principal +object: but there is no let when Christ hath been represented as a +man, to paint a lamb in a lower or less prominent part of the picture: +since He is the true Lamb which 'taketh away the sins of the world.' +In these and divers other manners is the image of the Saviour painted, +on account of diversity of significations. + +7. Represented in the cradle, the artist commemorateth His nativity: +on the bosom of His Mother, His childhood: the painting or carving His +cross signifieth His Passion (and sometimes the sun and moon are +represented on the cross itself, as suffering an eclipse): when +depicted on a flight of steps, His ascension is signified: when on a +state or lofty throne, we be taught His present power: as if He said, +'All things are given to Me in heaven and in earth:' [Footnote 258] +according to that saying, 'I saw the Lord sitting upon His throne:' +[Footnote 259] that is, reigning over the angels: as the text, 'Which +sitteth upon the cherubim.' [Footnote 260] Sometimes He is +represented as He was seen of Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, on the +mountain: when 'under His feet was as it were a paved work of sapphire +stones, and as the body of heaven in His clearness:' [Footnote 261] +and as 'they shall see,' as saith S. Luke, 'the Son of Man coming in +the clouds with power and great glory. [Footnote 262] Wherefore +sometimes He is represented surrounded by the seven angels that serve +Him, and stand by His throne, each being portrayed with six wings, +according to the vision of Isaiah, 'And by it stood the seraphim: each +one had six wings: with twain he covered his face, and with twain he +covered his feet, and with twain he did fly.' [Footnote 263] + + [Footnote 258: S. Matt, xxviii, 18.] + + [Footnote 259: Isaiah vi, 1.] + + [Footnote 260: Psalm lxxx, 1.] + + [Footnote 261: Exodus xxiv, 10.] + + [Footnote 262: S. Matthew xxiv, 30.] + + [Footnote 263: Isaiah vi, 2.] + +{48} + +8. The angels are also represented as in the flower of youthful age: +for they never grow old. [Footnote 264] Sometimes S. Michael is +represented trampling the dragon, according to that of John, 'There +was war in heaven: Michael fought with the dragon.' Which was to +represent the dissensions of the angels: the confirmation of them that +were good, and the ruin of them that were bad: or the persecution of +the faithful in the Church Militant. Sometimes the twenty-four elders +are painted around the Saviour, according to the vision of the said +John, with 'white garments, and they have on their heads crowns of +gold.' [Footnote 265]By which are signified the doctors of the Old +and New Testament; which are twelve, on account of faith in the Holy +Trinity preached through the _four_ quarters of the world: or +twenty-four, on account of good works, and the keeping of the gospels. +[Footnote 266] If the seven lamps be added, the gifts of the Holy +Spirit are represented: if the sea of glass, baptism. [Footnote 267] + + [Footnote 264: Many of our readers will call to mind the peculiar + expression always given to the countenances of angels in Catholic + illuminations or paintings, a conventional propriety uniformly + neglected by modern artists. The same character was beautifully + given in the relieved figures of angels upon the shrine of S. Henry + lately exhibiting in London.] + + [Footnote 265: Apocalypse xii, 7.] + + [Footnote 266: Apocalypse iv, 4.] + + [Footnote 267: This very obscure passage is an instance of the + symbolism in the combination of numbers. It seems to mean that faith + in the Holy Trinity preached through the four quarters of the world, + may be represented by three multiplied into four or twelve: and + again, this symbolical fact multiplied by general good works and + keeping of the Gospels, may be set forth in twenty-four. It is to be + remarked that the princeps edition alone gives _Evangeliorum_: the + later have _Evangelistarum_, which with _observantia_ is scarcely + intelligible. Compare S. August, Expos. in Psalm lxxxvi. Non solum + ergo illi duodecim (sc. Apostoli) et Apostolus Paulus, sed quotquot + judicaturi sunt, propter significationem universitatis ad sedes + duodenas pertinent . . . partes enim mundi quatuor sunt, Oriens, + Occidens, Aquilo, et Meridies. Istae quatuor partes assidue + inveniuntur in Scripturis. Ab istis quatuor ventus, sicut dixit + Dominus in Evangelio vocatur Ecclesia. Quomodo vocatur? Undique in + Trinitate vocatur. Quatuor ergo ter ducta duodecim inveniuntur. See + also S. Isidore, Alleg. in S. S. folio 353, C. D.] + +9. Sometimes also representation is made of the four living creatures +spoken of in the visions of Ezekiel and the aforesaid John: the face +of a man and the face of a {49} lion on the right,--the face of an ox +on the left, and the face of an eagle above the four. These be the +Four Evangelists. Whence they be painted with books by their feet, +because by their words and writings they have instructed the minds of +the faithful, and accomplished their own works. Matthew hath the +figure of a man, Mark of a lion. These be painted on the right hand: +because the nativity and the resurrection of Christ were the general +joy of all: whence in the Psalms: 'And gladness at the morning.' +[Footnote 268] But Luke is the ox: because he beginneth from Zachary +the priest, and treateth more specially of the Passion and Sacrifice +of Christ: now the ox is an animal fitted for sacrifice. He is also +compared to the ox, because of the two horns,--as containing the two +testaments; and the four hoofs, as having the sentences of the four +Evangelists. [Footnote 269]By this also Christ is figured, who was +the sacrifice for us: and therefore the ox is painted on the left +side, because the death of Christ was the trouble of the apostles. +Concerning this, and how blessed Mark [Footnote 270] is depicted, in +the seventh part. But John hath the figure of the eagle: because, +soaring to the utmost height, he saith, 'In the beginning was the +word.' [Footnote 271] + + [Footnote 268: Psalm xxx (_Exaltabo Te_), 5. These symbols, however, + were not at first definitely settled, and as we are informed by S. + Austin, the lion was sometimes given to S. Matthew and the angel and + or man, to S. Mark. The reasons of the appropriation of the various + symbols are beautifully expressed in a hymn quoted in the Camden's + Society's 'Illustrations of Monumental Brasses,' Part I, p. 30.] + + [Footnote 269: This passage is very obscure. Durandus's words are, + _quasi quatuor evangelistorum sententias_. We cannot but think that + the two sentences have been misplaced. The sense is then plain. + Christ is also signified by the ox--as containing in Himself the Law + and the Gospel--and accomplishing that which is written of Him by + the four Evangelists, e.g. His promises of the descent of the Holy + Ghost, of being always with His Church, etc. S. Peter Chrysologus, + Sermo v. de Christo, Hic est _Vitulus_, qui in Epulam nostram + quotidie, et jugiter immolatur.] + + [Footnote 270: S. Mark is painted with a contracted brow, a large + nose, fair eyes, bald, a long beard, fair complexion, of middle age, + with a few grey hairs. Durand. vii, 44, 4.] + + [Footnote 271: S. John i, 1.] + +{50} + +This also representeth Christ, 'Whose youth is renewed like the +eagle's': [Footnote 272] because, rising from the dead, He ascendeth +into heaven. Here, however, it is not portrayed as by the side, but as +above, since it denoteth the ascension, and the word pronounced of +God. But how, since each of the living creatures hath four faces and +four wings, they can be depicted, shall be said hereafter. [Footnote +273] + + [Footnote 272: Psalm ciii (_Benedic, anima mea_), 5.] + + [Footnote 273: Durandus, book vii, 44, 'S. Matthew is signified by a + man, because his Gospel is principally occupied concerning the + humanity of Christ: whence his history beginneth from his human + pedigree. S. Mark by a lion, which roareth in the desert: for he + chiefly describeth the Resurrection: whence his Gospel is read on + Easter day. But the lion is said to rouse his whelps on the third + day after their birth. His Gospel beginneth, 'The voice of one + crying in the wilderness.' S. Luke by the ox, an animal fit for + sacrifice: because he dwelleth on the Passion of Christ. S. John by + the eagle, because he soareth to the Divinity of Christ, while the + others walk with their Lord on earth. The Evangelists be likewise + set forth by the four rivers of Paradise: John by Pison; Matthew by + Gihon; Luke by Euphrates; Mark by Tigris:--as is clearly proved by + Innocent III, in a certain sermon on the Evangelists.'--We may add, + that the finest representation of the evangelistic symbols with + which we are acquainted in this country', occurs in the chancel of + Oxted church, Surrey.] + +10. Sometimes there are painted around, or rather beneath, the +Apostles; who were His witnesses by deed and word to the ends of the +earth: and they are portrayed with long hair, as Nazarenes, that is, +holy persons. For the law of the Nazarenes was this: from the time of +their separation from the ordinary life of man, no razor passed upon +their heads. They are also sometimes painted under the form of twelve +sheep: because they were slain like sheep for the Lord's sake: and +sometimes the twelve tribes of Israel are so represented. When, +however, more or less sheep than twelve are painted, then another +thing is signified, according to that saying of Matthew, 'When the Son +of Man shall come in His glory--then shall He sit on the throne of His +glory: and before Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall +separate them one from the other, as a {51} shepherd divideth the +sheep from the goats.' [Footnote 274] How the Apostles Bartholomew +and Andrew are to be painted, shall be said hereafter. [Footnote 275] + + [Footnote 274: S. Matthew xxv, 1.] + + [Footnote 275: S. Bartholomew is represented with black and + grizzled hair, fair complexion, large eyes, straight nose, long + beard, few grey hairs, moderate height, with a high white neck, + clothed in purple, with a white pall, having purple gems at each + angle. Durand. vii, 25, 2. + + S. Andrew had a dark complexion, long beard, moderate height. This + is therefore said, that ye may know how he ought to be painted: + which should be known of the other apostles and saints. Durand. vii, + 38, i.] + +11. And note that the patriarchs and prophets are painted with wheels +in their hands. Some of the apostles with books and some with wheels: +namely, because before the advent of Christ the faith was set forth +under figures, and many things were not yet made clear; to represent +this, the patriarchs and prophets are painted with wheels, to signify +that imperfect knowledge. But because the apostles were perfectly +taught of Christ, therefore the books, which are the emblems of this +perfect knowledge, are open. But because some of them reduced their +knowledge in writing, to the instruction of others, therefore +fittingly they are represented with books in their hands like doctors. +So Paul, and the Evangelists, Peter, James, and Jude. But others, who +wrote nothing which has lasted, or been received into the canon by the +Church, are not portrayed with books but with wheels, as a type of +their preaching. Whence the Apostle to the Ephesians, 'And he gave +some apostles, and some prophets, and some evangelists, and some +pastors and teachers for the work of the ministry.' [Footnote 276] + + [Footnote 276: Ephes. iv, 11.] + +12. But the Divine Majesty is also portrayed with a closed book in the +hands: 'which no man was found worthy to open but the Lion of the +tribe of Juda.' [Footnote 277] And sometimes with an open book: that +in it every one may read that 'He is the Light of the world': +[Footnote 278] and the Way, the Truth, and the Life': [Footnote 279] +and the Book of Life [is also portrayed]. But why Paul is represented +at the right, and Peter at the left of the Saviour, we shall show +hereafter. + + [Footnote 277: Apocalypse v, 2.] + + [Footnote 278: S. John viii, 12.] + + [Footnote 279: S. John xiv, 6.] + +{52} + +13. John Baptist is painted as a hermit. + +14. Martyrs with the instruments of their torture: as S. Laurence with +the gridiron: S. Stephen with stones: and sometimes with palms, which +signify victory, according to that saying, 'The righteous shall +flourish like a palm-tree: [Footnote 280] as a palm-tree [Footnote +281] flourishes, so his memory is preserved. Hence is it that palmers, +they who come from Jerusalem, bear palms in their hands in token that +they have been the soldiers of that King Who was gloriously received +in the earthly Jerusalem with palms: and Who afterwards, having in the +same city subdued the devil in battle, entered the palace of heaven in +triumph with His angels, where the just shall flourish like a +palm-tree, and shall shine like stars. + + [Footnote 280: Psalm xcii, 12.] + + [Footnote 281: This explanation differs from that usually received: + namely, that the righteous flourishes best in adversity: as the + palm-tree grows fasteth when loaded with weights.] + +15. Confessors are painted with their insignia, as bishops with their +mitres, abbots with their hoods: and some with lilies, [Footnote 282] +which denote chastity. Doctors with books in their hands: virgins, +according to the Gospel, [Footnote 283] with lamps. + + [Footnote 282: So in the beautiful hymn at Lauds in the + commemoration of a virgin martyr, of the Parisian Breviary: + + Liliis Sponsus recubat, rosisque; + Tu, tuo semper bene fida Sponso + Et rosas Martyr, simul et dedisti + _Lilia Virgo_.] + + [Footnote 283: S. Matthew xxv, 1.] + +16. Paul with a book and a sword: with a book, as a doctor, or with +reference to his conversion: with a sword as [Footnote 284] a soldier. +Whence the verse: + + The sword denotes the ire of Saul, + The book, the power converting Paul. + + [Footnote 284: This is undoubtedly a mistake: the sword represents + in this case, as in others, the instrument of martyrdom.] + +{53} + +17. Generally the effigies of the holy fathers are portrayed on the +walls of the church, or on the back panels of the altar, or on +vestments, or in other various places, so that we may meditate +perpetually, not indiscreetly or uselessly, on their holiness. Whence +in Exodus it is commanded by the divine law, that in the breast of +Aaron, the breastplate of judgment should be bound [Footnote 285] +with strings: because fleeting thoughts should not occupy the mind of +a priest, which should be girt by reason alone. In this breastplate +also, according to Gregory, the names of the twelve patriarchs are +commanded to be carefully inscribed. + + [Footnote 285: Exodus xxviii, 22.] + +18. To bear the fathers thus imprinted on the breast, is to meditate +on the lives of ancient saints without intermission. But then doth the +priest walk blamelessly when he gazeth continually on the example of +the fathers which have gone before, when he considereth without +ceasing the footsteps of the saints, and represseth unholy thoughts, +lest he wander beyond the limits of right reason. + +19. It is to be noted that the Saviour is always represented as +crowned, as if he said, 'Come forth, children of Jerusalem, and behold +King Solomon in the diadem with which his mother crowned him.' +[Footnote 286] But Christ was triply crowned. First by His Mother on +the day of His conception, with crown of pity: which was a double +crown: on account of what He had by nature, and what was given Him: +therefore also it is called a diadem, which is a double crown. +Secondly, by His step-mother in the day of His Passion, with the crown +of misery. Thirdly, by His Father in the day of His Resurrection, with +the crown of glory: whence it is written, 'O Lord, {54} Thou hast +crowned Him with glory and honour.' [Footnote 287] Lastly, He shall be +crowned by His whole family, in the last day of Revelation, with the +crown of power. For He shall come with the judges of the earth to +judge the world in righteousness. So also all saints are portrayed as +crowned, as if they said: Ye children of Jerusalem, behold the martyrs +with the golden crowns wherewith the Lord hath crowned them. And in +the book of Wisdom: 'The just shall receive a kingdom of glory, and a +beautiful diadem from the hand of their God.' [Footnote 288] + + [Footnote 286: Canticles iii, 11.] + + [Footnote 287: Psalm viii (_Domine Dominus_), 5.] + + [Footnote 288: Wisdom v, 16.] + +20. But their crown is made in the fashion of a round shield: because +the saints enjoy the divine protection. Whence they sing with joy: +'Lord, Thou hast crowned us with the shield of Thy favour.' [Footnote +289] But the crown of Christ is represented under the figure of a +cross: [Footnote 290] and is thereby distinguished from that of the +saints: because by the banner of His cross He gained for Himself the +glorification of His humanity, and for us freedom from our captivity, +and the enjoyment of everlasting life. But when any living [Footnote +291]prelate or saint is portrayed, the glory is not fashioned in the +shape of a shield, but four-square: that he may be shown to flourish +in the four cardinal virtues: as it is contained in [Footnote 292] +the legend of blessed Gregory. + + [Footnote 289: Psalm v (_Verba mea_), 12.] + + [Footnote 290: See Appendix I.] + + [Footnote 291: This does not appear to have prevailed in England. + The nearest contemporary effigy of a saint which we have observed in + stained glass, is that of S. Thomas, of Hereford, in the church of + Cothelstone, Somersetshire. Here the glory is, as usual, of the + circular form. As also in the fresco of the martyrdom of S. Thomas + of Canterbury, in Preston church. Sussex, which is nearly + contemporary. (See Appendix 1.)] + + [Footnote 292: This refers to the account given by Paulus Diaconus + of the visible effulgence which surrounded the head of this great + doctor when he was dictating his works.] + +{55} + +21. Again, sometimes Paradise is painted in churches, that it may +attract the beholders to a following after its rewards: sometimes +hell, that it may terrify them by the fear of punishment.' [Footnote +293] Sometimes flowers [Footnote 294] are portrayed, and trees: to +represent the fruits of good works springing from the roots of +virtues. + + [Footnote 293: A monk named Constantine set before the prince those + judgments of God which are in all the world, and the retribution of + the life to come: his discourse powerfully affected the heathen + monarch (Vladimir, afterwards S. Vladimir); and this was + particularly the case when the monk pointed out to him on an icon, + which represented the Last Judgment, the different lot of the good + and the wicked. "Good to those on the right hand--woe to those on + the left," exclaimed Vladimir, deeply affected.'--Mouravieff's + 'Hist, of the Russian Church,' p. 11, On which his translator, the + Rev. R. W. Blackmore, sensibly remarks, 'Whatever may be the right + view of the abstract question respecting icons, and the showing + outward respect to them, the Russians at least cannot reasonably be + blamed for revering a usage which was made the means, in part at + least, of so blessed a result as the conversion of the great Prince + Vladimir, the Constantine of their church and nation.'] + + [Footnote 294: This flower work is excessively common in Norman + churches: that of S. Sepulchre's, at Cambridge, was a notable + example of it. ] + +22. Now the variety of pictures denoteth the diversity of virtues. For +'to one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom: to another the word +of knowledge,' etc. [Footnote 295] But virtues are represented under +the forms of women: because they soothe and nourish. Again, by the +ceilings or vaultings, which are for the beauty of the house, the more +unlearned servants of Christ are set forth, who adorn the Church, not +by their learning, but by their virtues alone. + + [Footnote 295: I Corinth, xii, 8. ] + +The carved images which project from the walls, appear as it were to +be coming out of it: because when by reiterated custom virtues so +pertain to the faithful, that they seem naturally implanted in them, +they are exercised in all their various operations. How a synagogue is +depicted, shall be said hereafter: as also how the pall of the Roman +Pontiff: and the year [Footnote 296]and the zodiacal signs and its +months. But the diverse histories of the Old and New Testaments may +be represented after the fancy of the painter. For + + Pictoribus atque poetis + Quod libet [Footnote 297] addendi semper fuit seque potestas. + + [Footnote 296: These are often to be found round Norman doors: as in + that of S. Laurence, at York, and Egleton, Rutland.] + + [Footnote 297: A false reading, of course; yet not without its + appropriate sense--the power of _adding_ any ornamental circumstance + to the main subject.] + +{56} + +23. Furthermore, the ornaments of the church consist of three +things:--the ornaments of the nave, [Footnote 298]the choir, and the +altar. The ornaments of the nave consist in dorsals, tapestry, +mattings, and cushions of silk, purple, and the like. The ornaments of +the choir consist in dorsals, tapestry, carpets, and cushions. Dorsals +are hangings of cloth at the back of the clergy. Mattings, for their +feet. Tapestry is likewise strewed under the feet, particularly under +the feet of bishops, who ought to trample worldly things under their +feet. Cushions are placed on the seats or benches of the choir. + + [Footnote 298: _Ecclesiae:_ here undoubtedly the nave: as often + _church_ is so used in our prayer-book.] + +24. But the ornament of the altar consists in portfolios, altar +cloths, relicaries, candlesticks, crosses, an orfray, banners, +missals, coverings, and curtains. + +25. And notice, that the portfolio in which the consecrated host is +kept, signifieth the frame of the blessed Virgin, concerning which it +is said in the Psalms, 'Arise, O Lord into Thy resting place.' +[Footnote 299] Which sometimes is of wood: sometimes of white ivory: +sometimes of silver: sometimes of gold: sometimes of crystal: and +according to the different substances of which it is made, designateth +the various dignities of the body of Christ. Again, the pyx which +containeth the host, whether consecrated or not consecrated, typifieth +the human memory. For a man ought to hold in remembrance continually +the benefits of God, as well temporal, which are represented by the +unconsecrated, as spiritual, which are set forth by the consecrated +host. {57} Which was also set forth by the urn in which God commanded +that the manna should be deposited: which, albeit it was temporal, +prefigured nevertheless this our spiritual sacrifice, when the Lord +commanded that it should be laid up for an everlasting memorial unto +future generations. But the pyx, being placed on the altar, which is +Christ, signifieth apostles and martyrs. And the altar cloths and +coverings are confessors and virgins, or all saints: of whom saith the +Prophet to the Lord, 'Thou shalt be clothed with them as with a +garment.' And of these we have spoken above. + + [Footnote 299: Psalm cxxxii (_Domine, memento_), 8.] + +26. Now there is a difference between _phylacterium_ and +_phylacteria_. _Phylacterium_ is a scroll on which the ten +commandments were written: and this kind of scroll the Pharisees used +to wear on the front part of their garments, as a sign of devotion. +Whence in the Gospel, 'They make broad their phylacteries.' +[Footnote 300] And the word is derived from _philare_, which is _to +keep_, and _teras_, which is _law_. But _phylacteria_ (a relicary) is +a vessel of silver or gold, or crystal, or ivory, or some substance of +the same kind, in which the ashes and relics of the saints are kept. +For when Vigilantius called the faithful _Cinericii_, [Footnote 301] +because they preserved the ashes themselves, to testify contempt of +his decision, it was ordered by the Church that they should be +honourably preserved in precious vessels. And the name is derived from +_philare_, which is to _preserve_, and _teron_, which is an extremity, +because in them some {58} portion of the extremities of the bodies of +saints is preserved: such as a tooth or a finger, or somewhat of the +like kind. Over the altar in some churches also is placed a shrine: of +which we have spoken in our section on the Altar. + + [Footnote 300: S. Matthew xxiii, 5.] + + [Footnote 301: Ais, Vigilantium, qui [Greek text] hoc vocatur nomine + (nam Dormitantius rectius diceretur), os foetidum rursum aperire, et + putorem spurcissimum contra sanctorum martyrum proferre relliquias, + et nos, qui eas suscepimus, appellare _cinerarios_.--S. Hieron, in + Epp. See also the 'Church of the Fathers,' 2nd ed. chapter xv.] + +27. At the horns of the altar [Footnote 302] two candlesticks are +placed to signify the joy of Jews and Gentiles at the nativity of +Christ: which candlesticks, by means of a flint, have their wicks +lighted. For the angel saith to the shepherds, 'I bring you good +tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people: for to you is born +this day the Saviour of the world. [Footnote 303] He is the true +_Isaac_, [Footnote 304] which being interpreted, is laughter. Now the +light of the candlestick is the faith of the people. For to the Jewish +people, saith the Prophet, 'Arise, shine, for thy light is come: and +the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee.' [Footnote 305] But to the +Gentiles the Apostle saith, 'Ye were sometimes darkness, but are now +light in the Lord.' [Footnote 306] For before the birth of Christ a +new star appeared to the wise men, according to the prophecy of +Balaam. 'There shall rise,' saith he, 'a star out of Jacob, and a +sceptre out of Israel.' [Footnote 307] Concerning this we have also +spoken in our section of the Altar. + + [Footnote 302: This use of _two_ candlesticks is very remarkable: as + giving fresh authority to the custom of the English Church. ] + + [Footnote 303: S. Luke ii, 10.] + + [Footnote 304: Genesis xvii, 17, 19.] + + [Footnote 305: Isaiah lx, 1. ] + + [Footnote 306: Ephes. V, 8. ] + + [Footnote 307: Numbers xxiv, 7.] + +28. The snuffers or scissors for trimming the lamps are the divine +words by which men amputate the legal titles of the law, and reveal +the shining spirit, according to that saying, 'Ye shall eat old store, +and bring forth the old because of the new.' [Footnote 308] The +vessels in the which the wicks, when snuffed, are extinguished, are +the hearts of the faithful, which admit the legal observance to the +letter. + + [Footnote 308: Leviticus xxvi, 10.] + +{59} + +29. Again, the tongs, by the double tooth of which the fire is +arranged, are preachers; who instruct us by the accordant pages of +both Testaments, and by their behaviour setting us right, inflame us +to the practice of charity. + +30. But the scuta, that is cups, of equal size at top and bottom, made +for warming water, are those doctors who do not conceal the treasure +of their hearts: but 'bring forth out of it things new and old': +[Footnote 309] as a 'candle which is not put under a bushel, but in a +candlestick,' [Footnote 310]that they who are in the house of the +Lord may receive the light and the heat of the Holy Ghost. + + [Footnote 309: S. Matthew xiii, 52.] + + [Footnote 310: S. Matthew v, 15.] + +31. The cross also is to be placed on the altar that the cross-bearers +may thence raise it: in which action we commemorate how Simon the +Cyrenian took the cross from the shoulders of Christ and bore it. +Between the two candlesticks the cross is placed on the altar: because +Christ standeth in the church, the Mediator between two peoples. For +He is the Corner-stone, 'Who hath made both one': [Footnote 311] to +Whom the shepherds came from Judaea, and the wise men from the East. +Concerning this we shall hereafter speak in another sense, when +treating of the priest's approach to the altar. + + [Footnote 311: Ephesians ii, 14.] + +32. Again, the front of the altar is ornamented with an orfray. As it +is written: 'Thou shalt make Me an altar, and shalt make a crown in a +circle about it of four fingers' breadth.' [Footnote 312] The altar, +ye know, sometimes signifieth the heart: in which the sacrifice of +true faith must be offered by contrition: and then the orfray +signifieth the taking in hand of a good occupation: wherewith we ought +to adorn our foreheads, that we may give light to others. Sometimes +the altar signifieth Christ: and then by the orfray the ornament of +charity {60} is fitly represented. For as gold hath the superiority +over all metals, so hath charity over other virtues. Whence the +Apostle, in the first to the Corinthians: 'But the greatest of these +is charity.' [Footnote 313] For our faith ought to be adorned with +the orfray of charity, that we may be ready to lay down our lives for +Christ's sake. Banners are also suspended above the altars: that in +the church that triumph of Christ may evermore be held in mind, by +which we also hope to triumph over our enemy. + + [Footnote 312: Exodus xxvii, 4.] + + [Footnote 313: I Corinth, xiii, 13.] + +33. The book of the Gospel is fixed on the altar, because the Gospel +hath Christ for its author, and beareth witness, to Him. Which book is +therefore adorned on his outside, for the cause that we shall make +mention of hereafter. Next, the vessels and utensils in the house of +the Lord had their origin from Moses and Solomon: which in the Old +Testament were many and diverse, as it is written in Exodus, and +having divers significations, concerning which, for the sake of +brevity, we will not in this place treat. + +34. Now all things which pertain to the ornament of a church, must be +removed or covered over in the season of Lent: which according to some +taketh place on Passion Sunday, because after that time the Divinity +of Christ was hidden and concealed in Him. For He gave Himself up to +be betrayed and scourged, as if He were only man, and had not in Him +the virtue of divinity: whence in the Gospel of this day it is +written, 'But Jesus hid Himself, and went out of the temple.' +[Footnote 314] + + [Footnote 314: S. John viii, 59.] + +Then therefore the crosses are covered, that is, the virtue of His +divinity is hidden. Others do this from the first Sunday of Lent: +because after that time the Church beginneth to treat of His Passion. +Whence in that time the cross must not be borne in procession {61} +from the church, except it be covered; and, according to the use of +some places, two coverings or curtains are then only retained: of +which the one is hung all round the choir, the other is suspended +between the altar and the choir: that those things which be within the +Holy of Holies may not appear. In that the Sanctuary and Cross are +then veiled, we be taught the letter of the Law, that is, its carnal +observance, or that the understanding of Holy Scriptures before the +Passion of Christ was veiled, hidden, and obscure: and that in that +time there was a veil: that is, men had an obscurity before their +eyes. It signifieth also the sword which was set before the gate of +Paradise: because the carnal observance we have spoken of, and this +obscurity, and the sword at the gate of Paradise, were removed by the +Passion of Christ. Therefore the curtains and veils of this kind are +removed on Good Friday. But in that in the Old Testament, there were +beasts that chewed the cud, and cleft the hoof, as oxen used in +ploughing, that is discerning and spiritually perceiving the mysteries +of Scripture: therefore in Lent only a few priests, to whom 'it is +given to know the mysteries of the Kingdom of God' [Footnote 315] go +behind the veil. + + [Footnote 315: St. Matthew xiii, 11.] + +35. Concerning this it is to be noted that there be three kinds of +veils which be hung in churches: that which concealeth the mysteries: +that which divideth the sanctuary from the clergy: that which divideth +the clergy from the laity. The first denoteth the law: the second +denoteth our unworthiness, in that we are unworthy, nay unable to +behold things celestial. The third is the coercion of our carnal +pleasures. The first, namely, the curtain that is hung from each side +of the altar, when the priest goeth into the holy place, is typified +by that which is written in Exodus. {62} 'Moses put a veil over his +face, for the children of Israel could not sustain the brightness of +His countenance.' [Footnote 316] And as the Apostle saith, 'Even to +this day is this veil over the hearts of the Jews. [Footnote 317] The +second, namely the curtain that in the office of the Mass during Lent +is suspended before the altar, was set forth by the veil which was +hung up in the tabernacle, and divided the Holy of Holies from the +holy place, as shall be declared in the proeme to the fourth part: by +which the ark was concealed from the people: and it was wrought +cunningly, and adorned with a fair variety of devices. This was it +that was rent in the Passion of the Lord: and after its pattern, the +curtains at this day are cunningly wrought with divers patterns. +Concerning the aforesaid veil, and of what sort the curtains ought to +be, it is written in Exodus. The third kind of veil deriveth its +origin from thence, that the _peribolus_ in the primitive Church, or +wall which encompasseth the choir, was only raised as far as the +elevation of the choir; [Footnote 318] which even to this day is +observed in some churches: which was done that the people {63} seeing +the clergy singing psalms, might follow their good example. But at +this time as it were a veil or wall is suspended or interposed between +the clergy and the laity, that they may not be able to behold each +other: as if to say, in very deed, 'turn away mine eyes, lest they +behold vanity.' [Footnote 319] + + [Footnote 316: Exodus xxxiv, 33.] + + [Footnote 317: 2 Corinth, iii, 15.] + + [Footnote 318: There is much difficulty in this passage. We conceive + that Durandus while writing it had in his mind's eye the arrangement + of many of the Basilican churches, in which the choir was raised + over the crypt (called Confessio, or Martyrium), in which the ashes + of the saints were laid, and was detached from the nave by two + flights of steps, one on each side of the descent to this + undercroft. In this case the _appodiation_ would mean the elevation + of the choir, itself considered as a sufficient distinction from the + nave. The usual representations of Basilican churches, however, + always show some rails, or cancelli, besides this _appodiation_. The + learned Father Thiers devotes the third section of his 'Dissertation + sur la Clôture du Choeur des Eglises' to the consideration of this + passage. 'Guillaume Durand, Evêque de Mande, assure que dans la + Primitive Eglise, le choeur etait séparé de la Nef par une _muraille + d'appui_, afin que le peuple voiant la Clergé chanter les louanges + de Dieu en fût édifié. Mais comme il parle d'un fait beaucoup + éloigné de son tems, et qui n'est attache par aucun ancien auteur, + je ne pense pas que l'on doive faire grande fonds sur son + temoignage.' We suspect that Thiers is wrong in construing + _appodiatio_ by _muraille d'appui:_ the latter would well express + the real Basilican arrangement, with which the translator was + probably acquainted. Durandus, therefore, is wrong in his fact; and + Thiers wrong in his understanding of Durandus, as well as in the + theory stated in the next section, that 'Depuis Constantin le choeur + de quelques Eglises etoit distingue de la Nef par des tapisseries ou + des voiles.' For he grounds this chiefly on the next assertion of + Durandus about the use curtains, 'hoc tempore, vers la fin du 13 + siecle.' If we did not know from facts that before this time + roodscreens were in ordinary use, the words of Durandus _velum aut + murus_ would show us that he means the _wall_ to be taken + metaphorically for a _veil_. And so Thiers may have seen, since he + concludes his section thus--' Mais peut être que Theodoret parle + des tapisseries et Durand des voiles qui convroient la Clôture du + Choeur par le dedans, et que sous ces tapisseries et ces voiles il y + avoit une veritable clôture de balustres, ou de muraillcs pleines.'] + + [Footnote 319: Psalm cxix (_Beati immaculati_), 37.] + +36. But on Holy Saturday all the curtains are taken away, because on +the Passion of the Lord the veil of the temple was rent: and by that +thing the spiritual intelligence of the Law was revealed unto us, +which till that time lay hid, as is said afore: and the door of the +kingdom of heaven is opened, and power was given unto us, that we +cannot be overcome of our carnal concupiscence, unless we ourselves do +yield. But the veil which separateth the sanctuary from the choir, is +drawn or lifted up at vespers on every Saturday of Lent: when the +office of the Sunday is begun, that the clergy may be able to look +into the sanctuary: because the Sunday commemorateth the Resurrection. + +37. This therefore is done on the six Sundays of Lent: because there +was no age in which joy, and that joy eternal, was not made in some +sort manifest, that joy which is concealed in heaven, as is signified +by that veil. Thence is it that we fast not on the Sundays, and this +on account of the glory of the Resurrection. For the first Sunday +signifieth the joy which our parents enjoyed in the Paradise before +the fall. {64} The second Sunday signifieth the joy of the few who +were preserved in the ark of Noah, when all else were drowned in the +deluge. The third, the gladness of the children of Israel, when in the +time of Joseph others were afflicted with famine. The fourth, their +joy when they lived with all peace under Solomon. [Footnote 320] The +fifth, their gladness when returning from the Babylonian captivity. +The sixth, that of the disciples from the Resurrection to the +Ascension: when the bridegroom was with them in presence. + + [Footnote 320: 3 Kings iv, 20.] + +38. In feasts likewise of nine lessons, [Footnote 321] when they +occur in Lent, the before-mentioned veil is raised and lifted up. But +this is not of the institution of the earliest times, because then no +feast was celebrated in Lent. But then on whatever day a feast +occurred, commemoration was made of it on the Saturday and Sunday +following, according to the canon of Pope Martin; and so in the xiiith +book of Burchardus. [Footnote 322] And all this on account of the +sadness of that time. Afterwards the contrary use prevailed: that +feasts of nine lessons occurring in Lent should be solemnly observed, +and a fast nevertheless kept. + + [Footnote 321: For an explanation of the whole Catholic system of + feasts, double, semi-double, and simple, the reader is referred to + the _Tracts for the Times_, vol. iii.] + + [Footnote 322: S. Burchardus of Worms flourished in 1025: and is + not to be confounded with John Burchardus, who wrote an explanation + of the Mass for the use of the Venetian Church, which was published + in 1559.] + +39. Again, on festivals curtains are hung up in churches, for the sake +of the ornament they give; and that by visible, we may be led to +invisible beauty. These curtains are sometimes tinctured with various +hues, as is said afore: so that by the diversity of the colours +themselves we may be taught that man, who is the temple of God, should +be ordained by the variety and diversity of virtues. {65} A white +curtain signifieth pureness of living: a red, charity: a green, +contemplation: a black, mortification of the flesh: a livid-coloured, +tribulation. Besides this, over white curtains are sometimes suspended +hangings of various colours: to signify that our hearts ought to be +purged from vices: and that in them should be the curtains of virtues, +and the hangings of good works. + +40. Moreover, on the Feast of the Nativity of the Lord some churches +exhibit no hangings: some poor, and some good. Those which have none, +signify our shame; for even if we are filled with the greatest joy at +the birth of a Saviour, [Footnote 323] we ought not, however, to be +without shame that such was our sin that the 'Son of God emptied +Himself on our account, and took upon Him the form of a servant.' +[Footnote 324] And on that account also we solemnise His Passion not +with joy, but with a severe fast; whereas when we celebrate the +passion of other saints we do it with gladness, and indulge ourselves +somewhat in meat and drink, as shall be said in the sixth book. But +our Lord's Passion is a source of shame to us on account of our sins. +The saints, on the other hand, died not for our sins, but suffered for +Christ. Those churches which on the Nativity suspend curtains of poor +texture thereby typify that Christ did then 'take upon Himself the +form of a servant, [Footnote 325 ] and was clothed in miserable rags. +Those which employ richer hangings, set forth by them the gladness +arising from the Birth of a King: and teach what manner of persons we +ought to be in our reception of so great a Guest. + + [Footnote 323: In accordance with this feeling, the first Psalm at + the second vespers of the nativity in the Benedictine Breviary is + the _De profundis_.] + + [Footnote 324: Philip, ii, 7.] + + [Footnote 325: Philip, ii, 7.] + +{66} + +41. In some churches the altar at Easter-tide is decked with precious +hangings, and veils of three colours are placed over it: red, pale, +and black, which denote three seasons. When the first lesson and its +response are finished, the black veil is removed; which signifieth the +time before the Law. When the second lesson and its response are +finished, the pale veil is removed: which signifieth the time of the +Law. The third being finished, the red is removed, which setteth forth +the time of Grace: that is, that by the Passion of Christ an entrance +is administered unto us to the Holy of Holies and to eternal glory. +But concerning the coverings and cloths of the altars we have spoken +in our sections on the same. + +42. On high feasts, the treasures of the church are brought forth on +three accounts. Firstly, by way of safeguard: that it may be made +manifest that he who hath them in charge hath been careful in his care +of them. Secondly, for the more reverence of the solemnity. Thirdly, +for the memory of their oblation; namely, for the commemoration of +them that bestowed them on the church. + +But in that the church is gloriously adorned within and not without, +it is thereby signified that 'all its glory is from within.' [Footnote +326] For although its outward appearance be despicable, the soul which +is the seat of God is illuminated from within: according to that +saying, 'I am black but comely.' [Footnote 327] And the Lord saith to +the Prophet: 'I have a goodly heritage.' [Footnote 328] Which the +Prophet considering in his mind, saith, 'Lord, I have loved the beauty +of Thine house': [Footnote 329] which is spiritually adorned by +Faith, Hope, and Charity. Sometimes the church, both material and +spiritual, hath need to be cleansed: concerning which in the seventh +book. + + [Footnote 326: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit_), 6.] + + [Footnote 327: Cantic. i, 5.] + + [Footnote 328: The bishop probably refers to Psalm xvi (_Conserva + me_), 6. The words in reality spoken by David are understood by him + as if spoken by the Almighty.] + + [Footnote 329: Psalm xxvi (_Judica me_), 8.] + +{67} + +In some churches two eggs of ostriches and other things which cause +admiration, and which are rarely seen, are accustomed to be suspended: +that by their means the people may be drawn to church, and have their +minds the more affected. + +43. Again, some say that the ostrich, as being a forgetful bird, +'leaveth her eggs in the dust': [Footnote 330] and at length, when +she beholdeth a certain star, returneth unto them, and cheereth them +by her presence. Therefore the eggs [Footnote 331] of ostriches are +hung in churches to signify that man, being left of God on account of +his sins, if at length he be illuminated by the Divine Light, +remembereth his faults and returneth to Him, Who by looking on him +with His Mercy cherisheth him. As it is written in Luke that after +Peter had denied Christ, the 'Lord turned and looked upon Peter.' +[Footnote 332] Therefore be the aforesaid eggs suspended in churches, +this signifying, that man easily forgetteth God, unless being +illuminated by a star, that is, by the Influence of the Holy Spirit, +he is reminded to return to Him by good works. + + [Footnote 330: Job xxxix, 14.] + + [Footnote 331: Perhaps this custom was introduced by the Crusaders. + 'As the ostrich is good for food, so, it seems, are its eggs: to say + nothing of their being objects of attention, as being used much in + the East by way of ornament; for they are hung up in their places of + public worship, along with many lamps.' Harmer's 'Observations,' + vol. iv, p. 336, who refers to Pococke's 'Travels,' vol. i, p. 31, + and imagines that Dr. Chandler, in his travels in Asia Minor, was + mistaken when he supposed that the Turkish Mosque of Magnesia was + ornamented with lamps pendent from the ceiling intermixed with balls + of polished ivory, p. 267. Ostrich eggs might easily be mistaken for + ivory balls. The following passage from De Moleon is curious: 'At + the conclusion of matins,' he says, speaking of the rites of S. + Maurice at Angers on Easter Day, 'two chaplains take their place + behind the altar curtains. Two corbeliers (_Cubiculares_) in + dalmatics, amices, and _mitellae_, with gloves on their hands, + present themselves before the altar. The chaplains chant. _Quem + quaeritis_? The corbeliers representing the Maries, reply, Jesum + _Nazarenum Crucifixum._ The others answer, _Resurrexit, non est + hic_. The corbeliers take from the altar _two_ ostrich eggs wrapped + in silk, and go forth, chanting, _Alleluia resurrexit_ Dominus, + _resurrexit Leo Fortis_, Christus, _Filius_ Dei.'--_Voyag. Lit._ p. + 98. ] + + [Footnote 332: S. Luke xxii, 61.] + +{68} + +44. Now in the Primitive Church, the sacrifice was offered in vessels +of wood, and common vests: for then were 'chalices of wood, and +priests of gold': whereof the contrary is now. But Severinus, Pope, +decreed that it should be offered in glass: [Footnote 333] but +because such vessels were easily broken, therefore, Urban, Pope, and +the Council [Footnote 334] of Rheims decreed that gold or silver +vessels should be used: or on account of poverty, tin, which rusteth +not: but not in wood nor in brass. Therefore it might not be in glass +on account of the danger of effusion: nor of wood since being porous +and spongy, it absorbeth the blood: nor of brass nor of bronze, the +rust of which is unseemly. + + [Footnote 333: See Martene, Tom. IV, ii, 9; the _Ducretum_, fol. + 395.] + + [Footnote 334: 'A.D. 874, Vid. Concil. Coll. Reg. Tom. I. p. 288.' + See also P. Tunoc. iv, Ep. ad Otton. Carel. xiii _Hardouin_ vii, + 365.] + +45. And note that the name of chalice is derived from the Old +Testament: whence Jeremiah, 'Babylon is a golden chalice that maketh +drunk the nations.' [Footnote 335] And David: 'In the hand of the +Lord is a chalice, and the wine thereof is red': [Footnote 336] and +in another place, 'I will receive the chalice of salvation, and will +call on the name of the Lord.' [Footnote 337] Again, in the Gospel: +'Are ye able to drink the chalice that I shall drink?' [Footnote +338] And again, 'When He had taken the chalice He gave thanks.' +[Footnote 339] A golden chalice signifieth the 'treasures of wisdom +that be hid in Christ.' [Footnote 340] A silver chalice denoteth +purity from sin. A chalice of tin denoteth the similitude of sin and +punishment. For tin is as it were halfway between silver and lead: and +the Humanity of Christ, albeit it were not lead, that is, sinful, yet +was it like to sinful flesh. And therefore not silver: and although +impassible for His own sin, passible He was for ours: since 'He thus +took our infirmities, and bare our sicknesses.' [Footnote 341] +Concerning the Chalice and the Paten we shall speak hereafter. + + [Footnote 335: Jeremiah li, 7.] + + [Footnote 336: Psalm lxxv (_Confitebimur_), 8.] + + [Footnote 337: Psalm cxvi (_Dilexi_), 13.] + + [Footnote 338: S. Matthew x, 22.] + + [Footnote 339: S. Matthew xxvi, 27. ] + + [Footnote 340: Coloss. ii, 3.] + + [Footnote 341: S. Matthew viii, 17.] + +{69} + +46. But if anyone, through cause of his little religion, should say +that the Lord commanded Moses to make all the vessels of the +Tabernacle for every use and ceremony whatever, of brass, as it is +written in the eight and twentieth chapter of Exodus, and that +precious vessels of this sort, 'could be sold for much, and given to +the poor,' [Footnote 342] he is like Judas, and acteth contrarywise +to the woman which brought the alabaster box of ointment. This we +reply to him: not that God is better pleased with gold than brazen +ornaments: but that when men offer to God that which they value, by +the worship of the Almighty they vanquish their own avarice. Moreover, +these offices of divine piety be moral, and significative of future +glory. Whence also under the old law the priest's garments were to be +made of gold, and jacinth, and purple, and scarlet twice dyed, and +woven linen, and other precious things: that thereby might be made +manifest with how great diversity of virtues the priest ought to +shine: and it was also commanded that the altar, and the mercy-seat, +and the candlestick, and the other vessels and ornaments of the altar +should be made of gold and silver. The Tabernacle also was to be made +of divers precious materials, as is said in our section concerning the +Church. Also the high priest under the Law used divers precious +ornaments, as we have both noted, and shall hereafter note. + + [Footnote 342: S. Matthew xxvi, 9.] + +47. Moreover, it was forbidden in the Council of Orleans, [Footnote +343] that the divine ornaments should be used for the adorning of +nuptials, lest they should be polluted by the touch of the wicked, or +by the pomp of secular luxury. By this doubtless it is shown that a +chasuble, or any other ornament intended for the divine mysteries, +must not be made out of a common person's vest. + + [Footnote 343: A.D. 535. Decret. viii. See also the Council of + Tribur. A. D. 1036.] + +{70} + +48. Stephen, Pope, moreover, forbade that anyone should have the use +of the vests of a church, or of those things which be touched by +religious men alone, for other purposes: lest that vengeance come upon +these transgressors which befel Belshazzar the King. [Footnote 344 ] + + [Footnote 344: Daniel v, i.] + +49. Also Clement, Pope, forbade that the dead should be buried or +wrapped or covered, they or their bones, with the altar cloth, or +covering for the chalice, or napkin wherewith the priest washeth his +hands before consecrating. + +50. But when the palls, that is the corporals, and the veils, that is +the ornaments of the altar, or the curtains hanging over it shall have +become unclean, the deacons with their ministers shall wash them +within the sanctuary, and not without. But when the veils, used in the +service of the altar, be washed, let there be a new basin. And let the +palls, that is the corporals, be washed in another basin. And let the +veils for doors, that is, the curtains which are hung up in churches +at high feasts, and in Lent, be washed in another. This is it that was +decreed of the Council of Lerida: [Footnote 345] that for washing +the corporal, and the altar palls certain vessels be appropriated and +kept within the church: in which nothing else ought to be washed. But +according to the afore-mentioned Clement, if the altar pall or +covering, or the covering of the seat where the priest sitteth, in his +holy vests, or of the candlestick, or the veil, that is the cloth or +curtains hanging over the altar be consumed by old age, let them be +burnt; and their ashes cast in the baptistery, or on the wall, or in +the drains, where there is no treading of passers by. And note that +ecclesiastical ornaments be consecrated: as shall be said under the +section of Consecrations and Unctions. + + [Footnote 345: 'A.D. 524, Concil. Coll. Reg. Tom XI, p. 24.'] + +{71} + + +CHAPTER IV + +OF BELLS + + +Bells, what and where first used--Why Blessed--Analogy between Bells +and Trumpets--Mystical Signification--Of the Bell-Frame--Of the +Bell-Ropes--Use of Bells at the Canonical Hours--Six kinds of +Bells--Bells when Silent--Of the Passing Bell--Of the Prayer Bell--Of +the Storm Bell. + + + +1. Bells are brazen vessels, and were first invented in Nola, a city +of Campania: wherefore the larger bells are called _Campanae_, from +Campania the district, and the smaller _Nolae_, from Nola the town. + +2. The reason for consecrating and ringing bells is this: that by +their sound the faithful may be mutually cheered on towards their +reward; that the devotion of faith may be increased in them; that +their fruits of the field, their minds and their bodies may be +defended; that the hostile legions and all the snares of the Enemy may +be repulsed; that the rattling hail, the whirlwinds, and the violence +of tempests and lightning may be restrained; the deadly thunder and +blasts of wind held off; the spirits of the storm and the powers of +the air overthrown; and that such as hear them may flee for refuge to +the bosom of our holy Mother the Church, bending every knee before the +standard of the sacred rood. These several reasons are given in the +office for the blessing of bells. [Footnote 346] + + [Footnote 346: See the account of the consecration of several + churches in the island of Guernsey, taken from the Black Book of the + Diocese of Contances, in a paper by the Rev. W. C. Lukis, B.A., + Trinity College, published in the First Part of the Transactions of + the Cambridge Camden Society.] + +{72} + +3. You must know that bells, by the sound of which the people +assembleth together to the church to hear, and the clergy to preach, +'in the morning the mercy of God and His power by night, [Footnote +347] do signify the silver trumpets, by which under the Old Law the +people were called together unto sacrifice. (Of these trumpets we +shall speak in our sixth book.) For just as the watchmen in a camp +rouse one another by trumpets, so do the ministers of the Church +excite each other by the sound of bells to watch the livelong night +against the plots of the devil. Wherefore our brazen bells are more +sonorous than the trumpets of the Old Law, because then God was known +in Judea only, but now in the whole earth. They be also more durable: +for they signify that the preaching of the New Testament will be more +lasting than the trumpets and sacrifices of the Old Law, namely, even +unto the end of the world. + + [Footnote 347: Psalm xcii (_Bonum est confiteri_), 2] + +4. Again bells do signify preachers, who ought after the likeness of a +bell to exhort the faithful unto faith: the which was typified in that +the Lord commanded Moses to make a vestment for the high priest, +having seventy-two bells to sound when the high priest entered into +the Holy of Holies. [Footnote 348] Also the cavity of the bell +denoteth the mouth of the preacher, according to the saying of the +Apostle, 'I am become as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal.' +[Footnote 349] + + [Footnote 348: Exodus xxviii, 35.] + + [Footnote 349: I Cor. xiii, 1.] + +5. The hardness of the metal signifieth fortitude in the mind of the +preacher: whence saith the Lord, 'Behold I have made thy face strong +against their faces.' [Footnote 350] The clapper or iron, which by +striking on either side maketh the sound, doth denote the tongue of +the teacher, the which with the adornment of learning doth cause both +Testaments to resound. + + [Footnote 350: Ezekiel iii, 8.] + +{73} + +6. Wherefore a prelate which hath not the skill of preaching will be +like unto a bell without a clapper: according to that saying of +Gregory, 'A priest, if he knoweth not how to preach nor what voice of +exhortation he can deliver, is a dumb preacher, and also as a dumb dog +which cannot bark.' The striking the bell denoteth that a preacher +ought first of all to strike at the vices in himself for correction, +and then advance to blame those of others: lest indeed, contrary to +the teaching of the Apostle, 'when he hath preached to others, he +himself should be a castaway.' [Footnote 351] Which also the Psalm +doth testify, 'But unto the ungodly, saith God: why dost thou preach +my laws, and takest my covenant in thy mouth?' [Footnote 352] Because +truly by the example of his own suffering he often gaineth access to +those whom by the learning of his discourse he cannot move. The link +by which the clapper is joined or bound unto the bell is moderation: +by which, namely, by the authority of Scripture, the tongue of the +preacher who wisheth to draw men's hearts is ruled. [Footnote 353] + + [Footnote 351: I Corinthians ix, 27.] + + [Footnote 352: Psalm I (_Deus deorum_), 16. ] + + [Footnote 353: The passage is very unintelligible in the original, + and is probably corrupted or transposed.] + +7. The wood of the frame upon which the bell hangeth, doth signify the +wood of our Lord's Cross: which is on this account suspended on high, +because the Cross is preached by the ancient Fathers. The pegs by +which the wooden frame is joined together or fastened, are the Oracles +of the Prophets. The iron cramps by which the bell is joined with the +frame, denote charity, by which the preacher being joined indissolubly +unto the Cross, doth boast and say, 'God forbid that I should glory +save in the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ.' [Footnote 354] The +hammer affixed to the frame by which the bell is struck, signifieth +the right mind of the preacher, by which he himself, holding fast to +the Divine commands, doth by frequent striking inculcate the same on +the ears of the faithful. + + [Footnote 354: Gal. vi, 14. _Cavilla_ is thus explained by Belethus. + Expl. Divin. Off. xxiv. Cavilla, sic enim ferrum illud pensile + vocat, quod Graeci rectius [Greek text] nominant, cujus pulsu + campana sonum reddit.] + +{74} + +8. The rope hanging from this, by which the bell is struck, is +humility, or the life of the preacher: the same rope also showeth the +measure of our own life. Besides these, since the rope hath its +beginning from the wood upon which the bell hangeth, by which is +understood our Lord's Cross, it doth thus rightly typify Holy +Scripture which doth flow down from the wood of the Holy Cross. As +also the rope is composed of three strands, so doth the Scripture +consist of a Trinity: namely, of history, allegory, and morality. +Whence, the rope coming down from the wooden frame into the hand of +the priest is Scripture descending from the mystery of the Cross into +the mouth of the preacher. Again, the rope reacheth unto the hands by +which it is grasped, because Scripture ought to proceed unto good +works. Also the raising and the lowering of the rope in ringing doth +denote that Holy Scripture speaketh sometimes of high matters, +sometimes of low: or that the preacher speaketh sometimes lofty things +for the sake of some, and sometimes condescendeth for the sake of +others: according to that saying of the Apostle: 'Whether we exalt +ourselves it is for God, or whether we humble ourselves it is for +you.' [Footnote 355] Again, the priest draweth the rope downwards, +when he descendeth from contemplation unto active life: but is himself +drawn upward when under the teaching of Scripture he is raised in +contemplation. Also he draweth it downwards when he understandeth the +Scripture according to the 'letter which killeth'; he is drawn upwards +{75} when he expoundeth the same according to the Spirit. Again, +according to Gregory, he is drawn downwards and upwards when he +measureth himself in Scripture, namely, how much he still lieth in the +depths and how much he advanceth in doing good. + + [Footnote 355: This appeals to be a reference to 2 Cor. v, 13.] + +Furthermore, when the bell doth sound from the pulling of its rope, +the people are gathered in one for the exposition of Holy Scripture, +the preacher is heard, and the people are united in the bond of faith +and charity. Therefore when a priest acknowledgeth unto himself that +he is a debtor unto preaching, he must not withdraw himself from +calling men together by his bells, just as also the sons of Aaron did +sound their silver trumpets. He therefore moveth the ropes who doth of +his office call his brethren or the people together. + +The ring (or pully) in the length of the rope, through which in many +places the rope is drawn, is the crown of reward, or perseverance unto +the end, or else is Holy Scripture itself. Moreover, Savinianus, Pope, +hath commanded that the hours of the day should be struck in churches. + +{76} + +9. And note that bells are commonly rung for the Divine Offices +[Footnote 356] twelve times during the twelve hours of the day: +namely, once at prime, and in like manner once at the last hour, +because all things come from one God, and God is One, All in All. At +tierce they are rung three times, for the second, third, and fourth +hours which are then chanted. In like manner three times at sexts, for +the fifth, sixth, and seventh hours. Also three times at nones for the +three hours. But at vespers, which is the twelfth hour, not one only +but many times are they rung, because in the time of grace the +preaching of the Apostles was multiplied. Also in the night for matins +they are rung often, because we ought often to call out, 'Wake, thou +that sleepest, and arise from the dead.' [Footnote 357] + + [Footnote 356: The reader will scarcely need reminding that the day + is canonically divided into two parts of twelve hours each, + beginning' at six o'clock respectively. Prime therefore is at our six + a.m., tierce at nine, sexts at twelve, nones at three p.m., vespers + at six p.m., and compline at bedtime. + + Haec sunt septenis propter quae psallimus horis. + _Matutina_ ligat Christum, qui crimina purgat: + _Prima_ replet sputis; causam dat _Tertia_ Mortis: + _Sexta_ Cruci nectit: latus Ejus _Nona_ bipertit: + _Vespera_ deponit: tumulo _Completa_ reponit. + + Which may thus be translated; + + At _matins_ bound: at _prime_ revil'd: condemn'd to death at _tierce_: + Nail'd to the cross at _sexts_: at _nones_ His blessed side they pierce: + They take him down at _vesper_-tide; in grave at _compline_ lay + Who thenceforth bids His Church to keep her sevenfold hours alway. + + The twelve hours of the night are divided into three nocturns, which + may be supposed to be said at twelve, two, and four, and are + immediately followed by lauds at five. Nocturns and lauds (together + called matins), with the six hours above-mentioned, make the seven + canonical hours. On this subject we can but refer our readers to the + extremely beautiful fifth book of Durandus, and particularly his + first chapter, in which all the pregnant symbolism of the canonical + hours is set forth. Hugo de Sancto Victore has briefly touched upon + the same in the third chapter of the _In Speculum Ecclesiae_, but + nearly the whole of his account is contained in Durandus. See also + S. Isidore 'De Eccles. Offic.' lib, I, cap. xix--xxiii; and Belethus + whose account is valuable for its conciseness. 'Explic. Divin. + Offic.' Caps, xxi--xxix. + + The twelve ringings mentioned in the text as being in 'the twelve + hours of the _day_' are thus to be made out. At prime, one; at + tierce, three; at sexts, three; at nones, three; at vespers, one + (the ringing 'many times' being only thus accounted); and at the + last hour, one; in whole twelve, Hugo de S. Victor has a passage + almost identical with this. 'The bells be also rung twelve times. At + prime, once, and again at the last hour once; because all things be + from One God, and the Same will be All in All. But at tierce, three + times for the second, third, and fourth hours; and so at sexts, for + three hours, namely, the seventh, eighth, and ninth; but at vespers + many times, because in the time of grace the preaching of the + Apostles was multiplied. Also at matins oftentimes, because we + should often exclaim, 'Arise, thou that sleepest.' It will be + observed that this passage is corrupt, nones being omitted, and its + three hours given to sexts. Matins also, as in the text, are + belonging to the twelve hours of the _night_.] + [End Footnote] + + [Footnote 357: Eph, v, 14.] + +{77} + +10. Commonly also they be rung three times at nocturns. First with a +_squilla_ [Footnote 358] or hand-bell, which by its sharp sound +signifieth Paul preaching acutely. The second ringing signifieth +Barnabus joined to his company. The third intimateth that, when the +'Jews put from them the word of God, the Apostles turned themselves to +the Gentiles,' whom also they instructed in the faith of the Trinity +by the doctrine of the four Evangelists. Whence also some do use, +_four_ peals. + + [Footnote 358: _Squilla_ is properly a _sea onion_. We conceive that + the sort of a bell here meant is a kind of hand-bell, formed out of + a hollow ball of metal, furnished with a slit for the sound, and + with a loose pellet inside. This answers to the squilla in shape and + utters a very shrill sound. We find below that it was used chiefly + in the refectory. So in a note to Martener vol iv, p. 32, we read + 'ad gratiarum actionem Sacrista sciliam (the other form of squillam) + pulsabat. Cons. S. Benigni, cap. 9. Fratribus exeuntibus de prandio + sive de coena sciliam pulsare non negligat Hebdomadarius Sacrista.'] + +11. And note that there be six kinds of bells which be used in the +church; namely, the _squilla_, the _cymbalum_, the _nola_, the +_nolula_ (or double _campana_), the _signum_ [and the _campana_]. The +squilla is rung in the _triclinium_, that is, in the refectory; the +cymbalum in the cloister; the nola in the choir; the nolula or double +campana in the clock, the campana in the campanile, the signum in the +tower. Either of these, however, may be called generally a bell. And +these be known by diverse names, because the preachers signified +thereby be necessary for diverse ends. + +12. During the whole Septuagesima, in the which Quadragesima [or Lent] +is contained, on common days the bells be not chanted, nor chimed, but +tolled, that is rung singly, at the hours of the day, or at matins. +[Footnote 359] In well-ordered churches, they be struck twice at +prime; first to call unto prayer, secondly to begin: three times at +tierce, according to the number of hours then struck, {78} as was said +above; once to call to prayer, twice to assemble them together, thrice +to begin. In like manner it is done at sexts and nones. But for matins +the same bells are rung and in the same order. For a mass or for +vespers only two bells be rung. But in smaller churches they simply +ring the bells as aforesaid, and this on the common days. But on +Sundays and holy days, they chime them, as at other times. For because +preachers who be figured by bells, do the more abound in a season of +grace, and 'are instant in season,' therefore on festivals which +pertain to grace, the bells do sound more pressingly and are rung for +a longer time, to arouse those 'that sleep and be drunken,' lest they +sleep beyond measure. But what is signified by the ringing of bells +when the Te Deum is chanted we shall speak hereafter. [Footnote 360] + + [Footnote 359: It is to be remarked that throughout this chapter + there is no allusion to ringing the bells by raising them and + causing them to revolve on axes as practised in England. This and + the beautiful science of bell-ringing consequent on it are peculiar + to ourselves. The method of sounding the bells here understood is by + a hammer acting on the rim, or by pulling the clapper, as is used + with us for chimes, and where the bell frame is weak. This accounts + for the much larger bells which are found abroad, and which were + never meant to be poised and swung. Owing to the above difference + between the Continental and English methods of bell-ringing, it is + not easy to express the difference between _simpulsare, compulsare_, + and _depulsare_. + + _Depulsare_ is to ring by tying a rope to the _clapper_ of a bell, + and pulling the rope to and fro: we have accordingly translated it, + to chant a _bell_. + + _Simpulsare_ is to ring by tying a rope to the hammer, and pulling + it back; this we have translated _to toll_. Tolling is of course + performed by swinging the bell round: but as there is no English + word which expresses _simpulsare_, we thought it better to use an + old term in a new sense, than to coin a new one. + + _Compulsare_ is to do to several bells what _depulsare_ is to do to + one: and we have translated it to _chime_. + + _Pulsare_ we have translated _to ring_. + + It may be worthy of remark, how completely the ringing of the bells + is here considered a part of the priest's office.] + [End footnote] + + [Footnote 360: In Book V, chapter iii, '_of Nocturns_,' Durandus + says, 'When the nocturns be finished, the bells be rung and the _Te + Deum laudamus_ is chanted with uplift voice, to denote that the + Church doth openly and wonderfully laud God in the time of grace, + and to show that if by good works we answer rightly to holy + doctrine, we shall attain to singing heavenly praises in concert + with the angels. The chant also is then made with a loud voice, to + signify the joy of the woman at finding the lost 'piece of silver.' + And the versicle _Day by day we magnify Thee_, and the following, be + chanted still more loudly to set forth the gratulations of the + neighbours over the finding of the piece of silver: and the ringing + of the bells representeth the calling together of the neighbours. In + some churches also the candles be lighted, because the woman also + 'lighted a candle and sought diligently till she found it.' This + also signifieth that the Church Catholic is drawn by Christ out of + hell. And the hymn itself representeth the future joy and gladness, + which the Church resting from her labours shall attain in the day of + judgment.' Hugo de S. Victore, and Belethus agree as to this ringing + of the bells at matins: a practice of which perhaps we may find the + shadow in our own use in many places of ringing the bells at eight + o'clock on Sunday mornings, to which day our services are now + chiefly confined.] + +{79} + +13. Moreover, the bells ought to be rung when anyone is dying, that +the people hearing this may pray for him. [Footnote 361] For a woman +indeed they ring twice, because she first caused the bitterness of +death: for she first alienated mankind from God; wherefore the second +day had no benediction. [Footnote 362] But for a man they ring three +times, because the Trinity was first shown in man. For Adam was first +formed from the earth, then the woman from Adam, afterwards was man +created from both, and so there is therein a trinity. But if the dying +man be an ecclesiastic, they toll so many times as he hath received +orders. And at the last time they ought to chime, that so the {80} +people may know for whom they have to pray. The bells ought also to be +chimed when the corpse is brought to the church, and when carried out +from the church to the grave. + + [Footnote 361: For an account of the 'passing-bell,' and the + authority for its right use among ourselves, the reader is referred + to Bp. Montague's 'Articles of Inquiry.' Camb. 1841, pp. 76, 116. It + is to be observed that the bells are here said to be rung, not + _tolled_, as is generally the case now. Many will remember a + beautiful passage upon this custom in one of the Rev. F. E. Paget's + 'Tales of the Village.' The practice of their distinguishing the sex + of the dying person is still in most places retained.] + + [Footnote 362: '_Wherefore the second day had no benediction_.' It + will be observed that of this day only it is not said expressly that + 'God saw that it was good.' We give a chapter of Hugo S. Victore + upon this question. + + 'But it is admirable wherefore God did not see the works of the + second day that they were good: since in each other day He is said + to have seen them, and that they were good. For either it was not + His work, and so not good; or if it were His work, it was good. But + if it was good, it was also His work: and then He saw it was good, + Who could not be ignorant what it was, whether good or bad. + Wherefore then is it not said here as elsewhere "God saw that it was + good?" For if this be said elsewhere only because the work was made, + why ought it not also to be said here since it was made? Perhaps + because _dual_ is the sign of division; since it first recedeth from + _unity_: and so here we perceive some sacrament. Thus the works of + the second day be not praised, not because they were not good, but + because they were signs of evil. For God made His first works "and + behold they were all very good:" in the which neither was corruption + present, nor perfection absent. But afterwards cometh the devil and + man, and they also made their works: and these second works came + after the first; the evil after the good: and God was unwilling to + behold these works because they were evil; but beholding them by His + wisdom, He disapproved them by his judgment.' 'De Sacramentis,' Lib. + i, Pars I, cap. xx. S. Isodore (Sentent. I, xx de Mundo) does not + allude to this, nor S. Augustin upon Genesis.] + +14. Also bells be rung at processions, that the evil spirits may hear +them and flee, as shall be said hereafter. [Footnote 363] For they do +fear when the trumpets of the Church Militant, that is the bells, be +heard, like as a tyrant doth fear when he heareth on his own land the +trumpets of any potent king his foe. + + [Footnote 363: 'The bells be rung in processions. For as an earthly + monarch hath in his army royal insignia, namely trumpets and + banners; so Christ the Eternal King hath in His Church Militant + bells for trumpets, and crosses for banners. Thus the ringing of the + bells doth signify the prophets, who foretold the advent of Christ.' + Durandus, book iv, chapter 6, 'Of the priest's approach to the + altars,' sec. 19. The same idea is applied by Belethus to the matin + bells in his 24th chapter.] + +15. And this is the reason also why the Church, when she seeth a +tempest to arise, doth ring the bells; namely, that the devils hearing +the trumpets of the Eternal King, which be the bells, may flee away +through fear and cease from raising the storm; and that the faithful +also may be admonished at the ringing of the bells and be provoked to +be urgent in prayer for the instant danger. [Footnote 364] + + [Footnote 364: See note I to this chapter.] + +But for three days before Easter the bells be silent, as shall be said +hereafter. [Footnote 365] Also the bells be silent in time of an +interdict, because often for the fault of those put under them the +tongue of the preachers is hindered; according to that of the Prophet, +'I will make thy tongue cleave to the roof of thy mouth, for they are +a rebellious house'; [Footnote 366] that is, for the people are +disobedient. + + [Footnote 365: See Appendix.] + + [Footnote 366: Ezekiel iii, 26.] + +The Church also hath organs, of which we shall speak hereafter. +[Footnote 367] + + [Footnote 367: Durandus, in his fourth book, chapter xxxiv, '_Of the + Sanctus_,' says, 'Moreover in this conceit of angels and men, the + organs do from time to time add their harmony: the which was + introduced by David and Solomon, who did cause hymns to be sung at + the sacrifice of the Lord, with the concert of organs and other + instruments of music, and the people also to join in chorus.'] + +{81} + +CHAPTER V + +OF CEMETERIES AND OTHER PLACES, SACRED AND RELIGIOUS + +Holiness of Places; its Origin--Difference between Sacred, Holy, and +Religious--Different Names for Cemetery--First use of Cemeteries--Who +are not to be Buried in the Church--Ancient Method of Burial--Who are +to be Buried in a Cemetery. + + +1. Now we will Speak of cemeteries and other sacred and religious +places. Of consecrated places, some be appropriated to human +necessity, others to prayers. Those of the first sort be a +_xenodochium_ or _xenostorium_, which is the same: a _vasochonium_, a +_gerontocomium_, an _orphanotrophium_, a _brephotrophiuin_. For holy +fathers and religious princes have founded places of this kind, where +the poor, the pilgrims, old men, orphans, infants, men past work, the +halt, the weak, and the wounded should be received and attended. And +note that _geronta_ in Greek is the same as _senex_ in Latin. + +But of places appropriated to prayer, there be that are _sacred_, +there be that are _holy_, and there be that are _religious_. + +{82} + +2. _Sacred_ be they which by the hands of the bishop have duly been +sanctified and set apart to the Lord, and which be called by various +names, as hath been said in the section on Churches. _Holy_ be they +which have immunity or privilege: and be set apart for the servitors +or ministers of the Church, concerning which, under threat of condign +punishment, either by the canon law or by special privilege, it is +ordained that no man shall presume to violate them. Such be the courts +of churches, and in some places the cloisters, within which be the +houses of the canons. To which when criminals of whatever kind betake +themselves they have safety. And so according to the statutes of the +civil law be the gates and theatres of cities. + +3. _Religious_ places be they where the entire body of a man, or at +least the head is buried: because no man can have two sepulchres. But +the body or any member without the head doth not make the place +wherein it is buried religious. But according to the civil law the +corpse of a Jew, or paynim, or unbaptised infant maketh the place of +its sepulchre religious: yet by the Christian religion and the +canonical doctrine the body of a Christian alone maketh it so. And +note that whatever is _sacred_ is _religious_; but the contrary +holdeth not. But the afore-named religious place hath divers +appellations: such be _cemetery, polyandrum_, or _andropolis_ (which +is the same thing), _sepulchrum, mausoleum_ (which is also the same), +_dormitorium, tumulus, monumentum, ergastulum, pyramid, sarcophagus, +bustum, urna, spelunca_. + +4. _Cemetery_ hath its name from _cimen_ which is _sweet_, and +_sterion_, which is a _station_: for there the bones of the departed +rest sweetly, and expect the advent of their Saviour. Or because there +be therein _cimices_, that is reptiles of intolerable odour. + +5. _Poliantrum_, from _pollutum antrum_, on account of the carcases of +men therein buried. Or _poliantrum_ signifieth a multitude of men, +from _polus_, which is a _plurality_, and _andros_, which is a man; +and therefore a cemetery is so called on account of the number of men +therein buried.' [Footnote 368] + + [Footnote 368: It has been thought right to give a few of the + bishop's derivations, lest his translators should be accused of + concealing a circumstance which may weaken, with some, his testimony + on other points (though, as we have before shown, most unjustly): it + has not, however, been thought necessary to follow him through all + his names of a cemetery: since to do so would be a mere waste of the + reader's time.] + +{83} + +[Sections 6 to 10 elided.] + +11. Cemeteries are said to have their beginning from Abraham, who +bought a field from Hebron: in which was a double cave, [Footnote +369] where he and Sarah were buried: there also Isaac and Jacob were +buried: there also Adam and Eve. [Footnote 370] Therefore there was a +double cave there: since they who buried therein were placed side by +side, every man and his wife; or the men in the one, and their wives +in the other: or because everyone there interred had a double cave, +after the fashion of a chair. Whence saith Hierome, Three patriarchs +are buried in the city Hebron, with their three wives. But they were +buried as it were in a sitting posture: the upper part of the cave +held the trunk from the loins: the lower the thighs and legs. + + [Footnote 369: Genesis xxiii, 9: 'We take this word Machpelah for a + proper name, as many others do: but the Talmudists generally think + it to have been a double cave, as the lxx also, with the vulgar + Latin, understand it. Yet they cannot agree in what sense it was so: + whether they went through one cave into another, or there was one + above the other.'--Bishop Patrick, s.l.] + + [Footnote 370: One might almost have thought that this is a false + reading for _Leah and Rebecca_. For the common tradition was that + Adam and Eve were buried in Mount Calvary: so that where the first + Adam fell before death, the second Adam triumphed over death. And + the bishop speaks below of _three_ patriarchs, and their _three_ + wives buried in Machpelah: which is at variance with the text as it + stands: but would agree with the proposed emendation. + + Yet S. Isidore says, 'De morte Abrahae,' fol. 295: 'Sepultusque est + in spelunca duplici; in cujus interiore parte Adam esse positum + traditio Hebraeorum testatur.' S. Victor upon Spelunca duplex: + 'Domus quaedam fuit subterranea, in qua erat solarium, et multi + fuerant sepulti, in ea et diversis foveis et subter et supra;' and + in another place, 'Spelunca in qua est sepulta spiritualem designat + vitam, quae est occulta: quae recte duplex vocatur; propter bonam + actionem et contemplationem.'] + +{84} + +12. But all men ought not to be buried promiscuously in the church: +for it seemeth that that place of sepulchre profiteth not. Lucifer was +thrown down from Heaven, and Adam cast out of Paradise; and what +places be better than these? Also Joab was slain in the Tabernacle, +and Job triumphed in the dunghill. Nay rather, it is to his hurt if a +man unworthy or a sinner be buried in a church. We read in the +'Dialogues' of Blessed Gregory, book the fourth, chapter the +fifty-sixth, that when a certain man of notorious wickedness +[Footnote 371] had been buried in the church of S. Faustinus at +Brescia, in the same night Blessed Faustinus appeared to the warden of +the church, saying, Speak unto the bishop that he cast out the body; +otherwise he shall die in thirty days. Now the warden feared to tell +the thing to the bishop: and the bishop on the thirtieth day suddenly +departed out of this life. It is also written in the same book, +chapter the fifty-seventh, that another wicked man was buried in a +church, and that afterwards his body was found outside the church, the +cerecloths remaining in their own place. And Austin says, they who are +guilty of notorious sins, if they be buried in the church by their own +desire, shall be judged for their presumption; for the sacredness of +the place doth not free those whom the accusation of temerity +condemns. + + [Footnote 371: A similar story has been parodied in the 'Ingoldsby + Legends': a work which for irreverence and profanity has hardly an + equal. Disgraceful as it would be to any author, it is trebly so, if + (as it is said) that author is a clergyman.] + +No body, therefore, ought to be buried in a church, or near an altar, +where the Body and Blood of our Lord are made, except the bodies of +holy fathers, who be called patrons, that is defenders, who defend the +whole country with their merits, and bishops, and abbots, and worthy +presbyters, and laymen of eminent sanctity. But all ought to be buried +about the church, or in the court of the cloisters, or in the porch: +or in the exedroe and apses which are joined to the church, or in the +cemetery. {85} Some also say that a space of thirty feet round the +church ought to be set apart for that purpose. But others say that the +space enclosed by the circuit which the bishop makes around the church +must suffice for this. S. Augustine saith in his book 'On the Care of +the Dead,' towards the end, that to be buried near the tombs of +martyrs advantageth the dead in this, that by commending him to the +guardianship of the martyrs, the earnestness of our supplication for +him may be increased. + +13. Of old time men were buried in their own houses: but on account of +the stench thereby engendered, it was decreed that they should be +buried without the city, and certain places should be set apart by +sanctification for that purpose. But noblemen were buried in +mountains, both in the middle of them and at the foot: and also under +mounds raised of their own expense. [Footnote 372] But if anyone be +slain in besieging a town, where there is no cemetery, let him be +buried where he can. But if a merchantman or pilgrim die by sea, and +any inhabited land be near, let him be buried in it: but if no port be +near, let him be buried in some island. If, however, land cannot be +seen, let a little house of timbers (if they can be had) be made for +him, and let him be cast into the sea. + + [Footnote 372: _Sub propriis podiis_. For some account of the + curious word _podium_, whence _pew_ or _pue_ is derived, see the + Cambridge Camden Society's 'History of Pews' (or the 'Supplement,' + pp. 6, 7).] + +14. In a Christian cemetery none may be buried but a baptised +Christian: nor yet every such an one neither: one, namely, slain in +the act of sin, if it be mortal sin, as if he were slain in adultery, +or theft, or some forbidden amusement. And also where a man is found +dead, there let him be buried, on account of the doubtful cause of his +death. {86} But if anyone dieth suddenly in games accustomably used, +as the game of ball, he may be buried in the cemetery, because it was +not his desire to injure anyone: but because he was occupied in +worldly matters, some say that he ought to be buried without psalms +and the other obsequies of the dead. But if anyone attacking another +in a strife or tumult dieth impenitent, and hath not sought the +priest, he ought not, as some say, to be buried in the cemetery: nor +yet he who hath committed suicide. But if anyone dieth, not from any +manifest cause, but from the visitation of God alone, he can be buried +in a cemetery. For the just man, in what hour soever he dieth, is +saved. The rather if he were following some lawful occupation. To +defenders of justice and those who are engaged in a pious fight, the +cemetery and the office of burial are freely conceded: yet they who +come to a violent death are not borne into the church, lest the +pavement be polluted with blood. But if anyone returning from any +place of fornication be slain in the way, or be slain anywhere, where +by unforeseen case, he hath tarried, he is not to be buried in the +common cemetery; and this if it can be proved, by evidence sufficient +for a court of law, that he had not confessed after the act of +fornication nor was contrite: otherwise he ought to be buried. + +15. Again, a woman who dieth in child-birth ought not to be carried +into the church, as some say, but her obsequies must be said without +the church, to which I agree not: otherwise it would be as if she died +in fault. Whence she may allowably be borne into the church. + +16. But stillborn and unbaptised children are to be buried without the +cemetery. Some say, however, that they should be buried with the +mother as being a part of her body. + +17. A man and wife are to be buried in the same sepulchre, after the +example of Abraham and Sarah (unless a wish be specially expressed to +the contrary). {87} Whence also Tobias commanded his son, that when +his mother had accomplished her days, he should bury her in the same +grave with himself. [Footnote 373] Also everyone is to be buried in +the sepulchre of his fathers, unless from a principle of devotion he +hath chosen another sepulchre. But it was decreed in the Moguntine +Council, that they who have paid the extreme penalty for their crimes, +if they have confessed, or have desired to confess and have +communicated, may be buried in the cemetery, and the Mass and +oblations may be offered for them. How the human body is to be buried, +shall be said under the section of the Office for the Dead. + + [Footnote 373: Tobit xiv, 10] + + +{88} + +CHAPTER VI + +OF THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH + +Rise of the Dedication of Churches--By whom Performed--Particulars of +Consecration--The Twelve Crosses--Banners--Dedication--Re-consecration +Considered--Reconciliation--In what Cases--Of Scandals +--Reconciliation of Cemeteries. + +1. Twice in the former part of this treatise we have described the +material church and the altar; it followeth that we must add something +about their dedication: stating, + + I. Whence the consecration of churches hath its origin. + II. At whose hands a church is consecrated. + III. For what reason. + IV. In what form; and what is signified, as well by the dedication + itself, as by each of the ceremonies observed therein. + + Of the offices for the festival of the dedication of a church we + shall speak in the seventh book. [Footnote 374] + + [Footnote 374: Appendix H.] + +2. We have first to state whence the dedication of churches hath had +its rise. Upon which, note that under the teaching of the Lord, Moses +made the tabernacle, and consecrated it together with its table of +show-bread, and altar, and brazen vessels, and utensils for performing +the divine worship. {89} And these he not only consecrated with +prayers to God, but also anointed, at the command of the Lord, with +sacred oil. For [Footnote 375] we read that the Lord taught Moses to +prepare a chrism, with which to anoint the tabernacle and the ark of +the testimony at the time of their dedication. Solomon also the son of +David, at the command of the Lord, completed the temple and its altar, +and consecrated what was still necessary for the performance of the +divine worship; as it is written in the third book of Kings. +[Footnote 376] Nebuchadnezzar the king also summoned all his satraps, +chief men, and governors to the dedication of the golden image which +he had made. [Footnote 377] The Jews therefore, as we read in +Burchardus, [Footnote 378] used to have the places in which they +sacrificed to the Lord consecrated by divine petitions, nor used they +to offer gifts to God in any places but such as were dedicated unto +Him. If then they who were in bondage to the shadow of the Law used to +do this, how much the more ought we, to whom the truth hath been made +manifest--'grace and truth came by Jesus Christ' [Footnote 379]--to +build temples to the Lord, and adorn them as best we may, and devoutly +and solemnly consecrate (according to the institution of Pope Felix +III) [Footnote 380] by divine prayers and holy unctions both them and +their altars and vessels, and vestments also, and other utensils for +fulfilling the divine service? + + [Footnote 375: Exodus xxx, 23-34.] + + [Footnote 376: I Kings iii, 6.] + + [Footnote 377: Daniel iii, 2.] + + [Footnote 378: Book iii, ch. I. ] + + [Footnote 379: S. John i, 17.] + + [Footnote 380: 'The solemnities of the consecration of churches and + of priests ought to be celebrated year by year, after the example of + our Lord Himself, Who at the feast of the Dedication of the Temple + did set us a pattern of this in that He celebrated this festival + with the rest of the people; as it is written in S. John, "And it + was at Jerusalem the feast of the Dedication, and it was winter, and + Jesus walked in the Temple in Solomon's porch." Felix Papa in + 'Epist. ad Episc. per divers, provincias,' cap. i.] + +{90} + +Again, when once in Syria, in the city of Baruth, the Jews had +trampled underfoot an image of the Crucified, and had pierced its +side, there soon came forth therefrom blood and water. But the Jews +marvelled at this spectacle, and their sick when anointed with this +blood were freed from all their infirmities: by reason of which all, +having received the faith of Christ, were baptised, and proceeded to +consecrate their synagogues into churches. And hence hath grown the +custom that churches should be consecrated, whereas before this altars +alone used to be consecrated. On account of this miracle also the +Church ordained that a memorial of the Lord's Passion should be made +on the fifth day before the Calends of December: and for the same +reason the church was consecrated to the honour of the Saviour, in +which a vessel containing some of the blood is preserved, and a solemn +festival is celebrated on that day. [Footnote 381] + + [Footnote 381: The editors have not been able to find any other + account of this legend.] + +3. Secondly, it is to be noted that a bishop alone can dedicate +churches and altars: since he beareth the image and figure of the +Chief Bishop, Christ, dedicating spiritually, without Whom we can do +nothing stable in the Church: whence He hath Himself said, 'Without Me +ye can do nothing'; [Footnote 382] and the Psalm saith, 'Unless the +Lord build the house their labour is but lost that build it: +[Footnote 383] hence the Council of Carthage prohibiteth a priest from +doing this, nor can this office be deputed to anyone of an inferior +order. + + [Footnote 382: S. John xvii, 5.] + + [Footnote 383: Psalm cxxvii (_Nisi Dominus_), I.] + +4. Further, as the Sacred Canons instruct us, a church must not be +dedicated, unless it be first endowed, and that from goods lawfully +acquired. For we read how when a certain bishop was consecrating a +church built out of the fruits of usury and pillage, he saw behind the +altar the devil in a pontifical vestment, standing in the bishop's +throne: who said unto the bishop, Cease from {91} consecrating the +church: for it pertaineth to my jurisdiction, since it is built from +the fruits of usuries and robberies. Then the bishop and the clergy +having fled thence in fear, immediately the devil destroyed that +church, with a great noise. + +5. Again, a church which hath been erected from the profit of avarice +must not be consecrated; nor one for which a sufficient endowment hath +not been assigned; nor one in which a paynim or an infidel hath been +buried, until he shall have been cast forth thence, and the church +reconciled, the walls and timbers having been first scraped. The case +is the same also with respect to an excommunicate person. But if a +woman with child be buried there, though she be not removed, the +church may be consecrated, even if the child hath not been baptised. + +Although certain learned authors have written otherwise the church may +also be consecrated on ordinary days as well as on Sundays: and more +bishops than one and more altars than one may be consecrated at the +same time by the same person in one church. + +6. Thirdly, we have to say for what reason a church is dedicated: and +indeed there be five reasons. First, that the devil and his power may +be entirely expelled from it. Gregory relateth in a dialogue, in his +third book, that when a certain church of the Arians having been +restored to the Orthodox was being consecrated, and relics of S. +Sebastian and the Blessed Agatha had been conveyed thither, the people +there assembled of a sudden perceived a swine to be running to and fro +among their feet; the which regaining the doors of the church could be +seen of none, and moved all to marvel. Which sign the Lord showed for +this cause, that it might be manifest to all that the unclean +inhabitant had gone forth from that place. {92} But in the following +night a great noise was made on the roof of the same church, as if +someone were running confusedly about upon it. The second night the +uproar was much greater. On the third night also so vast a noise was +heard as if the whole church had been overthrown from its foundations: +but it immediately ceased and no further inquietude of the old enemy +hath appeared in it. Secondly, that those who fly for refuge to it may +be saved, as we read in the Canons of Gregory. And with this view Joab +fled into the tabernacle and laid hold of the horns of the altar. +Thirdly, that prayers may be heard there. Whence in the prayer of the +Mass of Dedication it is said, 'Grant that all who shall meet together +here to pray may obtain, whatsoever be their trials, the benefits of +the consolation.' Thus also Solomon prayed at the dedication of the +Temple, as we read in the eighth chapter of the third book of Kings. +[Footnote 384] Fourthly, that praises may there be offered to God, as +has been already mentioned under the head of the Church. Fifthly, that +there the sacraments of the Church may be administered. From which the +church itself is called a tabernacle, as it were the hostelrie of God, +in which the divine sacraments be contained and adminstered. +[Footnote 385] + + [Footnote 384: I Kings viii, 30.] + + [Footnote 385: See chapter i, 4.] + +7. Fourthly, we have to speak of the manner in which a church is +consecrated. All being excluded from the church, a single deacon +remaining shut up within, the bishop with his clergy before the doors +of the church proceedeth to bless water mixed with salt. In the +meanwhile within the building twelve lamps be burning before twelve +crosses which be depicted on the walls of the church. Next, the +bishop, the clergy and people following him and performing the circuit +of the church, sprinkleth from a rod of hyssop the external walls with +{93} holy water; and as he arriveth each time at the door of the +church he striketh the threshold with his pastoral staff, saying, +'Lift up your heads, O ye gates,' etc. The deacon from within +answereth, 'Who is the King of Glory?' To whom the Pontiff, 'The Lord +of Hosts,' etc. But the third time, the door being thrown open, the +bishop entereth the church with a few of his attendants, the clergy +and people remaining without, and saith, 'Peace be to this house'; and +then the Litanies. Next on the pavement of the church, let a cross be +made of ashes and sand; upon which the whole alphabet is described in +Greek and Latin characters. [Footnote 386] And then he sanctifieth +more water with salt and ashes and wine, and consecrateth the altar. +Lastly, he anointeth with chrism the twelve crosses depicted on the +wall. + + [Footnote 386: See the Appendix on the 'Dedication of a Church'] + +8. In good truth whatsoever things be here done visibly, God by His +invisible power worketh the same in the soul which is the temple of +the true God: in which Faith layeth the foundation, Hope buildeth up, +and Charity perfecteth. For the Catholic Church herself, made one out +of many living stones, is the Temple of God, because many temples make +one temple, of which the true God is one, and the Faith one. The +house, therefore, must be dedicated; the soul sanctified. + +9. And it is to be observed that consecration effecteth two things; +for it appropriateth the material church itself to God, and doth +insinuate our own betrothal, as well namely of the church as of the +faithful soul. For a house not consecrated is as a damsel designed for +some man, but not furnished with dowry or united in the commerce of +wedlock. But in consecration it is endowed, and passeth into the +proper spouse of Jesus Christ, which further to violate is sacrilege. +For it ceaseth to be the resort of demons, as is evident in the +consecration of that temple, which used formerly to be called the +Pantheon, or place of all demons. [Footnote 387] + + [Footnote 387: 'Pope Boniface the Fourth did consecrate to the most + Blessed Virgin and All Saints the famous monument of Agrippa, the + _Pantheon_, having purified it from the base herd of vain gods.' + _Ciampini_ IV, vi, 55. This is now called Santa Maria Rotonda. + Doard.] + +{94} + +10. First, however, we have to speak of the benediction of water, +concerning which the Lord saith, 'Unless a man be born again of water +and of the Spirit, he cannot enter the Kingdom of Heaven.' [Footnote +388] For water which is designed for washing the body, hath merited to +receive from God so great a virtue, that as it washeth the body from +impurities, so also it should cleanse the soul from sins. It is +manifest indeed that this water, by the aspersion of which a church is +consecrated, signifieth baptism, because in some sort the church +itself is baptised; and the church itself assuredly denoteth that +Church which is contained in it, namely, the multitude of the +faithful. Whence also it is called a church because it contains the +Church; the thing containing, namely, for the thing contained. + + [Footnote 388: S. John iii, 5.] + +11. But we must inquire wherefore salt is to be mixed with this water, +since our Saviour, speaking of baptism, made no mention of salt. For +He saith not 'unless a man be born again of salt water or water mixed +with salt,' or anything of this sort: but He said 'unless a man be +born again of water and of the Holy Spirit,' etc. And the very same +inquiry may be made concerning oil and chrism. But we must note that +salt in the divine language is often put for wisdom; according to that +saying, 'Let your speech be savoured with salt' And the Lord saith to +His disciples, 'Have salt in yourselves and have peace one with +another.' [Footnote 389] And again, 'Ye are the salt of the earth; +but if the salt have lost its savour wherewithal shall it be salted?' +[Footnote 390] Hence also it is that {95} according to the law no +victim was offered without salt, but salt was a part of every +sacrifice. From all which passages it is clearly shown that salt is +put for wisdom. And wisdom indeed is the seasoning of all virtues, as +salt is of all meats. Hence therefore it is that no one is baptised +before he hath tasted salt; and in order that even infants may have by +the symbolical meaning of the sacrament that which they cannot have in +fact, the water is not blessed without a mixture of salt. Of the +second benediction of water we shall speak in the following treatise. + + [Footnote 389: S. Mark ix, 50.] + + [Footnote 390: S. Mark v, 13.] + +12. Again, the trine aspersion within and without with hyssop and holy +water signifieth the threefold immersion in baptism. And it is done +for three reasons. First, to drive away evil spirits. For holy water +availeth from its own proper virtue to drive away demons. Whence in +the Office for Exorcising the Water we say--'that this water may +become exorcised in order to put to flight all the power of the enemy, +and may avail to eradicate the enemy himself,' etc. Secondly, for the +cleansing and expiation of the church itself. For all earthly things +be corrupted and defiled by reason of sin. Hence it is also that in +the Law almost everything was cleansed by water. Thirdly, to remove +all malediction, and to bring in a blessing instead. For the earth +from the beginning received the curse with all its fruits, because +that the great deceit was made out of its fruit. But water hath not +been under any curse. Hence it is that our Lord ate fish, but we do +not read expressly that he ate flesh, unless of the Paschal Lamb; and +this on account of the precept of the Law, as an example, namely, +sometimes to abstain from lawful things, sometimes to eat the same. +Again, the aspersion in going the circuit signifieth that the Lord +having a care of His own, sendeth His angel round about them that fear +Him. + +{96} + +13. But the three responses which be chanted in the meantime testify +the joy of the three ages of men receiving the faith, namely, Noah, +Daniel, and Job. And since at this invocation the grace of Faith, +Hope, and Charity, is poured out as the sprinkling is directed to the +foot and middle part, as well as to the upper part of the walls. We +will now also speak of the interior aspersion. (Of the virtue of the +hyssop, we will speak under the next head.) + +14. But the trine circuit, which the bishop maketh while sprinkling, +denoteth the thrice-repeated circuit which Christ made for the +sanctification of the Church. The first was that by which He came down +from heaven to the world: the second in which He descended into hell +from the world: the third in which returning from hell and rising +again He ascended into heaven. The trine circuit also showeth that +that church is dedicated to the honour of the Trinity. It showeth also +the three states of such as shall be saved in the Church, which be the +virgins, the continent, the married: which also the arrangement of the +material church itself showeth, as hath been said under the head of +the Church. + +15. Moreover, the trine striking on the lintel of the door signifieth +the threefold right which Christ hath in His Church why it ought to be +opened unto Him. For it hath from Him Creation, Redemption, and +promise of Glorification. For the bishop representeth Christ, and the +rod His power. Again, by the triple striking of the door with the +pastoral staff, the preaching of the Gospel is understood. For what +else is the pastoral rod than the divine Word? According to that of +Esaias, 'He shall smite the earth with the rod,' _i.e._ the word, 'of +His mouth,' etc. [Footnote 391] Wherefore to strike the door with the +rod is to strike the ears of the hearers by the word of preaching. +{97} For the ears are the gates by which we bring in the words of holy +preachings to the hearts of the hearers. Whence in the Psalm, 'Who +liftest me up from the gates of death that I may show all Thy praises +within the ports of the daughter of Sion.' [Footnote 392] For what +are the gates of the daughter of Sion but the ears and hearing of the +faithful? Thirdly, the trine striking with the staff, and the opening +of the gates, signifieth that by the preaching of the pastors the +unbelieving shall come to the agreement of the Faith. For by it the +gates of justice be opened, and they that enter therein do confess the +faith. Whence the Psalm, 'Open unto me the gates of righteousness: I +will go into them and I will praise the Lord: this is the gate of the +Lord, the righteous shall enter into it.' [Footnote 393] Wherefore +the bishop striketh the lintel, namely, of reason, saying, 'Lift up +your heads, ye princes,' that is, ye evil spirits: or rather, 'Lift +up, ye men,' that is, remove the gates, that is, your ignorances, +namely, from your hearts. [Footnote 394] + + [Footnote 391: Isaiah xi, 4.] + + [Footnote 392: Ps. ix (_Confitebor tibi_), 13, 14.] + + [Footnote 393: Ps. cxviii (_Confitemini Domino_), 19, 20.] + + [Footnote 394: Ps. xxiv (_Domini est terra_), 'Attollite portas + principes vestras.'] + +16. Again, the question of the deacon shut up within answering in the +character of the people, 'Who is the King of glory?' is the ignorance +of the people which knoweth not Who He is Who ought to enter. + +17. The opening of the doors is the ejection of sin. Rightly, +therefore, doth the bishop strike three times, because that number is +most known and most sacred; and in any consecration the bishop ought +to smite the doors three times, because without the invocation of the +Trinity, there can be no sacrament in the Church. + +18. The threefold proclamation, 'Lift up your heads,' etc., signifieth +the threefold power of Christ, that, namely, which He hath in heaven, +and in the earth, and in hell. Whence it is said in the hymn for the +Ascension, 'That the threefold frame of things, whether heavenly, +earthly, or infernal, may bow the head, having been subdued. +[Footnote 395] + + [Footnote 395: This hymn, by S. Gregory, is used in the office of + matins in the Roman Breviary.] + +{98} + +19. Next the bishop entereth by the open door to denote that if he +duly exercise his office, nothing can resist him; according to that +saying, 'Lord, who shall resist Thy power?' And he entereth, +accompanied by two or three, that in the mouth of two or three +witnesses every word of the consecration may stand sure. Or else +because the Lord in His Transfiguration, in the presence of a few, +prayed for the Church. And the bishop as he entereth saith, 'Peace be +to this house and to all them that dwell therein'; because Christ +entering the world made peace between God and man; for He came that He +might reconcile us to God the Father. + +20. After this while the Litany is being said the bishop prostrateth +himself and prayeth for the sanctification of the house. For Christ +also humbling Himself before His Passion prayed for His disciples and +'them that should believe through His word,' saying, 'Father, sanctify +them in Thy name.' [Footnote 396] But after he hath risen up he +prayeth without benediction, since he saith not 'The Lord be with +you'; because the Church is not yet as it were baptised, and because +Catechumens only are not worthy that this mark of approval should be +given to them, since they are not yet sanctified: but nevertheless +prayer is to be made for them. + + [Footnote 396: S. John xvii.] + +21. The clergy praying and chanting the Litany representeth the +Apostles who intercede with God for the sanctification of the Church +and of souls. + +{99} + +The alphabet is written on the pavement of the church in this manner. +A cross made with ashes and sand is described athwart the church, upon +which cross of dust the alphabet is written in the shape of a cross in +letters of Greek and Latin, but not of Hebrew, because the Jews have +departed from the faith; and it is written with the pastoral staff. + +22. This alphabet written upon the cross representeth three things. +First, the writing made in Greek and Latin characters in the shape of +a cross representeth the conjunction or union in faith of both people, +namely, the Jews and the Greeks, which is made through the Cross of +Christ: according to the saying that Jacob blessed his sons with his +hands crossed. But the cross itself or the legend that is described in +a direction athwart the church, namely, the one arm from the left +corner of the east to the right of the west, and the other from the +right of the east to the left of the west, [Footnote 397] signifieth +that that people, which was before on the right is now made on the +left, and that which was first is now made last, and the converse: and +this owing to the power of the Cross. For Christ passing from the +east, left the Jews on His left hand, because they were unbelieving, +and came to the Gentiles, to whom, though they had been in the west, +He grants to be on the right hand: and at length returning from the +Gentiles, who are situated at the right hand of the east, He visited +the Jews in the left corner of the west; who it is evident are worse +than He before found the Gentiles. But on this account the characters +are written obliquely and in the shape of a cross, and not in a +straight line, because such an one as doth not receive the mystery of +the Cross and doth not believe that he must be saved by the Passion of +Christ, is not able to attain to this holy wisdom. Wisdom will not +enter into the evil-disposed mind, and where Christ is not the +foundation, no edifice can be built upon it. + + [Footnote 397: We understand this to mean that the cross described + in the church is a saltire, or S. Andrew's Cross, and not a plain + one. Upon this again consult the Appendix.] + +{100} + +23. Secondly, the writing of the alphabet representeth the page of +both Testaments, because they be fulfilled by the Cross of Christ. For +the veil of the temple was rent asunder at His Passion, because then +the Scriptures were opened, and the Holy of Holies revealed. Whence He +Himself said when dying, 'It IS FINISHED.' In these few letters also +all knowledge is contained; and the alphabet is written crosswise, +because one Testament is contained in the other. For there was a wheel +within a wheel. + +24. Thirdly, it representeth the articles of faith; for the pavement +of the church is the foundation of our faith. The elements written +thereon, are the articles of faith, in which ignorant men and +neophytes from both peoples be instructed in the Church; who indeed +ought to esteem themselves dust and ashes. Just as Abraham saith in +the xviii chapter of Genesis, 'Shall I speak to my Lord, who am but +dust and ashes?' Wherefore the writing of the alphabet on the pavement +is the simple teaching of faith in the human heart. + +25. The _sambuca_ or staff, with which the alphabet is written, +showeth the doctrine of the apostles, or the mystery of the teachers, +by which the conversion of the Gentiles hath been effected, and the +perfidy of the Jews. Afterwards approaching the altar the bishop +standeth, and beginneth by saying, 'O God, make speed to save us;' +because he is then beginning the principal part of office. And the +versicle, 'Glory be to the Father,' etc., is then said. + +26. Because this benediction is used to set forth the glory of the +Trinity, Alleluia is not then uttered, as will be set forth in the +next chapter. Then the bishop consecrateth the altar, for which he +blesseth other water, as {101} shall also be declared in the next +chapter. With which water also, after that the altar hath been +sprinkled seven times, the whole interior of the church is sprinkled +three times, as at first without any distinction between greater and +smaller stones, since 'there is no respect of persons with God.' For +this reason is the interior sprinkled, to signify that an external +ablution profiteth nothing without an internal charity. And for this +reason three times, because, as hath been premised, that aspersion +signifieth the aspersion and cleansing of baptism, which is conferred +through the invocation of the Trinity, according to the saying, 'Go ye +and teach all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father, and +of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost:' [Footnote 398] for since a +church cannot be immersed in water as a man in baptism is immersed, it +is on this account sprinkled three times with water, as if in the +place of a threefold immersion. + + [Footnote 398: S. Matt, xxviii, 19.] + +27. Again, the bishop performeth the aspersion proceeding from the +east to the west and once through the middle in the form of the cross; +because Christ gave instructions to baptise the whole of Judea and all +nations in the name of the Trinity, to which baptism He gave efficacy +in the ministry of His Passion, beginning from the Jews, from whom He +had His birth. And what remains of the water is poured away at the +foot of the altar, as shall be mentioned in the next chapter. Some, +however, do not bless any fresh water, but perform the whole office +with that which was blessed at first. In the meanwhile, however, the +choir is chanting the Psalm _Exsurgat Deus_ ('let God arise and let +His enemies be scattered,' etc.), and the _Qui habitat_ ('whoso +dwelleth,' etc.), in which mention is made of the church and its +consecration, as is plain in that verse, 'He is the God {102} that +maketh 'men to be of one mind in an house.' [Footnote 399] But the +bishop saith, 'My house shall be called an house of prayer,' because +it is his duty to cause that the church should be a house of God, not +of merchandise. + + [Footnote 399: Psalm lxviii (_Exsurgat Deus_), v, 5.] + +28. Next, when the altar hath been anointed with chrism, the twelve +crosses painted on the walls of the church are also anointed. But the +crosses themselves be painted; first, as a terror to evil spirits, +that they, having been driven forth thence, may be terrified when they +see the sign of the cross, and may not presume to enter therein again; +secondly, as a mark of triumph. For crosses be the banners of Christ, +and the signs of his triumph. [Footnote 400] Crosses therefore are +with reason painted there that it may be made manifest that that place +hath been subdued to the dominion of Christ. + + [Footnote 400: Compare the hymn, _Vexilla Regis prodeunt_.] + +29. For even in the pomp of an earthly sovereign it is customary when +any city hath been yielded, for the imperial standard to be set up +within it. And to represent the same thing, Jacob is said to have set +up the stone, which he had placed under his head, as a historical, +traditional, and triumphal monument. [Footnote 401] + + [Footnote 401: Genesis xxviii.] + +30. Thirdly, that such as look on them may call to mind the Passion of +Christ, by which he hath consecrated His Church, and their belief in +His Passion. Whence it is said in the Canticles, 'place me as a signet +upon thy arm,' etc. [Footnote 402] The twelve lights placed before +these crosses signify the twelve Apostles who have illumined the whole +world by the faith of the Crucified, and whose teaching hath dispersed +the darkness: whence Bernard saith, 'All prophecy is verified in the +faith of the crucified One;' and the Apostle, 'I determined not to +know anything among you except Jesus Christ and Him crucified.' +[Footnote 403] {103} Wherefore the crosses on the four walls of the +church are lighted up and anointed with chrism, because the apostles +preaching the mystery of the cross have by the faith of Christ +illumined the four quarters of the earth unto knowledge, have lighted +them up unto love, have anointed them unto purity of conscience--which +is signified by the oil; and unto the savour of a good +reputation--which is signified by the balsam. In addition to this, +after the anointing of the altar, the altar itself and the church are +ornamented; the lamps lighted up; a Mass is said, in which the priest +useth different vestments from those which he hath used in the +aspersion, as shall be explained in the sequel. + + [Footnote 402: Cant, viii, 6.] + + [Footnote 403: I Cor, ii, 2.] + +31. Lastly, it is to be noted that a church is said to be consecrated +in the blood of someone; whence, according to Pelagius and Pope +Nicholas, the Roman Church was consecrated in the martyrdom of the +Apostles, Peter and Paul. [Footnote 404] A church therefore is +consecrated in the way just described; and an altar, as will be set +forth in the next chapter; and a cemetery and other things, as is +declared under the head of its consecration. And although we read in +the Old Testament that the Temple was consecrated three times: first, +in the month of September; secondly, in March under Darius; thirdly, +in December by Judas Maccabaeus. + + [Footnote 404: This passage is obscure. A confession or martyrium + was built over the place of S. Peter's martyrdom in the earliest + times, and is now covered by the Vatican. See Ciampini de Vaticana + Basilica. The expression probably means, in honour of the + martyrdom.] + +32. Yet a church once consecrated, is not to be consecrated again +unless it shall have been profaned, which happeneth in three ways. +First, if it hath been burnt so as that all the walls or the greater +part of them be destroyed. But if only the roof or some part of it +hath been burnt, the walls remaining entire, or at least only {104} +partially destroyed, it need not be reconsecrated. Secondly, if the +whole church or the greater part of it hath fallen to the ground at +the same time, and hath been repaired entirely or not with the +original stones. For the consecration of a church consisteth mainly in +the exterior anointings, and in the conjunction and arrangement of the +stones. If, however, all the walls shall have fallen in, not at the +same time, but in succession, and shall have been repaired, the church +is to be considered the same. And so it need not be reconsecrated, but +only exorcised with water and reconciled by the solemnisation of a +Mass: however, some learned authors have said that it ought to be +reconsecrated. Thirdly, a church must be reconsecrated, if it be +doubtful whether it ever hath been consecrated, should there remain no +writing or painting or inscription to that effect, nor even a single +eye-witness, nor yet an ear-witness, who (as some say) would be +sufficient. + +33. An altar also which hath been once consecrated must not be +consecrated again unless it should happen that it become profaned. +Which taketh place first if the table, that is the upper surface on +which the principal part of the consecration is bestowed, be moved or +changed in its form, or broken beyond measure, for instance above a +half. However, a disproportion of this sort may rightly be referred to +the decision of the bishop. The same also is especially the case, if +the whole structure of the altar hath been moved and repaired. +Nevertheless, the church is not to be reconsecrated on account of +either the movement or the breaking of the structure of the altar: +because the consecration of an altar and of a church be two different +things. So conversely if when the church is entirely destroyed the +altar be not injured, the church only is to be repaired, and the altar +not reconsecrated although in such case it is fitting that it be +washed with exorcised water. + +{105} + +34. Further, when the chief altar hath been consecrated the inferior +altars are not the less to be consecrated: although some have said +that it is sufficient for the rest to be pointed out with the finger +while the former is under consecration. + +35. If, however, the altar hath suffered a trifling injury, it is not +on this account to be reconsecrated. + +Secondly, an altar is reconsecrated, if the _seal_ of the altar--that +is the little stone by which the sepulchre or cavity in which the +relics be deposited is closed or sealed--be moved or broken. And the +cavity itself is made sometimes on the top part of the block, and +sometimes no other seal is put over it, but the _table_, being placed +over it, is considered as the seal. But sometimes it is placed in the +hinder part, and sometimes in the front: and in the same cavity the +bishop's letters of consecration be generally carefully deposited in +testimony of the consecration: containing his own name and that of the +other bishops present at the consecration: and declaring in honour of +what saint the altar is consecrated, and also the church itself, when +both be consecrated at the same time, and the year also and day of +consecration. + +Thirdly, an altar is reconsecrated, if the junction of the seal to the +cavity, or of the _table_ to the block, where there is no other seal +than this slab, be disturbed; or if any of the stones of the junction +or the block, which toucheth either the table or the seal, be either +disturbed or broken. For in the conjunction of the seal and cavity, +and of the table and block or inferior structure, the consecration is +most especially perceived. + +{106} + +Fourthly, an altar is reconsecrated, if to it or to the conjunction of +the table with the under structure so great an enlargement be made as +that it loseth its original form, since the form giveth the existence +to the thing. Yet it doth not become profaned on account of a trifling +enlargement: but in that case the sacred part draweth over to itself +the part not sanctified: so long as the conjunction of the top slab +and under structure be not greatly changed. + +Fifthly, an altar, just as a church, is reconsecrated in cases of +doubt. + +Sixthly, a travelling altar, if the stone be removed from the wood in +which it is inserted, which in some sort representeth its _seal_, and +be replaced again in the same or in other wood, some think should be +reconsecrated, but others only reconciled. But although it be often by +the command of the bishop transferred from place to place, and carried +on a journey (on which account it is called a portable or a travelling +altar) yet it is not reconsecrated in consequence of this, nor yet +reconciled. + +36. But if a consecrated chalice be regilt, is it therefore to be +reconsecrated? It seemeth so, since it appeareth to become a new +chalice. For he who doth renew the old fashion of a work seemeth to +make a new work: and he doth remake, who doth mend a thing already +made. And assuredly consecration doth pertain to the outer surface. +And hence it is that I have said above that a church, if its walls be +stripped of their outer coat, must be reconsecrated. + +37. The converse is nevertheless true, that neither on account of +whitewashing or painting the walls, nor of any small addition to them, +is a church to be reconsecrated; as I have already said. Wherefore, if +the shape of the chalice be not changed, it remaineth the same +chalice, and is not to be reconsecrated; just as also a church being +repaired, since it remaineth the same church, is not to be +reconsecrated, as aforesaid. {107} But if the former shape be changed, +the case were otherwise, since, as I have said, the shape giveth +existence to the thing. Nevertheless, it is decent, as well by reason +of its contact with unclean hands as also of the increment of +unconsecrated matter, that a chalice, being regilded, should be washed +with exorcised water before that the most Holy Body and Blood of the +Lord be sacrificed therein. Let us now say something about +Reconciliation. + +38. Upon this head it is to be noted that the spiritual temple, which +is man, is ofttimes polluted. Whence we do read in the twentieth of +Leviticus what men be polluted, and how they may not enter the church +until they be washed with water and cleansed: as also in the +nineteenth of Numbers, 'He that toucheth the dead body of a man shall +be unclean .... wherefore he shall purify himself and wash his clothes +and bathe himself in water and shall be clean.' And the Prophet saith, +'Thou shalt purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean. [Footnote +405] + + [Footnote 405: Psalm li (_Miserere mei_), 7.] + +39. The material temple also, which as Pope Gregory doth testify, is +the church, is sometimes polluted, as we do read in Leviticus. +[Footnote 406] Whence saith the Prophet, 'Thy holy temple have they +defiled and made Jerusalem an heap of stones.' [Footnote 407] And the +material temple is also washed with water in order to be reconciled. +[Footnote 408] Reconciliation is also effected by the celebration of a +Mass, and the aspersion of water duly consecrated with salt, wine, and +ashes. For by the salt, is signified discretion; by the water, the +people; by the wine, the Divinity; by the ashes, the remembrance of +the Passion of Christ; by the wine mixed with water, the union of +Godhead and Manhood. + + [Footnote 406: Levit. xv, 31.] + + [Footnote 407: Psalm lxxix (_Deus, venerunt_), I. ] + + [Footnote 408: Some of our readers may not know that reconciliation + is the technical term for the restoring a desecrated church to a + state fit for the performance of the divine offices.] + +{108} + +These things, therefore, be put together to denote that the people, +being cleansed by a discerning remembrance of the Passion of Christ, +are made one with Him. Also if the church hath once been consecrated, +the reconciliation can be made by a bishop only. And albeit he might +devolve upon a fellow-bishop the whole office, namely, both the +blessing of the water and the reconciliation; or the benediction of +the water only; or even the reconciliation alone with water blessed +beforehand by himself; yet can neither be devolved upon a mere priest, +unless perchance this be competent to him by a special privilege. But +if the church hath not been consecrated, it ought, according to the +Constitution of Gregory, to be washed forthwith with exorcised water: +the which washing some do affirm may be done by a mere priest, though +at the bidding of the bishop: since it hath to be done by exorcised +water, which every priest may use. Yet some skilful men of the highest +authority have written that it is safer for this also to be done by +none but a bishop, and that this may not be devolved by him to a +priest; for certain canons do call exorcised water that which is +solemnly blessed with wine and ashes:--and this is true indeed in +regard of a church which although not consecrated hath been dedicated +unto God. For it is otherwise with a mere oratory, which is neither a +holy nor a religious place, inasmuch as any man doth order it at his +will--at least for prayers, albeit perchance not for celebration +without the license of the diocesan--and at his will assigneth the +same place to another use. + +40. A church then is to be reconsecrated in the aforesaid case: and +also if any uncleanness be committed therein, whether by clerk, +layman, heretic, or paynim. But albeit some wise men have thought +otherwise, we opine that the case is different in regard of +unintentional pollution. [Footnote 409] + + [Footnote 409: The editors have ventured to make a few omissions in + this and some of the following sections.] + +{109} + +41. A church also must be reconciled on account of any homicide, in +any way intentionally committed therein, whether with or without the +shedding of blood: and also, besides homicide, for any violence or +injurious shedding of human blood, whether from a wound or not, or +from the nose or the mouth. For we read in the Old Testament, in the +fourteenth and fifteenth of Leviticus, how that any man shedding +blood, or polluted in divers ways, may not enter the temple. If, +however, without violence or injury blood should flow in any natural +way whatsoever within the church; or if any animal should be slain +therein, or if anyone should die suddenly, or be killed by a falling +stone or timber, or by lightning; for these and the like occasions the +church is not reconciled. Nor again, if anyone, having been wounded +elsewhere, should flee to a church and die there even with great +effusion of blood: since then the homicide is not committed in the +church. But conversely, if anyone having been wounded in a church +dieth without, or even if blood flow from the wound away from the +church, the case is otherwise, even if the blood did not flow at all +within the church: since the law regardeth the blow which causeth the +wound. But and if blood be shed or other pollutions be caused on the +roof of a church, no reconciliation is made, because the deed is +committed without the church. + +42. But if theft and rapine be committed in a church, it is reconciled +by the custom which usually obtaineth in such matters. And some do +affirm that the same ought to be done in any case of violence +committed therein without the shedding of blood; for example, if +anyone having taken refuge therein should be drawn forth with +violence. Also if anyone should break into the church or any quarrel +should be tumultuously carried on, though without shedding of blood: +or if anyone should be grievously beaten therein, so as his bones +should be broken, or he be covered with weals and bruises, though +without blood; {110} or again, if anyone, being condemned while +present in a church either to death or mutilation, be led forth to go +to the place of execution. But since these cases be not expressed in +the law, it is not necessary for the church to be solemnly reconciled +by the bishop. Yet we think it is decent for it to be washed by the +priest with exorcised water at the command of the bishop: and the same +is to be said, if the church being a long-time without roof or doors, +should have been open to all impurities, to animals and the natural +use of men, as if a common inn: nor perchance would it be amiss for it +in such case to be solemnly reconciled by the bishop. Again, if +anyone, slain without the church, be shortly borne into the church, +and there the murderer or anyone else thinking he will not die should +inflict on his yet warm body a blow causing blood to flow, then the +church must be reconciled, as well by reason of the horror and +abomination, as of the violence and intention of sinning: for though a +dead man be not a man, yet is his human blood shed there by violence; +and to the corpse itself is violence, horror, and injury offered. But +the case is otherwise if anyone, having died a natural death, be, +through respect of, and honour to his body, dismembered in the church +or disembowelled, that perhaps one part may be buried in one place, +and another in another. + +43. A church must also be reconciled, in which an infidel, or one +publicly excommunicated be buried; and then the walls are to be +scraped. + +In the aforesaid cases, however, in which a church is to be +reconciled, it is requisite that the fact causing the reconciliation +should be known at least by report. + +{111} + +44. For this is a scandal to the church, the horror and abomination of +baseness and sin and violence committed in a sacred place, or in a +church: wherein the pardon for offences is besought, wherein there +ought to be a refuge of defence, wherein is offered the saving +sacrifice for sins, wherein also those that flee for refuge be saved, +and praises be rendered unto God. Furthermore, the intention and +design of sinning mortally therein do cause a church to be reconciled. +But if this design be hidden, reconciliation is not necessary, since +the church itself, being holy, cannot be polluted; nay, the holiness +of the place itself doth do away with the infamy: albeit some do think +the contrary of this, as that it ought to be reconciled at least +privately, so that the delinquents be not exposed. + +45. For reconciliation is performed for an example and warning, that +all who behold the church, which hath in no wise sinned, washed and +purified for the delict of another, may reflect how they themselves +must work out the expiation of their own sins. + +46. Also a cemetery, in which a paynim, or an infidel or one +excommunicate be buried, is to be reconciled; the bones, however, of +the paynim, if they can be distinguished from those of the faithful, +being interred elsewhere. A cemetery also is reconciled in the +above-mentioned cases, in which a church is to be reconciled: for a +cemetery enjoyeth the same privileges as doth a church, as we shall +say in the chapter of Sacred Unctions; for it is a holy place from the +time of its benediction; and it is reconciled by the bishop, just as a +church, by the aspersion of water, blessed with wine and ashes. + +47. But this is to be noted, that in whatsoever part of the church or +the cemetery the violence or pollution be committed, both the church +and the cemetery, and also the several parts of either, by reason of +their contiguity, are understood to be violated. This first hath of +late been set straight by Pope Boniface. For albeit the consecrations +of the church, the altar, and the cemetery be diverse, yet is the +immunity of them one and the same and is not to be restricted to any +one of them separately, nor to any individual part of either. {112} +This indeed is true if the church and cemetery be adjacent: but if the +one be at a distance from the other, one may well be violated without +the other. If therefore when one is violated or polluted, the other be +also violated and polluted; by the like reason, if one only be +reconciled the other is also taken to be reconciled: since nothing is +more natural than that everything should be loosed in the same method +as it is bound, and that the relation of binding and loosing should be +the same. Wherefore when the cemetery is violated or polluted, it +sufficeth that the church be reconciled. There be nevertheless some +who do affirm simply that by the pollution of the one, the other is in +no wise polluted, and by consequence that each should be reconciled +separately. Yet these doth the authority of the Pontifical oppose, in +which is found a special form for the reconciliation of a cemetery. +Lastly, if a church or a cemetery, or any such thing, be consecrated +or blessed by a bishop under excommunication, these, some affirm, do +not require reconciliation, since sacraments administered by such in +the form of the Church be valid. But since (as aforesaid) one or more +excommunicate persons do profane a cemetery or church, much more +indeed do the external sacraments and benedictions, which proceed from +the hands and mouth of an excommunicate person, appear so far as +pertaineth to their own merits to be contaminated and to stink before +God. Wherefore it is decent that we should reconcile them before the +faithful use these sacraments; as in truth the reading of the sacred +canons doth evidently teach. For the Lord saith by the Prophet, 'I +will curse your blessings.' [Footnote 410] + + [Footnote 410: Malachi ii. 2.] + + +{113} + +CHAPTER VII + +OF THE CONSECRATION OF AN ALTAR + +Rise of the Consecration of Altars--Manner of the Same--The +Benediction of Water--The Aspersions--The Hyssop--Consideration of +Relics--The Altar must be of Stone--The Incense--The Benediction of +Church Ornaments. + +1. Not only is a church consecrated, but also the altar: and this for +three reasons. First, with regard to the sacrament thereon to be +offered to God. Noah [Footnote 411] built an altar to the Lord, and +offered a sacrifice upon it, taking some of all clean birds and +beasts. But this sacrament is the Body and Blood of Christ which is +sacrificed in remembrance of the Lord's Passion, according to the +command, 'This do in commemoration of Me.' [Footnote 412] + + [Footnote 411: Genesis viii.] + + [Footnote 412: S. Luke xxii, 19.] + +2. Secondly, with regard to the invocation in that place of the name +of God: whence [Footnote 413] Abraham built an altar to God who +appeared unto him, and called there upon the name of the Lord. But +this invocation, which takes place over the altar, is properly called +the Mass. + + [Footnote 413: Genesis xii.] + +3. Thirdly, with regard to chanting: 'He gave him patience against his +enemies, and caused singers also to stand before the altar, that by +their voices they might make sweet melody.' [Footnote 414] + + [Footnote 414: Eccles. xlvii, 9.] + +{114} + +4. The consecration of an altar is performed in this method and order. +The bishop beginneth, 'O God, make speed to save us.' Afterwards he +blesseth the water, and then at the four horns [Footnote 415] of the +altar he describeth four crosses with the consecrated water. Next, he +goeth round the altar seven times, and sprinkleth the _table_ +[Footnote 416] of the altar seven times with holy water, by means of +an aspersory of hyssop. The church also is again sprinkled, and the +remainder of the water is poured at the foot of the altar: and then +four crosses be made with chrism at the four corners of the sepulchre +in which the relics are to be deposited; and the relics themselves be +placed in a case, together with three grains of frankincense, and so +be buried in the sepulchre. Then is placed upon the sepulchre its +cover, [Footnote 417] strengthened in the middle by the sign of the +cross: afterwards the stone, which is called the table, is fitted to +the top of the altar, and when fitted is anointed with oil in five +places, and in the same way is further anointed afterwards with +chrism, as hath been said when speaking about oil. The altar also is +confirmed in front by the chrism applied in the form of the cross, and +incense is burnt upon it in the five places. After this the altar is +covered up, and is spread with clean cloths, and then at length the +sacrifice is celebrated upon it. Now let us follow out each of the +above-mentioned ceremonies in succession. + + [Footnote 415: The word _horn_ appears to be used simply for + _corner_, evidently with reference to the altar of the temple, which + had raised projections, or horns at its angles.] + + [Footnote 416: We shall use the word _table_ to denote the _mensa_ + or upper surface of the altar, on which the chief part of the + ceremonies of consecration were performed.] + + [Footnote 417: This passage is obscure, and receives no light from + other ritualists who have not spoken much on the consecration of + altars. From the 25 of the chapter we apprehend that this slab, or + cover of the sepulchre, was marked with a cross of chrism before it + was fitted on to the cavity.] + +{115} + +5. First, then, it is to be noted, that an altar is consecrated by the +unction of chrism and act of blessing intervening, and that it is only +and entirely of stone. The bishop standing up beginneth, 'O God, make +speed to save us,' because the Lord Himself saith, 'Without Me ye can +do nothing.' [Footnote 418] + + [Footnote 418: S. John xv, 5.] + +6. And because this dedication signifieth that those must be baptised, +who, after receiving the faith, are preparing themselves to fight, and +who are still situated amongst the sighs and struggles of this world; +on this account the Alleluia is omitted, since those who be not +baptised be not worthy to join in the praises of angels: whence it is +written in Tobit, 'And all her streets shall say Alleluia.' +[Footnote 419] But after that the consecration of the church or of the +altar is completed, the Alleluia is chanted, because the delusions of +devils having been expelled, God shall be praised thereupon. For +Christ even when approaching to the altar of the cross in order to +manifest the glory of His Eternity, paid the penalty of death: not +until after His resurrection sang He Alleluia. + + [Footnote 419: Tobit xiii, 18.] + +7. Secondly, with respect to the blessing of water, it is to be noted +that this kind of exorcising water is performed in order to expel the +enemy from it. In which blessing four things be necessary; namely, +water, wine, salt, and ashes. And this for three reasons. + +8. (i) Because there be four things which expel the enemy. The first +is the outpouring of tears, which is denoted by the water: the second +is the exultation of the soul, which is denoted by the wine: the third +is natural discretion, which by the salt; the fourth, a profound +humility, which is signified by the ashes. Wherefore the water is +penitence, the wine exaltation of mind, the salt wisdom (as was shown +in the preceding chapter), the ashes the humility of penitence. Whence +it is said of the Ninevites that their 'king rose up from his throne, +and clothed himself with sackcloth, and sat in ashes.' [Footnote 420] +{116} Hence also David saith, 'For I have eaten ashes as it were +bread.' [Footnote 421] Hence also Abraham saith, 'Shall I speak to +my Lord, who am but dust and ashes?' [Footnote 422] + + [Footnote 420: Jonah iii, 6.] + + [Footnote 421: Psalm cii (_Domine exaudi_), 9.] + + [Footnote 422: Genesis xviii, 27.] + +9. (ii) In a second sense water is the people or mankind, because many +waters are many peoples; wine is the Deity; salt, the teaching of the +divine law which is the salt of the covenant; ashes, that which +preserveth the remembrance of the Lord's Passion. Wine mixed with +water, is Christ, God and Man. For by means of faith in the Lord's +Passion (_ashes_), which is had through the teaching of the Divine Law +(_salt_), the people, denoted by the water, is joined through the +union of faith, to its Head, God and Man. + +10. (iii) In a third method we may say also that this consecrated +water signifieth the Holy Spirit, without Whose influence nothing ever +is sanctified, and without Whose grace there is no remission of sins. +That the Holy Spirit is called water, truth itself showeth when He +saith, 'Whosoever believeth in Me, out of his belly shall flow rivers +of living water': [Footnote 423] which the Evangelist explaining +saith, 'This He spake of the Holy Ghost which they should receive who +believed upon Him.' + + [Footnote 423: S. John vii, 38, 39.] + +11. And note the order of the sacrament; the church is consecrated +outwardly by water, inwardly by the Spirit. For this is what the Lord +saith, 'Unless a man shall be born again of water and of the Holy +Ghost,' etc. [Footnote 424] Here is the water: here the Holy Spirit. +For in the sacrament of baptism, neither is the water without the +Spirit, nor the Spirit without the water: which element indeed the +Spirit Himself did sanctify, when in the first creation of the world +'He moved upon the face {117} of the waters.' [Footnote 425] With +this water therefore, both the altar itself and the whole interior of +the church is sprinkled, when both it and the altar are dedicated on +the same occasion. + + [Footnote 424: S. John iii, 5.] + + [Footnote 425: Genesis i, 2.] + +12. Although therefore the Spirit and water would suffice for the +perfect operation of baptism and the consecration of a church, yet the +holy fathers who have made this constitution, wished to satisfy us not +only in those particulars which pertain to the efficacy of the +sacraments, but in those also which relate to its greater +sanctification: and on this account they have added salt, wine, oil, +ashes, and chrism. (For Philip, when he baptised the eunuch, had +neither oil nor chrism.) Therefore not one of these ingredients ought +to be wanting; and they ought all to be mixed together, because the +people of God, which is the Church, is neither sanctified nor released +from sins without the union of these qualities. On this I shall treat +also in the chapter upon consecrations. With respect to water indeed +the case is evident, because 'unless a man be born again,' etc. + +13. With respect to the salt also; because without the seasoning of +faith, which is typified by the salt, no one shall ever be saved, +albeit he be sprinkled by the water of baptism. Also with respect to +wine, by means of which the spiritual intelligence of the divine law +is denoted. Whence the Lord at the marriage in Cana turned the water +into wine. But if anyone shall not have been sprinkled with this, that +is, shall not have drunk of this or have believed those who offered it +to him to drink, he shall not attain to the blessedness of eternal +life. The aspersion of ashes also, by which the humility of penitence +is understood, is so necessary, that without it there is no remission +of sins in adults; for through it they come to baptism, and it is the +sole refuge for such as have sinned {118} after baptism. Whence not +without reason is baptism called from it: the Lord speaking in the +gospel concerning John Baptist 'that he came into the whole region of +Galilee, preaching the baptism of repentance for the remission of +sins.' [Footnote 426] Note also that there be four kinds of +consecrated water, of which we shall speak in the fourth book, and at +the head of 'The aspersion of holy water.' [Footnote 427] + + [Footnote 426: S. Mark i, 4.] + + [Footnote 427: There be four kinds of holy water, one, by the which + is made the judgment of expurgation, which is no longer used; a + second, which doth sanctify in the consecration of a church or an + altar; a third, with which aspersions be made in the church; and a + fourth, the water of baptism.'--Durandus, Lib. IV, iv, 10.] + +14. When all these ingredients have been mixed, the bishop maketh four +crosses with this water at the four horns of the altar, and one in the +middle; [Footnote 428] the four crosses represent the fourfold +charity which they ought to have who approach the altar, viz., love +for God, themselves, their friends, and their enemies. Of which four +corners of charity it is said in Genesis, 'Thou shalt spread into the +east, and the west, and the north, and the south': and for this reason +be the four crosses made at the four corners to show that Christ, by +His Cross, hath saved the four quarters of the world. Secondly, they +be made to point out that we ought to bear the cross of the Lord in +four ways; namely, in our heart by meditation, in our mouth by +confession, in our body by mortification of the flesh, in our face by +constant impression. The cross in the middle of the altar signifieth +the Passion which Christ underwent in the middle of the earth, by +which He worked out salvation in the middle of the earth; that is, in +Jerusalem. + + [Footnote 428: The _tables_, or upper slabs of the altar, were + inscribed with five crosses, one at each corner and one in the + middle: as are also the altar stones which are found in the middle + of the frightful wooden altars abroad at this day. See an + interesting list of altar slabs in the 'Few Hints' of the Cambridge + Camden Society.] + +{119} + +15. Next, the bishop goeth seven times round the altar, (i) Firstly, +to signify that he ought to exercise care for all, and to keep himself +vigilant, which is denoted by the act of going round. Whence at that +time they chant, 'The watchmen that went about the city found me.' +[Footnote 429] For a bishop ought to watch anxiously over the flocks +committed to him: for as Gilbert saith, 'A ridiculous thing it is, a +blind watchman, a lame leader, a negligent prelate, an untaught +teacher, and a dumb preacher.' + + [Footnote 429: Cant. v, 7.] + +16. (ii) Secondly, the seven circuits of the altar do signify the +seven meditations which we ought to entertain respecting the sevenfold +virtue of the humility of Christ, and of which we ought to make +frequent circuits in our minds. The first virtue is, that from being +rich He became poor; the second, that He was laid in a manger: the +third, that he was subject to His parents; the fourth, that He bowed +His Head under the hand of a slave; the fifth, that He bore with a +thief and a betrayer as a disciple; the sixth, that He stood gentle +before an unrighteous judge; the seventh, that He mercifully prayed +for them that crucified Him. + +17. (iii) Thirdly, by the seven circuits be indicated the seven +journeys of Christ. The first was from heaven to the Virgin's womb; +the second, thence into the manger; the third, from the manger into +the world; the fourth, from the world to the cross; the fifth, from +the cross to the sepulchre; the sixth, from the sepulchre to the place +of spirits; the seventh, from the place of spirits to heaven. + +18. After this, the bishop sprinkleth the altar. But what the altar +signifieth in a temple, the Apostle telleth us: 'For the Temple of God +is holy, which temple ye are.' [Footnote 430] Wherefore, if we be the +Temple of God, 'we {120} have an altar.' [Footnote 431] Our altar is +our heart: for the heart is in a man what the altar is in a temple. On +this altar is made the sacrifice of praise and joy, according to the +saying of the Psalmist: 'The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit,' +etc. [Footnote 432] On this altar is made the commemoration of the +Body and Blood of Christ. From it do prayers rise to heaven, because +God looketh to the heart. This altar, therefore, is sprinkled with +water when the hearts of men, by means of the preaching of the gospel, +are cleansed from sin. For preaching is water, according to that +saying: 'All ye that thirst, come to the waters.' [Footnote 433] By +this water, therefore, that is, by the preaching of the gospel and the +sanctification of the Holy Ghost, both the altar of the heart and the +whole man are cleansed and sanctified. For the altar of the heart is +consecrated by the conception of fear, inviting to good, and by the +affection of love, confirming to the better. 'For the fear of the Lord +is the beginning of wisdom.' [Footnote 434] + + [Footnote 430: 2 Cor. vi, 16.] + + [Footnote 431: Heb. xiii, 10.] + + [Footnote 432: Ps. li (_Miserere mei Deus_), 17.] + + [Footnote 433: Isaiah lv, 1.] + + [Footnote 434: Ps. cxi (_Confitebor tibi_), 10.] + +19. But the altar is sprinkled seven times with water to notify that +in baptism the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit be conferred. By this +also it is set forth that we ought to have a remembrance of the Lord's +Passion. For the seven aspersions of water be the seven outpourings of +the Blood of Christ. The first whereof was at circumcision; the second +in prayer, when His sweat was as drops of blood; the third, at the +scourging; the fourth, from the crown of thorns; the fifth, from His +pierced hands; the sixth, when His feet were nailed to the cross; the +seventh, when His side was opened. Some, however, sprinkle three +times, because we baptise in the name of the Holy Trinity; or because +the church is cleansed from sins of thought, word, and deed; whence +also at that time the _Miserere mei_ is said. + +{121} + +20. Moreover, these aspersions be made with an aspersory made of +hyssop, by which herb, because it is lowly, the lowliness of Christ is +conveniently represented: since the above-mentioned effusions of blood +were accompanied by the hyssop, of the humility and inextinguishable +love of Christ by which the Catholic Church being sprinkled is +purified. This herb also groweth naturally upon rock: and lowliness of +disposition hath grown upon Christ the rock. For according to the +Apostle, 'That rock was Christ.' [Footnote 435] It is also of a warm +nature; and the humility of Christ inflameth cold hearts to the +practice of works of love. Its roots also penetrate the rocks; and +humility breaketh through the hardest of obstinacy. It availeth for +diseases of the breast and against swelling: so doth humility heal the +swelling of pride. The former also is born from, and rooted in, the +earth: whence by it the whole multitude of the faithful may be +understood; and those especially be figured by the hyssop, who, rooted +and grounded in Christ, cannot be plucked up or separated from His +love. By whom what can we understand better than the bishops and +presbyters, because the more dignity they obtain in the Church, the +more firmly ought they to cleave to the faith of Christ. By these +assuredly is the water aspersed; by and through these be the faithful +of Christ baptised; to these is it given to perfect the sacrament of +baptism. + + [Footnote 435: I Corinthians x, 4.] + +21. But whilst the altar is being sprinkled with water the bishop +chanteth, 'My house shall be called an house of Prayer,' etc., +[Footnote 436] and again, 'I will tell out thy name to my brethren.' +[Footnote 437] And because without God no work is perfectly +consummated, he prayeth that those who enter therein to seek for +blessings may be heard. + + [Footnote 436: S. Matthew xxi, 13.] + + [Footnote 437: Psalm xxii (_Deus Deus meus_), 22.] + +{122} + +Afterwards, when the church and altar are consecrated at the same +time, the whole church is sprinkled with that water, as was discussed +in the preceding chapter, which being done, the bishop approacheth the +altar repeating Psalms, and what remains of the water is poured away +at the foot of the altar, as in the old Testament [Footnote 438] what +remained of the blood was poured away at the bottom of the altar; by +which it is signified that the remainder in so great a sacrament, +which is beyond human power, is given over unto God, Who is the Chief +High Priest, Whose part it is to supply the defect of other priests. +But the sepulchre or cavity in which relics ought to be deposited, +signifieth the golden pot full of manna, which was placed in the ark +of the testimony, as hath been explained under the head of the Altar. + + [Footnote 438: Exodus xxix, 12.] + +22. A sepulchre of this sort, which by some is termed a _confession_, +is our heart; and it is consecrated by four crosses made with chrism, +because there be four virtues described in the book of wisdom--namely, +Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance, and Justice--with which our heart is, +as it were, anointed, when it is prepared by the gift of the Holy +Spirit to receive the mysteries of the heavenly secrets. But this +sepulchre is made sometimes at the upper part of the altar, sometimes +in the front side of it. + +23. Without the relics of saints, or, where they cannot be had, +without the body of Christ, [Footnote 439] there is no consecration +of a fixed altar: but there may be of a travelling or portable one. +Relics in truth are, after the example of both Testaments, evidences +of the suffering of martyrs and lives of confessors; which things be +left to us as examples. These we enclose in a case, because we retain +them, in order to imitate them in our heart: but if we hear and +understand and do no works, {123} it tendeth rather to damnation than +to salvation; because 'not the hearers of the law are just before God, +but the doers only'; [Footnote 440] whence the Apostle saith, 'Be ye +imitators of me as I am also of Christ.' [Footnote 441] + + [Footnote 439: See chapter ii.] + + [Footnote 440: Romans ii, 13.] + + [Footnote 441: I Corinthians xi, 1.] + +24. But the solemn carrying of relics is in imitation of what is read +in the xxv chapter of Exodus. In the ark of the testament there were +two golden rings, going through the whole thickness of the wood, and +through these were put the staves of shittim wood overlaid with gold, +by which the ark was borne. And before the bishop entereth the church +he goeth round it with the relics in order that they may be protectors +of that church. We read also in the viii chapter of the third book of +Kings that at the dedication of the temple 'there were assembled +together all the elders of Israel, with the chiefs of the tribes, and +the heads of families to King Solomon in Jerusalem, to carry the ark +of the covenant of the Lord; and there came all the elders of Israel, +and the priests brought in the ark of the covenant of the Lord into +his place, into the oracle of the house, to the most holy place, even +under the wings of the cherubims. For the cherubims spread forth their +two wings over the place of the ark, and the cherubims covered the ark +and the staves thereof above. And King Solomon, and all the +congregation of Israel that were assembled unto him, marched with him +before the ark.' [Footnote 442] In remembrance of this event, the +prelates, great men, and people [Footnote 443] of the province meet +together, even at this day, for the dedication of churches, and follow +in procession him that consecrateth: and relics are solemnly carried +by priests under a pavilion or canopy. Afterwards the bishop, before +he entereth the church with these, addresseth the people. For Solomon +also, after the ark had been {124} carried, 'turned his face about, +and blessed all the congregation of Israel,' and prayed for such as +should pray in the church. 'For all the congregation of Israel stood, +and Solomon said, Blessed be the Lord God of Israel,' etc., as is read +in the same place. [Footnote 444 ] + + [Footnote 442: I Kings viii, 2, 6, 7.] + + [Footnote 443: The Venice edition of 1609 reads _Apostoli_ here.] + + [Footnote 444: I Kings, viii.] + +25. But the relics of saints are enclosed in a case together with +three grains of frankincense, because we ought to retain in our +recollection the examples of the saints, together with faith in the +Trinity, that is, in the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. For we ought to +believe one God, one faith, one baptism, because 'the just liveth by +faith,' [Footnote 445] without which, as the Apostle hath said, 'It +is impossible to please God.' [Footnote 446] There is placed upon +and fitted to the sepulchre itself a certain board fortified by the +sign of the cross made with chrism. [Footnote 447] For by chrism is +understood the gift of the Holy Spirit, with which this board, that is +charity, is anointed; because our heart is fortified by the grace of +the Holy Spirit to observance of the heavenly mysteries. The board +therefore fortified by this sign is placed over the relics, because by +the example of the saints is inflamed charity, 'which covereth a +multitude of sins,' [Footnote 448] just as also the board covereth +the relics. Whence saith the Apostle, 'The love of God is spread +abroad in our hearts by the Holy Spirit which is given unto us.' +[Footnote 449] But this slab or stone containeth, or is called, the +_seal_ of the sepulchre; as saith Pope Alexander III. + + [Footnote 445: Romans i, 17.] + + [Footnote 446: Hebrews xi 6.] + + [Footnote 447: See above, section 4, note 7.] + + [Footnote 448: I S. Peter iv, 8.] + + [Footnote 449: Romans v, 5.] + +After this, however, the stone, which is called the _table_ of the +altar, is fitted to the top of the altar; by which we may understand +the perfection and solidity of the knowledge of God; and it ought to +be of stone, not because of the hardness, but the solidity of faith. +Just as the Lord said unto Peter, 'Thou art Peter, and upon this +rock'--that is, upon this firmness of faith--'I will build My Church.' +[Footnote 450] + + [Footnote 450: S Matthew xvi, 18.] + +{125} + +26. For as this _table_ is the completion and finishing of the altar, +so is the knowledge of God the confirmation and perfection of all good +gifts. Whence in the book of Wisdom it is said unto the Lord, 'For to +know Thee is perfect wisdom, and to know Thy justice and Thy virtue is +the root of immortality.' [Footnote 451] The Lord saith by Jeremiah, +'Let him that glorieth glory in this, that he understandeth and +knoweth Me.' [Footnote 452] + + [Footnote 451: Wisdom xv, 3.] + + [Footnote 452: Jeremiah ix, 24.] + +27. Or, again, by this stone itself is understood Christ, of Whom the +Apostle saith, 'Jesus Christ Himself being the chief corner-stone.' +[Footnote 453] By the stone indeed the humanity of Christ is denoted. +Concerning which we read in Daniel that a stone was cut out of the +rock without hands--because Christ was born of the Blessed Virgin (who +for the excellency of her virtues is called a Mountain), without human +agency--and, becoming a huge mountain, filled the whole earth. +Concerning which it is said also by the Psalmist, 'The stone which the +builders refused hath become the head stone of the corner:' +[Footnote 454] since Christ--Whom the builders, that is the Jews, +refused, saying, 'We will not have this man to reign over us' +[Footnote 455] --hath been made the head of the corner. Because as +saith the Apostle, 'God hath exalted Him, and given Him,' [Footnote +456] etc. Or else by this stone, which ought to be great and wide, +charity is understood, as was stated before; since the command of +charity is wide, extending even unto our enemies; according to that +precept of our Lord, 'Love your enemies.' [Footnote 457] + + [Footnote 453: Ephesians ii, 20.] + + [Footnote 454: Psalm cxviii (_Confitemini Domino_), 22.] + + [Footnote 455: S. Luke xix, 14.] + + [Footnote 456: Philippians ii. 10.] + + [Footnote 457: S. Matthew v, 44.] + +{126} + +28. Altars therefore, unless they be of stone, are not anointed, +because Christ signified by the altar is the Stone growing into a +mountain: as it is said, The mountain itself is fat, 'being anointed +with the oil of gladness, above his fellows.' [Footnote 458] +Nevertheless we read in Exodus that the Lord ordered the altars to be +made of shittim wood, which does not decay; [Footnote 459] and the +Latern altar is of wood. Solomon also made an altar of gold, as we +read in the eighth chapter of the third book of Kings: but these +things were done for a type. [Footnote 460] And in the county of +Province, in the castle of S. Mary by the Sea, there is also an altar +of earth, which Mary Magdalene, and Martha and Mary the mother of +James, and Mary the mother of Salome, made there. [Footnote 461] +After this, the altar having been sprinkled and baptised with water, +it remaineth for it to be anointed with oil and chrism. The bishop +then poureth over it oil and chrism, and chanteth, 'Jacob set up the +stone for a memorial, and poured oil upon it.' [Footnote 462] For +that church hath been the memorial of other churches; 'For the law +hath gone out from Sion, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.' +[Footnote 463] + + [Footnote 458: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 8.] + + [Footnote 459: Exodus xxvii, I, etc.] + + [Footnote 460: The same examples are briefly adduced in the notes to + the Decretal. Ciampini describes the wooden altar of the Lateran, + and mentions its numerous escapes from fire. It was made of + firewood, because 'abies non cedit vermibus unquam, nec putret + facile.' See also Stephen Durantus, _De Rit. Ecc. Cathol._Lib. I, + xxv, 3, quoting from De Turrecremata, about the Lateran altar, and + generally about the subject of this chapter.] + + [Footnote 461: According to the Golden Legend, S. Mary Magdalene, + with other saints, amongst whom was S. Lazarus, were placed by the + Jews in a ship which was borne by the sea to Marseilles. The country + was converted, and S. Lazarus became the first bishop. The people of + Vezelay, in Burgundy, also claimed the honour of possessing the + relics of S. Mary Magdalene. Durandus, a native of Provence, gives + it to the latter country. This curious passage of our author seems + to have been overlooked by some who have attempted to adjust the + dispute.] + + [Footnote 462: Genesis xxviii, 18.] + + [Footnote 463: Isaiah ii, 3.] + +29. But first he maketh upon it the five crosses, with the oil of the +sick, according to the Roman order; but according to the use of some +other Churches, with both sorts of oil; one cross in the middle, and +four at the corners: afterwards, he maketh the same number of crosses +in the same way with chrism. {127} By the oil assuredly is understood +the grace of the Holy Ghost, of which saith Esaias the Prophet, 'The +yoke shall be destroyed because of the anointing.' [Footnote 464] For +as the bishop poureth oil upon the altar, so Christ, who is the Chief +High Priest, poureth His grace upon our altar, which is our heart: for +He is the distributor of all graces through the Holy Ghost, as saith +the Apostle, 'To one is given the word of wisdom, to another the word +of knowledge, to another faith, to another the gift of healing,' etc. +[Footnote 465] And just as the bishop, by means of oil, cleanseth the +_table_ of the altar, so also cloth the Holy Ghost purify our heart +from all vices and sins. + + [Footnote 464: Isaiah x, 27.] + + [Footnote 465: I Corinthians xii, 8.] + +30. Christ also was anointed with oil, not with visible oil indeed, +but with invisible; that is with the grace of the Holy Ghost. Whence +David, 'The Lord thy God hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness +above thy fellows'; [Footnote 466] that is above all the saints who +have been partakers of His Grace, that is, Christ. Whence unction more +expressedly agreeth with Christ (the Anointed One) than with others, +because God hath anointed Him above all others to have the fulness of +good things, and therefore his name is interpreted 'The Anointed.' +Unction also with oil signifieth mercy, according to that saying of +the Evangelist, 'Anoint thy head with oil, and wash thy face': +[Footnote 467] because as oil is among fluids, so is mercy superior +among good works. For whatever liquid you pour upon oil, yet it always +swimmeth at the top. Of mercy it is written, 'The Lord is loving unto +every man, and His mercy is over all His works,' [Footnote 468] and +'Mercy rejoiceth against judgment.' [Footnote 469] With this oil, +therefore, is the {128} altar of our 'heart anointed, that being +always mindful of mercy, we may never lose the effect of the aspersion +of water, and of regeneration and of baptism. + + [Footnote 466: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 8.] + + [Footnote 467: S. Matthew vi, 17.] + + [Footnote 468: Psalm cxlv (_Exaltabo te Deus_), 9.] + + [Footnote 469: S. James ii, 13.] + +31. The five crosses made with the oil signify that we ought always to +have a remembrance of the five wounds of Christ, which He suffered for +our sakes upon the Cross. For He suffered five wounds; namely, in His +hands, His feet, and in His side. + +32. They denote further the five feelings of pity which be necessary +for us. For it is necessary for a man to pity Christ, by sympathising +in His Passion: whence Job, in the person of Christ, saith, 'Pity me, +pity me,' etc. [Footnote 470] A man must also pity his neighbours +whose calamities he seeth; whence in Ecclesiasticus, 'The pity of a +man towards his neighbour.' [Footnote 471] And a man must pity +himself: and this in three ways; namely, for the sins of commission, +by bewailing them; whence Jeremiah, 'There is no one who hath +penitence for his sin, saying, What have I done?' [Footnote 472] +--for his sins of omission: whence Isaiah, 'Woe is me, for I have held +my peace,' [Footnote 473] that is, for I have not spoken; as if he +should say, For I have omitted the good that I might have done:--and +for good deeds done for less pure motives; whence S. Luke saith, 'When +we have done all good deeds, we must say that we are unprofitable +servants,' etc.; [Footnote 474] as if we should say, We have done +good, but not well, not purely, and therefore we have done it +unprofitably; just as anyone giving alms for vain glory doth good +indeed, but not well and not purely. Of this threefold compassion it +is said in Ecclesiasticus, 'Have pity on thy soul and please God;' +[Footnote 475] because true compassion of mind ought to coexist with +the exhibition of good works. {129} Wherefore the crosses be twice +made; the first time of oil, the second of chrism: whence the Psalm, +'A good man is merciful and lendeth'; [Footnote 476] that is, pitieth +in mind, and lendeth in deed. And since it sufficeth not to have +compassion in mind together with the exhibition of good deeds, without +the savour of a good report, according to that saying of the gospel, +'Let your light so shine before men that they may glorify God'; +[Footnote 477] therefore the crosses be made with chrism, which +consisteth of balsam and oil. + + [Footnote 470: Job xix, 21.] + + [Footnote 471: Eccles. xviii, 12--_Vulgate_.] + + [Footnote 472: Jeremiah viii, 6.] + + [Footnote 473: Isaiah vi, 5--_Vulgate_.] + + [Footnote 474: S. Luke xvii, 10.] + + [Footnote 475: Eccles. xxx, 24--_Vulgate_.] + + [Footnote 476: Psalm cxii (_Beatus vir_), 5.] + + [Footnote 477: S. Matthew v. 16.] + +33. Balsam indeed, on account of its good odour, signifieth good +report; oil, on account of its brightness, signifieth the clearness of +conscience which we ought to have: according to the saying of the +Apostle, 'Our rejoicing is this, the testimony of our conscience.' +[Footnote 478] Again, balsam is properly conjoined with oil, because +good report is added to mercifulness. + + [Footnote 478: 2 Corinthians i, 12.] + +34. Again, by the five crosses made of oil and of chrism the five +senses of our body be understood, which are doubled and made into ten, +because by properly using the senses of our body, we both keep +ourselves, and confirm others by our example and teaching in +well-doing. Whence that good trader boasted, saying, 'Behold I have +gained five more talents.' [Footnote 479] But whilst these +anointings are going on, they chant, 'The Lord thy God hath anointed +thee,' [Footnote 480] which was said of Christ. + + [Footnote 479: S. Matthew xxv, 20.] + + [Footnote 480: Hebrews i, 9.] + +The altar therefore is anointed three times; twice with oil, and once +with chrism; because the Church is marked by Faith, Hope, and Charity, +which last is greater than the others. And while the chrism is used +they chant, 'See the smell of my son is as the smell of a field.' +[Footnote 481] This field is the Church, which is verdant with +flowers, which shineth in virtues, which is fragrant with good works; +{130} and wherein be the roses of martyrs, the lilies of virgins, the +violets of confessors, and the verdure of beginners in the faith. +After the unction there is incense burnt, which signifieth the +devotion of prayer. For he that hath the seven gifts of the Holy +Ghost, and is made like unto God, is able to offer unto Him devout +prayer, of which he hath this similitude. + + [Footnote 481: Genesis xxvii, 27.] + +35. It is burnt in five places, namely, at the four corners and in the +middle, because we ought so to exercise the five senses of the body +that the report of our good works may extend to our neighbours. Of +which saith the Apostle, 'We are the sweet savour of Christ in every +place.' [Footnote 482 ] And in the Gospel, 'Let your light so shine +before men,' etc. Besides this, the frequent use of incense is the +continual mediation of Christ the Priest, and our High Priest, for us +unto God the Father. + + [Footnote 482: 2 Corinthians, ii, 15.] + +36. To describe a cross with the incense, is to exhibit His Passion to +the Father and Him interceding for us. The burning incense plenteously +in the middle and at the corners is to multiply prayers through +Jerusalem and in the Catholic Church. + +37. Next to this the bishop confirmeth the altar with the sign of the +cross, saying, 'Confirm this altar, O Lord,' etc. And this +confirmation performed by the bishop with chrism on the front of the +stone, signifieth the confirmation which is performed daily by the +Holy Spirit, through charity, upon the altar of the heart, so that no +tribulation should avail to separate our heart from the love of God: +whence saith the Apostle, 'Who shall separate us from the love of +Christ? shall tribulation?' etc.' [Footnote 483] Then there is added +the _Gloria Patri_ in praise of the Trinity. + + [Footnote 483: Romans viii, 35.] + +{131} + +38. The last benediction of the altar signifieth that final +benediction when it shall be said, 'Come, ye blessed of my Father,' +etc. [Footnote 484] Afterwards the altar is wiped over with a white +linen cloth, to notify that we ought to cleanse our heart by chastity +of life. Then the vessels, vestments, and linen cloths, devoted to the +divine worship are blessed. For Moses also during the forty days was +instructed by the Lord to provide linen cloths and the ornaments +necessary for the Temple. + + [Footnote 484: S. Matthew xx, 34.] + +39. Assuredly, thus to bless the utensils is to refer all our works +unto the Lord. After this, the altar is covered with white and clean +cloths: concerning which ceremony we have spoken under the head of the +Altar. Lastly, the church is ornamented and the lamps are lighted: for +then shall the works of the just shine forth, 'Then shall the just +shine, as sparks run swiftly among the stubble.' [Footnote 485] And +then upon the altar, consecrated after this order, the Mass is +celebrated and the sacrifice offered unto the Most Highest: that +sacrifice, namely, of which the Prophet speaketh, 'The sacrifices of +God are a broken spirit; a broken and a contrite heart, O God, Thou +wilt not despise': [Footnote 486] as shall be declared in the +introduction to the fourth book. [Footnote 487] For consecration +ought not to be performed without a Mass, according to Pope Gelasius, +[Footnote 488] because then there is revealed a sacrament, which hath +been hidden from the angels even from the beginning. + + [Footnote 485: Wisdom iii, 7.] + + [Footnote 486: Psalm li (_Miserere mei Deus_). 17.] + + [Footnote 487: The blessed Bernard saith, My brethren, let us in + sacrificing add the sacrifice of praise unto our words, let us add + sense to sense, affection unto affection, exaltation unto + exaltation, maturity unto maturity, and humility unto humility. + Wherefore, he that is about to celebrate must offer unto the Highest + that sacrifice of which the Psalmist speaketh, 'The sacrifices of + God are a troubled spirit.' And again, 'Offer unto God the sacrifice + of thanksgiving.' And the Apostle, 'Present your bodies a living + sacrifice holy acceptable unto God which is your reasonable service, + mortifying upon the altar of your heart your members which are upon + the earth; fornication, uncleanness, inordinate affection, evil + concupiscence, and covetousness, which is idolatry'; in order to + sacrifice yourselves with a pure heart and chaste body unto + God.--Proem, lib. iv, 17.] + + [Footnote 488: Quoted also in the Decretal _De Consecrat. Distinct._ + I.] + +{132} + +And observe, that in the aspersion of the church the bishop useth only +the linen and inferior vestments: but at the Mass he is adorned with +pontifical and precious vestments, because the high priest in the law +used to expiate the sanctuary in a linen ephod, and afterwards used to +offer the ram for the burnt offering being washed and arrayed in the +high priest's vestments. But because he used to send forth the +scapegoat after the expiation being clothed in the same linen ephod, +on this account some, in the consecration of fonts and immersion of +the catechumens where their sins are transferred, do use the simple +linen vestments. + +{133} + +CHAPTER VIII + +OF CONSECRATIONS AND UNCTIONS + +Of Chrism--Of the name Christ, and of Christians--The Heresy of the +Arnaldistae--The Anointing of Priests--Of Bishops--Of Kings--Of the +Consecration of Chalices and Patens--Of Extreme Unction--Of the +Benediction of Church Ornaments. + + +1. We read that the Lord commanded Moses [Footnote 489] to make a +chrism, with which unguent to anoint the tabernacle at the time of the +dedication, and the ark of the testimony, and the table, together with +the vessels; and with which also the priests and kings should be +anointed. Yet Moses himself is not said to have been anointed, except +with a spiritual unction, as also was Christ. + + [Footnote 489: Exodus xxx, 22.] + +2. Christ hath willed that we should be anointed with a material +unction in order that we may by it obtain the spiritual unction: and +on this account our loving Mother, the Church, provideth different +sorts of unction. Upon which let us here touch lightly, Saying-- + + I. What unctions of this sort signify. + II. Of what they be made. + III. Of the unction before baptism. + IV. Of the unction after baptism, which is performed + by the bishop on the forehead. + V. Of the unction in ordination. + +{134} + + VI. Of the unction in consecrating bishops and princes. + VII. Of the unction of a church, altar, chalice, and + other ecclesiastical instruments. + VIII. Of extreme unction. + IX. Of the consecration and benediction of a cemetery, + vestments, and other ecclesiastical ornaments. + X. Of the consecration and benediction of virgins. + +3. Firstly; with respect to the first, then, it is to be noted that +there be two kinds of unction: an _external_, which is material or +corporeal, and visible; and an _internal_, which is spiritual and +invisible. The body is anointed visibly with the external unction; the +heart invisibly by the internal. Of the first, the Apostle S. James +saith, 'Is any sick among you? Let him call for the elders of the +Church; and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name +of the Lord; and the prayer of faith shall save the sick.' [Footnote +490] Of the second the Apostle S. John saith, 'But the anointing which +ye have received of Him abideth in you, and ye need not that any man +teach you: but the same anointing teacheth you of all things.' +[Footnote 491] The external unction is a sign of the internal. But the +internal is not only a sign, that is a thing signified, but a +sacrament also; because if it be worthily received, it either +effecteth, or without doubt increaseth, that which it doth +signify--for instance, healing: according to the saying, 'They shall +lay their hands upon the sick, and they shall be healed.' [Footnote +492] + + [Footnote 490: S. James v, 14.] + + [Footnote 491: I S. John ii, 27.] + + [Footnote 492: See Acts xxviii, 8.] + +Secondly; with respect to the second point, you must know that in +making use of the external and visible unction, two sorts of oil are +consecrated: namely, holy oil, or the oil of the catechumens, with +which catechumens are anointed; and the oil of the sick, with which +the sick are anointed. Of which kind of unction the authority of S. +James quoted above doth speak, 'Is any sick among you,' etc. + +{135} + +But in what way the benediction of these two sorts of oil and of +chrism is performed will be declared in the sixth book in the chapter +upon the Fifth Day of the Holy Week. [Footnote 493] + + [Footnote 493: It has not been thought necessary to translate the + passages referred to.] + +4. But is it asked why the sick and the catechumens are anointed with +oil? I answer, in order that the invisible benefits may be more easily +received through the visible signs: for as oil by expelling weakness +refresheth the wearied limbs, and as it from its own natural qualities +affordeth light, so it is to be believed that unction with consecrated +oil, the which is a type of faith expelling sin, doth impart health to +the soul and doth afford it light. Herein the visible oil is in the +outward sign, the invisible oil in the inward sacrament; and the +spiritual oil is within. For the oil of the sick we have received +authority from the apostles; for the oil of the catechumens from +apostolical men. + +5. And although God can grant the spiritual oil without the material, +yet because the apostles have used this rite in the case of the sick, +and apostolical men in the case of catechumens, this practice which +their authority hath consecrated cannot be omitted without sin (as +hath been said in the chapter upon the Altar): just as anciently the +just pleased God without circumcision; but after it had been enjoined +them to be circumcised, such as omitted this rite were subjected to +sin. + +Thirdly; we have to speak of the unction before baptism. And indeed in +the New Testament not only kings and priests be anointed, as hath been +already said, but also--(because Christ by His Blood hath made us +kings and priests, that is, royal priests, unto our God, as the {136} +Apostle S. Peter saith, [Footnote 494] 'Ye are a chosen generation,' +that is, chosen out from the tribes of men, 'a royal priesthood,' that +is, governing yourselves well)--also, I say, all Christians be +anointed twice before their baptism with consecrated oil--first, on +the breast: secondly, between the shoulders: and twice after their +baptism, with holy chrism--first, on the crown of the head; and +secondly, by the bishop on the forehead. + + [Footnote 494: I S. Peter ii, 9.] + +6. And, according to Augustine, the first three unctions have been +introduced rather by use than by any written authority. The candidate +for baptism is anointed with oil--first, on the breast, in which is +the locality of the heart; first, in order that by the gift of the +Holy Ghost he may cast away error and ignorance and embrace a right +faith; because 'the just liveth by faith,' [Footnote 495] and 'with +the heart we believe unto justification.' [Footnote 496] But he is +anointed between the shoulders, in order that he may, by the grace of +the Holy Ghost, shake off indifference and sloth, and practise good +works (because 'faith without works is dead'),' [Footnote 497] so +that by means of sacraments of faith there may result a purity of +thoughts. On the breast, again, that by the practising of good works +there may arise a boldness of labour: between the shoulders, to the +end that 'faith (according to the Apostle) may work by love.' +[Footnote 498] The oil therefore is carried over from the heart to the +shoulders, since faith, which is conceived in the mind, is perfected +in works (because, that is, faith consisteth in making our _deeds_ +like our _words_). [Footnote 499] But the person after baptism is +anointed by the priest on the head with chrism, that 'he may be ready +always to give an answer to every man that asketh him a reason for the +faith that is in him,' [Footnote 500] because by {137} the head is +understood the mind: as it is written, 'The eyes,' that is the +understanding, 'of the wise are in his head,' [Footnote 501] that is, +his mind; of which mind, the superior part is reason and the inferior +sensuality. Hence, by the crown, which is the upper part of the head, +is well represented reason, which is the superior part of the mind. Of +this we shall speak in the sixth book also, under the head of Easter +Eve, in which confirmation is treated of. [Footnote 502] But this is +the reason that before baptism one is anointed with consecrated oil, +and after baptism with holy chrism; because chrism is competent to a +Christian alone. + + [Footnote 495: Habakkuk ii, 4.] + + [Footnote 496: Romans x, 10.] + + [Footnote 497: S. James ii, 26.] + + [Footnote 498: Gal. v, 6.] + + [Footnote 499: This clause does not occur in the _Princeps_ + Edition.] + + [Footnote 500: S. Peter iii, 15.] + + [Footnote 501: Ecclesiasticus ii, 14.] + + [Footnote 502: The passage referred to speaks of the diverse graces + conferred by the several unctions, and does not illustrate our more + particular object.] + +7. For Christ is so named from _chrism_, or rather _chrism_ is so +called from Christ, not according to the form of the name only, but +according to the rational order of faith. For _Christians_ are called +from Christ, as _the anointed_ would be derived from the Anointed One, +namely, Christ; so that all may unite in the odour of that unguent, +namely, Christ, Whose name is as oil poured out: but according to the +power of the word, _Christians_ are called so from _chrism_, according +to Isidorus. [Footnote 503] This subject is treated in the +introduction to the second book. [Footnote 504] + + [Footnote 503: 'For Christ is named of _chrism_, and meaneth the + Anointed One. For it was commanded the Jews to make a holy unguent + for such as were called unto the priesthood or the kingdom: and as + now the vestment of purple is unto kings the mark of kingly power, + so upon these did the unction with sacred unguent bestow the name + and kingly power: and hence were they called _Christi_, from + _chrism_, which is unction. For _chrisma_ in Greek is _unctio_ in + Latin. And this unction did aptly give this name unto our Lord, + because He was anointed of the Father by the Spirit, as is said in + the Acts of the Apostles, "Against Thy Holy Child Jesus, Whom Thou + hast anointed, were they gathered together": not, that is, with + visible oil, but with the gift of grace, which is denoted by the + visible oil.' S. Isidore of Seville, _Orig_. vii, 2. See also + _Orig_. vii, 4, and _De Off. Ecc._ i, 1.] + + [Footnote 504: 'Christians be named from Christ, and Christ from + _chrism_, being _anointed_. For He was anointed by God from the + beginning "with the oil of gladness above His fellows." In the Old + Testament priests and kings be called _Christs_ (or Anointed), + because they were anointed with a temporal unction. As it is + written, "Touch not my Christs" (_i.e._ mine anointed). Wherefore, + Christ is not a peculiar name of our Saviour, but is a common + appellation of dignity. But the name Jesus is peculiar to the person + of our Saviour alone, and was given Him, as the Evangelist doth + testify by the angel, Gabriel, at the Conception, and by men at His + Circumcision.'--Durand. _loco cit._ This will explain the reason, + to many persons so puzzling, why it is only to the name of Jesus + that our Church, after the Apostle, commands due obeisance to be + made: and will reprove the erroneous, though pious, zeal which makes + so many of the poor even now bow at the other names of our Blessed + Lord.] + +{138} + +8. Again, according to Augustine, the first unction with oil showeth +us to be prepared fully to hear the faith, and called to the sweet +odour of Christ, and warned to renounce the devil. The second unction, +according to Rabanus, is upon the breast and between the shoulders, +that we may be fortified on both sides by faith, and confirmed by the +grace of God for the performance of good works. For by the breast is +rightly understood the virtue of faith: but by the shoulders--upon +which any burden is borne--the strength and working of a man: +according to that saying, 'They bind heavy burdens and lay them on the +shoulders of men,' etc. [Footnote 505] A man is anointed therefore on +the breast and between the shoulders, that both in thought and deed he +may relinquish the works of the devil, and become capable of +understanding the Word of God, and strong enough to bear its yoke and +the burden of the law. + + [Footnote 505: S. Matthew xxiii, 4.] + +9. But the unction upon the crown, that is the top part of the head +over the brain, is performed according to the same authority in order +that he who is so anointed may become a partaker of the heavenly +kingdom: and because the soul of the baptised person is espoused unto +the Head, that is Christ, therefore this unction is made with chrism, +compounded of oil and balsam, in order that we may know that the Holy +Ghost, Who worketh invisibly, is given unto him: for oil, as we said +above, cherisheth the wearied limbs and affordeth light. {139} But +balsam giveth it a sweet odour. If so be the limbs of the soul be +wearied, when it repenteth of having acted in opposition to God, the +Holy Ghost cometh to it, giving light to its understanding and showing +it that its sins are, or may be, forgiven, and bestowing on it good +works which breathe out a sweet odour amongst others: all which is +denoted by the fragrant balsam. Also because the seat of +high-mindedness, which according to the name is always seeking higher +things, appears to exist in the head, therefore the unction on this +part is rightly performed in the form of the cross and in token of +humility. + +10. Pope Sylvester appointed that this unction might be administered +by priests upon occasion of death: whence it is likely that before his +time [Footnote 506] the anointing both of the crown of the head and +of the forehead was reserved for the bishop. For when the bosom of the +Church was extended, and bishops could no longer be at hand for each +individual in confirmation, he then ordered, lest any should perish +without the unction of chrism, that all should be anointed on the +crown of the head over the brain, which is the seat of wisdom, at the +hands of a priest, for the increasing of strength and grace. Whence if +afterwards they should have died, saith Richard (of Cremona), they +shall receive an increase of grace and glory. + + [Footnote 506: S. Sylvester was the contemporary of Constantine. + _Circa_ A.D. 325.] + +11. Yet nevertheless we believe that a man may be saved by baptism +alone even without the unction, and that the Holy Ghost is given +without the laying on of hands to such as God may will, as we read in +the Acts of the Apostles. + +{140} + +12. Yet the faithless heretics, the Arnaldistae, [Footnote 507] +assert that men never receive the Holy Ghost through the baptism of +water; and that Samaritans who were baptised did not receive Him until +they received the laying on of hands. Both these unctions are +administered, according to Rabanus, in the form of the cross, that the +devil, whose vessel the person is, recognising the sign of his own +discomfiture, the sign of the Holy Cross, may know that from that +moment the vessel is Another's, being alienated from him. + + [Footnote 507: Our author mentions another heresy of the Arnaldistae + in the 19th section of the proem of book iv. These heretics were the + followers of Arnaldus de Brixio (of Bresse), a disciple of Abelard. + His opinions were condemned in the second General Lateran Council, + 1139.--_Baron. Sub. Anno._ tom. xviii. See also S. Bernard, _Epist_. + 195.] + +13. According to the same writer the unction on the breast is +afterwards administered with invocation of the Trinity, in order that +no remains of the hidden enemy may abide therein, but the mind be +comforted in the faith of the Holy Trinity, and receive and understand +the commandments of God. Therefore each of the faithful is anointed +first twice with oil, next in like manner twice with chrism. First in +baptism on the crown of the head: secondly after baptism, namely at +confirmation, on his forehead: because to the apostles also was the +Holy Ghost twice given, as will be set forth in the sixth book on Holy +Saturday. [Footnote 508] + + [Footnote 508: It has not been judged necessary to translate the + passages referred to, for the same reason as stated above in note + 13.] + +Fourthly; in the fourth place we were to speak of the unction which is +administered by the bishop on the forehead of such as have been +baptised: but of this we shall speak in the same place. [Footnote +509] + + [Footnote 509: It has not been judged necessary to translate the + passages referred to, for the same reason as stated above in note + 13.] + +14. Fifthly; in the fifth place, with respect to the unction of +ordination, it is to be noted that the hands of the priest are +anointed by the bishop, that he may know that he in this sacrament +doth receive by the Holy Ghost the power and grace of consecrating. +Whence the bishop, whilst anointing them, saith: 'Deign, O Lord, by +means of this unction and our benediction to consecrate and sanctify +these hands, that whatsoever they consecrate may be consecrated, and +whatsoever they bless may be blessed in the name of the Lord.' {141} +And for this cause devout men kiss the hands of priests immediately +after their ordination, believing by this to become partakers of their +prayers and blessings. And the anointing is with holy oil, because +they ought to work with their hands the works of mercy with all their +might towards all men: for the works are denoted by the hands; mercy +by the oil. Whence the good Samaritan coming near to the wounded man +poured wine and oil into his wounds. The hands are anointed with oil +also that they may be supple for offering the host unto God for the +sins of men, and that they may be open to all acts of piety and not be +kept dry and clenched. For both these things, namely the grace of +healing and the charity of loving, are denoted by the oil. Wherefore +further the laying on of hands, together with oil upon the heads of +such as be ordained, is done because by the hands the operation, by +the fingers the gifts, of the Holy Ghost, and by the head the mind, be +understood. The hand then is laid on because it is sent forth imbued +with the gifts of the Holy Ghost to perform the works of Christ. + +15. Sixthly, with respect to the unction of bishops and of temporal +princes, it is to be known that the former hath derived its origin +from the Old Testament. For in the 21st chapter of Leviticus the high +priest is said to be he 'upon whose head the anointing oil is poured,' +[Footnote 510] and whose hands were consecrated in priesthood. A +bishop, however, is anointed with chrism, which (as we said before) is +composed of oil and balsam; and he is anointed therewith both +outwardly, and inwardly in his heart, in order that by the inward oil +he have a clear conscience towards God, and by the outward oil may +have the odour of good report towards his neighbour: which is {142} +denoted by the balsam. The Apostle saith of a clear conscience, 'For +our rejoicing is this the testimony of our conscience.' [Footnote +511] 'For the king's daughter is all glorious within,' [Footnote +512] that is, her glory proceedeth from within. Concerning the odour +of a good report the same Apostle saith, 'For in every place we are +unto God a sweet savour of Christ,' that is, an example and imitation, +and, 'to some we are the savour of life unto life,' etc., [Footnote +513] as if he had said, we are an example of love and a good opinion +leading unto eternal life, 'and to others a savour of death unto +death,' that is, of hatred and evil opinion leading unto eternal +death. + + [Footnote 510: Leviticus xxi, 10.] + + [Footnote 511: 2 Corinthians i, 12.] + + [Footnote 512: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 14.] + + [Footnote 513: 2 Corinthians ii, 15.] + +16. For a bishop ought to have in himself 'a good report' both of them +which are within and 'them which are without'; [Footnote 514] so +that one curtain, that is, the faithful, may draw on the other +curtain, that is, the unbeliever, namely, unto belief; [Footnote +515] and 'he that heareth,' namely, by learning and believing, 'say, +come,' [Footnote 516] namely, by preaching and teaching. With this +unguent be the head and hands of a bishop consecrated: for by the head +is understood the mind, as the gospel saith, 'anoint,' [Footnote +517] that is, humble, 'thy head, and wash thy face,' that is, thy +conscience, namely, with tears: by the hands be denoted good works, as +is said in the Canticles, 'my hands,' that is, my good works, 'dropped +with myrrh,' that is, gave to others a good example. [Footnote 518] + + [Footnote 514: I Timothy iii, 7.] + + [Footnote 515: There appears to be here some mystical reference to + the coupling of the curtains of the tabernacle. See Exod. xxvi.] + + [Footnote 516: Apocalypse xxii, 17.] + + [Footnote 517: S. Matthew vi, 17.] + + [Footnote 518: Canticles v, 5.] + +17. The head, therefore, is anointed with the balsam of charity, (i) +That the bishop may love God with his whole heart and with his whole +mind and whole soul, and also, after the example of Christ, 'love his +neighbours as,' that is, as much as, 'himself.' For according to {143} +Gregory, oil on the head is charity in the soul, (ii) Secondly, the +head is anointed by reason of authority and dignity; since not only +bishops but also kings are consecrated. (iii) Thirdly, to show that a +bishop representeth the person of Christ, as being his vicar, of whom +it is said by the Prophet, 'it is like the precious ointment upon the +head.' [Footnote 519] For the head of man is Christ, the head of +Christ is God: Who saith of Himself, 'the Spirit of the Lord is upon +Me, because He hath anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor.' +[Footnote 520] For Christ, our Head, was anointed with the invisible +oil He intercedeth for the Church Universal, a bishop for that Church +committed unto him. + + [Footnote 519: Psalm cxxxiii (_Ecce quani bonum_), 2.] + + [Footnote 520: Isaiah lxi, 1.] + +18. But his _hands_ also are anointed, on account of his mystery and +office; and for the anointing of these, which do signify works, is +employed _oil_, that is, the chrism of piety and mercy, (i) First, in +order that the bishop may 'do good unto all men, and especially unto +them that are of the household of faith,' [Footnote 521] his hands +should be closed to none, but be open to all; according to the saying, +'He hath opened his hands to the poor, and extended his arm to the +destitute.' [Footnote 522] A hand that is dried up, that is +avaricious, that is tenaciously held clenched, cannot be opened: +therefore his hands are anointed, in order that they may be healed and +opened, and may bestow alms on the indigent. (ii) Secondly, to show +that he hath received the power of blessing and consecrating. Whence +the consecrating bishop, when he anointeth them, saith, 'Deign, O +Lord, to consecrate and sanctify these hands,' and so forth, as we +quoted above. (iii) That they may be clean for offering sacrifices for +sins. And note, that although a bishop's hands were anointed with oil +beforehand when he was ordained a priest, yet {144} they be again +anointed with chrism when he is consecrated a bishop. Herein by the +hands are typified good works; by the oil, the abundance of the Holy +Ghost of grace; by the balsam, which is mixed with the oil in making +the chrism, the savour of good report; as in Ecclesiasticus, 'My sweet +odour is as myrrh unmixed.' [Footnote 523] Wherefore because in the +works of bishops and other superiors there ought to appear more than +in their inferiors the gifts of the Holy Ghost and the savour of good +report; according to that saying, 'For we are unto God a sweet savour +of Christ'; [Footnote 524] for even in the heavenly hierarchy the +superior angels excel the inferior in blessings and grace; hence, +therefore, at their consecration as bishops their hands, already +anointed with oil, are with reason again anointed with chrism. + + [Footnote 521: Galatians vi, 10.] + + [Footnote 522: Proverbs xxxi, 20.] + + [Footnote 523: Ecclesiasticus xxiv, 15.] + + [Footnote 524: 2 Corinthians ii, 15.] + +19. The thumb also is fortified with chrism, that the laying on of the +thumb may profit all men for salvation. + +20. Further, in the Old Testament, not only was a priest anointed, but +also a king and prophet: as we find in the books of Kings. Whence the +Lord enjoined Elias, 'Go return on thy way to the wilderness of +Damascus: and when thou comest, anoint Hazael to be king over Syria; +and Jehu the son of Nimshi shalt thou anoint to be king over Israel; +and Elisha the son of Shaphat of Abel-Meholah shalt thou anoint to be +prophet in thy room.' [Footnote 525] Samuel also anointed David to +be king. But after that Jesus of Nazareth, 'Whom (as we read in the +Acts of the Apostles) God anointed with the Holy Ghost, was anointed +with oil above his fellows, [Footnote 526] Who is (according to the +Apostle) 'the Head of the Church, which is also His body'; [Footnote +527] after this the anointing of a sovereign was transferred from the +head to the arm: whence princes since the time of Christ are not {145} +anointed on the head but on the arm, or on the shoulder; by which +parts of the body kingly power is aptly represented, as we read, 'and +the government was laid upon his shoulder': [Footnote 528 ] to +signify the same, Samuel caused the shoulder to be laid before Saul, +when he placed him at the head of the table before those who had been +bidden. [Footnote 529] But in the case of a bishop the sacramental +anointing is applied to the _head_, because in his episcopal office he +representeth the Head of the Church, that is, Christ. + + [Footnote 525: I Kings xix, 15.] + + [Footnote 526: See Acts iv, 27, and Hebrews i, 9.] + + [Footnote 527: Ephesians v, 23.] + + [Footnote 528: Isaiah ix, 6.] + + [Footnote 529: I Samuel x, 24.] + +21. There is this difference, then, between the anointing of a bishop +and a prince, that the head of the bishop is consecrated with chrism, +while the arm of the prince is anointed with oil: to show, namely, how +great a difference there is between the authority of a bishop and the +power of a prince. And observe that, as we read in the gospel, +[Footnote 530] a certain man called his servants and gave unto them +ten talents. Herein the calling of a servant is the canonical election +of a bishop, which taketh place according to the calling of the Lord +Who called Aaron. A talent is given to him, when he who hath laid his +hands upon him giveth him the text of the gospel, saying, 'Go and +preach.' And the bishop himself, according to the use of some +churches, when first he entereth his see, carrieth the gospels in his +bosom, showing his talent as if to trade with it. In some churches +also when the archbishop giveth the bishop his pastoral staff, he +saith, 'Go and preach,' and he immediately blesseth the people: by +which is represented that Moses was sent into Egypt with a rod. + + [Footnote 530: S. Matthew xxv.] + +{146} + +22. Furthermore, bishops on the day of their consecration have been +wont to ride on horses covered with white robes; to represent that +which we read in the Apocalypse, 'The armies which are in heaven +follow him riding on white horses.' [Footnote 531] The armies which +are in heaven are good and just men and prelates, who as these +heavenly riders do daily follow God in all good works: who for this +reason are said to be in heaven, because they love and seek after +heavenly things alone; whence the Apostle saith, 'Our conversation is +in heaven.' [Footnote 532] These armies, that is good and just men +and prelates, follow Jesus, whensoever they vanquish vices in +themselves by discipline, in their neighbours by admonition. Whence S. +James saith, 'He which converteth the sinner from the error of his way +shall save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins.' +[Footnote 533] These armies have white horses and chaste bodies. + + [Footnote 531: Apocalypse xix, 14.] + + [Footnote 532: Philippians iii, 20.] + + [Footnote 533: S. James v, 20.] + +23. The bodies of good men are also called horses, because, just as +horses are governed by the will of the rider, so are the bodies of the +just ruled according to the will of Christ. These horses ought to be +white, or covered with white trappings: that is, the bodies of just +men and prelates ought to be chaste and pure. For if they be not pure +they cannot follow Christ. And S. Peter saith, 'Christ also suffered +for us, leaving us an example that we should follow His steps, who did +not sin, neither was guile found in his mouth.' [Footnote 534] +Further, the clergy of the holy Roman Church, by the grant of the +Emperor Constantine, do ride upon horses adorned with trappings of the +most snowy white. On what day a bishop ought to be consecrated, and +why a copy of the gospels is put upon his shoulders in consecration, +shall be declared in the second book, under the chapter upon Bishops. +[Footnote 535] + + [Footnote 534: I S. Peter ii, 21.] + + [Footnote 535: The consecration of a bishop, in the which the Holy + Ghost is present unto such as receive it worthily, is administered + always on the Lord's day, and at the third hour. For bishops do + obtain the office of apostles, unto whom the Holy Ghost was given on + the Day of Pentecost and at the third hour. When a bishop is to be + ordained, the suffragans of the province should assemble with their + metropolitan, and two bishops place and hold a volume of the gospels + above his head and neck, or upon his shoulders, one shedding the + benediction over him, and the rest, such as are present, touching + his head with their hands. This book is held above his head; first, + that the Lord may confirm the gospel in his heart; secondly, that he + may understand by this, unto what burthen and labour he is + subjected: because everyone that is pre-eminent, that is, a prelate, + is more troubled with griefs than rejoiced with honours; thirdly, to + denote that he ought not to be backward to carry with him everywhere + the burthen of the preaching of the gospel; fourthly, to admonish + him to submit himself more than ever to the yoke, and to obey the + gospel.--_Rationale_, Book II, c. xi, 6.] + +{147} + +Seventhly, we have to speak of the unction of altars, chalices, and +other instruments of the church; which according to the rule are +anointed at their dedication; and this not only from the command of +the divine law, but also because Moses 'sprinkled with blood the +tabernacle and all the vessels of the ministry, and almost all things +are by the law cleansed with blood;' [Footnote 536] and also again +after the example of S. Sylvester, who when he consecrated an altar +used to anoint it with chrism. For the Lord commanded Moses to make +oil of unction with which to anoint the tabernacle of the testimony, +the table, the ark of the covenant, the candlestick, and other +furniture as aforesaid. Which unctions are performed on things that +have not been anointed, to show greater reverence to them and to +bestow more grace upon them. And of these unctions we have spoken and +shall again speak in their right places. But the sacrament of unction +hath indeed some further effect and meaning both in the Old and New +Testament: whence the Church doth not Judaize, when she observeth the +unctions in her sacraments, as some old writers, who know neither the +Scripture nor the power of God, do falsely say. Of the unctions of the +church and altar we have spoken under their own heads. + + [Footnote 536: Hebrews ix, 2.] + +{148} + +24. Further the paten is consecrated and anointed for the +administration of the body of Christ, who willed to be sacrificed upon +the altar of the cross for the salvation of all men. 'Almighty God +also did order the flour to be brought to His Altar scattered on +golden and silver patens. The chalice also is consecrated and +anointed, that by the grace of the Holy Ghost it may be made a new +sepulchre of the body and blood of Christ, and then He, Himself, may +deign to make it overflow with his virtue, as He made the cup of +Melchizedech, His servant, to flow over. + +25. Eighthly; in the eighth place we have to speak of extreme unction, +which from the institution of Pope Felix the Fourth, and from the +command of the Apostle S. James, is administered unto such as are at +the point to die. Concerning which some say that it is not so properly +a sacrament as the anointing of the forehead or any other part with +chrism, because (as they assert) it may be repeated and since there is +offered a prayer over the man; a circumstance which is not a condition +of a sacrament. This unction also may be administered by a single +priest if more cannot be present: and by it venial sins are remitted, +according to S. James, 'If any rich among you,' etc., as before, 'and +if he have committed sins they shall be forgiven him.' [Footnote +537] And this unction is applied to divers parts of the body or the +limbs, for reasons which may be gathered from the prayers then used; +and especially on those parts in which the five senses chiefly reside, +that whatever sins the rich man may have committed by means of these +may be abolished by virtue of this unction. Concerning some other +rules we ordinarily read, that the party to be anointed must be at the +least eighteen years of age, and that he ought to be anointed in +sickness once only during a year, though he may be sick many times, +and that no one must be anointed, unless, being in his senses, he +shall have first demanded it either by words or signs:-- {149} and +besides this, that the shoulders ought not to be anointed, because +they were anointed in baptism, and that a confirmed person ought not +to be anointed on his forehead but on his temples, and a priest's +hands ought to be anointed on the backs and not inside, because they +were anointed on the inside at his ordination:--and that one who hath +been once anointed by a bishop ought not in respect to him to be +further anointed by a priest:--and that if a sick man who hath been +anointed should recover, the anointed places should be washed, and the +water used be thrown into the fire; but should he depart, his body +ought not to be washed because of the recent unction. But if the sick +man be at the point of death, he should be immediately anointed lest +he die without the unction. Besides this, some penitents, and dying +men, put on sackcloth and lay themselves down on ashes as we shall +explain in the sixth book, when we speak of Ash Wednesday. [Footnote +538] + + [Footnote 537: S. James v, 24.] + + [Footnote 538: 'On this day also ashes are blessed, and scattered + over the head in token of humiliation. "Dust thou art, and unto dust + thou shalt return," was said unto Adam (Gen. iv). And Job "repented + in dust and ashes" (Job xlii, 6). And the Lord saith, "In the house + of Aphrah (marg. read dust) roll thyself in the dust" (Mic. i 10). + Also in Judith we read, "The children of Israel humbled themselves + in fasting, and dust on their heads" (Chronicles iv). And Abraham + saith, "Shall I speak unto the Lord, who am but dust and ashes?" + (Gen. 18). And "Mordecai put on sackcloth with ashes" (Esther iv, + i). And "the daughters of Zion have cast ashes on their heads" + (Samuel iii). Hence, we read in the Pontifical, penitents and the + dying, in token of repentance and humility and that they are dust + and ashes, do prostrate themselves in ashes and put on sackcloth--an + use drawn from the Old Testament. For we read in Isaiah the + fifty-eighth, that penitents do lie in sackcloth and ashes. And + Hieremiah saith the same in the twenty-fifth chapter, "Wallow + yourselves in the ashes, for the days are accomplished." Also in the + third of Jonah, "The king of Ninevah put on sackcloth and sat in + ashes." Also in the Lamentations, "The virgins of Jerusalem are + clothed in sackcloth."'--_Rationale_ vi, 28, 18.] + +{150} + +26. Ninthly, a cemetery, which enjoyeth the same privileges as a +church, is also consecrated and blessed; just as the Lord blessed by +the hands of his servants Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the land bought +for a burial ground from the sons of Ephron. It is blessed also in +order that it may cease from that time forward to be the abode of +unclean spirits, and that the bodies of the faithful may therein rest +in peace until the day of judgment; unless the bodies of paynims or +infidels, or even of excommunicate persons should be buried there, +until they shall be cast out thence. + +27. This also is to be noted, that the palls of the altar, the +priestly vestments, and ecclesiastical ornaments of this kind are to +be blessed. For we have already read that Moses, by command of the +Lord, consecrated the tabernacle with divine prayers, together with +the table and altar, and vessels and utensils for performing the +divine worship. If therefore the Jews, who served the 'shadow of the +Law and of good things to come,' [Footnote 539] did this, how much +the more ought we to do it to whom the truth hath been made known by +Christ! Whence we read in the last chapter but one of Exodus, 'Moses +blessed all the vessels of the ministry.' [Footnote 540] And should +an additional piece or a fringe be attached to it, it is proved by the +testimony of right that the blessing need not on this account be +repeated. But the reason why these things and other like things are +consecrated is evidently gathered from the forms of blessing them. Of +the sacred vestments we shall speak in the introduction to the third +book. [Footnote 541] And observe: That the blessing or consecration +of a church, and of vestments, and of ecclesiastical ornaments is not +performed as if they were capable of receiving grace, for they are +inanimate: but this practice is introduced, because as men are, so +also are these things, by the act of blessing and consecration +rendered suitable and fit for divine worship, and are {151} made of +greater holiness. Whereas on _persons_ greater grace is bestowed by +unction and benediction. But some in the benediction of ornaments, let +fall their hands, of which we shall speak in the second book under the +head of the Deacon. [Footnote 542] + + [Footnote 539: Hebrews x, 1.] + + [Footnote 540: Exodus xxxix.] + + [Footnote 541: The history, use, and symbolism of the sacred + vestments would themselves require a volume to be fully + illustrated.] + + [Footnote 542: Observe that when a person in confirmation is + blessed on the forehead, and when salt, and water, and palls, and + vestments, and the like be consecrated, the hands are held over + them, because there is a certain virtue in consecrated hands, which + is as it were stirred up when benediction is poured out over + anything with the hands suspended in this way. Whence the Apostle + admonishing his disciple Timothy, saith, "I put thee in remembrance + that thou stir up the gift of God, which is in thee, by the laying + on of my hands." So that devotion may be stirred up in the body by + the suspension of hands, just as in the heart by the effect. For + virtue existeth not only in animate things, but also in inanimate. + Whence some do affirm that by the virtue of a church, if anyone + entereth therein from devotion, his venial sins be forgiven. Again, + the hands are thus held in cases of exorcism especially, as if the + priest by the bodily act would put to flight and threaten the devil + by the virtue of the consecration of his hands.'--Durandus ii, 9, + 16.] + +Tenthly, we were to speak of the consecration of Virgins, but of this +we shall treat in the preface to the second book. [Footnote 543] + + [Footnote 543: This point is not sufficiently connected with our + subject to need illustration.] + + +{152} + + +CHAPTER IX + +OF THE SACRAMENTS OF THE CHURCH + +Difference between a Sacrament and a Mystery--Distinction of Sacraments +--Of Matrimony--Of the Ring--Of Second Marriages--Why Sacraments +were Instituted. + + +1. With respect to the sacraments of the Church, it is to be noted +that, according to Gregory, there is a _sacrament_ in any celebration +when an outward act is so performed as that we receive inwardly some +degree of the thing signified; the which is to be received holily and +worthily. Also a _mystery_ is that which the Holy Ghost worketh +secretly, and invisibly, so as to sanctify by His operation, and bless +by His sanctification. A mystery is said to exist in sacraments; a +ministry only in ornaments. + +2. But, according to Augustine, a sacrament is a visible sign of an +invisible grace. Again, a sacrifice is visible; a sacrament invisible. +Again, the same sign is a thing which bringeth under cognisance some +thing different from itself over and above the outward appearance +which it presenteth to the senses. + +3. A sacrament is said also to be a sign of a sacred thing, or a +sacred concealment of a thing. Of this we shall further speak in the +fourth book, under the seventh part of the Canon of the Mass, upon the +word 'the mystery of faith,' and under the head of the Oblation. +[Footnote 544] + + [Footnote 544: The seventh part of the Canon of the Mass is, + 'Likewise after supper He took the cup into His holy and venerated + hands; and when He had given thanks, He blessed it and gave it to + His disciples, saying, Take and drink ye all of this; for this is + the chalice of My blood, of the New and Everlasting Testament, the + _mystery of faith_, which is shed for you and for many for the + remission of sins: Do this as oft as ye shall drink it in + remembrance of me.'--See _Rationale_ iv. 42, 20.] + +{153} + +4. Some of the sacraments be of necessity only; some of dignity and +necessity; some of order and necessity; some of dignity and choice; +and some of choice only. The sacrament of necessity only is baptism, +which when administered by anyone, so it be in the form of the Church, +in the greatest extremity profiteth unto salvation. And it is said to +be 'of necessity,' because without it no one can be saved, if it be +neglected through contempt. Of this sacrament we shall speak in the +sixth book, under the head of Holy Saturday. [Footnote 545] The +sacrament of dignity and necessity is confirmation: of dignity, +because it is conferred by the bishop alone; of necessity, because he +who neglecteth it through contempt of it, cannot be saved. Of this +also we shall speak under the head just specified. + + [Footnote 545: The chapter referred to treats of holy baptism + doctrinally, and does not therefore fall within the province of this + volume.] + +5. The sacraments of order and dignity are Penance, the Eucharist, and +Extreme Unction. Of order; because they ought only to be administered +by such as are rightly ordained according to the Church's power of the +keys; except in necessity, in which one may _confess_ even unto a +layman: of necessity; since such as neglect them through contempt of +them cannot be saved. About penance, see the sixth book, upon the +fifth day of Holy Week, the _Caena Domini_: [Footnote 546] about the +Eucharist, we shall speak in the fourth book, upon the Canon; +[Footnote 547] about Extreme Unction we have spoken in the preceding +chapter. + + [Footnote 546: What we call _Maunday Thursday_, from _Mandatum + novum_ ('A new commandment I give unto you,' etc.), which the Church + of England retains as a Lesson for the day, is more properly called + _The Caena Domini_, or _Lord's Supper_, in remembrance (as Bishop + Andrewes says) _of the mighty mystery of Thy holy body and precious + blood, instituted on the evening of this day_.--See S. Isidore, _De + Offic. Eccles._ i, 28. The chapter referred to (73 of the sixth + book), shows that penitents were restored to communion on this day, + and with what ceremonies.] + + [Footnote 547: These, besides their great length, are not required + for the explication of our more immediate subject.] + +{154} + +6. But the sacrament of dignity and choice is Orders: of dignity; +because conferred by bishops alone, and because no one is admitted +thereunto save a worthy person and in a worthy way: of choice; because +anyone may be saved without it. Of this we shall speak in the preface +to the second book. [Footnote 548] + + [Footnote 548: These, besides their great length, are not required + for the explication of our more immediate subject.] + +7. The sacrament of choice only is matrimony; and it is said to be of +choice, because anyone may be saved without it. Indeed a man seeking +to marry is not inclined to tend towards the kingdom of heaven. + +With respect to this it is to be remarked that, according to the +canons, the solemnity of marriage ought not to be celebrated from +Septuagesima Sunday, because it is a season of sorrow, until the +octave of Easter, nor in the three weeks before the Feast of S. John. +[Footnote 549] But according to the custom of the Catholic Church, +marriages may be solemnised in the church from the morrow of Low +Sunday, namely, from the octave of Easter, until the first Rogation +Day. And from the morning of the first Rogation Day this rite is +prohibited until the octave of Whitsuntide inclusively: and so saith +Pope Clement in his Decretal. Again, marriages ought not to be +celebrated {155} from the First Sunday in Advent until the Epiphany: +nor would they have been allowed until the octave of the Epiphany had +not the Lord honoured a marriage with His presence, and even with a +miracle. [Footnote 550] Whence they then chant, 'To-day the Church is +united to her Heavenly Spouse.' Some, however, say that it is more +holy to extend this prohibition unto the octave of the Epiphany. + + [Footnote 549: Bp. Cosins says that marriages are not to be + solemnised from Advent Sunday, until eight days after (or the octave + of) the Epiphany; from Septuagesima Sunday until eight days after + Easter; and from Rogation Sunday until Trinity Sunday. Some of these + being times of solemn fasting and abstinence, some of holy festivity + and joy, both fit to be spent in such holy exercises, without other + avocations. See his 'Devotions,' republished by Messrs Rivington.] + + [Footnote 550: We are accustomed to celebrate only the manifestation + of Christ to the Gentiles, on the Epiphany. But S. Isidore (_De Off. + Ecc._ i, 26) gives two other objects of commemoration upon this day: + viz. the baptism of our Lord, and his first miracle at the marriage + in Cana. And so the hymn in the Breviary: + + Ibant Magi, quam viderant, + Lumen requirunt lumine, + Lavacra puri gurgitis + Peccata quae non detulit, + Novum genus potentiae! + Vinumque jussa fundere + Stellam sequentes praeviam; + Deum fatentur munere. + Caelestis Agnus attigit; + Nos abluendo sustulit. + Aquae rubescunt hydriae, + Nutavit unda originem. + + Our own Church, however, retains the old Gospel for the second + Sunday after the Epiphany.] + +In the aforesaid times, therefore, marriages are not to be contracted; +because these seasons are set apart for prayer. + +8. [Footnote 551] But although the solemnising of marriages is +prohibited in these intervals, yet a contract of marriage holds good +at whatever time it may have been duly made. But in that it is ordered +by the canons that weddings should not be celebrated in the three +weeks before the Festival of S. John Baptist, the rule was made that +men might be more at leisure for prayer. For the Church had formerly +appointed two periods of forty days, besides the great one of +Lent:--the one preceding the nativity, usually called S. Martin's, and +lasting from his day to the nativity; [Footnote 552] the other, +forty days before the Feast of S. John Baptist:--in which men should +give especial heed unto prayers, alms, and fastings. But in regard of +the frailty of man, these two seasons have been reduced to one, and +that one again divided into the three weeks of advent, and three +before the nativity of S. John: at which times men ought to fast and +abstain from marriage. + + [Footnote 551: A few passages have been omitted in the course of + this chapter.] + + [Footnote 552: Martinmas is the 11th November. The forty days are + not exactly made out between this and the Nativity. ] + +{156} + +9. According to S. Isidore (of Seville), women wear veils, when they +are married, so that they may know that they must always be subject to +their husbands: and because Rebecca, when she saw Isaac, veiled +herself. The same saith also that married persons after the +benediction are coupled by a fillet, to show that they must not break +the tie, that is the fidelity, of conjugal unity. And the same fillet +is both white and purple mixed; because the white signifieth purity of +life, and purple their lawful raising of offspring: so that by this +symbol, their continuance and mutual 'defrauding one another for a +time is signified, as well as their coming together again' [Footnote +553] and return afterwards to conjugal duties. + + [Footnote 553: See S. Paul I Corinthians vii, 5. The whole of this + passage is quoted from S. Isidore, who is, however, more + circumstantial than Durandus, and much more elegant and intelligible + in his language. The extreme corruption of the printed copies of our + author may be exemplified by referring the reader to the original in + S. Isidore.--_De Off. Eccles._ ii, 19. See also Hugo de S. Victore, + _Exercit. Theol. Summ. Sent._, Tract vii.] + +10. Also in that at the beginning of the ceremony the husband giveth a +ring to the bride, this is done as a sign of mutual love, or rather in +order that their hearts may be united by the same pledge. And the same +ring is put on the fourth finger, because (as some say) a certain vein +runneth through it which reacheth to the heart. Also one Protheus is +said to have first made a ring of iron as a pledge of love, and to +have enclosed an adamant therein: and from this he founded the custom +of betrothing brides, because as iron subdueth all things, so doth +love conquer all things, since nothing is more violent than its +ardour. + +{157} + +11. And as an adamant cannot be broken, so love cannot be overcome: +for love is as strong as death. Therefore also he founded the custom +of putting the ring on the ring-finger through which a vein passeth to +the heart. Afterwards, however, golden rings were substituted for +iron, and were set with gems, instead of adamant, because as gold +excelleth other metals, so doth love excel all other blessings. And as +gold is set off by the gems, so is conjugal love by other virtues. But +the word _nuptials_ (marriage) is so called according to Ambrose, a +_nubendo_ (from covering the head). For brides are wont to veil the +head and abstain from speaking. Whence also Rebecca, when she saw +Isaac to whom she was about to be espoused, began to veil her face. +For bashfulness ought to precede marriage, inasmuch as bashfulness +more highly commendeth wedlock itself: and the bride should appear +rather to be sought by the husband, than herself to have sought after +him. . . . + +12. We have further to note that a threefold spiritual sacrament is +signified by the consummation of marriage. The first sacrament is the +spiritual union of the soul to God, through faith, love, and charity; +or the union of will, namely charity which consisteth in the spirit, +between God and a just soul. Whence saith the Apostle, 'but he that is +joined unto the Lord is one spirit.' [Footnote 554] This sacrament +is signified by the union of soul which takes place at the first +betrothal in carnal matrimony. The second is the union of the human +nature with the divine, which took place in the incarnation of the +Word of God; or the conformity of nature, which existeth in the flesh, +between Christ and His Holy Church. To which that saying referreth, +'The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us.' [Footnote 555] The +third sacrament is the unity of the Church, gathered out of all +nations and subjected to one spouse, namely Christ. This sacrament is +typified in the case of such as, having had one wife and her a virgin, +have afterwards been admitted into holy orders. + + [Footnote 554: I Corinthians vi, 17.] + + [Footnote 555: S. John i, 14.] + +{158} + +13. But when anyone yieldeth to a second marriage, he giveth up this +unity, and the signification of this third sacrament does not hold in +his case: wherefore marriage should not advance beyond _one_, because +such advance cannot signify unity. Besides, by a second marriage he +departeth from the union of his former marriage: but the Church ever +since she hath united herself to Christ, hath never departed from Him, +neither hath Christ ever departed from her. Wherefore one who hath +twice married cannot signify such an unity. Whence also deservedly +from the defect of this sacramental signification marriage cannot be +repeated. + +14. Note also this, that according to the statute of the Council of +Carthage the bridegroom and bride are to be presented by the parents +or bridesmen unto the priest in order to be blessed. And having +received the blessing, out of reverence to it, they do not consummate +the marriage till the next day. + +15. Again by the appointment of Pope Evaristus marriages are to be +blessed by the priest not without prayers and offerings. However, a +man and woman who contract a second marriage must not be blessed by +the priest, since, they having been already blessed, the ceremony may +not be repeated. Nor ought marriages to be blessed unless both parties +are still unmarried, for the reason given in the preface to the second +book. [Footnote 556] + + [Footnote 556: It is laid down that a _widow_ on taking the vows is + not veiled by the bishop, as is the case with a virgin. 'A priest,' + Durandus continues, 'is prohibited from taking a part in second + marriages and from giving the benediction to such as are twice + married. But a widow taking the vows is married as it were twice, + first to her late husband, and secondly unto Christ in her + profession, wherefore the veil of consecration, or even of + profession, is not given unto her, but she herself takes it from the + altar. . . . Yet in the Pontifical, according to the Roman Order, we + find the benediction of a widow professing continence, and also of + her veil. For the Lord also comforted the widow of Serepta by the + hand of Elias the prophet. And I have myself seen in the city (Rome, + of course) the [Cardinal] Bishop of Ostia bless two widows among the + virgins who took the vows' (Proem. II, c. 47).] + +{159} + +And any priest who shall have given the blessing in such a second +marriage is to be suspended from his office and benefice and to be +sent to the apostolical see; a custom this, introduced as an +incitement to continence. According to the custom of some places, if +anyone contracts a second marriage with an unmarried woman the +benediction is repeated: but this does not avail unless our Lord the +Pope know of it and approve it. Some also say that if any unmarried +persons were not blessed when they contracted marriages, they may when +marrying a second time receive the benediction; but if they were +blessed at first, it cannot be repeated at a second marriage even +though the first were never consummated. Of the benediction of virgins +we shall speak in the preface and the second book. [Footnote 557] + + [Footnote 557: See chap. viii, note 57.] + +16. But it is to be noted that one sacrament may be more worthy than +another in four ways: namely, in efficacy, as baptism; in sanctity, as +the eucharist; in significancy, as marriage (though some do not admit +this way); in the dignity of the administrator, as confirmation and +orders. + +17. But is it asked why sacraments are appointed, when without them +God could have given eternal life and His Grace unto mankind? I +answer, for three reasons. First, for our humiliation; in order that +when man reverently humbleth himself by the command of God unto +insensible and inferior things, he may from this obedience become more +acceptable unto Him. Secondly, for our instruction; that by that which +is seen objectively in a visible form, our mind may be instructed in +that invisible virtue, which is to be perceived within. {160} Thirdly, +for our exercising: in order that, since man ought not to be idle, +there may be set before him a useful and healthy exercise in the +sacraments; so that he may avoid vain and hurtful occupation. +According to that saying, 'Always be doing some good work, that the +devil may find you occupied.' Wherefore, as we said in the foregoing +chapter, they must never be neglected. + + +END OF THE FIRST BOOK + +{161} + +EPILOGUE TO THE WHOLE WORK [Footnote 558] + + [Footnote 558: Job xxxviii, 31. See the Proeme towards the + beginning.] + +Let none imagine that in the foregoing work the divine offices be +sufficiently set forth, lest by extolling that which is human, he +rashly depreciate that which is divine. For in the divine offices of +the Mass, so many and so great be the mysteries involved, that none, +unless he be taught of the spirit, is sufficient to explain them. 'For +who knoweth the ordinances of heaven, or can explain the reasons of +them upon earth? [Footnote 559] For he that prieth into their +Majesty is overwhelmed by their glory. But I, who cannot from the +weakness of mine eyes behold the sun in his brightness, have looked on +these mysteries, as through a glass, darkly: and, not penetrating into +the interior of the palace, but sitting at the door, have done +diligently, as I could, not sufficiently, as I would. For on account +of the innumerable and inevitable business of the Apostolic See, +[Footnote 560] pressing on me daily, like a flood, and holding down +the mind of him that would diligently rise to a contemplation of +heavenly things: I, perplexed as it were, and entangled in the knots +of various employments, could not have the leisure that I wished for, +and could scarcely either dictate what I had composed, or compose what +I had conceived. {162} For the mind that is divided in several trains +of thought hath less power in each. Wherefore I not only ask pardon of +the courteous reader, but implore the assistance of a friendly +corrector. For I cannot deny that many things are inserted in this +book which may be blamed, and that justly and without temerity. But if +anything worthy be found in it, let the praise thereof be ascribed +entirely to Divine Grace: for 'every good gift, and every perfect gift +is from above, and cometh down from the Father of Light.' [Footnote +561] But let that which is unworthy, be set down to human +insufficiency, 'for the corruptible body presseth down the soul, and +the earthly tabernacle weigheth down the mind that museth upon many +things.' [Footnote 562] That which is worthy hath been taken from the +sayings of others, whose words I have introduced, rather by way of +recital [Footnote 563] after than of approval. I have collected from +diverse books, the manner of the honey making bee, not without profit, +of those things which divine grace hath held forth to me: and this +doctrine, flowing with sweetness like the honeycomb, I offer, trusting +in God's help, to those who desire to meditate on the divine offices: +expecting this reward alone of my great toil among men, that they will +pray earnestly to the merciful Judge for the pardon of my +transgressions. + + GULIELMI DURANDI, _Epi Mimatensis Liber de ecclesiis et ornamentis + ecclesiasticis explicit feliciter_. + + [Footnote 559: See the Preface.] + + [Footnote 560: Book viii, chap. 14.] + + [Footnote 561: S. James i, 17.] + + [Footnote 562: Wisdom ix, 17.] + + [Footnote 563: The passage seems corrupt: but the sense appears to + be, 'reciting them, as testimonies in my favour, and not presuming + to add my testimony to their worth.] + + +{163} + +SUPPLEMENT + + +[For the avoiding continual reference, for the extreme beauty of the +treatise itself, for its value as an older document than the +'Rationale,' and for the advantage of comparison with the latter in +subject, sentiment, style, and often language, the Editors have +subjoined a translation of the first and second chapters of the +'Mystical Mirror of the Church' of Hugo de Sancto Victore.] + + (_Folio Edition_, 237 E) + +A Prologue to the 'Mystical Mirror of the Church,' made by Master Hugh +of S. Victor. + +Your love hath asked of me to treat of the sacraments of the Church, +and to set forth unto you their mystical sweetness. But since with the +more willingness, because with the more ease and boldness I do evolve +(after my custom) points of logic rather than of theology; I began to +doubt whether to withstand your admonition or the rather to write. But +when I presently remembered how that every good thing when shared with +others becometh more bright and beautiful when it is shared, I +incontinently betook myself to my pen, having invoked the aid of 'Him +Who openeth and no man shutteth, and shutteth and no man openeth.' +[Footnote 564] Wherefore I have put into the lips of your +understanding the tractate which you did desire, flowing within with +nectar like the honeycomb: and the same, because therein ye may see as +in a mirror what every thing in the church doth mystically denote, I +have called 'The Mystical Mirror of a Church.' + + [Footnote 564: Apocalypse iii, 7.] + +{164} + + + +CHAPTER I + +OF A CHURCH + + + +The material church in which the people cometh together to praise God, +signifieth the Holy Catholic Church, which is builded in the heavens +of living stones. This is the Lord's house which is firmly builded. +The 'chief corner-stone is Christ.' _Upon_ this, not _besides_ this, +is the 'foundation of the apostles and prophets'; as it is written, +'Her foundations are upon the holy hills.' [Footnote 565] The walls +builded thereon, be the Jews and Gentiles coming from the four +quarters of the world unto Christ. All the stones be polished and +squared; that is, all the saints be pure and firm: the which also be +placed so as to last for ever by the hands of the Chief Workman. Of +these some be borne and do not bear, as the more simple folk in the +Church; some be borne and do also bear, as the middling sort; others +do only bear, and be not borne, save by Christ alone. Who is the +single Cornerstone. And in this house by how much anyone doth differ +from and excel others, by so much being the more humble doth he hold +up more of the building. One charity doth join all together after the +fashion of cement: and the living stones be bound together by the bond +of peace. The towers be the preachers and the prelates of the Church: +who are her wards and defence. + + [Footnote 565: Psalm lxxx (_Fundamenta ejus_), I.] + +{165} + +Whence saith the bridegroom unto his spouse in the Song of Songs: 'Thy +neck is like the tower of David builded for an armoury.' [Footnote +566] The cock which is placed thereon representeth preachers. For the +cock in the deep watches of the night divideth the hours thereof with +his song: he arouseth the sleepers; he foretelleth the approach of +day; but first he stirreth up himself to crow by the striking of his +wings. Behold ye these things mystically: for not one is there without +meaning. The sleepers be the children of this world, lying in sins. +The cock is the company of preachers, which do preach sharply, do stir +up the sleepers to cast away the works of darkness, crying, 'Woe to +the sleepers: awake thou that sleepest'; which also do foretell the +coming of the light, when they preach of the day of judgment and +future glory. But wisely before they preach unto others do they rouse +themselves by virtues from the sleep of sin, and do chasten their +bodies. Whence saith the Apostle, 'I keep under my body and bring it +into subjection. [Footnote 567] The same also do turn themselves to +meet the wind when they bravely do contend against and resist the +rebellious by admonition and argument, lest they should seem to flee +when the wolf cometh. The iron rod upon which the cock sitteth, +showeth the straightforward speech of the preacher; that he doth not +speak from the spirit of man, but according to the scriptures of God: +as it is said, 'If any man speak, let him speak as the oracles of +God.' [Footnote 568] In that this rod is placed above the cross, it +is shown that the words of Scripture be consummated and confirmed by +the cross: whence our Lord said in His Passion, 'It is finished.' +[Footnote 569] And His title was indelibly written over Him. + + [Footnote 566: Cant. iv, 4. ] + + [Footnote 567: I Corinthians ix, 27.] + + [Footnote 568: I S. Peter iv, 2.] + + [Footnote 569: S. John xix.] + +{166} + +The ball (_tholus_) upon which the cross is placed doth signify +perfection by its roundness: since the Catholic faith is to be +preached and held perfectly and inviolably: 'Which faith, except a man +do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish +everlastingly.' Or else the ball doth signify the world redeemed by +the price of the Cross: on which account the cross is placed over it. +The cock being set over the cross signifieth that the preacher ought +to make sure this point, that Christ redeemed the world by His Cross. +The pinnacle and turret show the mind or life of a prelate who tendeth +unto things above. The bells, by the voice of which the people are +called together unto the church, typify also preachers: the which +being necessary for many uses, are called by many names. The clapper, +which causeth the sound from the two sides of the bell, is the tongue +of the preacher which causeth both Testaments to resound. The wooden +frame, whence the bell hangeth, signifieth the Cross; the cramps, +charity; by which charity the preacher, being fast bound to the Cross, +boasteth, saying, 'God forbid that I should glory save in the Cross of +our Lord Jesus Christ' [Footnote 570] The rope is the life and +humility of the preacher. Whence the Apostle saith, 'He condescendeth +towards others. Whether we exalt ourselves it is for God; whether we +abase ourselves it is for you.' [Footnote 571] The rings on the rope +are perseverance and the crown of reward. The glazed windows of the +church be the Holy Scriptures, which do ward off the wind and the +rain, that is, do repel all hurtful things; and when they do transmit +the brightness of the True Sun by day into the church, they do give +light to them that be therein. These be wider within than without, +because the sense mystical is more ample and more pre-eminent than the +sense literal. These be frequented of preachers, 'who do fly as a +cloud and as the doves to the windows.' [Footnote 572] + + [Footnote 570: Galatians vi, 14.] + + [Footnote 571: 2 Corinthians v, 13. Vulgate.] + + [Footnote 572: Isaiah lx, 8.] + +{167} + +Also by the windows the five senses of the body be signified: which +ought to be narrow without, lest they should take in vanities, but +should be wide within to receive spiritual good. The door is Christ: +whence the Lord saith in the Evangele, 'I am the door.' [Footnote +573] The pillars be doctors; who do hold up spiritually the temple of +God by their doctrine, as do the evangelists also the throne of God. +These, for the harmony of divine eloquence, be called silver columns: +according to that of the Song of Songs, 'He made the pillars thereof +of silver.' [Footnote 574] The stalls do denote the contemplative: +in whom God doth rest without offence. These, for that they do +contemplate the highest divinity and glory of the eternal life, be +compared unto gold: whence in the aforesaid Song of Songs it is said, +'He made a golden bed.' [Footnote 575] The beams be such as +spiritually sustain the Church: the ceilings such as adorn it and +strengthen it; of the which (because they be not corrupted by vices) +the bride glorieth in the same Canticles, saying, 'The beams of our +house are cedar and our rafters of fir.' [Footnote 576] For God hath +built His Church of living stones and imperishable wood: according to +that, 'Solomon made himself a litter of the wood of Lebanon; +[Footnote 577] that is Christ of His saints made white by chastity. +The chancel, when lower than the body of the church, showeth +mystically how great humility ought to be in the clergy: according to +the saying, 'The greater thou art the more humble thyself.' [Footnote +578] The altar signifieth Christ, without Whom no acceptable gift is +offered unto the Father. Whence the Church uttereth her prayers unto +the Father _through_ Christ. The vestments with which the altar is +adorned be the saints of whom the Prophet speaketh unto God, saying, +'Thou shalt surely clothe Thee with them all as with an ornament.' +[Footnote 579] + + [Footnote 573: S. John x.] + + [Footnote 574: Cant, iii, 10.] + + [Footnote 575: Cant, iii, 10.] + + [Footnote 576: Cant, i, 17.] + + [Footnote 577: Cant, iii, 9.] + + [Footnote 578: Eccles. iii, 18.] + + [Footnote 579: Isaiah xlix, 18.] + +{168} + +The steps by which we ascend unto the altar do spiritually denote the +apostles and martyrs of Christ who have shed their blood for the love +of Him. The bride in the Canticles saith, 'The ascent unto it is +purple, the midst thereof being paved with love.' [Footnote 580] +Furthermore, the fifteen virtues be expressed by the fifteen steps +with which they went up unto the temple of Solomon: and the same be +shown by the prophet in the fifteen continuous Psalms, which the +righteous man hath disposed as steps or degrees in his heart. +[Footnote 581] This is the ladder which Jacob saw, the top of which +touched the heavens. The lights of the church be they by whose +doctrine the Church shineth as the sun and the moon; unto whom it is +said by our Lord's voice, [Footnote 582] 'Ye are the light of the +world.' They be also the examples of good works: whence He saith in +His admonitions, 'Let your light so shine before men.' [Footnote +583] In that the church is adorned joyfully within but not without, is +shown morally that its 'Glory is all from within.' [Footnote 584] +For although it be contemptible externally, yet doth it shine within +in the soul, which is the abode of God: whence the Church saith, 'I am +black but comely.' [Footnote 585] And again, 'Yea, I have a goodly +heritage.' [Footnote 586] Which the Prophet considering, saith, +'Lord, I have loved the habitation of Thy house: and the place where +Thine honour dwelleth,' [Footnote 587] which place also Faith, Hope, +and Charity do spiritually adorn. + + [Footnote 580: Cant, iii, 10. Vulgate.] + + [Footnote 581: The fifteen Psalms, cxx-cxxxiv of our version, are + called Songs of Degrees.] + + [Footnote 582: S. Matthew v.] + + [Footnote 583: Ibid.] + + [Footnote 584: Here is an allusion to Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor + meum_), 14. ] + + [Footnote 585: Cant, i, 5.] + + [Footnote 586: Psalm xvi (_Conserva me Domine_), 7.] + + [Footnote 587: Psalm xxvi (_Judica me Domine_), 8. ] + +{169} + +The cross of triumph is placed in the middle of the church, because +the Church loveth her Redeemer in the middle of her heart, and 'the +midst thereof is paved with love for the daughters of Jerusalem.' +[Footnote 588] The which as a sign of victory, let all who see say one +and all, 'Hail, salvation of the whole world: hail, life-giving Tree!' +Wherefore, lest we should ever forget the love of God for us, 'Who +gave his only-begotten Son' to redeem us His servants, the Church +armeth herself in her bosom and forehead with this sign, signifying +that the mystery of the cross must always be believed by us in our +heart, and confessed openly with our mouth. The figure of which went +before her in Egypt. But when we cross ourselves from the forehead +downwards, and then from the left to the right, we do set forth this +mystery, that God 'bowed the heavens and came down,' to teach us to +prefer things eternal unto things temporal. But by this sign the army +of the devil is overthrown; the Church triumpheth, 'terrible as an +army with banners.' [Footnote 589] 'How dreadful is this place: this +is none other but the house of God.' [Footnote 590] And the Hymn +saith, 'The banners of the King come forth: the Cross unfolds its +mystery.' [Footnote 591] Round this do the heavenly legions rally. Of +this it is written, 'I saw the holy city. New Jerusalem, coming down +from God out of heaven.' [Footnote 592] + + [Footnote 588: Cant. iii, 10.] + + [Footnote 589: Cant, vi, 10.] + + [Footnote 590: Genesis xxviii, 17.] + + [Footnote 591: The hymn, _Vexilla Regis_, occurs in the office for + Passion Sunday.] + + [Footnote 592: Apoc. xxi, 2.] + +For the Church is militant here; in her home she doth reign: a part is +in pilgrimage, a part in glory. That which is in pilgrimage coming up +from her exile through the desert, doth sigh for her home, from the +'waters of Babylon for the heavenly Jerusalem;' while the other part, +continually seeing peace, doth hold perpetual festival. Thus the +heavenly city of Jerusalem is called the 'vision of peace.' +[Footnote 593] + + [Footnote 593: See note 4 on the _Rationale_, I. i, p. 13.] + +{170} + +How glorious is her kingdom, 'glorious things are spoken of thee, thou +city of God.' [Footnote 594] Her guardians be the citizens of +heaven, the legions of angels with the glorious company of the +apostles, the prophets, and the patriarchs, the armies of martyrs +robed in purple, the flowers of virgins, the verdant choir of +confessors, compassed about with the universal assembly of all the +saints, chaste and glorified! And this wondrous court of heaven is yet +more wondrously adorned by that one incomparable jewel, the Virgin +Mother, 'whose like there ne'er hath been, whose like there ne'er +shall be.' But how great is the admiration of all in beholding the +King Himself, and how harmonious be the songs in praise of Him; this +is known to those alone, who have deserved to stand amongst the happy +throng, and to behold the mystery of the Trinity and the glory of +Christ: Who is encircled by the angelic choirs; upon Whom the angels +desire continually to gaze. To behold this the Immortal King face to +face, the Church below is preparing herself: and while she keepeth +here her feasts of time, she is remembering the festivals of her home +and of eternity; in which the bridegroom is hymned by angelical +instruments. And all the saints continually celebrating the day of +great festivity 'which the Lord hath made,' cease not in their nuptial +songs to laud the eternal bridegroom, the beautiful in form above the +sons of men; Him who hath chosen the Church for Himself of His free +mercy. Of whom, as He had seen her from eternity, He saith, 'I will +get Me to the mountain of myrrh, and to the hill of frankincense and +will speak unto my spouse.' [Footnote 595] For whom 'He came forth +as a bridegroom out of His chamber, and rejoiced as a giant to run his +course'; [Footnote 596] when He went forth from His Father, and +returned unto His Father--went forth indeed even unto Hades, returned +unto the Throne of God--to make all His elect, from the beginning even +unto the end of the world, one kingdom in the vision of the Supreme +Trinity: in which is glorified 'one God world without end.' + + [Footnote 594: Psalm lxxxvii (_Fundamenta ejus_), 2.] + + [Footnote 595: Cant, iv, 6.] + + [Footnote 596: Psalm xix (_Caeli enarrant_), 5.] + +{171} + + + +CHAPTER II + +OF THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH + + + +With what carefulness and love Christ doth adorn the bride for Himself +and prepare her for her heavenly dedication, is in part signified by +the consecration of the material church. The bishop compasseth the +church to be dedicated three times, sprinkling it with holy water, the +clergy and people following him. + +239 A. In the meanwhile without and within there be burning twelve +lamps. So often as he cometh to the door (which for a mystical reason +is shut), the bishop smiteth the lintel with his pastoral staff, +saying 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lift up, ye +everlasting doors, and the King of Glory shall come in.' [Footnote +597] + + [Footnote 597: Psalm xxiv (_Domini est terra_).] + +The deacon answereth, 'Who is the King of Glory?' To whom the bishop, +'The Lord of Hosts: He is the King of Glory.' At the third time, the +door being thrown open, he entereth with the clergy and people, +saying, 'Peace be to this house.' Then he performeth the other +ceremonies which pertain to dedication. But whatever things be here +done visibly, the same doth God work by His invisible power in the +soul, which is the true Temple of God: wherein Faith layeth the +foundation, Hope raiseth the buildings, and Charity finisheth it. Also +the Church Catholic herself, being made one out {172} of many stones, +is the temple of God; because many temples make one temple, of which +there is one Lord and one Faith. Wherefore the house must be +dedicated; the soul sanctified. Water is penitence: salt, wisdom; the +threefold aspersion, the threefold immersion in baptism; the twelve +lights, the twelve apostles, preaching the mystery of the Cross; the +bishop, Christ; his staff, Christ's power; the three strokes on the +door, Christ's dominion over all things in heaven, earth, and hell: +'that all the threefold frame of things may bow the knee to Him, their +Lord.' Again, the question of the deacon within is the ignorance of +the people; the opening of the door, the ejection of sin. The bishop +entering, prayeth for peace on the house, and Christ entering the +world maketh peace between God and men. Then prostrate he prayeth unto +the Lord for its sanctification: and so Christ, humbled in His +Passion, prayed for His disciples and them that should believe, +saying, 'Father, sanctify them in Thy truth.' [Footnote 598] + + [Footnote 598: S. John xvii.] + +Arising he does not give the salutation but only prayeth: because they +who be not yet sanctified must not be blessed but only prayed for. The +writing the alphabet upon the pavement is the simple teaching of faith +in the heart of man. The line drawn from the left corner of the east +unto the right corner of the west, and the other line from the right +of the east unto the left of the west, do express the Cross, and also +the gathering in of both peoples: according as Jacob blessed the +children of Joseph with his hands crossed. [Footnote 599] + + [Footnote 599: Genesis xxviii] + +For although Christ passing from the east did leave the Jews, because +they would not believe, on His left hand, and did come unto the +Gentiles; to whom, though they had been in the west. He granteth to be +on the right hand: yet will he again, passing from the Gentiles who be +placed in the {173} right of the east, visit the Jews in the left hand +corner: who, it is evident, be worse than He first found the Gentiles. +The staff with which the alphabet is described typifieth the ministry +of teachers, by which the conversion of the Gentiles is effected and +that of Jews perfected. In that afterwards the bishop standing before +the altar saith, 'O God, make speed to save us'; he doth signify those +who having received the faith are preparing themselves to fight. And +because they be still in conflict, and as it were amongst sighs, the +Alleluia is not yet added. After this the water is blessed with salt +and ashes; wine mixed with water being also added. The water is the +people; the salt, doctrine; the ashes, the remembrance of the Passion +of Christ. The wine mixed with water is Christ, God and Man; the wine +His Godhead, the water His Manhood. Thus the people is sanctified by +the doctrines of faith and remembrance of the Passion, being united +with its Head both God and Man. Whence the altar and the church be +sprinkled within; to show that within, as without, the spiritual +Church must be sanctified. The aspersory, made of hyssop, denoteth +humility; with which grace the Catholic Church being sprinkled is +purified. The bishop compasseth the church in lustration and as if +bestowing his care upon all. In the meanwhile is chanted the Psalm, +'Let God arise and his enemies be scattered,' with its proper response +and antiphon, which is followed by another, 'Whoso dwelleth under the +defence of the most high.' Then the bishop chanteth, 'My House shall +be called an House of Prayer,' and also, 'I will tell out thy name +among my brethren.' And because no work can prosper without God, he +prayeth in conclusion that they may be heard who shall enter therein +to pray for blessings. After this he approacheth unto the altar, +saying, 'I will go up unto the altar of the Lord,' with the whole +Psalm: and what remains of the water {174} he poureth away at the base +of the altar, committing unto God that which surpasseth human +abilities in so great a sacrament. After this the altar is wiped with +a linen cloth. The altar is Christ, the cloth is his flesh, brought by +the beating of His Passion unto the whiteness and glory of +immortality. Next the bishop offereth upon the altar frankincense, +which is burnt in the shape of a cross in the middle thereof; and at +its four corners he maketh crosses with sanctified oil. Then upon each +of the four walls of the church there be made three crosses with the +same oil: and the consecration being thus finished, the altar is +covered with a white veil. Incense, prayers, and oil do denote the +grace of the Holy Ghost. Whose fulness--'like the precious ointment +upon the head that ran down unto the beard: even unto Aaron's beard,' +[Footnote 600] --came down upon the apostles and their disciples: who +preached the mystery of the Cross through the four quarters of the +world, the Lord working with them. The white covering doth typify the +joy of immortality: concerning which the Son exulteth, saying unto the +Father, 'Thou hast put off my sackcloth, and girded me with gladness.' +[Footnote 601] + + [Footnote 600: Psalm cxxxiii (_Ecce quam bonum_), 2.] + + [Footnote 601: Psalm xxx (_Exaltabo te Domine_), 12.] + + + +{175} + +APPENDIX A + +CHANCELS + + + +'The temple of old was divided into two parts by a veil hung in the +middle thereof. The first part was called the Holy Place, but the +inner part the Holy of Holies. Whatever part then of the office of the +Mass cometh before the secret [Footnote 602] is performed as it were +in the outer place: but the secret itself within the Holy of Holies. +There were in the Holy of Holies the altar of incense, the ark of the +testimony, the mercy-seat above the ark, and over this two cherubims +of glory with their faces looking towards each other. Herein the high +priest entered alone once in the year, having the names of the +patriarchs written upon the breastplate of judgment and the +shoulderplates, and bearing a censer of burning coals and blood, and +incense, which with prayer he placed in the thurible until the cloud +of incense covered him. [Footnote 603] + + [Footnote 602: After the _Sanctus_, which, as we shall find, was + performed with the full choir and the accompaniment of organs, came + the _secret_, which embraced the whole _Canon of the Mass_, + performed by the celebrant alone, and the celebration of the Holy + Eucharist. 'It is called the secret because these things be hidden + from us, since the nature of man can in no wise fully comprehend so + great a mystery: for the denoting of which it is rightly performed + secretly. To signify the same also, the priest when entering upon + the secret is veiled as it were with the side curtains.' See other + mystical reasons adduced in the remainder of this passage, Book IV, + Chapter 35, and in Chapter 39 an account of the side curtains. Upon + the use of these see also the _Dublin Review_, vol. x, p. 339. ] + + [Footnote 603: See Leviticus xvi; Exodus xxviii, xxxix, and xl.] + +{176} + +Afterwards he sprinkled the mercy-seat and the altar with blood, and +then he went out to the people, and washed his vestments in the +evening. These were types of old, but they have ceased since the +things signified thereby have come. But thus the former temple doth +denote the present church; the Holy of Holies, heaven; the high +priest, Christ; the blood, His Passion; the coals, His love; the +thurible. His flesh; the burning incense, prayers of sweet savour; the +altar, the hosts of heaven; the ark, Christ in His humanity; the +mercy-seat, God the Father; the two cherubims, the twain Testaments, +the which do look towards each other because the two do agree; the +vestments which be washed, mankind. Wherefore consider what things +were done of old, and what things Christ hath done, and then see how +the minister of the Church doth represent the same in the office of +the Mass. By the ark also is signified the humility of Christ, from +which through his mercy all good hath come unto us' (Durandus, Book +IV, Preface 13, 14). + +In the next section the same subject is further illustrated, though +without reference to the immediate subject of this appendix, the +necessity of the division of every church into a chancel and nave. + +The reader may consult a most interesting series of chapters in Hugo +de Sancto Victore (Tituli ii-viii, Ex. Misc. II, Lib. IV) upon this +subject: the passages are far too long for insertion here. + +The _absolute necessity_ of this twofold division is a point which it +is more than painful at this time to have to prove. It is only within +the last two centuries that our own or any branch of the Church +Catholic has dared to depart from an usage which, if any, has +universality, antiquity, and consent on its side, and of whose +authority was never any doubt in the Church. {177} For some of the +arguments which have been adduced in the present controversy we must +refer to the publications of the Cambridge Camden Society, and +particularly the _Ecclesiologist_. There is nothing more wanted than a +careful treatise on the subject which shall in a compendious form put +this and several points depending upon it, such as orientation itself, +and praying towards the east, in a clear light. + + + + + +APPENDIX B + +ORIENTATION + +'Furthermore albeit God is everywhere, yet ought the priest at the +altar and in the offices to pray towards the east: according to the +constitutions of Vigilius, Pope. Whence in churches which have the +doors at the west, he that celebrateth turneth in the salutations to +the people: but in churches which have the entrance at the east, +[Footnote 604] as at Rome, there is no need in the salutations for +turning round, because the priest always turneth to the people. The +temple also of Solomon, and the tabernacle of Moses had their entrance +from the east. Pray we therefore towards the east, being mindful, +firstly, that He, Who is the splendour of eternal light, hath +illuminated 'them [Footnote 605] that sit in darkness and the shadow +of death, rising with healing in his wings': [Footnote 606] of whom +it is said, 'Behold the man, whose name is the East.' [Footnote 607] +For the which cause he saith in the book of Wisdom, [Footnote 608] +{178} 'We ought to pray eastward, where the light ariseth.' Not +because the Divine Majesty is locally in the east: which is +potentially and essentially in all places; as it is written, 'Do not I +fill [Footnote 609] heaven and earth'; and in like manner speaketh +the Prophet, [Footnote 610] 'If I ascend into heaven. Thou art there: +if I go down to hell, Thou art there also': but because to those 'who +fear His name shall [Footnote 611] the sun of righteousness arise,' +'which lighteth every man that Cometh into the world.' [Footnote +612] + + [Footnote 604: S. John Lateran is an instance. We may observe that + the reasons for the orientation of churches must have been very + strong to have caused an universal disregard of an example thus set + at the centre of Western Christendom.] + + [Footnote 605: S. Luke i, 79.] + + [Footnote 606: Malachi iv, 2.] + + [Footnote 607: Zechariah vi, 12. ] + + [Footnote 608: Wisdom xvi, 28.] + + [Footnote 609: Jeremiah xxiii, 24.] + + [Footnote 610: Psalm cxxxix (_Domine probasti_), 7.] + + [Footnote 611: Malachi iv, 2.] + + [Footnote 612: S. John i, 9.] + +Secondly, that our souls be thereby taught to turn themselves to the +things that are more desirable. + +Thirdly, because they who praise God ought not to turn their backs on +Him. + +Fourthly, according to Joannes Damascenus (who giveth also the three +following reasons), [Footnote 613] to show that we seek our country. + + [Footnote 613: _Quatuor orationes._ We should probably read, + _rationes_.] + +Fifthly, that we may look upon Christ crucified, who is the True East. + +Sixthly, that we may prove that we expect Him to come to be our Judge. +For Damascenus saith in that place, 'God planted a garden eastward'; +[Footnote 614] whence man's sin made him an exile, and instead of +Paradise made him to dwell in the west: therefore, looking to our +ancient home, we pray towards the east. + + [Footnote 614: Genesis ii, 8.] + +Seventhly, because our Lord, at His Crucifixion, looked towards the +east: and also when he ascended into heaven. He ascended towards the +east: and thus the apostles adored Him: and thus 'He shall come again +in like manner as they saw Him go into heaven.' [Footnote 615] + + [Footnote 615: Acts i, 11.] + +Eighthly, Daniel likewise in the Jewish captivity prayed towards the +temple. + +{179} + +Yet Augustine saith that 'no Scripture hath taught us to pray towards +the east' [He, however, says also, 'Though I find not a thing on +record in Scripture, yet I receive it as proceeding from the apostles +if the Universal Church embrace it'] [Footnote 616] (Durandus V, ii, +57). + + [Footnote 616: This section is in several places corrupt: for + example--from Damascenus the quotation in the sixth head belongs + properly to the seventh. + + Our readers may perhaps be reminded of the anecdote of the good Earl + of Derby (who, if the Reformed Church in England should ever have a + calendar of her own, will assuredly be one of its martyrs), when on + the scaffold. The church of Bolton was in sight: and the Earl + requested that he might be allowed to kneel on the western side of + the block, so that the last object on which his eyes were fixed + might be God's house. His executioners showed their poor malice to + the last, by denying him this wish.] + +S. Isidore has a curious passage about orientation. A place, he says, +designed so as to face the east was called _templum_, from +_contemplating_. Of which there were four parts; the front facing the +east, the back the west, the right hand the south, and the left hand +the north: whence also when they builded temples, they took their east +at the equinox, so that lines drawn from east to west would make the +sections of the sky on the right and left hands equal, in order that +he who prayed might look at the direct east (Orig. XV, iv). + + + +APPENDIX C + +ON THE DESIGN OF THE ANALOGIUM, AMBO OR ROOD LOFT, +AND THE READING OF THE GOSPEL FROM IT + + +1. We have noted afore, that the priest, in the celebration of Mass, +when it is not High Mass, himself readeth the gospel. But when a +bishop or priest celebrateth High Mass with the highest solemnity, +then, in some churches, as at Rome, the deacon having kissed the {180} +right hand of the bishop, taketh the book of the gospel from the +altar, and giveth it to the sub-deacon to bear, and asketh and +receiveth the bishop's or priest's blessing. But in other churches, he +first asketh for the blessing before he taketh the book. The +benediction having been bestowed, the deacon proceedeth along the +south side [Footnote 617] of the choir to the rood loft, and before +him goeth the sub-deacon with the volume of the gospel, and before him +the incense-bearer with incense; and before him the torch-bearer with +lighted tapers, and before him in some churches the banner of the +cross: and thus they ascend the rood loft. And the deacon readeth the +gospel: the which being finished, they return to the priest or bishop +together. Which things we will more particularly go through. It is +also to be noted, that in some churches, the deacon, when about to go +to the rood loft, beginneth the antiphon which followeth benedictus in +the nocturns, and while he is going thither, it is taken up, and +finished by the chorus, to set forth charity: and it is sung without +instruments, to denote that God commandeth us to have love alone. And +now is the figure changed: for the deacon, who before represented S. +John Baptist, now setteth forth S. John Evangelist: because 'the law +and the prophets were until John: [Footnote 618] and after him the +kingdom of heaven is preached.' + + [Footnote 617: As is well known, double staircases to rood lofts + appear to have been almost as common in England as single ones: and + there are sometimes, especially in Norfolk churches, two + corresponding rood turrets.] + + [Footnote 618: 2 S. Luke xvi, 16.] + +2. And the word _evangelium_ meaneth good tidings; from [Greek text], +well, and [Greek text], a messenger. For the preaching of Christ and +His apostles is indeed a gospel, as proclaiming Life after death, Rest +after labour, a Kingdom after slavery. + +{181} + +3. And ye are to wit, that as the head hath pre-eminence over the +other members of the body, and as the other members obey it: so the +gospel is the principal thing of all that are said in the office of +the Mass, and hath the pre-eminence, and whatever things be there +read, or sung, they consent to it, as may well be perceived. + +4. The deacon therefore first kisseth the hand of the bishop in +silence, because the preacher must proclaim the gospel for the sake of +eternal glory, as saith the spouse in the Canticles, 'His right hand +shall embrace me.' [Footnote 619] Also because the angel which came +to announce the glory of Christ's Resurrection did sit on the right +hand, clothed in white. [Footnote 620] In other churches, however, he +doth not kiss, but only bowing asketh for a blessing. But the +sub-deacon or deacon doth not kiss the hands, but the feet, of the +Roman Pontiff, that he may exhibit the greatest reverence to the +greatest bishop, and show that he is His Vicar, Whose feet the woman +that was a sinner kissed. [Footnote 621] For his footstool is to be +adored because it is holy. Whose feet also, when He had risen from the +dead, the woman held and adored. Generally, none ought to kiss the +hand of the Roman Pontiff, unless when he receiveth something from his +hands, or giveth something to them: to show that we ought on both +accounts to give thanks unto Him, Who giveth to all of His own, and +receiveth from none. + + [Footnote 619: Canticles ii, 6.] + + [Footnote 620: S. Mark xvi, 5.] + + [Footnote 621: S. Luke vii, 37.] + +5. The deacon incontinently thereafter taketh the book of the gospel +from the altar, because the 'Law shall go forth out of Sion, and the +Word of the Lord from Jerusalem': [Footnote 622] not the Mosaic Law +which went forth of Sinai, but the Gospel Law, of which the Prophet +saith, 'Behold the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new +covenant with the house of Jacob and with the house of Israel.' +[Footnote 623] + + [Footnote 622: Micah iv, 2.] + + [Footnote 623: Jeremiah xxxi, 31.] + +{182} + +The book is also taken from the altar, because the apostles received +the gospel from the altar, when they went about preaching the Passion +of Christ. Or the altar in this place signifieth the Jews, from whom +the kingdom of God is taken, and given unto a nation that will do its +fruits: and from this, that the gospel is taken from the altar, we +learn, that it is the Word of God, which is signified by the altar, +according to that saying, 'An altar of earth shall ye make unto me.' +[Footnote 624] + + [Footnote 624: Exodus xx, 24.] + +6. But he taketh it, according to some, from the right side of the +altar: because the Church of the Jews, whence our Church springeth, +was situate in the east: and placeth it on the left, as it is written, +'His left hand is under my head, and his right hand doth embrace me': +[Footnote 625] and that for a threefold cause. Firstly, the gospel +teacheth that things celestial, which be signified by the right, be +preferred to things terrestrial, which the left hand setteth forth. +Secondly, the book is inclined on the left shoulder, to signify that +the preaching of Christ shall pass from the Gentiles, as it is +written: 'In those days Israel shall be saved.' [Footnote 626] +Thirdly, because in temporal life, which is set forth by that side, +needful is it that Christ should be preached: and the book of the +gospel is in some churches adorned on the outside with gold and gems. +But the book remaineth on the altar, from the time that the priest +goeth there, till the gospel be read, because it, in this respect, +signifieth Jerusalem: since the gospel was first preached in +Jerusalem, and remained there from the advent of the Lord till it was +published to the Gentiles. As he saith, 'From Sion shall go forth the +laws.' [Footnote 627] For Jerusalem was the place of the Passion, +which is also set forth by the altar. + + [Footnote 625: Canticles ii, 6.] + + [Footnote 626: Romans xi, 26.] + + [Footnote 627: Micah iv, 2.] + +{183} + +7. Thereafter he seeketh the benediction: because none must preach +unless he be sent. According to that saying, 'How shall they preach, +except they be sent?' [Footnote 628] And the Lord saith to His +disciples, 'Pray ye therefore the Lord of the harvest that He may send +forth labourers into His harvest.' [Footnote 629] But Esaias, when +he had heard the voice of the Lord, saying, 'Whom shall I send, and +who will go for us?' [Footnote 630] made answer and said, 'Here am +I, send me.' And the Lord said, 'Go and tell this people,' etc. + + [Footnote 628: Romans x, 15.] + + [Footnote 629: S. Matt, ix, 38.] + + [Footnote 630: Isaiah vi, 8, 9.] + +8. Again, Moses prefigured this kind of blessing: who, when he had +ascended unto the mountain, received the tables of the law and the +blessing, and gave the commandment to the people. And the Lord also +Himself blessed the order of deacons, and gave it the Holy Spirit and +sent it to preach through the whole world. The bishop therefore, or +the priest, visibly blesseth the deacon who is about to read the +gospel, which he did not do to the sub-deacon when about to read the +epistle, because Christ sent the law and the prophets, which be +signified by the epistle, while he remained hidden from the world: but +after that he had visited it, and conversed with men He sent forth His +apostles and evangelists, and taught them, saying, 'Go and teach, +saying, the kingdom of heaven is at hand.' [Footnote 631] 'And they +went through the villages, evangelising, and doing cures everywhere.' +And he sendeth him to read the gospel, to note that Christ sent the +apostles to preach the kingdom of God. + + [Footnote 631: S. Matthew x, 7.] + +9. But the deacon, laying up in his heart the things which were said +in the benediction, must study to show himself pure in heart, clean in +words, chaste in deed, that he may be able to set forth the gospel +worthily, because the fountain of living waters, that is, the gospel, +doth not flow freely, except from Libanus, that is, from a chaste +heart, and a pure mouth. {184} For praise is not seemly in the mouth +of a sinner; nay rather of the sinner saith God, 'What hast thou to do +to set forth My ordinances, and take My covenant into thy mouth.' +[Footnote 632] And therefore he is fortified by the sign of the cross, +and then having received license and benediction, as is aforesaid, and +having made the sign of the cross, that he may walk in safety, +proceedeth to the rood loft in silence, with his eyes fixed on the +ground: bearing, according to the custom of some churches, nothing in +his hand, as the Lord commanded the apostles whom He sent to preach +the kingdom of God. 'Take,' saith He, 'nothing for the journey, and +salute no one.' [Footnote 633] But in other churches the deacon +beareth a book, as shall be said hereafter. But when he cometh to the +rood loft, he saluteth it, as entering into a house to which he +offereth peace, and passeth from the right side of the choir to the +left, as he had before transferred the book from the right to the left +side. For when the Jews had refused the Word of God, it was preached +to the Gentiles, who are understood by the left side. + + [Footnote 632: Psalm 1 (_Deus Deorum_) 16.] + + [Footnote 633: S. Matthew x, 10.] + +10. In the Roman Church, and in certain others, the sub-deacon +ascendeth the rood loft one way, [Footnote 634] and the deacon +another: because the one proceedeth to an increase of knowledge by +teaching, the other by learning: and because the minister by the merit +of his works, and the preacher by the merit of his words, proceedeth +to an increase of righteousness. Whence the Psalmist: 'Thy +righteousness standeth like the mountains of God': [Footnote 635] but +they both return to the bishop by the same way, because by final +perseverance they attain their reward, {185} as the Lord testifieth, +saying: 'He that endureth to the end, the same shall be saved.' +[Footnote 636] And that preaching sufficeth not without good deeds. +For 'Jesus began both to do and to teach.' [Footnote 637] Therefore +the preacher returneth by the same way by the which the minister had +gone up. Moreover, he that is about to read the gospel goeth and +ascendeth by one way, and returneth by another, according to that +saying, 'They returned into their own country another way': +[Footnote 638] because the apostles did first preach to the Jews and +then to the Gentiles: as it is written, 'Since ye have cast from you +the Word of God,' [Footnote 639] and the rest. + + [Footnote 634: _Per dextram partem._ We are to imagine, in the whole + of this description, the spectators supposed to face the altar. So + in the fifteenth chapter of this book, the epistle is said to be + read _in dextera parte_.] + + [Footnote 635: Psalm xxxvi (_dixit injustus_), 6. ] + + [Footnote 636: S. Matthew x, 22.] + + [Footnote 637: Acts i, 1] + + [Footnote 638: S. Matthew ii, 12.] + + [Footnote 639: Acts xiii, 46.] + +11. The sub-deacon precedeth the deacon (because John and his +preaching preceded Christ and His preaching), carrying in some +churches a cushion; which he may place under the book. By the cushion, +on which the book resteth, be set forth the temporal things of life, +as it is written: 'If we have sown spiritual things, is it a great +matter if we reap your temporal things?' [Footnote 640] For +according to the Apostle, 'They which serve the altar, eat of the +altar.' [Footnote 641] For 'the labourer is worthy of his hire.' +[Footnote 642] And the Lord taught us the law, 'Thou shalt not muzzle +the ox when it treadeth out the corn.' [Footnote 643] Again, a +cushion is placed under the book to denote that which the Lord saith, +'My yoke is easy, and My burden light.' [Footnote 644] Austin saith, +'To this yoke whosoever is subject, hath all things subject to him.' + + [Footnote 640: I Corinth, ix, 11.] + + [Footnote 641: I Corinth, ix, 13. ] + + [Footnote 642: S. Luke x, 7.] + + [Footnote 643: Deuteron. xxv, 4.] + + [Footnote 644: S. Matthew xi, 30.] + +The cushion therefore denoteth the sweetness and pleasure that ariseth +from the commands of God. Whence the Prophet, 'Thou, O God, hast of +Thy goodness prepared for the poor.' [Footnote 645] + + [Footnote 645: Psalm lxviii (_Exurgat Deus_), 10.] + +{186} + +And again, 'O how sweet are Thy words unto my taste.' [Footnote 646] +Yet in the Roman Church, the deacon goeth first, as the teacher: +sub-deacon followeth as the learner: the one precedeth, that he may +preach, the other followeth, that he may minister. But after the +reading of the Gospel, the sub-deacon, as being now sufficiently +instructed, returneth first, having in his hand the gospel, as +bringing back the gospel as the fruit of his ministrations: according +to that which the Lord promised: 'He that receiveth a prophet in the +name of a prophet shall receive a prophet's reward.' [Footnote 647] +Whom therefore the deacon sendeth aforehand to the bishop, to show +that he is bringing back the fruit of his preaching: concerning which +the Lord commanded, 'I have called you that ye should go and bring +forth fruit, and that your fruit should remain.' [Footnote 648] +Moreover, the deacon, bearing back the cushion and gospel, signifieth +that the preacher ought, by his good works, to offer his life to God. +Whence the Apostle, 'Whatsoever ye do in word and deed, do all in the +name of our Lord Jesus Christ.' [Footnote 649] + + [Footnote 646: Psalm cxix (_Beati immaculati_), 103.] + + [Footnote 647: S. Matthew x. 41.] + + [Footnote 648: S. John xv, 16.] + + [Footnote 649: Colos. iii 17.] + +12. The deacon also sendeth aforehand the thurible with incense, +because the works of Christ preceded His doctrine. As it is written, +'Jesus began to do, and to teach.' But the thurible with incense +signifieth prayer with devotion, which the faithful then chiefly ought +to employ when they hear the word of God. Again, he doth it, because +the preacher must send forth the sweet odour of good works: according +to that saying of the Apostle: 'We are a sweet savour of Christ in +every place.' [Footnote 650] He whose life is despised needs is it +that His preaching also is contemned. + + [Footnote 650: 2 Corinth, ii, 15.] + +. . . . . . + +{187} + +The cross precedeth the gospel in token that the preacher must follow +the Crucified. Whence the Lord saith to Peter, 'Follow Me.' After +this, the deacon ascendeth the _ambo_ [the rood loft]. + +17. Now _ambo_ meaneth the pulpit, whence the gospel is read, so +called from _ambio_ [to surround] because that place is surrounded +with steps. In some churches also there be two ascents, one left, +namely towards the east, where the deacon ascendeth; one to the right, +namely towards the west, where he descendeth. + +. . . . . + +18. He ascendeth that he may read the gospel with a loud and clear +voice: as that which is to be heard of all, according to that saying +of the Prophet, 'O thou that evangelisest to Sion, get thee up into +the high mountain.' [Footnote 651] + + [Footnote 651: Isaiah xi, 9.] + +. . . . . . + +Also that we may imitate our Lord, Who went up into a mountain, +[Footnote 652] that He might preach the gospel. The gospel is also +read in a lofty and eminent place, because it hath been preached +throughout all the world: as it is written: 'Their sound is gone out +unto all lands.' [Footnote 653] But the epistle is read in a lower +place, as typifying the law, which was confined to Judea alone, as it +is written: 'In Jewry is God known.' [Footnote 654] + + [Footnote 652: S. Matthew v, i.] + + [Footnote 653: Psalm xix (_Coeli enarrant_), 4.] + + [Footnote 654: Psalm lxxv (_Notus in Judea_), I.] + +. . . . . + +19. But in a Mass of requiem the gospel is not read in that exalted +place, but at the altar, to signify that preaching profiteth not the +departed. + +. . . . . + +20. Also the gospel is read from an eagle, according to that saying, +'He came flying upon the wings of the winds.' [Footnote 655] And the +eagle itself is covered with a covering of cloth or silk, on certain +feasts, to signify the softness of the heart: as he saith, 'I will +take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and will give you a heart +of flesh.' [Footnote 656] + + [Footnote 655: Psalm xviii (_Diligam Te_), 10] + + [Footnote 656: Ezekiel xi, 19. ] + +. . . . . + +{188} + +21. But he that readeth the gospel passeth to the left side: and +setteth his face to the north, that the saying may be fulfilled, which +is written, 'I will say to the north give up, and to the south keep +not back' [Footnote 657] (Durandus, Book IV, chap. xxiv). + + [Footnote 657: Isaiah xliii, 6.] + + + +APPENDIX D + +ON THE SIGN OF THE CROSS + + + +In the second chapter of his fifth book Durandus enters at great +length into this subject. The reason for making the sign is to drive +away evil spirits, who, as S. Chrysostome says, 'always flee when they +see the sign of the cross, as fearing that staff by which they have +been wounded.' The pole on which the brazen serpent was raised, the +crossing of Jacob's hands when blessing Joseph's children, the mark +_tau_ (Ezekiel ix, 4) on the forehead, and the seal on the forehead in +the Apocalypse, are some of the representations of the cross here +alleged. The cross is to be made with three fingers, that is, the +thumb and two fingers, in honour of the Trinity. The Jacobites and +Eutychians use only one finger. Next the different methods of crossing +are discussed. The sign ought to be made at the end of the gospel, the +creeds, the Lord's Prayer, the _Gloria in excelsis_, the _Sanctus_, +the _Agnus Dei_, the _Benedictus_, _Magnificat_, _Nunc dimittis_, at +the beginning of the hours, the end of the Mass, when the priest gives +the benediction, and whenever mention is made of the Cross of the +Crucified. See also our author in his sixth book _De die Parasceu_. + +{189} + +APPENDIX E + +ON THE FOUR COLOURS USED IN CHURCH HANGINGS, ETC. + + +1. There be four principal colours, by which, according to the +diversity of days, the Church distinguisheth her vestments: to wit, +white, red, black, and green. For we read that in the garments of the +law there were four colours, fine linen, purple, jacinth, scarlet. The +Roman Church also useth violet and saffron, as shall be said below. + +2. White vestments be used in the festivals of holy confessors, and +virgins which be not martyrs, on account of their integrity and +innocence. For it is written, 'Her Nazarites were whiter than snow.' +[Footnote 658] And again: 'They shall walk with Me in white: +[Footnote 659] for they are virgins: and follow the Lamb whithersoever +He goeth.' On account of the same thing white is used on the festivals +of angels; concerning whom the Lord saith to Lucifer: [Footnote 660] + + [Footnote 658: Lamentations iv, 7.] + + [Footnote 659: The bishop here confuses two passages, Apocal. iii, + 4, and xiv, 4. Of the same subject Laevinus Torrentius says + beautifully in his hymn on the Holy Innocents: + + Ergo supremi parte coeli, lactea qua lucidum fulget via, + Qua picta dulci stillat uva nectare, et nectar exhalant rosae, + Loeti coronis luditis, et insignium mixti puellarum choris + Sacrum canentes itis agnum candido quacunque praecedat pede.] + + [Footnote 660: A misquotation of the bishop's. The words are + addressed to Job. Job xxxviii, 7.] + +{190} + + +'Where wast thou .... when the morning stars sang together?' Also in +all the festivals of the Holy Mother of God. In the feast of All +Saints: yet some then use red. In the principal festival of S. John +Evangelist. [Footnote 661] In the conversion of S. Paul. In the +cathedra of S. Peter. [Footnote 662] Also from the vigil of the +nativity of our Lord to the octave of the Epiphany: both inclusive; +excepting the festivals of the martyrs included in that period. +[Footnote 663] In the nativity of our Lord, and also of His +Forerunner, because each was born pure. 'For the Lord rode upon a +light cloud,' [Footnote 664] that is, took unto Himself sinless +humanity, 'and entered Egypt,' that is, came into the world: as saith +the angel to the virgin, 'The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the +power of the Highest shall overshadow thee.' [Footnote 665] But +John, although he were born in sin, was sanctified from the womb: +according to that saying, 'Before thou camest forth from the womb I +sanctified thee.' [Footnote 666] And the angel saith to Zecharias, +'He shall be filled with the Holy Ghost from his mother's womb.' +[Footnote 667] Also white is used in the Epiphany, on account of the +splendour of that star which led the wise men, as saith the Prophet, +'and the Gentiles shall come to thy light, [Footnote 668] and kings +to the brightness of thy rising.' In the purification also, on account +of the purity of the Virgin Mary: which, according to Simeon, gave +birth to 'a light to lighten the Gentiles, and the glory of Thy people +Israel.' [Footnote 669] + + [Footnote 661: That is, on the 27th of December, the day of his + 'deposition': the other feast, kept in memory of his deliverance + from the boiling oil, before the Latin gate, and therefore called + _S. Joannes ante Portam Latinam_, is the 5th of May.] + + [Footnote 662: The 22nd of February.] + + [Footnote 663: Which are S. Stephen, the Holy Innocents, S. Thomas + of Canterbury.] + + [Footnote 664: Isaiah xix, 3.] + + [Footnote 665: S. Luke i; 35.] + + [Footnote 666: Jeremiah i, 3.] + + [Footnote 667: S. Luke i, 15.] + + [Footnote 668: Isaiah Ix, 3.] + + [Footnote 669: A very harsh construction: but surely preferable to + that by which the Blessed Virgin herself is spoken of as the + promised light.] + +{191} + +On Maundy Thursday, to set forth the anointing, which is consecrated +to the purification of the soul. For the gospel on that day +principally setteth forth purity; 'He that is washed needeth not save +to wash his feet, but is clean every whit': and again, 'If I wash thee +not, thou hast no part with me.' [Footnote 670] It is also used with +the office of the Mass from Easter Eve until the octave of the +Ascension inclusive: except on the rogation days and intervening +festivals of martyrs. On Easter Day, on account of the angel who +brought the tidings of the Resurrection, who appeared in white +garments: concerning whom Matthew testifieth, saying, 'His countenance +was as lightning, and his garment white as snow': [Footnote 671] and +also because children, when baptised, are clothed in white. So also on +the Ascension, because of the bright cloud in which Christ ascended. +'For two men stood by them in white garments, which also said. Ye men +of Galilee,' [Footnote 672] etc. + + [Footnote 670: S. John xiii, 10.] + + [Footnote 671: S. Matthew xxviii, 3.] + + [Footnote 672: Acts i, 11.] + +3. And this is to be noted, that albeit in the consecration of +bishops, the vestments be of the colour suitable for the day, at the +dedication of a church they be ever white, on what day soever the +ceremony be celebrated: since in the consecration of a bishop the Mass +of the day is sung, but in the dedication of a church, the Mass of +dedication is sung. For the Church is called by the title of a virgin: +according to that saying of the Apostle, 'For I have betrothed you to +one man, that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ.' +[Footnote 673] Concerning which saith the bridegroom in the Canticles: +'Thou art altogether fair, my love, and there is no spot in thee.' +[Footnote 674] But this vestment ought to be white, to signify that +her garments must at all times be pure, that is, her life must be +spotless. Also in the octaves of those of the aforesaid feasts which +have octaves, the white colour is used. + + [Footnote 673: 2 Corinthians ii, 11.] + + [Footnote 674: Canticles i, 15.] + +{192} + +4. Scarlet vestments are used on the festivals of the apostles, +evangelists, and martyrs, on account of the blood of their passion, +which they poured out for Christ. For 'these be they which came out of +great tribulation.' [Footnote 675] Except on the feast of the +innocents, as shall be said below. Also on the feast of the Cross, +because Christ on the cross poured out His blood for us. Whence the +Prophet, 'Wherefore is thine apparel red, as one that treadeth out the +wine vat?' [Footnote 676] But according to others, we then use white +vestments: because it is not the feast of the passion, but of the +invention, or exaltations. [Footnote 677] Also from the vigil of +Pentecost to Trinity Sunday inclusively: and this on account of the +fervour of the Holy Ghost, which appeared in fiery tongues on the +apostles. 'For there appeared unto them divers tongues as of fire.' +[Footnote 678] Whence the Prophet: 'He sent a fire in their bones.' +Although in the martyrdom of SS. Peter and Paul both red and white be +used: and in the nativity of S. John Baptist, white: but in his +decollation, red. + + [Footnote 675: Apocalypse vii, 14.] + + [Footnote 676: Isaiah lxiii, 2.] + + [Footnote 677: Both retained by our Church. The former (May 3) + instituted in commemoration of the discovery of the True Cross, by + S. Helena: the other (Sept. 14), which regulates the ember days in + that month, in honour of its recapture from Chosroes by the Emperor + Heraclius. ] + + [Footnote 678: Acts i, 1.] + +5. But when her festivity is celebrated, who was both a virgin and +martyr, the martyrdom taketh precedence of the virginity; because it +is a sign of the most perfect love: according as the Truth saith, +'Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for +his friends.' [Footnote 679] Wherefore on the commemoration of All +Saints, some use scarlet: but others, and among them the Roman Church, +white: at which time the Church saith, 'They shall walk in the sight +of the Lamb with white garments: and palms in their hands.' +[Footnote 680] + + [Footnote 679: S. John xv, 13.] + + [Footnote 680: Apocalypse vii, 9.] + + + +{193} + +Whence the spouse saith in the Canticles: 'My beloved is white and +ruddy: white in His confessors and virgins, ruddy in His apostles and +martyrs.' For these are the flowers of roses, and the lilies of the +valley. Again they who use scarlet on the feast of All Saints, do it +with that intent because that feast was first instituted in honour of +All Martyrs. [Footnote 681] But answer may be made that it was also +in honour of the blessed Virgin: and that at the present time, after +the decree of S. Gregory VII, the Church keepeth that day holy to the +memory of confessors and virgins. Also, the octaves of these days +follow the colour of the feasts themselves. + + [Footnote 681: This alludes to the history of the feast of All + Saints. Pope Boneface obtained a grant of the Pantheon from the + Emperor Phocas: and dedicated it in honour of S. Mary and All + Martyrs. This was on the 11th of May: and the feast of All Martyrs + was kept on that day under the title of _S. Maria ad Martyres_. S. + John, having confessed before the Latin gate on the 6th, the feast + was subsequently kept on that day. But Gregory IV transferred it to + Nov. 1st, because the harvest was then gathered in: and because the + feast of All Apostles being kept on May 1st, the other would answer + to it half-yearly. _All Martyrs_ occurs, in a solitary instance, as + an English dedication: _All Apostles_ not to be found in this + country, has been adopted in Germany. ] + +6. Black is used on Good Friday: and on days of abstinence and +affliction: and also in rogations. Moreover, in those processions +which the Roman Pontiff maketh with bare feet: and in Masses of +requiem, and Septuagesima to Easter Eve. For the spouse saith in the +Canticles, 'I am black but comely,' [Footnote 682] etc. But on the +feast of the Innocents, some use black on account of sadness, some +scarlet. The former allege the text, 'In Rama was a voice heard,' +[Footnote 683] etc. And for the same cause canticles of joy are +omitted: and the mitre is brought without the orfrey, on account of +the martyrdoms to which the Church hath principally an eye, when she +saith, 'I saw beneath the throne the souls,' [Footnote 684] etc. + + [Footnote 682: Canticles i, 5.] + + [Footnote 683: Jeremiah xxxi, 15; S. Matthew ii, 18.] + + [Footnote 684: Apocalypse vi, 9.] + +{194} + +(So also on Sunday, Laetare [Footnote 685] Jerusalem, the Roman +Pontiff beareth a mitre, beautified with the orfrey, on account of the +joy which the golden [Footnote 686] rose signifieth, but on account +of the time being one of sadness, he weareth black vestments.) But the +Roman Church, when the festival falleth on a week-day, useth violet, +but on the octave, red. + + [Footnote 685: Palm Sunday.] + + [Footnote 686: This refers to the celebrated golden rose blessed by + the Roman Pontiff on that day: and sent in token of approval to some + Catholic prince. Some of our readers may remember that which was + lately exhibited along with the golden altars of Basle.] + +7. In fine, on common days green vestments be employed: because green +is the middle colour between black, white, and red; and specially +between the octave of Epiphany and Septuagesima: and between Pentecost +and Advent, in the Sunday office, this colour is used. + +8. As he saith, 'Cypress with nard, nard and crocus.' [Footnote 687] +To these four colours be the others referred; to wit, the scarlet to +the red, [Footnote 688] the violet to the black, the fine linen to +the white, the saffron to the green. But some refer the roses to +martyrs, the saffron to confessors, the lilies to virgins. + + [Footnote 687: Canticles iii, 6. But the quotation is not exact.] + + [Footnote 688: This passage seems very corrupt.] + +9. It is not unmeet to use the violet on those days for which black is +appointed. Whence the Roman Church useth it from the first Sunday in +Advent, to the Mass of the vigil of the nativity, inclusive: and from +Septuagesima to Easter Eve exclusive. But on the feasts of Saints on +Septuagesima and Advent, violet or black is not to be used. And note +that on Easter Eve in the whole office before Mass violet is used, +except that the deacon who blesseth the taper, and the sub-deacon who +ministereth, wear a white dalmatic and tunic, respectively: because +that benediction pertaineth to the Resurrection, as doth also the +Mass. But the benediction being finished, the deacon putteth off the +dalmatic, and putteth on a violet chesible: the sub-deacon, however, +changeth not his vestments. {195} Some also use white in the +procession on Palm Sunday: and in the blessing of the boughs, and +while the hymn _Gloria, laus, et honor_, is sung, on account of the +joy of that festivity. But the Roman Church useth violet: as it doth +also in the procession on Candlemas Day; because that office treateth +of the anxious expectation of Simeon, and savoureth of the Old +Testament. + +10. It also useth that colour in the September ember days, and on the +vigils of saints, when the Mass is of the vigil: and on the rogation +days, and in Mass on S. Mark's Day. [Footnote 689] For when we fast, +then we bring under our flesh, that it may be conformed to that of +Christ, 'By the lividness of whose stripes we be healed.' [Footnote +690] + + [Footnote 689: Whether there be any superstitious fasting on S. + Mark's Day?' is a question which sometimes occurs in the Visitation + Articles of Archbp. Parker and his contemporaries.] + + [Footnote 690: Isaiah liii, 5.] + +The which to express we use violet, which is a pale, and as it were, a +livid colour (Durandus, Book III, 18). + + + +APPENDIX F + +OF BELLS BEING NOT RUNG FOR THREE DAYS BEFORE EASTER + +'On these three days the bells be silent, because the apostles and +preachers and others who be understood by bells were then silenced. +For the sound of bells doth signify the sound of preaching: of which +it is said, "Their sound hath gone out into all lands." For at that +time they no longer went round the towns and villages preaching the +gospel, but "after they had sung an hymn they went out with Jesus to +the Mount of Olives." To whom when the Lord had said, "Behold he is at +hand {196} that doth betray Me," they slumbered for sadness, and +ceased from praises. Whence also from compline, or vespers, when our +Lord was betrayed beginneth the silence of the bells. Others, however, +do not sound their bells beyond prime of this fifth day of passion +week.' (Durandus, Book VI, 72, 73). + + + + + +APPENDIX G + +The authority for the dedication festival is our Lord's observing the +feast of the dedication of the Temple. This festival has an octave: as +also had the Jewish feast, though the Passover and feast of +Tabernacles had not. + +'But this festival specially denoteth that eternal dedication, in +which that other church, the holy soul, shall be so dedicated and +united to God that it shall never be transferred to other uses: which +will take place in the octave of the Resurrection.' The Psalms for the +office of the festival are the _Domini est terra, Judica me Domine, +Deus noster refugium, Magnus Dominus, Quam dilecta, Fundamenta ejus_, +and _Domine Deus_ (Durandus, Book VII, 48). + + + + + +APPENDIX H + +ON THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH + + + +The following particulars are extracted and condensed from Martene's +invaluable work: and as his account is not easily accessible, and +somewhat long, it has been thought well to subjoin them here. + +{197} + +Churches were often, in the primitive ages, dedicated by more than one +bishop. Constantine having completed a magnificent church at +Jerusalem, invited the prelates, then assembled in council at Tyre, to +assist in its consecration (Euseb. _Vit. Const._ iv, 43; Sozomen. i, +46). + +Constantius his son, having finished a church erected by his father at +Antioch, Eusebius of Nicomedia, the intruding patriarch of +Constantinople, summoned a council under pretence of consecrating the +church, however much in reality to decide against the Catholic +doctrine of Consubstantiality. Ninety-seven bishops were present +(Sozomen. iii, 5). + +So it was also in the Western Church. This is proved by the Preface to +the Fourth Council of Aries, holden in 524: which begins, 'When the +priests of the Lord had assembled in the will of God to the dedication +of the church of S. Mary at Aries.' + +In the time of S. Louis, Pope Pascal I consecrated the church of S. +Vincent, with the Sacred College of Bishops and Cardinals. About the +year 1015, the crypt of the monastery of S. Michael was consecrated by +S. Bernard of Hildersheilm and two other bishops; and three years +afterwards, the church being finished, it was consecrated by the same +S. Bernard with three other bishops (_Vita S. Bernardi._ cap. xxxix, +xl). + +All these bishops took an actual part in the service. In the +consecration of the church of Mans, in 1120, the high altar was +consecrated by Gilbert, Archbishop of Mans: S. Julians by Galfred of +Rouen: Hildebert of Mans consecrated S. Mary's; Reginald of Anglers +that of the Holy Cross. There is a fine passage to the same point in +Sugerius's book on the dedication of the church of S. Denis: 'Right +early in the morning,' saith he, 'archbishops and bishops, archdeacons +and abbots, and other venerable persons, who had lived of their proper +{198} expense, bore themselves right bishopfully; and took their +places on the platform raised for the consecration of the water, and +placed between the sepulchres of the holy martyrs and S. Saviour's +altar. Then might ye have seen, and they who stood by saw, and that +with great devotion, such a band of so venerable bishops, arrayed in +their white robes, sparkling in their pontifical robes and precious +orfreys, grasp their pastoral staves, call on God in holy exorcism, +pace around the consecrated enclosure, and perform the nuptials of the +Great King with such care, that it seemed as though the ceremony were +performed by a chorus of angels, not a band of men. The crowd, in +overwhelming magnitude, rolled around to the door; and while the +aforesaid episcopal band were sprinkling the walls with hyssop, the +king and his nobles drive them back, repress them, guard the portals.' + +Yet the principal actor on the occasion was the bishop of the diocese. +The thirty-sixth canon of the second Council of Aries decrees, 'If a +bishop be minded to build a church in another diocese, let its +dedication be reserved for the diocesan.' S. Columbanus, being only a +priest, dedicated the church of S. Aurelia (Walfrid. Strabo. _Vita S. +Gallo_, cap. vi). + +The preceding night was spent either in the church or in neighbouring +churches in a solemn vigil. S. Ambrose testifies that this was done on +occasions of the dedication of the Ambrosian church (_Epist_. 22, _ad +Marcellina_). So S. Gregory of Mans, in his dedication of the church +of S. Julian, removed the relics of that saint into the church of S. +Martin, and there kept vigil (_De Glor. Mart_, ii, 34). + +Relics were considered indispensably necessary: so S. Paulinus +(_Epist_, xxxii, _ad Sever_.) This church was dedicated in the name of +Christ, the Saint of saints, the Martyr of martyrs, the Lord of lords, +and was honoured {199} with the relics of the blessed apostles. See +also the beautiful epistle of S. Ambrose, translated in 'The Church of +the Fathers.' The phrase was, _Consecrare ecclesiam de reliquiis Beati +n_. + +Yet some churches were consecrated without relics. The second Nicene +Council decreed that in this case they should be supplied. Those +portions of the consecrated elements were placed with these: to which +perhaps that expression of S. Chrysostom is to be referred--'What is +the altar by nature but a stone? But it is made holy, when it hath +once received the body of Christ.' + +These relics occupied different positions. In the church of S. +Benedict, consecrated by Pope Alexander II, there were relics in the +chapel-apse of S. John, in the bases of the piers, in the four angles +of the bell tower, in the cross on the western gable, in the cross of +the tower (_Chron. Cass_, iii, 30). + +Ashes were sprinkled on the floor, and the bishop with his pastoral +staff wrote on them the alphabet, sometimes in Latin alone, sometimes +in Greek also. + +The whole ceremony concluded with the endowment of the church: or, as +it was termed, presenting its dowry. + +By way of setting before our readers as clearly as possible the +ancient form of dedication, we have chosen, among ten forms preserved +by Martene, that of S. Dunstan. + +_Here beginneth the order of the dedication of a church. The bishops +and other ministers of the church advance singing the antiphon_, +'Zaccheus, make haste and come down,' etc. + +Prevent us, O Lord, in all our, etc. + +{200} + +_Then twelve candles are to be lighted, and placed round the church, +with the antiphon_, three from the east, three from the west, three +from the north, three from the south. + +God, which by the preaching of Thine apostles, didst open to Thy +Church the Kingdom of Heaven, and didst call them the Lights of the +world, grant, we beseech Thee, that being assisted by their prayers, +by whose teaching we are guided, and splendour illuminated, we may +make these our actions pleasing to Thy Divine Majesty. + +_Here followeth the Litany: the priests going thrice round the church, +and beginning from that door at which they be after to enter, namely, +the south door._ + +O Christ, hear us, etc. + +Prevent us, O Lord, with Thy tender mercy, and by the intercession of +Thy saints, receive our prayers graciously. + +Let our prayers, O Lord, come up before Thee, and expel all wickedness +from Thy Church. + +God, which rulest heaven and earth, graciously give us the aid of Thy +defence. + +_Then one of the deacons entering the church, and shutting the door +standeth before it, the others remaining without: and the bishop +striking it with his staff, saith:_ + +Lift up your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lift up, ye everlasting +doors, and the King of Glory shall come in. + +_The deacon within answereth_, and saith: Who is the King of Glory? + +_The Bishop._ Lift up, etc. + +_The Deacon._ Who is, etc. + +_The Bishop._ Lift up, etc. + +_The Deacon._ Who is, etc. + +_Chorus._ The Lord of Hosts, He is the King of Glory. + +{201} + +_The bishop again striking the door it is opened: and he entereth: the +chorus singing after him_, Lift up your heads, etc., _to the end of +the Psalm_. + +_The Bishop_. The Lord be with you. + +_Response_. And with thy spirit. + +_The Bishop_. Let us pray: + +We beseech Thee, O Lord, of Thy mercy, to enter Thy house, and to make +for Thyself an habitation in the hearts of the faithful. Through, etc. + +_Then the bishop entereth the choir, saying:_ + +Peace be to this house, and to all that are in it; peace to them that +come in, and to them that go out. + +Bless, O Lord, this house, which the sons of men have built for Thee: +hear those which shall come up to this place: hear their prayers in +the lofty throne of Thy glory. + +_The clerks begin the Litany; the bishop, with certain priests and +deacons, remaining prostrate at the altar._ + +Lord have mercy upon us, etc. + +_As soon as_ Agnus Dei _is said, the bishop, rising, saith:_ + +Let us pray. + +Be Thou exalted. Lord, in Thine own strength, etc. + +_Then the bishop shall write the alphabet along the pavement,_ +[Footnote 691] _first from east to west, then from north to south, the +chorus saying the Psalm_, Fundamenta ejus. + + [Footnote 691: In the treatise of the Mart. Remigius, _De + Dedicatione Ecciesiae_, we have the following explanation of this + singular custom: 'A thing which might appear puerile, unless it had + been instituted by men, great in dignity, spiritual in life, + apostolical in discipline. In all things of this kind, the Lord by + His example hath gone before us: and what He hath done, remaineth + unchangeable in his successors. What is understood by the alphabet + save the beginnings and rudiments of sacred doctrine? Whence S. + Paul, "Ye have need that one teach you again, which be the first + principles of the oracles of God." Therefore the bishop writeth the + alphabet, to signify that he teacheth the pure doctrine of the + gospel. He writeth the alphabet twice, and that in the figure of a + cross, to signify that the Passion of Christ is set forth by the + gospel in its purity. He writeth it in the angles of the church, + because by them be set forth the four corners of the world. He + beginneth from the east, because the gospel began from the Jews.' + + There is probably some reference to the Saviour's stooping down, and + writing in the sand. We may also compare those singular and rare + bells, in which the only inscription round the crown consists of the + letters of the alphabet.] + +{202} + +_The Bishop_. O God, make speed, etc. + +_Response_. O Lord, make haste, etc. + +_The Bishop_. Glory be, etc. + +_Response_. As it, etc. + +_Then followeth the exorcism of the salt, and the water, and the +ashes._ + +_Then the bishop maketh the sign of the cross at the four corners of +the altar, with hyssop, going round it seven times. The chorus sing +the Psalm_, Miserere mei Deus. _Then the bishop sprinkleth the water +three times round the church: the chorus singing_ Deus noster +refugium. _Then the bishop sprinkleth the water over the altar: the +chorus singing_ Qui habitat. _Then the bishop sprinkleth the whole +church inside with the water thrice: to signify the Church's inward +faith in the Trinity: and once outside, to signify the one baptism. +The chorus sing_ Fundamenta ejus; _and while the priests are ascending +the turrets,_ Jacob beheld a ladder, etc., _and the Psalm_ Deus noster +refugium. + +_Then the bishop entereth the church: and sprinkleth water on the +pavement in the form of a cross: the chorus singing_ Benedicite, omnia +opera. + +_The Bishop._ Lift up your hearts. + +_Response._ We lift, etc. + +_The Bishop._ Let us give thanks, etc. + +_Response._ It is meet, etc. + +_Then the bishop goeth to the altar, and poureth the remainder of the +water at its base._ + +_Then he blesseth the altar-stone, the altar clothes, the sacerdotal +vestments, the corporal, the paten, the chalice, the thurible._ + +_Here followeth the Mass of Dedication._ + +_The post communion ended, the Bishop saith:_ + +{203} + +Incline, O Lord, Thine ears unto me, and hear me: Look down, O Christ, +from heaven, on thy flock and thy sheep: stretch Thine hand over them: +bless their bodies and their souls: that in the communion of the +saints they may receive celestial benediction, light angelical, the +Holy Ghost, the Paraclete. Amen. + +They who be regenerate of water and the Holy Ghost who be redeemed on +earth by Thy precious blood, who have received Thy sign on their +foreheads, grant them to be Thine on the day of judgment. Amen. + +And as Thou didst bless patriarchs and prophets and apostles, martyrs +and confessors, virgins and priests, so bless this flock, who are +assembled to-day in Thy name in this church. Amen. + +And as by Thine angel Thou didst free the three children from the +burning fiery furnace, so free this flock from everlasting death and +the power of the devil, and from earthly lusts and all manner of +weaknesses. Amen. + +Spare their faults, remit their sins, and present them pure and +undefiled in the day of judgment: as Thou didst receive Enoch and +Elias into the kingdom of heaven. Amen. + +God Almighty bless and keep you, and make this house to shine with the +glory of His presence, and open the eyes of His pity upon it day and +night. Amen. + +And grant of His mercy, that all, who have assembled together at this +dedication, by the intercession of Blessed N., and all other saints +whose relics rest here, may obtain the remission of their sins. Amen. + +That ye may be made a holy temple in the spirit, where the Holy +Trinity may ever deign to dwell; and after this short life ye may +attain to everlasting felicity. Amen. + +Which He grant. Who liveth and reigneth, world without end. Amen. + +{204} + + + +APPENDIX I + +ADDENDA + + + +Page 6.--It shows how little Durandus can rightly be charged with +fancifulness, when we find him classing among ceremonial precepts, +rites for which the Rabbis and many modern expositors have given a +symbolical reason. + +Page 23.--'The lattice work of the windows.' Wrongly translated in +Lewis, 'the screens before the windows.' + +Page 25.--This passage proves that in the time and country of Durandus +seats or chairs except in the choir were unknown. Though in England +Early English or Early Decorated open seats do occur, as in +Clapton-in-Gordan, Somersetshire, they are very rare, and take up much +less of the church than is the case in later examples. See 'Hist, of +Pews,' 3rd ed., pp. 19, 20, 79. + +Page 39.--The reader is aware that the words _in medio_ of the early +Christian altars gave rise to the warmest disputes between the +Puritans and the Catholics of the 17th century. The Puritans insisted +that they meant in the _body_ of the church: the Catholics generally, +and more particularly that most able defender of altars, Dr. Laurence, +insisted that when the fathers spoke of an alter _in medio_, they only +meant one so placed as to be where all might see it. The words +undoubtedly may bear this meaning: yet perhaps it is better to +understand them, as they must be understood in this passage of +Durandus, of an altar placed in the chord of the segment of a circle +formed by the apse. See _Ecclesiologist_, vol. ii, p. 13. + +Page 46, note 20.--This is a mistake. The fresco alluded to represents +a priest repeating the Pater Noster (which is written in his open +book) at the N. W. angle of an altar. Upon the altar are two +candlesticks and a ciborium: rising out of the latter is the figure of +our Blessed Lord. There can be no doubt of the objectionable nature of +such a representation. + +Page 54--The nimbus of the Saviour, it is perhaps needless to observe +in explanation, is always inlaid, as it were, with a cross: at least +the exceptions are excessively rare. + +Page 54--These 'carved figures' probably signify the corbels. + +Page 54, note 54.--There is a valuable article on the nimbus by M. +Didron from the _Revue Générale de l'Architecture_ in the _Literary +Gazette_ for Dec. 1842. An example is there given of the square nimbus +in the case of Pope Nicholas, as represented in a contemporary MS. The +whole is well worth reading. + +Page 102.--Dedication crosses. We have seen a valuable example of +these in the church of Moorlinch, Somersetshire. There are four +circles containing crosses pattées on the north and south sides of the +chancel; and two at the east end, in all ten: the other two have +disappeared. + +Page 146.--The bodies of good men called horses. The same idea is +worked out at great length in S. Chrysostom's earlier homilies on the +Statues. + +{205} + +Page 170.--But how great is the admiration, etc. Compare S. +Hildebert's hymn, _Exrta portam_, towards the conclusion: + + Qauntum tui gratulentur, + Quam festive conviventur + Quis affectus eos stringat, + Et quae gemma muros pingat, + Quis chalcedon, quis jacintus, + _Norunt isti, quis sunt intus!_ + +The last line has the same beautiful turn with the expression of Hugh +of S. Victor. + +Page 180.--Most of the following practices are observed to this day in +the Metropolitical Church of Seville. There are two ambones, but no +rood loft: the sub-deacon chants the epistle by himself, in the +southern ambo; the deacon, preceded by a taper, chants the gospel from +the northern. + +Page 182.--So S. Bernard in his commentary on that verse of the 90th +Psalm, 'A thousand shall fall at thy side, and ten thousand at thy +right hand.' + + +{206} + +{207} + +INDEX + + +Abbots, how represented, 52 +Agathensian, the Council, 45 +Agnus Dei, The, 47 +Alexander, Pope, 124 +Alphabet, inscription of, 98 +Allegory, 6 +Altar candlesticks, 58 +Altar rails, 26 +Altars, stripped on Good Friday, 61 +Altars, their consecration, 113 +Altars, why encircled seven times at consecration, 119 +Altare distinguished from ara, 34 +Anagoge, 7 +Analogium, _see_ Rood Loft +Angels, how represented, 47 +Antioch, Council of, 197 +Antiphonal chanting, 21 +Apostles, the, how represented, 50 +Appodiatio, explained, 62 +Ark of Testimony 35 + its contents, 36 +Aries, Fourth Council of, 197 +Arnaldistae, 139 +Augustine, S., 49, 84, 85, 136, 152 + +Basilica, 13 +Baruth, legend of, 89 +Bell rope, 74 +Bells, when first used, 71 + what they signify, 72 + silent, when, 196 +Bernard, S., 131, 139 +Beverstone church, 46 +Bishop, the consecration of a, 145 +Bishopstone, 19 +Black, when used, 194 +Boneface IV', Pope, 94 +Breastplate, how made, 10 +Burchardus, S., 64 +Burial of heretics in cemeteries, 111 + +Cambridge Camden Society, 85 +Cambridge, S. Sepulchre, 55 +Cambridge, S. Giles, 26 +Capella, whence derived, 14 +Carthage, Council of, 158 +Cavilla, 74 +Cellar, 30 +Cement, its symbolism, 17 +Cemetery, 82 +Coenobium, 14 +Chalices, their materials, 68 +Chancels, lower than nave, 26 +Chancels, 175 +Chancel, more holy than nave, 20 +Chrism, 137 +Christmas, how churches are to be adorned at, 65 +Chrysologus, S. Peter, 49 +Church, its meanings, 12 +Churches, when to be moved, 32 +Clement, S., of Rome, 46 +Cloister, 29 +Cobham church, 46 +Cothelstone church, 54 +Cock, the, 165 +Commands, moral, 5 +Cone, 23 +Confessors, how represented, 52 +Consecration of a church, 88 +Constantine builds a church at Jerusalem. 197 +Cosins, Bishop, 154 + +{208} + +Ciampini, 103, 126 +Cross, the sign of the, 188 +Cross triumphal, 28 +Cross churches, 21 +Crosses, the five, that mark an altar, 114 +Crypts, 22 +Curtains, of the tabernacle, 15 +Cymbalum, 77 + +Dedication crosses, 98 +Degrees, songs of, 43 +Depulsare distinguished from compulsare, 78 +Derby, the Earl of, 179 +Divine Majesty, the, how represented, 53 +Division, of the whole work, 11 +Door, 24 +Dormitory, 30 +Dorsals, 56 +Dowsing, William, 26 +Dunstan, S., his form of dedication, 199 +Durandus, his many occupations, 161 +Dying, the, lay in sackcloth and ashes, 149 + +Egleton church, 55 +Epiphany, what events celebrated thereon, 155 +Evangelistic symbols, 48 +Evaristus, Pope, 158 +Exeter cathedral, 21 +Extreme unction, 139, 148 + +Faustinus, S., his legend, 84 +Felix III, Pope, 89 +Ferculum, 28, 167 +Frescoes, 45 + +Glass, 23 +Gospel, the, fixed on the altar, 60 + why not read from the rood loft in a Mass of requiem, 187 +Green, when used, 194 +Gregory, S., 54, 73, 75, 91, 152 +Greeks, the, how they paint saints, 43 + +Haddenham, 14 +Henry, S., his shrine, 48 +Holy, distinguished from _sacred_, 81 +Horologium, 27 +Horses, the bodies of good men, why so called, 146 +Hours, the, explained, 75 +Hugh of S. Victor, his 'Mystical Mirror' 163 +Human body, its resemblance to a church, 19 +Hyssop, its virtues, 95 + +Idolatry, a protest against, 44 +Ingoldsby Legends, their profanity, 84 +Isidore, S., 83, 137, 155, 156 + +Jerusalem, its variety of significations, 8 + rebuilt, 18 +John, S., Evangelist, his confessions, 38 +Journeys, the Saviour's seven, 119 + +Kilpeck church, 19 +Kyriake, 13 + +Lateran, S. John, its altar to the west, 177 +Lattice-work, 23 +Litter, 34, 167 +Llandanwg church, 46 +Ludlow church, 21 +Lyons, Council of, 41 + +Machpelah, 83 +Mans, dedication of a church there, 198 +Marriages, when forbidden, 154 + second, 159 +Martyrs, how represented, 52 +Martyrium, 14 +Mary, S., Magdalene, 126 +Maundy Thursday, 153 +Mende, 2 +Mirror of Magistrates, 9 +Moleon, De, his 'Voyage Liturgique,' 67 +Montague, Bishop, 31 +Murderers, limits of right of sanctuary. 32 +Mystical, its meaning, 5 + +Nola, 77 +Nolula, 77 +Nimbus, the, 54 + +Orientation, 19, 177, seq. +Orfrey, the, 59 +Ornaments of churches not to be profaned, 69 +Ostrich eggs, why hung in churches, 67 +Oxted church, 50 + +Palmers, 52 +Paradise, how represented, 54 + +{209} + +Parthian skins, 19 +Patriarchs, how represented, 51 +Pavement, 24 +Phylacterium, difference between it and phylacteria, 57 +Pictures, their use, 45 +Piers, 24 +Piscina, 27 +Pity, how five-fold, 130 +Podium, 85 +Portfolio, the, what it represents, 56 +Priests, unlettered, 4 + allowed to consecrate churches, 16 +Prophets, how represented, 51 +Preston church, 54 +Prothesis, table of, 3 +Prynne, 21 +Pyx, the, 56 +Pulpit, 26 + +Rationale, reason of the name, 10 +Reconciliation of a church, 107 +Reconsecration, when to be practised, 105 +Remigius Monk, 201 +Relics required for the consecration of a church, 198 +Richard of Cremona, 139 +Ring, the wedding, 156 +Ringing, various kinds of, 77 +Rod of weathercock, 23 +Rood loft, 26 + turrets, two, common in Norfolk, 180 +Round churches, 21 + +Sacraments defined, 152 + their nature, 2 +Sacramental, distinguished from ceremonial, 5 +Sugerius, 197 +Sambuca, the, 100 +Sanctuary, the, 20 +Saviour, our, various representations of, 46 +Savinianus, Pope, 75 +Scarlet, when used, 189 +Scuta, the, 59 +Seal, the, of an altar, 105 +Second Day, why it had no blessing. 79 +Senses of Holy Scripture, 5 +Separation of men and women, 30 +Signum, 77 +Sion, distinguished from Jerusalem, 13 +Snuffers, the, 58 +Sacristy, 27 +Stalls, 25 +Squilla, 76 +Stephen, Pope, 70 +Stones of a church, their symbolism, 17 +Sylvester, S., 139 +Synagogue never applied to a church, 13 + +Te Deum, method of chanting, 78 +Temple, Aslackby church, 21 +Thiers, Father, 26 +Tie-beams, 25 +Tiles, 27 +Toledo, Council of, 41 +Tongs, the, 59 +Torrentius, Laevinus, 189 +Towers, 22 +Treasures of the church, why exhibited, 66 + +Unctions, 134 + +Variety of rites, 8 +Veils, their various kinds, 61 +Vigilantius, 57 +Vigil, of the dedication of a church, 198 +Violet, when used, 193 +Virgins, difference between and continent, 20 + how represented, 52 +Vladimir, S., his conversion, 55 + +Walls, why four, 20 +Water, Holy, 115, 171 +Weathercock, 22 +White cloths cover the altar, why, 40 +White, when used, 189 +Widford church, 46 +Women, their heads to be uncovered, 31 + +York, S. Lawrence, 55 + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Churches and Church Ornaments, by William Durandus + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43319 *** |