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diff --git a/43254.txt b/43254.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 30fe962..0000000 --- a/43254.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19113 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 2, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2 - "Luray Cavern" to "Mackinac Island" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 20, 2013 [EBook #43254] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LUTHER, MARTIN: "... den Gegenschriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, - Eck und Prierias, und den Antworten Luthers darauf ..." 'und' - amended from 'and'. - - ARTICLE LYLY, JOHN: "What the further relations between them were - we have no means of knowing ..." 'between' amended from 'beween'. - - ARTICLE LYRE: "Examination of the construction of the instruments - thus identified reveals the fact that both possessed - characteristics which have persisted throughout the middle ages to - the present day in various instruments evolved from these two - archetypes." 'identified' amended from 'indentified'. - - ARTICLE M: "... which survives in its earliest representations in - Greek. The greater length of the first limb of m is characteristic - of the earliest forms." 'survives' amended from 'survivies'. - - ARTICLE M: "The sound m can in unaccented syllables form a syllable - by itself without an audible vowel, e.g. the English word fathom - comes from an Anglo-Saxon fathm, where the m was so used." - 'English' amended from 'Enghlish'. - - ARTICLE MABUSE, JAN: "At Scawby he illustrates the legend of the - count of Toulouse, who parted with his worldly goods to assume the - frock of a hermit. " 'worldly' amended from 'wordly'. - - ARTICLE MACAQUE: "Mention of some of the more important species, - typifying distinct sub-generic groups, is made in the article - Primates." 'is' added. - - ARTICLE MACEDONIA: "... it contains a number of Greek word which - are often replaced in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin - synonyms." 'words' amended from 'works'. - - ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO: "Machiavelli returned from Germany in - June 1508." 'Machiavelli' amended from 'Michiavelli'. - - ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO: "He was exiled from Florence and - confined to the dominion for one year, and on the 17th of November - was further prohibited from setting foot in the Palazzo Pubblico." - 'further' amended from 'futher'. - - ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO: "It seems written to expose the - corruption of domestic life in Florence, and especially to satirize - the friars in their familiar part of go-betweens, tame cats, - confessors and adulterers." 'familiar' amended from 'familar'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVII, SLICE II - - Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - LURAY CAVERN MACABRE - LURCH McADAM, JOHN LOUDON - LURGAN MACAIRE - LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON McALESTER - LURISTAN MACALPINE, JOHN - LUSATIA MACAO - LUSHAI HILLS MACAQUE - LUSIGNAN MACARONI - LUSSIN MACARONICS - LUSTRATION MACARSCA - LUTE MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY - LUTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST MACASSAR - LUTHER, MARTIN MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY - LUTHERANS MACAW - LUTHER LEAGUE MACBETH - LUTON MACCABEES - LUTSK MACCABEES, BOOKS OF - LUTTERWORTH MacCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE - LUTTRELL, HENRY M'CARTHY, JUSTIN - LUTTRINGHAUSEN McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY - LUTZEN McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON - LUTZOW, ADOLF McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER - LUXEMBURG, DE MONTMORENCY-B. MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD - LUXEMBURG (district) MACCLESFIELD - LUXEMBURG (town) M'CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD - LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS McCLINTOCK, JOHN - LUXOR McCLOSKEY, JOHN - LUXORIUS M'CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER - LUYNES MacCOLL, MALCOLM - LUZAN DE SUELVES, IGNACIO McCOMBIE, WILLIAM - LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR McCOOK, ALEXANDER McDOWELL - LUZZATTI, LUIGI MacCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM - LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL - LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID McCOSH, JAMES - LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN McCOY, SIR FREDERICK - LYALL, EDNA M'CRIE, THOMAS - LYALLPUR MACCULLAGH, JAMES - LYCAEUS MACCULLOCH, HORATIO - LYCANTHROPY McCULLOCH, HUGH - LYCAON M'CULLOCH, SIR JAMES - LYCAONIA MACCULLOCH, JOHN - LYCEUM M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSAY - LYCIA McCULLOUGH, JOHN EDWARD - LYCK MACCUNN, HAMISH - LYCOPHRON MACDONALD, FLORA - LYCOPODIUM MACDONALD, GEORGE - LYCOSURA MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD - LYCURGUS (Spartan) MACDONALD, JACQUES ETIENNE ALEXANDRE - LYCURGUS (Attic orator) MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER - LYCURGUS (Greek leader) MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD - LYDD MACDONALD, LAWRENCE - LYDENBURG MACDONELL, JAMES - LYDFORD MACDONNELL, ALESTAIR RUADH - LYDGATE, JOHN MACDONNELL, SORLEY BOY - LYDIA MACDONOUGH, THOMAS - LYDUS, JOANNES LAURENTIUS MacDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER - LYE McDOWELL, IRVIN - LYELL, SIR CHARLES MACDUFF - LYLY, JOHN McDUFFIE, GEORGE - LYME REGIS MACE - LYMINGTON MACEDO, JOSE AGOSTINHO DE - LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION MACEDONIA - LYMPHATIC SYSTEM MACEDONIAN EMPIRE - LYNCH, PATRICIO MACEDONIUS - LYNCHBURG MACEIO - LYNCH LAW McENTEE, JERVIS - LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY MACER, AEMILIUS - LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID MACERATA - LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER - LYNN McGEE, THOMAS D'ARCY - LYNTON and LYNMOUTH McGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN - LYNX McGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER - LYON, MARY MASON MACGILLIVRAY, WILLIAM - LYON, NATHANIEL MacGREGOR, JOHN - LYONNESSE MACH, ERNST - LYONS, EDMUND LYONS MACHAERODUS - LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON LYONS MACHALE, JOHN - LYONS (city of France) MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE, BAPTISTE DE - LYONS, COUNCILS OF MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE - LYRA MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO - LYRE MACHICOLATION - LYRE-BIRD MACHINE - LYRICAL POETRY MACHINE-GUN - LYSANDER MACIAS - LYSANIAS MACINTOSH, CHARLES - LYSIAS MACKAY, CHARLES - LYSIMACHUS MACKAY, HUGH - LYSIPPUS MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM - LYSIS OF TARENTUM MACKAY - LYSISTRATUS McKEESPORT - LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS McKEES ROCKS - LYTHAM MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER - LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER - LYTTELTON MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER - LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE BULWER-LYTTON MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL - LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE - M MACKENZIE, HENRY - MAAS, JOSEPH McKENZIE, SIR JOHN - MAASIN MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL - MAASSLUIS MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON - MAASTRICHT MACKENZIE (river of Canada) - MABILLON, JOHN MACKEREL - MABINOGION McKIM, CHARLES FOLLEN - MABUSE, JAN MACKINAC ISLAND - MACABEBE - - - - -LURAY CAVERN, a large cave in Page county, Virginia, U.S.A., 39 deg. 35' -N. and 78 deg. 17' W., near the village of Luray, on the Norfork & -Western railway. The valley, here 10 m. wide, extends from the Blue -Ridge to the Massanutton Mountain. The ridges lie in vast folds and -wrinkles; and elevations in the valley are often found to be pierced by -erosion. Cave Hill, 300 ft. above the water-level, had long been an -object of local interest on account of its pits and oval hollows or -sink-holes, through one of which, on the 13th of August 1878, Andrew J. -Campbell and others entered, thus discovering the cavern now described. - -The Luray cavern does not date beyond the Tertiary period, though carved -from the Silurian limestone. At some period, long subsequent to its -original excavation, and after many large stalactites had grown, it was -completely filled with glacial mud charged with acid, whereby the -dripstone was eroded into singularly grotesque shapes. After the mud had -been mostly removed by flowing water, these eroded forms remained amid -the new growths. To this contrast may be ascribed some of the most -striking scenes in the cave. The many and extraordinary monuments of -aqueous energy include massive columns wrenched from their place in the -ceiling and prostrate on the floor; the Hollow Column, 40 ft. high and -30 ft. in diameter, standing erect, but pierced by a tubular passage -from top to bottom; the Leaning Column nearly as large, undermined and -tilting like the campanile of Pisa; the Organ, a cluster of stalactites -in the chamber known as the Cathedral; besides a vast bed of -disintegrated carbonates left by the whirling flood in its retreat -through the great space called the Elfin Ramble. - -The stalactitic display exceeds that of any other cavern known. The old -material is yellow, brown or red; and its wavy surface often shows -layers like the gnarled grain of costly woods. The new stalactites -growing from the old, and made of hard carbonates that had already once -been used, are usually white as snow, though often pink, blue or -amber-coloured. The Empress Column is a stalagmite 35 ft. high, -rose-coloured, and elaborately draped. The double column, named from -Professors Henry and Baird, is made of two fluted pillars side by side, -the one 25 and the other 60 ft. high, a mass of snowy alabaster. -Several stalactites in the Giant Hall exceed 50 ft. in length. The -smaller pendants are innumerable; in the canopy above the Imperial -Spring it is estimated that 40,000 are visible at once. - -The "cascades" are wonderful formations like foaming cataracts caught in -mid-air and transformed into milk-white or amber alabaster. The -Chalcedony Cascade displays a variety of colours. Brand's Cascade, the -finest of all, is 40 ft. high and 30 ft. wide, and is unsullied and -wax-like white, each ripple and braided rill seeming to have been -polished. - -The Swords of the Titans are monstrous blades, eight in number, 50 ft. -long, 3 to 8 ft. wide, hollow, 1 to 2 ft. thick, but drawn down to an -extremely thin edge, and filling the cavern with tones like tolling -bells when struck heavily by the hand. Their origin and also that of -certain so-called scarfs and blankets is from carbonates deposited by -water trickling down a sloping and corrugated surface. Sixteen of these -alabaster scarfs hang side by side in Hovey's Balcony, three white and -fine as crape shawls, thirteen striated like agate with every shade of -brown, and all perfectly translucent. Down the edge of each a tiny rill -glistens like silver, and this is the ever-plying shuttle that weaves -the fairy fabric. - -[Illustration: Luray Cavern. Scale 500 ft. to the inch. - - 1. The Vestibule. 19. Chalcedony Cascade. - 2. Washington's Pillar. 20. Coral Spring. - 3. Flower Garden. 21. The Dragon. - 4. Amphitheatre. 22. Bootjack Alley. - 5. Natural Bridge. 23. Scaly Column. - 6. Fish Market. 24. Lost Blanket. - 7. Crystal Spring. 25. Helen's Scarf. - 8. Proserpine's Pillar. 26. Chapman's Lake. - 9. The Spectral Column. 27. Broaddus Lake. - 10. Hovey's Balcony. 28. Castles on the Rhine. - 11. Oberon's Grot. 29. Imperial Spring. - 12. Titania's Veil. 30. The Skeleton. - 13. Saracen's Tent. 31. The Twin Lakes. - 14. The Organ. 32. The Engine Room. - 15. Tower of Babel. 33. Miller's Room. - 16. Empress Column. 34. Hawes Cabinet. - 17. Hollow Column. 35. Specimen Avenue. - 18. Henry-Baird Column. 36. Proposed Exit.] - -Streams and true springs are absent, but there are hundreds of basins, -varying from 1 to 50 ft. in diameter, and from 6 in. to 15 ft. in depth. -The water in them is exquisitely pure, except as it is impregnated by -the carbonate of lime, which often forms concretions, called according -to their size, pearls, eggs and snowballs. A large one is known as the -cannon ball. On fracture these spherical growths are found to be -radiated in structure. - - Calcite crystals, drusy, feathery or fern-like, line the sides and - bottom of every water-filled cavity, and indeed constitute the - substance of which they are made. Variations of level at different - periods are marked by rings, ridges and ruffled margins. These are - strongly marked about Broaddus Lake and the curved ramparts of the - Castles on the Rhine. Here also are polished stalagmites, a rich buff - slashed with white, and others, like huge mushrooms, with a velvety - coat of red, purple or olive-tinted crystals. In some of the smaller - basins it sometimes happens that, when the excess of carbonate acid - escapes rapidly, there is formed, besides the crystal bed below, a - film above, shot like a sheet of ice across the surface. One pool 12 - ft. wide is thus covered so as to show but a third of its surface. The - quantity of water in the cavern varies greatly at different seasons. - Hence some stalactites have their tips under water long enough to - allow tassels of crystals to grow on them, which, in a drier season, - are again coated over with stalactitic matter; and thus singular - distortions are occasioned. Contiguous stalactites are often inwrapped - thus till they assume an almost globular form, through which by making - a section the primary tubes appear. Twig-like projections, to which - the term _helictite_ has been applied by the present writer, are met - with in certain portions of the cave, and are interesting by their - strange and uncouth contortions. Their presence is due to lateral - outgrowths of crystals shooting from the side of a growing stalactite, - or to deflections caused by currents of air, or to the existence of a - diminutive fungus peculiar to the locality and designated from its - habitat _Mucor stalactitis_. The Toy-Shop is an amusing collection of - these freaks of nature. - -The dimensions of the various chambers included in Luray Cavern cannot -easily be stated, on account of the great irregularity of their -outlines. Their size may be seen from the diagram. But it should be -understood that there are several tiers of galleries, and the vertical -depth from the highest to the lowest is 260 ft. The large tract of land -owned by the Luray Caverns Corporations covers all possible modes of -entrance. - -The waters of this cavern appear to be entirely destitute of life; and -the existing fauna comprises only a few bats, rats, mice, spiders, flies -and small centipedes. When the cave was first entered, the floor was -covered with thousands of tracks of raccoons, wolves and bears--most of -them probably made long ago, as impressions made in the tenacious clay -that composes most of the cavern floor would remain unchanged for -centuries. Layers of excrementitious matter appear, and also many small -bones, along with a few large ones, all of existing species. The traces -of human occupation are pieces of charcoal, flints, moccasin tracks and -a single skeleton embedded in stalagmite in one of the chasms, -estimated, from the present rate of stalagmitic growth, to have lain -where found for not more than five hundred years. - -The temperature is uniformly 54 deg. Fahr., coinciding with that of -Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The air is very pure, and the avenues are not -uncomfortably damp. The portions open to the public are now lighted by -electric lamps. The registered number of visitors in 1906 was 18,000. A -unique and highly successful experiment merits mention, by which the -cool pure air of Luray Cavern is forced through all the rooms of the -Limair sanatorium erected in 1901, by Mr T. C. Northcott, president of -the Luray Caverns Corporation, on the summit of Cave Hill. Tests made -for several successive years by means of culture media and sterile -plates, demonstrated the perfect bacteriologic purity of the air, first -drawn into the caverns through myriads of rocky crevices that served as -natural filters, then further cleansed by floating over the transparent -springs and pools, and finally supplied to the inmates of the -sanatorium. - - For a full description see an article by Dr G. L. Hunner, of Johns - Hopkins University, in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for April 1904. - (H. C. H.) - - - - -LURCH, a word with several meanings, the etymological relationships of -which are obscure. The chief uses which survive are--(1) in the phrase -"to leave in the lurch," to abandon some one, to leave him in a position -of great difficulty; (2) a stagger, sudden leaning over, originally a -nautical expression of a sudden "list" made by a ship; (3) the name of a -dog, the "lurcher" used by poachers, properly a cross between a sheepdog -or collie and a greyhound. In (1) "lurch" is the name of a game, of -which nothing is known (it is supposed to have resembled backgammon), -and also of a state of the score in various games, in which the loser -either scores nothing or is beaten by very heavy points. In this sense -the term is practically obsolete. It was taken from Fr. _lourche_, -connected with many German forms, now only dialectical such as -_Lortsch_, _Lurtsch_, _Lorz_, _Lurz_, all for some kind of game, but -also meaning left-hand, wrong, which the _New English Dictionary_ thinks -is the origin of the word, it being first used as a term in gambling. In -(2) "lurch" occurs first in the form "lee-lurches," sudden rolls a ship -takes to leeward in a heavy sea, which may be a corruption of -"lee-latch," defined in Smyth's _Sailor's Word Book_ as dropping to -leeward of the course. In (3) "lurch" is probably another form of -"lurk," to lie in wait for, watch stealthily, hence to pilfer, steal. - - - - -LURGAN, a market-town of Co. Armagh, Ireland, well situated on high -ground overlooking Lough Neagh a few miles to the north; 20 m. S.W. of -Belfast by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 11,782. The parish -church of Shankill (this parish including Lurgan) has a finely -proportioned tower. Contiguous to the town is Lurgan Castle, a fine -modern Elizabethan structure, the seat of Lord Lurgan. Lurgan is famed -for its diapers, and the linen trade is of the first importance, but -there are also tobacco factories and coach factories. It is governed by -an urban district council. Lurgan was founded by William Brownlow, to -whom a grant of the town was made by James I. In 1619 it consisted of -forty-two houses, all inhabited by English settlers. It was burned by -the insurgents in 1641, and again by the troops of James II. After its -restoration in 1690 a patent for a market and fair was obtained. - - - - -LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (1534-1572), Jewish mystic, was born in -Jerusalem. From his German descent he was surnamed _Ashkenazi_ (the -German), and we find that epithet applied to him in a recently -discovered document of date 1559. In that year Isaac Luria was living in -Cairo and trading as a spice merchant with his headquarters in -Alexandria. He had come to Egypt as a boy after his father's death, and -was brought up by his wealthy maternal uncle Mordecai Francis. The boy, -according to the legends which soon grew round his life, was a -"wonder-child," and early displayed marvellous capacity. He married as a -lad of fifteen, his bride being his cousin. For some time he continued -his studies; later on when engaged in business there was no break in -this respect. Two years after his marriage he became possessed of a copy -of the Kabbalistic "Bible"--the _Zohar_ of Moses de Leon (q.v.). In -order to meditate on the mystic lore he withdrew to a hut by the Nile, -returning home for the Sabbath. Luria afterwards gave to the Sabbath a -mystic beauty such as it had never before possessed. Thus passed several -years; he was still young, but his new mode of life produced its effects -on a man of his imagination and saintly piety. He became a visionary. -Elijah, who had been his godfather in his babyhood, now paid him -frequent visits, initiating him into sublime truths. By night Luria's -soul ascended to heaven and conversed with celestial teachers who had -once been men of renown on earth. - -In 1566 at earliest Luria removed to Safed. This Palestinian town was in -the 16th century the headquarters of the Kabbala. A large circle of -Talmudists lived there; at their head Joseph Qaro, then over eighty -years of age. Qaro's son married Luria's daughter, and Qaro rejoiced at -the connexion, for he had a high opinion of Luria's learning. Mysticism -is often the expression of a revolt against authority, but in Luria's -case mysticism was not divorced from respect for tradition. After his -arrival at Safed Luria lived at most six years, and died in 1572. But -these years were momentous for Judaism. He established an extraordinary -reputation; his personality had a winning attractiveness; and he founded -a school of mystics who powerfully affected Judaism after the master's -death. The Holy Spirit, we are told, rested on him, drawn to him by the -usual means of the mystics--self-flogging, ablutions and penance. He had -wonderful gifts of insight, and spoke to the birds. Miracles abounded. -More soberly true is the statement that he went on long walks with -enthusiastic disciples, whom he taught without books. Luria himself -wrote no mystical works; what we know of his doctrines and habits comes -chiefly from his Boswell, Hayim Vital. - - There was little of originality in Luria's doctrines; the theory of - emanations, the double belief in the process of the Divine Essence as - it were self-concentrating (_Zimzum_) and on the other hand as - expanding throughout creation; the philosophical "sceptism" which - regards God as unknowable but capable of direct intuition by - feeling--these were all common elements of mystical thought. Luria was - an inspirer of saintly conduct rather than an innovator in theories. - Not beliefs, he said, but believers need rebirth. As he rose in the - morning he prayed: "O God, grant that throughout this coming day I may - be able to love my neighbour as myself." Never would he retire to rest - until he had fulfilled his definite engagements to those who had - served him. Luria and his school altered the very look of the Jewish - Prayer Book. Prayer was his main prop. By it men became controllers of - the earthly world and reached God. He or his school introduced - innumerable ritual customs, some of them beautiful enough. On Sabbath - he dressed in white, wearing a four-fold garment to typify the four - letters of the Divine Name. The Sabbath was to him an actual cult. It - was a day of the most holy joy. Resuming the Talmudic idea of an - Over-soul present in every Israelite on the Sabbath, Luria and his - school made play with this Over-soul, fed it with spiritual and - material dainties and evolved an intricate maze of mystic ceremonial, - still observed by countless masses. Another strong point with Luria - was penance. The confessions of sin which he introduced descend to - minute ritual details and rise to the most exalted aspects of social - and spiritual life. He deprecated general confessions and demanded - that the individual must lay bare the recesses of his heart. Hayim - Vital reports that on his death-bed Luria said to his disciples: "Be - at peace with one another: bear with one another: and so be worthy of - my coming again to reveal to you what no mortal ear has heard before." - His mystic ceremonial became a guide to religious practice, and though - with this there came in much meaningless and even bewildering - formalism, yet the example of his life and character was a lasting - inspiration to saintliness. - - See S. Schecher, _Studies in Judaism_, second series, pp. 251 seq.; - _Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 210; E. Worman in _Revue des Etudes - Juives_, lvii. 281. (I. A.) - - - - -LURISTAN, in the wider sense (as its name implies) the "Land of the -Lurs," namely that part of western Persia which is bounded by Turkish -territory on the west and extends for about 400 m. N.W.-S.E. from -Kermanshah to Fars with a breadth of 100 to 140 m. It is chiefly -mountainous, being intersected by numerous ranges running N.W.-S.E. The -central range has many summits which are almost within the line of -perpetual snow, rising to 13,000 ft. and more, and in it are the sources -of Persia's most important rivers, as the Zayendeh-rud, Jarahi, Karun, -Diz, Abi, Kerkheh. Between the higher ranges are many fertile plains and -low hilly districts, well watered but comparatively little cultivated in -consequence of intertribal feuds. The Lurs are thought to be aboriginal -Persians with a mixture of Semitic blood. Their language is a dialect of -Persian and does not differ materially from Kurdish. Outwardly they are -Mussulmans of the Shiah branch, but most of them show little veneration -for either Prophet or Koran, and the religion of some of them seems to -be a mixture of Ali-Illahism involving a belief in successive -incarnations combined with mysterious, ancient, heathen rites. The -northern part of Luristan, which was formerly known as Lurikuchik -(little Luristan), is inhabited by the Feili Lurs and these are divided -into the Pishkuh (cis-montane) Lurs in the east and Pushtkuh -(ultra-montane) Lurs in the west adjoining Turkish territory. They -number about 350,000. Little Luristan was governed by a race of -independent princes of the Khurshidi dynasty, and called atabegs, from -1155 to the beginning of the 17th century when the last atabeg, Shah -Verdi Khan, was removed by Shah Abbas I. and the government of the -province given to Husain Khan, the chief of a rival tribe, with the -title of vali in exchange for that of atabeg. The descendants of Husain -Khan have retained the title but now govern only the Pushtkuh Lurs, to -whom only the denomination of Feili is at present applied. The southern -part of Luristan was formerly known as Lur i Buzurg (great Luristan) and -is composed of the Bakhtiari division of the Arabistan province and the -districts of the Mamasennis and Kuhgilus which belong to Fars. The -Bakhtiaris number about 200,000, the others 40,000. Great Luristan was -an independent state under the Fazlevieh atabegs from 1160 until 1424, -and its capital was Idaj, now represented by mounds and ruins at Malamir -60 m. S.E. of Shushter. - - - - -LUSATIA (Ger. _Lausitz_), a name applied to two neighbouring districts -in Germany, Upper and Lower Lusatia, belonging now mainly to Prussia, -but partly to Saxony. The name is taken from the Lusitzi, a Slav tribe, -who inhabited Lower Lusatia in the 9th and 10th centuries. - -In the earliest times Lower Lusatia reached from the Black Elster to the -Spree; its inhabitants, the Lusitzi, were conquered by the German king, -Henry the Fowler, and by the margrave Gero in the 10th century. Their -land was formed into a separate march, which for about three centuries -was sometimes attached to, and sometimes independent of, the margraviate -of Meissen, its rulers being occasionally called margraves of Lusatia. -In 1303 it was purchased by the margrave of Brandenburg, and after other -changes it fell in 1368 into the hands of the king of Bohemia, the -emperor Charles IV., who already possessed Upper Lusatia. During the -Hussite wars its people remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church. In -1469 they recognized Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, as their -sovereign, but in 1490 they came again under the rule of the Bohemian -king. - -The district now known as Upper Lusatia was occupied by a Slav tribe, the -Milzeni, who like the Lusitzi, were subdued by Henry the Fowler early in -the 10th century. For about three centuries it was called Baudissin -(Bautzen), from the name of its principal fortress. In the 11th and 12th -centuries it was connected at different periods with Meissen, Poland and -Bohemia. Towards 1160 the emperor Frederick I. granted it to Ladislas, -king of Bohemia, and under this ruler and his immediate successors it was -largely colonized by German immigrants. In 1253 it passed to the margrave -of Brandenburg, and about the same time it was divided into an eastern -and a western part, Baudissin proper and Gorlitz. In 1319 the former was -restored to Bohemia, which also recovered Gorlitz in 1329. During the -14th century the nobles and the townsmen began to take part in the -government, and about this time Upper Lusatia was known as the district -of the six towns (_Sechsstadtelandes_), these being Bautzen, Gorlitz, -Zittau, Lobau, Lauban and Kamenz. From 1377 to 1396 Gorlitz was a -separate duchy ruled by John, a son of the emperor Charles IV., and, like -Lower Lusatia, Upper Lusatia owned the authority of Matthias Corvinus -from 1469 to 1490, both districts passing a little later with the -kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia to the German king, Ferdinand I. The "six -towns" were severely punished for their share in the war of the league of -Schmalkalden, and about this time the reformed teaching made very rapid -progress in Lusatia, the majority of the inhabitants becoming -Protestants. The name of Lusatia hitherto confined to Lower Lusatia, was -soon applied to both districts, the adjectives Upper and Lower being used -to distinguish them. In 1620, early in the Thirty Years' War, the two -Lusatias were conquered by the elector of Saxony, John George I., who was -allowed to keep them as the price of his assistance to the emperor -Ferdinand I. In 1635 by the treaty of Prague they were definitely -transferred from Bohemia to Saxony, although the emperor as king of -Bohemia retained a certain supremacy for the purpose of guarding the -rights and privileges of the Roman Catholics. They suffered much during -the wars of the 18th century. By the peace of Vienna (1815) the whole of -Lower Lusatia and part of Upper Lusatia were transferred from Saxony to -Prussia. - -The area of the part of Upper Lusatia retained by Saxony was slightly -increased in 1845; it is now about 960 sq. m. In 1900 Lower Lusatia -contained 461,973 inhabitants, of whom 34,837 were Wends; the portion of -Upper Lusatia belonging to Prussia had 305,080 inhabitants, of whom -24,361 were Wends. There were 405,173 inhabitants, including 28,234 -Wends, in Saxon Upper Lusatia. Laws relating to this district, after -passing through the Saxon parliament must be submitted to the Lusatian -diet at Bautzen. The chief towns of Upper Lusatia are Bautzen, Zittau, -Lobau, Kamenz, Gorlitz, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda and Lauban; in Lower -Lusatia they are Guben, Kottbus, Forst, Lubben and Spremberg. The -principal rivers are the Spree with its tributaries, the Black Elster -and the Neisse. Upper Lusatia is generally mountainous and picturesque, -Lower Lusatia is flat and sandy. The chief industries are linen weaving, -cloth making and coal mining. - - For the history of Lusatia see the collections, _Scriptores rerum - Lusaticarum antiqui et recentiores_, edited by C. G. Hoffmann (4 - vols., Leipzig and Bautzen, 1719); and _Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum_ - (4 vols., Gorlitz, 1839-1870). See also W. Lippert, _Wettiner und - Wittelsbacher sowie die Niederlausitz im 14 Jahrhundert_ (Dresden, - 1894); T. Scheltz, _Gesamtgeschichte der Ober- und Niederlausitz_, - Band i. (Halle, 1847), Band ii. (Gorlitz, 1882); J. G. Worbs, - _Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Markgraftums Niederlausitz_ (Lubben - 1897); and J. A. E. Kohler, _Die Geschichte der Oberlausitz_ (Gorlitz, - 1867). - - - - -LUSHAI HILLS, a mountainous district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, south -of Cachar, on the border between Assam and Burma. Area, 7227 sq. m.; -pop. (1901) 82,434. The hills are for the most part covered with dense -bamboo jungle and rank undergrowth; but in the eastern portion, owing -probably to a smaller rainfall, open grass-covered slopes are found, -with groves of oak and pine interspersed with rhododendrons. These hills -are inhabited by the Lushais and cognate tribes, but the population is -extremely scanty. From the earliest known times the original inhabitants -were Kukis, and the Lushais were not heard of until 1840, when they -invaded the district from the north. Their first attack upon British -territory took place in November 1849, and after that date they proved -one of the most troublesome tribes on the north-east frontier of India; -but operations in 1890 resulted in the complete pacification of the -northern Lushai villages, and in 1892 the eastern Lushais were reduced -to order. The management of the South Lushai hill country was -transferred from Bengal to Assam in 1898. To obtain more efficient -control over the country the district has been divided into eighteen -circles, each in charge of an interpreter, through whom all orders are -transmitted to the chiefs. The Welsh Presbyterian Mission began work at -Aijal in 1897, and the people have shown unexpected readiness to accept -education. According to the census of 1901 the total number of Lushais -in Assam was 63,452. - - See Colonel T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of N.E. India_ (1870); _Lushai - Hills Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1906). - - - - -LUSIGNAN, the name of a family which sprang from Poitou[1] and -distinguished itself by its connexion with the kingdom of Jerusalem, and -still more by its long tenure of the kingdom of Cyprus (1192-1475). A -Hugh de Lusignan appears in the ill-fated crusade of 1100-1101; another -Hugh, the Brown, came as a pilgrim to the Holy Land in 1164, and was -taken prisoner by Nureddin. In the last quarter of the 12th century the -two brothers Amalric and Guy, sons of Hugh the Brown, played a -considerable part in the history of the Latin East. About 1180 Amalric -was constable of the kingdom of Jerusalem; and he is said to have -brought his handsome brother Guy to the notice of Sibylla, the widowed -heiress of the kingdom. Guy and Sibylla were married in 1180; and Guy -thus became heir presumptive of the kingdom, if the young Baldwin V., -Sibylla's son by her first marriage to William of Montferrat, should die -without issue. He acted as regent in 1183, but he showed some incapacity -in the struggle with Saladin, and was deprived of all right of -succession. In 1186, however, on the death of Baldwin V., he succeeded -in obtaining the crown, in spite of the opposition of Raymund of -Tripoli. Next year he suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of -Hittin, and was taken prisoner by Saladin. Released on parole in 1188, -he at once broke his parole, and began the siege of Acre. Difficulties, -however, had arisen with Conrad of Montferrat; and when Guy lost his -wife Sibylla in 1190, and Conrad married Isabella, her sister, now -heiress of the kingdom, these difficulties culminated in Conrad's laying -claim to the crown. Guy found his cause espoused in 1191 by the overlord -of his house, Richard I. of England; but Conrad's superior ability, and -the support of the French crusaders, ultimately carried the day, and in -1192 Richard himself abandoned the pretensions of Guy, and recognized -Conrad as king. Though Conrad was almost immediately assassinated, the -crown did not return to Guy, but went to Henry of Champagne, who -married the widowed Isabella. Guy found some satisfaction for his loss -in buying from the Templars the island of Cyprus, and there he reigned -for the last two years of his life (1192-1194). He is judged harshly by -contemporary writers, as _simplex_ and _insufficiens_; but Dodu (in his -_Histoire des institutions du royaume de Jerusalem_) suggests that Guy -was depreciated because the kingdom had been lost in his reign, in much -the same way as Godfrey of Bouillon was exalted because Jerusalem had -just been won at his accession. Guy was a brave if not a particularly -able knight; and his instant attack on Acre after his release by Saladin -shows that he had the _sentiment de ses devoirs_. - -He was succeeded in Cyprus by his brother Amalric, who acquired the -title of king of Cyprus from the emperor Henry VI., and became king of -Jerusalem in 1197 by his marriage to Isabella, after the death of Henry -of Champagne (see AMALRIC II.). Amalric was the founder of a dynasty of -kings of Cyprus, which lasted till 1475, while after 1269 his -descendants regularly enjoyed the title of kings of Jerusalem. The -scions of the house of Lusignan proved themselves the most sincere of -crusaders. They possessed in Cyprus a kingdom, in which they had -vindicated for themselves a stronger hold over their feudatories than -the kings of Jerusalem had ever enjoyed, and in which trading centres -like Famagusta flourished vigorously; and they used the resources of -their kingdom, in conjunction with the Hospitallers of Rhodes, to check -the progress of the Mahommedans. - -Among the most famous members of the house who ruled in Cyprus three may -be mentioned. The first is Hugh III. (the Great), who was king from 1267 -to 1285: to him, apparently, St Thomas dedicated his _De Regimine -Principum_; and it is in his reign that the kingdom of Jerusalem becomes -permanently connected with that of Cyprus. The second is Hugh IV. -(1324-1359), to whom Boccaccio dedicated one of his works, and who set -on foot an alliance with the pope, Venice and the Hospitallers, which -resulted in the capture of Smyrna (1344). The last is Peter I., Hugh's -second son and successor, who reigned from 1359 to 1369, when he was -assassinated as the result of a conspiracy of the barons. Peter and his -chancellor de Mezieres represent the last flicker of the crusading -spirit (see CRUSADES). - -Before the extinction of the line in 1475, it had succeeded in putting a -branch on the throne of Armenia. Five short-lived kings of the house -ruled in Armenia after 1342, "Latin exiles," as Stubbs says, "in the -midst of several strange populations all alike hostile." The kingdom of -Armenia fell before the sultan of Egypt, who took prisoner its last king -Leo V. in 1375, though the kings of Cyprus afterwards continued to bear -the title; the kingdom of Cyprus itself continued to exist under the -house of Lusignan for 100 years longer. The mother of the last king, -James III. (who died when he was two years old), was a Venetian lady, -Catarina Cornaro. She had been made a daughter of the republic at the -time of her marriage to the king of Cyprus; and on the death of her -child the republic first acted as guardian for its daughter, and then, -in 1489, obtained from her the cession of the island. - - See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, _Histoire de l'ile de Chypre sous les - princes de la maison de Lusignan_ (Paris, 1852-1853); W. Stubbs, - _Lectures on Medieval and Modern History_ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1900). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A branch of the line continued in Poitou during the 13th century, - and ruled in LaMarche till 1303. Hugh de la Marche, whose betrothed - wife, Isabella of Angouleme, King John of England seized (thus - bringing upon himself the loss of the greater part of his French - possessions), was a nephew of Guy of Lusignan. He ultimately married - Isabella, after the death of John, and had by her a number of sons, - half-brothers of Henry III. of England, who came over to England, - amongst other foreign favourites, during his reign. - - - - -LUSSIN, a small island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Gulf of Quarnero, -forming together with the adjacent islands of Veglia and Cherso an -administrative district in the Austrian crownland of Istria. Pop. (1900) -11,615. The island is 24 m. in length, is of an average breadth of 1.64 -m., being little more than 300 yds. wide at its narrowest point, and has -an area of 29 sq. m. The chief town and principal harbour is -Lussinpiccolo (pop. 7207), which is the most important trading centre in -the Quarnero group. The town has become a favourite winter resort, its -climate resembling that of Nice. To the south-east of it is Lussingrande -(pop. 2349), with an old Venetian palace and a shipbuilding wharf. The -island was first peopled at the end of the 14th century. Its inhabitants -are renowned seamen. - - - - -LUSTRATION, a term that includes all the methods of purification and -expiation among the Greeks and Romans. Among the Greeks there are two -ideas clearly distinguishable--that human nature must purify itself -([Greek: katharsis]) from guilt before it is fit to enter into communion -with God or even to associate with men, and that guilt must be expiated -voluntarily ([Greek: hilasmos]) by certain processes which God has -revealed, in order to avoid the punishment that must otherwise overtake -it. It is not possible to make such a distinction among the Latin terms -_lustratio_, _piacula_, _piamenta_, _caerimoniae_, and even among the -Greeks it is not consistently observed. Guilt and impurity arose in -various ways; among the Greeks, besides the general idea that man is -always in need of purification, the species of guilt most insisted on by -religion are incurred by murder, by touching a dead body, by sexual -intercourse, and by seeing a prodigy or sign of the divine will. The -last three spring from the idea that man had been without preparation -and improperly brought into communication with God, and was therefore -guilty. The first, which involves a really moral idea of guilt, is far -more important than the others in Hellenic religion. Among the Romans we -hear more of the last species of impurity; in general the idea takes the -form that after some great disaster the people become convinced that -guilt has been incurred and must be expiated. The methods of -purification consist in ceremonies performed with water, fire, air or -earth, or with a branch of a sacred tree, especially of the laurel, and -also in sacrifice and other ceremonial. Before entering a temple the -worshipper dipped his hand in the vase of holy water ([Greek: -perirrhanterion], _aqua lustralis_) which stood at the door; before a -sacrifice bathing was common; salt-water was more efficacious than -fresh, and the celebrants of the Eleusinian mysteries bathed in the sea -([Greek: halade, mystai]); the water was more efficacious if a firebrand -from the altar were plunged in it. The torch, fire and sulphur ([Greek: -to theion]) were also powerful purifying agents. Purification by air was -most frequent in the Dionysiac mysteries; puppets suspended and swinging -in the air (_oscilla_) formed one way of using the lustrative power of -the air. Rubbing with sand and salt was another method. The sacrifice -chiefly used for purification by the Greeks was a pig; among the Romans -it was always, except in the Lupercalia, a pig, a sheep and a bull -(_suovetaurilia_). In Athens a purificatory sacrifice and prayer was -held before every meeting of the ecclesia; the Maimacteria,[1] in honour -of Zeus Maimactes (the god of wrath), was an annual festival of -purification, and at the Thargelia two men (or a woman and a man) were -sacrificed on the seashore, their bodies burned and the ashes thrown -into the sea, to avert the wrath of Apollo. On extraordinary occasions -lustrations were performed for a whole city. So Athens was purified by -Epimenides after the Cylonian massacre, and Delos in the Peloponnesian -War (426 B.C.) to stop the plague and appease the wrath of Apollo. In -Rome, besides such annual ceremonies as the _Ambarvalia_, _Lupercalia_, -_Cerialia_, _Paganalia_, &c., there was a lustration of the fleet before -it sailed, and of the army before it marched. Part of the ceremonial -always consisted in leading or carrying the victims round the impure -persons or things. After any disaster the _lustratio classium_ or -_exercitus_ was often again performed, so as to make certain that the -gods got all their due. The _Amburbium_, a solemn procession of the -people round the boundaries of Rome, was a similar ceremonial performed -for the whole city on occasions of great danger or calamity; the -_Ambilustrium_ (so called from the sacrificial victims being carried -round the people assembled on the Campus Martius) was the purificatory -ceremony which took place after the regular quinquennial census -(_lustrum_) of the Roman people. - - See C. F. Hermann, _Griechische Altertumer_, ii.; G. F. Schomann, - _ib._ ii.; P. Stengel, _Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer_ (1898); - Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. p. 200 (1885); P. E. von - Lasaulx, _Die Suhnopfer der Griechen und Romer_ (1841); J. Donaldson, - "On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of the Greeks," in - _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xxvii., 1876; and - the articles by A. Bouche-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, - _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, and by W. Warde Fowler in Smith's - _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1891). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Maimacteria does not actually occur in ancient authorities as the - name of a festival. - - - - -LUTE (Arabic _al'ud_, "the wood"; Fr. _luth_; Ital. _liuto_; Span. -_laud_; Ger. _Laute_; Dut. _luit_), an ancient stringed musical -instrument, derived in form as well as name from the Arabs. The complete -family consisted of the pandura, tanbur or mandoline as treble, the lute -as alto or tenor, the barbiton or theorbo as bass, and the chitarrone as -double bass. The Arab instrument, with convex sound-body, pointing to -the resonance board or membrane having been originally placed upon a -gourd, was strung with silk and played with a plectrum of shell or -quill. It was adopted by the Arabs from Persia. Instruments with vaulted -backs are all undoubtedly of Eastern origin; the distinct type, -resembling the longitudinal section of a pear, is more specially traced -in ancient India, Persia and the countries influenced by their -civilization. This type of instrument includes many families which -became known during the middle ages of western Europe, being introduced -into southern Europe and Spain by the Moors, into southern Russia by the -Persians of the Sassanian period, into Greece from the confines of the -Byzantine Empire. As long as the strings were plucked by fingers or -plectrum the large pear-shaped instrument may be identified as the -archetype of the lute. When the bow, obtained from Persia, was applied -to the instrument by the Arabs, a fresh family was formed, which was -afterwards known in Europe as rebab and later rebec. The largest member -of the ancient lute family--the bass lute or theorbo--has been -identified with the barbiton. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Post-Mycenaean terra-cotta figure, with ancient -lute (1000 B.C.) from the cemetery at Goshen.] - - Until recently the existence of these ancient stringed instruments was - presumed on the evidence of the early medieval European instruments - and of the meagre writings extant, such as those of Farabi.[1] But a - chain of plastic evidence can now be offered, beginning with the Greek - post-Mycenaean age (c. 1000 B.C.). A statuette of a female musician - playing upon a large lute with only an embryonic neck, on which - nevertheless the left hand is stopping strings, was unearthed in Egypt - in a tomb of the XXth Dynasty in the cemetery of Goshen by the members - of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt,[2] under the direction - of Professor Flinders Petrie, to whose courtesy we owe the photograph - (fig. 1) here reproduced. It is difficult to form a conclusive opinion - as to the number of strings the artist intended to represent, owing to - the decorative figures following the direction of the strings, but, - judging from the position of the right hand plucking a string, there - may have been seven. Among a number of terra-cotta figures of - musicians, brought to light during the excavations in a Tell at Suza - and dating from the 8th century B.C.,[3] although there is no - instrument that might be identified with the alto lute, the treble - lute or tanbur is represented with a long, curved neck and a head bent - back to increase the tension, and there is also an instrument having a - smaller and more elongated body than the lute. On one of the friezes - from Afghanistan presented to the British Museum by Major-General - Cunningham, which formed the risers of steps leading to the tope at - Jumal Garhi, dating from the 1st century A.D. are represented scenes - of music and dancing. Here the archetype of the lute appears several - times; it had four strings, and the head was bent back at right angles - to the neck. In the 6th century A.D. illustrations of this early lute - are no longer rare, more especially on Persian silver-work of the - Sassanian period[4] and in the paintings of the Buddhist cave-temples - of Ajanta.[5] Several representations of the barbiton are extant from - the classical Roman period. - - The modern Egyptian 'ud is the direct descendant of the Arabic lute, - and, according to Lane, is strung with seven pairs of catgut strings - played by a plectrum. A specimen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, - given by the khedive, has four pairs only, which appears to have been - the old stringing of the instrument. When frets (cross-lines dividing - the neck or finger-board to show the fingering) are employed they are - of catgut disposed according to the Arabic scale of seventeen - intervals in the octave, consisting of twelve limmas, an interval - rather less than our equal semitone, and five commas, which are very - small but quite recognizable differences of pitch. - - The lute family is separated from the guitars, also of Eastern origin, - by the formation of the sound body, which is in all lutes pear-shaped, - without the sides or ribs necessary to the structure of the - flat-backed guitar and cither. Observing this distinction, we include - with the lute the little Neapolitan mandoline of 2 ft. long and the - large double-necked Roman chitarrone, not infrequently 6 ft. long. - Mandolines are partly strung with wire, and are played with a - plectrum, indispensable for metal or short strings. Perhaps the - earliest lutes were so played, but the large lutes and theorbos strung - with catgut have been invariably touched by the fingers only, the - length permitting this more sympathetic means of producing the tone. - - Praetorius,[6] writing when the lute was in universal favour, mentions - seven varieties distinguished by size and tuning. The smallest would - be larger than a mandoline, and the melody string, the "chanterelle," - often a single string, lower in pitch. Praetorius calls this an octave - lute, with the chanterelle C or D. The two discant lutes have - respectively B and A, the alto G, the tenor E, the bass D, and the - great octave bass G, an octave below the alto lute which may be taken - as the model lute cultivated by the amateurs of the time. The bass - lutes were theorbos, that is, double-necked lutes, as described below. - The accordance of an alto lute was [musical notes] founded upon that - of the original eight-stringed European lute, to which the highest and - lowest notes had, in course of time, been added. A later addition was - the [musical notes] also on the finger-board, and bass strings, double - or single, known as diapasons, which, descending to the deep C of the - violoncello, were not stopped with the fingers. The diapasons were - tuned as the key of the piece of music required. Fig. 2 represents an - Italian instrument made by one of the most celebrated lute makers, - Venere of Padua, in 1600; it is 3 ft. 6 in. high, and has six pairs of - unisons and eight single diapasons. The finger-board, divided into - approximately equal half tones by the frets, as a rule eight in - number, was often further divided on the higher notes, for ten, - eleven, or, as in the woodcut, even twelve, semitones. The head, - bearing the tuning pegs, was placed at an obtuse or a right angle to - the neck, to increase the bearing of the strings upon the nut, and be - convenient for sudden requirements of tuning during performance, the - trouble of keeping a lute in tune being proverbial. - - The lute was in general use during the 16th and 17th centuries. In the - 18th it declined; still J. S. Bach wrote a "partita" for it. The - latest date we have met with of an engraved publication for the lute - is 1760. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lute, by Venere of Padua.] - - The large double-necked lute, with two sets of tuning pegs, the lower - for the finger-board, the higher for the diapason strings, was known - as the theorbo; also, and especially in England, as the arch-lute; - and, in a special form, the neck being then very long, as the - chitarrone. Theorbo and chitarrone appear together at the close of the - 16th century, and their introduction was synchronous with the rise of - accompanied monody in music, that is, of the oratorio and the opera. - Peri, Caccini and Monteverde used theorbos to accompany their - newly-devised recitative, the invention of which in Florence, from the - impulse of the Renaissance, is well known. The height of a theorbo - varied from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft., the Paduan being always the largest, - excepting the Roman 6-ft. long chitarrone. These large lutes had very - deep notes, and doubtless great liberties were allowed in tuning, but - the strings on the finger-board followed the lute accordance already - given, or another quoted by Baron (_Untersuchung des Instruments der - Lauten_, Nuremberg, 1727) as the old theorbo or "violway" (see Mace, - _Musick's Monument_, London, 1676):-- - - [Illustration] - - We find again both these accordances varied and transposed a tone - higher, perhaps with thinner strings, or to accommodate local - differences of pitch. Praetorius recommends the chanterelles of - theorbos being tuned an octave lower on account of the great strain. - By such a change, another authority, the Englishman Thomas Mace, says, - the life and spruceness of airy lessons were quite lost. The theorbo - or arch-lute had at last to give way to the violoncello and double - bass, which are still used to accompany the "recitativo secco" in - oratorios and operas. Handel wrote a part for a theorbo in _Esther_ - (1720); after that date it appears no more in orchestral scores, but - remained in private use until nearly the end of the century. - - The lute and the organ share the distinction of being the first - instruments for which the oldest instrumental compositions we possess - were written. For the lute, however, they were not written in our - present notation, but in tablature, "lyrawise," a system by which as - many lines were drawn horizontally as there were pairs of strings on - the finger-board, the frets, distributed at intervals of a semitone, - being distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, repeated from A, - representing the open string, for each line. This was the English and - French manner; the Italian was by numbers instead of letters. The - signs of time were placed over the stave, and were not repeated unless - the mensural values changed. (A. J. H.; K. S.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See Latin translation by J. G. L. Kosegarten, _Alii Ispahenensis - Liber ... Arabice editur adjectaque translatione adnotationibusque - illustratus_ (Greifswald, 1840). - - [2] See _Hyksos and Israelite Cities_, by W. M. Flinders Petrie and - J. Garrow Duncan, 1906 (double volume), Brit. Sch. of Arch. - - [3] J. de Morgan, _Delegation en Perse_ (Paris, 1900), vol. i. pl. - viii. Nos. 8, 7 and 9. - - [4] See "The Treasures of the Oxus," catalogue of the Franks Bequest - to the British Museum by Ormonde M. Dalton (London, 1905), pl; xxvi. - No. 190; see also J. R. Aspelin, "Les antiquites du nord," No. 608; - also for further references, Kathleen Schlesinger, "Precursors of the - Violin Family," pt. ii. of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, pp. - 407-408, and appendix B, pp. 492-493; and _Gazette archeologique_ - (Paris, 1886), vol. xi. pl. x. and p. 70. - - [5] By John Griffiths (London, 1896), vol. ii. pl. 105, cave I. 10, - e. - - [6] _Syntagm. Music._ pt. ii., "Organographie" (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), - pp. 30 and 58-61. - - - - -LUTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST (1823-1902), German Lutheran theologian, was -born at Maroldsweisach, Bavaria, on the 22nd of March 1823. He studied -theology at Erlangen and Berlin, and in 1856 became professor ordinarius -of systematic theology and New Testament exegesis at Leipzig. In 1865 he -was made a counsellor to the consistory, in 1871 canon of Meissen -cathedral, and in 1887 a privy councillor to the church. He died at -Leipzig on the 21st of September 1902. A strictly orthodox theologian, -and a clear writer, though not a very profound scholar, Luthardt became -widely appreciated as the author of apologetic lectures. These were -collected under the title _Apologie des Christentums_ (vol. i., 1864, -14th ed. 1896; vol. ii. 7th ed., 1901; vol. iii. 7th ed., 1898; vol. iv. -2nd ed., 1880), a work of which the first three volumes have been -translated into English. In 1868 he founded and edited the _Allgemeine -evang.-lutherische Kirchenzeitung_, with its supplement the -_Theologisches Litteraturblatt_, and in 1880 became editor of the -_Zeitschrift fur kirchl. Wissenschaft und kirchl. Leben._ - - His other works include _Das Johanneische Evangelium ... erklart_ - (1852-1853; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1875-1876), _Offenbarung Johannis - erklart_ (1861), _Lehre von den letzten Dingen_ (1861; 3rd ed. 1885); - _Kompendium der Dogmatik_ (1865; 9th ed., 1893), _Geschichte der - christlichen Ethik_ (2 vols., 1888-1893), _Gnade und Wahrheit_ (1874), - _Das Wort des Lebens_ (1877) and _Gnade und Frieden_ (1880). His - autobiography was published with the title _Erinnerungen aus - vergangenen Tagen_ (1889; 2nd ed., 1891). - - - - -LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546), the great German religious reformer, was -born at Eisleben on the 10th of November 1483. His father, Hans Luther -(Lyder, Luder, Ludher), a peasant from the township of Mohra in -Thuringia, after his marriage with Margarethe Ziegler, had settled in -Mansfeld, attracted by the prospects of work in the mines there. The -counts of Mansfeld, who, many years before, had started the mining -industry, made a practice of building and letting out for hire small -furnaces for smelting the ore. Hans Luther soon leased one, then three. -In 1491 he became one of the four elected members of the village council -(_vier Herren von der Gemeinde_); and we are told that the counts of -Mansfeld held him in esteem. The boy grew up amid the poor, coarse -surroundings of the German peasant life, imbibing its simple beliefs. He -was taught that the Emperor protected the poor people against the Turk, -that the Church was the "Pope's House," wherein the Bishop of Rome had -all the rights of the house-father. He shared the common superstitions -of the time and some of them never left him. - -Young Martin went to the village school at Mansfeld; to a school at -Magdeburg kept by the Brethren of the Common Lot; then to the well-known -St George's school at Eisenach. At Magdeburg and Eisenach Luther was "a -poor student," i.e. a boy who was received into a hospice where he lived -rent-free, attended school without paying fees, and had the privilege of -begging for his bread at the house-doors of the town; in return for -which he sang as a chorister in the church to which the school was -attached. Luther was never a "wandering student"; his parents were too -careful of their child to permit him to lead the life of wandering -licence which marked these pests of medieval German scholastic life. At -Eisenach he attracted the notice of the wife of a wealthy merchant of -Eisenach, whom his biographers usually identify as Frau Cotta. - -After three happy years at Eisenach, Luther entered the university of -Erfurt (1501), then the most famous in Germany. Hans Luther had been -prospering, and was more than ever resolved to make his son a lawyer. -Young Luther entered his name on the matriculation book in letters which -can still be read "Martinus Ludher ex Mansfelt," a free student, no -longer embarrassed by great poverty. In Luther's time Erfurt was the -intellectual centre of Germany and its students were exposed to a -variety of influences which could not fail to stimulate young men of -mental ability. - -Its theology was, of course, scholastic, but of what was then called the -modern type, the Scotist; its philosophy was the nominalist system of -William of Occam, whose great disciple, Gabriel Biel (d. 1495), had been -one of its most famous professors; Nicholas de Lyra's (d. 1340) system -of biblical interpretation had been long taught there by a succession of -able teachers; Humanism had won an early entrance to the university; the -anti-clerical teaching of John of Wessel, who had himself taught at -Erfurt for fifteen years (1445-1460), had left its mark on the place and -was not forgotten. Hussite propagandists, even in Luther's time, -secretly visited the town and whispered among the students their -anti-clerical Christian socialism. Papal legates to Germany seldom -failed to visit the university and by their magnificence bore witness to -the majesty of the Roman church. - -A study of the scholastic philosophy was then the preliminary training -for a course of law, and Luther worked so hard at the prescribed studies -that he had little leisure, he said, for classical learning. He attended -none of the Humanist lectures, but he read a good many of the Latin -authors and also learned a little Greek. He never was a member of the -Humanist circle; he was too much in earnest about religious questions -and of too practical a turn of mind. The young Humanists would have -gladly welcomed him into their select band. They dubbed him the -"philosopher," the "musician," recalled in after days his fine social -disposition, his skill in playing the lute, and his ready power in -debate. He took the various degrees in an unusually brief time. He was -bachelor in 1502 and master in 1505. His father, proud of his son's -steady application and success, sent him the costly present of a _Corpus -Juris_. He may have begun to study law. Suddenly he plunged into the -Erfurt Convent of the Augustinian Eremites and after due noviciate -became a monk. - -The action was so unexpected that his contemporaries felt bound to give -all manner of explanations which have been woven into accounts which are -legendary. Nothing is known about the cause of the sudden plunge but -what Luther has himself revealed. He has told us that he entered the -monastery because he doubted of himself, and that his action was sudden -because he knew that his father would have disapproved of his intention. - -The word "doubt" has made historians think of intellectual -difficulties--of the "theological scepticism" taught by Occam and Biel, -of the disintegrating criticism of Humanism. But there is no trace of -any theological difficulties in Luther's mind in the struggles which -sent him into the convent and distracted him there. He was driven to do -what he did by the pressure of a practical religious need, the desire to -save his soul. The fires of hell and the shades of purgatory, which are -the constant background of Dante's "Paradiso," were present to Luther -from childhood. - -Luther was the greatest religious genius which the 16th century -produced, and the roots of the movement in which he was the central -figure must be sought for in the popular religious life of the last -decades of the 15th and opening decades of the 16th centuries--a field -which has been neglected by almost all his biographers. When it is -explored traces of at least five different types of religious sentiment -can be discovered. Pious parents, whether among the burghers or -peasants, seem to have taught their children a simple evangelical faith. -Martin Luther and thousands of children like him were trained at home to -know the creed, the ten commandments, the Lord's prayer, and such simple -hymns as _Ein Kindelein so lobelich_, _Nun bitten wir den Heiligen -Geist_ and _Crist ist erstanden_; and they were taught to believe that -God for Christ's sake freely pardons sin. They learned that simple faith -which Luther afterwards expounded in his _Small Catechism_ and called -the _Kinderlehre_. When lads trained like himself entered school and -college they came in contact with that religious revival which -characterized the last half of the 15th century. Fear seemed to brood -over the peoples of Western Europe. The plague devastated the badly -drained towns, new diseases spread death, the fear of the Turks was -permanent. All this went to feed revival, which, founded on fear, -refused to see in Jesus Christ anything but a stern judge, and made the -Virgin Mother and Anna the "grandmother" the intercessors; which found -consolation in pilgrimages from shrine to shrine; which believed in -crude miracles, and in the thought that God could be best served within -convent walls. Luther's mind was caught in this current of feeling. He -records how it was burnt into him by pictures which filled his boyish -imagination. Jesus in the painted window of Mansfeld church, stern of -face, sword in hand, sitting on a rainbow, coming to judge; an -altar-piece at Magdeburg, in which a ship with its crew was sailing on -to heaven, carrying no layman on board; the deeds of St Elizabeth -emblazoned on the window of St George's parish church at Eisenach; the -living pictures of a young nobleman who had turned monk to save his -soul, of a monk, the holiest man Luther had ever known, who was aged far -beyond his years by his maceration; and many others of the same kind. - -Alongside this we can trace the growth of another religious movement of -a different kind. We can see a sturdy common-sense religion taking -possession of multitudes in Germany, which insisted that laymen might -rule in many departments supposed to belong exclusively to the clergy. -The _jus episcopale_ which Luther afterwards claimed for the secular -authorities had been practically exercised in Saxony and Brandenburg; -cities and districts had framed police regulations which set aside -ecclesiastical decrees about holidays and begging; the supervision of -charity was passing from the hands of the church into those of laymen; -and religious confraternities which did not take their guidance from the -clergy were increasing. Lastly, the medieval Brethren were engaged in -printing and distributing tracts, mystical, anti-clerical, sometimes -socialist. All these influences abounded as Luther was growing to -manhood and laid their marks upon him. It was the momentary power of the -second which drove him into the convent, and he selected the monastic -order which represented all that was best in the revival of the latter -half of the 15th century--the Augustinian Eremites. - -In the convent Luther set himself to find salvation. The last word of -that Scotist theology which ruled at the close of the middle ages was -that man must work out his own salvation, and Luther tried to do so in -the most approved later medieval fashion by the strictest asceticism. He -fasted and scourged himself; he practised all the ordinary forms of -maceration and invented new ones, all to no purpose. His theological -studies, part of the convent education, told him that pardon could be -had through the Sacrament of Penance, and that the first part of the -sacrament was sorrow for sin. The older theology declared that such -sorrow must be based on love to God. Had he this love? God always -appeared to him as an implacable judge, threatening punishment for -breaking a law which it was impossible to keep. He confessed to himself -that he often hated this arbitrary Will which Scotist theology called -God. The later theology, taught in the convent by John of Palz and John -Nathin, said that sorrow might be based on a meaner motive provided the -Sacrament of Penance was continually resorted to. Luther wearied his -superiors with his attendance at the confessional. He was looked upon as -a young saint, and his reputation extended throughout the convents of -his order. The young saint felt himself to be no nearer the pardon of -God; he thought that he was "gallows-ripe." At last his superiors seemed -to discover his real difficulties. Partly by their help, partly by study -of the scriptures, he came to understand that God's pardon was to be won -by trusting to His promises. Thus after two years of indescribable -mental conflicts Luther found peace. The struggle marked him for life. -His victory gave him a sense of freedom, and the feeling that life was -given by God to be enjoyed. In all external things he remained -unchanged. He was a faithful son of the medieval church, with its -doctrines, ceremonies and usages. - -Soon after he had attained inward peace, Luther was ordained. He -continued his studies in theology, devoting himself to the more -"experimental" portions of Augustine, Bernard and Gerson. He showed -himself a good man of business and was advanced in his order. In 1508 he -was sent with some other monks to Wittenberg to assist the small -university which had been opened there in 1502 by Frederick the Wise, -elector of Saxony. It was there that Luther began to preach, first in a -small chapel to the monks of his order; later taking the place of one of -the town's clergy who was in ill-health. From Wittenberg he was sent by -the chiefs of the German Augustinian Eremites to Rome on a mission -concerning the organization of the order. He went up with the feelings -of the medieval pilgrim rather than with the intoxication of the ardent -Humanist. On his return (1512) he was sent by Staupitz, his -vicar-general, to Erfurt to take the necessary steps for higher -graduation in theology, in order to succeed Staupitz himself as -professor of theology in Wittenberg. He graduated as Doctor of the Holy -Scripture, took the Wittenberg doctor's oath to defend the evangelical -truth vigorously (_viriliter_), became a member of the Wittenberg -Senate, and three weeks later succeeded Staupitz as professor of -theology. - -From the first Luther's lectures in theology differed from those -ordinarily given at the time. He had no opinions on theological subjects -at variance with the theology taught at Erfurt and elsewhere. No one -attributed any heretical views to the young Wittenberg professor. He -differed from others because he looked at theology in a more practical -way. He thought it ought to be made useful to guide men to the grace of -God and to tell them how to persevere in a life of joyous obedience to -God and His commandments. His teaching was "experimental" from the -beginning. Besides he believed that he had been specially set apart to -lecture on the Holy Scriptures, and he began by commenting on the Psalms -and on the Epistles of St Paul. He never knew much Hebrew and was not -specially strong in Greek; so he used the Vulgate in his prelections. He -had a huge widely printed volume on his desk, and wrote the notes for -his lectures on the margins and between the lines. Some of the pages -survive. They contain in the germ the leading thoughts of what became -Lutheran theology. At first he expressed himself in the phrases common -to scholastic theology, when these were found to be inadequate in words -borrowed from the mystical writers of the 14th and 15th centuries, and -then in new phrases more appropriate to the circle of fresh thoughts. -Those new thoughts at first simply pushed aside the ordinary theology -taught in the schools without staying to criticize it. Gradually, -however, Luther began to find that there was some real opposition -between what he was teaching and the theology he had been taught in the -Erfurt convent. It appeared characteristically enough on the practical -and not on the speculative side of theology in a sermon on _Indulgences_ -preached in July 1516. Once begun the breach widened, until Luther -could contrast "our theology" with what was taught at Erfurt, and by -September he began to write against the scholastic theology, to declare -that it was Pelagian at heart, that it repudiated the Augustinian -doctrines of grace, and neglected to teach the supreme value of that -faith "which throws itself upon God." - -These lectures and the teaching they contained soon made a great -impression. Students began to flock to the small obscure university of -Wittenberg, and the elector grew proud of the teacher who was making his -university famous. It was at this interesting stage of his own religious -career that he felt himself compelled to stand forth in opposition to -what he believed to be a great religious scandal, and almost -unconsciously to become a Reformer. - -Luther began his work as a Reformer by proposing to discuss the true -meaning of Indulgences. The occasion was an Indulgence proclaimed by -Pope Leo X., farmed by the archbishop of Mainz, and preached by John -Tetzel, a Dominican monk and a famed seller of Indulgences. Many of the -German princes had no great love for Indulgence sellers, and Frederick -of Saxony had prohibited Tetzel from entering his territories. But it -was easy to reach most parts of Electoral Saxony without actually -crossing the frontiers. The Red Cross of the Indulgence seller had been -set up at Zerbst and at Juterbogk, and people had gone from Wittenberg -to buy the _Papal Tickets_. Luther believed that the sales were -injurious to the morals of the townsmen; he had heard reports of -Tetzel's sermons; he had become wrathful on reading the letter of -recommendation of the archbishop; and friends had urged him to -interfere. He protested with a characteristic combination of caution and -courage. The church of All Saints (the castle church) was closely -connected with the university of Wittenberg. Its doors were commonly -used for university proclamations. The Elector Frederick was a great -collector of relics and had stored them in his church. He had procured -an Indulgence for all who attended its services on All Saints' Day, and -crowds commonly gathered. Luther nailed ninety-five _theses_ on the -church door on that day, the 1st of November 1517, when the crowd could -see and read them. - -The proceeding was strictly academic. The matter discussed, to judge by -the writings of theologians, was somewhat obscure; and Luther offered -his _theses_ as an attempt to make it clearer. No one was supposed to be -committed to every opinion he advanced in such a way. But the _theses_ -posted somehow touched heart and conscience in a way unusual in the -common subjects of academic disputation. Every one wanted to read them. -The University Press could not supply copies fast enough. They were -translated into German, and were known throughout Germany in less than a -fortnight. Within a month they had been heard of all over western and -southern Europe. Luther himself was staggered at the way they were -received. He said he had never meant to determine, but to debate. - -The _theses_ were singularly unlike what might have been expected from a -professor of theology. They made no attempt at theological definition, -no pretence at logical arrangement; they were anything but a brief -programme of reformation. They were simply ninety-five sledge-hammer -blows directed against the most flagrant ecclesiastical abuse of the -age. They were addressed to the "common" man and appealed to his common -sense of spiritual things. - -The practice of offering, selling and buying Indulgences (see -INDULGENCE) was everywhere common in the beginning of the 16th century. -The beginnings go back more than a thousand years before the time of -Luther. In the earliest church life, when Christians fell into sin, they -were required to make public confession before the congregation, to -declare their sorrow, and to vow to perform certain acts which were -regarded as evidence of the sincerity of their repentance. When the -custom of public confession before the congregation had changed to -private confession to the clergy, it became the confessor's duty to -impose these satisfactions. It was thought only right that there should -be some uniformity in dealing with repentant sinners, and books -appeared giving lists of sins and what were supposed to be suitable -satisfactions. When the sins confessed were very heinous the -satisfactions were correspondingly severe and sometimes lasted over many -years. About the 7th century arose a custom of commuting or relaxing -these imposed satisfactions. A penance of several years fasting might be -commuted into saying so many prayers, or giving an arranged amount in -alms, or even into a money-fine. In the last case the analogy of the -Wergeld of the German tribal codes was commonly followed. The usage -generally took the form that any one who visited a church, to which the -Indulgence had been attached, on a day named, and gave a contribution to -its funds, had his penance shortened by one-seventh, one-third or -one-half, as might be arranged. This was the origin of Indulgences -properly so-called. They were always mitigations of satisfactions or -penances which had been imposed by the church as outward signs of inward -sorrow, tests of fitness for pardon, and the needful precedents of -absolution. Luther uttered no protest against Indulgences of this kind. -He held that what the church had imposed the church could remit. - -This old and simple conception of Indulgences had been greatly altered -since the beginning of the 13th century. The institution of penance had -been raised to the dignity of a sacrament, and this had changed both the -place and the character of satisfactions. Under the older conception the -order had been Sorrow (_Contritio_), Confession, Satisfaction (or due -manifestation of sorrow in ways prescribed) and Absolution. Under the -newer theory the order was Sorrow, Confession, Absolution, Satisfaction, -and both satisfaction and sorrow took new meanings. It was held that -Absolution removed guilt and freed from eternal punishment, but that -something had to be done to free the penitent from temporal punishment -whether in this life or in purgatory. Satisfactions took the new meaning -of the temporal punishments due in this life and the substitute for the -pains of purgatory. The new thought of a treasury of merits (_thesaurus -meritorum_) introduced further changes. It was held that the good deeds -over and above what were needed for their own salvation by the living or -by the saints in heaven, together with the inexhaustible merits of -Christ, were all deposited in a treasury out of which they could be -taken by the pope and given by him to the faithful. They could be added -to the satisfactions actually done by penitents. Thus Satisfactions -became not merely signs of sorrow but actual merits, which freed men -from the need to undergo the temporal pains here and in purgatory which -their sins had rendered them liable to. By an Indulgence merits could be -transferred from the storehouse to those who required them. The change -made in the character of Sorrow made Indulgences all the more necessary -for the indifferent penitent. On the older theory Sorrow (_Contritio_) -had for its one basis love to God; but on the newer theory the -starting-point might be a less worthy king of sorrow (_Attritio_) which -it was held would be changed into the more worthy kind in the Sacrament -of Penance. The conclusion was naturally drawn that a process of -penitence which began with sorrow of the more unworthy kind needed a -larger amount of Satisfactions or penance than what began with -Contrition. Hence for the indifferent Christian, _Attrition_, -_Confession_ and _Indulgence_ became the three heads in the scheme of -the church of the later middle ages for his salvation. The one thing -which satisfied his conscience was the burdensome thing he had to do, -and that was to procure an Indulgence--a matter made increasingly easy -for him as time went on. - - This doctrine of _Attrition_ had not the undivided support of the - theologians of the later medieval church; but it was taught by the - Scotists and was naturally a favourite theme with the sellers of - Indulgences. Nor were all theologians at one upon the whole theory of - Indulgences. The majority of the best theologians held that - Indulgences had nothing to do with the pardoning of guilt, but only - with freeing from temporal penalties in this life or in purgatory. But - the common people did not discriminate, and believed that when they - bought an Indulgence they were purchasing pardon from sin; and Luther - placed himself in the position of the ordinary Christian uninstructed - in the niceties of theological distinctions. - - His _Ninety-five Theses_ made six different assertions about - Indulgences and their efficacy:-- - - i. An Indulgence is and can only be the remission of a merely - ecclesiastical penalty; the church can remit what the church has - imposed; it cannot remit what God has imposed. - - ii. An Indulgence can never remit guilt; the pope himself cannot do - such a thing; God has kept that in His own hand. - - iii. It cannot remit the divine punishment for sin; that also is in - the hands of God alone. - - iv. It can have no efficacy for souls in Purgatory; penalties imposed - by the church can only refer to the living; death dissolves them; what - the pope can do for souls in Purgatory is by prayer, not by - jurisdiction or the power of the keys. - - v. The Christian who has true repentance has already received pardon - from God altogether apart from an Indulgence, and does not need one; - Christ demands this true repentance from every one. - - vi. The Treasury of Merits has never been properly defined; it is hard - to say what it is, and it is not properly understood by the people; it - cannot be the merits of Christ and of His saints, because these act of - themselves and quite apart from the intervention of the pope; it can - mean nothing more than that the pope, having the power of the keys, - can remit ecclesiastical penalties imposed by the church; the true - Treasure-house of merits is the Holy Ghost of the grace and glory of - God. - -The unexpected effect of the _Theses_ was that the sale of Indulgences -began to decline rapidly, and the archbishop of Mainz, disappointed in -his hopes of revenue, sent a copy to Rome. The pope thinking that the -whole dispute was a monkish quarrel, contented himself with asking the -general of the Augustinian Eremites to keep his monks quiet. This was -not easy. Tetzel, in conjunction with a friend, Conrad Wimpina, had -published a set of counter-theses. John Mayr of Eck, a noted -controversialist and professor of theology in the university of -Ingolstadt, scented the Hussite heresy in the _Theses_, and denounced -them in a tract entitled _Obelisks_. Luther at once answered in his -_Asterisks_. A controversy raged in Germany. Meanwhile, at Rome, -Silvester Mazzolini of Prierio, a Dominican monk and Inquisitor, had -been studying the _Theses_, was profoundly dissatisfied with them, and -wrote a _Dialogue about the Power of the Pope, against the presumptuous -conclusions of Martin Luther_. This book reached Germany about the -middle of January 1518, and increased the tumult. - -Luther's friends had been provokingly silent about the _Theses_; but in -April 1518, at the annual chapter of the Augustinian Eremites held at -Heidelberg, Luther heard his positions temperately discussed, and found -somewhat to his astonishment that his views were not acceptable to all -his fellow monks. On his return to Wittenberg he began an answer to his -opponents. He carefully considered his positions, found them -unassailable, and published his _Resolutions_, the most carefully -written of all his works. The book practically discarded all the ideas -and practices concerning Indulgences which had come into the medieval -church since the beginning of the 13th century, and all the ingenious -explanations of the scholastic theologians from Bonaventura and Thomas -Aquinas downwards. The effect of the controversy was a great decrease in -the sale of Indulgences in Germany, and the Papal Curia saw with alarm a -prolific source of revenue decaying. It was felt that Luther must be -silenced. He was accordingly summoned to Rome. To obey would have meant -death; to refuse in his own name would have been contumacy. But the -peremptory summons could be construed as an attack on the university of -Wittenberg, and both the elector of Saxony and the emperor Maximilian so -regarded it. The result was that Pope Leo cancelled the summons, and it -was arranged that Luther should appear before the papal Legate to the -German Diet, Thomas de Vio, Cardinal Cajedtan, at Augsburg. The -interview was not very successful. At its conclusion Luther wrote two -appeals--one from the pope ill-informed to the pope well-informed, and -the other to a General Council. True to his habit of taking the German -people into his confidence, he wrote an account of his interview with -the Legate, and published it under the title of the _Acta Augustana_. - -The publication greatly increased the sympathy of almost all classes in -Germany for Luther. They saw in him a pious man, an esteemed professor, -who had done nothing but propose a discussion on the notoriously -intricate subject of Indulgences, peremptorily ordered to recant and to -remain silent. The elector Frederick shared the common feelings and -resolved to defend the man who had made his university so famous. His -action compelled the Roman Curia to pause. Germany was on the eve, it -was believed, of an election of a king of the Romans; it was possible -that an imperial election was not far distant; Frederick was too -important a personage to offend. So the condemnation by the -Cardinal-Legate was withdrawn for the time, and the pope resolved to -deal with the matter otherwise. He selected one of his chamberlains, -Charles von Miltitz, the elector's private agent at Rome, and -commissioned him to deal with the matter as he best could. Miltitz -received the "golden rose" to give to Frederick, and was furnished with -several letters in all of which the pope spoke of Luther as a "child of -the devil." His holiness had probably forgotten the fact when he -addressed Luther some months later as "his dear son." - -When Miltitz arrived in Germany he discovered that the movement was much -more important than the Roman Curia had imagined. He had not to deal -with the opposition of a recalcitrant monk, but with the awakening of a -nation. He resolved to meet with Tetzel and with Luther privately before -he produced his credentials. Tetzel he could not see; the man was afraid -to leave his convent; but he had lengthy interviews with Luther in the -house of Spalatin the chaplain and private secretary of the elector -Frederick. There he disowned the sermons of the pardon-sellers, let it -be seen that he did not approve of the action of the Legate, and so -prevailed with Luther that the latter promised to write a submissive -letter to the pope, to exhort people to reverence the Roman See, to say -that Indulgences were useful to remit canonical penances, and to promise -to write no more on the matter unless he happened to be attacked. Luther -did all this. A reconciliation might have taken place had the Roman -Curia supported Miltitz. But the Curia did not support Miltitz, and -placed more faith in Eck, who was eager to extinguish Luther in a public -discussion. - -Luther had been spending the time between his interview with the Legate -at Augsburg (Oct. 1518) and the Leipzig Disputation (June 1519) in -severe and disquieting studies. He had found that all his opponents had -pursued one line of argument: the power to issue an Indulgence is simply -one case of the universal papal jurisdiction; Indulgences are what the -pope proclaims them to be, and to attack them is to attack the power of -the pope; the pope represents the Roman church, which is actually the -universal church, and to oppose the pope is to defy the whole church of -Christ; whoever attacks such a long-established system as that of -Indulgences is a heretic. Such was the argument. Luther felt himself -confronted with the pope's absolute supremacy in all ecclesiastical -matters. It was a plea whose full force he felt. The papal supremacy was -one of his oldest inherited beliefs. He re-examined his convictions -about justifying faith and whether they did lead to his declarations -about Indulgences. He could come to no other conclusion. It then became -necessary to examine the papal claims. He set himself to study the -Decretals, and to his amazement and indignation he found that they were -full of frauds. It is hard to say whether the discovery brought him more -joy or more grief. His letters show him half-exultant and -half-terrified. While he was in this state of mind he received Eck's -challenge to dispute with him at Leipzig on the papal supremacy. - -This Leipzig Disputation was perhaps the most important point in -Luther's career. He met Eck in June 1519. It soon appeared that the -intention of that practised debater was to force Luther into some -admission which would justify opponents in accusing him of holding the -opinions of Huss, who had been condemned by the great German Council of -Constance. In this he was eminently successful. Eck left Leipzig -triumphant, and Luther returned to Wittenberg much depressed. As usual -he wrote out and published an account of the Disputation, which was an -appeal to his fellow Germans. The result surpassed his expectations. The -Disputation made him see that his protest against the abuses of -Indulgences was no criticism of an excrescence on the medieval -ecclesiastical system, but an attack on its centre of existence. He saw -that he stood for the spiritual priesthood of all believers and that -medievalism in religion meant that man cannot approach God without a -priestly mediator. The people also saw his position and rallied round -him; and the Humanists discerned in him a champion against the old -intolerance against which they had been revolting in vain. Luther's -depression fled. Sermons, pamphlets, letters from his tireless pen -flooded the land, and Luther began to be the leader of a German revolt -against Rome. - -The year 1520 saw the publication of his three most important works, all -written at a time when he was fully convinced that he had broken for -ever with Rome. They were, _On the Liberty of a Christian Man_, _An -Address to the Nobility of the German Nation_, and _On the Babylonian -Captivity of the Church of God_--the three primary treatises, as they -have been called. - -Meanwhile at Rome the pope had entrusted Eck and Prierias with the -preparation of a bull (_Exurge Domine_) against Luther--a bull which -followed the line of Eck's charges at Leipzig. The reformer had been -expecting it ever since the Disputation at Leipzig, and had resolved to -answer it by one striking act which would impress the imagination of -every man. He posted up a notice inviting the Wittenberg students to -witness the burning of the bull (10th of December 1520). Rome had shot -its last ecclesiastical bolt. Nothing remained but an appeal to the -secular power, and this was at once prepared. - -The emperor Maximilian had died suddenly (12th January 1519), and for -long Germany was disturbed with intrigues about the succession--the -papal policy being specially tortuous. The widely expressed desire for a -German emperor secured the unanimous election of Charles, the grandson -of Maximilian and the king of Spain. Never were a people more mistaken -and disappointed. The veins of Charles were full of German blood, but he -was his mother's son. It was the Spaniard, not the German, who faced -Luther at Worms. - -Charles was crowned at Aachen, 23rd of October 1520, and opened his -first German diet at Worms, 22nd of January 1521. The pope had selected -two envoys to wait on the young emperor, one of them, Jerome Aleander, -being specially appointed to secure the outlawry of Luther. The agenda -of the diet contained many things seriously affecting all Germany, but -the one problem which every one was thinking about was how Luther would -be dealt with. The Electoral College was divided. The archbishop of -Cologne, the elector of Brandenburg and his brother the archbishop of -Mainz were for instant outlawry, while the elector of Saxony, who was -resolved to protect Luther, had great influence with the archbishop of -Trier and the Count Palatine of the Rhine. - -Aleander had no difficulty in persuading Charles, while both were still -in the Netherlands, to put Luther under the ban within his hereditary -dominions, and the papal nuncio expected that the decree would be -extended to the whole German empire. But Charles at first refused to -deal summarily with Luther so far as Germany was concerned. The emperor -even wrote to the elector of Saxony, asking him to bring Luther with him -to the diet for examination. Gradually he came to think that Luther -might be condemned without appearing. The members of the diet were slow -to come to any conclusion. At last they made up their minds, and -presented a memorial to the emperor (19th of February 1521) in which -they reminded him that no imperial edict could be published against -Luther without their sanction, and proposed that he should be invited to -Worms under a safe-conduct and be there examined. They also suggested -that Luther should be heard upon the papal claims, and ended by asking -the emperor to deliver Germany from the papal tyranny. The emperor -agreed to summon Luther under a safe-conduct, and that he should be -heard; but he refused to mix his case with that of grievances against -Rome. He had no sooner made the promise than he seems to have repented -it. He saw no need for Luther's appearance. He tried to get him -condemned unheard. An edict against Luther had been drafted (15th of -February) which the diet refused to sanction. A few days later a second -edict was drafted which ordered the burning of Luther's books. The diet -again objected. Finally four days after the safe-conduct had been -despatched the emperor revised this second edict, limited it to the -seizure of Luther's books, and published it on his own authority without -consulting the diet (10th March). After Luther had begun his journey, -this edict was posted up along his route in order to intimidate him; -other means were taken to make him turn aside from Worms; but he was -resolved to go there and nothing daunted him. He reached the town (16th -April) and was met by encouraging crowds. He was summoned to appear -before the diet on the 17th and measures were taken to prevent him doing -more than answering definite questions put to him. He was asked whether -certain books had been written by him and whether he was prepared to -maintain or to abjure what he had written. He asked time to prepare an -answer to the second question. The diet was anxious to hear Luther, if -the emperor was not, and his request was granted. He thus defeated the -plot to keep him silent. On the 18th he made his second appearance and -delivered the speech, which electrified his audience. At the close he -was threatened by Spaniards in the diet. The Germans ringed him round, -and, with their hands raised high in the fashion of a landsknecht who -had struck a successful blow, passed out into the street and escorted -him to his lodgings. Next day (April 19th) the emperor proposed to place -Luther under the ban of the empire and read to the assembly a brief -statement of his own views. The diet objected, and asked for a -conference between Luther and some selected members. Conferences were -held, but came to nothing. No compromise was possible between the -declaration that man's conscience could only be bound by the Word of God -and the emperor's belief in the infallibility of a general council. The -commission had to report that its efforts had failed. Luther was ordered -to leave Worms and to return to Wittenberg. His safe-conduct was to -expire twenty-one days after the 16th of April. Then he was liable to be -seized and put to death as a pestilent heretic. There only remained to -draft and publish the edict containing the ban. Days passed and it did -not appear. Suddenly the startling news reached Worms that Luther had -disappeared, no one knew where. It was reported that his body had been -found in a silver-mine pierced with a dagger. The news flew over Germany -and beyond it that he had been slain by papal emissaries. At Worms the -indignation of the populace was intense. The public buildings were -placarded during the night with an intimation that four hundred knights -had sworn not to leave Luther unavenged, and the ominous words -_Bundschuh, Bundschuh, Bundschuh_ (the watchword of peasant revolts) -were written at the foot. The combination suggested an alliance between -the lesser knights and the peasants, dreaded by all the ruling classes. -The true story of Luther's disappearance was not known until long -afterwards. After the failure of the conference the elector of Saxony -had commissioned two of the councillors to convey Luther to a place of -safety without telling him where it was. Many weeks elapsed before -Frederick himself learned that Luther was safe in his own castle of the -Wartburg. The disappearance did not mean that Luther had ceased to be a -leader of men; but it marked the beginning of an organized national -opposition to Rome. - -It was not till the 25th of May that the edict against Luther was -presented to a small number of members of the diet, after the elector of -Saxony and many important members had left Worms. It threatened all -Luther's sympathisers with extermination, and practically proclaimed an -Albigensian war in Germany. But few public documents prepared with so -much care have proved so futile. The latter half of 1521 saw the silent -spread of Lutheran opinions all over Germany. This was not unaccompanied -with dangers. Every movement for reform carries within it the seeds of -revolution, and Luther's was no exception to the rule. - -The revolution began in Wittenberg during Luther's seclusion in the -Wartburg. Andrew Boden of Carlstadt, a colleague of Luther's in the -university of Wittenberg, was strongly impressed with the contradiction -which he believed to exist between evangelical teaching and the usages -of medieval ecclesiastical life. He denounced monastic vows, a -distinctive dress for the clergy, the thought of a propitiatory mass, -and the presence of images and pictures in the churches. Zwilling, a -young Augustinian Eremite, added his fiery denunciations. His preaching -stirred the commonalty. Turbulent crowds invaded two of the churches and -rioted inside. The excitement of the people was increased by the arrival -of three men known in history as the _Zwickau prophets_. Melanchthon -felt himself powerless to restrain the tumult. The magistrates of the -town were won over and issued an ordinance which attempted to express in -legislation the new evangelical ideas. Duke George of Saxony, a resolute -opponent of the Reformation, threatened to make the diet interfere. -Luther became alarmed, and, not without a private hint from the elector -of Saxony,[1] left his retreat and appeared among his townsmen. His -presence and exertions restored order, and the conservative reformation -resumed its quiet course. From this time onwards to the outbreak of the -Peasants' War (1525) Luther was the real leader of the German nation, -and everything seemed to promise a gradual reformation without tumult. - -The Peasants' War ended this anticipation. From one point of view this -insurrection was simply the last, the most wide-spreading and the most -disastrous of these revolts, which had been almost chronic in Germany -during the later decades of the 15th and earlier years of the 16th -century and which had been almost continuous between 1503 and 1517. All -the social and economic causes which produced them were increasingly -active in 1524 and 1525. But it is undoubted that the religious revolt -intensified the rebellion of the lower classes. Luther's voice awoke -echoes he never dreamt of. The times were ripe for revolution, and the -message which spoke of a religious democracy could not fail to suggest -the social democracy also. In his appeal to the _Nobility of the German -Nation_ he had stated with severe precision the causes of social -discontent. Himself a peasant's son and acquainted with the grievances -under which the peasant lived, he had at various times formulated most -of the demands which afterwards figured conspicuously in the Twelve -Articles. The insurgents had good cause to regard him as a sympathiser. -But Luther, rightly or wrongly, believed that of the two ways in which -wrongs can be set right--the way of war and the path of peace--the -latter is the only sure road in the long run. He did his best therefore -to prevent the rising and risked his life among the infuriated peasants -as readily as when he stood before the emperor and the diet. When the -rebellion was at its height and Thomas Munzer had sent forth fiery -proclamations urging the peasantry "not to let the blood cool on their -swords," Luther issued the pamphlet, which casts a stain on his whole -life, in which he hounds on the ruling classes to suppress the -insurgents with all violence. In the end the rebellion, formidable as it -seemed for a few months, was crushed, and a heavier yoke was laid on the -shoulders of the unfortunate peasants. - -This year, 1525, saw the parting of the ways in the movement for reform. -It ceased to be national and became ecclesiastical. It divided into -three separate parts. One, guided by Luther himself, ended, after a long -struggle with pope and emperor, in the establishment of evangelical -churches under the rule of the secular authorities of the territories -which adopted the Lutheran Reformation. Another, remaining true to the -principles, doctrines, usages and hierarchy of the medieval church, -dreamt only of a purification of moral life, and saw its end realised in -the reforms of the council of Trent. The third, gathering together the -more revolutionary impulses, expanded into that complex movement called -Anabaptism--which spread over western Europe from England to Poland and -from Scandinavia to northern Italy, and endured a long and sanguinary -persecution at the hands of the civil authorities in most European -countries. Its strength and popularity, especially among the artizan -classes, have been very much underrated by most historians. - -During the storm of the Peasants' War (13th of June 1525) Luther married -Catherine von Bora, the daughter of a noble but impoverished family -belonging to Meissen. She had been a Cistercian nun in the convent of -Nimtzch near Grimma--a convent reserved for ladies of noble birth. -Luther's writings, circulating through Saxony, had penetrated the -convent walls and had convinced most of the inmates of the unlawfulness -of monastic vows. Catherine and eight companions resolved to escape. -Their relatives refused to aid them, and they applied to Luther. He -entrusted the business to Leonhard Koppe of Torgau, and the rescue was -safely carried out (4th of April 1523). The rescued nuns found places of -refuge in the families of Wittenberg burghers. The elector John of -Saxony (who had succeeded his brother Frederick) gave Luther the house -which had served as the Augustinian Convent. The family gathered in this -three-storeyed building, with its back windows looking over the Elbe and -its front door opening on a great garden, was latterly Luther and his -wife, their three sons and two daughters, Magdelena von Bora, -Catherine's aunt, two orphan nieces and a grandniece. At the beginning -of his married life Luther must have been in straitened circumstances. -He married a portionless nun. On to 1532 his salary was two hundred -gulden annually (about L160 in present money); after 1532 the stipend -was increased to L240 with various payments in kind--corn, wood, malt, -wine, &c.--which meant a great deal more. The town added occasional -gifts to enable Luther to entertain the great personages who came to -consult him frequently. Princes made him presents in money. This enabled -Luther to purchase from his wife's brother the small estate of Zulsdorf. -Catherine, too, was an excellent house-wife. She made the long-neglected -garden profitable; kept pigs and poultry; rented other gardens; stocked -a fishpond; farmed in a small way; and had her house full of boarders. -Luther had a high opinion of her intelligence; she took rank among those -consulted on all important occasions; in one letter to her, seldom -quoted, he gives the fairest statement he ever made about the views of -Zwingli on the Sacrament of the Supper. - -The diet of Speyer (1526) saw Germany divided into a Protestant and a -Romanist party. After much debate a compromise was arrived at, which -foreshadowed the religious peace of Augsburg of 1555. It was resolved -that the Word of God should be preached without disturbance, that -indemnity should be given for past offences against the edict of Worms, -and that meanwhile each state should live religiously as it hoped to -answer for its conduct to God and the emperor. The Lutherans interpreted -this to mean the right to frame ecclesiastical regulations for various -principalities and to make changes in public worship. Luther busied -himself in simplifying the service, in giving advice, anxiously sought -for, about the best modes of organising ecclesiastical affairs. In the -diet held at Speyer in 1529 a compact Roman Catholic majority faced a -weak Lutheran minority. The emperor declared through his commissioners -that he abolished "by his imperial and absolute authority" the clause in -the ordinance of 1526 on which the Lutherans had relied when they began -to organize their territorial churches. The majority of the diet -supported the emperor in this, and further proceeded to decree that no -ecclesiastical body was to be deprived of its revenues or authority. -This meant that throughout all Germany medieval ecclesiastical rule was -to be upheld, and that none of the revenues of the medieval church could -be appropriated for Protestant uses. On this a portion of the Protestant -minority drafted a legal protest, in which the signers declared that -they meant to abide by the decision of the diet of 1526 and refused to -be bound by that of 1529. From this protest came the name _Protestant_. - -A minority in such a case could only maintain their protest if they were -prepared to defend each other by force in case of an attack. Three days -after the protest had been read, many of the protesting cities and -states concluded "a secret and particular treaty," and Philip of Hesse, -the ablest statesman among the Protesters, saw the need for a general -union of all evangelical Christians in the empire. The difficulties in -the way were great. The Saxons and the Swiss, Luther and Zwingli, were -in fierce controversy about the true doctrine of the sacrament of the -Supper. Luther was a patriotic German who was for ever bewailing the -disintegration of the Fatherland; Zwingli was full of plans for -confederations of Swiss cantons with South German cities, which could -not fail to weaken the empire. Luther had but little trust in the -"common man"; Zwingli was a thorough democrat. When Luther thought of -the Swiss reformer he muttered as Archbishop Parker did of John -Knox--"God keep us from such visitations as Knox hath attempted in -Scotland; the people to be orderers of things." Above all Luther had -good grounds for believing that at the conference at Memmingen friends -of Zwingli had helped to organize a Peasants' War and to link the social -revolution to the religious awakening. All these suspicions were in -Luther's mind when he consented very half-heartedly to meet Zwingli at a -conference to be held in Philip of Hesse's castle at Marburg. The debate -proceeded as such debates usually do. Zwingli attacked the weakest part -of Luther's theory--the _ubiquity_ of the body of Christ; and Luther -attacked Zwingli's exegesis of the words of the institution. Neither -sought to bring out their points of agreement. Yet the conference did -good; it showed that the Protestants were agreed on all doctrinal points -but one. If union was for the present impossible, there were hopes for -it in the future. - -In 1530 the emperor Charles, resolved to crush the Reformation, himself -presided at the diet. The Protestant divisions were manifest. Three -separate confessions were presented to the emperor--one from Zwingli, -one by the theologians of the four cities of Strassbourg, Constance, -Lindau and Memmingen (_Confessio Tetrapolitana_), and the _Augsburg -Confession_, the future symbol of the Lutheran church. The third was the -most important, and the emperor seriously set himself to see whether it -might not be made the basis of a compromise. He found that -reconciliation was hopeless. Thereupon the diet resolved that the edict -of Worms was to be enforced against Luther and his partizans; that the -ecclesiastical jurisdictions were to be preserved; and that all the -church property taken possession of by the Lutheran princes was to be -restored; and that in all cases of dispute the last court of appeal was -to be the Imperial Court of Appeals. The last provision meant that the -growing Protestantism was to be fought by harrassing litigation--_nicht -fechten sondern rechten_ was the phrase. - -Luther was not present at the diet nor at the negotiations. He was still -an outlaw according to imperial ideas. Melanchthon took his place as -leader. - -The decision of the diet compelled the Protestant princes to face the -new and alarming situation. They met in conference in mid-winter at the -little town of Schmalkald, and laid the foundations of what became the -powerful Schmalkald League, which effectually protected the Protestants -of Germany until it was broken up by the intrigues of the imperial -party. From the time of the formation of this league, Luther retired -gradually from the forefront of a reformation movement which had become -largely political, and busied himself with reforms in public worship and -suggestions for an organization of the polity of the Evangelical church. -In this work his natural conservatism is apparent, and he contented -himself with such changes as would make room for the action of -evangelical principles. He disclaimed the right of suggesting a common -order of worship or a uniform ecclesiastical polity; and Lutheran ritual -and polity, while presenting common features, did not follow one common -use. It may be said generally that while Luther insisted on a service in -the vernacular, including the singing of German hymns, he considered it -best to retain most of the ceremonies, the vestments and the uses of -lights on the altar, which had existed in the unreformed church, while -he was careful to explain that their retention might be dispensed with -if thought necessary. To the popular mind the great distinction between -the Lutheran and the medieval church service, besides the use of the -vernacular and the supreme place assigned to preaching, was that the -people partook of the cup in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; and the -Lutheran service became popularly distinguished from the Reformed -because it retained, while the Reformed did away with, most of the -medieval ceremonies and vestments (see LUTHERANS). The variations in the -details of the polity of the Lutheran churches were very numerous, but -they all preserved the same distinctive principles. Two conceptions lay -at the basis--the thought of the spiritual priesthood of all believers -and the belief that the state was a divine ordinance, that the -magistracy might represent the whole body of believers and that -discipline and administration might be exercised through courts -constituted somewhat like the consistorial courts of the medieval -bishops, their members being appointed by the magistracy. - -The last years of Luther's life were spent in incessant labour disturbed -by almost continuous ill-health. He was occupied in trying to unite -firmly together the whole evangelical movement; he laboured to give his -countrymen a good system of schools; he was on the watch to defeat any -attempt of the Roman Curia to regain its hold over Germany; and he was -the confidential adviser of a large number of the evangelical princes. -Luther's intimacy with his own elector, first John, then John Frederick, -helped to give him the place accorded to him by the princes. The chiefs -of the Houses of Anhalt and Luneburg, Duke Henry of Saxony, Joachim II. -of Brandenburg, Albert of Brandenburg and the counts of Mansfeld, were -among Luther's most devoted supporters and most frequently sought his -advice. Princely correspondence was not always pleasant. It took its -most disagreeable form when Philip of Hesse besieged Luther with -requests to give his sanction to taking a second wife while his first -was still alive. Luther's weakness brought the second great blot on his -career. The document sanctioning the bigamy of the landgrave was signed -by Martin Bucer, Luther and Melanchthon, and is a humiliating paper. It -may be thus summarized. According to the original commandment of God, -marriage is between one man and one woman, and this original precept has -been confirmed by our Lord; but sin brought it about that first Lamech, -then the heathen, and then Abraham, took more than one wife, and this -was permitted under the law. We are now living under the Gospel, which -does not give prescribed rules for the external life and has not -expressly prohibited bigamy. The law of the land expresses the original -commandment of God, and the plain duty of the pastorate is to denounce -bigamy. Nevertheless, the pastorate, in single cases of the direst need -and to prevent worse, may sanction bigamy in a purely exceptional way. -Such a bigamous marriage is a true marriage in the sight of God (the -necessity being proved), but it is not a true marriage in the eye of -public law and custom. Such a marriage and the dispensation for it ought -to be kept secret; if it is made known, the dispensation becomes _eo -ipso_ invalid and the marriage is mere concubinage. The principle which -underlies this extraordinary paper is probably the conception that the -Protestant church has the same dispensing power which the medieval -church claimed, but that it was to be exercised altogether apart from -fees of any kind. - -In his later years Luther became more tolerant on the sacramental -question which divided him from the South German cities, although he -never departed from his strong opposition to the supposed views of -Zwingli himself. He consented to a conference, which, as he was too ill -to leave home, met at Wittenberg (May-June 1536). After prolonged -discussion the differences were narrowed to one point--the presence of -the body of Christ _extended in space_ in the sacrament of the Supper. -It was agreed in the _Wittenberg Concord_ to leave this an open -question. Thus North and South Germany were united. It is possible that -had Luther lived longer his followers might have been united with the -Swiss. He repeatedly expressed an admiration for Calvin's writings on -the subject of the sacrament; and Melanchthon believed that if the Swiss -accepted Calvin's theory of the Supper, the Wittenberg Concord could be -extended to include them. But the _Consensus Tigurinus_, which dates the -adhesion of the Swiss to the views of Calvin, was not signed until 1549, -when Luther was already dead. - -Year by year Luther had been growing weaker, his attacks of illness more -frequent and his bodily pains more continuous. Despite the entreaties -of wife and elector he resolved to do what he could to end some trifling -dispute about inheritance which threatened the peace of the House of -Mansfeld. He left Wittenberg in bitterly cold weather on the 23rd of -January 1546, and the journey was tedious and hazardous. He was accepted -as arbiter and his decision brought an end to the strife. He preached in -Eisleben (February 14) with all his old fervour; but suddenly said -quietly: "This and much more is to be said about the Gospel; but I am -too weak and we will close here." These were his last words in the -pulpit. On the 16th and 17th the deeds of reconciliation were signed and -Luther's work was done. The end came swiftly. He was very ill on the -evening of the 17th; he died on the early morning of the 18th of -February 1546 in his sixty-third year. - -The elector of Saxony and Luther's family resolved that he must be -buried at Wittenberg, and on the 20th the funeral procession began its -long march. The counts of Mansfeld, the magistrates of the city and all -the burghers of Eisleben accompanied the coffin to the gates of their -town. A company of fifty light-armed troops commanded by the young -counts of Mansfeld headed the procession and went with it all the way to -Wittenberg. The following was temporarily swelled as it passed through -villages and towns. Delegates from the elector of Saxony met it as it -crossed the boundaries of the principality. Luther was laid to rest in -the Castle church on whose door he had nailed the _theses_ which had -kindled the great conflagration. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) For Luther's life as a whole: Melanchthon, - "Historia de vita et actis Lutheri" (Wittenberg, 1545), in the _Corpus - Reformatorum_, vi.; Mathesius, _Historien von ... Martini Lutheri, - Anfang, Lehre, Leben und Sterben_ (Prague, 1896); Myconius, _Historia - Reformationis 1517-1542_ (Leipzig, 1718); Ratzeberger, _Geschichte - uber Luther und seine Zeit_ (Jena, 1850); Wrampelmeyer, _Tagebuch uber - Dr Martin Luther gefuhrt von Dr Conrad Cordatus, 1537_ (Halle, 1885); - Forstemann, _Neues Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der evangelischen - Kirchenreformation_ (Hamburg, 1842); Kolde, _Analecta Lutherana_ - (Gotha, 1883); G. Losche, _Analecta Lutherana et Melanchthoniana_ - (Gotha, 1892); G. Losche, _Vollstandige Reformations-Acta und - Documenta_ (Leipzig, 1720-1729); Enders, _Dr Martin Luther's - Briefwechsel_ (5 vols., Frankfurt, 1884-1893); J. Cochlaeus (Rom. - Cath.), _Commentarius de actis et scriptis M. Lutheri, &c_. (St Victor - prope Moguntium). See also J. Kostlin, _Martin Luther, sein Leben und - seine Schriften_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1889); Th. Kolde, _Martin Luther, - Eine Biographie_ (2 vols., Gotha, 1884-1893); A. Hausrath, _Luther's - Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1904); Lindsay, _Luther and the German - Reformation_ (Edinburgh, 1900); _Cambridge Modern History_, ii. - (Cambridge, 1903); _History of the Reformation_, i. (Edinburgh, 1906). - - (b) For special incidents: The _Theses_ and their publication: W. - Kohler, _Luthers 95 Theses sammt seinen Resolutionen, den - Gegenschriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, Eck und Prierias, und den Antworten - Luthers darauf_ (Leipzig, 1903); Emil Reich, _Select Documents - illustrating Medieval and Modern History_ (London, 1905); The Leipzig - Disputation: Seidemann, _Die Leipziger Disputation im Jahre 1519_ - (Dresden, 1843); Luther before the Diet of Worms: _Deutsche - Reichstagsakten unter Kaiser Karl V_. (Gotha, 1893-1901), ii.; The - Marburg Colloquy; Schirrmacher, _Briefe und Acten zu der Geschichte - des Religionsgespraches zu Marburg, 1529, und des Reichstages zu - Augsburg 1530_ (Gotha, 1876); Hospinian, _Historia Sacramentaria_, ii. - 123b-126b; Ehrard, _Das Dogma vom heiligen Abendmahl und seine - Geschichte_, ii. (Frankfurt a M., 1846); The Augsburg Confession: - Schaff, _The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches_ (London, - 1877), _History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (London, 1877). - (T. M. L.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Enders, _Dr Martin Luther's Briefwechsel_, iii. 292-295; von - Bezold, _Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_ xx. 186 sqq.; Barge, - _Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt_, i. 432 sqq. - - - - -LUTHERANS, the general title given to those Christians who have adopted -the principles of Martin Luther in his opposition to the Roman Church, -to the followers of Calvin, and to the sectaries of the times of the -Reformation. Their distinctive name is the _Evangelical_, as opposed to -the _Reformed_ church. Their dogmatic symbols are usually said to -include nine separate creeds which together form the _Book of Concord_ -(_Liber Concordiae_). Three belong to the Early Christian church--the -_Apostles' Creed_, the _Nicene Creed_ (in its Western form, i.e. with -the _filioque_), and the so-called _Athanasian Creed_; six come from the -16th century--the _Augsburg Confession_, the _Apology for the Augsburg -Confession_, the _Schmalkald Articles_, Luther's two _Catechisms_, and -the _Form of Concord_. But only the three early creeds and the Augsburg -Confession are recognized by all Lutherans. Luther's Catechisms, -especially the shorter of the two, have been almost universally -accepted, but the Form of Concord was and is expressly rejected by many -Lutheran churches. The Augsburg Confession and Luther's Short Catechism -may therefore be said to contain the distinctive principles which all -Lutherans are bound to maintain, but, as the principal controversies of -the Lutheran church all arose after the publication of the Augsburg -Confession and among those who had accepted it, it does not contain all -that is distinctively Lutheran. Its universal acceptance is perhaps due -to the fact that it exists in two forms (the _variata_ and the -_invariata_) which vary slightly in the way in which they state the -doctrine of the sacrament of the Supper. The _variata_ edition was -signed by Calvin, in the meaning, he said, of its author Melanchthon. - -After Luther's death the more rigid Lutherans declared it to be their -duty to preserve the _status religionis in Germania per Lutherum -instauratus_, and to watch over the _depositum Jesu Christi_ which he -had committed to their charge. As Luther was a much greater preacher -than a systematic thinker, it was not easy to say exactly what this -deposit was, and controversies resulted among the Lutheran theologians -of the 16th century. The Antinomian controversy was the earliest -(1537-1560). It arose from differences about the precise meaning of the -word "law" in Luther's distinction between law and gospel. Luther -limited the meaning of the word to mean a definite command accompanied -by threats, which counts on terror to produce obedience. He declared -that Christ was not under the dominion of the law in this sense of the -word, and that believers enter the Christian life only when they -transcend a rule of life which counts on selfish motives for obedience. -But law may mean ethical rule, and the Antinomians so understood it, and -interpreted Luther's declaration to mean that believers are not under -the dominion of the moral law. The controversy disturbed the Lutheran -church for more than twenty years. - -The Arminian controversy in the Reformed church, the Jansenist -controversy in the Roman Catholic church, had their parallel in three -separate disputes among the Lutherans lasting from 1550 to 1580. (1) -George Major, discussing the relation of good works to conversion, -declared that such works were both useful and necessary to holiness. He -was attacked by Flacius and Amsdorf, and after a long controversy, full -of ambiguities and lacking in the exhibition of guiding principles, he -was condemned because his statement savoured of Pelagianism. (2) The -same problem took a new form in the Synergist controversy, which -discussed the first impulse in conversion. One party taught that while -the first impulse must come from the Holy Spirit the work might be -compared to reviving a man _apparently_ dead. It was answered that the -sinner was _really_ dead, and that the work of the Spirit was to give an -actually new life. The latter assertion was generally approved of. (3) -Then a fresh controversy was started by the assertion that sin was part -of the substance of man in his fallen condition. It was answered that -sin had not totally destroyed man's ethical nature, and that grace -changed what was morally insensitive into what was morally sensitive, so -that there could be a co-operation between God's grace and man's will. - -The controversy raised by Andrew Osiander was more important. He felt -that Luther had omitted to make adequate answer to an important -practical question, how Christ's death on the cross could be brought -into such actual connexion with every individual believer as to be the -ground of his actual justification. The medieval church had spanned the -centuries by supposing that Christ's death was continuous down through -the age in the sacrifice of the Mass; Protestant theology had nothing -equivalent. He proposed to supply the lack by the theory that -justification is a real work done in the individual by the same Christ -who died so many centuries ago. Redemption, he said, was the result of -the historical work of Christ; but justification was the work of the -living risen Christ, dwelling within the believer and daily influencing -him. Osiander's theory did not win much support, but it was the -starting-point of two separate doctrines. In the Lutheran church, -Striegel taught that the principal effect of Christ's work on the cross -was to change the attitude of God towards the whole human race, and -that, in consequence, when men come into being and have faith, they can -take advantage of the change of attitude effected by the past historical -work of Christ. The Reformed church, on the other hand, constructed -their special doctrine of the limited reference in the atonement. - -The other controversies concerned mainly the doctrine of the sacrament -of the Supper, and Luther's theory of Consubstantiation. This required a -doctrine of _Ubiquity_, or the omnipresence of the body of Christ -extended in space, and therefore of its presence in the communion -elements. Calvin had taught that the true way to regard substance was to -think of its power (_vis_), and that the presence of a substance was the -immediate application of its power. The presence of the body of Christ -in the sacramental elements did not need a presence extended in space. -Melanchthon and many Lutherans accepted the theory of Calvin, and -alleged that Luther before his death had approved of it. Whereupon the -more rigid Lutherans accused their brethren of Crypto-Calvinism, and -began controversies which dealt with that charge and with a defence of -the idea of ubiquity. - -The university of Jena, led by Matthias Flacius, was the headquarters of -the stricter Lutherans, while Wittenberg and Leipzig were the centres of -the Philippists or followers of Melanchthon. Conferences only increased -the differences. The Lutheran church seemed in danger of falling to -pieces. This alarmed both parties. New conferences were held and various -articles of agreement were proposed, the most notable being the _Torgau -Book_ (1576). In the end, the greater proportion adopted the _Book of -Concord_ (1577), drafted chiefly by Jacob Andreae of Tubingen, Martin -Chemnitz of Brunswick and Nicolas Selnecker of Leipzig. Its recognition -was mainly due to the efforts of Augustus, elector of Saxony. This _Book -of Concord_ was accepted by the Lutheran churches of Sweden and of -Hungary in 1593 and 1597; but it was rejected by the Lutheran churches -of Denmark, of Hesse, of Anhalt, of Pomerania and of several of the -imperial cities. It was at first adopted and then rejected by Brunswick, -the Palatinate and Brandenburg. The churches within Germany which -refused the _Book of Concord_ became for the most part Calvinistic or -Reformed. They published, as was the fashion among the Reformed -churches, separate creeds for themselves, but almost all accepted the -_Heidelberg Catechism_. These differences in the German Protestant -churches of the second half of the 16th century are reflected in the -great American Lutheran church. The church exists in three separate -organizations. The General Synod of the Evangelical Church of the United -States, organized in 1820, has no other creed than the _Augsburg -Confession_, so liberally interpreted as not to exclude Calvinists. The -Synodical Conference of North America, organized in 1872, compels its -pastors to subscribe to the whole of the nine creeds contained in the -Book of Concord. The General Council, a secession from the General -Synod, was organized in 1867, and accepts the "unaltered" (_invariata_) -_Augsburg Confession_ in its original sense, and the other Lutheran -symbols as explanatory of the Augsburg Confession. - -The divided state of German Protestantism, resulting from these -theological differences, contributed in no small degree to the disasters -of the Thirty Years' War, and various attempts were made to unite the -two confessions. Conferences were held at Leipzig (1631), Thorn (1645), -Cassel (1661); but without success. At length the union of the two -churches was effected by the force of the civil authorities in Prussia -(1817), in Nassau (1817), in Hesse (1823), in Anhalt-Dessau (1827) and -elsewhere. These unions for the most part aimed, not at incorporating -the two churches in doctrine and in worship, but at bringing churches or -congregations professing different confessions under one government and -discipline. They permitted each congregation to use at pleasure the -_Augsburg Confession_ or the _Heidelberg Catechism_. The enforced union -in Prussia was combined with the publication of a new liturgy intended -for common use. This led to secessions from the state church. These -seceders were at first treated with great harshness, but have won their -way to toleration, and form the Lutheran Free churches of Germany. - -The most important of these latter is the Evangelical Lutheran church of -Prussia, sometimes called the Old Lutherans. It came into being in 1817 -and gradually gained the position of a tolerated nonconformist church -(1845 being the date of its complete recognition by the state). At the -1905 census it numbered 51,600 members under 75 pastors. Its affairs are -managed by an _Oberkirchencollegium_, with four ordained and two lay -members. The Evangelical Lutheran Immanuel Synod came into being in -1864, and has a membership of 5300 with 13 ordained pastors. Its -headquarters is Liegnitz. The Independent Evangelical Lutheran church in -the lands of Hesse arose partly on account of the slumbering opposition -to the union of 1823 and more particularly in consequence of an attempt -made at a stricter union in 1874. It has a membership of about 1800. The -_renitente_ church of Lower Hesse has a membership of 2400. The -Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Hanover has a membership of 3050 -under 10 ordained pastors. The Hermannsburg Free Church has a membership -of about 2000 under 2 pastors. The Evangelical Lutheran Community in -Baden has a membership of about 1100 with 2 ordained pastors. The -Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Saxony has a membership of about -3780 with 15 ordained pastors. These free churches exist separate from -the State Evangelical United Church (_Evangelische unirte Landskirche_). - -The general system of ecclesiastical government which prevails among all -Lutheran churches is called the _consistorial_. It admits of great -variety of detail under certain common features of organization. It -arose partly from the makeshift policy of the times of the Reformation, -and partly from Luther's strong belief that the _jus episcopale_ -belonged in the last resort to the civil authorities. It may be most -generally described by saying that the idea was taken from the -consistorial courts through which the medieval bishops managed the -affairs of their dioceses. Instead of the appointments to the membership -of the consistories being made by the bishops, they were made by the -supreme civil authority, whatever that might be. Richter, in his -_Evangelische Kirchenordnungen des 16ten Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols., 1846), -has collected more than one hundred and eight separate ecclesiastical -constitutions, and his collection is confessedly imperfect. The -publication of a complete collection by Emil Sehling was begun in 1902. - -The liturgies of the Lutheran churches exhibit the same diversities in -details as appear in their constitutions. It may be said in general that -while Luther insisted that public worship ought to be conducted in a -language understood by the people, and that all ideas and actions which -were superstitious and obscured the primary truth of the priesthood of -all believers should be expurged, he wished to retain as much as -possible of the public service of the medieval church. The external -features of the medieval churches were retained; but the minor altars, -the _tabernacula_ to contain the Host, and the light permanently burning -before the altar, were done away with. The ecclesiastical year with its -fasts and festivals was retained in large measure. In 1526 Luther -published the _German Mass and order of Divine Service_, which, without -being slavishly copied, served as a model for Lutheran communities. It -retained the altar, vestments and lights, but explained that they were -not essential and might be dispensed with. The peril attending the -misuse of pictures in churches was recognized, but it was believed to be -more than counterbalanced by the instruction given through them when -their presence was not abused. In short Luther contented himself with -setting forth general principles of divine service, leaving them to be -applied as his followers thought best. The consequence was that there is -no uniform Lutheran liturgy. In his celebrated _Codex Liturgicus -Ecclesiae Lutheranae in epitomen redactus_ (Leipzig, 1848), Daniel has -used 98 different liturgies and given specimens to show the differences -which they exhibit. - -The divergences in ritual and organization, the principle underlying all -the various ecclesiastical unions, viz. to combine two different -confessions under one common government, and, resulting from it, the -possibility of changing from one confession to another, have all -combined to free the state churches from any rigid interpretation of -their theological formulas. A liberal and a conservative theology -(rationalist and orthodox) exist side by side within the churches, and -while the latter clings to the theology of the 16th century, the former -ventures to raise doubts about the truth of such a common and simple -standard as the Apostles' Creed. The extreme divergence in doctrinal -position is fostered by the fact that the theology taught in the -universities is in a great measure divorced from the practical religious -life of the people, and the theological opinions uttered in the -theological literature of the country cannot be held to express the -thoughts of the members of the churches. In each state the sovereign is -still held to be the _summus episcopus_. He appoints a minister of -public worship, and through him nominates the members of the governing -body, the _Oberkirchenrath_ or _Consistorium_ or _Directorium_. This -council deals with the property, patronage and all other ecclesiastical -matters. But each parish elects its own council for parochial affairs, -which has a legal status and deals with such matters as the -ecclesiastical assessments. Delegates from these parish councils form -the _Landessynode_. In cases that call for consultation together, the -_Consistorium_ and the Synod appoint committees to confer. In -Alsace-Lorraine about half of those entitled to vote appear at the -polls; but in other districts of Germany very little interest is shown -in the elections to the parish councils. - -The income of the state churches is derived from four sources. The state -makes an annual provision for the stipends of the clergy, for the -maintenance of fabrics and for other ecclesiastical needs. The -endowments for church purposes, of which there are many, and which are -destined to the support of foreign missions, clerical pensions, supply -of books to the clergy, &c. are administered by the supreme council. The -voluntary contributions of the people are all absorbed in the common -income of the national churches and are administered by the supreme -council. Each parish is legally entitled to levy ecclesiastical -assessments for defined purposes. - -Appointments to benefices are in the hands of the state (sometimes with -consent of parishes), of private patrons and of local parish councils. -The number of these benefices is always increasing; and in 1897 they -amounted to 16,400, or 300 more than in 1890. The state appoints to 56%, -private and municipal patrons to 34%, and congregations to 10% of the -whole. Customs vary in different states; thus in Schleswig-Holstein the -state nominates but the parish elects; in Alsace-Lorraine the -directorium or supreme consistory appoints, but the appointment must be -confirmed by the viceroy; in Baden the state offers the parish a -selection from six names and then appoints the one chosen. - -The Lutheran state churches of Denmark, Sweden and Norway have retained -the episcopate. In all of them the king is recognized to be the _summus -episcopus_ or supreme authority in all ecclesiastical matters, but in -Norway and Sweden his power is somewhat limited by that of parliament. -The king exercises his ecclesiastical authority through a minister who -superintends religion and education. The position and functions of the -bishops vary in the different countries. In all the rite of ordination -is in their hands. In Denmark they are the inspectors of the clergy and -of the schools. In Sweden they preside over local consistories composed -of clerical and lay members. The episcopate in all three countries -accommodates itself to something like the Lutheran consistorial system -of ecclesiastical government. - -The two leading religions within Germany are the Evangelical (Lutheran) -and the Roman Catholic, including respectively 58 and 39% of the -population. The proportions are continually varying, owing to the new -migratory habits of almost every class of the population. Generally -speaking, the Roman Catholics are on the increase in Prussia, Bavaria, -Saxony and Wurttemburg; and the Evangelicals in the other districts of -Germany, especially in the large cities. There is a growing tendency to -mixed marriages, which are an important factor in religious changes. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des - sechzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Weimar, 1846); Sehling, _Die evangelischen - Kirchenordnungen des 16ten Jahrhunderts_ (Leipzig, 1902, &c.); - Richter, _Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts_ - (8th ed., Leipzig, 1886); Hundeshagen, _Beitrage zur - Kirchenverfassungsgeschichte und Kirchenpolitik inbesondere des - Protestantismus_, i. (Wiesbaden, 1864), or in _Ausgewahlte kl. - Schriften_, ii. (Gotha, 1875); Hofling, _Grundsatze der - evangelischen-Lutherischen Kirchenverfassung_ (Erlangen, 1850, 3rd - ed., 1853); Drews, _Das kirchl. Leben d. deutschen evangelischen - Landeskirchen_ (Tubingen, 1902); Erich Forster, _Die Enstehung der - preussischen Landeskirchen unter der Regierung Konig Friedrich - Wilhelms III._, i. (Tubingen, 1905); Emil Sehling, _Geschichte der - protestantischen Kirchenverfassung_ (Leipzig, 1907); articles in - Herzog's _Realencyklopadie fur protest. Theologie_ (3rd ed.), on - Kirchenregiment, Kirchenrecht, Kirchenordnung, Konsistorien, - Episcopalsystem, Gemeinde, Kollegialsystem, Territorialsystem; Schaff, - _History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (London, 1877). (T. M. L.) - - - - -LUTHER LEAGUE, a religious association for young people in the United -States of America. It began with a local society founded by delegates of -six Lutheran church societies in New York City in 1888. The first -national convention was held at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 30th and -31st of October 1895. The basis of the league is the Augsburg -Confession. Its membership is open to "any society of whatever name -connected with a Lutheran congregation or a Lutheran institution of -learning." According to the constitution its objects are "to encourage -the formation of the young people's societies in all Lutheran -congregations in America, to urge their affiliation with their -respective state or territorial leagues, and with this league to -stimulate the various young people's societies to greater Christian -activity and to foster the spirit of loyalty to the church." The league -publishes a monthly paper, _The Luther League Review_, in Washington. -According to its official report it had 70,000 members in 1906, which -had increased to more than 100,000 in 1910. - - - - -LUTON, a market town and municipal borough in the southern or Luton -parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 30 m. N.W. by N. of -London by the Midland railway, served also by a branch of the Great -Northern. Pop. (1901) 36,404. It lies in a narrow valley on the south -flank of the Chiltern Hills, on the upper part of the river Lea. The -church of St Mary is mainly Decorated, but has portions of Early English -and Perpendicular work. It has brasses and monuments of interest and a -late Decorated baptistery of stone, an ornate roofed structure, -octagonal in form. The font within it is Early English. Luton is the -principal seat in England of the straw-plait manufacture, and large -quantities of hats and other straw goods have been exported, though in -recent years the industry has suffered from increased foreign -competition. The industry originated with the colony of straw-plaiters -transplanted by James I. from Scotland, whither they had been brought -from Lorraine by Queen Mary. The town has also foundries, motor car -works and other manufactures. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen -and 18 councillors. Area, 3133 acres. - - - - -LUTSK (Polish, _Luck_), a town of southern Russia, in the government of -Volhynia, on the Styr, 51 m. by rail N.W. of Kovel. Pop. (1900) 17,701. -It is supposed to have been founded in the 7th century; in the 11th -century it was known as Luchesk, and was the chief town of an -independent principality. In the 15th century it was the seat of a -bishop and became wealthy, but during the wars between Russia and Poland -in the second half of the 16th century, and especially after the -extermination of its 40,000 inhabitants, it lost its importance. In 1791 -it was taken by Russia. Its inhabitants, many of them Jews, live mainly -by shipping goods on the Styr. Among its buildings is a 16th-century -castle. Lutsk is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. - - - - -LUTTERWORTH, a market town in the Harborough parliamentary division of -Leicestershire, England; 90 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Central -railway. Pop. (1901) 1734. It lies in a pleasant undulating country on -the small river Swift, an affluent of the Avon. The church of St Mary is -a fine building, mainly Decorated and Perpendicular, wherein are -preserved relics of John Wycliffe, who was rector here from 1374 until -his death in 1384. The exhumation and burning of his body in 1428, when -the ashes were cast into the Swift, gave rise to the saying that their -distribution by the river to the ocean resembled that of Wycliffe's -doctrines over the world. Wycliffe is further commemorated by a modern -obelisk in the town. Trade is principally agricultural. - - - - -LUTTRELL, HENRY (c. 1765-1851), English wit and writer of society verse, -was the illegitimate son of Henry Lawes Luttrell, 2nd earl of Carhampton -(1743-1821), a grandson of Colonel Henry Luttrell (c. 1655-1717), who -served James II. in Ireland in 1689 and 1690, and afterwards deserted -him, being murdered in Dublin in November 1717. Colonel Luttrell's son -Simon (1713-1787) was created earl of Carhampton in 1785, and the -latter's son was Henry Lawes Luttrell. Before succeeding to the peerage, -the 2nd earl, then Colonel Luttrell, had won notoriety by opposing John -Wilkes at the Middlesex election of 1769. He was beaten at the poll, but -the House of Commons declared that he and not Wilkes had been elected. -In 1796 he was made commander of the forces in Ireland and in 1798 he -became a general. Being an Irish peer, Carhampton was able to sit in the -English parliament until his death in April 1821. The earldom became -extinct on the death of his brother John, the 3rd earl, in 1829. - -Henry Luttrell secured a seat in the Irish parliament in 1798 and a post -in the Irish government, which he commuted for a pension. Introduced -into London society by the duchess of Devonshire, his wit made him -popular. Soon he began to write verse, in which the foibles of -fashionable people were outlined. In 1820 he published his _Advice to -Julia_, of which a second edition, altered and amplified, appeared in -1823 as _Letters to Julia in Rhyme_. This poem, suggested by the ode to -Lydia in the first book of Horace's Odes, was his most important work. -His more serious literary contemporaries nicknamed it "Letters of a -Dandy to a Dolly." In 1827 in _Crockford House_ he wrote a satire on the -high play then in vogue. Byron characterized him as "the best sayer of -good things, and the most epigrammatic conversationist I ever met"; Sir -Walter Scott wrote of him as "the great London wit," and Lady -Blessington described him as the one talker "who always makes me think." -Luttrell died in London on the 19th of December 1851. - - - - -LUTTRINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 6 m. -S.E. of Elberfeld by rail. Pop. (1905) 11,829. It is the seat of various -iron and other metal industries, and has cloth and calico mills. - - - - -LUTZEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of Merseburg (pop. in -1905, 3981), chiefly famous as the scene of a great battle fought on the -6/16th of November 1632 between the Swedes, under King Gustavus -Adolphus, and the Imperialists, under Wallenstein. On the 5/15th -November, Gustavus, with some 20,000 men, advanced from Naumburg on the -Saale to meet a contingent of his German allies at Grimma, S.E. of -Leipzig, but becoming aware of the presence of Wallenstein's army near -Lutzen, and that it had been weakened by a large detachment sent away -under Pappenheim towards Halle, he turned towards Lutzen. Wallenstein's -posts at Weissenfels and Rippach prevented him from fighting his main -battle the same evening, and the Swedes went into camp near Rippach, a -little more than an hour's march from Lutzen. - -Wallenstein made ready to give battle on the following day and recalled -Pappenheim. The latter had taken a small castle, the reduction of which -was one of the objects of his expedition, but his men had dispersed to -plunder and could not be rallied before the following morning. Gustavus -had now to choose between proceeding to Grimma and fighting Wallenstein -on the chance that Pappenheim had not rejoined. He chose the latter. In -the mist of the early morning Wallenstein's army was formed in line of -battle along the Leipzig road with its right on Lutzen. Its left was not -carried out as far as the Flossgraben in order to leave room on that -flank for Pappenheim. His infantry was arranged in five huge oblongs, -four of which (in lozenge formation) formed the centre and one the -right wing at Lutzen. These "battalias" had their angles strengthened in -the old-fashioned way that had prevailed since Marignan, with small -outstanding bodies of musketeers, so that they resembled rectangular -forts with bastions. On either side of this centre was the cavalry in -two long lines, while in front of the centre and close to the right at -Lutzen were the two batteries of heavy artillery. Lutzen was set on fire -as a precaution. Skirmishers lined the bank and the ditch of the Leipzig -road. The total strength of the Imperial army was about 12,000 foot and -8000 horse. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF LUTZEN November 16th., 1632.] - -Gustavus's hopes of an early decision were frustrated by the fog, which -delayed the approach and deployment of the Swedes. It was 8 A.M. before -all was ready. The royal army was in two lines. The infantry in the -centre was arrayed in the small and handy battalions then peculiar to -Gustavus's army, the horse on either wing extended from opposite Lutzen -to some distance beyond Wallenstein's left, which Pappenheim was to -extend on his arrival. By the accident of the terrain, or perhaps, -following the experience of Breitenfeld (q.v.), by design, the right of -the Swedes was somewhat nearer to the enemy than the left. In front, -near the centre, were the heavy guns and each infantry battalion had its -own light artillery. The force of infantry and cavalry on either side -was about equal, the Swedes had perhaps rather less cavalry and rather -more infantry, but their artillery was superior to Wallenstein's. Not -until 11 was it possible to open fire, for want of a visible target, but -about noon, after a preliminary cannonade, Gustavus gave the word to -advance. - -The king himself commanded the right wing, which had to wait until small -bodies of infantry detached for the purpose had driven in the -Imperialist skirmish line, and had then to cross a ditch leading the -horses. They were not charged by the Imperialists at this moment, for -Pappenheim had not yet arrived, and the usual cavalry tactics of the day -were founded on the pistol and not on the sword and the charging horse. -Gaining at last room to form, the Swedes charged and routed the first -line of the Imperial cavalry but were stopped by the heavy squadrons of -cuirassiers in second line, and at that moment Gustavus galloped away to -the centre where events had taken a serious turn. The Swedish centre -(infantry) had forced their way across the Leipzig road and engaged -Wallenstein's living forts at close quarters. The "Blue" -brigade--Gustavus's infantry wore distinctive colours--overran the -battery of heavy guns, and the "Swedish"[1] and "Yellow" brigades -engaged the left face of the Imperialist lozenge with success. But a gap -opened between the right of the infantry and the left of the cavalry and -Wallenstein's second line squadrons pressed into it. It was this which -brought Gustavus from the extreme right, and he was killed here in -leading a counter charge. - -On the extreme left, meanwhile, the "Green" brigade had come to close -quarters with Wallenstein's infantry and guns about Lutzen, and the -heavy artillery had gone forward to close range between the "Green" and -the "Yellow" infantry. But the news of Gustavus's death spread and the -fire of the assault died out. Wallenstein advanced in his turn, -recaptured his guns and drove the Swedes over the road. - -But the fiery Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took up the command and -ordered a fresh advance. He was too good a soldier to waste his reserves -and only brought up a few units of the second line to help the -disordered brigades of the first. Again the Imperialists were driven in -and their guns recaptured, this time all along the line. About three in -the afternoon the Swedes were slowly bearing back Wallenstein's stubborn -infantry when Pappenheim appeared. The famous cavalry leader had brought -on his mounted men ahead of the infantry and asking, "Where is the king -of Sweden?" charged at once in the direction of the enemy's right. -Wallenstein thus gained time to reestablish his order, and once more the -now exhausted brigades of the Swedish first line were driven over the -road. But Pappenheim fell in the moment of victory and his death -disheartened the Imperialists almost as much as the fall of Gustavus had -disheartened the Swedes. For the last time Bernhard, wounded as he was, -forced the Swedish army to the attack. The three infantry brigades of -his second line had not been engaged,[2] and as usual the last closed -reserve, resolutely handled, carried the day. Wallenstein's army gave -way at all points and the Swedes slept on the battlefield. The infantry -of Pappenheim's corps did not appear on the field until the battle was -over. Of the losses on either side no accurate statement can be given, -but the Swedish "Green" and "Yellow" brigades are said to have lost -five-sixths of their numbers. Near the spot where Gustavus fell a -granite boulder was placed in position on the day after the battle. A -canopy of cast-iron was erected over this "Schwedenstein" in 1832, and -close by, a chapel, built by Oskar Ekman. a citizen of Gothenburg (d. -1907), was dedicated on the 6th of November 1907. - - Lutzen is famous also as the scene of a victory of Napoleon over the - Russians and Prussians on the 2nd of May 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC - CAMPAIGNS). This battle is often called Gross Gorschen. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The foregoing account of Gustavus's last victory is - founded chiefly upon Lieut.-Colonel Hon. E. Noel's _Gustaf Adolf_ - (London, 1904) and a paper by the same officer in the _Journal of the - United States Institution of India_ (Oct. 1908), which should be - consulted for further details. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] So called as being the only brigade containing no foreign - elements in the army. - - [2] They had, however, found detachments to reinforce the first line. - - - - -LUTZOW, ADOLF, FREIHERR VON (1782-1834), Prussian lieutenant-general, -entered the army in 1795, and eleven years later as a lieutenant took -part in the disastrous battle of Auerstadt. He achieved distinction in -the siege of Colberg, as the leader of a squadron of Schill's -volunteers. In 1808, as a major, he retired from the Prussian army, -indignant at the humiliating treaty of Tilsit. He took part in the -heroic venture of his old chief Schill in 1809; wounded at Dodendorf and -left behind, he thereby escaped the fate of his comrades. In 1811 he was -restored to the Prussian army as major, and at the outbreak of the "war -of liberation" received permission from Scharnhorst to organize a "free -corps" consisting of infantry, cavalry and Tirolese marksmen, for -operating in the French rear and rallying the smaller governments into -the ranks of the allies. This corps played a marked part in the campaign -of 1813. But Lutzow was unable to coerce the minor states, and the -wanderings of the corps had little military influence. At Kitzen (near -Leipzig) the whole corps, warned too late of the armistice of -Poischwitz, was caught on the French side of the line of demarcation -and, as a fighting force, annihilated. Lutzow himself, wounded, cut his -way out with the survivors, and immediately began reorganizing and -recruiting. In the second part of the campaign the corps served in more -regular warfare under Wallmoden. Lutzow and his men distinguished -themselves at Gadebusch (where Korner fell) and Gohrde (where Lutzow -himself, for the second time, received a severe wound at the head of the -cavalry). Sent next against Denmark, and later employed at the siege of -Julich, Lutzow in 1814 fell into the hands of the French. After the -peace of 1814 the corps was dissolved, the infantry becoming the 25th -Regiment, the cavalry the 6th Ulans. At Ligny he led the 6th Ulans to -the charge, but they were broken by the French cavalry, and he finally -remained in the hands of the enemy, escaping, however, on the day of -Waterloo. Made colonel in this year, his subsequent promotions were: -major-general 1822, and lieutenant-general (on retirement) 1830. He died -in 1834. One of the last acts of his life for which Lutzow is remembered -is his challenge (which was ignored) to Blucher, who had been ridden -down in the rout of the 6th Ulans at Ligny, and had made, in his -official report, comments thereon, which their colonel considered -disparaging. - - See Koberstein in _Preussisches Jahrbuch_, vol. xxiii (Berlin, 1868), - and _Preussisches Bilderbuch_ (Leipzig, 1889); K. von Lutzow, _Adolf - Lutzows Freikorps_ (Berlin, 1884); Fr. von Jagwitz, _Geschichte des - Lutzowschen Freikorps_ (Berlin, 1892); and the histories of the - campaigns of 1813 and 1815. - - - - -LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-BOUTEVILLE, DUKE OF -(1628-1695), marshal of France, the comrade and successor of the great -Conde, was born at Paris on the 8th of January 1628. His father, the -comte de Montmorency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his -birth for killing the marquis de Beuvron in a duel, but his aunt, -Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Conde, took charge of him and -educated him with her son, the duc d'Enghien. The young Montmorency (or -Bouteville as he was then called) attached himself to his cousin, and -shared his successes and reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. -He returned to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Conde, then much -attached to the duchesse de Chatillon, Montmorency's sister, contrived -the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest heiress in -France, Madeleine de Luxemburg-Piney, princesse de Tingry and heiress of -the Luxemburg dukedom (1661), after which he was created duc de -Luxembourg and peer of France. At the opening of the War of Devolution -(1667-68), Conde, and consequently Luxemburg, had no command, but during -the second campaign he served as Conde's lieutenant-general in the -conquest of Franche Comte. During the four years of peace which followed -Luxemburg cultivated the favour of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high -command against the Dutch. He defeated the prince of Orange at Woerden -and ravaged Holland, and in 1673 made his famous retreat from Utrecht to -Maestricht with only 20,000 men in face of 70,000, an exploit which -placed him in the first rank of generals. In 1674 he was made captain of -the gardes du corps, and in 1675 marshal of France. In 1676 he was -placed at the head of the army of the Rhine, but failed to keep the duke -of Lorraine out of Philipsburg; in 1677 he stormed Valenciennes; and in -1678 he defeated the prince of Orange, who attacked him at St Denis -after the signature of the peace of Nijmwegen. His reputation was now -high, and it is reputed that he quarrelled with Louvois, who managed to -involve him in the "affair of the poisons" (see LA VOISIN, CATHERINE) -and get him sent to the Bastille. Rousset in his _Histoire de Louvois_ -has shown that this quarrel is probably apocryphal. There is no doubt -that Luxemburg spent some months of 1680 in the Bastille, but on his -release took up his post at court as _capitaine des gardes_. When the -war of 1690 broke out, the king and Louvois recognized that Luxemburg -was the only general fit to cope with the prince of Orange, and he was -put in command of the army of Flanders. On the 1st of July 1690 he won a -great victory over the prince of Waldeck at Fleurus. In the following -year he commanded the army which covered the king's siege of Mons and -defeated William III. of England at Leuze on September 18, 1691. Again -in the next campaign he covered the king's siege of Namur, and defeated -William at Steenkirk (q.v.) on June 5, 1692; and on July 29, 1693, he -won his greatest victory over his old adversary at Neerwinden, after -which he was called _le tapissier de Notre Dame_ from the number of -captured colours that he sent to the cathedral. He was received with -enthusiasm at Paris by all but the king, who looked coldly on a relative -and adherent of the Condes. St Simon describes in the first volume of -his _Memoirs_ how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France -according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife to be duc -de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place him second on the -roll. The affair is described with St Simon's usual interest in the -peerage, and was chiefly checked through his assiduity. In the campaign -of 1694, Luxemburg did little in Flanders, except that he conducted a -famous march from Vignamont to Tournay in face of the enemy. On his -return to Versailles for the winter he fell ill, and died on January 4, -1695. In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit priest -Bourdaloue, who said on his death, "I have not lived his life, but I -would wish to die his death." Luxemburg's morals were bad even in those -times, and he had shown little sign of religious conviction. But as a -general he was Conde's grandest pupil. Though slothful like Conde in the -management of a campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with -happy inspirations, against which no ardour of William's and no -steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death and -Catinat's disgrace close the second period of the military history of -the reign of Louis XIV., and Catinat and Luxemburg, though inferior to -Conde and Turenne, were far superior to Tallard and Villeroi. He was -distinguished for a pungent wit. One of his retorts referred to his -deformity. "I never can beat that cursed humpback," William was reputed -to have said of him. "How does he know I have a hump?" retorted -Luxemburg, "he has never seen my back." He left four sons, the youngest -of whom was a marshal of France as Marechal de Montmorency. - - See, besides the various memoirs and histories of the time, Beaurain's - _Histoire militaire du duc de Luxembourg_ (Hague and Paris, 1756); - _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire du marechal duc de Luxembourg_ - (Hague and Paris, 1758); Courcelles, _Dictionnaire des generaux - francais_ (Paris, 1823), vol. viii. There are some interesting facts - in Desormeaux's _Histoire de la maison de Montmorency_ (1764), vols. - iv. and v. Camille Rousset's _Louvois_ and the recent biography of - Luxemburg by Count de Segur (1907) should also be studied. - - - - -LUXEMBURG, a district in the European low countries, of which the -eastern part forms the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and the western is the -Belgian province of that name (for map, see BELGIUM). The name is -derived from the chief town. - -Under the Romans the district was included in the province of _Belgica -prima_, afterwards forming part of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia and -of the empire of Charlemagne. About 1060 it came under the rule of -Conrad (d. 1086), who took the title of count of Luxemburg. His -descendants ruled the county, first in the male and then in the female -line, until the death of the emperor Sigismund in 1437. Through the -marriage of Sigismund's daughter, Elizabeth, with the German king, -Albert II., Luxemburg, which had been made a duchy in 1354, passed to -the house of Habsburg, but was seized in 1443 by Philip III. the Good, -duke of Burgundy, who based his claim upon a bargain concluded with -Sigismund's niece Elizabeth (d. 1451). Regained by the Habsburgs in 1477 -when Mary, daughter and heiress of duke Charles the Bold, married the -German king Maximilian I., the duchy passed to Philip II. of Spain in -1555, though subject to the laws of the empire, of which it still formed -part. After a section had been ceded to France in 1659, the remainder -was given to the emperor Charles VI. by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. -It was conquered by France in 1795, and retained by that power until the -end of the Napoleonic wars. The congress of Vienna (1814-1815) erected -Luxemburg into a grand-duchy, added part of the duchy of Bouillon to it, -and assigned it to William I., king of the Netherlands, in return for -the German territories of the house of Orange-Nassau, which Napoleon had -confiscated in 1806, and which were given by the congress to the king -of Prussia. In 1830 when the Belgian provinces separated from Holland, -an effort was made to include Luxemburg in the new kingdom of the -Belgians; but in November 1831 the powers decided that part of the -grand-duchy should be retained by the king of Holland, who refused to -accept this arrangement. Consequently the whole of Luxemburg remained in -the possession of the Belgians until 1838, when the treaty of the 19th -of April, concluded at the conference of London, enforced the partition -of 1831. - -The grand-duchy of Luxemburg, the portion under the rule of William I. -retaining the name, was ruled by the kings of Holland until the death of -William III. in 1890. William's daughter, Wilhelmina, succeeded to the -throne of Holland, but under the Salic law[1] the grand-duchy passed to -his kinsman, Adolphus, duke of Nassau, who died in 1905, and was -succeeded by his son William (b. 1852). - -By modifications of the treaty of Vienna the garrisoning of the fortress -of Luxemburg had passed into Prussian hands, an arrangement which lasted -until 1867. In the previous year the German Confederation, to which the -grand-duchy of Luxemburg had belonged since 1815, had been dissolved; -but the Prussians maintained their garrison in Luxemburg, which was not -included in the new North German Confederation, while King William III. -proposed to sell his rights over the grand-duchy to France. The -Prussians were irritated by this proposal, but war was averted, and the -question was referred to a conference of the powers in London. The -treaty of London, signed on the 11th of May 1867, decided that the -Prussian garrison must be withdrawn and the fortress dismantled, which -was done in 1872. At the same time the great powers guaranteed the -neutrality of the grand-duchy, and although a member of the German -_Zollverein_, Luxemburg now forms a sovereign and independent state. - -The GRAND-DUCHY lies S.E. of Belgium. Its area is 999 sq. m., with a -population (1905) of 246,455. The people are nearly all Catholics. The -country is rich in iron ore. The hills in the south of the duchy are a -continuation of the Lorraine plateau, and the northern districts are -crossed in all directions by outrunners from the Ardennes. The streams -mostly join the Moselle, which forms the boundary between Luxemburg and -the Rhine province for about 20 m. The Sure or Sauer, the most important -stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosieres in Belgian Luxemburg, -crosses the duchy, and forms the eastern boundary from the confluence of -the Our till it joins the Moselle after a course of 50 m., during which -it receives the Wiltz, Attert, Alzette, White and Black Ernz, &c. The -soil of Luxemburg is generally good; the southern districts are on the -whole the most fertile as well as the most populous. Building materials -of all sorts are obtained throughout the duchy. Besides the iron -furnaces, situated in the south near the Lorraine plateau, there are -tanneries, weaving and glove-making factories, paper-mills for all sorts -of paper, breweries and distilleries, and sugar refineries. A German -patois mixed with French words is spoken throughout the country; but -French, which is employed by the commercial community, is also the -common speech on the French and Belgian frontiers. Though liberty of -worship prevails, Roman Catholicism is almost the sole form. The -government is in the hands of the grand-duke, who sanctions and -promulgates the laws. There is a council (_staatsrat_) of 15 members. -There is a chamber of deputies with 48 members elected by the cantons -(12 in number) for six years, half the body being elected every three -years. No law can be passed without the consent of the chamber. Bills -are introduced by the grand-duke, but the house has also the right of -initiative. A single battalion (150) of volunteers composes the -grand-ducal army. The gendarmerie consists of about 150 men. There are -cantonal courts and two district courts, one at Luxemburg, the other at -Diekirch, and a high court at Luxemburg. The bishopric of Luxemburg -holds its authority directly from the Holy See. From 13,000,000 to -17,000,000 francs is the annual amount of the state budget, and the -debt, consisting of loans contracted principally for the construction of -railways, of which there are about 350 m., is 12,000,000 francs. - -Among towns next to the capital, Luxemburg, are Echternach and Diekirch, -both worthy of note for their blast furnaces. Grevenmacher is the centre -of a great wine district. - -The PROVINCE OF LUXEMBURG is the largest and least populous of the nine -provinces of Belgium. Its capital is Arlon, which lies near the borders -of the grand-duchy. A considerable part of the province is forested and -the state requires systematic replanting. Marble, granite and slate -quarries are worked in different districts. Successful attempts have -been made to introduce fruit cultivation. The province is well watered -by the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sure. The general elevation of the -country is about 500 ft., but the hills and plateaus which form the -prominent feature in the scenery of Luxemburg range from 1200 to 1500 -ft. The highest point of the province is the Baraque de Fraiture (1980 -ft.), N.E. of La Roche. The woods are well stocked with red and roe -deer, wild boar, hares, rabbits, pheasants, woodcock and snipe. The area -of the province is 1725 sq. m. The population was 225,963 in 1904. - - The HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG was descended from Count Conrad (d. 1086), and - its fortunes were advanced through the election of Count Henry IV. as - German king in 1308 and his coronation as emperor under the title of - Henry VII. Henry's son was John, king of Bohemia, who fell on the - field of Crecy, and John's eldest son was the emperor Charles IV., - while another famous member of the family was Baldwin, archbishop of - Treves (1285-1354), who took an active part in imperial affairs. Two - of the sons of Charles IV., Wenceslaus and Sigismund, succeeded in - turn to the imperial throne, and one of his nephews, Jobst, margrave - of Moravia, was chosen German king in opposition to Sigismund in 1410. - The French branch of the Luxemburg family was descended from Waleran - (d. 1288), lord of Ligny and Roussy, a younger son of Count Henry II. - Waleran's great-grandson was Guy (d. 1371), who married Matilda, - sister and heiress of Guy V., count of Saint-Pol (d. 1360), and was - created count of Ligny in 1367. Guy's son, Waleran (d. 1417), who - became constable of France in 1412, had been carried as a prisoner to - England, and had married Matilda, daughter of Thomas Holland, earl of - Kent (d. 1360) and half-sister of King Richard II. To avenge Richard's - death he made a raid on the Isle of Wight, and then took part in the - civil wars in France. He left no sons, and was succeeded by his - nephew, Peter, count of Brienne (d. 1433), who, like his brother Louis - (d. 1443), cardinal archbishop of Rouen and chancellor of France, was - found on the side of the English in their struggle against France. - Another of Peter's brothers, John (d. 1440), a stout supporter of - England, was made governor of Paris by Henry V. He sold Joan of Arc to - the English. Peter's son and successor, Louis, fought at first for - England, but about 1440 he entered the service of France and obtained - the office of constable. King Louis XI. accused him of treachery, and - he took refuge with Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but the duke - handed him over to the king and he was beheaded in 1475. The elder - branch of his descendants became extinct in the male line in 1482, and - was merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon-Vendome. - Louis's third son, Anthony (d. 1510), founded the family of - Luxemburg-Brienne, the senior branch of which became extinct in 1608. - A junior branch, however, was the family of the duke of - Luxemburg-Piney, whose last representative, Margaret-Charlotte (d. - 1680), married firstly Leon d'Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly - Charles Henry de Clermont-Tonnerre (d. 1674). Her daughter by her - second husband, Madeleine Charlotte, married Francis Henry de - Montmorenci (d. 1695) and de Luynes, and, subsequently, members of the - family of Montmorenci claimed the title of duke of Luxemburg. The - Luxembourg palace in Paris owes its name to the fact that it was built - on a site belonging to the duke of Luxemburg-Piney. - - See N. van Werveke, _Beitrage zur Geschichte des Luxemburger Landes_ - (Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J. Schotter, _Geschichte des Luxemburger - Landes_ (Luxemburg, 1882); and N. Vigner, _Histoire de la maison de - Luxembourg_ (Paris, 1619). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] It should be noticed, however, that the Salic law is subordinate - to the Nassau family law, which provides for the succession in the - case of the _complete extinction_ of males. Thus Article xlii. of the - Nassau Pact of the 30th of June 1783 provides "that in the event of - the extinction of males, the rights of succession pass to the - daughter or nearest heiress of the last male." - - - - -LUXEMBURG, or LUTZELBURG (i.e. the little fortress or town), the capital -of the grand-duchy of the same name (see above), situated on the -Alzette, a tributary of the Sure. Pop. (1905) 20,984. The situation is -romantic, steep cliffs overhanging the winding river, and the principal -portion of the town with the palace and public buildings covering a -central plateau. The more densely populated parishes of Clausen, -Pfaffenthal and Grund lie in the valley. As a fortress Luxemburg was -considered the strongest in Europe after Gibraltar, which it was -supposed to resemble because many of its casemates were cut into the -rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal viaducts carry the railway -and the approach from the railway station to the town. Since the place -ceased to be a fortress the population has more than doubled, and the -Alzette is lined with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hotel -de Ville dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The -church of Notre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael, with -parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of Luxemburg, -king of Bohemia, slain at Crecy. There are two annual fete days, one in -honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg, patroness of the city, held on the -Sunday before Ascension Day, and the other the annual fair or -_Schobermesse_ (tent fair), instituted in 1340 and held each year on the -24th of August. - - - - -LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of -Haute-Saone, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906) 5195. It is situated in a -region of forests on the right bank of the Breuchin. It has an -abbey-church dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, containing a -curious 17th-century organ loft in the form of an immense bracket -supported by a colossal figure of Hercules. The abbot's palace (16th and -18th centuries) serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the -15th century and other buildings of the 17th century also remain. There -are several mansions and houses dating from various periods from the -14th to the 16th century. The Maison Carree, once the town hall, an -interesting specimen of 15th-century architecture, was built by Perrin -Jouffroy, father of Cardinal Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at -Luxeuil in 1412, built the house with a graceful balcony and turret -which faces the Maison Carree. The Maison de la Baille and the Maison -Francois I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont -Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for its -mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being ferruginous, -and the rest charged with chloride of sodium; their temperatures range -from 70 deg. to 158 deg. F. The water is employed for drinking and for -baths. The bathing establishment contains a museum of Gallo-Roman -antiquities and there are also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to -be seen in or near it. Luxeuil has a communal college. Copper-founding, -the spinning and weaving of cotton, lace-making, dyeing and the -distilling of kirsch are carried on. - -Luxeuil was the Roman _Lixovium_ and contained many fine buildings at -the time of its destruction by the Huns under Attila in 451. In 590 St -Columban here founded a monastery, afterwards one of the most famous in -Franche Comte. In the 8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens; -afterwards rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans in -the 9th century and plllaged on several occasions afterwards. The abbey -schools were celebrated in the middle ages and the abbots had great -influence; but their power was curtailed by the emperor Charles V. and -the abbey was suppressed at the Revolution. - - See H. Beaumont, _Etude hist. sur l'abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790_ (Lux. - 1895); Grandmongin and A. Garnier, _Hist. de la ville et des thermes - de Luxeuil_ (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates. - - - - -LUXOR, more properly El-Aksur, "The Castles" (plur. of kasr), a town of -Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile 450 m. above Cairo by river -and 418 by rail. Pop. (1907 census) 12,644. It is the centre for -visitors to the ruins of and about Thebes, and is frequented by -travellers and invalids in the winter season, several fine hotels having -been built for their accommodation. There are Anglican and Roman -Catholic churches, and a hospital for natives, opened in 1891. The -district is the seat of an extensive manufacture of forged antiques. - -The temple of Luxor is one of the greatest of the monuments of Thebes -(q.v.). It stands near the river bank on the S.W. side of the town and -measures nearly 300 yds. from back to front. There may have been an -earlier temple here, but the present structure, dedicated to the Theban -triad of Ammon, Mut and Khons, was erected by Amenophis III. The great -colonnade, which is its most striking feature, was apparently intended -for the nave of a hypostyle hall like that of Karnak, but had to be -hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of Amenophis IV. -(Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete work was taken in hand by -Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.; -a long paved road bordered by recumbent rams led from the facade to the -temples of Karnak (q.v.) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and -Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive court -to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of axis. He -embellished the walls and pylons of his court with scenes from his -victories over Hittites and Syrians, and placed a number of colossal -statues within it. In front of the pylon Rameses set up colossi and a -pair of obelisks (one of which was taken to Paris in 1831 and re-erected -in the Place de la Concorde). A few scenes and inscriptions were added -by later kings, but the above is practically the history of the temple -until Alexander the Great rebuilt the sanctuary itself. The chief -religious festival of Thebes was that of "Southern Opi," the ancient -name of Luxor. The sacred barks of the divinities preserved in the -sanctuary of Karnak were then conveyed in procession by water to Luxor -and back again; a representation of the festal scenes is given on the -walls of the great colonnade. The Christians built churches within the -temple. The greater part of the old village of Luxor lay inside the -courts: it was known also as Abu 'l Haggag from a Moslem saint of the -7th century, whose tomb-mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a -high heap of debris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the -buildings and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the -expropriation and clearances by the Service des Antiquites began in -1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the ancient -avenue. - - See G. Daressy, _Notice explicative des ruines du temple de Louxor_ - (Cairo, 1803); Baedeker's _Egypt_. (F. Ll. G.) - - - - -LUXORIUS, Roman writer of epigrams, lived in Africa during the reigns of -the Vandal kings Thrasamund, Hilderic and Gelimer (A.D. 496-534). He -speaks of his poor circumstances, but from the superscription -_clarissimus_ and _spectabilis_ in one MS., he seems to have held a high -official position. About a hundred epigrams by him in various metres -(the elegiac predominating) have been preserved. They are after the -manner of Martial, and many of them are coarse. They deal chiefly with -the games of the circus and works of art, and the language shows the -author to have been well acquainted with the legends and antiquities of -the classical period of Rome. - - Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in _Journal - of Philology_, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in the - _Anthologia Latina_, edited by F. Bucheler and A. Riese (1894). - - - - -LUYNES, a territorial name belonging to a noble French house. The family -of Albert, which sprang from Thomas Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de -Boussargues, _bailli_ of Viviers and Valence, and _viguier_ of Bagnols -and Pont St Esprit in Languedoc, acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of -Indre-et-Loire) in the 16th century. Honore d'Albert (d. 1592), seigneur -de Luynes, was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of -Henry IV., and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of -artillery in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons: -Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of Louis XIII.; -Honore (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who married Charlotte Eugenie -d'Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619, and was created duke of Chaulnes -in 1621; and Leon, seigneur de Brantes, who became duke of -Luxemburg-Piney by his marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of -Luxemburg. - -By her marriage with Claude of Lorraine, duke of Chevreuse, Marie de -Rohan, the widow of the first duke of Luynes, acquired in 1655 the duchy -of Chevreuse, which she gave in 1663 to Louis Charles d'Albert, her son -by her first husband; and from that time the title of duke of Chevreuse -and duke of Luynes was borne by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes, -which also inherited the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of -the descendants of Honore d'Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of -Luxemburg-Piney became extinct in 1697. - -Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up at court -and attended the dauphin, who later became Louis XIII. The king shared -his fondness for hunting and rapidly advanced him in favour. In 1615 he -was appointed commander of the Louvre and counsellor, and the following -year grand falconer of France. He used his influence over the king in -the court intrigues against the queen-mother Marie de Medici and her -favourite Concini. It was Luynes who, with Vitry, captain of the guard, -arranged the plot that ended in Concini's assassination (1617) and -secured all the latter's possessions in Italy and France. In the same -year he was appointed captain of the Bastille and lieutenant-general of -Normandy, and married Marie de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon. -He employed extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but -sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he negotiated -the treaty of Angouleme by which Marie de Medici was accorded complete -liberty. He was made governor of Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising -of nobles in 1620; and in 1621, with slight military ability or -achievement, was appointed constable of France. His rapid rise to power -made him a host of enemies, who looked upon him as but a second Concini. -In order to justify his newly-won laurels, Luynes undertook an -expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the midst of -the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the 15th of December 1621. - -His brother Honore (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was governor of -Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended his province -successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste d'Albert d'Ailly -(1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became marshal of France (1741). -Louis Joseph d'Albert de Luynes (1670-1750), prince of Grimberghen, was -in the service of the emperor Charles VII., and became field-marshal and -ambassador in France. - -Several members of the family of Albert were distinguished in letters -and science. Louis Charles d'Albert (1620-1690), duke of Luynes, son of -the constable, was an ascetic writer and friend of the Jansenists; Paul -d'Albert de Luynes (1703-1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an -astronomer; Michel Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly (1714-1769), duke of -Chaulnes, a writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph -Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honore Theodore Paul Joseph -(1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology. - - For the first duke see _Recueil des pieces les plus curieuses qui ont - este faites pendant le regne du connestable M. de Luynes_ (2nd ed., - 1624); Le Vassor, _Histoire de Louis XIII._ (Paris, 1757); Griffet, - _Histoire du regne de Louis XIII., roi de France et de Navarre_ - (Paris, 1758); V. Cousin, "Le Duc et connetable de Luynes," in - _Journal des savants_ (1861-1863); B. Zeller, _Etudes critiques sur le - regne de Louis XIII.: le connetable de Luynes, Montauban et la - Valteline_ (Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, _La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et - Marie de Medicis_ (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, vi.^2, - 141-216 (Paris, 1905). - - - - -LUZAN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO (1702-1754), Spanish critic -and poet, was born at Saragossa on the 28th of March 1702. His youth was -passed under the care of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he -graduated in philosophy at the university of Catania. In 1723 he took -minor orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and -took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously. Business -took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in Madrid as a scholar -with a tendency towards innovations in literature. _La Poetica, o Reglas -de la poesia en general y de sus principales especies_ (1737) proved -that this impression was correct. He at once took rank as the leader of -the literary reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the -respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to the -Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in 1750, was -elected to the "Academia Poetica del Buen Gusto," where, on account of -his travels, he was known by the sobriquet of _El Peregrino_. He became -master of the mint and treasurer of the royal library. He died at -Madrid, after a short illness, on the 19th of May 1754. Luzan was not -the pioneer of Franco-Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most -powerful exponent, and his _Poetica_ is an admirable example of -destructive criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderon are -indicated with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzan is -notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one exhausted -convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic unities had not the -saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and, though he succeeded in -banishing the older dramatists from the boards, he and his school failed -to produce a single piece of more than mediocre merit. His theories, -derived chiefly from Muratori, were ineffective in practice; but their -ingenuity cannot be denied, and they acted as a stimulus to the -partisans of the national tradition. - - - - -LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR, a town of south-western France in the department of -Hautes-Pyrenees, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is -beautifully situated at a height of 2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a -remarkable church, built by the Templars in the 12th and 13th centuries -and fortified later. The crenelated ramparts with which it is -surrounded, and the tower to the north of the apse resembling a keep, -give it the aspect of a fortress; other interesting features are the -Romanesque north door and a chapel of the 16th century. The village of -St Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of the -Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing Pont Napoleon -(1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is visited for its warm -sulphurous springs. Discovered in the 16th century, the waters came into -vogue after 1820, in which year they were visited by the duchesses of -Angouleme and Berry. There is much picturesque mountain scenery in the -vicinity; 12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is -the magnificent rock amphitheatre or _cirque_ of Gavarnie, with its -cascade, one of the highest in Europe. - - - - -LUZZATTI, LUIGI (1841- ), Italian economist and financier, was born of -Jewish parents at Venice on the 11th of March 1841. After completing his -studies in law at the university of Padua, he attracted the attention of -the Austrian police by his lectures on political economy, and was -obliged to emigrate. In 1863 he obtained a professorship at the Milan -Technical Institute; in 1867 he was appointed professor of -constitutional law at Padua, whence he was transferred to the university -of Rome. Gifted with eloquence and energy, he popularized in Italy the -economic ideas of Schultze-Delitzsch, worked for the establishment of a -commercial college at Venice, and contributed to the spread of people's -banks on a basis of limited liability throughout the country. In 1869 he -was appointed by Minghetti under secretary of state to the ministry of -agriculture and commerce, in which capacity he abolished government -control over commercial companies and promoted a state inquiry into the -conditions of industry. Though theoretically a free trader, he was -largely instrumental in creating the Italian protective system. In 1877 -he participated in the commercial negotiations with France, in 1878 -compiled the Italian customs tariff, and subsequently took a leading -part in the negotiations of all the commercial treaties between Italy -and other countries. Appointed minister of the treasury in the first Di -Rudini cabinet of 1891, he imprudently abolished the system of frequent -clearings of bank-notes between the state banks, a measure which -facilitated the duplication of part of the paper currency and hastened -the bank crisis of 1893. In 1896 he entered the second Di Rudini cabinet -as minister of the treasury, and by timely legislation helped to save -the bank of Naples from failure. After his fall from office in June -1898, his principal achievement was the negotiation of the -Franco-Italian commercial treaty, though, as deputy, journalist and -professor, he continued to take an active part in all political and -economic manifestations. He was again minister of the treasury from -November 1903 to March 1905 in Giolitti's second administration, and for -the third time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino's premiership. -During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the -Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3(3/4)% to be eventually -lowered to 3(1/2)%, an operation which other ministers had attempted -without success; although the actual conversion was not completed until -after the fall of the cabinet of which he formed part the merit is -entirely his. In 1907 he was president of the co-operative congress at -Cremona. - - See L. Carpi's _Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. ii. (Milan, 1886), which - contains a biographical sketch of Luzzatti. - - - - -LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM (1707-1747), Hebrew dramatist and mystic, was born -in Padua 1707, and died at Acre 1747. He was influenced by Isaac Luria -(q.v.) on the mystical side, and on the poetical side by Italian drama -of the school of Guarini (q.v.). He attacked Leon of Modena's -anti-Kabbalistic treatises, and as a result of his conflict with the -Venetian Rabbinate left Italy for Amsterdam, where, like Spinoza, he -maintained himself by grinding lenses. Here, in 1740, he wrote his -popular religious manual the _Path of the Upright_ (_Messilath -Yesharim_) and other ethical works. He visited London, but finally -settled in Palestine, where he died. Luzzatto's most lasting work is in -the realm of Hebrew drama. His best-known compositions are: the _Tower -of Victory_ (_Migdal 'Oz_) and _Glory to the Upright_ (_Layesharim -Tehillah_). Both of these dramas, which were not printed at the time but -were widely circulated in manuscript, are of the type which preceded the -Shakespearean age--they are allegorical and all the characters are -types. The beautiful Hebrew style created a new school of Hebrew poetry, -and the Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses -Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto. - - See Gratz, _History of the Jews_, v. ch. vii.; I. Abrahams, _Jewish - Life in the Middle Ages_, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, _The Renascence - of Hebrew Literature_, ch. i. (I. A.) - - - - -LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID (1800-1865), Jewish scholar, was born at Trieste -in 1800, and died at Padua in 1865. He was the most distinguished of the -Italian Jewish scholars of the 19th century. The first Jew to suggest -emendations to the text of the Hebrew Bible, he edited Isaiah -(1856-1867), and wrote a commentary on the Pentateuch (1871). His -grammatical works were mostly written in Italian. He also contributed to -the history of the Synagogue liturgy, and enjoys with Geiger (q.v.) and -Zunz (q.v.) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval Hebrew -hymnology and secular verse. - - See Gratz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq.; N. - Slouschz, _The Renascence of Hebrew Literature_, pp. 84-92; the - _Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 225-226, with list of works. (I. A.) - - - - -LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN (1835- ), Anglo-Indian civil servant and man of -letters, son of the Rev. Alfred Lyall, was born in 1835, and educated at -Eton and Haileybury. He entered the Bengal civil service in 1855, saw -service during the Mutiny in the Bulandshahr district, at Meerut, and -with the Khaki Risala of volunteers. He was commissioner in Berar -(1867), secretary to the government of India in the Home and Foreign -departments, lieutenant-governor of the North-western Provinces -(1882-1887), and member of the Council of India (1888-1903). Among his -writings, his _Verses Written in India_ (1889) attained considerable -popularity, and in his _Asiatic Studies_ (1882 and 1899) he displays a -deep insight into Indian life and character. He wrote the _Life_ of Lord -Dufferin (1905), and made numerous contributions to periodical -literature. - - - - -LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of ADA ELLEN BAYLY (1857-1903), English -novelist. She was born at Brighton in 1857, the daughter of a barrister. -Her parents died while she was a child, and she was brought up at -Caterham, Surrey. At Eastbourne, where most of her life was spent, she -was well known for her philanthropic activity. She died on the 8th of -February 1903. Edna Lyall's vogue as a novelist was the result of a -combination of the story-teller's gift with a sincere ethical and -religious spirit of Christian tolerance, which at the time was new to -many readers. Though her _Won by Waiting_ (1879) had some success, it -was with _Donovan_ (1882) and _We Two_ (1884), in which the persecuted -atheist was inevitably identified with Charles Bradlaugh, that she -became widely popular. Other novels were _In the Golden Days_ (1885), a -story of the Great Rebellion; _Knight Errant_ (1887); _Autobiography of -a Slander_ (1887); _A Hardy Norseman_ (1889); _Derrick Vaughan_, _The -Story of a Novelist_ (1889); _To Right the Wrong_ (1892); _Doreen_ -(1894), a statement of the case for Irish Home Rule; _The Autobiography -of a Truth_ (1896), the proceeds of which were devoted to the Armenian -Relief Fund; _In Spite of All_ (1901), which had originally been -produced by Mr Ben Greet as a play; and _The Bruges Letters_ (1902), a -book for children. - - A _Life_ by J. N. Escreet appeared in 1904, and a shorter account of - her by the Rev. G. A. Payne was printed at Manchester in 1903. - - - - -LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. It -was constituted in 1904 to comprise the "Chenab Colony," being the waste -portion of the former Jhang district that is now irrigated by the Lower -Chenab canal. Area, 3075 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by -a section of the North-western railway. The headquarters are at Lyallpur -town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a -lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning and -pressing cotton. - - See _Chenab Colony Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1904). - - - - -LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, [Greek: Lychaion oros]: mod. _Diaphorti_), a -mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said to have been -born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon, -who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practised on its summit. -This seems to have involved a human sacrifice, and a feast in which the -man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as -Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of -a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no -shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it died -within the year. - - - - -LYCANTHROPY (Gr. [Greek: lykos], wolf, [Greek: anthropos], man), a name -employed (1) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human being to -undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology for a form of -insanity in which the patient believes that he is transformed into an -animal and behaves accordingly. - -I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to -metamorphosis into a wolf (see WERWOLF), it is in practice used of -transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of kynanthropy -([Greek: kyon], dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the tiger is the -commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan the fox, in Africa -the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion, in South America the -jaguar; but though there is a tendency for the most important -carnivorous animal of the area to take the first place in stories and -beliefs as to transformation, the less important beasts of prey and even -harmless animals like the deer also figure among the wer-animals. - -Lycanthropy is often confused with transmigration; but the essential -feature of the wer-animal is that it is the alternative form or the -double of a living human being, while the soul-animal is the vehicle, -temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead human being. The vampire -is sometimes regarded as an example of lycanthropy; but it is in human -form, sometimes only a head, sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a -living person, at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave -to prey upon the living. - -Even if the denotation of lycanthropy be limited to the -animal-metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed -together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat -capriciously applied. The transformation may be voluntary or -involuntary, temporary or permanent; the wer-animal may be the man -himself metamorphosed, it may be his double whose activity leaves the -real man to all appearance unchanged, it may be his soul, which goes -forth seeking whom it may devour and leaving its body in a state of -trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a -real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connexion with its -owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a -phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the -human being. - -The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of -sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the -supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are -also attributed to the magician, male and female, all the world over; -and witch superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with, -lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of -lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another -direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself -in connexion with the bush-soul of the West African and the _nagual_ of -Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn -on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate -association of the bush-soul or the _nagual_ with a human being are not -termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will be well to touch on both these -beliefs here. - -In North and Central America, and to some extent in West Africa, -Australia and other parts of the world, every male acquires at puberty a -tutelary spirit (see DEMONOLOGY); in some tribes of Indians the youth -kills the animal of which he dreams in his initiation fast; its claw, -skin or feathers are put into a little bag and become his "medicine" and -must be carefully retained, for a "medicine" once lost can never be -replaced. In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by -means of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal -causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession of a -tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician. In -Alaska the candidate for magical powers has to leave the abodes of men; -the chief of the gods sends an otter to meet him, which he kills by -saying "O" four times; he then cuts out its tongue and thereby secures -the powers which he seeks. The Malays believe that the office of -_pawang_ (priest) is only hereditary if the soul of the dead priest, in -the form of a tiger, passes into the body of his son. While the familiar -is often regarded as the alternative form of the magician, the _nagual_ -or bush-soul is commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human -being. Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa, -in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole of the -population of certain areas. The people of Banana are said to change -themselves by magical means, composed of human embryos and other -ingredients, but in their leopard form they may do no hurt to mankind -under pain of retaining for ever the beast shape. In other cases the -change is supposed to be made for the purposes of evil magic and human -victims are not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of -demarcation, and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected -with nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with -metempsychosis, as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as suggested by J. -F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the Zulu belief that the -magician's familiar is really a transformed human being; when he finds a -dead body on which he can work his spells without fear of discovery, the -wizard breathes a sort of life into it, which enables it to move and -speak, it being thought that some dead wizard has taken possession of -it. He then burns a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts -the tongue. Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified -body into the form of some animal, hyena, owl or wild cat, the latter -being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's servant -and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however, to inflict -sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by its master. - - _Lycanthropy in Europe._--The wolf is the commonest form of the - wer-animal (see WERWOLF), though in the north the bear disputes its - pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated with the - belief. Marcellus of Sida, who wrote under the Antonines, gives an - account of a disease which befell people in February; but a - pathological state seems to be meant. - - _Lycanthropy in Africa._--In Abyssinia the power of transformation is - attributed to the Boudas, and at the same time we have records of - pathological lycanthropy (see below). Blacksmiths are credited with - magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant that - the Boudas are workers in iron and clay; in the _Life of N. Pearce_ - (i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed - transformation which took place in his presence and almost before his - eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than - coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience. - - _The Wer-tiger of the East Indies._--The Poso-Alfures of central - Celebes believe that man has three souls, the _inosa_, the _angga_ and - the _tanoana_. The _inosa_ is the vital principle; it can be detected - in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the great - natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The _angga_ is the - intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes to - the under-world, and, unlike the _inosa_, which is believed to be - dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an - immaterial body. The _tanoana_ is the divine in man and after death - returns to its lord, Poewempala boeroe. It goes forth during sleep, - and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he - dreams. According to another account, the _tanoana_ is the substance - by which man lives, thinks and acts; the _tanoana_ of man, plants and - animals is of the same nature. A man's _tanoana_ can be strengthened - by those of others; when the _tanoana_ is long away or destroyed the - man dies. The _tanoana_ seems to be the soul of which lycanthropic - feats are asserted. - - Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's - "inside" can take the form of a cat, wild pig, ape, deer or other - animal, and afterwards resume human form; it is termed _lamboyo_. The - exact relation of the _lamboyo_ to the _tanoana_ does not seem to be - settled; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According - to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others - hold that werwolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating food - left by a werwolf or even by leaning one's head against the same - pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes a - werwolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that werwolfism - can be cured; the breast and stomach of the werman must be rubbed and - pinched, just as when any other witch object has to be extracted. The - patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves the body in the form - of snakes and worms. There are certain marks by which a werman can be - recognized. His eyes are unsteady and sometimes green with dark - shadows underneath. He does not sleep soundly and fireflies come out - of his mouth. His lips remain red in spite of betel chewing, and he - has a long tongue. The Todjoers add that his hair stands on end. - - Some of the forms of the _lamboyo_ are distinguishable from ordinary - animals by the fact that they run about among the houses; the - wer-buffalo has only one horn, and the wer-pig transforms itself into - an ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the werman does - not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the sorcerer, - only sends out a messenger. The _lamboyo_ attacks by preference - solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The victim - feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the _lamboyo_ then assumes human - form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his victim, - scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the liver and eats - it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long tongue and - joins it together. When the victim comes to himself again he has no - idea that anything unusual has happened to him. He goes home, but soon - begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies, but before his death he - is able sometimes to name the werman to whom he has fallen a victim. - - From this account it might be inferred that the _lamboyo_ was - identical with the _tanoana_; the absence of the _lamboyo_ seems to - entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human form. - In other cases, however, the _lamboyo_ seems to be analogous to the - familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how a man once - came to a house and asked the woman to give him a rendezvous; it was - night and she was asleep; the question was put three times before the - answer was given "in the tobacco plantation." The husband was awake, - and next day followed his wife, who was irresistibly drawn thither. - The werman came to meet her in human form, although his body was - engaged in building a new house, and caused the woman to faint by - stamping three times on the ground. Thereupon the husband attacked the - werman with a piece of wood, and the latter to escape transformed - himself into a leaf; this the husband put into a piece of bamboo and - fastened the ends so that he could not escape. He then went back to - the village and put the bamboo in the fire. The werman said "Don't," - and as soon as it was burnt he fell dead. - - In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to be due - to the malevolence of a werwolf, her husband watched by her body. For, - like Indian witches, the werwolf, for some reason, wishes to revive - his victim and comes in human form to carry off the coffin. As soon as - the woman was brought to life the husband attacked the werwolf, who - transformed himself into a piece of wood and was burnt. The woman - remained alive, but her murderer died the same night. - - According to a third form of the belief, the body of the werman is - itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a party - were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions heard a deer - and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came back and said he - had been shot. Although no marks were to be seen he died a few days - later. - - In Central Java we meet with another kind of wer-tiger. The power of - transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the use of - spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, &c. Save when - it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile to man; - in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night and to guard - the plantations from wild pigs, exactly as the _balams_ (magicians) of - Yucatan were said to guard the corn fields in animal form. Variants of - this belief assert that the werman does not recognize his friends - unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as a mendicant and - transforms himself to take vengeance on those who refuse him alms. - Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds; for them the tiger is - friendly; he reserves his wrath for their enemies, and a man is said - to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just vengeance. - - _Lycanthropy in South America._--According to K. F. P. v. Martius the - _kanaima_ is a human being who employs poison to carry out his - function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the _kanaima_ - as a jaguar, which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a - cannibalistic sorcerer. The Europeans of Brazil hold that the seventh - child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a wer-man or - woman, and takes the form of a horse, goat, jaguar or pig. - -II. As a pathological state lycanthropy may be described as a kind of -hysteria, and may perhaps be brought into connexion with the form of it -known as _latah_. It is characterized by the patient's belief that he -has been metamorphosed into an animal, and is often accompanied by a -craving for strange articles of food, including the flesh of living -beings or of corpses. In the lower stages of culture the state of the -patient is commonly explained as due to possession, but where he leaves -the neighbourhood of man real metamorphosis may be asserted, as in -ordinary lycanthropic beliefs. Marcellus of Sida says that in Greece the -patients frequented the tombs at night; they were recognizable by their -yellow complexion, hollow eyes and dry tongue. The Garrows of India are -said to tear their hair when they are seized with the complaint, which -is put down to the use of a drug applied to the forehead; this recalls -the stories of the witch's salve in Europe. In Abyssinia the patient is -usually a woman; two forms are distinguished, caused by the hyena and -the leopard respectively. A kind of trance ushers in the fit; the -fingers are clenched, the eyes glazed and the nostrils distended; the -patient, when she comes to herself, laughs hideously and runs on all -fours. The exorcist is a blacksmith; as a rule, he applies onion or -garlic to her nose and proceeds to question the evil spirit. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the anthropological side of the subject see - bibliography to WERWOLF; also _Tijdskrift voor indische Taal, Land en - Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; _Med. - Zendelingsgenootschap_, xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, _Suggestion_, p. 418; - W. H. Brett, _Indians of British Guiana_. For the pathological side, - see Hack Tuke, _Dict. of Psychological Medicine_, s.v. "Lycanthropy"; - _Dict. des sciences medicales_; Waldmeier, _Autobiography_, p. 64; A. - J. Hayes, _Source of Blue Nile_, p. 286 seq.; _Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse - kgl. sachsische Gesellschaft der Wiss._ 17, No. 3. (N. W. T.) - - - - -LYCAON, in Greek mythology, son of Pelasgus, the mythical first king of -Arcadia. He, or his fifty impious sons, entertained Zeus and set before -him a dish of human flesh; the god pushed away the dish in disgust and -either killed the king and his sons by lightning or turned them into -wolves (Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 198). Some say that Lycaon -slew and dished up his own son Nyctimus (Clem. Alex. _Protrept._ ii. 36; -Nonnus, _Dionys._ xviii. 20; Arnobius iv. 24). The deluge was said to -have been sent by Zeus in the time of Deucalion in consequence of the -sons' impiety. Pausanias (viii. 2) says that Lycaon sacrificed a child -to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and immediately after the -sacrifice was turned into a wolf. This gave rise to the story that a man -was turned into a wolf at each annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but -recovered his human form if he abstained from human flesh for ten years. -The oldest city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first -civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story has been -variously interpreted. According to Weizsacker, he was an old Pelasgian -or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human sacrifice was offered, bearing a -non-Hellenic name similar to [Greek: Lykos], whence the story originated -of his metamorphosis into a wolf. His cult was driven out by that of the -Hellenic Zeus, and Lycaon himself was afterwards represented as an evil -spirit, who had insulted the new deity by setting human flesh before -him. Robertson Smith considers the sacrifices offered to the wolf-Zeus -in Arcadia to have been originally cannibal feasts of a wolf-tribe, who -recognized the wolf as their totem. Usener and others identify Lycaon -with Zeus Lycaeus, the god of light, who slays his son Nyctimus (the -dark) or is succeeded by him, in allusion to the perpetual succession of -night and day. According to Ed. Meyer, the belief that Zeus Lycaeus -accepted human sacrifice in the form of a wolf was the origin of the -myth that Lycaon, the founder of his cult, became a wolf, i.e. -participated in the nature of the god by the act of sacrifice, as did -all who afterwards duly performed it. W. Mannhardt sees in the ceremony -an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of which was to -prevent the failure of the crops and to avert pestilence (or to protect -them and the flocks against the ravages of wolves). Others (e.g. V. -Berard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported -into Arcadia by the Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus -Phyxios, the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed -blood. Another explanation is that the place of the sacred wolf once -worshipped in Arcadia was taken in cult by Zeus Lycaeus, and in popular -tradition by Lycaon, the ancestor of the Arcadians, who was supposed to -have been punished for his insulting treatment of Zeus. It is possible -that the whole may be merely a reminiscence of a superstition similar to -the familiar werwolf stories. - - See articles by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's _Lexikon_ and by G. - Fougeres (s.v. "Lykaia") in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des - antiquites_; W. Immerwahr, _Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_, 1. - (1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, i. (1896), - p. 40; A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_ (1899); C. Pascal, _Studii - di antichita e mitologia_ (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death - honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten - Geschichte_, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_, - ii. (1905); G. Fougeres, _Mantinee et l'Arcadie orientale_ (1898), p. - 202; V. Berard, _De l'origine des cultes arcadiens_ (1894); H. D. - Muller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stamme_, ii. (1861), p. 78; H. - Usener, _Rheinisches Museum_, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Gorres, - _Berliner Studien fur classische Philologie_, x. 1 (1889), who regards - the Lycaea as a funeral festival connected with the changes of - vegetation; Vollgraf, _De Ovidii mythopoeia_; a concise statement of - the various forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, _Griechische - Mythologie_, ii. p. 920, n. 4; see also LYCANTHROPY; D. Bassi, "Apollo - Liceo," in _Rivista di storia antica_, i. (1895); and Frazer's - _Pausanias_, iv. p. 189. (J. H. F.) - - - - -LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a large region in the interior of Asia -Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the E. by Cappadocia, on -the N. by Galatia, on the W. by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the S. it -extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the country -popularly called in earlier times Cilicia Tracheia and in the Byzantine -period Isauria; but its boundaries varied greatly at different times. -The name is not found in Herodotus, but Lycaonia is mentioned by -Xenophon as traversed by Cyrus the younger on his march through Asia. -That author describes Iconium as the last city of Phrygia; and in Acts -xiv. 5 St Paul, after leaving Iconium, crossed the frontier and came to -Lystra in Lycaonia. Ptolemy, on the other hand, includes Lycaonia as a -part of the province of Cappadocia, with which it was associated by the -Romans for administrative purposes; but the two countries are clearly -distinguished both by Strabo and Xenophon and by authorities generally. - -Lycaonia is described by Strabo as a cold region of elevated plains, -affording pasture to wild asses and to sheep; and at the present day -sheep abound, but asses are practically unknown. Amyntas, king of -Galatia, to whom the district was for a time subject, maintained there -not less than three hundred flocks. It forms part of the interior -tableland of Asia Minor, and has an elevation of more than 3000 ft. It -suffers from want of water, aggravated in some parts by abundance of -salt in the soil, so that the northern portion, extending from near -Iconium to the salt lake of Tatta and the frontiers of Galatia, is -almost wholly barren, only small patches being cultivated near Iconium -and the large villages. The soil, where water is supplied, is -productive. In ancient times great attention was paid to storing and -distributing the water, so that much land now barren was formerly -cultivated and supported a large number of cities. - -The plain is interrupted by some minor groups of mountains, of volcanic -character, of which the Kara Dagh in the south, a few miles north of -Karaman, rises above 7000 ft., while the Karadja Dagh, north-east of it, -though of inferior elevation, presents a striking range of volcanic -cones. The mountains in the north-west, near Iconium and Laodicea, are -the termination of the Sultan Dagh range, which traverses a large part -of Phrygia. - -The Lycaonians appear to have been in early times to a great extent -independent of the Persian empire, and were like their neighbours the -Isaurians a wild and lawless race of freebooters; but their country was -traversed by one of the great natural lines of high road through Asia -Minor, from Sardis and Ephesus to the Cilician gates, and a few -considerable towns grew up along or near this line. The most important -was Iconium, in the most fertile spot in the country, of which it was -always regarded by the Romans as the capital, although ethnologically it -was Phrygian. It is still called Konia, and it was the capital of the -Seljuk Turkish empire for several centuries. A little farther north, -immediately on the frontier of Phrygia, stood Laodicea (Ladik), called -Combusta, to distinguish it from the Phrygian city of that name; and in -the south, near the foot of Mount Taurus, was Laranda, now called -Karaman, which has given name to the province of Karamania. Derbe and -Lystra, which appear from the Acts of the Apostles to have been -considerable towns, were between Iconium and Laranda. There were many -other towns, which became bishoprics in Byzantine times. Lycaonia was -Christianized very early; and its ecclesiastical system was more -completely organized in its final form during the 4th century than that -of any other region of Asia Minor. - -After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, Lycaonia was given by the -Romans to Eumenes II., king of Pergamos. About 160 B.C. part of it, the -"Tetrarchy of Lycaonia," was added to Galatia; and in 129 B.C. the -eastern half (usually called during the following 200 years Lycaonia -proper) was given to Cappadocia as an eleventh strategia. In the -readjustment of the Provinciae, 64 B.C., by Pompey after the Mithradatic -wars, he gave the northern part of the tetrarchy to Galatia and the -eastern part of the eleventh strategia to Cappadocia. The remainder was -attached to Cilicia. Its administration and grouping changed often under -the Romans. In A.D. 371 Lycaonia was first formed into a separate -province. It now forms part of the Konia vilayet. - -The Lycaonians appear to have retained a distinct nationality in the -time of Strabo, but their ethnical affinities are unknown. The mention -of the Lycaonian language in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 11) shows -that the native language was spoken by the common people at Lystra about -A.D. 50; and probably it was only later and under Christian influence -that Greek took its place. - - See Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (1890), - _Historical Commentary on Galatians_ (1899) and _Cities of St Paul_ - (1907); also an article on the topography in the _Jahreshefte des - Oesterr. Archaeolog. Instituts_, 194 (Beiblatt) pp. 57-132. - (W. M. Ra.) - - - - -LYCEUM, the latinized form of Gr. [Greek: Lykeion], the name of a -gymnasium and garden with covered walks, near the temple of Apollo -Lyceus ([Greek: Apollon Aykeios]) at Athens. Aristotle taught here, and -hence the name was applied to his school of philosophy. The name had -been used in many languages for places of instruction, &c. In France the -term _lycee_ is given to the secondary schools which are administered by -the state, in contradistinction to the communal _colleges_. - - - - -LYCIA, in ancient geography, a district in the S.W. of Asia Minor, -occupying the coast between Caria and Pamphylia, and extending inland as -far as the ridge of Mt Taurus. The region thus designated is a peninsula -projecting southward from the great mountain masses of the interior. It -is for the most part a rugged mountainous country, traversed by -offshoots of the Taurus range, which terminate on the coast in lofty -promontories. The coast, though less irregular than that of Caria, is -indented by a succession of bays--the most marked of which is the Gulf -of Macri (anc. _Glaucus Sinus_) in the extreme west. A number of smaller -bays, and broken rocky headlands, with a few small islets, constitute -the coast-line thence to the S.E. promontory of Lycia, formed by a long -narrow tongue of rocky hill, known in ancient times as the "Sacred -Promontory" (Hiera Acra), with three small adjacent islets, called the -Chelidonian islands, which was regarded by some ancient geographers as -the commencement of Mt. Taurus. Though the mountain ranges of Lycia are -all offshoots of Mt, Taurus, in ancient times several of them were -distinguished by separate names. Such were Daedala in the west, -adjoining the Gulf of Macri, Cragus on the sea-coast, west of the valley -of the Xanthus, Massicytus (10,000 ft.) nearly in the centre of the -region, and Solyma in the extreme east above Phaselis (7800 ft.). The -steep and rugged pass between Solyma and the sea, called the Climax -("Ladder"), was the only direct communication between Lycia and -Pamphylia. - -The only two considerable rivers are: (1) the Xanthus, which descends -from the central mass of Mt Taurus, and flows through a narrow valley -till it reaches the city of the same name, below which it forms a plain -of some extent before reaching the sea, and (2) the Limyrus, which -enters the sea near Limyra. The small alluvial plains at the mouths of -these rivers are the only level ground in Lycia, but the hills that rise -thence towards the mountains are covered with a rich arborescent -vegetation. The upper valleys and mountain sides afford good pasture for -sheep, and the main Taurus range encloses several extensive upland -basin-shaped valleys (_vailas_), which are characteristic of that range -throughout its extent (see ASIA MINOR). - - The limits of Lycia towards the interior seem to have varied at - different times. The high and cold upland tract to the north-east, - called Milyas, was by some writers included in that province, though - it is naturally more connected with Pisidia. According to Artemidorus - (whose authority is followed by Strabo), the towns that formed the - Lycian league in the days of its integrity were twenty-three in - number; but Pliny states that Lycia once possessed seventy towns, of - which only twenty-six remained in his day. Recent researches have - fully confirmed the fact that the sea-coast and the valleys were - thickly studded with towns, many of which are proved by existing - remains to have been places of importance. By the aid of inscriptions - the position of the greater part of the cities mentioned in ancient - authors can be fixed. On the gulf of Glaucus, near the frontiers of - Caria, stood Telmessus, an important place, while a short distance - inland from it were the small towns of Daedala and Cadyanda. At the - entrance of the valley of the Xanthus were Patara, Xanthus itself, - and, a little higher up, Pinara on the west and Tlos on the east side - of the valley, while Araxa stood at the head of the valley, at the - foot of the pass leading into the interior. Myra, one of the most - important cities of Lycia, occupied the entrance of the valley of the - Andriacus; on the coast between this and the mouth of the Xanthus - stood Antiphellus, while in the interior at a short distance were - found Phellus, Cyaneae and Candyba. In the alluvial plain formed by - the rivers Arycandus and Limyrus stood Limyra, and encircling the same - bay the three small towns of Rhodiapolis, Corydalla and Gagae. - Arycanda commanded the upper valley of the river of the same name. On - the east coast stood Olympus, one of the cities of the league, while - Phaselis, a little farther north, which was a much more important - place, never belonged to the Lycian league and appears always to have - maintained an independent position. - - The cold upland district of the Milyas does not seem to have contained - any town of importance. Podalia appears to have been its chief place. - Between the Milyas and the Pamphylian Gulf was the lofty mountain - range of Solyma, which was supposed to derive its name from the - Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer in connexion with the Lycians and - the story of Bellerophon. In the flank of this mountain, near a place - called Deliktash, was the celebrated fiery source called the Chimaera, - which gave rise to many fables. It has been visited in modern times by - Captain F. Beaufort, T. A. B. Spratt and Edward Forbes, and other - travellers, and is merely a stream of inflammable gas issuing from - crevices in the rocks, such as are found in several places in the - Apennines. No traces of recent volcanic action exist in Lycia. - -_History._--The name of the Lycians, _Lukki_, is first met with in the -Tel el-Amarna tablets (1400 B.C.) and in the list of the nations from -the eastern Mediterranean who invaded Egypt in the reign of Mineptah, -the successor of Rameses II. At that time they seem to have occupied the -Cilician coast. Their occupation of Lycia was probably later, and since -the Lycian inscriptions are not found far inland, we may conclude that -they entered the country from the sea. On the other hand the name -appears to be preserved in Lycaonia, where some bands of them may have -settled. According to Herodotus they called themselves Termilae, written -Trmmile in the native inscriptions, and he further states that the -original inhabitants of the country were the Milyans and Solymi, the -Lycians being invaders from Crete. In this tradition there is a -reminiscence of the fact that the Lycians had been sea-rovers before -their settlement in Lycia. The Lycian Sarpedon was believed to have -taken part in the Trojan war. The Lydians failed to subdue Lycia, but -after the fall of the Lydian empire it was conquered by Harpagus the -general of Cyrus, Xanthus or Arnna, the capital, being completely -destroyed. While acknowledging the suzerainty of Persia, however, the -Lycians remained practically independent, and for a time joined the -Delian league. "The son of Harpagus" on the obelisk of Xanthus boasts of -having sacked numerous cities in alliance with the Athenian goddess. The -Lycians were incorporated into the empire of Alexander and his -successors, but even after their conquest by the Romans, preserved their -federal institutions as late as the time of Augustus. According to -Strabo the principal towns in the league were Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, -Olympus, Myra and Tlos; each of these had three votes in the general -assembly, while the other towns had only two or one. Taxation and the -appointment of the Lyciarch and other magistrates were vested in the -assembly. Under Claudius Lycia was formally annexed to the Roman empire, -and united with Pamphylia: Theodosius made it a separate province. - -_Antiquities._--Few parts of Asia Minor were less known in modern times -than Lycia up to the 19th century. Captain Beaufort was the first to -visit several places on the sea-coast, and the remarkable rock-hewn -tombs of Telmessus had been already described by Dr Clarke, but it was -Sir Charles Fellows who first discovered and drew attention to the -extraordinary richness of the district in ancient remains, especially of -a sepulchral character. His visits to the country in 1838 and 1840 were -followed by an expedition sent by the British government in 1842 to -transport to England the valuable monuments now in the British Museum, -while Admiral Spratt and Edward Forbes explored the interior, and laid -down its physical features on an excellent map. The monuments thus -brought to light are among the most interesting of those discovered in -Asia Minor, and prove the existence of a distinct native architecture, -especially in the rock-cut tombs. But the theatres found in almost every -town, some of them of very large size, are sufficient to attest the -pervading influence of Greek civilization; and this is confirmed by the -sculptures, which are for the most part wholly Greek. None of them, -indeed, can be ascribed to a very early period, and hardly any trace can -be found of the influence of Assyrian or other Oriental art. - -One of the most interesting results of these recent researches has been -the discovery of numerous inscriptions in the native language of the -country, and written in an alphabet peculiar to Lycia. A few of these -inscriptions are bilingual, in Greek and Lycian, and the clue thus -afforded to their interpretation has been followed up, first by Daniel -Sharpe and Moritz Schmidt, and in more recent years by J. Imbert, W. -Arkwright, V. Thomsen, A. Torp, S. Bugge and E. Kalinka. - -The alphabet was derived from the Doric alphabet of Rhodes, but ten -other characters were added to it to express vocalic and other sounds -not found in Greek. The attempts to connect the language with the -Indo-European family have been unsuccessful; it belongs to a separate -family of speech which we may term "Asianic." Most of the inscriptions -are sepulchral; by far the longest and most important is that on an -obelisk found at Xanthus, which is a historical document, the concluding -part of it being in a peculiar dialect, supposed to be an older and -poetical form of the language. Among the deities mentioned are Trzzube -(Trosobis) and Trqqiz or Trqqas. - -Lycian art was modelled on that of the Greeks. The rock-cut tomb usually -represented the house of the living, with an elaborate facade, but in -one or two instances, notably that of the so-called Harpy-tomb, the -facade is surmounted by a tall, square tower, in the upper part of which -is the sepulchral chamber. Lycian sculpture followed closely the -development of Greek sculpture, and many of the sculptures with which -the tombs are adorned are of a high order of merit. The exquisite -bas-reliefs on a Lycian sarcophagus now in the museum of Constantinople -are among the finest surviving examples of classical art. The -bas-reliefs were usually coloured. For the coinage, see NUMISMATICS, -section "Asia Minor." - - AUTHORITIES.--C. Fellows, _Journal in Asia Minor_ (1839) and - _Discoveries in Lycia_ (1841); T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, _Travels - in Lycia_ (1847); O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, _Reisen im sudwestlichen - Kleinasien_ (1884); E. Petersen and F. von Luschan, _Reisen in Lykien_ - (1889); O. Treuber, _Geschichte der Lykier_ (1887); G. Perrot and C. - Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, v. (1890); P. - Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_ - (1896); S. Bugge, _Lykische Studien_ (from 1897); A. Torp, _Lykische - Beitrage_ (from 1898); V. Thomsen, _Etudes lyciennes_ (1899); E. - Kalinka and R. Heberdey, _Tituli Asiae Minoris_, i. (1901); see also - articles XANTHUS, MYRA, PATARA. (A. H. S.) - - - - -LYCK, or LYK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East -Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Konigsberg, and close to the frontier of -Poland, on a lake and river of the same name. Pop. (1900) 11,386. It is -the chief town of the region known as Masuria. On an island in the lake -is a castle formerly belonging to the Teutonic order, and dating from -1273, now used as a prison. There are iron-foundries, distilleries, -breweries, tanneries, paper mills and flour mills, and a trade in grain -and cattle. - - - - -LYCOPHRON, Greek poet and grammarian, was born at Chalcis in Euboea. He -flourished at Alexandria in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 -B.C.). According to Suidas, he was the son of Socles, but was adopted by -Lycus of Rhegium. He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging -the comedies in the Alexandrian library, and as the result of his -labours composed a treatise _On Comedy_. His own compositions, however, -chiefly consisted of tragedies (Suidas gives the titles of twenty, of -which very few fragments have been preserved), which secured him a place -in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians. One of his poems, _Alexandra_ -or _Cassandra_, containing 1474 iambic lines, has been preserved entire. -It is in the form of a prophecy uttered by Cassandra, and relates the -later fortunes of Troy and of the Greek and Trojan heroes. References to -events of mythical and later times are introduced, and the poem ends -with a reference to Alexander the Great, who was to unite Asia and -Europe in his world-wide empire. The style is so enigmatical as to have -procured for Lycophron, even among the ancients, the title of "obscure" -([Greek: skoteinos]). The poem is evidently intended to display the -writer's knowledge of obscure names and uncommon myths; it is full of -unusual words of doubtful meaning gathered from the older poets, and -many long-winded compounds coined by the author. It has none of the -qualities of poetry, and was probably written as a show-piece for the -Alexandrian school. It was very popular in the Byzantine period, and was -read and commented on very frequently; the collection of scholia by -Isaac and John Tzetzes is very valuable, and the MSS. of the _Cassandra_ -are numerous.[1] A few well-turned lines which have been preserved from -Lycophron's tragedies show a much better style; they are said to have -been much admired by Menedemus of Eretria, although the poet had -ridiculed him in a satyric drama. Lycophron is also said to have been a -skilful writer of anagrams. - - Editio princeps (1513); J. Potter (1697, 1702); L. Sebastiani (1803); - L. Bachmann (1830); G. Kinkel (1880); E. Scheer (1881-1908), vol. ii. - containing the scholia. The most complete edition is by C. von - Holzinger (with translation, introduction and notes, 1895). There are - translations by F. Deheque (1853) and Viscount Royston (1806; a work - of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, _De Lycophronis - Alexandra_ (1884); J. Konze, _De Dictione Lycophronis_ (1870). The - commentaries of the brothers Tzetzes have been edited by C. O. Muller - (1811). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Two passages of the _Cassandra_, 1446-1450 and 1226-1282, in - which the career of the Roman people and their universal empire are - spoken of, could not possibly have been written by an Alexandrian - poet of 250 B.C. Hence it has been maintained by Niebuhr and others - that the poem was written, by a later poet mentioned by Tzetzes, but - the opinion of Welcker that these paragraphs are a later - interpolation is generally considered more probable. - - - - -LYCOPODIUM, the principal genus of the Lycopodiaceae, a natural order of -the Fern-allies (see PTERIDOPHYTA). They are flowerless herbs, with an -erect, prostrate or creeping widely-branched stem, with small simple -leaves which thickly cover the stem and branches. The "fertile" leaves -are arranged in cones, and bear spore-cases (sporangia) in their axils, -containing spores of one kind only. The prothallium developed from the -spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size, and bears -the male and female organs (_antheridia_ and _archegonia_). There are -about a hundred species widely distributed in temperate and tropical -climates; five occur in Britain on heaths and moors, chiefly in -mountainous districts, and are known as club-mosses The commonest -species, _L. clavatum_, is also known as stag-horn moss. - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission -of Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 1.--Lycopodium clavatum. - - A, Old prothallus. - B, Prothallus bearing a young sporophyte. - G, Polian of a mature plant, showing the creeping habit, the - adventitious roots and the specialized erect branches bearing the - strobile or cones. - H, Sporophyte bearing the single sporangium on its upper surface. - J, Spore.] - - Gerard, in 1597, described two kinds of lycopodium (_Herball_, p. - 1373) under the names _Muscus denticulatus_ and _Muscus clavatus_ (_L. - clavatum_) as "Club Mosse or Woolfes Clawe Mosse," the names being in - Low Dutch, "Wolfs Clauwen," from the resemblance of the club-like or - claw-shaped shoots to the toes of a wolf, "whereupon we first named it - _Lycopodion_." Gerard also speaks of its emetic and many other - supposed virtues. _L. Selago_ and _L. catharticum_ (a native of the - Andes) have been said to be, at least when fresh, cathartic; but, with - the exception of the spores of _L. clavatum_ ("lycopodium powder"), - lycopodium as a drug has fallen into disuse. The powder is used for - rolling pills in, as a dusting powder for infants' sores, &c. A - _tinctura lycopodii_, containing one part of the powder to ten of - alcohol (90%), has been given, in doses of 15 to 60 minims, in cases - of irritation and spasm of the bladder. The powder is highly - inflammable, and is used in pyrotechny and for artificial lightning on - the stage. If the hand be covered with the powder it cannot be wetted - on being plunged into water. Another use of lycopodium is for dyeing; - woollen cloth boiled with species of lycopodium, as _L. clavatum_, - becomes blue when dipped in a bath of Brazil wood. - - - - -LYCOSURA (mod. _Palaeokastro_ or _Siderokastro_), a city of Arcadia, -reputed to be the most ancient city in Greece, and to have been founded -by Lycaon the son of Pelasgus. Its fame in later times was chiefly -associated with the temple of Despoena, containing the colossal group -made by Damophon of Messene, of Despoena and Demeter seated, with -Artemis and the Titan Anytus standing beside them. The temple and -considerable remains of the group of sculpture were found in 1889. The -date of both has been a matter of dispute, Damophon being placed at -dates varying from the 4th century B.C. to the age of Hadrian. But it -has now been shown that he lived in the 2nd century B.C. Remains of a -portico, altars and other structures have also been found. - - See [Greek: Praktika tes Arch. Hetairias] (1896); G. Dickens, _Annual - of British School_ at Athens, xii. and xiii. - - - - -LYCURGUS (Gr. [Greek: Lykourgos]), in Greek history, the reputed founder -of the Spartan constitution. Plutarch opens his biography of Lycurgus -with these words: "About Lycurgus the lawgiver it is not possible to -make a single statement that is not called in question. His genealogy, -his travels, his death, above all, his legislative and constitutional -activity have been variously recorded, and there is the greatest -difference of opinion as to his date." Nor has modern historical -criticism arrived at any certain results. Many scholars, indeed, suppose -him to be in reality a god or hero, appealing to the existence of a -temple and cult of Lycurgus at Sparta as early as the time of Herodotus, -(i. 66), and to the words of the Delphic oracle (Herod. i. 65)-- - - [Greek: dixo e se theon manteusomai e anthropon. - all' eti kai mallon theon elpomai, o Lykoorge.] - -If this be so, he is probably to be connected with the cult of Apollo -Lycius or with that of Zeus Lycaeus. But the majority of modern -historians agree in accepting Lycurgus as an historical person, however -widely they may differ about his work. - -According to the Spartan tradition preserved by Herodotus, Lycurgus was -a member of the Agiad house, son of Agis I. and brother of Echestratus. -On the death of the latter he became regent and guardian of his nephew -Labotas (Leobotes), who was still a minor. Simonides, on the other hand, -spoke of him as a Eurypontid, son of Prytanis and brother of Eunomus, -and later the tradition prevailed which made him the son of Eunomus and -Dionassa, and half-brother of the king Polydectes, on whose death he -became guardian of the young king Charillus. According to Herodotus he -introduced his reforms immediately on becoming regent, but the story -which afterwards became generally accepted and is elaborated by Plutarch -represented him as occupying for some time the position of regent, then -spending several years in travels, and on his return to Sparta carrying -through his legislation when Charillus was king. This latter version -helped to emphasize the disinterestedness of the lawgiver, and also -supplied a motive for his travels--the jealousy of those who accused him -of trying to supplant his nephew on the throne. He is said to have -visited Crete, Egypt and Ionia, and some versions even took him to -Spain, Libya and India. - -Various beliefs were held as to the source from which Lycurgus derived -his ideas of reform. Herodotus found the tradition current among the -Spartans that they were suggested to Lycurgus by the similar Cretan -institutions, but even in the 5th century there was a rival theory that -he derived them from the Delphic oracle. These two versions are united -by Ephorus, who argued that, though Lycurgus had really derived his -system from Crete, yet to give it a religious sanction he had persuaded -the Delphic priestess to express his views in oracular form. - -_The Reforms._--Herodotus says that Lycurgus changed "all the customs," -that he created the military organization of [Greek: enomotiai] -(_enomoties_), [Greek: triekades] (_triecades_) and [Greek: syssitia] -(_syssitia_), and that he instituted the ephorate and the council of -elders. To him, further, are attributed the foundation of the apella -(the citizen assembly), the prohibition of gold and silver currency, the -partition of the land ([Greek: ges anadasmos]) into equal lots, and, in -general, the characteristic Spartan training ([Greek: agoge]). Some of -these statements are certainly false. The council of elders and the -assembly are not in any sense peculiar to Sparta, but are present in the -heroic government of Greece as depicted in the Homeric poems. The -ephors, again, are almost universally held to be either an immemorial -heritage of the Dorian stock or--and this seems more probable--an -addition to the Spartan constitution made at a later date than can be -assigned to Lycurgus. Further, the tradition of the Lycurgan partition -of the land is open to grave objections. Grote pointed out (_History of -Greece_, pt. ii. ch. 6) that even from the earliest historical times we -find glaring inequalities of property at Sparta, and that the tradition -was apparently unknown to all the earlier Greek historians and -philosophers down to Plato and Aristotle: Isocrates (xii. 259) expressly -denied that a partition of land had ever taken place in the Spartan -state. Again, the tradition presupposes the conquest by the Spartans of -the whole, or at least the greater part, of Laconia, yet Lycurgus must -fall in the period when the Spartans had not yet subjugated even the -middle Eurotas plain, in which their city lay. Finally, we can point to -an adequate explanation of the genesis of the tradition in the ideals -of the reformers of the latter part of the 3rd century, led by the kings -Agis IV. and Cleomenes III. (q.v.). To them the cause of Sparta's -decline lay in the marked inequalities of wealth, and they looked upon a -redistribution of the land as the reform most urgently needed. But it -was characteristic of the Greeks to represent the ideals of the present -as the facts of the past, and so such a story as that of the Lycurgan -[Greek: ges anadasmos] may well have arisen at this time. It is at least -noteworthy that the plan of Agis to give 4500 lots to Spartans and -15,000 to perioeci suspiciously resembles that of Lycurgus, in whose -case the numbers are said to have been 9000 and 30,000 respectively. -Lastly, the prohibition of gold and silver money cannot be attributed to -Lycurgus, for at so early a period coinage was yet unknown in Greece. - -Lycurgus, then, did not create any of the main elements of the Spartan -constitution, though he may have regulated their powers and defined -their position. But tradition represented him as finding Sparta the prey -of disunion, weakness and lawlessness, and leaving her united, strong -and subject to the most stable government which the Greek world had ever -seen. Probably Grote comes near to the truth when he says that Lycurgus -"is the founder of a warlike brotherhood rather than the lawgiver of a -political community." To him we may attribute the unification of the -several component parts of the state, the strict military organization -and training which soon made the Spartan hoplite the best soldier in -Greece, and above all the elaborate and rigid system of education which -rested upon, and in turn proved the strongest support of, that -subordination of the individual to the state which perhaps has had no -parallel in the history of the world. - -Lycurgus's legislation is very variously dated, and it is not possible -either to harmonize the traditions or to decide with confidence between -them. B. Niese (_Hermes_, xlii. 440 sqq.) assigns him to the first half -of the 7th century B.C. Aristotle read Lycurgus's name, together with -that of Iphitus, on the discus at Olympia which bore the terms of the -sacred truce, but even if the genuineness of the document and the -identity of this Lycurgus with the Spartan reformer be granted, it is -uncertain whether the discus belongs to the so-called first Olympiad, -776 B.C., or to an earlier date. Most traditions place Lycurgus in the -9th century: Thucydides, whom Grote follows, dates his reforms shortly -before 804, Isocrates and Ephorus go back to 869, and the chronographers -are divided between 821, 828 and 834 B.C. Finally, according to a -tradition recorded by Xenophon (_Resp. Laced_. x. 8), he was -contemporary with the Heraclidae, in which case he would belong to the -10th century B.C. - - AUTHORITIES.--Our chief ancient authorities, besides Plutarch's - biography, are:--Herodotus i. 65; Xenophon, _Respublica - Lacedaemoniorum_; Ephorus _ap_. Strabo x. 481, 482; Aristotle, - _Politics_, ii.; Pausanias iii. and v. 4; and scattered passages in - Plato, Isocrates, Polybius, Diodorus, Polyaenus, &c. Of modern works - the most important are: E. Meyer, "Lykurgos von Sparta," in - _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_ (Halle, 1892), i. 211 sqq.; A. - Kopstadt, _De rerum Laconicarum constitutionis Lycurgeae origine et - indole_ (Greifswald, 1849); H. K. Stein, _Kritik der Uberlieferung - uber den spartanischen Gesetzgeber Lykurg_ (Glatz, 1882); S. Wide, - "Bemerkungen zur spartanischen Lykurglegende," in _Skand_. _Archiv_. - i. (1891), 90 sqq.; E. Nusselt, _Das Lykurgproblem_ (Erlangen, 1898); - H. Bazin, _De Lycurgo_ (Paris, 1885); C. Reuss, _De Lycurgea quae - fertur agrorum divisione_ (Pforzheim, 1878); A. Busson, _Lykurgos und - die grosse Rhetra_ (Innsbruck, 1887); H. Gelzer, "Lykurg und die - delphische Priesterschaft" in _Rhein_. _Mus_. xxviii. 1 sqq.; F. - Winicker, _Stand der Lykurgischen Frage_ (Graudenz, 1884); G. - Attinger, _Essai sur Lycurgue et ses institutions_ (Neuchatel, 1892); - the general Greek histories, and the works on the Spartan constitution - cited under SPARTA. (M. N. T.) - - - - -LYCURGUS (c. 396-325 B.C.), one of the "ten" Attic orators. Through -his father, Lycophron, he belonged to the old Attic priestly family of -the Eteobutadae. He is said to have been a pupil both of Plato and of -Isocrates. His early career is unknown, but after the real character of -the struggle with Philip of Macedon became manifest he was recognized, -with Demosthenes and Hypereides, as one of the chiefs of the national -party. He left the care of external relations to his colleagues, and -devoted himself to internal organization and finance. He managed the -finances of Athens for twelve successive years (338-326), at first -directly as treasurer of the revenues ([Greek: ho hepi te dioikesei]) -for four years, and in two succeeding terms, when the actual office was -forbidden him by law, through his son and a nominal official chosen from -his party. Part of one of the deeds in which he rendered account of his -term of office is still preserved in an inscription. During this time he -raised the public income from 600 to 1200 talents yearly. He increased -the navy, repaired the dockyards, and completed an arsenal, the [Greek: -skeuotheke] designed by the architect Philo. He was also appointed to -various other offices connected with the preservation and improvement of -the city. He was very strict in his superintendence of the public -morals, and passed a sumptuary law to restrain extravagance. He did much -to beautify the city; he reconstructed the great Dionysiac theatre and -the gymnasium in the Lyceum, and erected the Panathenaic stadium on the -Ilissus. He is mentioned as the proposer of five laws, of which the most -famous was that statues of the three great tragedians should be erected -in the theatre, and that their works should be carefully edited and -preserved among the state archives. For his services he was honoured -with crowns, statues and a seat in the town hall; and after his death -his friend Stratocles drew up a decree (still extant in pseudo-Plutarch, -_Vit. dec. orat._ p. 851; see also E. L. Hicks, _Greek Historical -Inscriptions_, 1st ed., No. 145), ordering the erection of a statue of -bronze to Lycurgus, and granting the honours of the Prytaneum to his -eldest son. He was one of the orators whose surrender was demanded by -Alexander the Great, but the people refused to give him up. He died -while president of the theatre of Dionysus, and was buried on the road -leading to the Academy at the expense of the state. - -Lycurgus was a man of action; his orations, of which fifteen were -published, are criticized by the ancients for their awkward arrangement, -harshness of style, and the tendency to digressions about mythology and -history, although their noble spirit and lofty morality are highly -praised. The one extant example, _Against Leocrates_, fully bears out -this criticism. After the battle of Chaeroneia (338), in spite of the -decree which forbade emigration under pain of death, Leocrates had fled -from Athens. On his return (probably about 332) he was impeached by -Lycurgus, but acquitted, the votes of the judges being equally divided. - - The speech has been frequently edited. Editio princeps (Aldine, 1513); - F. G. Kiessling (1847) with M. H. E. Meier's commentary on - pseudo-Plutarch's _Life of Lycurgus_ and the fragments of his - speeches; C. Rehdantz (1876); T. Thalheim (1880); C. Scheibe (1885); - F. Blass (ed. major, 1889), with bibliography of editions and articles - (ed. minor, 1902); E. Sofer (Leipzig, 1905), with notes and introd. - There is an index to Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus by L. L. Forman - (Oxford, 1897). The exhaustive treatise of F. Durrbach, _L'Orateur - Lycurgue_ (1890), contains a list of the most important review - articles on the financial and naval administration of Lycurgus and on - his public works; see also C. Droege, _De Lycurgo publicarum - pecuniarum administratore_ (Minden, 1880). Several fragments of his - various laws have been preserved in inscriptions (_Corpus - inscriptionum atticarum_, ii. 162, 163, 173, 176, 180). On the history - of the period see authorities under DEMOSTHENES. - - - - -LYCURGUS, "THE LOGOTHETE" (1772-1851), Greek leader in the War of -Independence, was born in the island of Samos. He was educated at -Constantinople, received the usual training, and followed the customary -career of a Phanariot Greek. He accompanied Constantine Ypsilanti when -he was appointed hospodar of Walachia, as secretary, and served -Ypsilanti's successor, Alexander Soutzos, as treasurer and chancellor -(Logothete). In 1802 he returned to Samos, and having become suspected -by the Turkish government was imprisoned. He fled to Smyrna, when he was -pardoned and released by the Turks. When the War of Independence began -he induced his countrymen to declare Samos independent, and was chosen -ruler. His share in the War of Independence is chiefly memorable because -he provoked the massacre of Chios in 1822. Lycurgus conducted an -expedition of 2500 to that island, which was held by a Turkish garrison -under Velna Pasha. His force was insufficient, the time was ill-chosen, -for a strong Turkish fleet was at sea, and Lycurgus displayed utter -incapacity as a military leader. After these events, he was deposed by -the Samians, but recovered some influence and had a share in the defence -of Samos against the Turks in 1824. When the island was left under the -authority of Turkey by the protocol of the 3rd of February 1830, he -helped to obtain autonomy for the Samians. He retired to Greece and died -on the 22nd of May 1851. - - See G. Finlay, _History of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1861). - - - - -LYDD, a market town and municipal borough in the southern parliamentary -division of Kent, England, 71(1/2) m. S.E. by E. of London by a branch -of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 2675. It lies in the -open lowland of Dunge Marsh. To the south-east are the bare shingle -banks of the promontory of Dungeness. Its church of All Saints has a -beautiful Perpendicular tower with rich vaulting within. The -neighbourhood affords pasture for large flocks of sheep. On the land -known as the Rypes, in the neighbourhood, there is a military camp, with -artillery and rifle ranges; hence the name given to the explosive -"lyddite." The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 -councillors. Area, 12,043 acres. - -The first settlement at Lydd (Hlide, Lide, Lyde) was probably due to its -convenience as a fishing-station. After the Conquest it became a seaport -of some consequence and although now, owing to the alteration of the -coast, it stands nearly 3 m. inland a number of its inhabitants are -still fishermen. In 774 land in Lydd was granted by Offa to the monks of -Christ Church, Canterbury, and the archbishop of Canterbury evidently -held the lordship of the town from an early date. At some time before -the reign of Edward I. Lydd was made a member of the Cinque Port of -Romney, and in 1290 was granted the same liberties and free customs as -the Cinque Ports on condition of aiding the service of its head-port to -the crown with one ship. This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in -1365. The corporation also possesses documents of 1154, 1399 and 1413, -granting to the archbishop's men of Lydd the privileges enjoyed by the -Cinque Ports and confirming all former privileges. Lydd is called a -borough in the Hundred Rolls. Its incorporation under a bailiff, of -which there is evidence in the 15th century, may have been due to the -archbishop or to the court of Shepway, but it was not incorporated by -the crown until 1885, when, by a charter under the Municipal Acts, the -last bailiff was elected the first mayor. In 1494 a grant was made to -the bailiff, jurats and commonalty of a yearly fair on the 12th of July -and two days following. A fair was held under this grant until 1874. - - - - -LYDENBURG, a town and district of the Transvaal, South Africa. The town -is 60 m. by rail N.N.E. of Belfast on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. -Pop. (1904) 1523. It is picturesquely situated on the Spekboom tributary -of the Olifants river at an altitude of 4900 ft. Some 15 m. E. is the -Mauchberg (8725 ft.), the highest point in the Transvaal. The town is -the chief centre for the Lydenburg goldfields. Next to Lydenburg the -most important settlement in these goldfields is Pilgrim's Rest, pop. -(1904) 1188, 23 m. N.E. of Lydenburg. Lydenburg (the town of suffering) -was founded in 1846 by Boers who two years previously had established -themselves farther north at Ohrigstad, which they abandoned on account -of the fever endemic there. Lydenburg at once became the capital of a -district (of the same name) which then embraced all the eastern part of -the Transvaal. In 1856 the Boers of Lydenburg separated from their -brethren and proclaimed an independent republic, which was, however, -incorporated with the South African Republic in 1860. The discovery of -gold near the town was made in 1869, and in 1873 the first successful -goldfield in the Transvaal was opened here. It was not until 1910, -however, that Lydenburg was placed in railway communication with the -rest of the country. The present district of Lydenburg consists of the -north-east and central parts of the original district. In the Lulu -Mountains, a spur of the Drakensberg, and some 40 m. N.W. of Lydenburg, -was the stronghold of the Kaffir chief Sikukuni, whose conflict with the -Boers in 1876 was one of the causes which led to the annexation of the -Transvaal by Great Britain in 1877. (See TRANSVAAL: _History_.) - - - - -LYDFORD, or LIDFORD, a village, once an important town, in the western -parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, near the western confines -of Dartmoor, 27 m. N. of Plymouth by the London & South-Western railway. -From its Perpendicular church of St Petrock fine views of the Dartmoor -tors are seen. The village stands on the small river Lyd, which -traverses a deep narrow chasm, crossed by a bridge of single span; and -at a little distance a tributary stream forms a cascade in an exquisite -glen. Close to the church are slight remains of the castle of Lydford. - -Lydford (_Lideford_) was one of the four Saxon boroughs of Devon, and -possessed a mint in the days of Aethelred the Unready. It first appears -in recorded history in 997, when the Danes made a plundering expedition -up the Tamar and Tavy as far as "Hlidaforda." In the reign of Edward the -Confessor it was the most populous centre in Devonshire after Exeter, -but the Domesday Survey relates that forty houses had been laid waste -since the Conquest, and the town never recovered its former prosperity; -the history from the 13th century centres round the castle, which is -first mentioned in 1216, when it was granted to William Briwere, and was -shortly afterwards fixed as the prison of the stannaries and the -meeting-place of the Forest Courts of Dartmoor. A gild at Lideford is -mentioned in 1180, and the pipe roll of 1195 records a grant for the -reestablishment of the market. In 1238 the borough, which had hitherto -been crown demesne, was bestowed by Henry III. on Richard, earl of -Cornwall, who in 1268 obtained a grant of a Wednesday market and a three -days' fair at the feast of St Petrock. The borough had a separate -coroner and bailiff in 1275, but it was never incorporated by charter, -and only once, in 1300, returned members to parliament. Lydford prison -is described in 1512 as "one of the most hainous, contagious and -detestable places in the realm," and "Lydford Law" was a by-word for -injustice. At the time of the Commonwealth the castle was entirely in -ruins, but in the 18th century it was restored and again used as a -prison and as the meeting-place of the manor and borough courts. - - - - -LYDGATE, JOHN (c. 1370-c. 1451), English poet, was born at the village -of Lydgate, some 6 or 7 m. from Newmarket. It is, however, with the -Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds that he is chiefly associated. -Probably he was educated at the school attached to the monastery, and in -his _Testament_ he has drawn a lively picture of himself as a typical -orchard-robbing boy, who had scant relish for matins, fought, and threw -creed and paternoster at the cock. He was ordained sub-deacon in 1389, -deacon in 1393, and priest in 1397. These dates are valuable as enabling -us to fix approximately the date of his birth, which must have occurred -somewhere about 1370. Lydgate passed as a portent of learning, and, -according to Bale, he pursued his studies not only at both the English -universities but in France and Italy. Koeppel (see _Laurents de -Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von Boccaccios De Casibus_, -Munich, 1885) has thrown much doubt on this statement as regards Italy, -but Lydgate knew France and visited Paris in an official capacity in -1426. Bale is also the authority for another assertion that figures in -what has been aptly termed the poet's "traditional biography," viz. that -Lydgate, on completing his own education, kept school for the sons of -noblemen and gentlemen. This "traditional biography" prolongs his life -to the year 1461, but it is quite improbable that he lived many years -after 1446, when Abbot Curteys died and John Baret, treasurer of Bury, -signed an extant receipt for a pension which he shared with Lydgate, and -which continued to be paid till 1449. If it be true, as Bishop Alcock of -Ely affirms, that Lydgate wrote a poem on the loss of France and -Gascony, it seems necessary to suppose that he lived two years longer, -and thus indications point to the year 1451, or thereabouts, as the date -of his death. - -Lydgate had a consuming passion for literature, and it was probably that -he might indulge this taste more fully that in 1434 he retired from the -priorate of Hatfield Broadoak (or Hatfield Regis), to which he had been -appointed in June 1423. After 1390--but whilst he was still a young -man--he made the acquaintance of Geoffrey Chaucer, with whose son -Thomas he was on terms of considerable intimacy. This friendship appears -to have decided Lydgate's career, and in his _Troy-book_ and elsewhere -are reverent and touching tributes to his "master." The passages in -question do not exaggerate his obligations to the "well of English." The -themes of all his more ambitious poems can be traced to Chaucerian -sources. _The Story of Thebes_, for instance, was doubtless suggested by -the "romance" which Cressida and her companions are represented as -reading when interrupted by Pandarus (_Troilus and Cressida_, II. -xii.-xvi.). The _Falls of Princes_, again, is merely the _Monk's Tale_ -"writ large." - -Lydgate is a most voluminous writer. The _Falls of Princes_ alone -comprises 7000 stanzas; and his authentic compositions reach the -enormous total of 150,000 lines. Cursed with such immoderate fluency -Lydgate could not sustain himself at the highest level of artistic -excellence; and, though imbued with a sense of the essentials of poetry, -and eager to prove himself in its various manifestations, he stinted -himself of the self-discipline necessary to perfection of form. As the -result the bulk of his composition is wholly or comparatively -rough-hewn. That he was capable of better work than is suggested by his -average accomplishment is shown by two allegorical poems--the _Complaint -of the Black Knight_ and the _Temple of Glass_ (once attributed to -Hawes). In these he reveals himself as a not unworthy successor of -Chaucer, and the pity of it is that he should have squandered his powers -in a futile attempt to create an entire literature. For a couple of -centuries Lydgate's reputation equalled, if it did not surpass, that of -his master. This was in a sense only natural, since he was the real -founder of the school of which Stephen Hawes was a distinguished -ornament, and which "held the field" in English letters during the long -and dreary interval between Chaucer and Spenser. One of the most obvious -defects of this school is excessive attachment to polysyllabic terms. -Lydgate is not quite so great a sinner in this respect as are some of -his successors, but his tendency cannot be mistaken, and John Metham is -amply justified in his censure-- - - Eke John Lydgate, sometime monk of Bury, - His books indited with terms of rhetoric - And half-changed Latin, with conceits of poetry. - -Pedantry was an inevitable effect of the early Renaissance. French -literature passed through the same phase, from which indeed it was later -in emerging; and the ultimate consequence was the enrichment of both -languages. It must be conceded as no small merit in Lydgate that, in an -age of experiment he should have succeeded so often in hitting the right -word. Thomas Warton remarks on his lucidity. Since his writings are read -more easily than Chaucer's, the inference is plain--that he was more -effectual as a maker of our present English. In spite of that, Lydgate -is characteristically medieval--medieval in his prolixity, his -platitude, his want of judgment and his want of taste; medieval also in -his pessimism, his Mariolatry and his horror of death. These attributes -jarred on the sensitive Ritson, who racked his brains for contumelious -epithets such as "stupid and disgusting," "cart-loads of rubbish," &c.; -and during the greater part of the 18th and 19th centuries Lydgate's -reputation was at its lowest ebb. Recent criticism has been far more -impartial, and almost too much respect has been paid to his attainments, -especially in the matter of metre, though Lydgate himself, with -offensive lightheartedness, admits his poor craftsmanship. - - Lydgate's most doughty and learned apologist is Dr Schick, whose - preface to the _Temple of Glass_ embodies practically all that is known - or conjectured concerning this author, including the chronological - order of his works. With the exception of the _Damage and Destruction - in Realms_--an account of Julius Caesar, his wars and his death--they - are all in verse and extremely multifarious--narrative, devotional - hagiological, philosophical and scientific, allegorical and moral, - historical, satirical and occasional. The _Troy-book_, undertaken at - the command of Henry V., then prince of Wales, dates from 1412-1420; - the _Story of Thebes_ from 1420-1422; and the _Falls of Princes_ - towards 1430. His latest work was _Secreta Secretorum_ or _Secrets of - Old Philosophers_, rhymed extracts from a pseudo-Aristotelian treatise. - Lydgate certainly possessed extraordinary versatility, which enabled - him to turn from elaborate epics to quite popular poems like the - _Mumming at Hertford_, _A Ditty of Women's Horns_ and _London - Lickpenny_. The humour of this last is especially bright and effective, - but, unluckily for the author, the piece is believed to have been - retouched by some other hand. The longer efforts partake of the nature - of translations from sundry medieval compilations like those of Guido - di Colonna and Boccaccio, which are in Latin. - - See publications of the Early English Text Society, especially the - _Temple of Glass_, edited by Dr Schick; Koeppel's _Lydgate's Story of - Thebes, eine Quellenuntersuchung_ (Munich, 1884), and the same - scholar's _Laurents de Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von - Boccaccios De Casibus Illustrium Virorum_ (Munich, 1885); Warton's - _History of English Poetry_; Ritson's _Bibliotheca Anglo-Poetica_; - Furnivall's _Political Poems_ (E. E. T. S.); and Sidney Lee's article - in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (F. J. S.) - - - - -LYDIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor, the boundaries of -which it is difficult to fix, partly because they varied at different -epochs. The name is first found under the form of _Luddi_ in the -inscriptions of the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal, who received tribute -from Gyges about 660 B.C. In Homer we read only of Maeonians (_Il_. ii. -865, v. 43, x. 431), and the place of the Lydian capital Sardis is taken -by Hyde (_Il_. xx. 385), unless this was the name of the district in -which Sardis stood (see Strabo xiii. p. 626).[1] The earliest Greek -writer who mentions the name is Mimnermus of Colophon, in the 37th -Olympiad. According to Herodotus (i. 7), the Meiones (called Maeones by -other writers) were named Lydians after Lydus, the son of Attis, in the -mythical epoch which preceded the rise of the Heraclid dynasty. In -historical times the Maeones were a tribe inhabiting the district of the -upper Hermus, where a town called Maeonia existed (Pliny, _N.H._ v. 30; -Hierocles, p. 670). The Lydians must originally have been an allied -tribe which bordered upon them to the north-west, and occupied the plain -of Sardis or Magnesia at the foot of Tmolus and Sipylus. They were cut -off from the sea by the Greeks, who were in possession, not only of the -Bay of Smyrna, but also of the country north of Sipylus as far as Temnus -in the pass (_boghaz_), through which the Hermus forces its way from the -plain of Magnesia into its lower valley.[2] In a Homeric epigram the -ridge north of the Hermus, on which the ruins of Temnus lie, is called -Sardene. Northward the Lydians extended at least as far as the Gygaean -Lake (Lake Coloe, mod. Mermereh), and the Sardene range (mod. Dumanli -Dagh). The plateau of the Bin Bir Tepe, on the southern shore of the -Gygaean Lake, was the chief burial-place of the inhabitants of Sardis, -and is still thickly studded with tumuli, among which is the "tomb of -Alyattes" (260 ft. high). Next to Sardis the chief city was Magnesia ad -Sipylum (q.v.), in the neighbourhood of which is the famous seated -figure of "Niobe" (_Il_. xxiv. 614-617), cut out of the rock, and -probably intended to represent the goddess Cybele, to which the Greeks -attached their legend of Niobe. According to Pliny (v. 31), Tantalis, -afterwards swallowed up by earthquake in the pool Sale or Saloe, was the -ancient name of Sipylus and "the capital of Maeonia" (Paus. vii. 24; -Strabo xii. 579). Under the Heraclid dynasty the limits of Lydia must -have been already extended, since according to Strabo (xiii. 590), the -authority of Gyges reached as far as the Troad. Under the Mermnads Lydia -became a maritime as well as an inland power. The Greek cities were -conquered, and the coast of Ionia included within the Lydian kingdom. -The successes of Alyattes and of Croesus finally changed the Lydian -kingdom into a Lydian empire, and all Asia Minor westward of the Halys, -except Lycia, owned the supremacy of Sardis. Lydia never again shrank -back into its original dimensions. After the Persian conquest the -Maeander was regarded as its southern boundary, and in the Roman period -it comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the one side and -Phrygia and the Aegean on the other. - -Lydia proper was exceedingly fertile. The hill-sides were clothed with -vine and fir, and the rich broad plain of Hermus produced large -quantities of corn and saffron. The climate of the plain was soft but -healthy, though the country was subject to frequent earthquakes. The -Pactolus, which flowed from the fountain of Tarne in the Tmolus -mountains, through the centre of Sardis, into the Hermus, was believed -to be full of golden sand; and gold mines were worked in Tmolus itself, -though by the time of Strabo the proceeds had become so small as hardly -to pay for the expense of working them (Strabo xiii. 591). Maeonia on -the east contained the curious barren plateau known to the Greeks as the -Katakekaumene ("Burnt country"), once a centre of volcanic disturbance. -The Gygaean lake (where remains of pile dwellings have been found) still -abounds with carp. - -Herodotus (i. 171) tells us that Lydus was a brother of Mysus and Car. -The statement is on the whole borne out by the few Lydian, Mysian and -Carian words that have been preserved, as well as by the general -character of the civilization prevailing among the three nations. The -race was probably a mixed one, consisting of aborigines and Aryan -immigrants. It was characterized by industry and a commercial spirit, -and, before the Persian conquest, by bravery. The religion of the -Lydians resembled that of the other civilized nations of Asia Minor. It -was a nature worship, which at times became wild and sensuous. By the -side of the supreme god Medeus stood the sun-god Attis, as in Phrygia -the chief object of the popular cult. He was at once the son and -bridegroom of Cybele (q.v.) or Cybebe, the mother of the gods, whose -image carved by Broteas, son of Tantalus, was adored on the cliffs of -Sipylus (Paus. iii. 22). The cult may have been brought westward by the -Hittites who have left memorials of themselves in the pseudo-Sesostris -figures of Kara-bel (between Sardis and Ephesus) as well as in the -figure of the Mother-goddess, the so-called Niobe. At Ephesus, where she -was adored under the form of a meteoric stone, she was identified with -the Greek Artemis (see also GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). Her mural crown -is first seen in the Hittite sculptures of Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA and -HITTITES) on the Halys. The priestesses by whom she was served are -depicted in early art as armed with the double-headed axe, and the -dances they performed in her honour with shield and bow gave rise to the -myths which saw in them the Amazons, a nation of woman-warriors. The -pre-Hellenic cities of the coast--Smyrna, Samorna (Ephesus), Myrina, -Cyme, Priene and Pitane--were all of Amazonian origin, and the first -three of them have the same name as the Amazon Myrina, whose tomb was -pointed out in the Troad. The prostitution whereby the Lydian girls -gained their dowries (Herod, i. 93) was a religious exercise, as among -the Semites, which marked their devotion to the goddess Cybele. In the -legend of Heracles, Omphale takes the place of Cybele, and was perhaps -her Lydian title. Heracles is here the sun-god Attis in a new form; his -Lydian name is unknown, since E. Meyer has shown (_Zeitschr. d. Morg. -Gesell._ xxxi. 4) that Sandon belongs not to Lydia but to Cilicia. By -the side of Attis stood Manes or Men, identified later with the -Moon-god. - -According to the native historian Xanthus (460 B.C.) three dynasties -ruled in succession over Lydia. The first, that of the Attiads, is -mythical. It was headed by a god, and included geographical personages -like Lydus, Asies and Meies, or such heroes of folk-lore as Cambletes, -who devoured his wife. To this mythical age belongs the colony which, -according to Herodotus (i. 94), Tyrsenus, the son of Attis, led to -Etruria. Xanthus, however, puts Torrhebus in the place of Tyrsenus, and -makes him the eponym of a district in Lydia. It is doubtful whether -Xanthus recognized the Greek legends which brought Pelops from Lydia, or -rather Maeonia, and made him the son of Tantalus. The second dynasty was -also of divine origin, but the names which head it prove its connexion -with the distant East. Its founder, a descendant of Heracles and -Omphale, was, Herodotus tells us (i. 7), a son of Ninus and grandson of -Belus. The Assyrian inscriptions have shown that the Assyrians had never -crossed the Halys, much less known the name of Lydia, before the age of -Assur-bani-pal, and consequently the theory which brought the Heraclids -from Nineveh must be given up. But the Hittites, another Oriental -people, deeply imbued with the elements of Babylonian culture, had -overrun Asia Minor and established themselves on the shores of the -Aegean before the reign of the Egyptian king Rameses II. - -The subject allies who then fight under their banners include the Masu -or Mysians and the Dardani of the Troad, while the Hittites have left -memorials in Lydia. G. Dennis discovered an inscription in Hittite -hieroglyphics attached to the figure of "Niobe" on Sipylus, and a -similar inscription accompanies the figure (in which Herodotus, ii. 106, -wished to see Sesostris or Rameses II.) in the pass of Karabel. We learn -from Eusebius that Sardis was first captured by the Cimmerii 1078 B.C.; -and since it was four centuries later before the real Cimmerii (q.v.) -appeared on the horizon of history, we may perhaps find in the statement -a tradition of the Hittite conquest. As the authority of the Hittite -satraps at Sardis began to decay the Heraclid dynasty arose. According -to Xanthus, Sadyattes and Lixus were the successors of Tylon the son of -Omphale. After lasting five hundred and five years, the dynasty came to -an end in the person of Sadyattes, as he is called by Nicolas of -Damascus, whose account is doubtless derived from Xanthus. The name -Candaules, given him by Herodotus, meant "dog strangler" and was a title -of the Lydian Hermes. Gyges (q.v.) put him to death and established the -dynasty of the Mermnads, 687 B.C. Gyges initiated a new policy, that of -making Lydia a maritime power; but towards the middle of his reign the -kingdom was overrun by the Cimmerii. The lower town of Sardis was taken, -and Gyges sent tribute to Assur-bani-pal, as well as two Cimmerian -chieftains he had himself captured in battle. A few years later Gyges -joined in the revolt against Assyria, and the Ionic and Carian -mercenaries he despatched to Egypt enabled Psammetichus to make himself -independent. Assyria, however, was soon avenged. The Cimmerian hordes -returned, Gyges was slain in battle (652 B.C.), and Ardys his son and -successor returned to his allegiance to Nineveh. The second capture of -Sardis on this occasion was alluded to by Callisthenes (Strabo xiii. -627). Alyattes, the grandson of Ardys, finally succeeded in extirpating -the Cimmerii, as well as in taking Smyrna, and thus providing his -kingdom with a port. The trade and wealth of Lydia rapidly increased, -and the Greek towns fell one after the other before the attacks of the -Lydian kings. Alyattes's long reign of fifty-seven years saw the -foundation of the Lydian empire. All Asia Minor west of the Halys -acknowledged his sway, and the six years' contest he carried on with the -Medes was closed by the marriage of his daughter Aryenis to Astyages. -The Greek cities were allowed to retain their own institutions and -government on condition of paying taxes and dues to the Lydian monarch, -and the proceeds of their commerce thus flowed into the imperial -exchequer. The result was that the king of Lydia became the richest -prince of his age. Alyattes was succeeded by Croesus (q.v.), who had -probably already for some years shared the royal power with his father, -or perhaps grandfather, as V. Floigl thinks (_Geschichte des semitischen -Alterthums_, p. 20). He reigned alone only fifteen years, Cyrus the -Persian, after an indecisive battle on the Halys, marching upon Sardis, -and capturing both acropolis and monarch (546 B.C.). The place where the -acropolis was entered was believed to have been overlooked by the -mythical Meles when he carried the lion round his fortress to make it -invulnerable; it was really a path opened by one of the landslips, which -have reduced the sandstone cliff of the acropolis to a mere shell, and -threaten to carry it altogether into the plain below. The revolt of the -Lydians under Pactyas, whom Cyrus had appointed to collect the taxes, -caused the Persian king to disarm them, though we can hardly credit the -statement that by this measure their warlike spirit was crushed. Sardis -now became the western capital of the Persian empire, and its burning by -the Athenians was the indirect cause of the Persian War. After Alexander -the Great's death, Lydia passed to Antigonus; then Achaeus made himself -king at Sardis, but was defeated and put to death by Antiochus. The -country was presented by the Romans to Eumenes, and subsequently formed -part of the proconsular province of Asia. By the time of Strabo (xiii. -631) its old language was entirely supplanted by Greek. - - The Lydian empire may be described as the industrial power of the - ancient world. The Lydians were credited with being the inventors, not - only of games such as dice, huckle-bones and ball (Herod, i. 94), but - also of coined money. The oldest known coins are the electrum coins of - the earlier Mermnads (Madden, _Coins of the Jews_, pp. 19-21), stamped - on one side with a lion's head or the figure of a king with bow and - quiver; these were replaced by Croesus with a coinage of pure gold and - silver. To the latter monarch were probably due the earliest gold - coins of Ephesus (Head, _Coinage of Ephesus_, p. 16). The electrum - coins of Lydia were of two kinds, one weighing 168.4 grains for the - inland trade, and another of 224 grains for the trade with Ionia. The - standard was the silver mina of Carchemish (as the Assyrians called - it) which contained 8656 grains. Originally derived by the Hittites - from Babylonia, but modified by themselves, this standard was passed - on to the nations of Asia Minor during the period of Hittite conquest, - but was eventually superseded by the Phoenician mina of 11,225 grains, - and continued to survive only in Cyprus and Cilicia (see also - NUMISMATICS). The inns, which the Lydians were said to have been the - first to establish (Herod. i. 94), were connected with their attention - to commercial pursuits. Their literature has wholly perished. They - were celebrated for their music and gymnastic exercises, and their art - formed a link between that of Asia Minor and that of Greece. R. - Heberdey's excavations at Ephesus since 1896, like those of D. G. - Hogarth in 1905, belong to the history of Greek and not native art. - The ivory figures, however, found by Hogarth on the level of the - earliest temple of Artemis show Asiatic influence, and resemble the - so-called "Phoenician" ivories from the palace of Sargon at Calah - (Nimrud). For a description of a pectoral of white gold, ornamented - with the heads of animals, human faces and the figure of a goddess, - discovered in a tomb on Tmolus, see _Academy_, January 15, 1881, p. - 45. Lydian sculpture was probably similar to that of the Phrygians. - Phallic emblems, for averting evil, were plentiful; the summit of the - tomb of Alyattes is crowned with an enormous one of stone, about 9 ft. - in diameter. The tumulus itself is 281 yds. in diameter and about half - a mile in circumference. It has been partially excavated by G. - Spiegelthal and G. Dennis, and a sepulchral chamber discovered in the - middle, composed of large well-cut and highly polished blocks of - marble, the chamber being 11 ft. long, nearly 8 ft. broad and 7 ft. - high. Nothing was found in it except a few ashes and a broken vase of - Egyptian alabaster. The stone basement which, according to Herodotus, - formerly surrounded the mound has disappeared. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. von Olfers, _Uber die lydischen Konigsgraber bei - Sardes_ (1858); H. Gelzer in the _Rheinisches Museum_ (1874); R. - Schubert, _Geschichte der Konige von Lydien_ (1884); G. Perrot and C. - Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, v. (1890); O. Radet, - _La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades_ (1893); G. Maspero, - _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 232-301 (1892) and _Passing of the - Empires_, pp. 339, 388, 603-621 (1900); J. Keil and A. von - Premerstein, _Bericht uber eine Reise in Lydien_ (1908). (A. H. S.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Pliny (v. 30) makes it the Maeonian name. - - [2] See Sir W. M. Ramsay in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ii. 2. - - - - -LYDUS ("THE LYDIAN"), JOANNES LAURENTIUS, Byzantine writer on -antiquarian subjects, was born at Philadelphia in Lydia about A.D. 490. -At an early age he set out to seek his fortune in Constantinople, and -held high court and state offices under Anastasius and Justinian. In 552 -he lost favour, and was dismissed. The date of his death is not known, -but he was probably alive during the early years of Justin II. (reigned -565-578). During his retirement he occupied himself in the compilation -of works on the antiquities of Rome, three of which have been preserved: -(1) _De Ostentis_ ([Greek: Peri diosemeion]), on the origin and progress -of the art of divination; (2) _De Magistratibus reipublicae Romanae_ -([Greek: Peri archon tes Rhomaion politeias]), especially valuable for -the administrative details of the time of Justinian; (3) _De Mensibus_ -([Greek: Peri menon]), a history of the different festivals of the year. -The chief value of these books consists in the fact that the author made -use of the works (now lost) of old Roman writers on similar subjects. -Lydus was also commissioned by Justinian to compose a panegyric on the -emperor, and a history of his successful campaign against Persia; but -these, as well as some poetical compositions, are lost. - - Editions of (1) by C. Wachsmuth (1897), with full account of the - authorities in the prolegomena; of (2) and (3) by R. Wunsch - (1898-1903); see also the essay by C. B. Hase (the first editor of the - _De Ostentis_) prefixed to I. Bekker's edition of Lydus (1837) in the - Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byzantinae_. - - - - -LYE (O. Eng. _leag_, cf. Dutch _loog_, Ger. _Lauge_, from the root -meaning to wash, see in Lat. _lavare_, and Eng. "lather," froth of soap -and water, and "laundry"), the name given to the solution of alkaline -salts obtained by leaching or lixiviating wood ashes with water, and -sometimes to a solution of a caustic alkali. Lixiviation (Lat. -_lixivium_, lye, _lix_, ashes) is the action of separating, by the -percolation of water, a soluble from an insoluble substance. "Leaching," -the native English term for this process, is from "leach," to water, the -root probably being the same as in "lake." - - - - -LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875), British geologist, was the eldest son of -Charles Lyell of Kinnordy, Forfarshire, and was born on the 14th of -November 1797, on the family estate in Scotland. His father (1767-1849) -was known both as a botanist and as the translator of the _Vita Nuova_ -and the _Convito_ of Dante: the plant _Lyellia_ was named after him. -From his boyhood Lyell had a strong inclination for natural history, -especially entomology, a taste which he cultivated at Bartley Lodge in -the New Forest, to which his family had removed soon after his birth. In -1816 he entered Exeter College, Oxford, where the lectures of Dr -Buckland first drew his attention to geological study. After taking his -degree of B.A. in 1819 (M.A. in 1821) he entered Lincoln's Inn, and in -1825, after a delay caused by chronic weakness of the eyes, he was -called to the bar, and went on the western circuit for two years. During -this time he was slowly gravitating towards the life of a student of -science. In 1819 he had been elected a fellow of the Linnean and -Geological Societies, communicating his first paper, "On a Recent -Formation of Freshwater Limestone in Forfarshire," to the latter society -in 1822, and acting as one of the honorary secretaries in 1823. In that -year he went to France, with introductions to Cuvier, Humboldt and other -men of science, and in 1824 made a geological tour in Scotland in -company with Dr Buckland. In 1826 he was elected a fellow of the Royal -Society, from which in later years he received both the Copley and Royal -medals; and in 1827 he finally abandoned the legal profession, and -devoted himself to geology. - -At this time he had already begun to plan his chief work, _The -Principles of Geology_. The subsidiary title, "An Attempt to Explain the -Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference to Causes now in -Operation," gives the keynote of the task to which Lyell devoted his -life. A journey with Murchison in 1828 gave rise to joint papers on the -volcanic district of Auvergne and the Tertiary formations of -Aix-en-Provence. After parting with Murchison he studied the marine -remains of the Italian Tertiary Strata and then conceived the idea of -dividing this geological system into three or four groups, characterized -by the proportion of recent to extinct species of shells. To these -groups, after consulting Dr Whewell as to the best nomenclature, he gave -the names now universally adopted--Eocene (_dawn of recent_), Miocene -(_less of recent_), and Pliocene (_more of recent_); and with the -assistance of G. P. Deshayes he drew up a table of shells in -illustration of this classification. The first volume of the _Principles -of Geology_ appeared in 1830, and the second in January 1832. Received -at first with some opposition, so far as its leading theory was -concerned, the work had ultimately a great success, and the two volumes -had already reached a second edition in 1833 when the third, dealing -with the successive formations of the earth's crust, was added. Between -1830 and 1872 eleven editions of this work were published, each so much -enriched with new material and the results of riper thought as to form a -complete history of the progress of geology during that interval. Only a -few days before his death Sir Charles finished revising the first volume -of the 12th edition; the revision of the second volume was completed by -his nephew Mr (afterwards Sir) Leonard Lyell; and the work appeared in -1876. - -In August 1838 Lyell published the _Elements of Geology_, which, from -being originally an expansion of one section of the _Principles_, became -a standard work on stratigraphical and palaeontological geology. This -book went through six editions in Lyell's lifetime (some intermediate -editions being styled _Manual of Elementary Geology_), and in 1871 a -smaller work, the _Student's Elements of Geology_, was based upon it. -His third great work, _The Antiquity of Man_, appeared in 1863, and ran -through three editions in one year. In this he gave a general survey of -the arguments for man's early appearance on the earth, derived from the -discoveries of flint implements in post-Pliocene strata in the Somme -valley and elsewhere; he discussed also the deposits of the Glacial -epoch, and in the same volume he first gave in his adhesion to Darwin's -theory of the origin of species. A fourth edition appeared in 1873. - -In 1831-1833 Lyell was professor of geology at King's College, London, -and delivered while there a course of lectures, which became the -foundation of the _Elements of Geology_. In 1832 he married Mary -(1809-1873) eldest daughter of Leonard Horner (q.v.), and she became -thenceforward associated with him in all his work, and by her social -qualities making his home a centre of attraction. In 1834 he made an -excursion to Denmark and Sweden, the result of which was his Bakerian -lecture to the Royal Society "On the Proofs of the gradual Rising of -Land in certain Parts of Sweden." He also brought before the Geological -Society a paper "On the Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of Seeland and -Moen." In 1835 he became president of the Geological Society. In 1837 he -was again in Norway and Denmark, and in 1841 he spent a year in -travelling through the United States, Canada and Nova Scotia. This last -journey, together with a second one to America in 1845, resulted not -only in papers, but also in two works not exclusively geological, -_Travels in North America_ (1845) and _A Second Visit to the United -States_ (1849). During these journeys he estimated the rate of recession -of the falls of Niagara, the annual average accumulation of alluvial -matter in the delta of the Mississippi, and studied those vegetable -accumulations in the "Great Dismal Swamp" of Virginia, which he -afterwards used in illustrating the formation of beds of coal. He also -studied the coal-formations in Nova Scotia, and discovered in company -with Dr (afterwards Sir J. W.) Dawson (q.v.) of Montreal, the earliest -known landshell, _Pupa vetusta_, in the hollow stem of a Sigillaria. In -bringing a knowledge of European geology to bear upon the extended -formations of North America Lyell rendered immense service. Having -visited Madeira and Teneriffe in company with G. Hartung, he accumulated -much valuable evidence on the age and deposition of lava-beds and the -formation of volcanic cones. He also revisited Sicily in 1858, when he -made such observations upon the structure of Etna as refuted the theory -of "craters of elevation" upheld by Von Buch and Elie de Beaumont (see -_Phil. Trans._, 1859). - -Lyell was knighted in 1848, and was created a baronet in 1864, in which -year he was president of the British Association at Bath. He was elected -corresponding member of the French Institute and of the Royal Academy of -Sciences at Berlin, and was created a knight of the Prussian Order of -Merit. - -During the later years of his life his sight, always weak, failed him -altogether. He died on the 22nd of February 1875, and was buried in -Westminster Abbey. Among his characteristics were his great thirst for -knowledge, his perfect fairness and sound judgment; while the extreme -freshness of his mind enabled him to accept and appreciate the work of -younger men. - - The LYELL MEDAL, established in 1875 under the will of Sir Charles - Lyell, is cast in bronze and is to be awarded annually (or from time - to time) by the Council of the Geological Society. The medallist may - be of any country or either sex. Not less than one-third of the annual - interest of a sum of L2000 is to be awarded with the medal; the - remaining interest, known as the LYELL GEOLOGICAL FUND, is to be given - in one or more portions at the discretion of the Council for the - encouragement of geological science. - - See _Life, Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart._, edited - by his sister-in-law, Mrs Lyell (2 vols., 1881); _Charles Lyell and - Modern Geology_, by T. G. Bonney (1895). (H. B. Wo.) - - - - -LYLY (LILLY, or LYLIE), JOHN (1553-1606), English writer, the famous -author of _Euphues_, was born in Kent in 1553 or 1554. At the age of -sixteen, according to Wood, he became a student of Magdalen College, -Oxford, where in due time he proceeded to his bachelor's and master's -degrees (1573 and 1575), and from whence we find him in 1574 applying to -Lord Burghley "for the queen's letters to Magdalen College to admit him -fellow." The fellowship, however, was not granted, and Lyly shortly -after left the university. He complains of what seems to have been a -sentence of rustication passed upon him at some period in his academical -career, in his address to the gentlemen scholars of Oxford affixed to -the second edition of the first part of _Euphues_, but in the absence of -any further evidence it is impossible to fix either its date or its -cause. If we are to believe Wood, he never took kindly to the proper -studies of the university. "For so it was that his genius being -naturally bent to the pleasant paths of poetry (as if Apollo had given -to him a wreath of his own bays without snatching or struggling) did in -a manner neglect academical studies, yet not so much but that he took -the degrees in arts, that of master being compleated 1575." After he -left Oxford, where he had already the reputation of "a noted wit," Lyly -seems to have attached himself to Lord Burghley. "This noble man," he -writes in the "Glasse for Europe," in the second part of _Euphues_ -(1580), "I found so ready being but a straunger to do me good, that -neyther I ought to forget him, neyther cease to pray for him, that as he -hath the wisdom of Nestor, so he may have the age, that having the -policies of Ulysses he may have his honor, worthy to lyve long, by whom -so many lyve in quiet, and not unworthy to be advaunced by whose care so -many have been preferred." Two years later we possess a letter of Lyly -to the treasurer, dated July 1582, in which the writer protests against -some accusation of dishonesty which had brought him into trouble with -his patron, and demands a personal interview for the purpose of clearing -his character. What the further relations between them were we have no -means of knowing, but it is clear that neither from Burghley nor from -the queen did Lyly ever receive any substantial patronage. In 1578 he -began his literary career by the composition of _Euphues, or the Anatomy -of Wit_, which was licensed to Gabriel Cawood on the 2nd of December, -1578, and published in the spring of 1579. In the same year the author -was incorporated M.A. at Cambridge, and possibly saw his hopes of court -advancement dashed by the appointment in July of Edmund Tylney to the -office of master of the revels, a post at which, as he reminds the queen -some years later, he had all along been encouraged to "aim his courses." -_Euphues and his England_ appeared in 1580, and, like the first part of -the book, won immediate popularity. For a time Lyly was the most -successful and fashionable of English writers. He was hailed as the -author of "a new English," as a "raffineur de l'Anglois"; and, as Edmund -Blount, the editor of his plays, tells us in 1632, "that beautie in -court which could not parley Euphuism was as little regarded as she -which nowe there speakes not French." After the publication of -_Euphues_, however, Lyly seems to have entirely deserted the novel form -himself, which passed into the hands of his imitators, and to have -thrown himself almost exclusively into play-writing, probably with a -view to the mastership of revels whenever a vacancy should occur. Eight -plays by him were probably acted before the queen by the children of the -Chapel Royal and the children of St Paul's between the years 1584 and -1589, one or two of them being repeated before a popular audience at the -Blackfriars Theatre. Their brisk lively dialogue, classical colour and -frequent allusions to persons and events of the day maintained that -popularity with the court which _Euphues_ had won. Lyly sat in -parliament as member for Hindon in 1589, for Aylesbury in 1593, for -Appleby in 1597 and for Aylesbury a second time in 1601. In 1589 Lyly -published a tract in the Martin Marprelate controversy, called _Pappe -with an hatchet, alias a figge for my Godsonne; Or Crack me this nut; Or -a Countrie Cuffe, &c._[1] About the same time we may probably date his -first petition to Queen Elizabeth. The two petitions, transcripts of -which are extant among the Harleian MSS., are undated, but in the first -of them he speaks of having been ten years hanging about the court in -hope of preferment, and in the second he extends the period to thirteen -years. It may be conjectured with great probability that the ten years -date from 1579, when Edmund Tylney was appointed master of the revels -with a tacit understanding that Lyly was to have the next reversion of -the post. "I was entertained your Majestie's servaunt by your own -gratious favor," he says, "strengthened with condicions that I should -ayme all my courses at the Revells (I dare not say with a promise, but -with a hopeful Item to the Revercion) for which these ten yeres I have -attended with an unwearyed patience." But in 1589 or 1590 the mastership -of the revels was as far off as ever--Tylney in fact held the post for -thirty-one years--and that Lyly's petition brought him no compensation -in other directions may be inferred from the second petition of 1593. -"Thirteen yeres your highnes servant but yet nothing. Twenty freinds -that though they saye they will be sure, I finde them sure to be slowe. -A thousand hopes, but all nothing; a hundred promises but yet nothing. -Thus casting up the inventory of my friends, hopes, promises and tymes, -the _summa totalis_ amounteth to just nothing." What may have been -Lyly's subsequent fortunes at court we do not know. Edmund Blount says -vaguely that Elizabeth "graced and rewarded" him, but of this there is -no other evidence. After 1590 his works steadily declined in influence -and reputation; other stars were in possession of the horizon; and so -far as we know he died poor and neglected in the early part of James -I.'s reign. He was buried in London at St Bartholomew the Less on the -20th of November, 1606. He was married, and we hear of two sons and a -daughter. - -_Comedies._--In 1632 Edmund Blount published "Six Court Comedies," -including _Endymion_ (1591), _Sappho and Phao_ (1584), _Alexander and -Campaspe_ (1584), _Midas_ (1592), _Mother Bombie_ (1594) and _Gallathea_ -(1592). To these should be added the _Woman in the Moone_ (Lyly's -earliest play, to judge from a passage in the prologue and therefore -earlier than 1584, the date of _Alexander and Campaspe_), and _Love's -Metamorphosis_, first printed in 1601. Of these, all but the last are in -prose. A _Warning for Faire Women_ (1599) and _The Maid's Metamorphosis_ -(1600) have been attributed to Lyly, but on altogether insufficient -grounds. The first editions of all these plays were issued between 1584 -and 1601, and the majority of them between 1584 and 1592, in what were -Lyly's most successful and popular years. His importance as a dramatist -has been very differently estimated. Lyly's dialogue is still a long way -removed from the dialogue of Shakespeare. But at the same time it is a -great advance in rapidity and resource upon anything which had gone -before it; it represents an important step in English dramatic art. His -nimbleness, and the wit which struggles with his pedantry, found their -full development in the dialogue of _Twelfth Night_ and _Much Ado about -Nothing_, just as "Marlowe's mighty line" led up to and was eclipsed by -the majesty and music of Shakespearian passion. One or two of the songs -introduced into his plays are justly famous and show a real lyrical -gift. Nor in estimating his dramatic position and his effect upon his -time must it be forgotten that his classical and mythological plots, -flavourless and dull as they would be to a modern audience, were charged -with interest to those courtly hearers who saw in Midas Philip II., -Elizabeth in Cynthia and perhaps Leicester's unwelcome marriage with -Lady Sheffield in the love affair between Endymion and Tellus which -brings the former under Cynthia's displeasure. As a matter of fact his -reputation and popularity as a play-writer were considerable. Gabriel -Harvey dreaded lest Lyly should make a play upon their quarrel; Meres, -as is well known, places him among "the best for comedy"; and Ben Jonson -names him among those foremost rivals who were "outshone" and outsung by -Shakespeare. - -_Euphues._--It was not, however, as a dramatist, but as the author of -_Euphues_, that Lyly made most mark upon the Elizabethan world. His -plays amused the court circle, but the "new English" of his novel -threatened to permanently change the course of English style. The plot -of _Euphues_ is extremely simple. The hero, whose name may very possibly -have been suggested by a passage in Ascham's _Schoolmaster_, is -introduced to us as still in bondage to the follies of youth, -"preferring fancy before friends, and this present humour before honour -to come." His travels bring him to Naples, where he falls in love with -Lucilla, the governor's light-minded daughter. Lucilla is already -pledged to Euphues's friend Philautus, but Euphues's passion betrays his -friendship, and the old lover finds himself thrown over by both friend -and mistress. Euphues himself, however, is very soon forsaken for a more -attractive suitor. He and Philautus make up their quarrel, and Euphues -writes his friend "a cooling card," to be "applied to all lovers," which -is so severe upon the fair sex that Lyly feels it necessary to balance -it by a sort of apology addressed "to the grave matrons and honest -maidens of Italy." Euphues then leaves Naples for his native Athens, -where he gives himself up to study, of which the first fruits are two -long treatises--the first, "Euphues and his Ephoebus," a disquisition on -the art of education addressed to parents, and the second, "Euphues and -Atheos," a discussion of the first principles of religion. The remainder -of the book is filled up with correspondence between Euphues and his -friends. We have letters from Euphues to Philautus on the death of -Lucilla, to another friend on the death of his daughter, to one Botonio -"to take his exile patiently," and to the youth Alcius, remonstrating -with him on his bad behaviour at the university. Finally a pair of -letters, the first from Livia "at the emperour's court to Euphues at -Athens," answered by "Euphues to Livia," wind up the first part, and -announce to us Euphues's intention of visiting England. An address from -Lyly to Lord Delawarr is affixed, to which was added in the second -edition "An Address to the Gentlemen Scholars of England." - -_Euphues and his England_ is rather longer than the first part. Euphues -and Philautus travel from Naples to England. They arrive at Dover, halt -for the night at Fidus's house at Canterbury, and then proceed to -London, where they make acquaintance with Surius, a young English -gentleman of great birth and noble blood; Psellus, an Italian nobleman -reputed "great in magick"; Martius, an elderly Englishman; Camilla, a -beautiful English girl of insignificant family; Lady Flavia and her -niece Fraunces. After endless correspondence and conversation on all -kinds of topics, Euphues is recalled to Athens, and from there -corresponds with his friends. "Euphues' Glasse for Europe" is a -flattering description of England sent to Livia at Naples. It is the -most interesting portion of the book, and throws light upon one or two -points of Lyly's own biography. The author naturally seized the -opportunity for paying his inevitable tribute to the queen, and pays it -in his most exalted style. "O fortunate England that hath such a queene, -ungratefull if thou praye not for hir, wicked if thou do not love hir, -miserable if thou lose hir!"--and so on. The book ends with Philautus's -announcement of his marriage to Fraunces, upon which Euphues sends -characteristic congratulations and retires, "tormented in body and -grieved in mind," to the Mount of Silexedra, "where I leave him to his -musing or Muses." - -Such is a brief outline of the book which for a time set the fashion for -English prose. Two editions of each part appeared within the first year -after publication, and thirteen editions of both are enumerated up to -1636, after which, with the exception of a modernized version in 1718, -_Euphues_ was never reprinted until 1868, when Dr Arber took it in hand. -The reasons for its popularity are not far to seek. As far as matter was -concerned it fell in with all the prevailing literary fashions. Its long -disquisitions on love, religion, exile, women or education, on court -life and country pleasures, handled all the most favourite topics in the -secularized speculation of the time; its foreign background and travel -talk pleased a society of which Lyly himself said "trafic and travel -hath woven the nature of all nations into ours and made this land like -arras full of device which was broadcloth full of workmanship"; and, -although Lyly steered clear in it of the worst classical pedantries of -the day, the book was more than sufficiently steeped in classical -learning, and based upon classical material, to attract a literary -circle which was nothing if not humanist. A large proportion of its -matter indeed was drawn from classical sources. The general tone of -sententious moralizing may be traced to Plutarch, from whom the treatise -on education, "Euphues and his Ephoebus," and that on exile, "Letter to -Botonio to take his exile patiently," are literally translated, as well -as a number of other shorter passages either taken direct from the Latin -versions or from some of the numerous English translations of Plutarch -then current. The innumerable illustrations based upon a kind of pseudo -natural history are largely taken from Pliny, while the mythology is -that of Virgil and Ovid. - -It was not the matter of _Euphues_, however, so much as the style which -made it famous (see EUPHUISM). The source of Lyly's peculiar style has -been traced by Dr Landmann (_Der Euphuismus_, _sein Wesen_, _seine -Quelle_, _seine Geschichte_, &c. Giessen, 1881) to the influence of Don -Antonio de Guevara, whose _Libro Aureo de Marco Aurelio_ (1529)--a sort -of historical romance based upon Plutarch and upon Marcus Aurelius's -_Meditations_, the object of which was to produce a "mirror for -princes," of the kind so popular throughout the Renaissance--became -almost immediately popular in England. The first edition, or rather a -French version of it, was translated into English by Lord Berners in -1531, and published in 1534. Before 1560 twelve editions of Lord -Berners's translation had been printed, and before 1578 six different -translators of this and later works of Guevara had appeared. The -translation, however, which had most influence upon English literature -was that by North, the well-known translator of Plutarch, in 1557, -called _The Dial for Princes, Compiled by the Reverend Father in God Don -Antony of Guevara, Byshop of Guadix, &c., Englished out of the Frenche -by Th. North_. The sententious and antithetical style of the _Dial for -Princes_ is substantially that of _Euphues_, though Guevara on the whole -handles it better than his imitator, and has many passages of real force -and dignity. The general plan of the two books is also much the same. In -both the biography is merely a peg on which to hang moral disquisitions -and treatises. The use made of letters is the same in both. Even the -names of some of the characters are similar. Thus Guevara's Lucilla is -the flighty daughter of Marcus Aurelius. Lyly's Lucilla is the flighty -daughter of Ferardo, governor of Naples; Guevara's Livia is a lady at -the court of Marcus Aurelius, Lyly's Livia is a lady at the court "of -the emperor," of whom no further description is given. The 9th, 10th, -11th and 12th chapters of the _Dial for Princes_ suggested the -discussion between Euphues and Atheos. The letter from Euphues to Alcius -is substantially the same in subject and treatment as that from Marcus -Aurelius to his nephew Epesipo. Both Guevara and Lyly translated -Plutarch's work _De educatione liberorum_, Lyly, however, keeping closer -than the Spanish author to the original. The use made by Lyly of the -university of Athens was an anachronism in a novel intended to describe -his own time. He borrowed it, however, from Guevara, in whose book a -university of Athens was of course entirely in place. The "cooling card -for all fond lovers" and the address to the ladies and gentlemen of -Italy have their counterparts among the miscellaneous letters by Guevara -affixed by North to the _Dial for Princes_; and other instances of -Lyly's use of these letters, and of two other treatises by Guevara on -court and country life, could be pointed out. - -Lyly was not the first to appropriate and develop the Guevaristic style. -The earliest book in which it was fully adopted was _A petite Pallace of -Pettie his Pleasure_, by George Pettie, which appeared in 1576, a -production so closely akin to _Euphues_ in tone and style that it is -difficult to believe it was not by Lyly. Lyly, however, carried the -style to its highest point, and made it the dominant literary fashion. -His principal followers in it were Greene, Lodge and Nash, his principal -opponent Sir Philip Sidney; the _Arcadia_ in fact supplanted _Euphues_, -and the Euphuistic taste proper may be said to have died out about 1590 -after a reign of some twelve years. According to Landmann, Shakespeare's -_Love's Labour Lost_ is a caricature of the Italianate and pedantic -fashions of the day, not of the peculiar style of _Euphues_. The only -certain allusion in Shakespeare to the characteristics of Lyly's famous -book is to be found in _Henry IV._, where Falstaff, playing the part of -the king, says to Prince Hal, "Harry, I do not only marvel where thou -spendest thy time, but also how thou art accompanied; for, though the -camomile the more it is trodden on the faster it grows, yet youth the -more it is wasted the sooner it wears." Here the pompous antithesis is -evidently meant to caricature the peculiar Euphuistic sentence of court -parlance. (M. A. W.) - - See Lyly's _Complete Works_, ed. R. W. Bond (3 vols., 1902); - _Euphues_, from early editions, by Edward Arber (1868); A. W. Ward, - _English Dramatic Literature_, i. 151; J. P. Collier, _History of - Dramatis Poetry_, iii. 172; "John Lilly and Shakespeare," by C. C. - Hense in the _Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakesp. Gesellschaft_, vols. - vii. and viii. (1872, 1873); F. W. Fairholt, _Dramatic Works of John - Lilly_ (2 vols., 1858); _Shakespeare's Euphuism_, by W. L. Rushton; - H. Morley, "Euphuism" in the _Quarterly Review_ (1861); R. W. Bond, - "John Lyly, Novelist and Dramatist," in the _Quarterly Review_ (Jan. - 1896); J. A. Symonds, _Shakespeare's Predecessors_ (1883); J. D. - Wilson, _John Lyly_ (Cambridge, 1905); A. Ainger, "Euphuism," in - _Lectures and Essays_ (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, _John Lyly. - Contribution a l'histoire de la Renaissance en Angleterre_ (1910). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The evidence for his authorship may be found in Gabriel Harvey's - _Pierce's Supererogation_ (written November 1589, published 1593), in - Nash's _Have with you to Saffron Walden_ (1596), and in various - allusions in Lyly's own plays. See Fairholt's _Dramatic Works of John - Lilly_, i. 20. - - - - -LYME REGIS, a market town and municipal borough and watering-place in -the western parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 151 m. -W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway, the terminus of -a light railway from Axminster. Pop. (1901) 2095. It is situated at the -mouth of a narrow combe or valley opening upon a fine precipitous -coast-line; there is a sandy shore affording excellent bathing, and the -country inland is beautiful. The church of St Michael and All Angels is -mainly Perpendicular, but the tower (formerly central) and the portion -west of it are Norman. A guildhall and assembly rooms are the chief -public buildings. The principal industries are stone-quarrying and the -manufacture of cement. There is a curved pier of ancient foundation -known as the Cobb. The harbour, with a small coasting trade, is under -the authority of the corporation. The borough is under a mayor, 4 -aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1237 acres. - -No evidence of settlement on the site of Lyme Regis exists before that -afforded by a grant, dated 774, purporting to be by Cynewulf, king of -the West-Saxons, of land here to the church of Sherborne, and a similar -grant by King Aethelstan to the church of Glastonbury. In 1086 three -manors of Lyme are mentioned: that belonging to Sherborne abbey, which -was granted at the dissolution to Thomas Goodwin, who alienated it in -the following year; that belonging to Glastonbury, which seems to have -passed into lay lands during the middle ages, and that belonging to -William Belet. The last was acquired by the family of Bayeux, from whom -it passed by marriage to Elias de Rabayne, whose nephew, Peter Baudrat, -surrendered it to the crown in 1315-1316 when the king became lord of -one moiety of the borough, henceforth known as Lyme Regis. Lyme ranked -as a port in 1234, and Edward I. in 1284 granted to the town a charter -making it a free borough, with a merchant gild, and in the same year the -mayor and bailiffs are mentioned. In the following January the bailiffs -were given freedom from pleading without the borough, freedom from toll -and privileges implying considerable foreign trade; the importance of -the port is also evident from the demand of two ships for the king's -service in 1311. In 1332-1333 Edward III. granted Lyme to the burgesses -at a fee-farm of 32 marks; on the petition of the inhabitants, who were -impoverished by tempests and high tides, this was reduced to 100 -shillings in 1410 and to 5 marks in 1481. In 1591 Elizabeth incorporated -Lyme, and further charters were obtained from James I., Charles II. and -William III. Lyme returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832 -when the representation was reduced to one. The borough was -disfranchised in 1867. The fairs granted in 1553 for the 1st of February -and the 20th of September are now held on altered dates. Trade with -France in wine and cloth was carried on as early as 1284, but was -probably much increased on the erection of the Cobb, first mentioned in -1328 as built of timber and rock. Its medieval importance as the only -shelter between Portland Roads and the river Exe caused the burgesses to -receive grants of quayage for its maintenance in 1335 and many -subsequent years, while its convenience probably did much to bring upon -Lyme the unsuccessful siege by Prince Maurice in 1644. In 1685 Lyme was -the scene of the landing of James, duke of Monmouth, in his attempt upon -the throne. - - - - -LYMINGTON, a municipal borough and seaport in the New Forest -parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 98 m. S.W. from London by -the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4165. It lies on the -estuary of the Lymington, which opens into the Solent. The church of St -Thomas a Becket is an irregular structure, dating from the reign of -Henry VI., but frequently restored. There is some coasting trade, and -yacht-building is carried on. Regular passenger steamers serve Yarmouth -in the Isle of Wight. In summer the town is frequented for sea-bathing. -It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1515 -acres. - -There was a Roman camp near Lymington (_Lentune_, _Lementon_), and Roman -relics have been found, but there is no evidence that a town existed -here until after the Conquest. Lymington dates its importance from the -grant of the town to Richard de Redvers, earl of Devon, in the reign of -Henry I. No charter has been found, but a judgment given under a writ of -_quo warranto_ in 1578 confirms to the burgesses freedom from toll, -passage and pontage, the tolls and stallage of the quay and the right to -hold two fairs--privileges which they claimed under charters of Baldwin -de Redvers and Isabel de Fortibus, countess of Albemarle, in the 13th -century, and Edward Courtenay, earl of Devon, in 1405. The town was -governed by the mayor and burgesses until the corporation was reformed -in 1835. A writ for the election of a member to parliament was issued in -the reign of Edward III., but no return was made. From 1585 two members -were regularly returned; the number was reduced to one in 1867, and in -1885 the representation was merged in that of the county. Fairs on the -13th and 14th of May and the 2nd and 3rd of October, dating from the -13th century, are still held. The Saturday market probably dates from -the same century. Lymington was made a port in the reign of Henry I., -and its large shipping trade led to frequent disputes with Southampton -as to the levying of duties. The case was tried in 1329 and decided -against Lymington, but in 1750 the judgment was reversed, and since then -the petty customs have been regularly paid. From an early date and for -many centuries salt was the staple manufacture of Lymington. The rise of -the mineral saltworks of Cheshire led to its decline in the 18th -century, and later the renewed importance of Southampton completed its -decay. - - See E. King, _Borough and Parish of Lymington_ (London, 1879). - - - - -LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION. Lying close to the blood-vessels of a limb or -organ a further set of vessels may be observed. They are very pale in -colour, often almost transparent and very thin-walled. Hence they are -frequently difficult to find and dissect. These are the lymphatic -vessels, and they are found to be returning a fluid from the tissues to -the bloodstream. When traced back to the tissues they are seen to divide -and ultimately to form minute anastomosing tubules, the _lymph -capillaries_. The capillaries finally terminate in the spaces between -the structures of the tissue, but whether their free ends are closed or -are in open communication with the tissue spaces is still undecided. The -study of their development shows that they grow into the tissue as a -closed system of minute tubes, which indicates that in all probability -they remain permanently closed. If we trace the lymphatic vessels -towards the thorax we find that in some part of their course they -terminate in structures known as lymphatic glands. From these again -fresh lymphatic vessels arise which carry the fluid towards the main -lymph-vessel, the _thoracic duct_. This runs up the posterior wall of -the thorax close to the aorta, and finally opens into the junction of -the internal jugular and left subclavian veins. The lymph-vessels from -the right side of the head and neck and from the right arm open, -however, into the right subclavian vein (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM below). - -_Chemical Constitution of Lymph._--The lymph collected from the thoracic -duct during hunger is almost water clear and yellowish in colour. Its -specific gravity varies from 1015 to 1025. It tastes salt and has a -faint odour. It is alkaline in reaction, but is much less alkaline than -blood-serum. Like blood it clots, but clots badly, only forming a soft -clot which quickly contracts. The lymph collected from a lymphatic -before it has passed through a lymph gland contains a few leucocytes, -and though the number of lymphocytes is greater in the lymph after it -has flowed through a gland it is never very great. In normal states -there are no red blood corpuscles. - -The total solids amount to 3.6 to 5.7%, the variations depending upon -the amount of protein present. The lymph during hunger contains only a -minute quantity of fat. Sugar (dextrose) is present in the same -concentration as in the blood. The inorganic constituents are the same -as in blood, but apparently the amounts of Ca, Mg and P2O5 are rather -less than in serum. Urea is present to the same amount as in blood. If -the lymph be collected after a meal, one important alteration is to be -found. It now contains an abundance of fat in a very fine state of -subdivision, if fat be present in the food. The concentrations of -protein and dextrose are not altered during the absorption of these -substances. - -_The Significance of Lymph._--In considering the significance and use of -lymph we must note in the first place that it forms an alternative -medium for the removal of water, dissolved materials, formed elements or -particles away from the tissues. All materials supplied to a tissue are -brought to it by the blood, and are discharged from the blood through -the capillary wall. They thus come to lie in the tissue spaces between -the cells, and from this supply of material in a dissolved state the -cells take up the food they require. In the opposite direction the cell -discharges its waste products into this same tissue fluid. The removal -of material from the tissue fluid may be effected either by its being -absorbed through the capillary wall into the bloodstream, or by sending -it into the lymphatic vessels and thus away from the tissue. From this -point of view the lymphatics may be looked upon in a sense as a drainage -system of the tissues. Again, besides discharging fluid and dissolved -material into the tissue spaces, the blood may also discharge -leucocytes, and under many conditions this emigration of leucocytes may -be very extensive. These also may leave the tissue space by the path of -the lymph channels. Moreover, the tissues are at any time liable to be -injured, and the injury as well as damaging many cells may cause rupture -of capillaries (as in bruising) with escape of red blood-cells into the -tissue spaces. If this occurs we know that the damaged cells are -destroyed and their debris removed either by digestion by leucocytes or -by disintegration and solution. The damage of a tissue also commonly -involves an infection of the damaged area with living micro-organisms, -and these are at once admitted to the tissue spaces. Hence we see that -the lymphatics may be provided as channels by which a variety of -substances can be removed from the tissue spaces. The question at once -arises, is the lymph channel at all times open to receive the materials -present in the tissue space? If such be the case, lymph is simply tissue -fluid, and anything that modifies the constitution or amount of the -tissue fluid should in like proportion lead to a variation in the amount -and constitution of the lymph. But if the lymph capillary is a closed -tubule at its commencement this does not follow. - -From these considerations we see that in the first instance the whole -problem of lymph formation is intimately bound up with the study of the -interchanges of material between the blood and the various tissue cells. -The exchange of material between blood and tissue cell may possibly be -determined in one or both of two ways. Either it may result from changes -taking place within the tissue cell, or the tissue cell remaining -passive material may be sent to or withdrawn from it owing to a change -occurring either in the composition of the blood or to a change in the -circulation through the tissue. Let us take first the results following -increased activity of a tissue. We know that increased activity of a -tissue means increased chemical change within the tissue and the -production of new chemical bodies of small molecular size (e.g. water, -carbonic acid, &c.). The production of these metabolites means the -destruction of some of the tissue substance, and to make good this loss -the tissue must take a further amount of material from the blood. We -know that this takes place, and moreover that the waste products -resulting from activity are ultimately removed. The question then -becomes: When does this restoration take place, and what is the -intermediate state of the tissue? We know that increased activity is -always accompanied by an increase in the blood-supply, indicating a -greater supply of nutritive material, though it may be that, the -increased supply required at the actual time of activity is oxygen only. -Simultaneously the opportunity for a more rapid removal of the waste -products is provided. We have to inquire then: Does this increased -vascularity necessarily mean an increased outpouring of water and -dissolved material into the tissues, for this might follow directly -from the greater filling of the capillaries, or from the increased -attracting power of the tissues to water (osmotic effect) due to the -sudden production of substances of small molecular size within the -tissue? The other possibility is that the increased volume of blood sent -to the tissue is for the sole purpose of giving it a more rapid supply -of oxygen, and that the ordinary normal blood-supply would amply suffice -for renewing the chemical material used up during activity. Tissues -undoubtedly vary among themselves in the amount of water and other -materials they take from the blood when thrown into activity, and their -behaviour in this respect depends upon the work they are called upon to -perform. We must discriminate between the substance required by and -consumed by the tissue, the chemical food which on combustion yields the -energy by which the tissue performs work, and, on the other hand, the -substance taken from the blood and either with or without further -elaboration discharged from the tissue (as, for instance, in the process -of secretion). The tissue contains in itself a store of food amply -sufficient to enable it to continue working for a long time after its -blood-supply has been stopped, and everything indicates that the supply -of chemical energy to the tissue may be slow or even withheld for a -considerable time. Hence we are led to conclude that the increased flow -of blood sent to a tissue when it is thrown into activity is first and -foremost to give that tissue an increased oxygen supply; secondly, to -remove waste carbonic acid; thirdly, and only in the case of some -tissues, to provide water salts and other materials for the outpouring -of a secretion, as an instance of which we may take the kidney as a -type. Hence there is no need to suppose that an extensive accumulation -of fluid and dissolved substances takes place within a tissue when it -becomes active. This must be an accumulation which would lead to an -engorgement of the tissue spaces and then to a discharge of fluid along -the lymph channels. To enable us to determine the various points just -raised we must know whether an increased blood-supply to a tissue -necessarily means an increased exudation of fluid into the tissue -spaces, and moreover we must study the exchange of fluid between a -tissue and the blood under as varied a series of conditions as possible, -subsequently examining whether exchange of fluid and other substances -between the tissue and the blood necessarily determines quantitatively -the amount of lymph flowing from the tissue. Hence we will first study -the exchanges between the blood and a tissue, and then turn our -attention to the lymph-flow from the tissues. - -_The Exchanges of Fluids and dissolved Substances between the Blood and -the Tissues._--Numerous experiments have been performed in studying the -conditions under which fluid passes into the tissues and tissue -spaces--or in the reverse direction into the blood. We may group them -into (1) conditions during which the total volume of circulating fluid -is increased or decreased; (2) conditions in which the character of the -blood is altered, e.g. it is made more watery or its saline -concentration is altered; (3) conditions in which the blood-supply to -the part is altered; (4) conditions in which the physical character of -the capillary wall is altered. - -1. The total volume of blood in an animal has been increased among other -ways by the transfusion of the blood of one animal directly into the -veins of a second of the same species. It is found that within a very -short time a large percentage of the plasma has been discharged from the -blood-vessels. It has been sent into the tissues, notably the muscles, -and it may be noted in passing without producing any increase in the -lymph-flow from these vessels. An analogous experiment, but one which -avoids the fallacy introduced by injecting a second animal's blood, has -been performed by driving all the blood out of one hind limb by applying -a rubber bandage tightly round it from the foot upwards. This increases -the volume of blood circulating in the rest of the body, and again a -rapid disappearance of the fluid part of the blood from the vessels was -observed--the fluid being mainly sent into the muscles, as was indicated -by showing that the specific gravity of the muscles fell during the -experiment. The experiments converse to these have also been studied. -Bleeding is very rapidly followed by a large inflow of fluid into the -circulating blood--this fluid being derived from all the tissues, and -especially again from the muscles. Or again, when the bandage from the -limb in the above-cited experiment was removed, the total capacity of -the circulatory system was thereby suddenly increased, and it was found -that the total volume of blood increased correspondingly, the increased -volume of fluid being drawn from the tissues and especially again from -the muscles. The rapidity with which this movement of fluid into or out -of the blood takes place is very striking. The explanation usually -offered is that the movement is effected by changes in the capillary -pressure due to the alteration in the volume of blood circulating. While -this seems feasible when the volume of blood is increased, it does not -offer a satisfactory explanation of the rapid movement of fluid from the -tissues when the volume of the blood is decreased. One must therefore -look for yet further factors in this instance. - -2. Let us next turn attention to the second of our three main -variations, viz. that in which the composition of the blood is altered. -It has long been known that the injection of water, or of solutions of -soluble bodies such as salts, urea, sugar, &c., leads to a very rapid -exchange of water and salts between the blood and the tissues. Thus if a -solution less concentrated than the blood be injected, the blood is -thereby diluted, but with very great rapidity water leaves the blood and -is taken up by the tissues. Again, if a strong sugar or salt solution be -injected, the first effect is a big discharge of water from the tissues -into the blood and the movement of fluid is effected with great -rapidity. In these instances a new physical factor is brought into play, -viz. that of osmosis. When a solution of lower osmotic pressure than the -blood is injected the osmotic pressure of the blood falls temporarily -below that of the tissues, and water is therefore attracted to the -tissues. The converse is the case when a solution of osmotic pressure -higher than the blood is injected. This at first sight seems to be an -all-sufficient explanation of the results recorded, but difficulties -arise when we find that the tissues are not equally active in producing -the effects. Thus it is found that the muscles and skin act as the chief -water depot, while such tissues as the liver, intestines or pancreas -take a relatively small share in the exchange. Again, when a strong -sodium chloride solution is injected a considerable part of the sodium -chloride is soon found to have left the blood, and it has been shown -that the chloride depot is not identical with the water depot. The lung, -for instance, is found to take up relatively far more of the salt than -other tissues. Simultaneously with the passage of the salt into the -tissue an exchange of water from the tissue into the blood can be -observed, both processes being carried out very rapidly. The result is -that the blood very quickly returns to a state in which its osmotic -pressure is only slightly raised; the tissue, on the other hand, loses -water and gains salt, and its osmotic pressure and specific gravity -therefore rises. Again, the tissues do not participate equally in -producing the final result, nor is the tissue which gives up the largest -amount of water necessarily that which gains the largest amount of salt. -The results following the injection of solutions of other bodies of -small molecular size, e.g. urea or sugar, are quite analogous to those -above described in the case of the non-toxic salt solutions. Hence we -see that the rate of exchange of fluid and dissolved substance between a -tissue and the blood can be extremely rapid and that the exchange can -take place in either direction. We may also conclude that the main cause -of the exchange, and possibly the only one, is the osmotic action set up -by the solution injected, and that muscle tissue is particularly active -in the process. - -Seeing that a very considerable amount of water or of dissolved -substance can be taken up from the blood into a tissue, the question -next arises: Where is this material held, in the tissue cell or in the -tissue space? Immediately the water or salt leaves the blood it reaches -the tissue space, but unless the process be extreme in amount it -probably passes at once into the tissue cell itself and is stored there. -If the process is excessive oedema is set up and fluid accumulates in -the tissue space. - -These, taken quite briefly, are some of the more important conditions -under which fluid exchanges, take place. They are selected here because -of the extent and rapidity of the changes effected. - -3. The third factor which may bring about a change in the amount of -fluid sent to a tissue is a variation in the capillary pressure. A rise -in capillary pressure will, if filtration can occur through the -capillary wall, cause an increased exudation of fluid from the blood. -Thus the rise in general blood-pressure following the injection of a -salt solution could cause an increased filtration into the tissues. Or -again, the hydraemia following a salt injection would favour an -increased exudation because the blood would be more readily filtrable. -We, however, know very little of the effect of changes in capillary -pressure upon movement of fluid into the tissue spaces and tissues, most -of such observations being confined to a study of their effect upon -lymph-flow. We will therefore return to them in this connexion. - -4. The remaining factor to be mentioned is a change in the character of -the capillary wall. It is well known that many poisons can excite an -increased exudation from the blood and the tissue may become oedematous. -Of such bodies we may mention cantharidin and the lymphogogues of Class -I (see later). A like change is also probably the cause of the oedema of -nephritis and of heart disease. It has also been suggested that the -capillaries of different organs show varying degrees of permeability, a -suggestion to which we will return later. - -_Lymph Formation._--There are two theories current at the present day -offering explanations of the manner in which lymph is formed. The first, -which owes its inception to Ludwig, explains lymph formation upon -physical grounds. Thus according to this theory the lymphatics are open -capillary vessels at their origin in the tissues along which the tissue -fluid is driven. The tissue fluid is discharged from the blood by -filtration, and therefore its amount varies directly with the capillary -pressure. The amount of fluid movement also is further determined by -osmotic actions and by the permeability of the capillary wall. - -The second theory first actively enunciated by Heidenhain regards lymph -formation as a secretory process of the capillary wall, i.e. one in the -discharge of which these cells perform work and are not merely passive -as in the former theory. As we shall see, it is now probable that -neither theory is completely correct. - -In considering lymph formation we have to examine both the total amount -of lymph formed in the body and the variations in amount leaving each -separate organ under different conditions. In most investigations the -lymph was collected from the thoracic duct, i.e. it was the lymph -returned from all parts of the body with the exception of the right arm -and right side of the head and neck. The collection of the lymph from -organs is much more difficult to effect, and hence has not, to the -present, been so extensively studied. We will consider first variations -in the amount of the thoracic duct lymph. Lymph is always flowing along -the thoracic duct, and if the body is at rest, it has been shown that -this lymph is coming practically entirely from the intestines and liver, -chiefly, moreover, from the liver. The variations in the amount flowing -under various conditions has been extensively studied. We will discuss -them under the following headings: Changes brought about (a) by altered -circulatory conditions, (b) by the injection of various substances, and -(c) as a result of throwing an organ into activity. - -Ligature of the portal vein leads to an increased flow of duct lymph. -Ligature of the inferior vena cava above the diaphragm also leads to a -large increase in the flow of duct lymph. Ligature of the aorta may -result in either an increased or decreased flow of direct lymph. One -explanation of these results has been offered from a study of the -changes in capillary pressure set up in the main organs involved. Thus, -after ligature of the portal vein the capillary pressure in the -intestines rises, and it was proved that the increase in thoracic duct -lymph came from the intestines. Ligaturing the inferior vena cava causes -a big rise in the pressure in the liver capillaries, the intestinal -capillary pressure remaining practically unaltered. Here it was proved -that the increase in lymph-flow came from the liver and was more -copious in amount than in the former instance. A further difference is -that this lymph is more concentrated, a feature which always -characterizes liver lymph. Ligature of the aorta may or may not cause a -rise in the liver capillary pressure, and it has been shown that if the -pressure rises there is an increased lymph-flow from the liver and -conversely. The increase of lymph comes entirely in this instance also -from the liver. It is in fact but a special instance of the former -experiment. From these results it has been argued that lymph formation -is simply a filtration fundamentally, and the lymph-flow is determined -mainly by the capillary pressure. Variations in the quantity of lymph -issuing from different organs have been on this theory ascribed to -differences in the permeability of the capillaries of the organs. Thus -as liver lymph is richest in protein content and is produced in greatest -amount, it has been concluded that the liver capillaries possess the -highest permeability. The intestines stand next in producing a -concentrated lymph, and their capillaries are therefore assumed to stand -second as regards permeability. Lastly, the lymph coming from limbs and -other organs is much poorer in solids and much less copious in amount. -Hence it is argued that their capillaries show the least permeability. -It is, however, very unsafe to compare the liver capillaries with those -of other organs, since they are not in reality capillaries but rather -venous sinuses, and their relation to the liver cells is -characteristically different from that of ordinary capillaries. If an -animal is at rest, no lymph flows from the hind limbs. To obtain a -sample of limb lymph it is necessary to massage the limb. If, however, -the veins to the limb be ligatured, we obtain a flow of lymph. The -ligature of course causes a rise of the capillary pressure, and it has -been argued that this rise of pressure starts a filtration through the -capillary wall and hence a flow of lymph. But the stoppage of the -blood-flow also damages the capillary wall and tissue cells by -asphyxiation, and the resulting lymph-flow is in all probability the -resultant of many complex processes. This case is analogous to the -production of oedema in cases of heart disease where the circulation is -feeble and the oxygen supply to the parts deficient. The results of -these experiments form the main evidence in support of the filtration -theory of lymph formation. They were first systematically studied by -Heidenhain, to whom we owe so much of our knowledge of lymph formation. -He did not, however, conclude that they established the filtration -theory. - -In continuing his observations Heidenhain next studied the results -following the injection of a number of substances into the blood. He -found many which on injection gave rise to an increased lymph-flow from -the thoracic duct, and arranged them in two classes. As instances of -lymphogogues of the first class we may mention extract of mussels, leech -extract, peptone, extract of crayfish muscle, extract of strawberries, -of raspberries and many other like substances. Lymphogogues of the -second class comprise neutral salt solutions, urea, sugar, &c. -Considering the latter class first we may take as a type a solution of -sodium chloride. Injection of such a solution causes a large increase in -the lymph-flow, and it has been proved that the lymph comes from the -liver and intestines only--chiefly from the former. It is especially to -be noted that there is no lymph-flow from the limbs, and the same is -true for all lymphogogues of this class. As indicated above, the -injection of a saline solution leads to a large and rapidly effected -transport of fluid from the blood into muscle tissue, but though there -is this large increase in tissue fluid, no lymph flows from the tissue. -This result very powerfully disfavours the filtration theory of lymph -formation. It practically refutes the idea that lymph formation is -solely dependent upon such processes as filtration, osmosis and -capillary permeability only. It brings out quite clearly that the -exchange of fluid and dissolved salts, &c., between the blood and a -tissue, and the flow of lymph from that tissue, are two separate and -distinct processes, and especially that the first does not determine the -second. Also it is to be noted that the injection of a strong salt -solution also excites a flow of duct lymph, again arising from the liver -and intestines, but none from the limbs. In this instance, as previously -stated, the muscles of the limbs are losing water, and so presumably -are the liver and intestinal cells. This independence of tissue-blood -exchange and lymph-flow is distinctly in favour of the view, which is -rapidly gaining ground from histological observations, that in all -instances the lymphatics commence in a tissue as closed capillary -vessels. - -Turning, in the next place, to the lymphogogues of the first class, it -has been proved that the origin of this increase of flow is again from -the liver. Very many of the substances of this class are bodies which -may when taken cause urticarial (nettle-rash) eruptions, a state which -is generally regarded as being due to an action upon the capillary -endothelium. Their action as lymphogogues is also generally ascribed to -an effect upon the capillary wall rendering it according to some more -permeable, according to others leading to a direct secretory action on -the part of the endothelium. We also know that many of the bodies of -this class act upon the liver in other directions than in exciting an -increased lymph production. Thus they may cause an increase in bile -secretion, or, as in the case of peptone, the liver cells may be excited -to produce a new chemical material, in this instance an antithrombin. - -We have now to consider the effect of throwing an organ into activity -upon the lymph-flow from the organ. In all cases in which it has been -examined it is found that increased activity is accompanied by increased -lymph-flow. Thus, to take the instance of the submaxillary gland, which -at rest does not discharge any lymph, stimulation of the chorda tympani -is followed by a flow of lymph accompanying the flow of saliva -simultaneously excited. The stimulation of the nerve also produces -dilatation of the blood-vessels and therefore a rise in capillary -pressure. But that this vascular change is not the factor determining -the lymph-flow is proved by the administration of a small dose of -atropine, which arrests the secretion without influencing the vascular -reaction following chorda stimulation. After the atropine no lymph-flow -occurs on stimulating the nerve. Many other instances of a similar kind -might be adduced. Thus, we have seen that peptone specifically excites -the liver cells and also causes an increased lymph-flow from the liver; -or, as a last instance, the injection of bile salt excites a flow of -bile and also excites a flow of lymph from the liver. The supporters of -the filtration theory have argued that as activity of a tissue is -necessarily accompanied by the discharge of metabolites from the active -tissue cells, and as these are of small molecular size, they must set up -an osmotic effect. Water is therefore drawn into the tissue spaces, and -this rise in fluid content results mechanically in a flow of lymph from -the organ. The lymph simply drains away along the open lymphatics. This -argument, however, loses all its force when we recall the fact that we -may set up an enormous flow of fluid and salt into a tissue and its -tissue spaces without causing the least flow of lymph. Further, there is -no reason to suppose that the metabolites discharged from a tissue -during activity are produced in large quantities. The chief metabolite -is undoubtedly carbonic acid, and this diffuses very rapidly and is -quickly carried away by the blood. If, moreover, as is probably the -case, the lymphatics commence as closed capillaries, we have a further -difficulty in explaining how the fluid is driven through the lymphatic -wall. Either we must imagine the wall to be porous or there must be a -greater pressure outside than inside, and it is very difficult to -conceive how this is possible. As a general conclusion, then, it seems -much more probable that we are here dealing with a secretory process, -and that the active tissue produces some substance or substances--it may -be carbonic acid--which throws the lymphatic capillary cells into -activity. - -To sum up in a few words the present state of our knowledge as to lymph -formation we may say that the exchange of water and salts between the -blood and the tissues is probably entirely determined by processes of -filtration and osmosis. Further, that the physical condition of the -capillary cells is frequently altered by many chemical substances, and -that in consequence it may permit exudation into the tissue spaces much -more freely. In the next place, the flow of lymph from a tissue is not -solely determined by the amount of the tissue fluids. The lymph -capillaries start as closed tubules, and the endothelial walls of these -tubules play an active part (secretory) in determining when water and -other substances shall be admitted into the capillary and further -determine the quantity of such discharge. Apparently, too, these cells -are specifically excited when the tissue is thrown into activity, the -exciting substance being a metabolite from the active tissue. Leucocytes -also are capable of passing through or between the endothelial cells of -the lymph capillary. (T. G. Br.) - - - - -LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. In anatomy, the lymphatic system (Lat. _lympha_, clear -water) comprises the _lymphoid_ or _adenoid_ tissue so plentifully -distributed about the body, especially in the course of the alimentary -canal (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES), _lymph spaces_, _lymphatic vessels_ of -which the lacteals are modifications, _lymphatic glands_, _haemolymph -glands_, and the _thoracic_ and _right lymphatic ducts_ by which the -lymph (q.v.) finally reaches the veins. - -_Lymph spaces_ are mere spaces in the connective tissue, which usually -have no special lining, though sometimes there is a layer of endothelial -cells like those of the lymphatic and blood vessels. Most of these -spaces are very small, but sometimes, as in the case of the -_sub-epicranial space_ of the scalp, the _capsule of Tenon_ in the -orbit, and the _retropharyngeal space_ in the neck, they are large and -are adaptations to allow free movement. Opening from these spaces, and -also communicating with the serous membranes by small openings called -stomata,[1] are the _lymph capillaries_ (see VASCULAR SYSTEM), which -converge to the _lymphatic vessels_. These resemble veins in having an -internal layer of endothelium, a middle unstriped muscular coat, and an -external coat of fibrous tissue, though in the smaller vessels the -middle coat is wanting. They have numerous endothelial valves, formed of -two crescentic segments allowing the lymph to pass toward the root of -the neck. When the vessels are engorged these valves are marked by a -constriction, and so the lymphatics have a beaded appearance. The -vessels divide and anastomose very freely, and for this reason they do -not, like the veins, increase in calibre as they approach their -destination. It is usual to divide the lymphatic vessels into a -superficial and a deep set; speaking generally, the superficial ones are -found near the course of the superficial veins, while the deeper ones -accompany the arteries. Probably any single drop of lymph passes sooner -or later through one or more lymphatic glands, and so those vessels -which are approaching a gland are called _afferent_, while those leaving -are spoken of as _efferent lymphatics_. The _lacteals_ are special -lymphatic vessels which carry the chyle from the intestine; they begin -in lymphatic spaces in the villi and round the solitary and agminated -glands, and pass into the mesentery, where they come in contact with a -large number of _mesenteric glands_ before reaching the _receptaculum -chyli_. - -The _lymphatic glands_ are pink bodies situated in the course of the -lymphatic vessels, to which they act as filters. They are generally oval -in shape and about the size of a bean, but sometimes, especially in the -groin, they form irregular flattened masses 2 in. long, while, at other -times, they are so small as almost to escape notice. They are usually -found in groups. - - Each gland has a fibrous capsule from which trabeculae pass toward the - centre, where they break up and interlace, forming a network, and in - this way a cortical and medullary region for each gland is - distinguished; the intervals are nearly filled by lymphoid tissue, but - close to the trabeculae is a lymph path or sinus, which is only - crossed by the reticular stroma of the lymphoid tissue, and this - probably acts as a mechanical sieve, entangling foreign particles; as - an example of this the bronchial glands are black from carbon strained - off in its passage from the lungs, while the axillary glands in a - tattooed arm are blue. The blood-vessels enter at one spot, the - _hilum_, and are distributed along the trabeculae. In addition to - their function as filters the lymphatic glands are probably one of the - sources from which the leucocytes are derived. - - The exact position of the various groups of glands is very important - from a medical point of view, but here it is only possible to give a - brief sketch which will be helped by reference to the accompanying - diagram. In the head are found _occipital_ and _mastoid glands_ (fig. - 1, [beta]), which drain the back of the scalp; _internal maxillary_ - _glands_, in the zygomatic fossa, draining the orbit, palate, nose - and membranes of the brain; _preauricular glands_ (fig. 1, [alpha]), - embedded in the parotid, draining the side of the scalp, pinna, - tympanum and lower eyelid; and _buccal glands_, draining the cheek - region. In the neck are the _superficial cervical glands_ (fig. 1, - [gamma]), along the course of the external jugular vein, draining the - surface of the neck; the _submaxillary glands_ (fig. 1, [delta]), - lying just above the salivary gland of the same name and draining the - front of the face and scalp; the _submental glands_ (fig. 1, - [epsilon]), beneath the chin, draining the lower lip, as well as - sometimes the upper, and the front of the tongue; the _retropharyngeal - glands_, draining the naso-pharynx and tympanum; the _pretracheal - glands_, draining the trachea and lower part of the thyroid body; and - the _deep cervical glands_, which are by far the most important and - form a great mass close to the internal jugular vein; they receive - afferent vessels from most of the glands already mentioned and so are - liable to be affected in any trouble of the head or neck, especially - of the deeper parts. Into them the lymphatics of the brain pass - directly. The lower part of this mass is sometimes distinguished as a - separate group called the _supra-clavicular glands_, which drain the - back of the neck and receive afferents from the occipital and axillary - glands. The efferents from the deep cervical glands join to form a - common vessel known as the _jugular lymphatic trunk_, and this usually - opens into the thoracic duct on the left side and the right lymphatic - duct on the right. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Superficial Lymphatic Vessels and Glands. - - [alpha], Preauricular. - [beta], Mastoid. - [gamma], Superficial cervical. - [delta], Submaxillary. - [epsilon], Submental. - [zeta], Infraclavicular. - [eta], Anterior axillary. - [theta], Supratrochlear. - [iota], Antecubital. - [kappa], Inguinal. - [lambda], Superficial femoral.] - - In the thorax are found _intercostal glands_ (fig. 2, I.), near the - vertebral column draining the back of the thoracic walls and pleura; - _internal mammary glands_, draining the front of the same parts as - well as the inner part of the breast and the upper part of the - abdominal wall; _diaphragmatic glands_, draining that structure and - the convex surface of the liver; _anterior, middle, posterior and - superior mediastinal glands_, draining the contents of those cavities. - The _bronchial glands_, draining the lungs, have already been referred - to. - - In the abdomen and pelvis the glands are usually grouped round the - large arteries and are divided into visceral and parietal. Among the - visceral are the _gastric glands_, draining the stomach (these are - divided into _coronary_, _subpyloric_ and _retropyloric_ groups); the - _splenic glands_ at the hilum of the spleen, draining that organ, the - tail of the pancreas and the fundus of the stomach; the _hepatic - glands_ in the small omentum, draining the lower surface and deep - parts of the liver; the _pancreatic glands_, behind the lesser sac of - the peritoneum, draining the head and body of the pancreas, the - _superior mesenteric glands_; from one to two hundred in number, lying - in the mesentery and receiving the lacteals; the _ileo-caecal glands_, - draining the caecum, one of which is known as the _appendicular_ gland - and drains the vermiform appendix and right ovary; the _colic glands_ - along the right and middle colic arteries, draining the ascending and - transverse colon; the _inferior mesenteric glands_ in the course of - that artery, draining the descending iliac and pelvic colons; the - _rectal_ glands, behind the rectum, draining its upper part. - - Among the parietal glands are the _external iliac glands_, divided - into a lateral and mesial set (see fig. 2, E.I.), and receiving the - inguinal efferent vessels and lymphatics from the bladder, prostate, - cervix uteri, upper part of the vagina, glans penis vel clitoridis and - urethra. The _supra_ and _infra-umbilical glands_ receive the deep - lymphatics of the abdominal wall, the former communicating with the - liver, the latter with the bladder. From the latter, vessels pass to - the epigastric gland lying in front of the termination of the external - iliac artery. The _internal iliac glands_ (fig. 2, I. I.) are situated - close to the branches of this artery and drain the rectum, vagina, - prostate, urethra, buttock and perinaeum. _Common iliac glands_ (fig. - 2, C.I.) lie around that artery and receive afferents from the - external and internal iliac glands as well as a few from the pelvic - viscera.[2] The _aortic glands_ are grouped all round the length of - the aorta, and are divided into _pre_-, _retro_- and _lateral aortic_ - groups (fig. 2 P.A. and L), all of which communicate freely. The upper - preaortic glands are massed round the coeliac axis, and receive - afferents from the gastric, hepatic, splenic and pancreatic glands; - they are known as _coeliac glands_. The _lateral aortic glands_ drain - the kidney, adrenal, testis, ovary, fundus of uterus and lateral - abdominal walls. In the upper extremity a few small glands are - sometimes found near the deep arteries of the forearm. At the bend of - the elbow are the _ante-cubital_ glands (fig. 1 [lambda]) and just - above the internal condyle, one or two _supra-trochlear glands_ (fig. - 1, [theta]). The _axillary glands_ (fig. 1, [eta]) are perhaps the - most practically important in the body. They are divided into four - sets: (1) _external_, along the axillary vessels, draining the greater - part of the arm; (2) _anterior_, behind the lower border of the - pectoralis major muscle, draining the surface of the thorax including - the breast and upper part of the abdomen; (3) _posterior_ along the - subscapular artery, draining the back and side of the trunk as low as - the umbilical zone; (4) superior or _infra-clavicular glands_ (fig. 1, - [zeta]), receiving the efferents of the former groups as well as - lymphatics accompanying the cephalic vein. In the lower limb all the - superficial lymphatics pass up to the groin, where there are two sets - of glands arranged like a T. The _superficial femoral_ glands (fig. 1, - [lambda]) are the vertical ones, and are grouped round the internal - saphenous vein; they are very large, drain the surface of the leg, and - are usually in two parallel rows. The _inguinal glands_ form the - cross bar of the T (fig. 1, [kappa]), and drain part of the buttock, - the surface of the abdomen below the umbilicus and the surface of the - genital organs. The deep lymphatics of the leg drain into the - _anterior tibial gland_ on that artery, the _popliteal glands_ in that - space, and the _deep femoral glands_ surrounding the common femoral - vein. - -[Illustration: From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_. - -FIG. 2.--Deep Lymphatic Glands and Vessels of the Thorax and Abdomen -(diagrammatic). Afferent vessels are represented by continuous lines and -efferent and interglandular vessels by dotted lines. - - C. Common iliac glands. - C.I. Common intestinal trunk. - D.C. Deep cervical glands. - E.I. External iliac glands. - I. Intercostal glands and vessels. - I.I. Internal iliac glands. - L. Lateral aortic glands. - M. Mediastinal glands and vessels. - P.A. Pre-aortic glands and vessels. - R.C. Receptaculum chylii. - R.L.D. Right lymphatic duct. - S. Sacral glands. - S.A. Scalenus anticus muscle. - T.D. Thoracic duct.] - -The _thoracic duct_ begins as an irregular dilatation known as the -_receptaculum chyli_, opposite the first and second lumbar vertebrae, -which receives all the abdominal lymphatics as well as those of the -lower intercostal spaces. The duct runs up on the right of the aorta -through the posterior mediastinum and then traverses the superior -mediastinum to the left of the oesophagus. At the root of the neck it -receives the lymphatics of the left arm and left side of the neck and -opens into the beginning of the left innominate vein, usually by more -than one opening. - -The _right lymphatic duct_ collects the lymphatics from the right side -of the neck and thorax, the right arm, right lung, right side of the -heart and upper surface of the liver; it is often represented by several -ducts which open separately into the right innominate vein. - -_Haemolymph glands_ are structures which have only been noticed since -1884. They differ from lymphatic glands in their much greater -vascularity. They assist the spleen in the destruction of red blood -corpuscles, and probably explain or help to explain the fact that the -spleen can be removed without ill effects. In man they extend along the -vertebral column from the coeliac axis to the pelvis, but are specially -numerous close to the renal arteries. - - T. Lewis suggests that lymphatic and haemolymph glands should be - classified in the following way:-- - - / Haemal glands. / Simple. - | \ Specialized (Spleen) - | - Haemolymph | / 1. Blood and lymph sinuses - Glands. < Haemal lymphatic < separate. - | glands. | 2. Blood lymph sinuses. - | \ 3. Other combined forms. - | - \ Lymphatic glands. - - Details and references will be found in papers by T. Lewis, _J. Anat. - & Phys._ vol. xxxviii. p. 312; W. B. Drummond, _Journ. Anat. and - Phys._ vol. xxxiv. p. 198; A. S. Warthin, _Journ. Med. Research_, - 1901, p. 3, and H. Dayton, _Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences_, 1904, p. - 448. For further details of man's lymphatic system see _The - Lymphatics_ by Delamere, Poirier and Cuneo, translated by C. H. Leaf - (London, 1903). - - _Embryology._--The lymphatic vessels are possibly developed by the - hollowing out of mesenchyme cells in the same way that the arteries - are; these cells subsequently coalesce and form tubes (see VASCULAR - SYSTEM). There is, however, a good deal of evidence to show that they - are originally offshoots of the venous system, and that their - permanent openings into the veins are either their primary points of - communication or are secondarily acquired. The lymphatic and - haemolymph glands are probably formed by the proliferation of - lymphocytes around networks of lymphatic vessels; the dividing - lymphocytes form the lymphoid tissue, and eventually the network - breaks up to form distinct glands into which blood vessels penetrate. - If the blood vessels enlarge more than the lymphatic, haemolymph - glands result, but if the lymphatic vessels become predominant - ordinary lymphatic glands are formed. At an early stage in the embryo - pig two thoracic ducts are formed, one on either side of the aorta, - and the incomplete fusion of these may account for the division often - found in man's duct. In the embryo pig too there have been found two - pairs of lymph hearts for a short period. - - See A. S. Warthin, _Journ. Med. Research_, vol. vii. p. 435; F. R. - Sabin, _Am. Journ. of Anat._ i., 1902; and, for literature, - _Development of the Human Body_, by J. P. McMurrich (London, 1906), - and Quain's _Anatomy_ (vol. i., London, 1908). - - _Comparative Anatomy._--A lymphatic system is recognized in all the - Craniata, and in the lower forms (fishes and Amphibia) it consists - chiefly of lymph spaces and sinuses in communication with the coelom. - In fishes, for instance, there is a large _subvertebral lymph sinus_ - surrounding the aorta and another within the spinal canal. In Amphibia - the subvertebral sinus is also found, and in the Anura (frogs and - toads) there is a great _subcutaneous lymph sinus_. _Lymph hearts_ are - muscular dilatations of vessels and are found in fishes, amphibians, - reptiles and bird embryos, and drive the lymph into the veins; they - are not known in adult mammals. - - In birds the thoracic duct is first recognized, and opens into both - right and left precaval veins, as it always does in some mammals. In - birds, however, some of the lymphatics open into the sacral veins, and - it is doubtful whether true lymphatic glands ever occur. In birds and - mammals lymphatic vessels become more definite and numerous and are - provided with valves. - - Haemolymph glands are present in mammals and birds, but have not been - seen lower in the scale, though S. Vincent and S. Harrison point out - the resemblance of the structure of the head kidney of certain - Teleostean fishes to them (_Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxxi. p. - 176). - - For further details see _Comparative Anat. of Vertebrates_, by R. - Wiedersheim (London, 1907). (F. G. P.) - - - _Diseases of the Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands._ - - _Lymphadenitis_ or inflammatory infection of the lymphatic glands, is - a condition characterized by hyperaemia of and exudation into the - gland, which becomes reader, firmer and larger than usual. Three - varieties may be distinguished: simple, suppurative and tuberculous. - The cause is always the absorption of some toxic or infective material - from the periphery. This may take place in several of the acute - infectious diseases, notably in scarlet fever, mumps, diphtheria and - German measles, or may be the result of poisoned wounds. The lymphatic - glands are also affected in constitutional diseases such as syphilis. - Simple lymphadenitis usually subsides of its own accord, but if toxins - are produced in the inflamed area the enlargement is obvious and - painful, while if pyogenic organisms are absorbed the inflammation - progresses to suppuration. - - _Tuberculous lymphadenitis_ (scrofula) is due to the infection of the - lymph glands by Koch's tubercle bacillus. This was formerly known as - "King's Evil," as it was believed that the touch of the royal hand had - power to cure it. It occurs most commonly in children and young adults - whose surroundings are unhealthy, and who are liable to develop - tuberculous disease from want of sufficient food and fresh air. Some - local focus of irritation is usually present. The ways in which the - tubercle bacillus enters the body are much disputed, but catarrh of - the mucous membranes is regarded as a predisposing factor, and the - tonsils as a probable channel of infection. Any lymphoid tissue in the - body may be the seat of tuberculous disease, but the glands of the - neck are the most commonly involved. The course of the disease is slow - and may extend over a period of years. The earliest manifestation is - an enlargement of the gland. It is possible in this stage for - spontaneous healing to take place, but usually the disease progresses - to caseation, in which tuberculous nodules are found diffused - throughout the gland. Occasionally this stage may end in calcification - of the caseous matter, the gland shrinking and becoming hard; but - frequently suppuration follows from liquefaction of the caseating - material. Foci of pus occur throughout the gland, causing destruction - of the tissue, so that the gland may become a single abscess cavity. - If left to itself the abscess sooner or later bursts at one or several - points, leaving ulcerated openings through which a variable amount of - pus escapes. Temporary healing may take place, to be again followed by - further breaking down of the gland. This condition, if untreated, may - persist for years and may finally give rise to a general tuberculosis. - The treatment consists mainly in improving the general health with - good diet, fresh air (particularly sea air), cod-liver oil and iron, - and the removal of all sources of local irritation such as enlarged - tonsils, adenoids, &c. Vaccination with tuberculin (TR) may be useful. - Suppuration and extension of the disease require operative measures, - and removal of the glands _en masse_ can now be done through so small - an opening as to leave only a very slight scar. - - In _Tabes mesenterica_ (tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands), - usually occurring in children, the glands of the mesentery and - retroperitonaeum become enlarged, and either caseate or occasionally - suppurate. The disease may be primary or may be secondary to - tuberculous disease of the intestines or to pulmonary phthisis. The - patients are pale, wasted and anaemic, and the abdomen may be - enormously enlarged. There is usually moderate fever, and thin watery - diarrhoea. The caseating glands may liquefy and give rise to an - inflammatory attack which may simulate appendicitis. Limited masses - are amenable to surgical treatment and may be removed, while in the - earlier stages constitutional treatment gives good results. - Tuberculous peritonitis frequently supervenes on this condition. - - _Lymphadenoma_ (Hodgkin's Disease), a disease which was first fully - described by Hodgkin in 1832, is characterized by a progressive - enlargement of the lymphatic glands all over the body, and generally - starts in the glands of the neck. The majority of cases occur in young - adults, and preponderate in the male sex. The first symptom is usually - enlargement of a gland in the neck, with generally progressive growth - of the glands in the submaxillary region and axilla. The inguinal - glands are early involved, and after a time the internal lymph glands - follow. The enlargements are at first painless, but in the later - stages symptoms are caused by pressure on the surrounding organs, and - when the disease starts in the deeper structures the first symptoms - may be pain in the chest and cough, pain in the abdomen, pain and - oedema in the legs. The glands may increase until they are as large as - eggs, and later may become firmly adherent one to another, forming - large lobulated tumours. Increase of growth in this manner in the neck - may cause obstructive dyspnoea and even death. In the majority of - cases the spleen enlarges, and in rare instances lymphoid tumours may - be found on its surface. Anaemia is common and is secondary in - character; slight irregular fever is present, and soon a great and - progressive emaciation takes place. The cases are of two types, the - acute cases in which the enlargements take place rapidly and death may - occur in two to three months, and the chronic cases in which the - disease may remain apparently stationary. In acute lymphadenoma the - prognosis is very unfavourable. Recovery sometimes takes place in the - chronic type of the disease. Early surgical intervention has in some - cases been followed by success. The application of X-rays is a - valuable method of treatment, superficial glands undergoing a rapid - diminution in size. Of drugs arsenic is of the most service, and - mercurial inunction has been recommended by Dreschfeld. Organic - extracts have of late been used in the treatment of lymphadenoma. - - _Glandular Fever_ is an acute infectious fever, generally occurring in - epidemics, and was first described by E. Pfeiffer in 1889. It usually - affects children and has a tendency to run through all the children of - a family. The incubation period is said to be about 7 days. The onset - is sudden, with pain in the neck and limbs, headache, vomiting, - difficulty in swallowing and high temperature. On the second day, or - sometimes on the first, swelling of the cervical glands is noticed, - and later the posterior cervical, axillary and inguinal glands become - enlarged and tender. In about half the cases the spleen and liver are - enlarged and there is abdominal tenderness. West found the mesenteric - nodes enlarged in 37 cases. Nephritis is an occasional complication, - and constipation is very usual. The disease tends to subside of - itself, and the fever usually disappears after a few days; the - glandular swellings may, however, persist from one to three weeks. - Considerable anaemia has been noticed to follow the illness. Rest in - bed while the glands are enlarged, and cod-liver oil and iron to meet - the anaemia, are the usual treatment. - - _Status lymphaticus_ (lymphatism) is a condition found in children and - some adults, characterized by an enlargement of the lymphoid tissues - throughout the body and more particularly by enlargement of the thymus - gland. There is a special lowering of the patient's powers of - resistance, and it has been said to account for a number of cases of - sudden death. In all cases of status lymphaticus the thymus has been - found enlarged. At birth the gland (according to Bovaird and Nicoll) - weighs about 6 grammes, and does not increase after birth. In - lymphatism it may weigh from 10 to 50 grammes. The clinical features - are indefinite, and the condition frequently passes unrecognized - during life. In most cases there is no hint of danger until the fatal - syncope sets in, which may be after any slight exertion or shock, the - patient becoming suddenly faint, gasping and cyanosed, and the heart - stopping altogether before the respirations have ceased. The most - trifling causes have brought on fatal issues, such as a wet pack - (Escherich) or a hypodermic injection, or even a sudden plunge into - water though the head is not immersed. The greater number of deaths - occur during the administration of anaesthetics, which seem peculiarly - dangerous to these subjects. When an attack of syncope takes place no - treatment is of any avail. - - Virchow, West and Goodhardt have described a form of asthma in adults - which they ascribe to a hypertrophied thymus gland and term "thymic - asthma." - - _Diseases of the Spleen._--Physiological variations and abnormalities - and absence of the spleen are so rare as to require no comment. The - most usual pathological condition which gives rise to symptoms is that - of _wandering spleen_, which may or may not be secondary to a - wandering left kidney. It may produce symptoms of dragging and - discomfort, dyspepsia, vomiting and abdominal pain, and sometimes - jaundice (Treves), or the pedicle may become twisted, producing - extremely severe symptoms. The treatment is entirely surgical. Abscess - in the spleen occasionally occurs, usually in association with - infective endocarditis or with general pyaemia. The spleen may be the - seat of primary _new growths_, but these are rare, and only in a small - portion of cases does it share in the metastatic reproduction of - carcinoma. Infection of the spleen plays a prominent part in many - diseases, such as malaria, typhoid fever, lymphadenoma and leucaemia. - - Diseases of the thyroid gland (see GOITRE) and _Addison's disease_ (of - the suprarenal glands) are treated separately. (H. L. H.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] It has recently been stated that stomata do not exist in the - peritoneum. - - [2] For further details of the pelvic glands see "Seventh Report of - the Committee of Collective Investigation," _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ - xxxii. 164. - - - - -LYNCH, PATRICIO (1825-1886) Chilean naval officer, was born in -Valparaiso on the 18th of December 1825, his father being a wealthy -Irish merchant resident in Chile, and his mother, Carmen Solo de -Saldiva, a descendant of one of the best-known families in the country. -Entering the navy in 1837, he took part in the operations which led to -the fall of the dictator, Santa Cruz. Next, he sought a wider field, and -saw active service in the China War on board the British frigate -"Calliope." He was mentioned in despatches for bravery, and received the -grade of midshipman in the British service. Returning to Chile in 1847 -he became lieutenant, and seven years later he received the command of a -frigate, but was deprived of his command for refusing to receive on -board his ship political suspects under arrest. The Spanish War saw him -again employed, and he was successively maritime prefect of Valparaiso, -colonel of National Guards, and, finally, captain and minister of marine -in 1872. In the Chile-Peruvian War a brilliant and destructive naval -raid, led by him, was followed by the final campaign of Chorrillos and -Miraflores (1880), in which he led at first a brigade (as colonel) and -afterwards a division under Baquedano. His services at the battle of -Chorrillos led to his appointment to command the Army of Occupation in -Peru. This difficult post he filled with success, but his action in -putting the Peruvian president, Garcia Calderon, under arrest excited -considerable comment. His last act was to invest Iglesias with supreme -power in Peru, and he returned to his own country in 1883. Promoted -rear-admiral, he served as Chilean Minister at Madrid for two years, and -died at sea in 1886. Lynch is remembered as one of the foremost of -Chile's naval heroes. - - - - -LYNCHBURG, a city of Campbell county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the James -river, about 125 m. W. by S. of Richmond. Pop. (1900) 18,891, of whom -8254 were negroes; (1910) 29,494. It is served by the Southern, the -Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western railways. Its terraced hills -command fine views of mountain, valley and river scenery, extending -westward to the noble Peaks of Otter and lesser spurs of the Blue Ridge -about 20 m. distant. On an elevation between Rivermont Avenue and the -James river are the buildings of Randolph-Macon Woman's college (opened -in 1893), which is conducted by a self-perpetuating board under the -auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and is one of the -Randolph-Macon system of colleges and academies (see ASHLAND, VA.). In -Lynchburg, too, are the Virginia Christian college (co-educational, -1903), and the Virginia collegiate and industrial school for negroes. -The city has a public library, well-equipped hospitals, public parks and -the Rivermont Viaduct, 1100 ft. long and 140 ft. high. Lynchburg is the -see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Tobacco of a superior quality and -large quantities of coal, iron ore and granite are produced in the -neighbourhood. Good water power is furnished by the James river, and -Lynchburg is one of the principal manufacturing cities of the state. The -boot and shoe industry was established in 1900, and is much the most -important. In 1905 the city was the largest southern manufacturer of -these articles and one of the largest distributors in the country. The -factory products increased in value from $2,993,551 in 1900 to -$4,905,435 in 1905, or 65.9%. - -Lynchburg, named in honour of John Lynch, who inherited a large tract of -land here and in 1757 established a ferry across the James, was -established as a village by Act of Assembly in 1786, was incorporated as -a town in 1805, and became a city in 1852. During the Civil War it was -an important base of supplies for the Confederates; on the 16th of June -1864 it was invested by Major-General David Hunter (1802-1886), but -three days later he was driven away by General Jubal A. Early. In 1908 -the city's corporate limits were extended. - - - - -LYNCH LAW, a term loosely applied to various forms of executing rough -popular justice, or what is thought to be justice, for the punishment of -offenders by a summary procedure, ignoring, or even contrary to, the -strict forms of law. The word _lynching_ "originally signified a -whipping for reformatory purposes with more or less disregard for its -legality" (Cutler), or the infliction of minor punishments without -recourse to law; but during and after the Reconstruction Period in the -United States, it came to mean, generally, the summary infliction of -capital punishment. Lynch law is frequently prevalent in sparsely -settled or frontier districts where government is weak and officers of -the law too few and too powerless to enforce law and preserve order. The -practice has been common in all countries when unsettled frontier -conditions existed, or in periods of threatened anarchy. In what are -considered civilized countries it is now found mainly in Russia, -south-eastern Europe and in America, but it is essentially and almost -peculiarly an American institution. The origin of the name is obscure; -different writers have attempted to trace it to Ireland, to England, to -South Carolina, to Pennsylvania and to Virginia. It is certain that the -name was first used in America, but it is not certain whether it came -from Lynch's Creek, South Carolina, where summary justice was -administered to outlaws, or from Virginia and Pennsylvania, where men -named Lynch were noted for dealing out summary punishment to -offenders.[1] In Europe early examples of a similar phenomenon are found -in the proceedings of the Vehmgerichte in medieval Germany, and of -Lydford law, gibbet law or Halifax law, Cowper justice and Jeddart -justice in the thinly settled and border districts of Great Britain; and -since the term "lynch law" came into colloquial use, it is loosely -employed to cover any case in which a portion of the community takes the -execution of its ideas of justice into its own hands, irrespective of -the legal authorities. - -In America during the 18th and 19th centuries the population expanded -westward faster than well-developed civil institutions could follow, and -on the western frontier were always desperadoes who lived by preying on -the better classes. To suppress these desperadoes, in the absence of -strong legal institutions, resort was continually made to lynch law. -There was little necessity for it until the settlement crossed the -Alleghany Mountains, but the following instances of lynching in the East -may be mentioned: (1) the mistreatment of Indians in New England and the -Middle Colonies in disregard of laws protecting them; (2) the custom -found in various colonies of administering summary justice to -wife-beaters, idlers and other obnoxious persons; (3) the acts of the -Regulators of North Carolina, 1767-1771; (4) the popular tribunals of -the Revolutionary period, when the disaffection toward Great Britain -weakened the authority of the civil governments and the war replaced -them by popular governments, at a time when the hostilities between -"Patriots" and "Tories" were an incentive to extra-legal violence. In -the South, lynching methods were long employed in dealing with -agitators, white and black, who were charged with endeavouring to excite -the slaves to insurrection or to crime against their masters, and in -dealing with anti-slavery agitators generally. - -In the West, from the Alleghanies to the Golden Gate, the pioneer -settlers resorted to popular justice to get rid of bands of outlaws, and -to regulate society during that period when laws were weak or confused, -when the laws made in the East did not suit western conditions, and when -courts and officials were scarce and distant. The Watauga settlements -and the "State" of Franklin furnished examples of lynch law procedure -almost reduced to organization. Men trained in the rough school of the -wilderness came to have more regard for quick, ready-made, personal -justice than for abstract justice and statutes; they were educated to -defend themselves, to look to no law for protection or regulation; -consequently they became impatient of legal forms and lawyers' -technicalities; an appeal to statute law was looked upon with suspicion, -and, if some personal matter was involved, was likely to result in -deadly private feuds. Thus were formed the habits of thought and action -of the western pioneers. Lynch law, not civil law, cleared the western -forests, valleys and mountain passes of horse and cattle thieves, and -other robbers and outlaws, gamblers and murderers. This was especially -true of California and the states of the far West. H. H. Bancroft, the -historian of _Popular Tribunals_, wrote in 1887 that "thus far in the -history of these Pacific States far more has been done toward righting -wrongs and administering justice outside the pale of law than within -it." However, the lack of regard for law fostered by the conditions -described led to a survival of the lynching habit after the necessity -for it passed away. In parts of the Southern states, where the whites -are few and greatly outnumbered by the blacks, certain of the conditions -of the West have prevailed, and since emancipation released the blacks -from restraint many of the latter have been lawless and turbulent. The -Reconstruction, by giving to the blacks temporary political supremacy, -increased the friction between the races, and greatly deepened -prejudice. The numerous protective societies of whites, 1865-1876, -culminating in the Ku Klux movement, may be described as an application -of lynch law. With the increase of negro crimes came an increase of -lynchings, due to prejudice, to the fact that for some time after -Reconstruction the governments were relatively weak, especially in the -districts where the blacks outnumber the whites, to the fact that -negroes nearly always shield criminals of their own race against the -whites, and to the frequent occurrence of the crime of rape by negro men -upon white women. - -Since 1882 the Chicago _Tribune_ has collected statistics of lynching, -and some interesting facts may be deduced from these tables.[2] During -the twenty-two years from 1882 to 1903 inclusive, the total number of -persons lynched in the United States was 3337, the number decreasing -during the last decade; of these 2385 were in the South and 752 in the -North; of those lynched in the East and West 602 were white and 75 -black, and of those in the South 567 were white and 1985 black.[3] -Lynchings occur mostly during periods of idleness of the lower classes; -in the summer more are lynched for crimes against the person and in the -winter (in the West) for crimes against property; the principal causes -of lynching in the South are murder and rape, in the North and West, -murder and offences against property; more blacks than whites were -lynched between 1882 and 1903, the numbers being 2060 negroes, of whom -40 were women, and 1169 whites, of whom 23 were women; of the 707 blacks -lynched for rape 675 were in the South; 783 blacks were lynched for -murder, and 753 of these were in the South; most of the lynchings of -whites were in the West; the lynching of negroes increased somewhat -outside of the South and decreased somewhat in the South. Lynching -decreases and disappears in a community as the population grows denser -and civil institutions grow stronger; as better communications and good -police make it harder to commit crime; and as public sentiment is -educated to demand legal rather than illegal and irregular infliction of -punishment for even the most horrible of crimes. - - See James E. Cutler, _Lynch Law_ (New York, 1905), an admirable and - unbiased discussion of the subject; H. H. Bancroft, _Popular - Tribunals_ (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887); C. H. Shinn, _Mining Camps: - A Study in American Frontier Government_ (New York, 1885); and J. C. - Lester and D. L. Wilson, _Ku Klux Klan_ (New York, 1905). - (W. L. F.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The usual explanation is that the name was derived from Charles - Lynch (1736-1796), a justice of the peace in Virginia after 1774, who - in 1780, toward the close of the War of Independence, greatly - exceeded his powers in the punishment of Tories or Loyalists detected - in a conspiracy in the neighbourhood of his home in Bedford county, - Va. Lynch was a man of influence in his community, was for many years - a member of the Virginia legislature, was a member of the famous - Virginia Convention of 1776 and was later (in 1781) an officer in the - American army. See an article, "The Real Judge Lynch," in the - _Atlantic Monthly_, vol. lxxxviii. (Boston, 1901). - - [2] They have been corrected and somewhat modified by Dr. J. E. - Cutler, from whose book the figures above have been taken. Lynching - as used in this connexion applies exclusively to the illegal - infliction of capital punishment. - - [3] For present purposes the former slave states (of 1860) constitute - the South; the West is composed of the territory west of the - Mississippi river, excluding Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and - Oklahoma; the East includes those states east of the Mississippi - river not included in the Southern group; the East and the West make - up the North as here used--that is, the former free states of 1860. - - - - -LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, BARON (1772-1863), lord chancellor of -England, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1772. He was the son of -John Singleton Copley, the painter. He was educated at a private school -and Cambridge university, where he was second wrangler and fellow of -Trinity. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1804, he gained a -considerable practice. In 1817 he was one of the counsel for Dr J. -Watson, tried for his share in the Spa Fields riot. On this occasion -Copley so distinguished himself as to attract the attention of -Castlereagh and other Tory leaders, under whose patronage he entered -parliament as member for Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight. He afterwards -sat for Ashburton, 1818-1826, and for Cambridge university 1826-1827. He -was solicitor-general in 1819, attorney-general in 1824, master of the -rolls in 1826 and lord chancellor in 1827, with the title of Lord -Lyndhurst. Before being taken up by the Tories, Copley was a man of the -most advanced views, a republican and Jacobin; and his accession to the -Tories excited a good deal of comment, which he bore with the greatest -good humour. He gave a brilliant and eloquent but by no means rancorous -support to all the reactionary measures of his chief. The same year that -he became solicitor-general he married the beautiful and clever widow -of Lieut.-Colonel Charles Thomas of the Coldstream Guards, and began to -take a conspicuous place in society, in which his noble figure, his -ready wit and his never-failing _bonhomie_ made him a distinguished -favourite. - -As solicitor-general he took a prominent part in the trial of Queen -Caroline. To the great Liberal measures which marked the end of the -reign of George IV. and the beginning of that of William IV. he gave a -vigorous opposition. He was lord chief baron of the exchequer from 1831 -to 1834. During the Melbourne administration from 1835 to 1841 he -figured conspicuously as an obstructionist in the House of Lords. In -these years it was a frequent practice with him, before each prorogation -of parliament, to entertain the House with a "review of the session," in -which he mercilessly attacked the Whig government. His former adversary -Lord Brougham, disgusted at his treatment by the Whig leaders, soon -became his most powerful ally in opposition; and the two dominated the -House of Lords. Throughout all the Tory governments from 1827 Lyndhurst -held the chancellorship (1827-1830 and 1834-1835); and in the Peel -administration (1841-1846) he resumed that office for the last time. As -Peel never had much confidence in Lyndhurst, the latter did not exert so -great an influence in the cabinet as his position and experience -entitled him to do. But he continued a loyal member of the party. As in -regard to Catholic emancipation, so in the agitation against the corn -laws, he opposed reform till his chief gave the signal for concession, -and then he cheerfully obeyed. After 1846 and the disintegration of the -Tory party consequent on Peel's adoption of free trade, Lord Lyndhurst -was not so assiduous in his attendance in parliament. Yet he continued -to an extreme old age to take a lively interest in public affairs, and -occasionally to astonish the country by the power and brilliancy of his -speeches. That which he made in the House of Lords on the 19th of June -1854, on the war with Russia, made a sensation in Europe; and throughout -the Crimean War he was a strong advocate of the energetic prosecution of -hostilities. In 1859 he denounced with his old energy the restless -ambition of Napoleon III. When released from office he came forward -somewhat as the advocate of liberal measures. His first wife had died in -1834, and in August 1837 he had married Georgina, daughter of Lewis -Goldsmith. She was a Jewess; and it was therefore natural that he -strenuously supported the admission of Jews into parliament. He also -advocated women's rights in questions of divorce. At the age of -eighty-four he passed the autumn at Dieppe, "helping to fly paper kites, -and amusing himself by turns with the writings of the Greek and Latin -fathers on divorce and the amorous novels of Eugene Sue." His last -speech, marked by "his wonted brilliancy and vigour," was delivered in -the House of Lords at the age of eighty-nine. He died in London on the -12th of October 1863. He left no male issue and the title became -extinct. - - See _Lives of the Lord Chancellors of England_, vol. viii. (Lords - Lyndhurst and Brougham), by Lord Campbell (1869). Campbell was a - personal friend, but a political opponent. Brougham's _Memoirs_; - _Greville Memoirs_; _Life of Lord Lyndhurst_ (1883) by Sir Theodore - Martin; J. B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1906). - - - - -LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID (c. 1490-c. 1555), Scottish poet, was the son of -David Lyndsay of the Mount, near Cupar-Fife, and of Garmylton, near -Haddington. His place of birth and his school are undetermined. It is -probable that his college life was spent at St Andrews university, on -the books of which appears an entry "Da Lindesay" for the session -1508-1509. He was engaged at court, first as an equerry, then as an -"usher" to the young Prince James, afterwards James V. In 1522 he -married Janet Douglas, a court seamstress, and seven years later was -appointed Lyon King of Arms, and knighted. He was several times engaged -in diplomatic business (twice on embassies abroad--to the Netherlands -and France), and he was, in virtue of his heraldic office, a general -master of ceremonies. After the death of James V., in 1542, he continued -to sit in parliament as commissioner for Cupar-Fife; and in 1548 he was -member of a mission to Denmark which obtained certain privileges for -Scottish merchants. There is reason to believe that he died in or about -1555. - -Most of Lyndsay's literary work, by which he secured great reputation in -his own day and by which he still lives, was written during the period -of prosperity at court. In this respect he is unlike his predecessor -Gavin Douglas (q.v.), who forsook literature when he became a -politician. The explanation of the difference is partly to be found in -the fact that Lyndsay's muse was more occasional and satirical, and that -the time was suitable to the exercise of his special gifts. It is more -difficult to explain how he enjoyed a freedom of speech which is without -parallel even in more secure times. He chastised all classes, from his -royal master to the most simple. There is no evidence that he abjured -Catholicism; yet his leading purpose was the exposure of its errors and -abuses. His aid was readily accepted by the reforming party, and by -their use of his work he shared with their leaders throughout many -generations a reputation which is almost exclusively political and -ecclesiastical. - -Lyndsay's longer poems are _The Dreme_ (1134 lines), _The Testament and -Complaynt of the Papynago_ (1190 lines), _The Testament of Squyer -Meldrum_ (1859 lines), _Ane Dialog betwix Experience and ane Courteour -of the Miserabyll Estait of the World_ (6333 lines), and _Ane Pleasant -Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis_ (over 4000 lines). These represent, with -reasonable completeness, the range of Lyndsay's literary talent. No -single poem can give him a chief place, though here and there, -especially in the last, he gives hints of the highest competence. Yet -the corporate effect of these pieces is to secure for him the allowance -of more than mere intellectual vigour and common sense. There is in his -craftsmanship, in his readiness to apply the traditional methods to -contemporary requirements, something of that accomplishment which makes -even the second-rate man of letters interesting. - -Lyndsay, the last of the Makars, is not behind his fellow-poets in -acknowledgment to Chaucer. As piously as they, he reproduces the -master's forms; but in him the sentiment and outlook have suffered -change. His nearest approach to Chaucer is in _The Testament of Squyer -Meldrum_, which recalls the sketch of the "young squire"; but the -reminiscence is verbal rather than spiritual. Elsewhere his memory -serves him less happily, as when he describes the array of the lamented -Queen Magdalene in the words which Chaucer had applied to the eyes of -his wanton Friar. So too, in the _Dreme_, the allegorical tradition -survives only in the form. "Remembrance" conducts the poet over the -old-world itinerary, but only to lead him to speculation on Scotland's -woes and to an "Exhortatioun to the Kingis Grace" to bring relief. The -tenor is well expressed in the motto from the Vulgate--"_Prophetias -nolite spernere. Omnia autem probate: quod bonum est tenete._" This -didactic habit is freely exercised in the long _Dialog_ (sometimes -called the _Monarche_), a universal history of the medieval type, in -which the falls of princes by corruption supply an object lesson to the -unreformed church of his day. The _Satyre_ is more direct in its attack -on ecclesiastical abuse; and its dramatic form permits more lively -treatment. This piece is of great historical interest, being the only -extant example of a complete Scottish morality. It is in respect of -literary quality Lyndsay's best work, and in dramatic construction and -delineation of character it holds a high place in this _genre_. The -farcical interludes (in places too coarse for modern taste) supply many -touches of genuine comedy; and throughout the play there are passages, -as in the speeches of Veritie in the First Part and of Dame Chastitie in -the "Interlude of the Sowtar and the Taylor," in which word and line are -happily conceived. The _Testament of the Papyngo_ (popinjay), drawn in -the familiar medieval manner, is another tract for the time, full of -admonition to court and clergy. Of his shorter pieces, _The Complaynt -and Publict Confessions of the Kingis Auld Hound, callit Bagsche, -directit to Bawtie, the Kingis best belovit Dog, and his companyeonis_, -and the _Answer to the Kingis Flyting_ have a like pulpit resonance. The -former is interesting as a forerunner of Burns's device in the "Twa -Dogs." The _Deploratioun of the_ _Deith of Queen Magdalene_ is in the -extravagant style of commemoration illustrated in Dunbar's Elegy on the -Lord Aubigny. The _Justing betwix James Watsoun and Jhone Barbour_ is a -contribution to the popular taste for boisterous fun, in spirit, if not -in form, akin to the _Christis Kirk on the Grene_ series; and -indirectly, with Dunbar's _Turnament_ and _Of ane Blak-Moir_, a -burlesque of the courtly tourney. Lyndsay approaches Dunbar in his -satire _The Supplicatioun in contemptioun of syde taillis_ ("wide" -trains of the ladies), which recalls the older poet's realistic lines on -the filthy condition of the city streets. In Lyndsay's _Descriptioun of -Pedder Coffeis_ (pedlars) we have an early example of the studies in -vulgar life which are so plentiful in later Scottish literature. In -_Kitteis Confessioun_ he returns, but in more sprightly mood, to his -attack on the church. - -In Lyndsay we have the first literary expression in Scotland of the -Renaissance. His interest lies on the theological side of the revival; -he is in no sense a humanist, and he is indifferent to the artistic -claims of the movement. Still he appeals to the principle which is -fundamental to all. He demands first-hand impression. He feels that men -must get their lesson direct, not from intermediaries who understand the -originals no more "than they do the ravyng of the rukis." Hence his -persistent plea for the vernacular, nowhere more directly put than in -the _Dialog_, in the "Exclamatioun to the Redar, toucheyng the wrytting -of the vulgare and maternall language." Though he is concerned only in -the theological and ecclesiastical application of this, he undoubtedly -stimulated the use of the vernacular in a Scotland which in all literary -matters beyond the concern of the irresponsible poet still used the -_lingua franca_ of Europe. - - A complete edition of Lyndsay's poetical works was published by David - Laing in 3 vols. in 1879. This was anticipated during the process of - preparation by a cheaper edition (slightly expurgated) by the same - editor in 1871 (2 vols.). The E.E.T.S. issued the first part of a - complete edition in 1865 (ed. F. Hall). Five parts have appeared, four - edited by F. Hall, the fifth by J. A. H. Murray. For the bibliography - see Laing's 3 vol. edition, _u.s._ iii. pp. 222 et seq., and the - E.E.T.S. edition _passim_. See also the editions by Pinkerton (1792), - Sibbald (1803), and Chalmers (1806); and the critical accounts in - Henderson's _Scottish Vernacular Literature_ (1898), Gregory Smith's - _Transition Period_ (1900), and J. H. Millar's _Literary History of - Scotland_ (1903). A professional work prepared by Lyndsay in the Lyon - Office, entitled the _Register of Scottish Arms_ (now preserved in MS. - in the Advocates' Library), was printed in 1821 and reprinted in 1878. - It remains the most authoritative document on Scottish heraldry. - (G. G. S.) - - - - -LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM, 1ST BARON (1748-1843), British general, was the -son of Thomas Graeme, laird of Balgowan, and was born on the 19th of -October 1748. He was educated by private tutors, among whom was James -Macpherson (q.v.), and was a gentleman commoner of Christ Church, -Oxford, between 1766 and 1768. He then travelled on the continent of -Europe, and in 1772 unsuccessfully contested a parliamentary seat in -Perthshire. In 1774 he married a daughter of the ninth Lord Cathcart, -and took a house in the Leicestershire hunting country. After a few -years, owing to the state of his wife's health, Graham was compelled to -live mainly in the south of Europe, though while at home he was a -prominent sportsman and agriculturist. In 1787 he bought the small -estate of Lynedoch or Lednock, a few miles from Perth. In 1791 his wife -died in the Mediterranean, off Hyeres. Graham tried to find distraction -in renewed travels, and during his wanderings fell in with Lord Hood's -fleet on its way to Toulon. He joined it as a volunteer, served on Lord -Mulgrave's staff during the British occupation of Toulon, and returned, -after the failure of the expedition, to Scotland, where he organized a -regiment of infantry, the 90th Foot, Perthshire Volunteers (now 2nd -Battalion Scottish Rifles). Graham's men were the first regiment in the -army to be equipped and trained wholly as light infantry, though they -were not officially recognized as such for many years. In the same year -(1794) Graham became member of parliament, in the Whig interest, for the -county of Perth. He saw some active service in 1795 in "conjunct -expeditions" of the army and navy, and in 1796, being then a brevet -colonel, he was appointed British commissioner at the headquarters of -the Austrian army in Italy. He took part in the operations against -Napoleon Bonaparte, was shut up in Mantua with Wurmser's army, escaped -in disguise, and after many adventures reached the relieving army of -Alvinzi just before the battle of Rivoli. On returning to his regiment -he served in more "conjunct" expeditions, in one of which, at Messina, -he co-operated with Nelson, and in 1799 he was sent as brigadier-general -to invest the fortress of Valetta, Malta. He blockaded the place for two -years, and though Major-General Pigot arrived shortly before the close -of the blockade and assumed command, the conquest of Malta stands almost -wholly to the credit of Graham and his naval colleague Sir Alexander -Ball. In 1801 Graham proceeded to Egypt, where his regiment was engaged -in Abercromby's expedition, but arrived too late to take part in any -fighting. He took the opportunity afforded by the peace of Amiens to -visit Turkey, Austria, Germany and France, and only resumed command of -his regiment in 1804. When the latter was ordered to the West Indies he -devoted himself to his duties as a member of parliament. He sat for -Perthshire until 1807, when he was defeated, as he was again in 1812. -Graham was with Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in Spain 1808-1809, and was -present at his death at the battle of Corunna. In 1809 he became a -major-general, and after taking part in the disastrous Walcheren -expedition he was promoted lieutenant-general and sent to Cadiz (1810). - -In 1811, acting in conjunction with the Spanish army under General la -Pena (see PENINSULAR WAR), he took the offensive, and won the brilliant -action of Barossa (5th of March). The victory was made barren of result -by the timidity of the Spanish generals. The latter nevertheless claimed -more than their share of the credit, and Graham answered them with -spirit. One of the Spanish officers he called out, fought and disarmed, -and after refusing with contempt the offer of a Spanish dukedom, he -resigned his command in the south and joined Wellington in Portugal. His -seniority as lieutenant-general made him second in command of -Wellington's army. He took part in the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, and -commanded a wing of the army in the siege of Badajoz and the advance to -Salamanca. In July 1812, his eyesight becoming seriously impaired, he -went home, but rejoined in time to lead the detached wing of the army in -the wide-ranging manoeuvre which culminated in the battle of Vittoria. -Graham was next entrusted with the investment and siege of San -Sebastian, which after a desperate defence fell on the 9th of September -1813. He then went home, but in 1814 accepted the command of a corps to -be despatched against Antwerp. His assault on Bergen op Zoom was, -however, disastrously repulsed (3rd of February 1814). - -At the peace Graham retired from active military employment. He was -created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in the peerage of the United Kingdom, -but refused the offered pension of L2000 a year. In 1813 he proposed the -formation of a military club in London, and though Lord St Vincent -considered such an assemblage of officers to be unconstitutional, -Wellington supported it and the officers of the army and navy at large -received the idea with enthusiasm. Lynedoch's portrait, by Sir T. -Lawrence, is in possession of this club, the (Senior) United Service. In -his latter years he resumed the habits of his youth, travelling all over -Europe, hunting with the Pytchley so long as he was able to sit his -horse, actively concerned in politics and voting consistently for -liberal measures. At the age of ninety-two he hastened from Switzerland -to Edinburgh to receive Queen Victoria when she visited Scotland after -her marriage. He died in London on the 18th of December 1843. He had -been made a full general in 1821, and at the time of his death was a -G.C.B., Colonel of the 1st (Royal Scots) regiment, and governor of -Dumbarton Castle. - - See biographies by John Murray Graham (2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1877) and - Captain A. M. Delavoye (London, 1880); also the latter's _History of - the 90th_ (_Perthshire Volunteers_) (London, 1880), _Philipparts' - Royal Military Calendar_ (1820), ii. 147, and _Gentleman's Magazine_, - new series, xxi. 197. - - - - -LYNN, a city and seaport of Essex county, Massachusetts, 9 m. N.E. of -Boston, on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900) 68,513, of -whom 17,742 were foreign-born (6609 being English Canadians, 5306 -Irish, 1527 English and 1280 French Canadians), and 784 were negroes; -(1910 census) 89,336. It is served by the Boston & Maine and the Boston, -Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by an interurban electric railway, and -has an area of 10.85 sq. m. The business part is built near the shore on -low, level ground, and the residential sections are on the higher -levels. Lynn Woods, a beautiful park, covers more than 2000 acres. On -the shore, which has a fine boulevard, is a state bath house. The city -has a handsome city hall, a free public library, founded in 1862, a -soldiers' monument and two hospitals. Lynn is primarily a manufacturing -city. The first smelting works in New England were established here in -1643. More important and earlier was the manufacture of boots and shoes, -an industry introduced in 1636 by Philip Kertland, a Buckingham man; a -corporation of shoemakers existed here in 1651, whose papers were lost -in 1765. There were many court orders in the seventeenth century to -butchers, tanners, bootmakers and cordwainers; and the business was made -more important by John Adam Dagyr (d. 1808), a Welshman who came here in -1750 and whose work was equal to the best in England. In 1767 the output -was 80,000 pairs; in 1795 about 300,000 pairs of women's shoes were made -by 600 journeymen and 200 master workmen. The product of women's shoes -had become famous in 1764, and about 1783 the use of morocco had been -introduced by Ebenezer Breed. In 1900 and 1905 Lynn was second only to -Brockton among the cities of the United States in the value of boots and -shoes manufactured, and outranked Brockton in the three allied -industries, the manufacture of boots and shoes, of cut stock and of -findings. In the value of its total manufactured product Lynn ranked -second to Boston in the state in 1905, having been fifth in 1900; the -total number of factories in 1905 was 431; their capital was -$23,139,185; their employees numbered 21,540; and their product was -valued at $55,003,023 (as compared with $39,347,493 in 1900). Patent -medicines and compounds and the manufacture of electrical machinery are -prominent industries. The Lynn factories of the General Electric Company -had in 1906 an annual product worth between $15,000,000 and $20,000,000. -The foreign export of manufactured products is estimated at $5,000,000 a -year. - -Lynn was founded in 1629 and was called Saugus until 1637, when the -present name was adopted, from Lynn Regis, Norfolk, the home of the Rev. -Samuel Whiting (1597-1679), pastor at Lynn from 1636 until his death. -From Lynn Reading was separated in 1644, Lynnfield in 1782, Saugus in -1815, and, after the incorporation of the city of Lynn in 1850, -Swampscott in 1852, and in 1853 Nahant, S. of Lynn, on a picturesque -peninsula and now a fashionable summer resort. - - See James R, Newhall, _History of Lynn_ (Lynn, 1883), and H. K. - Sanderson, _Lynn in the Revolution_ (1910). - - - - -LYNTON and LYNMOUTH, two seaside villages in the Barnstaple -parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Bristol Channel; -17 m. E. of Ilfracombe, served by the Lynton light railway, which joins -the South Western and Great Western lines at Barnstaple. Both are -favoured as summer resorts. Lynmouth stands where two small streams, the -East Lyn and West Lyn, flow down deep and well-wooded valleys to the -sea. Lynton is on the cliff-edge, 430 ft. above. A lift connects the -villages. The industries are fishing and a small coasting trade. Not far -off are the Doone Valley, part of the vale of the East Lyn, here called -Badgeworthy water, once the stronghold of a notorious band of robbers -and famous through R. D. Blackmore's novel _Lorna Doone_; Watersmeet, -where two streams, the Tavy and Walkham, join amid wild and beautiful -scenery; and the Valley of Rocks, a narrow glen strewn with immense -boulders. Lynton is an urban district, with a population (1901) of 1641. - - - - -LYNX (Lat. _Lynx_, Gr. [Greek: lynx], probably connected with [Greek: -leuosein], to see), a genus of mammals of the family _Felidae_, by some -naturalists regarded only as a subgenus or section of the typical genus -_Felis_ (see CARNIVORA). As an English word (lynx) the name is used of -any animal of this group. It is not certain to which of these, if to any -of them, the Greek name [Greek: lynx] was especially applied, though it -was more probably the caracal (q.v.) than any of the northern species. -The so-called lynxes of Bacchus were generally represented as resembling -leopards rather than any of the species now known by the name. Various -fabulous properties were attributed to the animal, whatever it was, by -the ancients, that of extraordinary powers of vision, including ability -to see through opaque substances, being one; whence the epithet -"lynx-eyed," which has survived to the present day. - -Lynxes are found in the northern and temperate regions of both the Old -and New World; they are smaller than leopards, and larger than true wild -cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail, ears tufted at the tip, and -pupil of the eye linear when contracted. Their fur is generally long and -soft, and always longish upon the cheeks. Their colour is light brown or -grey, and generally spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the -feet are more or less covered by the hair that grows between them. The -skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the other cats. -Their habits are exactly those of the other wild cats. Their food -consists of any mammals or birds which they can overpower. They commit -extensive ravages upon sheep and poultry. They generally frequent rocky -places and forests, being active climbers, and passing much of their -time among the branches of the trees. Their skins are of considerable -value in the fur trade. The northern lynx (_L. lynx_ or _L. borealis_) -of Scandinavia, Russia, northern Asia, and till lately the forest -regions of central Europe, has not inhabited Britain during the historic -period, but its remains have been found in cave deposits of Pleistocene -age. Dr W. T. Blanford says that the characters on which E. Blyth relied -in separating the Tibetan lynx (_L. isabellinus_) from the European -species are probably due to the nature of its habitat among rocks, and -that he himself could find no constant character justifying separation. -The pardine lynx (_L. pardinus_) from southern Europe is a very handsome -species; its fur is rufous above and white beneath. - -[Illustration: From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot's _Monograph of the -Felidae_. - -European Lynx.] - -Several lynxes are found in North America; the most northerly has been -described as the Canadian lynx (_L. canadensis_); the bay lynx (_L. -rufus_), with a rufous coat in summer, ranges south to Mexico, with -spotted and streaked varieties--_L. maculatus_ in Texas and southern -California, and _L. fasciatus_ in Washington and Oregon. The first three -were regarded by St George Mivart as local races of the northern lynx. A -fifth form, the plateau lynx (_L. baileyi_), was described by Dr C. H. -Merriam in 1890, but the differences between it and the bay lynx are -slight and unimportant. - - - - -LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849), American educationalist, was born on the -28th of February 1797 on a farm near Buckland, Franklin county, -Massachusetts. She began to teach when she was seventeen, and in 1817, -with the earnings from her spinning and weaving, she went to Sanderson -Academy, Ashfield. She supported herself there, at Amherst Academy, -where she spent one term, and at the girls' school in Byfield, -established in 1819 by Joseph Emerson (1777-1833), where she went in -1821, by teaching in district schools and by conducting informal normal -schools. In 1822-1824 she was assistant principal of Sanderson Academy, -and then taught in Miss Zilpah P. Grant's Adams Female Academy, in -Londonderry (now Derry), N.H. This school had only summer sessions, and -Miss Lyon spent her winters in teaching, especially at Buckland and at -Ashfield, and in studying chemistry and natural science with Edward -Hitchcock, the geologist. In 1828-1834 she taught in Miss Grant's -school, which in 1828 had been removed to Ipswich, and for two years -managed the school in Miss Grant's absence. In 1828-1830 she had kept up -her winter "normal" school at Buckland, and this was the beginning of -her greater plan, "a permanent institution consecrated to the training -of young women for usefulness ... designed to furnish every advantage -which the state of education in this country will allow ... to put -within reach of students of moderate means such opportunities that none -can find better." She was assisted by Dr Hitchcock, and her own mystical -enthusiasm and practical common sense secured for her plan ready -financial support. In 1835 a site was selected near the village of South -Hadley and Mount Holyoke; in 1836 the school was incorporated as Mount -Holyoke Female Seminary; and on the 8th of November 1837 it opened with -Mary Lyon as principal, and, as assistant, Miss Eunice Caldwell, -afterwards well known as Mrs J. P. Cowles of Ipswich Academy. Miss Lyon -died at Mount Holyoke on the 5th of March 1849, having served nearly -twelve years as principal of the seminary, on a salary of $200 a year. -From her work at Holyoke sprang modern higher education for women in -America. - - See Edward Hitchcock, _Life and Labors of Mary Lyon_ (1851); B. B. - Gilchrist, _Life of Mary Lyon_ (Boston, 1910). - - - - -LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861), American soldier, was born in Ashford, -Connecticut, on the 14th of July 1818, and graduated at West Point in -1841. He was engaged in the Seminole War and the war with Mexico, won -the brevet of captain for his gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, and -was wounded in the assault on the city of Mexico. In 1850, while serving -in California, he conducted a successful expedition against the Indians. -He was promoted captain in 1851, and two years later was ordered to the -East, when he became an ardent opponent of "States' Rights" and slavery. -He was stationed in Kansas and in Missouri on the eve of the Civil War. -In Missouri not only was sentiment divided, but the two factions were -eager to resort to force long before they were in the other border -states. Lyon took an active part in organizing the Union party in -Missouri, though greatly hampered, at first by the Federal government -which feared to provoke hostilities, and afterwards by the military -commander of the department, General W. S. Harney. On Harney's removal -in April 1861, Lyon promptly assumed the command, called upon Illinois -to send him troops, and mustered the Missouri contingent into the United -States' service. He broke up the militia camp at St Louis established by -the secessionist governor of Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, and but for -the express prohibition of Harney, who had resumed the command, would -have proceeded at once to active hostilities. In all this Lyon had -co-operated closely with Francis P. Blair, Jr., who now obtained from -President Lincoln the definitive removal of Harney and the assignment of -Lyon to command the Department of the West, with the rank of -brigadier-general. On Lyon's refusal to accede to the Secessionists' -proposal that the state should be neutral, hostilities opened in -earnest, and Lyon, having cleared Missouri of small hostile bands in the -central part of the state, turned to the southern districts, where a -Confederate army was advancing from the Arkansas border. The two forces -came to action at Wilson's Creek on the 10th of August 1861. The Union -forces, heavily outnumbered, were defeated, and Lyon himself was killed -while striving to rally his troops. He bequeathed almost all he -possessed, some $30,000, to the war funds of the national government. - - See A. Woodward, _Memoir of General Nathaniel Lyon_ (Hartford, 1862); - James Peckham, _Life of Lyon_ (New York, 1866); and T. L. Snead, _The - Fight for Missouri_ (New York, 1886). Also _Last Political Writings of - General Nathaniel Lyon_ (New York, 1862). - - - - -LYONNESSE, LYONESSE, LEONNOYS or LEONAIS, a legendary country off the -south coast of Cornwall, England. Lyonnesse is the scene of many -incidents in the Arthurian romances, and especially in the romances of -Tristram and Iseult. It also plays an important part in purely Cornish -tradition and folk-lore. Early English chronicles, such as the -_Chronicon e chronicis_ of Florence of Worcester, who died in 1118, -described minutely and without a suggestion of disbelief the flourishing -state of Lyonnesse, and its sudden disappearance beneath the sea. The -legend may be a greatly exaggerated version of some actual subsidence of -inhabited land. There is also a very ancient local tradition, apparently -independent of the story of Lyonnesse, that the Scilly Islands formed -part of the Cornish mainland within historical times. - - See _Florentii Wigorniensis monachi Chronicon ex chronicis_, &c., ed. - B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849). - - - - -LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858), British admiral, was born at -Burton, near Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 21st of November 1790. He -entered the navy, and served in the Mediterranean, and afterwards in the -East Indies, where in 1810 he won promotion by distinguished bravery. He -became post-captain in 1814, and in 1826 commanded the "Blonde" frigate -at the blockade of Navarino, and took part with the French in the -capture of Kasteo Morea. Shortly before his ship was paid off in 1835 he -was knighted. From 1840 till 1853 Lyons was employed on the diplomatic -service, being successively minister to Greece, Switzerland and Sweden. -On the outbreak of the war with Russia he was appointed second in -command of the British fleet in the Black Sea under Admiral Dundas, whom -he succeeded in the chief command in 1854. As admiral of the inshore -squadron he had the direction of the landing of the troops in the -Crimea, which he conducted with marvellous energy and despatch. -According to Kinglake, Lyons shared the "intimate counsels" of Lord -Raglan in regard to the most momentous questions of the war, and toiled, -with a "painful consuming passion," to achieve the object of the -campaign. His principal actual achievements in battle were two--the -support he rendered with his guns to the French at the Alma in attacking -the left flank of the Russians, and the bold and brilliant part he took -with his ship the "Agamemnon" in the first bombardment of the forts of -Sebastopol; but his constant vigilance, his multifarious activity, and -his suggestions and counsels were much more advantageous to the allied -cause than his specific exploits. In 1855 he was created vice-admiral; -in June 1856 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Lyons -of Christchurch. He died on the 23rd of November 1858. - - See Adam S. Eardley-Wilmot, R.N., _Life of Lord Lyons_ (1898). - - - - -LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817-1887), British -diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born at Lymington on the 26th of -April 1817. He entered the diplomatic service, and in 1859-1864 was -British minister at Washington, where, after the outbreak of the Civil -War, the extremely important negotiations connected with the arrest of -the Confederate envoys on board the British mail-steamer "Trent" -devolved upon him. After a brief service at Constantinople, he succeeded -Lord Cowley at the Paris embassy in 1867. In the war of 1870 he used his -best efforts as a mediator, and accompanied the provisional government -to Tours. He continued to hold his post with universal acceptance until -November 1887. He died on the 5th of December 1887, when the title -became extinct. - - - - -LYONS (Fr. _Lyon_), a city of eastern France, capital of the department -of Rhone, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W. of Marseilles on -the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 430,186; commune, 472,114. -Lyons, which in France is second only to Paris in commercial and -military importance, is situated at the confluence of the Rhone and the -Saone at an altitude of 540 to 1000 ft. above sea-level. The rivers, -both flowing south, are separated on the north by the hill on which lies -the populous working quarter of Croix-Rousse, then by the narrow tongue -of land ending in the Perrache Quarter. The peninsula thus formed is -over 3 m. long and from 650 to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed -lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la Republique, -the rue de l'Hotel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo. Where it enters -Lyons the Saone has on its right the faubourg of Vaise and on its left -that of Serin, whence the ascent is made to the top of the hill of -Croix-Rousse. Farther on, its right bank is bordered by the scarped -heights of Fourviere, St Irenee, Ste Foy, and St Just, leaving room only -for the quays and one or two narrow streets; this is the oldest part of -the city. The river sweeps in a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft. -above it), which is occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries, and -has at its summit the famous church of Notre-Dame de Fourviere, the -resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually. - -On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of -Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town: the Terreaux, -containing the hotel de ville, and the chief commercial establishments; -the wealthy residential quarter, centring round the Place Bellecour, one -of the finest squares in France; and the Perrache. The Rhone and Saone -formerly met on the site of this quarter, till, in the 18th century, the -sculptor Perrache reclaimed it; on the peninsula thus formed stands the -principal railway station, the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi, -the most extensive promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here, -too, are the docks of the Saone, factories, the arsenal, gas-works and -prisons. The Rhone, less confined than the Saone, flows swiftly in a -wide channel, broken when the water is low in spring by pebbly islets. -On the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping upwards to -Croix-Rousse, and then the districts of Terreaux, Bellecour and -Perrache; on the left it has a low-lying plain, occupied by the Parc de -la Tete d'Or and the quarters of Brotteaux and Guillotiere. The park, -together with its lake, comprises some 285 acres, and contains a -zoological collection, botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the -finest greenhouses in France, with unique collections of orchids, -palm-trees and _Cycadaceae_. It is defended from the Rhone by the Quai -de la Tete d'Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separates -it from the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential quarter. -Guillotiere to the south consists largely of workmen's dwellings, -bordering wide, airy thoroughfares. To the east extend the manufacturing -suburbs of Villeurbanne and Montchat. The population, displaced by the -demolition of the lofty old houses and the widening of the streets on -the peninsula, migrates to the left bank of the Rhone, the extension of -the city into the plain of Dauphine being unhindered. - -The Rhone and the Saone are bordered by fine quays and crossed by 24 -bridges--11 over the Rhone, 12 over the Saone, and 1 at the confluence. -Of these the Pont du Change over the Saone and the Pont de la -Guillotiere over the Rhone have replaced medieval bridges, the latter of -the two preserving a portion of the old structure. - - - Public Buildings. - -Of the ancient buildings Notre-Dame de Fourviere is the most celebrated. -The name originally applied to a small chapel built in the 9th century -on the site of the old forum (_forum vetus_) from which it takes its -name. It has been often rebuilt, the chief feature being a modern -Romanesque tower surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin. In -1872 a basilica was begun at its side in token of the gratitude of the -city for having escaped occupation by the German troops. The building, -finished in 1894, consists of a nave without aisles flanked at each -exterior corner by a turret and terminating in an apse. The facade, the -lower half of which is a lofty portico supported on four granite -columns, is richly decorated on its upper half with statuary and -sculpture. Marble and mosaic have been lavishly used in the -ornamentation of the interior and of the crypt. Round the apse runs a -gallery from which, according to an old custom, a benediction is -pronounced upon the town annually on the 8th of September. From this -gallery a magnificent view of the city and the surrounding country can -be obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourviere rises the cathedral of -St Jean, one of the finest examples of early Gothic architecture in -France. Begun in the 12th century, to the end of which the transept and -choir belong, it was not finished till the 15th century, the gable and -flanking towers of the west front being completed in 1480. A triple -portal surmounted by a line of arcades and a rose window gives entrance -to the church. Two additional towers, that to the north containing one -of the largest bells in France, rise at the extremities of the transept. -The nave and choir contain fine stained glass of the 13th and 14th -centuries as well as good modern glass. The chapel of St Louis or of -Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of Flamboyant -Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand two crosses preserved -since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the union then agreed upon -between the Greek and Latin churches. Adjoining St Jean is the ancient -Manecanterie or singers' house, much mutilated and frequently restored, -but still preserving graceful Romanesque arcades along its front. St -Martin d'Ainay, on the peninsula, is the oldest church in Lyons, dating -from the beginning of the 6th century and subsequently attached to a -Benedictine abbey. It was rebuilt in the 10th and 11th centuries and -restored in modern times, and is composed of a nave with four aisles, a -transept and choir terminating in three semicircular apses ornamented -with paintings by Hippolyte Flandrin, a native of Lyons. The church is -surmounted by two towers, one in the middle of the west front, the other -at the crossing; the four columns supporting the latter are said to have -come from an altar to Augustus. A mosaic of the 12th century, a high -altar decorated with mosaic work and a beautifully carved confessional -are among the works of art in the interior. St Nizier, in the heart of -the city, was the first cathedral of Lyons; and the crypt in which St -Pothinus officiated still exists. The present church is a Gothic edifice -of the 15th century, with the exception of the porch, constructed by -Philibert Delorme, a native of Lyons, in the 16th century. The Church of -St Paul (12th and 15th centuries), situated on the right bank of the -Saone, preserves an octagonal central tower and other portions of -Romanesque architecture; that of St Bonaventure, originally a chapel of -the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the 15th and 19th centuries. With the -exception of the imposing prefecture, the vast buildings of the -faculties, which are in the Guillotiere quarter, and the law court, the -colonnade of which overlooks the Saone from its right bank, the chief -civil buildings are in the vicinity of the Place des Terreaux. The east -side of this square (so called from the _terreaux_ or earth with which -the canal formerly connecting the Rhone and the Saone hereabouts was -filled) is formed by the hotel de ville (17th century), the east facade -of which, towards the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south -side of the square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the 17th -century as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the school of -fine arts, the museums of painting and sculpture, archaeology and -natural history, and the library of science, arts and industry. The -museums are second in importance only to those of Paris. The collection -of antiquities, rich in Gallo-Roman inscriptions, contains the bronze -tablets discovered in 1528, on which is engraved a portion of a speech -delivered in A.D. 48, by the emperor Claudius, advocating the admission -of citizens of Gallia Comata to the Roman senate. The "Ascension," a -masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief treasure of the art collection, in -which are works by nearly all the great masters. A special gallery -contains the works of artists of Lyons, among whom are numbered Antoine -Berjon, Meissonier, Paul Chenavard, Puvis de Chavannes. In the Rue de la -Republique, between the Place de la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers, -each of which contains one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the -Palais du Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern buildings -of Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the ground floor -round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys accommodate the -commercial tribunal, the council of trade arbitration, the chamber of -commerce and the _Musee historique des Tissus_, in which the history of -the weaving industry is illustrated by nearly 400,000 examples. In the -buildings of the lycee on the right bank of the Rhone are the municipal -library and a collection of globes, among them the great terrestrial -globe made at Lyons in 1701, indicating the great African lakes. - -The Hotel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the beginning of -the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of the chief charitable -establishments in the city. The present building dates from the 18th -century; its facade, fronting the west quay of the Rhone for over 1000 -ft., was begun according to the designs of Soufflot, architect of the -Pantheon at Paris. The Hospice de la Charite and the military hospital -are on the same bank slightly farther down stream. The Hospice de -l'Antiquaille, at Fourviere, occupies the site of the palace of the -praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and Caracalla were -born. Each of these hospitals contains more than 1000 beds. Lyons has -many other benevolent institutions, and is also the centre of the -operations of the Societe de la Propagation de la Foi. The chief -monuments are the equestrian statue of Louis XIV. in the Place -Bellecour, the monuments of President Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the -physicist Andre-Marie Ampere, and those in honour of the Republic and in -memory of the citizens of the department who fell in the war of 1870-71. -The most noteworthy fountain is that in the Place des Terreaux with the -leaden group by Bartholdi representing the rivers on their way to the -ocean. - -There are Roman remains--baths, tombs and the relics of a theatre--in -the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saone. Three ancient -aqueducts on the Fourviere level, from Montromant, Mont d'Or and Mont -Pilat, can still be traced. Magnificent remains of the latter work may -be seen at St Irenee and Chaponost. Traces also exist along the Rhone of -a subterranean canal conveying the water of the river to a _naumachia_ -(lake for mimic sea-fights). Agrippa made Lyons the starting-point of -the principal Roman roads throughout Gaul; and it remains an important -centre in the general system of communication owing to its position on -the natural highway from north to south-eastern France. The Saone above -the town and the Rhone below have large barge and steamboat traffic. The -main line of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway runs first through the -station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Saone, and thence to that of -Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next in importance, -that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux quarter, and the line -of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d'Aoste has a terminus at -Guillotiere; both these lines link up with the Paris-Lyon main line. The -railway to Montbrison starts from the terminus of St Paul in Fourviere -and that to Bourg, Trevoux and the Dombes region from the station of -Croix-Rousse. A less important line to Vaugneray and Mornant has a -terminus at St Just. Besides the extensive system of street tramways, -cable tramways (_ficelles_) run to the summits of the eminences cf -Croix-Rousse, Fourviere and St Just. - - - Defence. - - Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of - France, and, like the capital, possesses a military governor. The - immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side by a - modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to this is - a group of fairly modern detached forts forming an advanced position - at the village of Bron), and on the west by a line of detached forts, - not of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the - Saone. Some older forts and a portion of the old enceinte are still - kept up in the city itself, and two of these forts, Montessuy and - Caluire, situated on the peninsula, serve with their annexes to - connect the northern extremities of the two lines above mentioned. The - main line of defence is as usual the outer fort-ring, the perimeter of - which is more than 40 m., and the mean distance from the centre of the - city 6(1/2) m. This naturally divides into four sections. In the - eastern plain, well in advance of the enceinte, eight principal sites - have been fortified, Feyzin, Corbas, St Priest, Genas, Azieu, - Meyzieux, Decines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the lower - to the upper reaches of the Rhone. The northern (or north eastern) - section, between the Rhone and the Saone, has forts Neyron and Vancia - as its principal defences; these and their subsidiary batteries derive - some additional support from the forts Montessuy and Caluire mentioned - above. On the north-west side there is a strong group of works - disposed like a redan, of which the salient, fort Verdun and annexes, - is on the high plateau of Mont d'Or pointing northward, and the faces, - represented by forts Freta and Paillet, are lower down on the spurs of - the ridge, facing north-east and north-west respectively. The - south-western section comprises three principal groups, Bruisson, - Cote-Lorette and Montcorin-Champvillard, the last-named crossing its - fire over the Lower Rhone with Fort Feyzin. Lastly a connecting - battery was built near Chapoly in 1895 to close the gap between the - north-western and south-western sections and to command the westward - approaches by the valley of Charbonnieres. - - Lyons is the headquarters of the XIV. army-corps, the seat of an - archbishop who holds the title of primate of the Gauls and also that - of archbishop of Vienne, and of a prefect, a court of appeal, a court - of assizes, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and of two - boards of trade arbitration (_conseils de prud'hommes_). It is the - centre of an _academie_ (educational division) and has a university - with faculties of law, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy. - There are also Catholic faculties (_facultes libres_) of law, - theology, science and letters, three _lycees_, training colleges for - teachers and numerous minor educational establishments. There are - besides many special schools at Lyons, the more important being the - school of fine arts which was founded in the 18th century to train - competent designers for the textile manufactures, but has also done - much for painting and sculpture; an army medical school, schools of - drawing, agriculture, music, commerce (_ecole superieure de - commerce_), weaving, tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and - the ecoles La Martiniere for free instruction in science and art as - applied to industry. The veterinary school, instituted in 1761, was - the first of its kind in Europe; its laboratory for the study of - comparative physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the _Academie - des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts_ (founded in 1700), Lyons - possesses societies of agriculture, natural history, geography, - horticulture, &c. - - - Industry and trade. - - Its trade in silk and silk goods has formed the basis of the - prosperity of Lyons for several centuries. Derived from Italy, this - industry rapidly developed, thanks to the monopoly granted to the city - in 1450 by Charles VII. and to the patronage of Francis I., Henry II. - and Henry IV. From time to time new kinds of fabrics were - invented--silk stuffs woofed with wool or with gold and silver - threads, shawls, watered silks, poplins, velvets, satinades, moires, - &c. In the beginning of the 19th century J. M. Jacquard introduced his - famous loom by which a single workman was enabled to produce elaborate - fabrics as easily as the plainest web, and by changing the "cartoons" - to make the most different textures on the same looms. In the 17th - century the silk manufacture employed at Lyons, 9000 to 12,000 looms. - After the revocation of the edict of Nantes the number sank to 3000 or - 4000; but after the Reign of Terror was past it rose again about 1801 - to 12,000. Towards the middle of the 19th century the weaving branch - of the industry began to desert Lyons for the surrounding districts. - The city remains the business centre for the trade and carries on - dyeing, printing and other accessory processes. Lyons disputes with - Milan the position of the leading silk market of Europe. In 1905 the - special office (_la Condition des soies_) which determines the weight - of the silk examined over 4700 tons of silk. France furnished barely - one-tenth of this quantity, two-thirds came from China and Japan, the - rest from Italy and the Levant. The traders of Lyons re-export - seven-twelfths of these silks, the industries of the town employing - the remainder. An almost equal quantity of cotton, wool and waste-silk - threads is mixed with the silk. A few thousand hand-looms are still - worked in the town, more especially producing the richest materials, - 50,000 or 55,000 in the surrounding districts, and some 33,000 machine - looms in the suburbs and neighbouring departments. Allied industries - such as dyeing, finishing and printing, employ 12,000 workers. - Altogether 300,000 workpeople depend upon the silk industry. In 1905 - the total value of the manufacture was L15,710,000, the chief items - being pure silk textures (plain) L3,336,000; textures of silk mixed - with other materials L3,180,000; silk and foulards L1,152,000; muslins - L3,800,000, this product having increased from L100,000 in 1894. - Speaking roughly the raw material represents half the value, and the - value of the labour the remaining half. About 30% of the silk goods of - Lyons finds a market in France. Great Britain imported them to the - value of over L6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over - L1,600,000, notwithstanding the heavy duty. The dyeing industry and - the manufacture of chemicals have both developed considerably to meet - the requirements of the silk trade. Large quantities of mineral and - vegetable colouring matters are produced and there is besides a large - output of glue, gelatine, superphosphates and phosphorus, all made - from bones and hides, of picric, tartaric, sulphuric and hydrochloric - acids, sulphates of iron and copper, and pharmaceutical and other - chemical products. - - Lyons does a large trade in metals, iron, steel and copper, and - utilizes them in the manufacture of iron buildings, framework, - bridges, machinery, railway material, scales, metal cables, pins and - needles, copper-founding and the making of clocks and bronzes. Gold - and silver-working is of importance, especially for embroidery and - articles used in religious ceremonies. Other industries are those of - printing, the manufacture of glass goods, of tobacco (by the state), - the preparation of hides and skins (occupying 20,000 workmen), those - connected with the miller's trade, the manufacture of various forms of - dried flour-paste (macaroni, vermicelli, &c.), brewing, hat-making, - the manufacture of chocolate, and the pork-butcher's industry. Apart - from the dealings in silk and silk goods, trade is in cloth, coal and - charcoal, metals and metal goods, wine and spirits, cheese and - chestnuts. Four miles south-west of Lyons is Oullins (pop. 9859) which - has the important works of the Paris-Lyon railway. - - Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Credit - Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of L200,000,000 annually - in Lyons alone; also of coal and metallurgical companies and gas - companies, the former extending their operations as far as Russia, the - latter lighting numerous towns in France and foreign countries. - -_History._--The earliest Gallic occupants of the territory at the -confluence of the Rhone and the Saone were the Segusians. In 59 B.C. -some Greek refugees from the banks of the Herault, having obtained -permission of the natives to establish themselves beside the -Croix-Rousse, called their new town by the Gallic name Lugudunum (q.v.) -or Lugdunum; and in 43 B.C. Lucius Munatius Plancus brought a Roman -colony to Fourvieres from Vienne. This settlement soon acquired -importance, and was made by Agrippa the starting-point of four great -roads. Augustus, besides building aqueducts, temples and a theatre, gave -it a senate and made it the seat of an annual assembly of deputies from -the sixty cities of Gallia Comata. At the same time the place became the -Gallic centre for the worship of Rome and the emperor. Under the -emperors the colony of Forum Vetus and the municipium of Lugdunum were -united, receiving the _jus senatus_. The town was burnt in A.D. 59 and -afterwards rebuilt in a much finer style with money given by Nero; it -was also adorned by Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus. The martyrdom of -Pothinus and Blandina occurred under Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 177), and -some years later a still more savage persecution of the Christians took -place under Septimius Severus, in which Irenaeus, according to some -authors, perished. - -After having been ravaged by the barbarians and abandoned by the empire, -Lyons in 478 became capital of the kingdom of the Burgundians. It -afterwards fell into the hands of the Franks, and suffered severely from -the Saracens, but revived under Charlemagne, and after the death of -Charles the Bald became part of the kingdom of Provence. From 1032 it -was a fief of the emperor of Germany. Subsequently the authority over -the town was a subject of dispute between the archbishops of Lyons and -the counts of Forez; but the supremacy of the French kings was -established under Philip the Fair in 1312. The citizens were constituted -into a commune ruled by freely elected consuls (1320). In the 13th -century two ecclesiastical councils were held at Lyons--one in 1245, -presided over by Innocent IV., at which the emperor Frederick II. was -deposed; the second, the oecumenical, under the presidency of Gregory -X., in 1274, at which five hundred bishops met. Pope Clement V. was -crowned here in 1305, and his successor, John XXII., elected in 1316. -The Protestants obtained possession of the place in 1562; their acts of -violence were fiercely avenged in 1572 after the St Bartholomew -massacre. Under Henry III. Lyons sided with the League; but it -pronounced in favour of Henry IV. The executions of Henri d'Effiat, -marquis of Cinq-Mars, and of Francois de Thou, who had plotted to -overthrow Richelieu, took place on the Place des Terreaux in 1642. In -1793 the Royalists and Girondists, powerful in the city, rose against -the Convention, but were compelled to yield to the army of the republic -under General Kellermann after enduring a siege of seven weeks (October -10). Terrible chastisement ensued: the name of Lyons was changed to that -of Ville-affranchie; the demolition of its buildings was set about on a -wholesale scale; and vast numbers of the proscribed, whom the scaffold -had spared, were butchered with grape shot. The town resumed its old -name after the fall of Robespierre, and the terrorists in their turn -were drowned in large numbers in the Rhone. Napoleon rebuilt the Place -Bellecour, reopened the churches, and made the bridge of Tilsit over the -Saone between Bellecour and the cathedral. In 1814 and 1815 Lyons was -occupied by the Austrians. In 1831, 1834, 1849, 1870 and 1871 it was the -scene of violent industrial or political disturbances. In 1840 and 1856 -disastrous floods laid waste portions of the city. International -exhibitions were held here in 1872 and 1894, the latter occasion being -marked by the assassination of President Carnot. - - See S. Charlety, _Histoire de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart, - _L'Ouvrier en soie. Monographie du tisseur lyonnais_ (Lyon, 1899); A. - Vachet, _A travers les rues de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1902); A. Steyert, - _Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des provinces de Lyonnais Forez, - Beaujolais_ (3 vols., Lyon, 1895-1899). - - - - -LYONS, COUNCILS OF. The first Council of Lyons (the thirteenth general -council) met at the summons of Pope Innocent IV. in June and July of -1245, to deliberate on the conflict between Church and emperor, on the -assistance to be granted to the Holy Land and the Eastern empire, on -measures of protection against the Tatars, and on the suppression of -heresy. Among the tasks of the council mentioned in the writs of -convocation, the most important, in the eyes of the pope, was that it -should lend him effectual aid in his labours to overthrow the emperor -Frederick II.; and, with this object in view, he had described the synod -as a general council. Since its numbers were not far in excess of 150 -bishops and archbishops, and the great majority of these came from -France, Italy and Spain; while the schismatic Greeks and the other -countries--especially Germany, whose interests were so deeply -involved--were but weakly represented; the ambassador of Frederick, -Thaddaeus of Suessa, contested its oecumenicity in the assembly itself. -The condemnation of the emperor was a foregone conclusion. The articles -of indictment described him as the "prince of tyranny, the destroyer of -ecclesiastical dogma, the annihilator of the faith, the master of -cruelty," and so forth; while the grossest calumnies were treated as -approved facts. The objections of the ambassador, that the accused had -not been regularly cited, that the pope was plaintiff and judge in one, -and that therefore the whole process was anomalous, achieved as little -success as his appeal to the future pontiff and to a truly oecumenical -council. The representatives of the kings of England and France were -equally unfortunate in their claim for a prorogation of the decision. On -the 17th of July the verdict was pronounced by Innocent IV., -excommunicating Frederick and dethroning him on the grounds of perjury, -sacrilege, heresy and felony. All oaths of fealty sworn to him were -pronounced null and void, and the German princes were commanded to -proceed with the election of a new sovereign. In addition the council -enacted decrees against the growing irregularities in the Church, and -passed resolutions designed to support the Crusaders and revive the -struggle for the Holy Land. - - See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom, xxiii.; Huillard-Breholles, - _Historia diplomatica Frederici II_., 6 tom. (Paris, 1852-1861); - Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, ed. 2, vol. v. (1886), pp. 1105-1126; - Fr. W. Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friederich der Zweite_ (4 vols., - Gottingen, 1859-1865); H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, - ed. 3, vol. ix. (1901), p. 122 sqq., s.v. "Innocenz IV."; A. Folz, - _Kaiser Friedrich II. u. Papst Innocenz IV_. (Strassburg, 1905). - -The second Council of Lyons (the fourteenth general council) met from -the 7th of May to the 17th of July 1274, under the presidency of Pope -Gregory X., and was designed to resolve three problems: to terminate the -Greek schism, to decree a new Crusade, and to counteract the moral -corruption among clerics and laity. The council entered on its third -task at a very late period, with the result that the requisite time for -an adequate deliberation was not available. Nevertheless, on the 1st of -November, Gregory was enabled to publish thirty-one constitutions, which -may be taken to represent the fruits of the synod and its labours. The -most important of the enactments passed is that regulating the papal -election. It prescribed that the new election conducted by the college -of cardinals should be held in conclave (q.v.), and its duration -abridged by progressive simplification of the cardinal's diet. The -motive for this decision, which has maintained its ground in -ecclesiastical law, was given by the circumstances which followed the -death of Clement IV. (1268). The pope felt a peculiar interest in the -Holy Land, from which he was recalled by his elevation to the pontifical -throne. He succeeded in bringing influential interests to work in the -cause; but his scheme of a great enterprise backed by the whole force of -the West came to nothing, for the day of the Crusades was past. His -projected Crusade was interwoven with his endeavours to end the schism; -and the political straits of the emperor Michael Palaeologus in -Constantinople came to the aid of these aspirations. To ensure his -safety against the attacks of King Charles of Sicily, who had pledged -himself to assist the ex-emperor Baldwin in his reconquest of the Latin -empire, Michael was required to own the supremacy of the pope in the -spiritual domain; while Gregory, in return, would restrain the Sicilian -monarch from his bellicose policy with regard to the Eastern empire. -The ambassadors of the emperor appeared at the council with letters -acknowledging the Roman pontiff and the confession of faith previously -dispatched from the eternal city, and submitted similarly-worded -declarations from the heads of the Byzantine Church. One member of the -embassy, the Logothete Georgius Acropolites, was authorized by the -emperor to take an oath in his name, renouncing the schism. In short, -the subjection of the East to the Roman see was completed in the most -binding forms, and the long-desired union seemed at last assured. -Gregory himself did not live to discover its illusory character. The -Council of Lyons was, moreover, of importance for the German dynastic -struggle: for Gregory took the first public step in favour of Count -Rudolph of Habsburg, the king-elect, by receiving his deputy and denying -an audience to the delegate of the rival claimant, King Alphonso of -Castile. - - See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom. xxiv.; Hefele, - _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. vi. ed. 2 (1890), p. 119 sqq. Also C. - Mirbt, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. f. protestantische Theologie_, - vol. vii. (1899), p. 122, s.v. "Gregor X." (C. M.) - - - - -LYRA ("The Harp"), in astronomy, a constellation in the northern -hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd -century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 10 stars in this constellation; Tycho -Brahe 11 and Hevelius 17. [alpha] _Lyrae_ or Vega, is the second -brightest star in the northern hemisphere, and notable for the whiteness -of its light, which is about 100 times that of the sun. The name "vega" -is a remnant of an Arabic phrase meaning "falling eagle," "Altair," or -[alpha] _Aquilae_, is the similar remnant of "flying eagle." [epsilon] -_Lyrae_ is a multiple star, separated by the naked eye or by a small -telescope into two stars; these are each resolved into two stars by a -3" telescope, while a more powerful instrument (4") reveals three -smaller stars between the two pairs, [beta] _Lyrae_ and _R. Lyrae_ are -short period variables. There is the famous ring or annular nebula, _M. -57 Lyrae_, in the middle of which is a very faint star, which is readily -revealed by photography; and also the meteoric swarm named the _Lyrids_, -which appear in April and have their radiant in this constellation (see -METEOR). - - - - -LYRE (Gr. [Greek: lyra]), an ancient stringed musical instrument. The -recitations of the Greeks were accompanied by it. Yet the lyre was not -of Greek origin; no root in the language has been discovered for [Greek: -lyra], although the special names bestowed upon varieties of the -instrument are Hellenic. We have to seek in Asia the birthplace of the -genus, and to infer its introduction into Greece through Thrace or -Lydia. The historic heroes and improvers of the lyre were of the Aeolian -or Ionian colonies, or the adjacent coast bordering on the Lydian -empire, while the mythic masters, Orpheus, Musaeus and Thamyris, were -Thracians. Notwithstanding the Hermes tradition of the invention of the -lyre in Egypt, the Egyptians seem to have adopted it from Assyria or -Babylonia. - -To define the lyre, it is necessary clearly to separate it from the -allied harp and guitar. In its primal form the lyre differs from the -harp, of which the earliest, simplest notion is found in the bow and -bowstring. While the guitar (and lute) can be traced back to the typical -"nefer" of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, the fretted finger-board of -which, permitting the production of different notes by the shortening of -the string, is as different in conception from the lyre and harp as the -flute with holes to shorten the column of air is from the syrinx or -Pandean pipes. The frame of a lyre consists of a hollow body or -sound-chest ([Greek: echeion]). From this sound-chest are raised two -arms ([Greek: pecheis]), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both -outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a crossbar or -yoke ([Greek: zygon, zygoma], or, from its having once been a reed, -[Greek: kalamos]). Another crossbar ([Greek: malas, hypolyrion]), fixed -on the sound-chest, forms the bridge which transmits the vibrations of -the strings. The deepest note was the farthest from the player; but, as -the strings did not differ much in length, more weight may have been -gained for the deeper notes by thicker strings, as in the violin and -similar modern instruments, or they were turned with slacker tension. -The strings were of gut ([Greek: chorde], whence chord). They were -stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the -bridge. There were two ways of tuning: one was to fasten the strings to -pegs which might be turned ([Greek: kollaboi, kollopes]); the other was -to change the place of the string upon the crossbar; probably both -expedients were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether [Greek: -he chordotonos] meant the tuning key or the part of the instrument where -the pegs were inserted. The extensions of the arms above the yoke were -known as [Greek: kerata], horns. - -The number of strings varied at different epochs, and possibly in -different localities--four, seven and ten having been favourite numbers. -They were used without a finger-board, no Greek description or -representation having ever been met with that can be construed as -referring to one. Nor was a bow possible, the flat sound-board being an -insuperable impediment. The plectrum, however ([Greek: plektron]), was -in constant use. It was held in the right hand to set the upper strings -in vibration ([Greek: krekein, krouein to plektro]); at other times it -hung from the lyre by a ribbon. The fingers of the left hand touched the -lower strings ([Greek: psallein]). - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Chelys or Lyre from a vase in the British -Museum, where also are fragments of such an instrument, the back of -which is of shell.] - -[Illustration: Gerhard, _Auserl. griech. Vasenbilder._ - -FIG. 2.--Tortoise-shell Lyre from a Greek vase in Munich.] - -With Greek authors the lyre has several distinct names; but we are -unable to connect these with anything like certainty to the varieties of -the instrument. Chelys ([Greek: chelys], "tortoise") may mean the -smallest lyre, which, borne by one arm or supported by the knees, -offered in the sound-chest a decided resemblance to that familiar -animal. That there was a difference between lyre and cithara ([Greek: -kithara]) is certain, Plato and other writers separating them. Hermes -and Apollo had an altar at Olympia in common because the former had -invented the lyre and the latter the cithara. The lyre and chelys on the -one hand, and the cithara and phorminx on the other, were similar or -nearly identical. Apollo is said to have carried a golden phorminx. - (A. J. H.) - -There are three lines of evidence that establish the difference between -the lyre and cithara: (1) There are certain vase paintings in which the -name [Greek: lyra] accompanies the drawing of the instrument, as, for -instance, in fig. 2 where the tortoise-shell lyre is obviously -represented.[1] (2) In all legends accounting for the invention of the -lyre, the shell or body of the tortoise is invariably mentioned as -forming the back of the instrument, whereas the tortoise has never been -connected with the cithara. (3) The lyre is emphatically distinguished -as the most suitable instrument for the musical training of young men -and maidens and as the instrument of the amateur, whereas the cithara -was the instrument of _citharoedus_ or _citharista_, professional -performers at the Pythian Games, at ceremonies and festivals, the former -using his instrument to accompany epic recitations and odes, the latter -for purely instrumental music. The costume worn by citharoedus and -citharista was exceedingly rich and quite distinct from any other.[2] - -We find the lyre represented among scenes of domestic life, in lessons, -receptions, at banquets and in mythological scenes; it is found in the -hands of women no less than men, and the costume of the performer is -invariably that of an ordinary citizen. Lyres were of many sizes and -varied in outline according to period and nationality. - -We therefore possess irrefutable evidence of identification in both -cases, all of which tallies exactly. Examination of the construction of -the instruments thus identified reveals the fact that both possessed -characteristics which have persisted throughout the middle ages to the -present day in various instruments evolved from these two archetypes. -The principal feature of both lyre and cithara was the peculiar method -of construction adopted in the sound-chest, which may be said to have -been almost independent of the outline. In the lyre the sound-chest -consisted of a vaulted back, in imitation of the tortoise, over which -was directly glued a flat sound-board of wood or parchment. In the -cithara (q.v.) the sound-chest was shallower, and the back and front -were invariably connected by sides or ribs. These two methods of -constructing the sound-chests of stringed instruments were typical, and -to one or the other may be referred every stringed instrument with a -neck which can be traced during the middle ages in miniatures, early -printed books, on monuments and other works of art. (K. S.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Egyptian Cithara now at Berlin.] - - Passing by the story of the discovery of the lyre from a vibrating - tortoise-shell by Hermes, we will glance at the real lyres of Egypt - and Semitic Asia. The Egyptian lyre is unmistakably Semitic. The - oldest representation that has been discovered is in one of the tombs - of Beni Hassan, the date of the painting being in the XIIth Dynasty, - that is, shortly before the invasion of "the shepherd kings" (the - Hyksos). In this painting, which both Rosellini and Lepsius have - reproduced, an undoubted Semite carries a seven or eight-stringed - lyre, or rather cithara in transition, similar to the _rotta_ of the - middle ages. The instrument has a four-cornered body and an irregular - four-cornered frame above it, and the player carries it horizontally - from his breast, just as a modern Nubian would his kissar. He plays as - he walks, using both hands, a plectrum being in the right. Practical - knowledge of these ancient instruments may be gained through two - remarkable specimens preserved in the museums of Berlin (fig. 3) and - Leiden (see CITHARA). During the rule of the Hyksos the lyre became - naturalized in Egypt, and in the 18th dynasty it is frequently - depicted, and with finer grace of form. In the 19th and 20th dynasties - the lyre is sometimes still more slender, or is quite unsymmetrical - and very strong, the horns surmounted by heads of animals as in the - Berlin one, which has horses' heads at those extremities. Prokesch - copied one in the ruins of Wadi Halfa, splendid in blue and gold, with - a serpent wound round it. The Egyptians always strung their lyres - fan-shaped, like the modern Nubian kissar. Their paintings show three - to eight or nine strings, but the painters' accuracy may not be - unimpeachable; the Berlin instrument had fifteen. The three-stringed - lyre typified the three seasons of the Egyptian year--the water, the - green and the harvest; the seven, the planetary system from the moon - to Saturn. The Greeks had the same notion of the harmony of the - spheres. - - There is no evidence as to what the stringing of the Greek lyre was in - the heroic age. Plutarch says that Olympus and Terpander used but - three strings to accompany their recitation. As the four strings led - to seven and eight by doubling the tetrachord, so the trichord is - connected with the hexachord or six-stringed lyre depicted on so many - archaic Greek vases. We cannot insist on the accuracy of this - representation, the vase painters being little mindful of the complete - expression of details; yet we may suppose their tendency would be - rather to imitate than to invent a number. It was their constant - practice to represent the strings as being damped by the fingers of - the left hand of the player, after having been struck by the plectrum - which he held in the right hand. Before the Greek civilization had - assumed its historic form, there was likely to be great freedom and - independence of different localities in the matter of lyre stringing, - which is corroborated by the antique use of the chromatic (half-tone) - and enharmonic (quarter-tone) tunings, pointing to an early - exuberance, and perhaps also to an Asiatic bias towards refinements of - intonation, from which came the [Greek: chroai], the hues of tuning, - old Greek modifications of tetrachords entirely disused in the classic - period. The common scale of Olympus remained, a double trichord which - had served as the scaffolding for the enharmonic varieties. - - [Illustration: musical notes.] - - We may regard the Olympus scale, however, as consisting of two - tetrachords, eliding one interval in each, for the tetrachord, or - series of four notes, was very early adopted as the fundamental - principle of Greek music, and its origin in the lyre itself appears - sure. The basis of the tetrachord is the employment of the thumb and - first three fingers of the left hand to twang as many strings, the - little finger not being used on account of natural weakness. As a - succession of three whole tones would form the disagreeable and - untunable interval of a tritonus, two whole tones and a half-tone were - tuned, fixing the tetrachord in the consonant interval of the perfect - fourth. This succession of four notes being in the grasp of the hand - was called [Greek: syllabe], just as in language a group of letters - incapable of further reduction is called syllable. In the combination - of two syllables or tetrachords the modern diatonic scales resemble - the Greek so-called disjunct scale, but the Greeks knew nothing of our - categorical distinctions of major and minor. We might call the octave - Greek scale minor, according to our descending minor form, were not - the keynote in the middle the thumb note of the deeper tetrachord. The - upper tetrachord, whether starting from the keynote (conjunct) or from - the note above (disjunct), was of exactly the same form as the lower, - the position of the semitones being identical. The semitone was a - limma ([Greek: leimma]), rather less than the semitone of our modern - equal temperament, the Greeks tuning both the whole tones in the - tetrachord by the same ratio of 8:9, which made the major third a - dissonance, or rather would have done so had they combined them in - what we call harmony. In melodious sequence the Greek tetrachord is - decidedly more agreeable to the ear than the corresponding series of - our equal temperament. And although our scales are derived from - combined tetrachords, in any system of tuning that we employ, be it - just, mean-tone, or equal, they are less logical than the conjunct or - disjunct systems accepted by the Greeks. But modern harmony is not - compatible with them, and could not have arisen on the Greek melodic - lines. - - The conjunct scale of seven notes - - [Illustration: musical notes.] - - attributed to Terpander, was long the norm for stringing and tuning - the lyre. When the disjunct scale - - [Illustration: musical notes.] - - the octave scale attributed to Pythagoras, was admitted, to preserve - the time-honoured seven strings one note had to be omitted; it was - therefore customary to omit the C, which in Greek practice was a - dissonance. The Greek names for the strings of seven and eight - stringed lyres, the first note being highest in pitch and nearest the - player, were as follows: _Nete_, _Paranete_, _Paramese_; _Mese_, - _Lichanos_, _Parhypate_, _Hypate_; or _Nete_, _Paranete_, _Trite_, - _Paramese_; _Mese_, _Lichanos_, _Parhypate_, _Hypate_--the last four - from Mese to Hypate being the finger tetrachord, the others touched - with the plectrum. The highest string in pitch was called the last, - [Greek: neate]; the lowest in pitch was called the highest, [Greek: - hypate], because it was, in theory at least, the longest string. The - keynote and thumb string was [Greek: mese], middle; the next lower was - [Greek: lichanos], the first finger or lick-finger string; [Greek: - trite], the third, being in the plectrum division, was also known as - [Greek: oxeia], sharp, perhaps from the dissonant quality to which we - have referred as the cause of its omission. The plectrum and finger - tetrachords together were [Greek: diapason], through all; in the - disjunct scale, an octave. - - In transcribing the Greek notes into our notation, the absolute pitch - cannot be represented; the relative positions of the semitones are - alone determined. We have already quoted the scale of Pythagoras, the - Dorian or true Greek succession:-- - - [Illustration: musical notes.] - - Shifting the semitone one degree upwards in each tetrachord, we have - the Phrygian - - [Illustration: musical notes.] - - Another degree gives the Lydian - - [Illustration: musical notes.] - - which would be our major scale of E were not the keynote A. The names - imply an Asiatic origin. We need not here pursue further the - much-debated question of Greek scales and their derivation; it will - suffice to remark that the outside notes of the tetrachords were fixed - in their tuning as perfect fourths--the inner strings being, as - stated, in diatonic sequence, or when chromatic two half-tones were - tuned, when enharmonic two quarter-tones, leaving respectively the - wide intervals of a minor and major third, and both impure, to - complete the tetrachord. (A. J. H.) - - See the article by Theodore Reinach in Daremberg and Saglio, - _Antiguites grecques et romaines_; Wilhelm Johnsen, _Die Lyra, ein - Beitrag zur griechischen Kunstgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1876); Hortense - Panum, "Harfe und Lyra in Nord Europa," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Sbd. vii. - 1, pp. 1-40 (Leipzig, 1905); A. J. Hipkins, "Dorian and Phrygian, - reconsidered from a non-harmonic point of view," in _Intern. Mus. - Ges._ (Leipzig, 1903), iv. 3. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See Ed. Gerhard, _Auserlesene griech. Vasenbilder_, part iii. - (Berlin, 1847), pl. 236 and p. 157. - - [2] See Aristotle, _Polit_. v. 6. 5. - - - - -LYRE-BIRD, the name by which one of the most remarkable birds Of -Australia is commonly known, the _Menura superba_ or _M. -novae-hollandiae_ of ornithologists. It was first observed in 1798 in -New South Wales, and though called by its finders a "pheasant"--from its -long tail--the more learned of the colony seem to have regarded it as a -bird-of-Paradise.[1] A specimen having reached England in 1799, it was -described by General Davies as forming a new genus of birds, in the -Linnean Society's _Transactions_ (vi. p. 207, pl. xxii.), no attempt, -however, being made to fix its systematic place. In 1802 L. P. Vieillot -figured and described it in a supplement to his _Oiseaux Dores_ as a -bird-of-Paradise (ii. pp. 30 seq., pls. 14-16), from drawings by -Sydenham Edwards, sent him by Parkinson, the manager of the Leverian -Museum. The first to describe any portion of its anatomy was T. C. -Eyton, who in 1841 (_Ann. Nat. History_, vii. pp. 49-53) perceived that -it was a Passerine bird and that it presented some points of affinity to -the South American genus _Pteroptochus_. In 1867 Huxley stated that he -was disposed to divide his very natural assemblage the _Coracomorphae_ -(essentially identical with Eyton's _Insessores_) into two groups, "one -containing _Menura_, and the other all the other genera which have yet -been examined" (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1867, p. 472)--a still further step -in advance.[2] In 1875 A. Newton put forth the opinion in his article on -birds, in the 9th edition of this _Encyclopaedia_, that _Menura_ had an -ally in another Australian form, _Atrichia_ (see SCRUB-BIRD), which he -had found to present peculiarities hitherto unsuspected, and he regarded -them as standing by themselves, though each constituting a distinct -family. This opinion was partially adopted in the following year by A. -H. Garrod, who (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1876, p. 518) formally placed -these two genera together in his group of Abnormal Acromyodian _Oscines_ -under the name of _Menurinae_; ornithologists now generally recognize at -once the alliance and distinctness of the families Menuridae and -Atrichiidae, and place them together to form the group _Suboscines_ of -the Diacromyodian _Passeres_. - -Since the appearance in 1865 of J. Gould's _Handbook to the Birds of -Australia_, little important information has been published concerning -the habits of this form, and the account therein given must be drawn -upon for what here follows. Of all birds, says that author, the _Menura_ -is the most shy and hard to procure. He has been among the rocky and -thick "brushes"--its usual haunts--hearing its loud and liquid -call-notes for days together without getting sight of one. Those who -wish to see it must advance only while it is singing or scratching up -the earth and leaves; and to watch its actions they must keep perfectly -still. The best way of procuring an example seems to be by hunting it -with dogs, when it will spring upon a branch to the height of 10 ft. and -afford an easy shot ere it has time to ascend farther or escape as it -does by leaps. Natives are said to hunt it by fixing on their heads the -erected tail of a cock-bird, which alone is allowed to be seen above the -brushwood. The greater part of its time is said to be passed upon the -ground, and seldom are more than a pair to be found in company. One of -the habits of the cock is to form small round hillocks, which he -constantly visits during the day, mounting upon them and displaying his -tail by erecting it over his head, drooping his wings, scratching and -pecking at the soil, and uttering various cries--some his own natural -notes, others an imitation of those of other animals. The tail, his most -characteristic feature, only attains perfection in the bird's third or -fourth year, and then not until the month of June, remaining until -October, when the feathers are shed to be renewed the following season. -The food consists of insects, especially beetles and myriapods, as well -as snails. The nest is placed near to or on the ground, at the base of -a rock or foot of a tree, and is closely woven of fine but strong roots -or other fibres, and lined with feathers, around all which is heaped a -mass, in shape of an oven, of sticks, grass, moss and leaves, so as to -project over and shelter the interior structure, while an opening in the -side affords entrance and exit. Only one egg is laid, and this of rather -large size in proportion to the bird, of a purplish-grey colour, -suffused and blotched with dark purplish-brown. - -Incubation is believed to begin in July or August, and the young is -hatched about a month later. It is at first covered with dark down, and -appears to remain for some weeks in the nest. It is greatly to be hoped -that so remarkable a form as the lyre-bird, the nearly sole survivor -apparently of a very ancient race of beings, will not be allowed to -become extinct--its almost certain fate so far as can be judged--without -many more observations of its manners being made. Several examples of -_Menura_ have been brought alive to Europe, and some have long survived -in captivity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -Three species of _Menura_ have been indicated--the old _M. superba_, the -lyre-bird proper, which inhabits New South Wales, the southern part of -Queensland, and perhaps some parts of Victoria; _M. victoriae_, -separated from the former by Gould (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1862, p. 23), -and said to take its place near Melbourne; and _M. alberti_, first -described by C. L. Bonaparte (_Consp. Avium_, i. 215) on Gould's -authority, and, though discovered on the Richmond river in New South -Wales, having apparently a more northern range than the other two. All -those have the apparent bulk of a hen pheasant, but are really much -smaller, and their general plumage is of a sooty brown, relieved by -rufous on the chin, throat, some of the wing-feathers and the -tail-coverts. The wings, consisting of twenty-one remiges, are rather -short and rounded; the legs[3] and feet very strong, with long, nearly -straight claws. In the immature and female the tail is somewhat long, -though affording no very remarkable character, except the possession of -sixteen rectrices; but in the fully-plumaged male of _M. superba_ and -_M. victoriae_ it is developed in the extraordinary fashion that gives -the bird its common English name. The two exterior feathers (fig. 1, a, -b) have the outer web very narrow, the inner very broad, and they curve -at first outwards, then somewhat inwards, and near the tip outwards -again, bending round forwards so as to present a lyre-like form. But -this is not all; their broad inner web, which is of a lively chestnut -colour, is apparently notched at regular intervals by spaces that, -according to the angle at which they are viewed, seem either black or -transparent; and this effect is, on examination, found to be due to the -barbs at those spaces being destitute of barbules. The middle pair of -feathers (fig. 2, a, b) is nearly as abnormal. These have no outer web, -and the inner web very narrow; near their base they cross each other, -and then diverge, bending round forwards near their tip. The remaining -twelve feathers (fig. 3) except near the base are very thinly furnished -with barbs, about 1/4 in. apart, and those they possess, on their -greater part, though long and flowing, bear no barbules, and hence have -a hair-like appearance. The shafts of all are exceedingly strong. In the -male of _M. alberti_ the tail is not only not lyriform, but the exterior -rectrices are shorter than the rest. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Collins, _Account of New South Wales_, ii. 87-92 (London, 1802). - - [2] Owing to the imperfection of the specimen at his disposal, - Huxley's brief description of the bones of the head in _Menura_ is - not absolutely correct. A full description of them, with elaborate - figures, is given by Parker in the same Society's _Transactions_ (ix. - 306-309, pl. lvi. figs. 1-5). - - [3] The metatarsals are very remarkable in form, as already noticed - by Eyton (_loc. cit._), and their tendons strongly ossified. - - - - -LYRICAL POETRY, a general term for all poetry which is, or can be -supposed to be, susceptible of being sung to the accompaniment of a -musical instrument. In the earliest times it may be said that all poetry -was of its essence lyrical. The primeval oracles were chanted in verse, -and the Orphic and Bacchic Mysteries, which were celebrated at Eleusis -and elsewhere, combined, it is certain, metre with music. Homer and -Hesiod are each of them represented with a lyre, yet if any poetry can -be described as non-lyrical, it is surely the archaic hexameter of the -_Iliad_ and the _Erga_. These poems were styled epic, in direct -contradistinction to the lyric of Pindar and Bacchylides. But inexactly, -since it is plain that they were recited, with a plain accompaniment on -a stringed instrument. However, the distinction between epical and -lyrical, between [Greek: ta epe], what was said, and [Greek: ta mele], -what was sung, is accepted, and neither Homer nor Hesiod is among the -lyrists. This distinction, however, is often without a difference, as -for example, in the case of the so-called _Hymns_ of Homer, epical in -form but wholly lyrical in character. Hegel, who has gone minutely into -this question in his _Esthetik_, contends that when poetry is objective -it is epical, and when it is subjective it is lyrical. This is to ignore -the metrical form of the poem, and to deal with its character only. It -would constrain us to regard Wordsworth's _Excursion_ as a lyric, and -Tennyson's _Revenge_ (where the subject is treated exactly as one of the -Homeridae would have treated an Ionian myth) as an epic. This is -impossible, and recalls us to the importance of taking the form into -consideration. But, with this warning, the definition of Hegel is -valuable. It is, as he insists, the personal thought, or passion, or -inspiration, which gives its character to lyrical poetry. - -The lyric has the function of revealing, in terms of pure art, the -secrets of the inner life, its hopes, its fantastic joys, its sorrows, -its delirium. It is easier to exclude the dramatic species from lyric -than to banish the epic. There are large sections of drama which it is -inconceivable should be set to music, or sung, or even given in -recitative. The tragedies of Racine, for example, are composed of the -purest poetry, but they are essentially non-lyrical, although lyrical -portions are here and there attached to them. The intensity of feeling -and the melody of verse in _Othello_ does not make that work an example -of lyrical poetry, and this is even more acutely true of _Le -Misanthrope_, which is, nevertheless, a poem. The tendency of modern -drama is to divide itself further and further from lyric, but in early -ages the two kinds were indissoluble. Tragedy was goat-song, and the -earliest specimens of it were mainly composed of choruses. As Prof. G. -G. Murray says, in the _Suppliants_ of Aeschylus, the characters "are -singing for two-thirds of the play," accompanied by tumultuous music. -This primitive feature has gradually been worn away; the chorus grew -less and less prominent, and disappeared; the very verse-ornament of -drama tends to vanish, and we have plays essentially so poetical as -those of Ibsen and Maeterlinck written from end to end in bare prose. - -To return again to Greece, there was an early distinction, soon -accentuated, between the poetry chanted by a choir of singers, and the -song which expressed the sentiments of a single poet. The latter, the -[Greek: melos] or song proper, had reached a height of technical -perfection in "the Isles of Greece, where burning Sappho loved and -sung," as early as the 7th century B.C. That poetess, and her -contemporary Alcaeus, divide the laurels of the pure Greek song of -Dorian inspiration. By their side, and later, flourished the great poets -who set words to music for choirs, Alcman, Arion, Stesichorus, Simonides -and Ibycus, who lead us at the close of the 5th century to Bacchylides -and Pindar, in whom the magnificent tradition of the dithyrambic odes -reached its highest splendour of development. The practice of Pindar and -Sappho, we may say, has directed the course of lyrical poetry ever -since, and will, unquestionably, continue to do so. They discovered how, -with the maximum of art, to pour forth strains of personal magic and -music, whether in a public or a private way. The ecstasy, the uplifted -magnificence, of lyrical poetry could go no higher than it did in the -unmatched harmonies of these old Greek poets, but it could fill a much -wider field and be expressed with vastly greater variety. It did so in -their own age. The gnomic verses of Theognis were certainly sung; so -were the satires of Archilochus and the romantic reveries of Mimnermus. - -At the Renaissance, when the traditions of ancient life were taken up -eagerly, and hastily comprehended, it was thought proper to divide -poetry into a diversity of classes. The earliest English critic who -enters into a discussion of the laws of prosody, William Webbe, lays it -down, in 1586, that in verse "the most usual kinds are four, the heroic, -elegiac, iambic and lyric." Similar confusion of terms was common among -the critics of the 15th and 16th centuries, and led to considerable -error. It is plain that a border ballad is heroic, and may yet be -lyrical; here the word "heroic" stands for "epic." It is plain that -whether a poem is lyrical or not had nothing to do with the question -whether it is composed in an iambic measure. Finally, it is undoubted -that the early Greek "elegies" were sung to an accompaniment on the -flute, whether they were warlike, like those of Tyrtaeus, or -philosophical and amatory like those of Theognis. But (see ELEGY) the -present significance of "elegy," and this has been the case ever since -late classical times, is funereal; in modern parlance an elegy is a -dirge. Whether the great Alexandrian dirges, like those of Bion and of -Moschus, on which our elegiacal tradition is founded, were actually sung -to an accompaniment or not may be doubted; they seem too long, too -elaborate, and too ornate for that. But, at any rate, they were composed -on the convention that they would be sung, and it is conceivable that -music might have been wedded to the most complex of these Alexandrian -elegies. Accordingly, although _Lycidas_ and _Adonais_ are not -habitually "set to music," there is no reason why they should not be so -set, and their rounded and limited although extensive form links them -with the song, not with the epic. There are many odes of Swinburne's for -which it would be more difficult to write music than for his _Ave atque -Vale_. In fact, in spite of its solemn and lugubrious regularity, the -formal elegy or dirge is no more nor less than an ode, and is therefore -entirely lyrical. - -More difficulty is met with in the case of the sonnet, for although no -piece of verse, when it is inspired by subjective passion, fits more -closely with Hegel's definition of what lyrical poetry should be, yet -the rhythmical complication of the sonnet, and its rigorous uniformity, -seem particularly ill-fitted to interpretation on a lyre. When F. M. -degli Azzi put the book of Genesis (1700) into sonnets, and Isaac de -Benserade the _Metamorphoses_ of Ovid (1676) into rondeaux, these -eccentric and laborious versifiers produced what was epical rather than -lyrical poetry, if poetry it was at all. But the sonnet as Shakespeare, -Wordsworth and even Petrarch used it was a cry from the heart, a -subjective confession, and although there is perhaps no evidence that a -sonnet was ever set to music with success, yet there is no reason why -that might not be done without destroying its sonnet-character. - -Jouffroy was perhaps the first aesthetician to see quite clearly that -lyrical poetry is, really, nothing more than another name for poetry -itself, that it includes all the personal and enthusiastic part of what -lives and breathes in the art of verse, so that the divisions of -pedantic criticism are of no real avail to us in its consideration. We -recognize a narrative or epical poetry; we recognize drama; in both of -these, when the individual inspiration is strong, there is much that -trembles on the verge of the lyrical. But outside what is pure epic and -pure drama, all, or almost all, is lyrical. We say almost all, because -the difficulty arises of knowing where to place descriptive and -didactic poetry. The _Seasons_ of Thomson, for instance, a poem of high -merit and lasting importance in the history of literature--where is that -to be placed? What is to be said of the _Essay on Man_? In primitive -times, the former would have been classed under epic, the second would -have been composed in the supple iambic trimeter which so closely -resembled daily speech, and would not have been sharply distinguished -from prose. Perhaps this classification would still serve, were it not -for the element of versification, which makes a sharp line of -demarcation between poetic art and prose. This complexity of form, -rhythmical and stanzaic, takes much of the place which was taken in -antiquity by such music as Terpander is supposed to have supplied. In a -perfect lyric by a modern writer the instrument is the metrical form, to -which the words have to adapt themselves. There is perhaps no writer who -has ever lived in whose work this phenomenon may be more fruitfully -studied than it may be in the songs and lyrics of Shelley. The temper of -such pieces as "Arethusa" and "The Cloud" is indicated by a form hardly -more ambitious than a guitar; Hellas is full of passages which suggest -the harp; in his songs Shelley touches the lute or viol de gamba, while -in the great odes to the "West Wind" and to "Liberty" we listen to a -verse-form which reminds us by its volume of the organ itself. On the -whole subject of the nature of lyric poetry no commentary can be more -useful to the student than an examination of the lyrics of Shelley in -relation to those of the songwriters of ancient Greece. - - See Hegel, _Die Phanomenologie des Geistes_ (1807); T. S. Jouffroy, - _Cours d'esthetique_ (1843); W. Christ, _Metrik der Griechen und - Romer_, 2te. Aufl. (1879). (E. G.) - - - - -LYSANDER (Gr. [Greek: Lysandros]), son of Aristocritus, Spartan admiral -and diplomatist. Aelian (_Var. Hist._ xii. 43) and Phylarchus (_ap._ -Athen. vi. 271 e) say that he was a _mothax_, i.e. the son of a helot -mother (see HELOTS), but this tradition is at least doubtful; according -to Plutarch he was a Heraclid, though not of either royal family. We do -not know how he rose to eminence: he first appears as admiral of the -Spartan navy in 407 B.C. The story of his influence with Cyrus the -Younger, his naval victory off Notium, his quarrel with his successor -Callicratidas in 406, his appointment as [Greek: epistoleus] in 405, his -decisive victory at Aegospotami, and his share in the siege and -capitulation of Athens belong to the history of the Peloponnesian War -(q.v.). By 404 he was the most powerful man in the Greek world and set -about completing the task of building up a Spartan empire in which he -should be supreme in fact if not in name. Everywhere democracies were -replaced by oligarchies directed by bodies of ten men (decarchies, -[Greek: dekarchiai]) under the control of Spartan governors (harmosts, -[Greek: harmostai]). But Lysander's boundless influence and ambition, -and the superhuman honours paid him, roused the jealousy of the kings -and the ephors, and, on being accused by the Persian satrap Pharnabazus, -he was recalled to Sparta. Soon afterwards he was sent to Athens with an -army to aid the oligarchs, but Pausanias, one of the kings, followed him -and brought about a restoration of democracy. On the death of Agis II., -Lysander secured the succession of Agesilaus (q.v.), whom he hoped to -find amenable to his influence. But in this he was disappointed. Though -chosen to accompany the king to Asia as one of his thirty advisers -([Greek: symbouloi]), he was kept inactive and his influence was broken -by studied affronts, and finally he was sent at his own request as envoy -to the Hellespont. He soon returned to Sparta to mature plans for -overthrowing the hereditary kingship and substituting an elective -monarchy open to all Heraclids, or even, according to another version, -to all Spartiates. But his alleged attempts to bribe the oracles were -fruitless, and his schemes were cut short by the outbreak of war with -Thebes in 395. Lysander invaded Boeotia from the west, receiving the -submission of Orchomenus and sacking Lebadea, but the enemy intercepted -his despatch to Pausanias, who had meanwhile entered Boeotia from the -south, containing plans for a joint attack upon Haliartus. The town was -at once strongly garrisoned, and when Lysander marched against it he was -defeated and slain. He was buried in the territory of Panopeus, the -nearest Phocian city. An able commander and an adroit diplomatist, -Lysander was fired by the ambition to make Sparta supreme in Greece and -himself in Sparta. To this end he shrank from no treachery or cruelty; -yet, like Agesilaus, he was totally free from the characteristic Spartan -vice of avarice, and died, as he had lived, a poor man. - - See the biographies by Plutarch and Nepos; Xen. _Hellenica_, i. 5-iii. - 5; Diod. Sic. xiii. 70 sqq., 104 sqq., xiv. 3, 10, 13, 81; Lysias xii. - 60 sqq.; Justin v. 5-7; Polyaenus i. 45, vii. 19; Pausanias iii., ix. - 32, 5-10, x. 9, 7-11; C. A. Gehlert, _Vita Lysandri_ (Bautzen, 1874); - W. Vischer, _Alkibiades und Lysandros_ (Basel, 1845); O. H. J. - Nitzsch, _De Lysandro_ (Bonn, 1847); and the Greek histories in - general. (M. N. T.) - - - - -LYSANIAS, tetrarch of Abilene (see ABILA), according to Luke iii. 1, in -the time of John the Baptist. The only Lysanias mentioned in profane -history as exercising authority in this district was executed in 36 B.C. -by M. Antonius (Mark Antony). This Lysanias was the son of Ptolemy -Mennaeus, the ruler of an independent state, of which Abilene formed -only a small portion. According to Josephus (_Ant._ xix. 5, 1) the -emperor Claudius in A.D. 42 confirmed Agrippa I. in the possession of -"Abila of Lysanias" already bestowed upon him by Caligula, elsewhere -described as "Abila, which had formed the tetrarchy of Lysanias." It is -argued that this cannot refer to the Lysanias executed by M. Antonius, -since his paternal inheritance, even allowing for some curtailment by -Pompey, must have been of far greater extent. It is therefore assumed by -some authorities that the Lysanias in Luke (A.D. 28-29) is a younger -Lysanias, tetrarch of Abilene only, one of the districts into which the -original kingdom was split up after the death of Lysanias I. This -younger Lysanias may have been a son of the latter, and identical with, -or the father of, the Claudian Lysanias. On the other hand, Josephus -knows nothing of a younger Lysanias, and it is suggested by others that -he really does refer to Lysanias I. The explanation given by M. Krenkel -(_Josephus und Lucas_, Leipzig, 1894, p. 97) is that Josephus does not -mean to imply that Abila was the only possession of Lysanias, and that -he calls it the tetrarchy or kingdom of Lysanias because it was the last -remnant of the domain of Lysanias which remained under direct Roman -administration until the time of Agrippa. The expression was borrowed -from Josephus by Luke, who wrongly imagined that Lysanias I. had ruled -almost up to the time of the bestowal of his tetrarchy upon Agrippa, and -therefore to the days of John the Baptist. Two inscriptions are adduced -as evidence for the existence of a younger Lysanias--Bockh, _C.I.G._ -4521 and 4523. The former is inconclusive, and in the latter the reading -[Greek: Ans[aniou]] is entirely conjectural; the name might equally well -be Lysimachus or Lysias. - - See E. Schurer, _Geschichte des judischen Volkes_ (3rd ed., 1901), i. - p. 712; and (especially on the inscriptional evidence) E. Renan, - "Memoire sur la dynastie des Lysanias d'Abilene" in _Memoires de - l'institut imperial de France_ (xxvi., 1870); also P. W. Schmiedel in - the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, s.v. - - - - -LYSIAS, Attic orator, was born, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus -and the author of the life ascribed to Plutarch, in 459 B.C. This date -was evidently obtained by reckoning back from the foundation of Thurii -(444 B.C.), since there was a tradition that Lysias had gone thither at -the age of fifteen. Modern critics would place his birth later,--between -444 and 436 B.C.,--because, in Plato's _Republic_, of which the scene is -laid about 430 B.C., Cephalus, the father of Lysias, is among the -_dramatis personae_, and the emigration of Lysias to Thurii was said to -have followed his father's death. The latter statement, however, rests -only on the Plutarchic life; nor can Plato's dialogue be safely urged as -a minutely accurate authority. The higher date assigned by the ancient -writers agrees better with the tradition that Lysias reached, or passed, -the age of eighty.[1] Cephalus, his father, was a native of Syracuse, -and on the invitation of Pericles had settled at Athens. The opening -scene of Plato's _Republic_ is laid at the house of his eldest son, -Polemarchus, in Peiraeus. The tone of the picture warrants the inference -that the Sicilian family were well known to Plato, and that their -houses must often have been hospitable to such gatherings. - -At Thurii, the colony newly planted on the Tarentine Gulf (see -PERICLES), the boy may have seen Herodotus, now a man in middle life, -and a friendship may have grown up between them. There, too, Lysias is -said to have commenced his studies in rhetoric--doubtless under a master -of the Sicilian school--possibly, as tradition said, under Tisias, the -pupil of Corax, whose name is associated with the first attempt to -formulate rhetoric as an art. In 413 B.C. the Athenian armament in -Sicily was annihilated. The desire to link famous names is illustrated -by the ancient ascription to Lysias of a rhetorical exercise purporting -to be a speech in which the captive general Nicias appealed for mercy to -the Sicilians. The terrible blow to Athens quickened the energies of an -anti-Athenian faction at Thurii. Lysias and his elder brother -Polemarchus, with three hundred other persons, were "accused of -Atticizing." They were driven from Thurii and settled at Athens (412 -B.C.). - -Lysias and Polemarchus were rich men, having inherited property from -their father; and Lysias claims that, though merely resident aliens, -they discharged public services with a liberality which shamed many of -those who enjoyed the franchise (_In Eratosth._ 20). The fact that they -owned house property shows that they were classed as [Greek: isoteleis], -i.e. foreigners who paid only the same tax as citizens, being exempt -from the special tax ([Greek: metoikion]) on resident aliens. -Polemarchus occupied a house in Athens itself, Lysias another in the -Peiraeus, near which was their shield manufactory, employing a hundred -and twenty skilled slaves. In 404 the Thirty Tyrants were established at -Athens under the protection of a Spartan garrison. One of their earliest -measures was an attack upon the resident aliens, who were represented as -disaffected to the new government. Lysias and Polemarchus were on a list -of ten singled out to be the first victims. Polemarchus was arrested, -and compelled to drink hemlock. Lysias had a narrow escape, with the -help of a large bribe. He slipped by a back-door out of the house in -which he was a prisoner, and took boat to Megara. It appears that he had -rendered valuable services to the exiles during the reign of the -tyrants, and in 403 Thrasybulus proposed that these services should be -recognized by the bestowal of the citizenship. The Boule, however, had -not yet been reconstituted, and hence the measure could not be -introduced to the ecclesia by the requisite "preliminary resolution" -([Greek: probouleuma]). On this ground it was successfully opposed. - -During his later years Lysias--now probably a comparatively poor man -owing to the rapacity of the tyrants and his own generosity to the -Athenian exiles--appears as a hardworking member of a new -profession--that of writing speeches to be delivered in the law-courts. -The thirty-four extant are but a small fraction. From 403 to about 380 -B.C. his industry must have been incessant. The notices of his personal -life in these years are scanty. In 403 he came forward as the accuser of -Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty Tyrants. This was his only direct -contact with Athenian politics. The story that he wrote a defence for -Socrates, which the latter declined to use, probably arose from a -confusion. Several years after the death of Socrates the sophist -Polycrates composed a declamation against him, to which Lysias replied. -A more authentic tradition represents Lysias as having spoken his own -_Olympiacus_ at the Olympic festival of 388 B.C., to which Dionysius I. -of Syracuse had sent a magnificent embassy. Tents embroidered with gold -were pitched within the sacred enclosure; and the wealth of Dionysius -was vividly shown by the number of chariots which he had entered. Lysias -lifted up his voice to denounce Dionysius as, next to Artaxerxes, the -worst enemy of Hellas, and to impress upon the assembled Greeks that one -of their foremost duties was to deliver Sicily from a hateful -oppression. The latest work of Lysias which we can date (a fragment of a -speech _For Pherenicus_) belongs to 381 or 380 B.C. He probably died in -or soon after 380 B.C. - -Lysias was a man of kindly and genial nature, warm in friendship, loyal -to country, with a keen perception of character. and a fine though -strictly controlled sense of humour. The literary tact which is so -remarkable in the extant speeches is that of a singularly flexible -intelligence, always obedient to an instinct of gracefulness. He owes -his distinctive place to the power of concealing his art. It was -obviously desirable that a speech written for delivery by a client -should be suitable to his age, station and circumstances. Lysias was the -first to make this adaptation really artistic. His skill can be best -appreciated if we turn from the easy flow of his graceful language to -the majestic emphasis of Antiphon, or to the self-revealing art of -Isaeus. Translated into terms of ancient criticism, he became the model -of the "plain style" ([Greek: iochnos charakter, iochne, lite, apheles -lexis]: _genus tenue_ or _subtile_). Greek and then Roman critics -distinguished three styles of rhetorical composition--the "grand" (or -"elaborate"), the "plain" and the "middle," the "plain" being nearest to -the language of daily life. Greek rhetoric began in the "grand" style; -then Lysias set an exquisite pattern of the "plain"; and Demosthenes -might be considered as having effected an almost ideal compromise. - -The vocabulary of Lysias is pure and simple. Most of the rhetorical -"figures" are sparingly used--except such as consist in the parallelism -or opposition of clauses. The taste of the day--not yet emancipated from -the influence of the Sicilian rhetoric--probably demanded a large use of -antithesis. Lysias excels in vivid description; he has also a happy -knack of marking the speaker's character by light touches. The structure -of his sentences varies a good deal according to the dignity of the -subject. He has equal command over the "periodic" style ([Greek: -katestrammene lexis]) and the non-periodic or "continuous" ([Greek: -eiromene, dialelumene]). His disposition of his subject-matter is always -simple. The speech has usually four parts--introduction ([Greek: -prooimion]), narrative of facts ([Greek: diegesis]), proofs ([Greek: -pisteis]), which may be either external, as from witnesses, or internal, -derived from argument on the facts, and, lastly, conclusion ([Greek: -epilogos]). It is in the introduction and the narrative that Lysias is -seen at his best. In his greatest extant speech--that _Against -Eratosthenes_--and also in the fragmentary _Olympiacus_, he has pathos -and fire; but these were not characteristic qualities of his work. In -Cicero's judgment (_De Orat._ iii. 7, 28) Demosthenes was peculiarly -distinguished by force (_vis_), Aeschines by resonance (_sonitus_), -Hypereides by acuteness (_acumen_), Isocrates by sweetness (_suavitas_); -the distinction which he assigns to Lysias is _subtilitas_, an Attic -refinement--which, as he elsewhere says (_Brutus_, 16, 64) is often -joined to an admirable vigour (_lacerti_). Nor was it oratory alone to -which Lysias rendered service; his work had an important effect on all -subsequent Greek prose, by showing how perfect elegance could be joined -to plainness. Here, in his artistic use of familiar idiom, he might -fairly be called the Euripides of Attic prose. And his style has an -additional charm for modern readers, because it is employed in -describing scenes from the everyday life of Athens.[2] - - Thirty-four speeches (three fragmentary) have come down under the name - of Lysias; one hundred and twenty-seven more, now lost, are known from - smaller fragments or from titles. In the Augustan age four hundred and - twenty-five works bore his name, of which more than two hundred were - allowed as genuine by the critics. Our thirty-four works may be - classified as follows:-- - - A. EPIDEICTIC.--1. _Olympiacus_, xxxiii. 388 B.C.; 2. _Epitaphius_, - ii. (purporting to have been spoken during the Corinthian War; - certainly spurious), perhaps composed about 380-340 B.C. ("soon after - 387," Blass). - - B. DELIBERATIVE.--Plea for the Constitution, xxxiv., 403 B.C. - - C. FORENSIC, IN PUBLIC CAUSES.--I. _Relating to Offences directly - against the State ([Greek: graphai demosion adikematon]); such as - treason, malversation in office, embezzlement of public moneys._ 1. - For Polystratus, xx., 407 B.C.; 2. Defence on a Charge of Taking - Bribes, xxi., 402 B.C.; 3. Against Ergocles, xxviii., 389 B.C.; 4. - Against Epicrates, xxvii., 389 B.C.; 5. Against Nicomachus, xxx., 399 - B.C.; 6. Against the Corndealers, xxii., 386 B.C. (?) II. _Cause - relating to Unconstitutional Procedure_ ([Greek: graphe paranomon]). - On the Property of the Brother of Nicias, xviii., 395 B.C. III. - _Causes relating to Claims for Money withheld from the State ([Greek: - apographai])_. 1. For the Soldier, ix. (probably not by Lysias, but by - an imitator, writing for a real cause), 394 B.C. (?); 2. On the - Property of Aristophanes, xix., 387 B.C.; 3. Against Philocrates, - xxix., 389 B.C. IV. _Causes relating to a Scrutiny ([Greek: - dokimasia]); especially the Scrutiny, by the Senate, of Officials - Designate._ 1. Against Evandrus, xxvi., 382 B.C.; 2. For Mantitheus, - xvi., 392 B.C.; 3. Against Philon, xxxi., between 404 and 395 B.C.; 4. - Defence on a Charge of Seeking to Abolish the Democracy, xxv., 401 - B.C.; 5. For the Invalid, xxiv., 402 B.C. (?) V. _Causes relating to - Military Offences ([Greek: graphai lipotaxiou, astrateias])._ 1. - Against Alcibiades, I. and II. (xiv., xv.), 395 B.C. VI. _Causes - relating to Murder or Intent to Murder_ ([Greek: graphai phonou, - traumatos ek pronoias]). 1. Against Eratosthenes, xii., 403 B.C.; 2. - Against Agoratus, xiii., 399 B.C.; 3. On the Murder of Eratosthenes, - i. (date uncertain); 4. Against Simon, iii., 393 B.C.; 5. On Wounding - with Intent, iv. (date uncertain). VII. _Causes relating to Impiety_ - ([Greek: graphai asebeias]). 1. Against Andocides, vi. (certainly - spurious, but perhaps contemporary); 2. For Callias, v. (date - uncertain); 3. On the Sacred Olive, vii., not before 395 B.C. - - D. FORENSIC, IN PRIVATE CAUSES.--I. _Action for Libel_ ([Greek: dike - kakegorias]). Against Theomnestus, x., 384-383 B.C. (the so-called - second speech, xi., is merely an epitome of the first). II. _Action by - a Ward against a Guardian_ ([Greek: dike epitropes]). Against - Diogeiton, xxxii., 400 B.C. III. _Trial of a Claim to Property_ - ([Greek: diadikasia]). On the property of Eraton, xvii., 397 B.C. IV. - _Answer to a Special Plea ([Greek: pros paragraphen])._ Against - Pancleon, xxiii. (date uncertain). - - E. MISCELLANEOUS.--1. To his Companions, a Complaint of Slanders, - viii. (certainly spurious); 2. The [Greek: erotikos] in Plato's - _Phaedrus_, pp. 230 E-234. This has generally been regarded as Plato's - own work; but the certainty of this conclusion will be doubted by - those who observe (1) the elaborate preparations made in the dialogue - for a recital of the [Greek: erotikos] which shall be _verbally - exact_, and (2) the closeness of the criticism made upon it. If the - satirist were merely analysing his own composition, such criticism - would have little point. Lysias is the earliest writer who is known to - have composed [Greek: erotikoi]; it is as representing both rhetoric - and a false [Greek: eros] that he is the object of attack in the - _Phaedrus_. - - F. FRAGMENTS.--Three hundred and fifty-five of these are collected by - Sauppe, _Oratores Attici_, ii. 170-216. Two hundred and fifty-two of - them represent one hundred and twenty-seven speeches of known title; - and of six the fragments are comparatively large. Of these, the - fragmentary speech _For Pherenicus_ belongs to 381 or 380 B.C., and is - thus the latest known work of Lysias.[3] - - In literary and historical interest, the first place among the extant - speeches of Lysias belongs to that _Against Eratosthenes_ (403 B.C.), - one of the Thirty Tyrants, whom Lysias arraigns as the murderer of his - brother Polemarchus. The speech is an eloquent and vivid picture of - the reign of terror which the Thirty established at Athens; the - concluding appeal, to both parties among the citizens, is specially - powerful. Next in importance is the speech _Against Agoratus_ (399 - B.C.), one of our chief authorities for the internal history of Athens - during the months which immediately followed the defeat at - Aegospotami. The _Olympiacus_ (388 B.C.) is a brilliant fragment, - expressing the spirit of the festival at Olympia, and exhorting Greeks - to unite against their common foes. The _Plea for the Constitution_ - (403 B.C.) is interesting for the manner in which it argues that the - wellbeing of Athens--now stripped of empire--is bound up with the - maintenance of democratic principles. The speech _For Mantitheus_ (392 - B.C.) is a graceful and animated portrait of a young Athenian [Greek: - hippeus], making a spirited defence of his honour against the charge - of disloyalty. The defence _For the Invalid_ is a humorous - character-sketch. The speech _Against Pancleon_ illustrates the - intimate relations between Athens and Plataea, while it gives us some - picturesque glimpses of Athenian town life. The defence of the person - who had been charged with destroying a _moria_, or sacred olive, - places us amidst the country life of Attica. And the speech _Against - Theomnestus_ deserves attention for its curious evidence of the way in - which the ordinary vocabulary of Athens had changed between 600 and - 400 B.C. - - All MSS. of Lysias yet collated have been derived, as H. Sauppe first - showed, from the Codex Palatinus X. (Heidelberg). The next most - valuable MS. is the Laurentianus C (15th century), which I. Bekker - chiefly followed. Speaking generally, we may say that these two MSS. - are the only two which carry much weight where the text is seriously - corrupt. In _Oratt._ i.-ix. Bekker occasionally consulted eleven other - MSS., most of which contain only the above nine speeches: viz., - Marciani F, G, I, K (Venice); Laurentiani D, E (Florence); Vaticani M, - N; Parisini U, V; Urbinas O. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editio princeps, Aldus (Venice, 1513); by I. Bekker - (1823) and W. S. Dobson (1828) in _Oratores Attici_; C. Scheibe (1852) - and T. Thalheim (1901, Teubner series, with bibliography); C. G. Cobet - (4th ed., by J. J. Hartman, 1905); with variorum notes, by J. J. - Reiske (1772). Editions of select speeches by J. H. Bremi (1845); R. - Rauchenstein (1848, revised by C. Fuhr, 1880-1881); H. Frohberger - (1866-1871); H. van Herwerden (1863); A. Weidner (1888); E. S. - Shuckburgh (1882); A. Westermann and W. Binder (1887-1890); G. P. - Bristol (1892), M. H. Morgan (1895), C. D. Adams (1905), all three - published in America. There is a special lexicon to Lysias by D. H. - Holmes (Bonn, 1895). See also Jebb's _Attic Orators_ (1893) and - _Selections from the Attic Orators_ (2nd ed., 1888) and F. Blass, - _Die Attische Beredsamkeit_ (2nd ed., 1887-1898); W. L. Devries, - _Ethopoiia. A rhetorical study of the types of character in the - orations of Lysias_ (Baltimore, 1892). (R. C. J.; X.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] [W. Christ, _Gesch. der griech. Litt._, gives the date of birth - as about 450.] - - [2] See further Jebb, _The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus_, i. - 142-316. - - [3] [Some remains of the speech against Theozotides have been found - in the Hibeh papyri; see W. H. D. Rouse's _The Year's Work in - Classical Studies_ (1907)]. - - - - -LYSIMACHUS (c. 355-281 B.C.), Macedonian general, son of Agathocles, was -a citizen of Pella in Macedonia. During Alexander's Persian campaigns he -was one of his immediate bodyguard and distinguished himself in India. -After Alexander's death he was appointed to the government of Thrace and -the Chersonese. For a long time he was chiefly occupied with fighting -against the Odrysian king Seuthes. In 315 he joined Cassander, Ptolemy -and Seleucus against Antigonus, who, however, diverted his attention by -stirring up Thracian and Scythian tribes against him. In 309, he founded -Lysimachia in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the -Chersonese with the mainland. He followed the example of Antigonus in -taking the title of king. In 302 when the second alliance between -Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus was made, Lysimachus, reinforced by -troops from Cassander, entered Asia Minor, where he met with little -resistance. On the approach of Antigonus he retired into winter quarters -near Heraclea, marrying its widowed queen Amastris, a Persian princess. -Seleucus joined him in 301, and at the battle of Ipsus Antigonus was -slain. His dominions were divided among the victors, Lysimachus -receiving the greater part of Asia Minor. Feeling that Seleucus was -becoming dangerously great, he now allied himself with Ptolemy, marrying -his daughter Arsinoe. Amastris, who had divorced herself from him, -returned to Heraclea. When Antigonus's son Demetrius renewed hostilities -(297), during his absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia -Minor, but in 294 concluded a peace whereby Demetrius was recognized as -ruler of Macedonia. He tried to carry his power beyond the Danube, but -was defeated and taken prisoner by the Getae, who, however, set him free -on amicable terms. Demetrius subsequently threatened Thrace, but had to -retire in consequence of a rising in Boeotia, and an attack from Pyrrhus -of Epirus. In 288 Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in turn invaded Macedonia, and -drove Demetrius out of the country. Pyrrhus was at first allowed to -remain in possession of Macedonia with the title of king, but in 285 he -was expelled by Lysimachus. Domestic troubles embittered the last years -of Lysimachus's life. Amastris had been murdered by her two sons; -Lysimachus treacherously put them to death. On his return Arsinoe asked -the gift of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised -to free the city. In 284 Arsinoe, desirous of gaining the succession for -her sons in preference to Agathocles (the eldest son of Lysimachus), -intrigued against him with the help of her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus; -they accused him of conspiring with Seleucus to seize the throne, and he -was put to death. This atrocious deed of Lysimachus aroused great -indignation. Many of the cities of Asia revolted, and his most trusted -friends deserted him. The widow of Agathocles fled to Seleucus, who at -once invaded the territory of Lysimachus in Asia. Lysimachus crossed the -Hellespont, and in 281 a decisive battle took place at the plain of -Corus (Corupedion) in Lydia. Lysimachus was killed; after some days his -body, watched by a faithful dog, was found on the field, and given up to -his son Alexander, by whom it was interred at Lysimachia. - - See Arrian, _Anab._ v. 13, vi. 28; Justin xv. 3, 4, xvii. 1; Quintus - Curtius v. 3, x. 30; Diod. Sic. xviii. 3; Polybius v. 67; Plutarch, - _Demetrius_, 31. 52, _Pyrrhus_, 12; Appian, _Syriaca_, 62; Thirlwall, - _History of Greece_, vol. viii. (1847); J. P. Mahaffy, _Story of - Alexander's Empire_; Droysen, _Hellenismus_ (2nd ed., 1877); A. Holm, - _Griechische Geschichte_, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, _Gesch. d. - griech. u. maked. Staaten_, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899); J. Beloch, - _Griech. Gesch._ vol. iii. (1904); Hunerwadel, _Forschungen zur Gesch. - des Konigs Lysimachus_ (1900); Possenti, _Il Re Lisimaco di Tracia_ - (1901); Ghione, _Note sul regno di Lisimaco (Atti d. real. Accad. di - Torino_, xxxix.); and MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. (E. R. B.) - - - - -LYSIPPUS, Greek sculptor, was head of the school of Argos and Sicyon in -the time of Philip and Alexander of Macedon. His works are said to have -numbered 1500, some of them colossal. Some accounts make him the -continuer of the school of Polyclitus; some represent him as -self-taught. The matter in which he especially innovated was the -proportions of the male human body; he made the head smaller than his -predecessors, the body more slender and hard, so as to give the -impression of greater height. He also took great pains with hair and -other details. Pliny (_N.H._ 34, 61) and other writers mention many of -his statues. Among the gods he seems to have produced new and striking -types of Zeus (probably of the Otricoli class), of Poseidon (compare the -Poseidon of the Lateran, standing with raised foot), of the Sun-god and -others; many of these were colossal figures in bronze. Among heroes he -was specially attracted by the mighty physique of Hercules. The Hercules -Farnese of Naples, though signed by Glycon of Athens, and a later and -exaggerated transcript, owes something, including the motive of rest -after labour, to Lysippus. Lysippus made many statues of Alexander the -Great, and so satisfied his patron, no doubt by idealizing him, that he -became the court sculptor of the king, from whom and from whose generals -he received many commissions. The extant portraits of Alexander vary -greatly, and it is impossible to determine which among them go back to -Lysippus. The remarkable head from Alexandria (Plate II. fig. 56, in -GREEK ART) has as good a claim as any. - -As head of the great athletic school of Peloponnese Lysippus naturally -sculptured many athletes; a figure by him of a man scraping himself with -a strigil was a great favourite of the Romans in the time of Tiberius -(Pliny, _N.H._ 34, 61); and this has been usually regarded as the -original copied in the Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (GREEK ART, Plate VI. -fig. 79). If so, the copyist has modernized his copy, for some features -of the Apoxyomenus belong to the Hellenistic age. With more certainty we -may see a copy of an athlete by Lysippus in the statue of Agias found at -Delphi (GREEK ART, Plate V. fig. 74), which is proved by inscriptions to -be a replica in marble of a bronze statue set up by Lysippus in -Thessaly. And when the Agias and the Apoxyomenus are set side by side -their differences are so striking that it is difficult to attribute them -to the same author, though they may belong to the same school. (P. G.) - - - - -LYSIS OF TARENTUM (d. c. 390 B.C.), Greek philosopher. His life is -obscure, but it is generally accepted, that in the persecution of the -Pythagoreans at Crotona and Metapontum he escaped and went to Thebes, -where he came under the influence of Philolaus. The friend and companion -of Pythagoras, he has been credited with many of the works usually -attributed to Pythagoras himself. Diogenes Laertius viii. 6 gives him -three, and Mullach even assigns to him the _Golden Verses_. But it is -generally held that these verses are a collection of lines by many -authors rather than the work of one man. - - - - -LYSISTRATUS, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C., brother of -Lysippus of Sicyon. We are told by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ 35, 153) that he -followed a strongly realistic line, being the first sculptor to take -impressions of human faces in plaster. - - - - -LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS (1793-1847), Anglican divine and hymn-writer, was -born near Kelso on the 1st of June 1793, and was educated at Enniskillen -school and at Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders in 1815, and for -some time held a curacy near Wexford. Owing to infirm health he came to -England, and after several changes settled, in 1823, in the parish of -Brixham. In 1844 his health finally gave way; and he died at Nice on the -20th of November 1847. - - Lyte's first work was _Tales in Verse illustrative of Several of the - Petitions in the Lord's Prayer_ (1826), which was written at Lymington - and was commended by Wilson in the _Noctes Ambrosianae_. He next - published (1833) a volume of _Poems, chiefly Religious_, and in 1834 a - little collection of psalms and hymns entitled _The Spirit of the - Psalms_. After his death, a volume of _Remains_ with a memoir was - published, and the poems contained in this, with those in _Poems, - chiefly Religious_, were afterwards issued in one volume (1868). His - best known hymns are "Abide with me! fast falls the eventide"; "Jesus, - I my cross have taken"; "Praise, my soul, the King of Heaven"; and - "Pleasant are Thy courts above." - - - - -LYTHAM, an urban district and watering-place in the Blackpool -parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the north shore of the -estuary of the Ribble, 13(1/2) m. W. of Preston by a joint line of the -London & North Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) -7185. It has a pier, a pleasant promenade and drive along the shore, -and other appointments of a seaside resort, but it is less wholly -devoted to holiday visitors than Blackpool, which lies 8 m. N.W. A -Benedictine cell was founded here at the close of the 12th century by -the lord of the manor, Richard Fitz-Roger. - - - - -LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON, 1ST BARON (1709-1773), English statesman -and man of letters, born at Hagley, Worcestershire, was a descendant of -the great jurist Sir Thomas Littleton (q.v.). He was the eldest son of -Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 4th bart. (d. 1751), who at the revolution of 1688 -and during the following reign was one of the ablest Whig debaters of -the House of Commons.[1] Lyttelton was educated at Eton and Oxford, and -in 1728 set out on the grand tour, spending considerable periods at -Paris and Rome. On his return to England he sat in parliament for -Okehampton, Devonshire, beginning public life in the same year with -Pitt. From 1744 to 1754 he held the office of a lord commissioner of the -treasury. In 1755 he succeeded Legge as chancellor of the exchequer, but -in 1756 he quitted office, being raised to the peerage as Baron -Lyttelton, of Frankley, in the county of Worcester. In the political -crisis of 1765, before the formation of the Rockingham administration, -it was suggested that he might be placed at the head of the treasury, -but he declined to take part in any such scheme. The closing years of -his life were devoted chiefly to literary pursuits. He died on the 22nd -of August 1773. - - Lyttelton's earliest publication (1735), _Letters from a Persian in - England to his Friend at Ispahan_, appeared anonymously. Much greater - celebrity was achieved by his _Observations on the Conversion and - Apostleship of St Paul_, also anonymous, published in 1747. It takes - the form of a letter to Gilbert West, and is designed to show that St - Paul's conversion is of itself a sufficient demonstration of the - divine character of Christianity. Dr Johnson regarded the work as one - "to which infidelity has never been able to fabricate a specious - answer." Lord Lyttelton's _Dialogues of the Dead_, a creditable - performance, though hardly rivalling either Lucian or Landor, appeared - in 1760. His _History of Henry II._ (1767-1771), the fruit of twenty - years' labour, is not now cited as an authority, but is painstaking - and fair. Lyttelton was also a writer of verse; his _Monody_ on his - wife's death has been praised by Gray for its elegiac tenderness, and - his _Prologue_ to the _Coriolanus_ of his friend Thomson shows genuine - feeling. He was also the author of the well-known stanza in the - _Castle of Indolence_, in which the poet himself is described. A - complete collection of the _Works_ of Lord Lyttelton was published by - his nephew, G. E. Ayscough in 1774. - -His son THOMAS (1744-1779), who succeeded as 2nd baron, played some part -in the political life of his time, but his loose and prodigal habits -were notorious, and he is known, in distinction to his father "the good -lord," as the wicked Lord Lyttelton. He left no lawful issue, and the -barony became extinct; but it was revived in 1794 in the person of his -uncle WILLIAM HENRY, 1st baron of the new creation (1724-1808), who was -governor of S. Carolina and later of Jamaica, and ambassador to -Portugal. The new barony went after him to his two sons. The 3rd baron -(1782-1837) was succeeded by his son GEORGE WILLIAM LYTTELTON, 4th baron -(1817-1876), who was a fine scholar, and brother-in-law of W. E. -Gladstone, having married Miss Mary Glynne. He did important work in -educational and poor law reform. He had eight sons, of whom the eldest, -CHARLES GEORGE (b. 1842), became 5th baron, and in 1889 succeeded, by -the death of the 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos, to the viscounty of -Cobham, in which title the barony of Lyttelton is now merged. Other -distinguished sons were Arthur Temple Lyttelton (d. 1903), warden of -Selwyn College, Cambridge, and bishop-suffragan of Southampton; Edward -Lyttelton (b. 1855), headmaster of Haileybury (1890-1905) and then of -Eton; and Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857), secretary of state for the -colonies (1903-1906). It was a family of well-known cricketers, Alfred -being in his day the best wicket-keeper in England as well as a fine -tennis player. - - For the 1st baron see Sir R. Phillimore's _Memoirs and Correspondence - of Lord Lyttelton_, 1734-1773 (2 vols., 1845). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Sir Thomas (or Thomas de) Littleton, the jurist, had three sons, - William, Richard and Thomas. From the first, William, was descended - Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 1st bart. of Frankley (1596-1650), whose sons - were Sir Henry, 2nd bart. (d. 1693), and Sir Charles, 3rd bart. - (1629-1716), governor of Jamaica. The latter's son was Sir Thomas, - 4th bart., above mentioned, who was also the father of Charles - Lyttelton (1714-1768), bishop of Carlisle, and president of the - Society of Antiquaries. The male descendants of the second, Richard, - died out with Sir Edward Littleton, bart., of Pillaton, - Staffordshire, in 1812, but the latter's grandnephew, Edward John - Walhouse (1791-1863) of Hatherton, took the estates by will and also - the name of Littleton, and was created 1st Baron Hatherton in 1835; - he was chief secretary for Ireland (1833-1834). From Thomas, the - third son, was descended, in one line, Edward, Lord Littleton, of - Munslow (1589-1645), recorder of London, chief justice of the common - pleas, and eventually lord keeper; and in another line, the baronets - of Stoke St Milborough, Shropshire, of whom the best known and last - was Sir Thomas Littleton, 3rd bart. (1647-1710), speaker of the House - of Commons (1698-1700), and treasurer of the navy. - - - - -LYTTELTON, a borough of New Zealand, the port of Christchurch (q.v.) on -the E. coast of South Island, on an inlet on the north-western side of -Banks Peninsula. Pop. (1906) 3941. It is surrounded by abrupt hills -rising to 1600 ft., through which a railway communicates with -Christchurch (7 m. N.W.) by a tunnel 1(3/4) m. long. Great breakwaters -protect the harbour, which has an area of 110 acres, with a low-tide -depth of 20 to 27 ft. There is a graving dock accessible for vessels of -6000 tons. The produce of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury -is exported, frozen or preserved. Lyttelton, formerly called Port Cooper -and Port Victoria, was the original settlement in this district (1850). - - - - -LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON, BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST BARON -(1803-1873), English novelist and politician, the youngest son of -General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, Norfolk, -was born in London on the 25th of May 1803. He had two brothers, William -(1790-1877) and Henry (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Dalling (q.v.). -Bulwer's father died when the boy was four years old. His mother, -Elizabeth Barbara, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth, -Hertfordshire, after her husband's death settled in London. Bulwer, who -was delicate and neurotic, gave evidence of precocious talent and was -sent to various boarding schools, where he was always discontented, -until in the establishment of a Mr Wallington at Ealing he found in his -master a sympathetic and admiring listener. Mr Wallington induced him to -publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature volume entitled _Ishmael and -other Poems_. About this time Bulwer fell in love, and became extremely -morbid under enforced separation from the young lady, who was induced by -her father to marry another man. She died about the time that Bulwer -went to Cambridge, and he declared that her loss affected all his -after-life. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, but removed -shortly afterwards to Trinity Hall, and in 1825 won the Chancellor's -medal for English verse with a poem on "Sculpture." In the following -year he took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small -volume of poems, _Weeds and Wild Flowers_, in which the influence of -Byron was easily traceable. In 1827 he published _O'Neill, or the -Rebel_, a romance, in heroic couplets, of patriotic struggle in Ireland, -and in 1831 a metrical satire, _The Siamese Twins_. These juvenilia he -afterwards ignored. - -Meanwhile he had begun to take his place in society, being already known -as a dandy of considerable pretensions, who had acted as second in a -duel and experienced the fashionable round of flirtation and intrigue. -He purchased a commission in the army, only to sell it again without -undergoing any service, and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his -mother's wishes, Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802-1882), an Irish beauty, -niece and adopted daughter of General Sir John Doyle. She was a -brilliant but passionate girl, and upon his marriage with her, Bulwer's -mother withdrew the allowance she had hitherto made him. He had L200 a -year from his father, and less than L100 a year with his wife, and found -it necessary to set to work in earnest. In the year of his marriage he -published _Falkland_, a novel which was only a moderate success, but in -1828 he attracted general attention with _Pelham_, a novel for which he -had gathered material during a visit to Paris in 1825. This story, with -its intimate study of the dandyism of the age, was immediately popular, -and gossip was busy in identifying the characters of the romance with -the leading men of the time. In the same year he published _The -Disowned_, following it up with _Devereux_ (1829), _Paul Clifford_ -(1830), _Eugene Aram_ (1832) and _Godolphin_ (1833). All these novels -were designed with a didactic purpose, somewhat upon the German model. -To embody the leading features of a period, to show how a criminal may -be reformed by the development of his own character, to explain the -secrets of failure and success in life, these were the avowed objects of -his art, and there were not wanting critics ready to call in question -his sincerity and his morality. Magazine controversy followed, in which -Bulwer was induced to take a part, and about the same time he began to -make a mark in politics. He became a follower of Bentham, and in 1831 -was elected member for St Ives in Huntingdon. During this period of -feverish activity his relations with his wife grew less and less -satisfactory. At first she had cause to complain that he neglected her -in the pursuit of literary reputation; later on his disregard became -rather active than passive. After a series of distressing differences -they decided to live apart, and were legally separated in 1836. Three -years later his wife published a novel called _Cheveley, or the Man of -Honour_, in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured, and in June 1858, -when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for -Hertfordshire, she appeared at the hustings and indignantly denounced -him. She was consequently placed under restraint as insane, but -liberated a few weeks later. For years she continued her attacks upon -her husband's character, and outlived him by nine years, dying at Upper -Sydenham in March 1882. There is little doubt that her passionate -imagination gravely exaggerated the tale of her wrongs, though Bulwer -was certainly no model for husbands. It was a case of two undisciplined -natures in domestic bondage, and the consequences of their union were as -inevitable as they were unfortunate. - -Bulwer, meanwhile, was full of activity, both literary and political. -After representing St Ives, he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat -in parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the -Reform Bill, and took the leading part in securing the reduction, after -vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties. His pamphlet, -issued when the Whigs were dismissed from office in 1834, and entitled -"A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis," was immensely -influential, and Lord Melbourne offered him a lordship of the admiralty, -which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author. -At this time, indeed, his pen was indefatigable. _Godolphin_ was -followed by _The Pilgrims of the Rhine_ (1834), a graceful fantasy, too -German in sentiment to be quite successful in England, and then in _The -Last Days of Pompeii_ (1834) and Rienzi (1835) he reached the height of -his popularity. He took great pains with these stories, and despite -their lurid colouring and mannered over-emphasis, they undoubtedly -indicate the highwater mark of his talent. Their reception was -enthusiastic, and _Ernest Maltravers_ (1837) and _Alice, or the -Mysteries_ (1838) were hardly less successful. At the same time he had -been plunging into journalism. In 1831 he undertook the editorship of -the _New Monthly_, which, however, he resigned in the following year, -but in 1841, the year in which he published _Night and Morning_, he -started the _Monthly Chronicle_, a semi-scientific magazine, for which -he wrote _Zicci_, an unfinished first draft afterwards expanded into -_Zanoni_ (1842). As though this multifarious fecundity were not -sufficient, he had also been busy in the field of dramatic literature. -In 1838 he produced _The Lady of Lyons_, a play which Macready made a -great success at Covent Garden: in 1839 _Richelieu_ and _The Sea -Captain_, and in 1840 _Money_. All, except _The Sea Captain_, were -successful, and this solitary failure he revived in 1869 under the title -of _The Rightful Heir_. Of the others it may be said that, though they -abound in examples of strained sentiment and false taste, they have -nevertheless a certain theatrical _flair_, which has enabled them to -survive a whole library of stage literature of greater sincerity and -truer feeling. _The Lady of Lyons_ and _Money_ have long held the stage, -and to the last-named, at least, some of the most talented of modern -comedians have given new life and probability. - -In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was created a -baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate in 1843 added Lytton -to his surname, under the terms of his mother's will. From 1841 to 1852 -he had no seat in parliament, and spent much of his time in continental -travel. His literary activity waned somewhat, but was still remarkably -alert for a man who had already done so much. In 1843 he issued _The -Last of the Barons_, which many critics have considered the most -historically sound and generally effective of all his romances; in 1847 -_Lucretia, or the Children of the Night_, and in 1848 _Harold, the last -of the Saxon Kings_. In the intervals between these heavier productions -he had thrown off a volume of poems in 1842, another of translations -from Schiller in 1844, and a satire called _The New Timon_ in 1846, in -which Tennyson, who had just received a Civil List pension, was bitterly -lampooned as "school miss Alfred," with other unedifying amenities; -Tennyson retorted with some verses in which he addressed Bulwer-Lytton -as "you band-box." These poetic excursions were followed by his most -ambitious work in metre, a romantic epic entitled _King Arthur_, of -which he expected much, and he was greatly disappointed by its apathetic -reception. Having experienced some rather acid criticism, questioning -the morality of his novels, he next essayed a form of fiction which he -was determined should leave no loophole to suspicion, and in _The -Caxtons_ (1849), published at first anonymously, gave further proof of -his versatility and resource. _My Novel_ (1853) and _What will he do -with it?_ were designed to prolong the same strain. - -In 1852 he entered the political field anew, and in the conservative -interest. He had differed from the policy of Lord John Russell over the -corn laws, and now separated finally from the liberals. He stood for -Hertfordshire and was elected, holding the seat till 1866, when he was -raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton of Knebworth. His eloquence gave -him the ear of the House of Commons, and he often spoke with influence -and authority. In 1858 he was appointed secretary for the colonies. In -the House of Lords he was comparatively inactive. His last novels were -_A Strange Story_ (1862), a mystical romance with spiritualistic -tendencies; _The Coming Race_ (1871), _The Parisians_ (1873)--both -unacknowledged at the time of his death; and _Kenelm Chillingly_, which -was in course of publication in _Blackwood's Magazine_ when Lytton died -at Torquay on the 18th of January 1873. The last three of his stories -were classed by his son, the 2nd Lord Lytton, as a trilogy, animated by -a common purpose, to exhibit the influence of modern ideas upon -character and conduct. - -Bulwer-Lytton's attitude towards life was theatrical, the language of -his sentiments was artificial and over-decorated, and the tone of his -work was often so flamboyant as to give an impression of false taste and -judgment. Nevertheless, he built up each of his stories upon a -deliberate and careful framework: he was assiduous according to his -lights in historical research; and conscientious in the details of -workmanship. As the fashion of his day has become obsolete the immediate -appeal of his work has diminished. It will always, however, retain its -interest, not only for the merits of certain individual novels, but as a -mirror of the prevailing intellectual movement of the first half of the -19th century. - - See T. H. S. Escott, _Edward Bulwer, 1st Baron Lytton of Knebworth_ - (1910). (A. Wa.) - - - - -LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST EARL OF (1831-1891), English -diplomatist and poet, was the only son of the 1st Baron Lytton. He was -born in Hertford Street, Mayfair, on the 8th of November 1831. Robert -Lytton and his sister were brought up as children principally by a Miss -Green. In 1840 the boy was sent to a school at Twickenham, in 1842 to -another at Brighton, and in 1845 to Harrow. From his earliest childhood -Lytton read voraciously and wrote copiously, quickly developing a -genuine and intense love of literature and a remarkable facility of -expression. In 1849 he left Harrow and studied for a year at Bonn with -an English tutor, and on his return with another tutor in England. In -1850 he entered the diplomatic service as unpaid _attache_ to his uncle, -Sir Henry Bulwer, who was then minister at Washington. His advance in -the diplomatic service was continuous, his successive appointments -being: as second secretary--1852, Florence; 1854, Paris; 1857, The -Hague; 1859, Vienna; as first secretary or secretary of legation--1863, -Copenhagen; 1864, Athens; 1865, Lisbon; 1868, Madrid; 1868, Vienna; -1873, Paris; as minister--1875, Lisbon. In 1887 he was appointed to -succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris, and held that office until -his death in 1891. This rapid promotion from one European court to -another indicates the esteem in which Lytton was held by successive -foreign secretaries. In 1864, immediately before taking up his -appointment at Athens, he married Edith, daughter of Edward Villiers, -brother of the earl of Clarendon, and in 1873, upon the death of his -father, he succeeded to the peerage and the estate of Knebworth in -Hertfordshire. - -Early in 1875 Lord Lytton declined an offer of appointment as governor -of Madras, and in November of that year he was nominated -governor-general of India by Disraeli. The moment was critical in the -history of India. In Central Asia the advance of Russia had continued so -steadily and so rapidly that Shere Ali, the amir of Afghanistan, had -determined to seek safety as the vassal of the tsar. Lytton went out to -India with express instructions from the British government to recover -the friendship of the amir if possible, and if not so to arrange matters -on the north-west frontier as to be able to be indifferent to his -hostility. For eighteen months Lytton and his council made every effort -to conciliate the friendship of the amir, but when a Russian agent was -established at Kabul, while the mission of Sir Neville Chamberlain was -forcibly denied entrance into the amir's dominions, no choice was left -between acknowledging the right of a subsidized ally of Great Britain to -place himself within Russian control and depriving him of the office -which he owed to British patronage and assistance. The inevitable war -began in November 1878, and by the close of that year the forces -prepared by Lytton for that purpose had achieved their task with -extraordinary accuracy and economy. Shere Ali fled from Kabul, and -shortly afterwards died, and once more it fell to the Indian government -to make provision for the future of Afghanistan. By the treaty of -Gandamak in May 1879 Yakub Khan, a son of Shere Ali, was recognized as -amir, the main conditions agreed upon being that the districts of Kuram, -Pishin and Sibi should be "assigned" to British administration, and the -Khyber and other passes be under British control; that there should be a -permanent British Resident at Kabul, and that the amir should be -subsidized in an amount to be afterwards determined upon. The endeavour -of the Indian government was to leave the internal administration of -Afghanistan as little affected as possible, but considerable risk was -run in trusting so much, and especially the safety of a British envoy, -to the power and the goodwill of Yakub Khan. Sir Louis Cavagnari, the -British envoy entered Kabul at the end of July, and was, with his staff, -massacred in the rising which took place on the 3rd of September. The -war of 1879-80 immediately began, with the occupation of Kandahar by -Stewart and the advance upon Kabul by Roberts, and the military -operations which followed were not concluded when Lytton resigned his -office in April 1880. - -A complete account of Lytton's viceroyalty, and a lucid exposition of -the principles of his government and the main outlines of his policy, -may be found in _Lord Lytton's Indian Administration_, by his daughter, -Lady Betty Balfour (London, 1899). The frontier policy which he adopted, -after the method of a friendly and united Afghanistan under Yakub Khan -had been tried and had failed, was that the Afghan kingdom should be -destroyed. The province of Kandahar was to be occupied by Great Britain, -and administered by a vassal chief, Shere Ali Khan, who was appointed -"Wali" with a solemn guarantee of British support (unconditionally -withdrawn by the government succeeding Lytton's). The other points of -the Indian frontier were to be made as secure as possible, and the -provinces of Kabul and Herat were to be left absolutely to their own -devices. In consequence of what had been said of Lytton by the leaders -of the parliamentary opposition in England, it was impossible for him to -retain his office under a government formed by them, and he accordingly -resigned at the same time as the Beaconsfield ministry. This part of his -policy was thereupon revoked. Abdur Rahman, proving himself the -strongest of the claimants to the throne left vacant by Yakub Khan's -deposition, became amir as the subsidized ally of the Indian government. - -The two most considerable events of Lytton's viceroyalty, besides the -Afghan wars, were the assumption by Queen Victoria of the title of -empress of India on the 1st of January 1877, and the famine which -prevailed in various parts of India in 1876-78. He satisfied himself -that periodical famines must be expected in Indian history, and that -constant preparation during years of comparative prosperity was the only -condition whereby their destructiveness could be modified. Accordingly -he obtained the appointment of the famine commission of 1878, to -inquire, upon lines laid down by him, into available means of -mitigation. Their report, made in 1880, is the foundation of the later -system of irrigation, development of communications, and "famine -insurance." The equalization and reduction of the salt duty were -effected, and the abolition of the cotton duty commenced, during -Lytton's term of office, and the system of Indian finance profoundly -modified by decentralization and the regulation of provincial -responsibility, in all which matters Lytton enthusiastically supported -Sir John Strachey, the financial member of his council. - -Upon Lytton's resignation in 1880 an earldom was conferred upon him in -recognition of his services as viceroy. He lived at Knebworth until -1887, in which year he was appointed to succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador -at Paris. He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1891, of a clot of -blood in the heart, when apparently recovering from a serious illness. -He was succeeded by his son (b. 1876) as 2nd earl. - -Lytton is probably better known as a poet--under the pen-name of "Owen -Meredith"--than as a statesman. The list of his published works is as -follows: _Clytemnestra, and other Poems_, 1855; _The Wanderer_, 1858; -_Lucile_, 1860; _Serbski Pesme, or National Songs of Servia_, 1861, -_Tannhauser_ (in collaboration with Mr Julian Fane), 1861; _Chronicles -and Characters_, 1867; _Orval, or The Fool of Time_, 1868; _Fables in -Song_ (2 vols.), 1874; _Glenaveril, or The Metamorphoses_, 1885; _After -Paradise, or the Legends of Exile, and other Poems_, 1887; _Marah_, -1892; _King Poppy_, 1892. The two last-mentioned volumes were published -posthumously. A few previously unpublished pieces are included in a -volume of _Selections_ published, with an introduction by Lady Betty -Balfour, in 1894. His metrical style was easy and copious, but not -precise. It often gives the impression of having been produced with -facility, because the flow of his thought carried him along, and of not -having undergone prolonged or minute polish. It was frequently -suggestive of the work of other poets, especially in his earlier -productions. The friend who wrote the inscription for the monument to be -erected to him at St Paul's described him as "a poet of many styles, -each the expression of his habitual thoughts." _Lucile_, a novel in -verse, presents a romantic style and considerable wit; and _Glenaveril_, -which also contains many passages of great beauty and much poetic -thought, has much of the same narrative character. Besides his volumes -of poetry, Lytton published in 1883 two volumes of a biography of his -father. The second of these contains the beginning of the elder Lytton's -unfinished novel, _Greville_, and his life is brought down only to the -year 1832, when he was twenty-six years of age, so that the completion -of the book upon the same scale would have required at least four more -volumes. The executrix of Lytton's mother chose to consider that the -publication was injurious to that lady's memory, and issued a volume -purporting to contain Bulwer-Lytton's letters to his wife. This Lytton -suppressed by injunction, thereby procuring a fresh exposition of the -law that the copyright in letters remains in the writer or his -representatives, though the property in them belongs to the recipient. -Lytton's appointment to the Parisian embassy caused the biography of his -father to be finally laid aside. - - The _Personal and Literary Letters of Robert, 1st Earl of Lytton_, - have been edited by Lady Betty Balfour (1906). (H. S*.) - - - - -M The thirteenth letter of the Phoenician and Greek alphabets, the -twelfth of the Latin, and the thirteenth of the languages of western -Europe. Written originally from right to left, it took the form [symbol] -which survives in its earliest representations in Greek. The greater -length of the first limb of _m_ is characteristic of the earliest forms. -From this form, written from left to right, the Latin abbreviation M' -for the praenomen Manius is supposed to have developed, the apostrophe -representing the fifth stroke of the original letter. In the early Greek -alphabets the four-stroke M with legs of equal length represents not _m_ -but _s_; _m_ when written with four strokes is [symbol]. The five-stroke -forms, however, are confined practically to Crete, Melos and Cumae; from -the last named the Romans received it along with the rest of their -alphabet. The Phoenician name of the symbol was _mem_, the Greek name -[Greek: mu] is formed on the analogy of the name for _n_. M represents -the bilabial nasal sound, which was generally voiced. It is commonly a -stable sound, but many languages, e.g. Greek, Germanic and Celtic, -change it when final into -_n_, its dental correlative. It appears more -frequently as an initial sound in Greek and Latin than in the other -languages of the same stock, because in these _s_ before _m_ (as also -before _l_ and _n_) disappeared at the beginning of words. The sounds -_m_ and _b_ are closely related, the only difference being that, in -pronouncing _m_, the nasal passage is not closed, thus allowing the -sound to be prolonged, while _b_ is an instantaneous or explosive sound. -In various languages _b_ is inserted between m and a following -consonant, as in the Gr. [Greek: mesembria] "mid-day," or the English -"number," Fr. _nombre_ from Lat. _numerus_. The sound _m_ can in -unaccented syllables form a syllable by itself without an audible vowel, -e.g. the English word _fathom_ comes from an Anglo-Saxon _fathm_, where -the _m_ was so used. (For more details as to this phonetic principle, -which has important results in the history of language, see under N.) - (P. Gi.) - - - - -MAAS, JOSEPH (1847-1886), English tenor singer, was born at Dartford, -and became a chorister in Rochester Cathedral. He went to study singing -in Milan in 1869; in February 1871 he made his first success by taking -Sims Reeves's place at a concert in London. In 1878 he became principal -tenor in Carl Rosa's company, his beautiful voice and finished style -more than compensating for his poor acting. He died in London on the -16th of January 1886. - - - - -MAASIN, a town on the S.W. coast of the island of Leyte, Philippine -Islands, at the mouth of the Maasin River. Pop. (1903), 21,638. Maasin -is an important port for hemp and copra. The well-built town occupies a -narrow coastal plain. The river valleys in the vicinity produce cotton, -pepper, tobacco, rice, Indian corn and fruit. Native cloths and pottery -are manufactured. Maasin is the only place on the west coast of Leyte -where a court of justice is held. The language is Visayan. - - - - -MAASSLUIS, a river port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on -the New Waterway, 10 m. by rail W. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1903), 8011. It -rose into importance as a fishing harbour towards the end of the 16th -century, and its prosperity rapidly increased after the opening of the -New Waterway (the Maas ship canal) from Rotterdam to the sea. The fort -erected here in 1572 by Philip of Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, was -captured by the Spanish in 1573. - - - - -MAASTRICHT, or MAESTRICHT, a frontier town and the capital of the -province of Limburg, Holland, on the left bank of the Maas at the influx -of the river Geer, 19 m. by rail N.N.E. of Liege in Belgium. Pop. -(1904), 36,146. A small portion of the town, known as Wyk, lies on the -right bank. A stone bridge connecting the two replaced a wooden -structure as early as 1280, and was rebuilt in 1683. Formerly a strong -fortress, Maastricht is still a considerable garrison town, but its -ramparts were dismantled in 1871-1878. The town-hall, built by Pieter -Post and completed in 1683, contains some interesting pictures and -tapestry. The old town-hall (Oud Stadhuis), a Gothic building of the -15th century, is now used as a museum of antiquities. The church of St -Servatius is said to have been founded by Bishop Monulphus in the 6th -century, thus being the oldest church in Holland; according to one -account it was rebuilt and enlarged as early as the time of Charlemagne. -The crypt with the tomb of the patron saint dates from the original -building. The varied character of its late Romanesque and later Gothic -architecture bears evidence of the frequency with which the church has -been restored and altered. Over the porch is the fine emperor's hall, -and the church has a marble statue of Charlemagne. The church of Our -Lady, a late Romanesque building, has two ancient crypts and a -13th-century choir of exceptional beauty, but the nave suffered severely -from a restoration in 1764. The present Gothic building of St Martin (in -Wyk) was erected in 1859; the original church is said by tradition to -have occupied the site of an old heathen temple. The Protestant St -Janskerk, a Gothic building of the 13th and 15th centuries, with a fine -tower, was formerly the baptistery of the cathedral. The various -hospitals, the poor-house, the orphanage and most of the other -charitable foundations are Roman Catholic institutions. Maastricht -contains the provincial archives, a library and geological collections. -Though mainly indebted for its commercial prosperity to its position on -the river, the town did not begin to reap the full advantages of its -situation till the opening of the railways between 1853 and 1865. At -first a trade was carried on in wine, colonial wares, alcoholic liquors -and salt; there are now manufactures of earthenware, glass and crystal, -arms, paper, woollens, tools, lead, copper and zinc work, as well as -breweries, and tobacco and cigar factories, and a trade in corn and -butter. - -A short distance south of Maastricht are the great sandstone quarries of -Pietersberg, which were worked from the time of the Romans to near the -end of the 19th century; the result is one of the most extraordinary -subterranean labyrinths in the world, estimated to cover an area 15 m. -by 9 m. In the time of the Spanish wars these underground passages -served to hide the peasants and their cattle. - -Maastricht was originally the _trajectus superior_ (upper ford) of the -Romans, and was the seat of a bishop from 382 to 721. Having formed part -of the Frankish realm, it was ruled after 1204 jointly by the dukes of -Brabant and the prince-bishops of Liege. In 1579 it was besieged by the -Spaniards under the duke of Parma, being captured and plundered after a -heroic resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and 1794. - - - - -MABILLON, JOHN (1632-1707), Benedictine monk of the Congregation of St -Maur (see MAURISTS), was the son of a peasant near Reims. In 1653 he -became a monk in the abbey of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at -St Germain-des-Pres in Paris, the great literary workshop of the -Maurists, where he lived and worked for twenty years, at first under -d'Achery, with whom he edited the nine folio volumes of Acta of the -Benedictine Saints. In Mabillon's Prefaces (reprinted separately) these -lives were for the first time made to illustrate the ecclesiastical and -civil history of the early middle ages. Mabillon's masterpiece was the -_De re diplomatica_ (1681; and a supplement, 1704) in which were first -laid down the principles for determining the authenticity and date of -medieval charters and manuscripts. It practically created the science of -Latin palaeography, and is still the standard work on the subject. In -1685-1686 Mabillon visited the libraries of Italy, to purchase MSS. and -books for the King's Library. On his return to Paris he was called upon -to defend against de Rance, the abbot of La Trappe, the legitimacy for -monks of the kind of studies to which the Maurists devoted themselves: -this called forth Mabillon's _Traite des etudes monastiques_ and his -_Reflexions sur la reponse de M. l'abbe de la_ _Trappe_ (1691-1692), -works embodying the ideas and programme of the Maurists for -ecclesiastical studies. Mabillon produced in all some twenty folio -volumes and as many of lesser size, nearly all works of monumental -erudition (the chief are named in the article MAURISTS). A very -competent judge declared that, "he knew well the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th and -11th centuries, but nothing earlier or later." Mabillon never allowed -his studies to interfere with his life as a monk; he was noted for his -regular attendance at the choral recitation of the office and the other -duties of the monastic life, and for his deep personal religion, as well -as for a special charm of character. He died on the 26th of December -1707, in the midst of the production of the colossal Benedictine Annals. - - The chief authority for his life is the _Abrege de la vie de D. J. M._ - (also in Latin), by his disciple and friend Ruinart (1709). See also, - for a full summary of his works, Tassin, _Hist. litteraire de la - congr. de St Maur_ (1770), pp. 205-269. Of modern biographies the best - are those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Baumer (1892)--the former - to be especially recommended. A brief sketch by E. C. Butler may be - found in the _Downside Review_ (1893). (E. C. B.) - - - - -MABINOGION (plural of Welsh _mabinogi_, from _mabinog_, a bard's -apprentice), the title given to the collection of eleven Welsh prose -tales (from the Red Book of Hergest) published (1838) by Lady Charlotte -Guest, but applied in the Red Book to four only. (See CELT: _Welsh -Literature_.) - - - - -MABUSE, JAN (d. 1532), the name adopted (from his birthplace, Maubeuge) -by the Flemish painter JENNI GOSART, or JENNYN VAN HENNEGOUWE -(Hainault), as he called himself when he matriculated in the gild of St -Luke, at Antwerp, in 1503. We know nothing of his early life, but his -works tell us that he stood in his first period under the influence of -artists to whom plastic models were familiar; and this leads to the -belief that he spent his youth on the French border rather than on the -banks of the Scheldt. Without the subtlety or power of Van der Weyden, -he had this much in common with the great master of Tournai and -Brussels, that his compositions were usually framed in architectural -backgrounds. But whilst Mabuse thus early betrays his dependence on the -masters of the French frontier, he also confesses admiration for the -great painters who first gave lustre to Antwerp; and in the large -altar-pieces of Castle Howard and Scawby he combines in a quaint and not -unskilful medley the sentiment of Memling, the bright and decided -contrasts of pigment peculiar to coloured reliefs, the cornered and -packed drapery familiar to Van der Weyden, and the bold but Socratic -cast of face remarkable in the works of Quentin Matsys. At Scawby he -illustrates the legend of the count of Toulouse, who parted with his -worldly goods to assume the frock of a hermit. At Castle Howard he -represents the Adoration of the Kings, and throws together some thirty -figures on an architectural background, varied in detail, massive in -shape and fanciful in ornament. He surprises us by pompous costume and -flaring contrasts of tone. His figures, like pieces on a chess-board, -are often rigid and conventional. The landscape which shows through the -colonnades is adorned with towers and steeples in the minute fashion of -Van der Weyden. After a residence of a few years at Antwerp, Mabuse took -service with Philip, bastard of Philip the Good, at that time lord of -Somerdyk and admiral of Zeeland. One of his pictures had already become -celebrated--a Descent from the Cross (50 figures), on the high altar of -the monastery of St Michael of Tongerloo. Philip of Burgundy ordered -Mabuse to execute a replica for the church of Middelburg; and the value -which was then set on the picture is apparent from the fact that Durer -came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to see it. In 1568 the altar-piece -perished by fire. In 1508 Mabuse accompanied Philip of Burgundy on his -Italian mission; and by this accident an important revolution was -effected in the art of the Netherlands. Mabuse appears to have chiefly -studied in Italy the cold and polished works of the Leonardesques. He -not only brought home a new style, but he also introduced the fashion of -travelling to Italy; and from that time till the age of Rubens and Van -Dyck it was considered proper that all Flemish painters should visit the -peninsula. The Flemings grafted Italian mannerisms on their own stock; -and the cross turned out so unfortunately that for a century Flemish -art lost all trace of originality. - -In the summer of 1509 Philip returned to the Netherlands, and, retiring -to his seat of Suytburg in Zeeland, surrendered himself to the pleasures -of planning decorations for his castle and ordering pictures of Mabuse -and Jacob of Barbari. Being in constant communication with the court of -Margaret of Austria at Malines, he gave the artists in his employ fair -chances of promotion. Barbari was made court painter to the regent, -whilst Mabuse received less important commissions. Records prove that -Mabuse painted a portrait of Leonora of Portugal, and other small -pieces, for Charles V. in 1516. But his only signed pictures of this -period are the Neptune and Amphitrite of 1516 at Berlin, and the -Madonna, with a portrait of Jean Carondelet of 1517, at the Louvre, in -both of which we clearly discern that Vasari only spoke by hearsay of -the progress made by Mabuse in "the true method of producing pictures -full of nude figures and poesies." It is difficult to find anything more -coarse or misshapen than the Amphitrite, unless we except the grotesque -and ungainly drayman who figures for Neptune. In later forms of the same -subject--the Adam and Eve at Hampton Court, or its feebler replica at -Berlin--we observe more nudity, combined with realism of the commonest -type. Happily, Mabuse was capable of higher efforts. His St Luke -painting the portrait of the Virgin in Sanct Veit at Prague, a variety -of the same subject in the Belvedere at Vienna, the Madonna of the -Baring collection in London, or the numerous repetitions of Christ and -the scoffers (Ghent and Antwerp), all prove that travel had left many of -Mabuse's fundamental peculiarities unaltered. His figures still retain -the character of stone; his architecture is as rich and varied, his -tones are as strong as ever. But bright contrasts of gaudy tints are -replaced by soberer greys; and a cold haze, the _sfumato_ of the -Milanese, pervades the surfaces. It is but seldom that these features -fail to obtrude. When they least show, the master displays a brilliant -palette combined with smooth surface and incisive outlines. In this form -the Madonnas of Munich and Vienna (1527), the likeness of a girl -weighing gold pieces (Berlin), and the portraits of the children of the -king of Denmark at Hampton Court, are fair specimens of his skill. As -early as 1523, when Christian II. of Denmark came to Belgium, he asked -Mabuse to paint the likenesses of his dwarfs. In 1528 he requested the -artist to furnish to Jean de Hare the design for his queen Isabella's -tomb in the abbey of St Pierre near Ghent. It was no doubt at this time -that Mabuse completed the portraits of John, Dorothy and Christine, -children of Christian II., which came into the collection of Henry VIII. -No doubt, also, these portraits are identical with those of three -children at Hampton Court, which were long known and often copied as -likenesses of Prince Arthur, Prince Henry and Princess Margaret of -England. One of the copies at Wilton, inscribed with the forged name of -"Hans Holbein, ye father," and the false date of 1495, has often been -cited as a proof that Mabuse came to England in the reign of Henry VII.; -but the statement rests on no foundation whatever. At the period when -these portraits were executed Mabuse lived at Middelburg. But he dwelt -at intervals elsewhere. When Philip of Burgundy became bishop of -Utrecht, and settled at Duerstede, near Wyck, in 1517, he was -accompanied by Mabuse, who helped to decorate the new palace of his -master. At Philip's death, in 1524, Mabuse designed and erected his tomb -in the church of Wyck. He finally retired to Middelburg, where he took -service with Philip's brother, Adolph, lord of Veeren. Van Mander's -biography accuses Mabuse of habitual drunkenness; yet it describes the -splendid appearance of the artist as, dressed in gold brocade, he -accompanied Lucas of Leyden on a pleasure trip to Ghent, Malines and -Antwerp in 1527. The works of Mabuse are those of a hardworking and -patient artist; the number of his still extant pictures practically -demonstrates that he was not a debauchee. The marriage of his daughter -with the painter Henry Van der Heyden of Louvain proves that he had a -home, and did not live habitually in taverns, as Van Mander suggests. -His death at Antwerp, on the 1st of October 1532, is recorded in the -portrait engraved by Jerome Cock. (J. A. C.) - - - - -MACABEBE, a town of the province of Pampanga, island of Luzon, -Philippine Islands, on the Pampanga Grande river, about 10 m. above its -mouth and about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), after the annexation -of San Miguel, 21,481. The language is Pampango. Many of the male -inhabitants serve in the U.S. Army as scouts. Macabebe's principal -industries are the cultivation of rice and sugar cane, the distilling of -nipa alcohol, and the weaving of hemp and cotton fabrics. - - - - -MACABRE, a term applied to a certain type of artistic or literary -composition, characterized by a grim and ghastly humour, with an -insistence on the details and trappings of death. Such a quality, -deliberately adopted, is hardly to be found in ancient Greek and Latin -writers, though there are traces of it in Apuleius and the author of the -_Satyricon_. The outstanding instances in English literature are John -Webster and Cyril Tourneur, with E. A. Poe and R. L. Stevenson. The word -has gained its significance from its use in French, _la danse macabre_, -for that allegorical representation, in painting, sculpture and -tapestry, of the ever-present and universal power of death, known in -English as the "Dance of Death," and in German as _Totentanz_. The -typical form which the allegory takes is that of a series of pictures, -sculptured or painted, in which Death appears, either as a dancing -skeleton or as a shrunken corpse wrapped in grave-clothes to persons -representing every age and condition of life, and leads them all in a -dance to the grave. Of the numerous examples painted or sculptured on -the walls of cloisters or churchyards through medieval Europe few remain -except in woodcuts and engravings. Thus the famous series at Basel, -originally at the Klingenthal, a nunnery in Little Basel, dated from the -beginning of the 14th century. In the middle of the 15th century this -was moved to the churchyard of the Predigerkloster at Basel, and was -restored, probably by Hans Kluber, in 1568; the fall of the wall in 1805 -reduced it to fragments, and only drawings of it remain. A Dance of -Death in its simplest form still survives in the Marienkirche at Lubeck -in a 15th-century painting on the walls of a chapel. Here there are -twenty-four figures in couples, between each is a dancing Death linking -the groups by outstretched hands, the whole ring being led by a Death -playing on a pipe. At Dresden there is a sculptured life-size series in -the old Neustadter Kirchhoff, removed here from the palace of Duke -George in 1701 after a fire. At Rouen in the _aitre_ (atrium) or -cloister of St Maclou there also remains a sculptured _danse macabre_. -There was a celebrated fresco of the subject in the cloister of Old St -Paul's in London, and another in the now destroyed Hungerford Chapel at -Salisbury, of which a single woodcut, "Death and the Gallant," alone -remains. Of the many engraved reproductions, the most celebrated is the -series drawn by Holbein. Here the long ring of connected dancing couples -is necessarily abandoned, and the Dance of Death becomes rather a series -of _imagines mortis_. - -Concerning the origin of this allegory in painting and sculpture there -has been much dispute. It certainly seems to be as early as the 14th -century, and has often been attributed to the overpowering consciousness -of the presence of death due to the Black Death and the miseries of the -Hundred Years' War. It has also been attributed to a form of the -Morality, a dramatic dialogue between Death and his victims in every -station of life, ending in a dance off the stage (see Du Cange, -_Gloss._, s.v. "Machabaeorum chora"). The origin of the peculiar form -the allegory has taken has also been found, somewhat needlessly and -remotely, in the dancing skeletons on late Roman sarcophagi and mural -paintings at Cumae or Pompeii, and a false connexion has been traced -with the "Triumph of Death," attributed to Orcagna, in the Campo Santo -at Pisa. - -The etymology of the word _macabre_ is itself most obscure. According to -Gaston Paris (_Romania_, xxiv., 131; 1895) it first occurs in the form -_macabre_ in Jean le Fevre's _Respit de la mort_ (1376), "Je lis de -Macabre la danse," and he takes this accented form to be the true one, -and traces it in the name of the first painter of the subject. The more -usual explanation is based on the Latin name, _Machabaeorum chora_. The -seven tortured brothers, with their mother and Eleazar (2 Macc. vi., -vii.) were prominent figures on this hypothesis in the supposed -dramatic dialogues. Other connexions have been suggested, as for example -with St Macarius, or Macaire, the hermit, who, according to Vasari, is -to be identified with the figure pointing to the decaying corpses in the -Pisan "Triumph of Death," or with an Arabic word _magbarah_, "cemetery." - - See Peignot, _Recherches sur les danses des morts_ (1826); Douce, - _Dissertation on the Dance of Death_ (1833); Massmann, _Litteratur der - Totentanze_ (1840); J. Charlier de Gerson, _La Danse macabre des Stes - Innocents de Paris_ (1874); Seelmann, _Die Totentanze des - Mittelalters_ (1893). - - - - -McADAM, JOHN LOUDON (1756-1836), Scottish inventor, who gave his name to -the system of road-making known as "macadamizing," was born at Ayr, -Scotland, on the 21st of September 1756, being descended on his father's -side from the clan of the McGregors. While at school he constructed a -model road-section. In 1770 he went to New York, entering the -counting-house of a merchant uncle. He returned to Scotland with a -considerable fortune in 1783, and purchased an estate at Sauhrie, -Ayrshire. Among other public offices he held that of road trustee. The -highways of Great Britain were at this time in a very bad condition, and -McAdam at once began to consider how to effect reforms. At his own -expense he began at Sauhrie, despite much opposition, a series of -experiments in road-making. In 1798 he removed to Falmouth, where he had -received a government appointment, and continued his experiments there. -His general conclusion was that roads should be constructed of broken -stone (see ROADS). In 1815, having been appointed surveyor-general of -the Bristol roads, he was able to put his theories into practice. In -1819 he published a _Practical Essay on the Scientific Repair and -Preservation of Roads_, followed, in 1820, by the _Present State of -Road-making_. As the result of a parliamentary inquiry in 1823 into the -whole question of road-making, his views were adopted by the public -authorities, and in 1827 he was appointed general surveyor of roads. In -pursuing his investigations he had travelled over thirty thousand miles -of road and expended over L5000. Parliament recouped him for his -expenses and gave him a handsome gratuity, but he declined a proffered -knighthood. He died at Moffat, Dumfriesshire, on the 26th of November -1836. - - - - -MACAIRE, a French _chanson de geste_. _Macaire_ (12th century) and _La -reine Sibille_ (14th century) are two versions of the story of the false -accusation brought against the queen of Charlemagne, called Blanchefleur -in _Macaire_ and Sibille in the later poem. _Macaire_ is only preserved -in the Franco-Venetian _geste_ of Charlemagne (Bibl. St Mark MS. fr. -xiii.). _La Reine Sibille_ only exists in fragments, but the tale is -given in the chronicle of Alberic Trium Fontium and in a prose version. -_Macaire_ is the product of the fusion of two legends: that of the -unjustly repudiated wife and that of the dog who detects the murderer of -his master. For the former motive see GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT. The second -is found in Plutarch, _Script. moral._, ed. Didot ii. (1186), where a -dog, like Aubri's hound, stayed three days without food by the body of -its master, and subsequently attacked the murderers, thus leading to -their discovery. The duel between Macaire and the dog is paralleled by -an interpolation by Giraldus Cambrensis in a MS. of the _Hexameron_ of -Saint Ambrose. Aubri's hound received the name of the "dog of -Montargis," because a representation of the story was painted on a -chimney-piece in the chateau of Montargis in the 15th century. The tale -was early divorced from Carolingian tradition, and Jean de la Taille, in -his _Discours notable des duels_ (Paris, 1607), places the incident -under Charles V. - - See _Macaire_ (Paris, 1866), ed. Guessard in the series of _Anc. - poetes de la France_; P. Paris in _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. - xxiii. (1873); L. Gautier, _Epopees francaises_, vol. iii. (2nd ed., - 1880); G. Paris, _Hist. poet. de Charlemagne_ (1865); M. J. G. Isola, - _Storie nerbonesi_, vol. i. (Bologna, 1877); F. Wolf, _Uber die beiden - ... Volksbucher von der K. Sibille u. Huon de Bordeaux_ (Vienna, 1857) - and _Uber die neuesten Leistungen der Franzosen_ (Vienna, 1833). _The - Dog of Montargis_; or, _The Forest of Bondy_, imitated from the play - of G. de Pixerecourt, was played at Covent Garden (Sept. 30, 1814). - - "Robert Macaire" was the name given to the modern villain in the - _Auberge des Adrets_ (1823), a melodrama in which Frederick Lemaitre - made his reputation. The type was sensibly modified in _Robert - Macaire_ (1834), a sequel written by Lemaitre in collaboration with - Benjamin Antier, and well-known on the English stage as _Macaire_. R. - L. Stevenson and W. E. Henley used the same type in their play - _Macaire_. - - - - -McALESTER, a city and the county-seat of Pittsburg county, Oklahoma, -about 110 m. E.S.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 3479; (1907) 8144 (1681 -negroes and 105 Indians); (1910) 12,954. McAlester is served by the -Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways -and is an important railway junction; it is connected with the -neighbouring mining district by an electric line. There are undeveloped -iron deposits and rich coal-mines in the surrounding country, and -coke-making is the principal manufacturing industry of the city. There -is a fine Scottish Rite Masons' consistory and temple in McAlester. The -city owns its waterworks. The vicinity was first settled in 1885. The -city of South McAlester was incorporated in 1899, and in 1906 it annexed -the town of McAlester and adopted its name. - - - - -MACALPINE (or MACCABEUS), JOHN (d. 1557), Protestant theologian, was -born in Scotland about the beginning of the 16th century, and graduated -at some Scottish university. From 1532 to 1534 he was prior of the -Dominican convent of Perth; but having in the latter year been summoned -with Alexander Ales (q.v.) and others to answer for heresy before the -bishop of Ross, he fled to England, where he was granted letters of -denization on the 7th of April 1537, and married Agnes Macheson, a -fellow-exile for religion; her sister Elizabeth became the wife of Miles -Coverdale. The reaction of 1539 made England a doubtful refuge, and on -the 25th of November 1540 Macalpine matriculated at the university of -Wittenberg. He had already graduated B.A. at Cologne, and in 1542 -proceeded to his doctorate at Wittenberg. In that year, being now known -as Maccabeus, he accepted Christian III.'s offer of the chair of -theology at the university of Copenhagen, which had been endowed out of -the spoils of the Church. Melanchthon spoke well of Macalpine, and with -Peter Plade (Palladius), who had also studied at Wittenberg, Macalpine -took a prominent part in building up the Lutheran Church of Denmark. A -joint exposure by Plade and Macalpine of Osiander's errors was published -in 1552 and reprinted at Leipzig and Copenhagen in 1768; and Macalpine -was one of the four translators of Luther's German Bible into Danish. He -also encouraged Sir David Lindsay, who visited him in 1548, to publish -his _Monarchie_, and persuaded Christian III. to intercede with Queen -Mary Tudor on behalf of Coverdale and invite him to Denmark. Macalpine -died at Copenhagen on the 6th of December 1557. - - See _Dict. Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited; _Corpus - reformatorum_, iii. (1066), iv. 771, 793; Foerstemann, _Album - academiae vitebergensis_ (1841), p. 186, and _Liber decanorum_ (1838), - p. 32; Rockwell, _Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp_ (1904), pp. - 114-116; _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (1537), i. 1103 (12); - (1542), pp. 46,218. (A. F. P.) - - - - -MACAO (A-Ma-ngao, "Harbour of the goddess A-Ma"; Port. _Macau_), a -Portuguese settlement on the coast of China, in 22 deg. N., 132 deg. E. -Pop. (1896), Chinese, 74,568; Portuguese, 3898; other nationalities, -161--total, 78,627. It consists of a tongue of land 2(1/2) m. in length -and less than 1 m. in breadth, running S.S.W. from the island of Hiang -Shang (Port. _Ancam_) on the western side of the estuary of the Canton -River. Bold and rocky hills about 300 ft. high occupy both extremities -of the peninsula, the picturesque city, with its flat-roofed houses -painted blue, green and red, lying in the undulating ground between. The -forts are effective additions to the general view, but do not add much -to the strength of the place. Along the east side of the peninsula runs -the Praya Grande, or Great Quay, the chief promenade in Macao, on which -stand the governor's palace, the administrative offices, the consulates -and the leading commercial establishments. The church of St Paul -(1594-1602), the seat of the Jesuit college in the 17th century, was -destroyed by fire in 1835. The Hospital da Misericordia (1569) was -rebuilt in 1640. The Camoens grotto, where the exiled poet found leisure -to celebrate the achievements of his ungrateful country, lies in a -secluded spot to the north of the town, which has been partly left in -its native wildness strewn with huge granite boulders and partly -transformed into a fine botanical garden. During the south-west (summer) -monsoon great quantities (67 in.) of rain fall, especially in July and -August. The mean temperature is 74.3 deg. F.; in July, the hottest -month, the temperature is 84.2 deg.; in February, the coldest, it is 59 -deg. On the whole the climate is moist. Hurricanes are frequent. Of the -Portuguese inhabitants more than three-fourths are natives of Macao--a -race very inferior in point of physique to their European ancestors. -Macao is connected with Hong-Kong by a daily steamer. Being open to the -south-west sea breezes, it is a favourite place of resort from the -oppressive heat of Hong-Kong. It is ruled by a governor, and, along with -Timor (East Indies), constitutes a bishopric, to which belong also the -Portuguese Christians in Malacca and Singapore. Though most of the land -is under garden cultivation, the mass of the people is dependent more or -less directly on mercantile pursuits; for, while the exclusive policy -both of Chinese and Portuguese which prevented Macao becoming a free -port till 1845-1846 allowed what was once the great emporium of European -commerce in eastern Asia to be outstripped by its younger and more -liberal rivals, the local, though not the foreign, trade of the place is -still of very considerable extent. Since the middle of the 19th century, -indeed, much of it has run in the most questionable channels; the -nefarious coolie traffic gradually increased in extent and in cruelty -from about 1848 till it was prohibited in 1874, and much of the actual -trade is more or less of the nature of smuggling. The commodities -otherwise mostly dealt in are opium, tea, rice, oil, raw cotton, fish -and silk. The total value of exports and imports was in 1876-1877 -upwards of L1,536,000. In 1880 it had increased to L2,259,250, and in -1898 to L3,771,615. Commercial intercourse is most intimate with -Hong-Kong, Canton, Batavia and Goa. The preparation and packing of tea -is the principal industry in the town. In fishing a large number of -boats and men are employed. - -In 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to erect factories on the -peninsula, and in 1573 the Chinese built across the isthmus the wall -which still cuts off the barbarian from the rest of the island. Jesuit -missionaries established themselves on the spot; and in 1580 Gregory -XIII. constituted a bishopric of Macao. A senate was organized in 1583, -and in 1628 Jeronimo de Silveira became first royal governor of Macao. -Still the Portuguese remained largely under the control of the Chinese, -who had never surrendered their territorial rights and maintained their -authority by means of mandarins--these insisting that even European -criminals should be placed in their hands. Ferreira do Amaral, the -Portuguese governor, put an end to this state of things in 1849, and -left the Chinese officials no more authority in the peninsula than the -representatives of other foreign nations; and, though his antagonists -procured his assassination (Aug. 22), his successors succeeded in -carrying out his policy. - -Although Macao is de facto a colonial possession of Portugal, the -Chinese government persistently refused to recognize the claim of the -Portuguese to territorial rights, alleging that they were merely lessees -or tenants at will, and until 1849 the Portuguese paid to the Chinese an -annual rent of L71 per annum. This diplomatic difficulty prevented the -conclusion of a commercial treaty between China and Portugal for a long -time, but an arrangement for a treaty was come to in 1887 on the -following basis: (1) China confirmed perpetual occupation and government -of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal; (2) Portugal engaged never to -alienate Macao and its dependencies without the consent of China; (3) -Portugal engaged to co-operate in opium revenue work at Macao in the -same way as Great Britain at Hong-Kong. The formal treaty was signed in -the same year, and arrangements were made whereby the Chinese imperial -customs were able to collect duties on vessels trading with Macao in the -same way as they had already arranged for their collection at the -British colony of Hong-Kong. For a short time in 1802, and again in -1808, Macao was occupied by the English as a precaution against seizure -by the French. - - - - -MACAQUE, a name of French origin denoting the monkeys of the mainly -Asiatic genus _Macacus_, of which one species, the Barbary ape, inhabits -North Africa and the rock of Gibraltar. Displaying great variability in -the length of the tail, which is reduced to a mere tubercle in the -Barbary ape, alone representing the subgenus _Inuus_, macaques are -heavily-built monkeys, with longer muzzles than their compatriots the -langurs (see PRIMATES), and large naked callosities on the buttocks. -They range all over India and Ceylon, thence northward to Tibet, and -eastwards to China, Japan, Formosa, Borneo, Sumatra and Java; while by -some naturalists the black ape of Celebes (_Cynopithecus niger_) is -included in the same genus. Mention of some of the more important -species, typifying distinct sub-generic groups, is made in the article -PRIMATES. Like most other monkeys, macaques go about in large troops, -each headed by an old male. They feed on seeds, fruits, insects, -lizards, &c.; and while some of the species are largely terrestrial, the -Barbary ape is wholly so. Docile and easily tamed when young, old males -of many of the species become exceedingly morose and savage in -captivity. (R. L.*) - - - - -MACARONI (from dialectic Ital. _maccare_, to bruise or crush), a -preparation of a glutinous wheat originally peculiar to Italy, where it -is an article of food of national importance. The same substance in -different forms is also known as _vermicelli_, _pasta_ or Italian -pastes, _spaghetti_, _taglioni_, _fanti_, &c. These substances are -prepared from the hard, semi-translucent varieties of wheat which are -largely cultivated in the south of Europe, Algeria and other warm -regions, and distinguished by the Italians as _grano duro_ or _grano da -semolino_. These wheats are much richer in gluten and other nitrogenous -compounds than the soft or tender wheats of more northern regions, and -their preparations are more easily preserved. The various preparations -are met with as fine thin threads (vermicelli), thin sticks and pipes -(spaghetti, macaroni), small lozenges, stars, disks, ellipses, &c. -(pastes). These various forms are prepared in a uniform manner from a -granular product of hard wheat, which, under the name of semolina or -middlings, is a commercial article. The semolina is thoroughly mixed -with boiling water and incorporated in a kneading machine, such as is -used in bakeries, into a stiff paste or dough. It is then further -kneaded by passing frequently between rollers or under edge runners, -till a homogeneous mass has been produced which is placed in a strong -steam-jacketed cylinder, the lower end of which is closed with a thick -disk pierced with openings corresponding with the diameter or section of -the article to be made. Into this cylinder an accurately fitting plunger -or piston is introduced and subjected to very great pressure, which -causes the stiff dough to squeeze out through the openings in the disk -in continuous threads, sticks or pipes, as the case may be. Vermicelli -is cut off in short bundles and laid on trays to dry, while macaroni is -dried by hanging it in longer lengths over wooden rods in stoves or -heated apartments through which currents of air are driven. It is only -genuine macaroni, rich in gluten, which can be dried in this manner; -spurious fabrications will not bear their own weight, and must, -therefore, be laid out flat to be dried. In making pastes the cylinder -is closed with a disk pierced with holes having the sectional form of -the pastes, and a set of knives revolving close against the external -surface of the disk cut off the paste in thin sections as it exudes from -each opening. True macaroni can be distinguished by observing the -flattened mark of the rod over which it has been dried within the bend -of the tubes; it has a soft yellowish colour, is rough in texture, -elastic and hard, and breaks with a smooth glassy fracture. In boiling -it swells up to double its original size without becoming pasty or -adhesive. It can be kept any length of time without alteration or -deterioration; and it is on that account, in many circumstances, a most -convenient as well as a highly nutritious and healthful article of food. - - - - -MACARONICS, a species of burlesque poetry, in which words from a modern -vernacular, with Latin endings, are introduced into Latin verse, so as -to produce a ridiculous effect. Sometimes Greek is used instead of -Latin. Tisi degli Odassi issued a _Carmen macaronicum de Patavinis_ in -1490. The real founder of the practice, however, was Teofilo Folengo -(1491-1544), whose mock-heroic _Liber Macaronices_ appeared in 1517. -Folengo (q.v.) was a Benedictine monk, who escaped from his monastery -and wandered through Italy, living a dissolute life, and supporting -himself by his absurd verses, which he described as an attempt to -produce in literature something like macaroni, a gross, rude and rustic -mixture of flour, cheese and butter. He wrote under the pseudonym of -Merlinus Coccaius, and his poem is an elaborate burlesque epic, in -twenty-five books, or _macaronea_; it is an extraordinary medley of -chivalrous feats, ridiculous and squalid adventures, and satirical -allegory. Its effect upon the mind of Rabelais was so extraordinary that -no examination of _Pantagruel_ can be complete without a reference to it -(cf. _Gargantua_, i. 19). It was immediately imitated in Italy by a -number of minor poets; and in France a writer whose real name was -Antoine de la Sable, but who called himself Antonius de Arena (d. 1544), -published at Avignon in 1573 a _Meygra entrepriza_, which was a -burlesque account of Charles V.'s disastrous campaign in Provence. -Folengo in Italy and Arena in France are considered as the macaronic -classics. In the 17th century, Joannes Caecilius Frey (1580-1631) -published a _Recitus veritabilis_, on a skirmish between the -vine-growers of Rueil and the bowmen of Paris. Great popularity was -achieved later still by an anonymous macaronic, entitled _Funestissimus -trepassus Micheli Morini_, who died by falling off the branch of an -elm-tree:-- - - De branche in brancham degringolat, et faciens pouf - Ex ormo cadit, et clunes obvertit Olympo. - -Moliere employed macaronic verse in the ceremonial scene with the -doctors in _Le Malade imaginaire_. Works in macaronic prose are rarer. -An _Anti-Clopinus_ by Antony Hotman may be mentioned and the amusing -_Epistolae obscurorum virorum_ (1515). Macaronic prose was not unknown -as an artifice of serious oratory, and abounds (e.g.) in the sermons of -Michel Menot (1440-1518), who says of the prodigal son, _Emit sibi -pulcheras caligas d'ecarlate, bien tirees_. - -The use of true macaronics has never been frequent in Great Britain, -where the only prominent example of it is the _Polemo-Middinia_ ascribed -to William Drummond of Hawthornden. This short epic was probably -composed early in the 17th century, but was not published until 1684. -The _Polemo-Middinia_ follows the example set by Arena, and describes -with burlesque solemnity a quarrel between two villages on the Firth of -Forth. Drummond shows great ingenuity in the tacking on of Latin -terminations to his Lowland Scots vernacular:-- - - Lifeguardamque sibi saevas vocat improba lassas, - Maggaeam, magis doctam milkare cowaeas, - Et doctam sweepare flooras, et sternere beddas, - Quaeque novit spinnare, et longas ducere threedas. - -There is a certain macaronic character about many poems of Skelton and -Dunbar, as well as the famous _Barnabae itinerarium_ (1638) of Richard -Brathwait (1588-1673), but these cannot be considered legitimate -specimens of the type as laid down by Folengo. - - See Ch. Nodier, _Du Langage factice appele macaronique_ (1834); - Genthe, _Histoire de la poesie macaronique_ (1831). (E. G.) - - - - -MACARSCA (Serbo-Croatian, _Makarska_), the chief town of an -administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria; situated opposite to the -island of Brazza, about 32 m. S.E. of Spalato. Pop. (1900), of town -1805; of commune, 11,016, chiefly Serbo-Croatian. Macarsca is a port of -call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and has a brisk trade in wine, -grain and fruit. Under the name of _Mocrum_, Macarsca was a thriving -Roman city, and a bishopric until 639, when it was destroyed by the -Avars. In the 10th century it is mentioned by Constantine -Porphyrogenitus as a city of the pagan Narentines. Its bishopric was -revived in 1320, but the bishops resided at Almissa. In 1481 the city -was purchased from the duke of Herzegovina by Venice; in 1499 it was -conquered by the Turks; and in 1646, after a successful revolt, it again -welcomed the sovereignty of Venice. The see of Macarsca was merged in -that of Spalato in 1830. - - - - -MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY, EARL (1737-1806), was descended from an old -Scottish family, the Macartneys of Auchinleck, who had settled in 1649 -at Lissanoure, Antrim, Ireland, where he was born on the 14th of May -1737. After graduating at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1759, he became a -student of the Temple, London. Through Stephen Fox, elder brother of C. -J. Fox, he was taken up by Lord Holland. Appointed envoy extraordinary -to Russia in 1764, he succeeded in negotiating an alliance between -England and that country. After occupying a seat in the English -parliament, he was in 1769 returned for Antrim in the Irish parliament, -in order to discharge the duties of chief secretary for Ireland. On -resigning this office he was knighted. In 1775 he became governor of the -Caribbee Islands (being created an Irish baron in 1776), and in 1780 -governor of Madras, but he declined the governor-generalship of India, -and returned to England in 1786. After being created Earl Macartney in -the Irish peerage (1792), he was appointed the first envoy of Britain to -China. On his return from a confidential mission to Italy (1795) he was -raised to the English peerage as a baron in 1796, and in the end of the -same year was appointed governor of the newly acquired territory of the -Cape of Good Hope, where he remained till ill health compelled him to -resign in November 1798. He died at Chiswick, Middlesex, on the 31st of -May 1806, the title becoming extinct, and his property, after the death -of his widow (daughter of the 3rd earl of Bute), going to his niece, -whose son took the name. - - An account of Macartney's embassy to China, by Sir George Staunton, - was published in 1797, and has been frequently reprinted. The _Life - and Writings of Lord Macartney_, by Sir John Barrow, appeared in 1807. - See Mrs Helen Macartney Robbins's biography, _The First English - Ambassador to China_ (1908), based on previously unpublished materials - in possession of the family. - - - - -MACASSAR (MAKASSAR, MANGKASAR), the capital of a district of the same -name in the island of Celebes, Dutch East Indies, and the chief town of -the Dutch government of Celebes. Pop. 17,925 (940 Europeans, 2618 -Chinese, 168 Arabs). It stands on the west coast of the southern -peninsula of the island, near the southern extremity of the Macassar -Strait, which separates Celebes from Borneo. Macassar consists of the -Dutch town and port, known as Vlaardingen, and the Malay town which lies -inland. Macassar's trade amounts to about L1,250,000 annually, and -consists mainly of coffee, trepang, copra, gums, spices and valuable -timber. - - For the Macassar people and for the Strait, see CELEBES. "Macassar - oil" is a trade name, not geographical: see ANTIMACASSAR. - - - - -MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON (1800-1859), English -historian, essayist and politician, was born at Rothley Temple, -Leicestershire, on the 25th of October 1800. His father, Zachary -Macaulay (1768-1838), had been governor of Sierra Leone, and was in 1800 -secretary to the chartered company which had founded that colony; an -ardent philanthropist, he did much to secure the abolition of the slave -trade, and he edited the abolitionist organ, the _Christian Observer_, -for many years. Happy in his home, the son at a very early age gave -proof of a determined bent towards literature. Before he was eight years -of age he had written a _Compendium of Universal History_, which gave a -tolerably connected view of the leading events from the creation to -1800, and a romance in the style of Scott, in three cantos, called _The -Battle of Cheviot_. A little later he composed a long poem on the -history of Olaus Magnus, and a vast pile of blank verse entitled -_Fingal, a Poem in Twelve Books_. After being at a private school, in -October 1818 young Macaulay went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he -afterwards became a fellow. He gained in 1824 a college prize for an -essay on the character of William III. He also won a prize for Latin -declamation and a Craven scholarship, and wrote the prize poems of 1819 -and 1821. - -In 1826 Macaulay was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit. -But he soon gave up even the pretence of reading law, and spent many -more hours under the gallery of the house of commons than in the court. -His first attempt at a public speech, made at an anti-slavery meeting in -1824, was described by the _Edinburgh Review_ as "a display of eloquence -of rare and matured excellence." His first considerable appearance in -print was in No. 1 of Knight's _Quarterly Magazine_, a periodical which -enjoyed a short but brilliant existence, and which was largely supported -by Eton and Cambridge. In August 1825 began Macaulay's connexion with -the periodical which was to prove the field of his literary reputation. -The _Edinburgh Review_ was at this time at the height of its power, not -only as an organ of the growing opinion which, leant towards reform, but -as a literary tribunal from which there was no appeal. His essay on -Milton (Aug. 1825), so crude that the author afterwards said that "it -contained scarcely a paragraph such as his matured judgment approved," -created for him at once a literary reputation which suffered no -diminution to the last, a reputation which he established and confirmed, -but which it would have been hardly possible to make more conspicuous. -The publisher John Murray declared that it would be worth the copyright -of _Childe Harold_ to have Macaulay on the staff of the _Quarterly -Review_, and Robert Hall, the orator, writhing with pain, and well-nigh -worn out with disease, was discovered lying on the floor employed in -learning by aid of grammar and dictionary enough Italian to enable him -to verify the parallel between Milton and Dante. - -This sudden blaze of popularity, kindled by a single essay, is partly to -be explained by the dearth of literary criticism in England at that -epoch. For, though a higher note had already been sounded by Hazlitt and -Coleridge, it had not yet taken hold of the public mind, which was still -satisfied with the feeble appreciations of the _Retrospective Review_, -or the dashing and damnatory improvisation of Wilson in _Blackwood_ or -Jeffrey in the _Edinburgh_. Still, allowance being made for the -barbarous partisanship of the established critical tribunals of the -period, it seems surprising that a social success so signal should have -been the consequence of a single article. The explanation is that the -writer of the article on Milton was, unlike most authors, also a -brilliant conversationalist. There has never been a period when an -amusing talker has not been in great demand at London tables; but when -Macaulay made his debut witty conversation was studied and cultivated as -it has ceased to be in the more busy age which has succeeded. At the -university Macaulay had been recognized as pre-eminent for inexhaustible -talk and genial companionship among a circle of such brilliant young men -as Charles Austin, Romilly, Praed and Villiers. He now displayed these -gifts on a wider theatre. Launched on the best that London had to give -in the way of society, Macaulay accepted and enjoyed with all the zest -of youth and a vigorous nature the opportunities opened for him. He was -courted and admired by the most distinguished personages of the day. He -was admitted at Holland House, where Lady Holland listened to him with -deference, and scolded him with a circumspection which was in itself a -compliment. Samuel Rogers spoke of him with friendliness and to him with -affection. He was treated with almost fatherly kindness by -"Conversation" Sharp. - -Thus distinguished, and justifiably conscious of his great powers, -Macaulay began to aspire to a political career. But the shadow of -pecuniary trouble early began to fall upon his path. When he went to -college his father believed himself to be worth L100,000. But commercial -disaster overtook the house of Babington & Macaulay, and the son now saw -himself compelled to work for his livelihood. His Trinity fellowship of -L300 a year became of great consequence to him, but it expired in 1831; -he could make at most L200 a year by writing; and a commissionership of -bankruptcy, which was given him by Lord Lyndhurst in 1828, and which -brought him in about L400 a year, was swept away, without compensation, -by the ministry which came into power in 1830. Macaulay was reduced to -such straits that he had to sell his Cambridge gold medal. - -In February 1830 the doors of the House of Commons were opened to him -through what was then called a "pocket borough." Lord Lansdowne, who had -been struck by two articles on James Mill and the Utilitarians, which -appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ in 1829, offered the author the seat -at Calne. The offer was accompanied by the express assurance that the -patron had no wish to interfere with Macaulay's freedom of voting. He -thus entered parliament at one of the most exciting moments of English -domestic history, when the compact phalanx of reactionary administration -which for nearly fifty years had commanded a crushing majority in the -Commons was on the point of being broken by the growing strength of the -party of reform. Macaulay made his maiden speech on the 5th of April -1830, on the second reading of the Bill for the Removal of Jewish -Disabilities. In July the king died and parliament was dissolved; the -revolution took place in Paris. Macaulay, who was again returned for -Calne, visited Paris, eagerly enjoying a first taste of foreign travel. -On the 1st of March 1831 the Reform Bill was introduced, and on the -second night of the debate Macaulay made the first of his reform -speeches. It was, like all his speeches, a success. Sir Robert Peel said -of it that "portions were as beautiful as anything I have ever heard or -read." - -Encouraged by this first success, Macaulay now threw himself with ardour -into the life of the House of Commons, while at the same time he -continued to enjoy to the full the social opportunities which his -literary and political celebrity had placed within his reach. He dined -out almost nightly, and spent many of his Sundays at the suburban villas -of the Whig leaders, while he continued to supply the _Edinburgh Review_ -with articles. On the triumph of Earl Grey's cabinet, and the passing of -the Reform Act in June 1832, Macaulay, whose eloquence had signalized -every stage of the conflict, became one of the commissioners of the -board of control, and applied himself to the study of Indian affairs. -Giving his days to India and his nights to the House of Commons, he -could only devote a few hours to literary composition by rising at five -when the business of the house had allowed of his getting to bed in time -on the previous evening. Between September 1831 and December 1833 he -furnished the _Review_ with eight important articles, besides writing -his ballad on the Armada. - -In the first Reform Parliament, January 1833, Macaulay took his seat as -one of the two members for Leeds, which up to that date had been -unrepresented in the House of Commons. He replied to O'Connell in the -debate on the address, meeting the great agitator face to face, with -high, but not intemperate, defiance. In July he defended the Government -of India Bill in a speech of great power, and he was instrumental in -getting the bill through committee without unnecessary friction. When -the abolition of slavery came before the house as a practical question, -Macaulay had the prospect of having to surrender office or to vote for a -modified abolition, viz. twelve years' apprenticeship, which was -proposed by the ministry, but condemned by the abolitionists. He was -prepared to make the sacrifice of place rather than be unfaithful to the -cause to which his father had devoted his life. He placed his -resignation in Lord Althorp's hands, and spoke against the ministerial -proposal. But the sense of the house was so strongly expressed as -unfavourable that, finding they would be beaten if they persisted, the -ministry gave way, and reduced apprenticeship to seven years, a -compromise which the abolition party accepted; and Macaulay remained at -the board of control. - -While he was thus growing in reputation, and advancing his public -credit, the fortunes of the family were sinking, and it became evident -that his sisters would have no provision except such as their brother -might be enabled to make for them. Macaulay had but two sources of -income, both of them precarious--office and his pen. As to office, the -Whigs could not have expected at that time to retain power for a whole -generation; and, even while they did so, Macaulay's resolution that he -would always give an independent vote made it possible that he might at -any moment find himself in disagreement with his colleagues, and have to -quit his place. As to literature, he wrote to Lord Lansdowne (1833), "it -has been hitherto merely my relaxation; I have never considered it as -the means of support. I have chosen my own topics, taken my own time, -and dictated my own terms. The thought of becoming a bookseller's hack, -of spurring a jaded fancy to reluctant exertion, of filling sheets with -trash merely that sheets may be filled, of bearing from publishers and -editors what Dryden bore from Tonson and what Mackintosh bore from -Lardner, is horrible to me." Macaulay was thus prepared to accept the -offer of a seat in the supreme council of India, created by the new -India Act. The salary of the office was fixed at L10,000, out of which -he calculated to be able to save L30,000 in five years. His sister -Hannah accepted his proposal to accompany him, and in February 1834 the -brother and sister sailed for Calcutta. - -Macaulay's appointment to India occurred at the critical moment when the -government of the company was being superseded by government by the -Crown. His knowledge of India was, when he landed, but superficial. But -at this juncture there was more need of statesmanship directed by -general liberal principles than of a practical knowledge of the details -of Indian administration. Macaulay's presence in the council was of -great value; his minutes are models of good judgment and practical -sagacity. The part he took in India has been described as "the -application of sound liberal principles to a government which had till -then been jealous, close and repressive." He vindicated the liberty of -the press; he maintained the equality of Europeans and natives before -the law; and as president of the committee of public instruction he -inaugurated the system of national education. - -A clause in the India Act 1833 occasioned the appointment of a -commission to inquire into the jurisprudence of the Eastern dependency. -Macaulay was appointed president of that commission. The draft of a -penal code which he submitted became, after a revision of many years, -and by the labour of many experienced lawyers, the Indian criminal code. -Of this code Sir James Stephen said that "it reproduces in a concise and -even beautiful form the spirit of the law of England, in a compass which -by comparison with the original may be regarded as almost absurdly -small. The Indian penal code is to the English criminal law what a -manufactured article ready for use is to the materials out of which it -is made. It is to the French code penal, and to the German code of 1871, -what a finished picture is to a sketch. It is simpler and better -expressed than Livingston's code for Louisiana; and its practical -success has been complete." - -Macaulay's enlightened views and measures drew down on him, however, the -abuse and ill-will of Anglo-Indian society. Fortunately for himself he -was enabled to maintain a tranquil indifference to political detraction -by withdrawing his thoughts into a sphere remote from the opposition and -enmity by which he was surrounded. Even amid the excitement of his early -parliamentary successes literature had balanced politics in his thoughts -and interests. Now in his exile he began to feel more strongly each year -the attraction of European letters and European history. He wrote to his -friend Ellis: "I have gone back to Greek literature with a passion -astonishing to myself. I have never felt anything like it. I was -enraptured with Italian during the six months which I gave up to it; and -I was little less pleased with Spanish. But when I went back to the -Greek I felt as if I had never known before what intellectual enjoyment -was." In thirteen months he read through, some of them twice, a large -part of the Greek and Latin classics. The fascination of these studies -produced their inevitable effect upon his view of political life. He -began to wonder what strange infatuation leads men who can do something -better to squander their intellect, their health and energy, on such -subjects as those which most statesmen are engaged in pursuing. He was -already, he says, "more than half determined to abandon politics and -give myself wholly to letters, to undertake some great historical work, -which may be at once the business and the amusement of my life, and to -leave the pleasures of pestiferous rooms, sleepless nights, and diseased -stomachs to Roebuck and to Praed." - -In 1838 Macaulay and his sister Hannah, who had married Charles -Trevelyan in 1834, returned to England. He at once entered parliament as -member for Edinburgh. In 1839 he became secretary at war, with a seat in -the cabinet in Lord Melbourne's ministry. His acceptance of office -diverted him for a time from prosecuting the plan he had already formed -of a great historical work. But in less than two years the Melbourne -ministry fell. In 1842 appeared his _Lays of Ancient Rome_, and in the -next year he collected and published his _Essays_. He returned to office -in 1846, in Lord John Russell's administration, as paymaster-general. -His duties were very light, and the contact with official life and the -obligations of parliamentary attendance were even of benefit to him -while he was engaged upon his _History_. In the sessions of 1846-1847 he -spoke only five times, and at the general election of July 1847 he lost -his seat for Edinburgh. The balance of Macaulay's faculties had now -passed to the side of literature. At an earlier date he had relished -crowds and the excitement of ever new faces; as years went forward, and -absorption in the work of composition took off the edge of his spirits, -he recoiled from publicity. He began to regard the prospect of business -as worry, and had no longer the nerve to brace himself to the social -efforts required of one who represents a large constituency. - -Macaulay retired into private life, not only without regret, but with a -sense of relief. He gradually withdrew from general society, feeling the -bore of big dinners and country-house visits, but he still enjoyed close -and constant intercourse with a circle of the most eminent men that -London then contained. At that time social breakfasts were in vogue. -Macaulay himself preferred this to any other form of entertainment. Of -these brilliant reunions nothing has been preserved beyond the names of -the men who formed them--Rogers, Hallam, Sydney Smith, Lord Carlisle, -Lord Stanhope, Nassau Senior, Charles Greville, Milman, Panizzi, G. C. -Lewis, Van de Weyer. His biographer thus describes Macaulay's appearance -and bearing in conversation: "Sitting bolt upright, his hands resting on -the arms of his chair, or folded over the handle of his walking-stick, -knitting his eyebrows if the subject was one which had to be thought out -as he went along, or brightening from the forehead downwards when a -burst of humour was coming, his massive features and honest glance -suited well with the manly sagacious sentiments which he set forth in -his sonorous voice and in his racy and intelligible language. To get at -his meaning people had never the need to think twice, and they certainly -had seldom the time." - -But, great as was his enjoyment of literary society and books, they only -formed his recreation. In these years he was working with unflagging -industry at the composition of his _History_. His composition was slow, -his corrections both of matter and style endless; he spared no pains to -ascertain the facts. He sacrificed to the prosecution of his task a -political career, House of Commons fame, the allurements of society. The -first two volumes of the _History of England_ appeared in December 1848. -The success was in every way complete beyond expectation. The sale of -edition after edition, both in England and the United States, was -enormous. - -In 1852, when his party returned to office, he refused a seat in the -cabinet, but he could not bring himself to decline the compliment of a -voluntary amende which the city of Edinburgh paid him in returning him -at the head of the poll at the general election in July of that year. He -had hardly accepted the summons to return to parliamentary life before -fatal weakness betrayed itself in deranged action of the heart; from -this time forward till his death his strength continued steadily to -sink. The process carried with it dejection of spirits as its inevitable -attendant. The thought oppressed him that the great work to which he had -devoted himself would remain a fragment. Once again, in June 1853, he -spoke in parliament, and with effect, against the exclusion of the -master of the rolls from the House of Commons, and at a later date in -defence of competition for the Indian civil service. But he was aware -that it was a grievous waste of his small stock of force, and that he -made these efforts at the cost of more valuable work. - -In November 1855 vols. iii. and iv. of the _History_ appeared and -obtained a vast circulation. Within a generation of its first appearance -upwards of 140,000 copies of the _History_ were printed and sold in the -United Kingdom alone; and in the United States the sales were on a -correspondingly large scale. The _History_ was translated into German, -Polish, Danish, Swedish, Hungarian, Russian, Bohemian, Italian, French, -Dutch and Spanish. Flattering marks of respect were heaped upon the -author by foreign academies. His pecuniary profits were (for that time) -on a scale commensurate with the reputation of the book: the cheque he -received for L20,000 has become a landmark in literary history. - -In May 1856 he quitted the Albany, in which he had passed fifteen happy -years, and went to live at Holly Lodge, Campden Hill, then, before it -was enlarged, a tiny bachelor's dwelling, but with a lawn whose unbroken -slope of verdure gave it the air of a considerable country house. In the -following year (1857) he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron -Macaulay of Rothley. "It was," says Lady Trevelyan, "one of the few -things that everybody approved; he enjoyed it himself, as he did -everything, simply and cordially." It was a novelty in English life to -see eminence which was neither that of territorial opulence nor of -political or military services recognized and rewarded by elevation to -the peerage. - -But Macaulay's health, which had begun to give way in 1852, was every -year visibly failing. In May 1858 he went to Cambridge for the purpose -of being sworn in as high steward of the borough, to which office he had -been elected on the death of Earl Fitzwilliam. When his health was given -at a public breakfast in the town-hall he was obliged to excuse himself -from speaking. In the upper house he never spoke. Absorbed in the -prosecution of his historical work, he had grown indifferent to the -party politics of his own day. Gradually he had to acquiesce in the -conviction that, though his intellectual powers remained unimpaired, his -physical energies would not carry him through the reign of Anne; and, -though he brought down the narrative to the death of William III., the -last half-volume wants the finish and completeness of the earlier -portions. The winter of 1859 told on him, and he died on the 28th of -December. On the 9th of January 1860 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, -in Poets' Corner, near the statue of Addison. - -Lord Macaulay never married. A man of warm domestic affections, he found -their satisfaction in the attachment and close sympathy of his sister -Hannah, the wife of Sir Charles Trevelyan. Her children were to him as -his own. Macaulay was a steadfast friend, and no act inconsistent with -the strictest honour and integrity was ever imputed to him. When a poor -man, and when salary was of consequence to him, he twice resigned office -rather than make compliances for which he would not have been severely -blamed. In 1847, when his seat in parliament was at stake, he would not -be persuaded to humour, to temporize, even to conciliate. He had a keen -relish for the good things of life, and desired fortune as the means of -obtaining them; but there was nothing mercenary or selfish in his -nature. When he had raised himself to opulence, he gave away with an -open hand, not seldom rashly. His very last act was to write a letter to -a poor curate enclosing a cheque for L25. The purity of his morals was -not associated with any tendency to cant. - -The lives of men of letters are often records of sorrow or suffering. -The life of Macaulay was eminently happy. Till the closing years -(1857-1859), he enjoyed life with the full zest of healthy faculty, -happy in social intercourse, happy in the solitude of his study, and -equally divided between the two. For the last fifteen years of his life -he lived for literature. His writings were remunerative to him far -beyond the ordinary measure, yet he never wrote for money. He lived in -his historical researches; his whole heart and interest were -unreservedly given to the men and the times of whom he read and wrote. -His command of literature was imperial. Beginning with a good classical -foundation, be made himself familiar with the imaginative, and then with -the historical, remains of Greece and Rome. He went on to add the -literature of his own country, of France, of Italy, of Spain. He learnt -Dutch enough for the purposes of his history. He read German, but for -the literature of the northern nations he had no taste, and of the -erudite labours of the Germans he had little knowledge and formed an -inadequate estimate. The range of his survey of human things had other -limitations more considerable still. All philosophical speculation was -alien to his mind; nor did he seem aware of the degree in which such -speculation had influenced the progress of humanity. A large--the -largest--part of ecclesiastical history lay outside his historical view. -Of art he confessed himself ignorant, and even refused a request to -furnish a critique on Swift's poetry to the _Edinburgh Review_. -Lessing's _Laocoon_, or Goethe's criticism on Hamlet, "filled" him "with -wonder and despair." - -Of the marvellous discoveries of science which were succeeding each -other day by day he took no note; his pages contain no reference to -them. It has been told already how he recoiled from the mathematical -studies of his university. These deductions made, the circuit of his -knowledge still remains very wide--as extensive perhaps as any human -brain is competent to embrace. His literary outfit was as complete as -has ever been possessed by any English writer; and, if it wants the -illumination of philosophy, it has an equivalent resource in a practical -acquaintance with affairs, with administration, with the interior of -cabinets, and the humour of popular assemblies. Nor was the knowledge -merely stored in his memory; it was always at his command. Whatever his -subject, he pours over it his stream of illustration, drawn from the -records of all ages and countries. His _Essays_ are not merely -instructive as history; they are, like Milton's blank verse, freighted -with the spoils of all the ages. As an historian Macaulay has not -escaped the charge of partisanship. He was a Whig; and in writing the -history of the rise and triumph of Whig principles in the latter half of -the 17th century he identified himself with the cause. But the charge of -partiality, as urged against Macaulay, means more than that he wrote the -history of the Whig revolution from the point of view of those who made -it. When he is describing the merits of friends and the faults of -enemies his pen knows no moderation. He has a constant tendency to -glaring colours, to strong effects, and will always be striking violent -blows. He is not merely exuberant but excessive. There is an overweening -confidence about his tone; he expresses himself in trenchant phrases, -which are like challenges to an opponent to stand up and deny them. His -propositions have no qualifications. Uninstructed readers like this -assurance, as they like a physician who has no doubt about their case. -But a sense of distrust grows upon the more circumspect reader as he -follows page after page of Macaulay's categorical affirmations about -matters which our own experience of life teaches us to be of a -contingent nature. We inevitably think of a saying attributed to Lord -Melbourne: "I wish I were as cocksure of any one thing as Macaulay is of -everything." Macaulay's was the mind of the advocate, not of the -philosopher; it was the mind of Bossuet, which admits no doubts or -reserves itself and tolerates none in others, and as such was -disqualified from that equitable balancing of evidence which is the -primary function of the historian. - -Macaulay, the historian no less than the politician, is, however, always -on the side of justice, fairness for the weak against the strong, the -oppressed against the oppressor. But though a Liberal in practical -politics, he had not the reformer's temperament. The world as it is was -good enough for him. The glories of wealth, rank, honours, literary -fame, the elements of vulgar happiness, made up his ideal of life. A -successful man himself, every personage and every cause is judged by its -success. "The brilliant Macaulay," says Emerson, "who expresses the tone -of the English governing classes of the day, explicitly teaches that -'good' means good to eat, good to wear, material commodity." Macaulay is -in accord with the average sentiment of orthodox and stereotyped -humanity on the relative values of the objects and motives of human -endeavour. And this commonplace materialism is one of the secrets of his -popularity, and one of the qualities which guarantee that that -popularity will be enduring. (M. P.) - - Macaulay's whole works were collected in 1866 by his sister, Lady - Trevelyan, in 8 vols. The first four volumes are occupied by the - _History_; the next three contain the _Essays_, and the _Lives_ which - he contributed to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. In vol. viii. are - collected his _Speeches_, the _Lays of Ancient Rome_, and some - miscellaneous pieces. The "life" by Dean Milman, printed in vol. viii. - of the edition of 1858-1862, is prefixed to the "People's Edition" (4 - vols., 1863-1864). Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. published a complete - edition, the "Albany," in 12 vols., in 1898. There are numerous - editions of the _Critical and Historical Essays_, separately and - collectively; they were edited in 1903 by F. C. Montagu. - - The _Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay_ (2 vols., 1876), by his - nephew, Sir George Otto Trevelyan, is one of the best biographies in - the English language. The life (1882) in the "English Men of Letters" - series was written by J. Cotter Morison. Far further criticism, see - Hepworth Dixon, in his _Life of Penn_ (1841); John Paget, _The New - Examen: Inquiry into Macaulay's History_ (1861) and _Paradoxes and - Puzzles_ (1874); Walter Bagehot, in the _National Review_ (Jan. 1856), - reprinted in his _Literary Studies_ (1879); James Spedding, _Evenings - with a Reviewer_ (1881), discussing his essay on Bacon; Sir L. - Stephen, _Hours in a Library_, vol. ii. (1892); Lord Morley, _Critical - Miscellanies_ (1877), vol. ii.; Lord Avebury, _Essays and Addresses_ - (1903); Thum, _Anmerkungen zu Macaulay's History of England_ - (Heilbronn, 1882). A bibliography of German criticism of Macaulay is - given in G. Korting's _Grd. der engl. Literatur_ (4th ed., Munster, - 1905). - - - - -MACAW, or, as formerly spelt, MACCAW, the name given to some fifteen or -more species of large, long-tailed birds of the parrot-family, natives -of the neotropical region, and forming a very well-known and easily -recognized genus _Ara_, and to the four species of Brazilian Hyacinthine -macaws of the genera _Anodorhynchus_ and _Cyanopsittacus_. Most of the -macaws are remarkable for their gaudy plumage, which exhibits the -brightest scarlet, yellow, blue and green in varying proportion and -often in violent contrast, while a white visage often adds a very -peculiar and expressive character.[1] With one exception the known -species of _Ara_ inhabit the mainland of America from Paraguay to -Mexico, being especially abundant in Bolivia, where no fewer than seven -of them (or nearly one half) have been found (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1879, -p. 634). The single extra-continental species, _A. tricolor,_ is one of -the most brilliantly coloured, and is peculiar to Cuba, where, according -to Gundlach (_Ornitologia Cubana_, p. 126), its numbers are rapidly -decreasing so that there is every chance of its becoming extinct.[2] - -Of the best known species of the group, the blue-and-yellow macaw, _A. -ararauna_, has an extensive range in South America from Guiana in the -east to Colombia in the west, and southwards to Paraguay. Of large size, -it is to be seen in almost every zoological garden, and it is very -frequently kept alive in private houses, for its temper is pretty good, -and it will become strongly attached to those who tend it. Its richly -coloured plumage, sufficiently indicated by its common English name, -supplies feathers eagerly sought by salmon-fishers for the making of -artificial flies. The red-and-blue macaw, _A. macao_, is even larger and -more gorgeously clothed, for, besides the colours expressed in its -ordinary appellation, yellow and green enter into its adornment. It -inhabits Central as well as South America as far as Bolivia, and is also -a common bird in captivity, though perhaps less often seen than the -foregoing. The red-and-yellow species, _A. chloroptera_, ranging from -Panama to Brazil, is smaller, or at least has a shorter tail, and is not -quite so usually met with in menageries. The red-and-green, _A. -militaris_, smaller again than the last, is not unfrequent in -confinement, and presents the colours of the name it bears. This has the -most northerly extension of habitat, occurring in Mexico and thence -southwards to Bolivia. In _A. manilata_ and _A. nobilis_ the prevailing -colour is green and blue. The Hyacinthine macaws _A. hyacinthinus_, _A. -leari_, _A. glaucus_ and _Cyanopsittacus spixi_ are almost entirely -blue. - -The macaws live well in captivity, either chained to a perch or kept in -large aviaries in which their strong flight is noticeable. The note of -these birds is harsh and screaming. The sexes are alike; the lustreless -white eggs are laid in hollow trees, usually two at a time. The birds -are gregarious but apparently monogamous. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] This serves to separate the macaws from the long-tailed parakeets - of the New World (_Conurus_), to which they are very nearly allied. - - [2] There is some reason to think that Jamaica may have formerly - possessed a macaw (though no example is known to exist), and if so it - was most likely a peculiar species. Sloane (_Voyage_, ii. 297), after - describing what he calls the "great maccaw" (_A. ararauna_), which he - had seen in captivity in that island, mentions the "small maccaw" as - being very common in the woods there, and P. H. Gosse (_Birds of - Jamaica_, p. 260) gives, on the authority of Robinson, a local - naturalist of the last century, the description of a bird which - cannot be reconciled with any species now known, though it must have - evidently been allied to the Cuban _A. tricolor_. - - - - -MACBETH, king of Scotland (d. 1058), was the son of Findlaech, _mormaer_ -or hereditary ruler of Moreb (Moray and Ross), who had been murdered by -his nephews in 1020. He probably became mormaer on the death of Malcolm, -one of the murderers, in 1029, and he may have been one of the chiefs -(the Maclbaethe of the _Saxon Chronicle_) who submitted to Canute in -1031. Marianus records that in 1040 Duncan, the grandson and successor -of Malcolm king of Scotland, was slain by Macbeth. Duncan had shortly -before suffered a severe defeat at the hands of Thorfinn, the Norwegian -earl of Orkney and Caithness, and it was perhaps this event which -tempted Macbeth to seize the throne. As far as is known he had no claim -to the crown except through his wife Gruach, who appears to have been a -member of the royal family. Macbeth was apparently a generous benefactor -to the Church, and is said to have made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1050. -According to S. Berchan his reign was a time of prosperity for Scotland. -The records of the period, however, are extremely meagre, and much -obscurity prevails, especially as to his relations with the powerful -earl Thorfinn. More than one attempt was made by members of the Scottish -royal family to recover the throne; in 1045 by Crinan, the lay abbot of -Dunkeld, son-in-law of Malcolm II., and in 1054 by Duncan's son Malcolm -with the assistance of Siward the powerful earl of Northumbria, himself -a connexion of the ousted dynasty. Three years later in 1057 Malcolm and -Siward again invaded Scotland and the campaign ended with the defeat and -death of Macbeth, who was slain at Lumphanan. Macbeth is, of course, -chiefly famous as the central figure of Shakespeare's great tragedy. - - See W. F. Skene, _Chronicles of the Picts and Scots_ (1867) and - _Celtic Scotland_ (1876); Sir John Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (1904). - - - - -MACCABEES, the name (in the plural) of a distinguished Jewish family -dominant in Jerusalem in the 2nd century B.C. According to 1 Macc. ii. -4, the name Maccabaeus (Gr. [Greek: Makkabaios]-? Heb. [Hebrew: makabi]) -was originally the distinctive surname of Judas, third son of the Jewish -priest Mattathias, who struck the first blow for religious liberty -during the persecution under Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes). Subsequently, -however, it obtained a wider significance, having been applied first to -the kinsmen of Judas, then to his adherents, and ultimately to all -champions of religion in the Greek period. Thus the mother of the seven -brethren, whose martyrdom is related in 2 Macc. vi., vii., is called by -early Christian writers "the mother of the Maccabees." The name is used -still more loosely in the titles of the so-called Third, Fourth and -Fifth Books of Maccabees. It is now customary to apply it only to the -sons and descendants of Mattathias. As, however, according to Josephus -(_Ant._ xii. 6. 1), this brave priest's great-great-grandfather was -called _Hasmon_ (i.e. "rich" = magnate; cf. Ps. lxviii. 31 [32]), the -family is more correctly designated by the name of Hasmonaeans or -Asmoneans (q.v.). This name Jewish authors naturally prefer to that of -Maccabees; they also style 1 and 2 Macc. "Books of the Hasmonaeans." - -If Maccabee (_maqqabi_) is the original form of the name, the most -probable derivation is from the Aramaic _maqqaba_ (Heb. [Hebrew: -makevet], Judg. iv. 21, &c.) = "hammer." The surname "hammerer" might -have been applied to Judas either as a distinctive title pure and simple -or symbolically as in the parallel case of Edward I., "Scotorum -_malleus_." Even if _maqqaba_ does denote the ordinary workman's hammer, -and not the great smith's hammer which would more fitly symbolize the -impetuosity of Judas, this is not a fatal objection. The doubled _k_ of -the Greek form is decisive against (1) the theory that the name Maccabee -was made up of the initials of the opening words of Exod. xv. ii; (2) -the derivation from [Hebrew: machvi] = "extinguisher" (cf. Isa. xliii. -17), based by Curtiss (_The Name Machabee_, Leipzig, 1876) on the Latin -spelling Machabaeus = [Greek: Makkabaios], which Jerome probably adopted -in accordance with the usage of the times. - -The Maccabaean revolt was caused by the attempt of Antiochus IV. -(Epiphanes), king of Syria (175-164 B. C.), to force Hellenism upon -Judaea (see SELEUCID DYNASTY; HELLENISM). Ever since the campaigns of -Alexander the Great, Greek habits and ideas had been widely adopted in -Palestine. Over the higher classes especially Hellenism had cast its -spell. This called forth the organized opposition of the Hasidim (= "the -pious"), who constituted themselves champions of the Law. Joshua, who -headed the Hellenistic faction, graecized his name into Jason, contrived -to have the high-priesthood taken from his brother Onias III., and -conferred upon himself, and set up a gymnasium hard by the Temple. After -three years' tenure of office Jason was supplanted by the Benjamite -Menelaus, who disowned Judaism entirely. Antiochus punished an outburst -of strife between the rivals by plundering the Temple and slaying many -of the inhabitants (170 B. C.). Two years later Jerusalem was devastated -by his general Apollonius, and a Syrian garrison occupied the citadel -(Akra). The Jews were ordered under pain of death to substitute for -their own observances the Pagan rites prescribed for the empire -generally. In December 168 sacrifice was offered to Zeus upon an idol -altar ("the abomination of desolation," Dan. x. 27) erected over the -great altar of burnt-offering. But Antiochus had miscalculated, and by -his extreme measures unwittingly saved Judaism from its internal foes. -Many hellenizers rallied round those who were minded to die rather than -abjure their religion. The issue of an important edict ordaining the -erection of heathen altars in every township of Palestine, and the -appointment of officers to deal with recusants, brought matters to a -crisis. At Modin, Mattathias, an aged priest, not only refused to offer -the first sacrifice, but slew an apostate Jew who was about to step into -the breach. He also killed the king's commissioner and pulled down the -altar. Having thus given the signal for rebellion, he then with his five -sons took to the mountains. In view of the ruthless slaughter of a -thousand sabbatarians in the wilderness, Mattathias and his friends -decided to resist attack even on the sabbath. Many, including the -Hasidim, thereupon flocked to his standard, and set themselves to revive -Jewish rites and to uproot Paganism from the land. In 166 Mattathias -died, after charging his sons to give their lives for their ancestral -faith, and nominating Judas Maccabaeus as their leader in the holy -campaign. - -The military genius of Judas made this the most stirring chapter in -Israelitish history. In quick succession he overthrew the Syrian -generals Apollonius, Seron and Gorgias, and after the regent Lysias had -shared the same fate at his hands he restored the Temple worship (165). -These exploits dismayed his opponents and kindled the enthusiasm of his -friends. When, however, Lysias returned in force to renew the contest, -Judas had to fall back upon the Temple mount, and escaped defeat only -because the Syrian leader was obliged to hasten back to Antioch in order -to prevent a rival from seizing the regency. Under these circumstances -Lysias unexpectedly guaranteed to the Jews their religious freedom -(162). But though they had thus gained their end, the struggle did not -cease; it merely assumed a new phase. The Hasidim indeed were satisfied, -and declined to fight longer, but the Maccabees determined not to desist -until their nation was politically as well as religiously free. In 161 -Judas defeated Nicanor at Adasa, but within a few weeks thereafter, in a -heroic struggle against superior numbers under Bacchides at Elasa, he -was himself cut off. Even this, however, did not prove fatal to the -cause which Judas had espoused. If in his brother Jonathan it did not -possess so brilliant a soldier, it had in him an astute diplomatist who -knew how to exploit the internal troubles of Syria. In the contest -between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas for the throne, Jonathan -supported the latter, who in 153 nominated him high priest, and -conferred on him the order of "King's Friend," besides other honours. -After the accession of Demetrius II. (145) Jonathan contrived to win his -favour, and helped him to crush a rebellion in Antioch on condition that -the Syrian garrisons should be withdrawn from Judaea. When, however, -Demetrius failed to keep his word, Jonathan transferred his allegiance -to Antiochus VI., whom Tryphon had crowned as king. After subjugating -the territory between Jerusalem and Damascus, he routed the generals of -Demetrius on the plain of Hazor. But as the Maccabees had now in the -name of the Syrians cleared the Syrians out of Palestine, Tryphon's -jealousy was aroused, and he resolved to be rid of Jonathan, who, with -all his cunning, walked into a trap at Ptolemais, was made prisoner and -ultimately slain (143). The leadership now devolved upon Simon, the last -survivor of the sons of Mattathias. He soon got the better of Tryphon, -who vainly tried to reach Jerusalem. Allying himself to Demetrius, Simon -succeeded in negotiating a treaty whereby the political independence of -Judaea was at length secured. The garrison in the Akra having been -starved into submission, Simon triumphantly entered that fortress in May -142. In the following year he was by popular decree invested with -absolute powers, being appointed leader, high priest and ethnarch. As -these offices were declared hereditary in his family, he became the -founder of the Hasmonaean dynasty. The first year of his reign (Seleucid -year 170 = 143-142 B.C.) was made the beginning of a new era, and the -issue of a Jewish coinage betokened the independence of his sovereignty. -Under Simon's administration the country enjoyed signal prosperity. Its -internal resources were assiduously developed; trade, agriculture, civic -justice and religion were fostered; while at no epoch in its post-exilic -history did Israel enjoy an equal measure of social happiness (I Macc. -xiv. 4 seq.). Simon's beneficent activities came, however, to a sudden -and tragic end. In 135 he and two of his sons were murdered by Ptolemy, -his son-in-law, who had an eye to the supreme power. But Simon's third -son, John Hyrcanus, warned in time, succeeded in asserting his rights as -hereditary head of the state. All the sons of Mattathias had now died -for the sake of "The Law"; and the result of their work, so valorously -prosecuted for over thirty years, was a new-born enthusiasm in Israel -for the ancestral faith. The Maccabaean struggle thus gave fresh life to -the Jewish nation. - -After the death of Antiochus VII. Sidetes in 128 left him a free hand, -Hyrcanus (135-105) soon carved out for himself a large and prosperous -kingdom, which, however, was rent by internal discord owing to the -antagonism developed between the rival parties of the Pharisees and -Sadducees. Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son Aristobulus, whose reign of -but one year was followed by that of his brother, the warlike Alexander -Jannaeus (104-78). The new king's Sadducean proclivities rendered him -odious to the populace, which rose in revolt, but only to bring upon -itself a savage revenge. The accession of his widow Salome Alexandra -(78-69) witnessed a complete reversal of the policy pursued by Jannaeus, -for she chose to rule in accordance with the ideals of the Pharisees. -Her elder son, Hyrcanus II., a pliable weakling, was appointed high -priest; her younger son, the energetic Aristobulus, who chafed at his -exclusion from office, seized some twenty strongholds and with an army -bore down upon Jerusalem. At this crisis Alexandra died, and Hyrcanus -agreed to retire in favour of his masterful brother. A new and -disturbing element now entered into Jewish politics in the person of the -Idumaean Antipater, who for selfish ends deliberately made mischief -between the brothers. An appeal to M. Aemilius Scaurus, who in 65 came -into Syria as the legate of Pompey, led to the interference of the -Romans, the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey, and the vassalage of the Jews -(q.v.). Hyrcanus II. was appointed high priest and ethnarch, without the -title of king (63). Repeated but fruitless attempts were made by the -Hasmonaeans and their patriotic supporters to throw off the Roman yoke. -In 47 Antipater, who curried favour with Rome, was made procurator of -Judaea, and his sons Phasael and Herod governors of Jerusalem and -Galilee respectively. Six years later the Idumaean brothers were -appointed tetrarchs of Judaea. At length, in 40, the Parthians set up as -king Antigonus, sole surviving son of Aristobulus. Thereupon Phasael -committed suicide in prison, but Herod effected his escape and with the -help of the Romans seated himself on the throne of Judaea (37 B.C.). -Through the execution of Antigonus by M. Antonius (Mark Antony) the same -year the Hasmonaean dynasty became extinct. - - LITERATURE.--1 and 2 Macc. and Josephus are the main sources for the - Maccabaean history. For references in classical authors see E. - Schurer, _Geschichte des judischen Volkes_ (1901, p 106 seq.). Besides - the numerous modern histories of Israel (e.g. those by Derenbourg, - Ewald, Stanley, Stade, Renan, Schurer, Kent, Wellhausen, Guthe), see - also Madden, _Coins of the Jews_ (1881), H. Weiss's _Judas Makkabaeus_ - (1897), and the articles in the _Ency. Bib._, Hastings's _Dict. - Bible_, the _Jewish Encyclopedia_. Among more popular sketches are - Moss's _From Malachi to Matthew_ (1893); Streanes' _The Age of the - Maccabees_ (1898); Morrison's _The Jews under Roman Rule_ ("Story of - the Nations" series); W. Fairweather's _From the Exile to the Advent_ - (1901); E. R. Bevan's _Jerusalem under the High Priests_ (1904); F. - Henderson's _The Age of the Maccabees_ (1907); also, articles JEWS; - SELEUCID DYNASTY. (W. F.*) - - - - -MACCABEES, BOOKS OF, the name given to several Apocryphal books of the -Old Testament. The Vulgate contains two books of Maccabees which were -declared canonical by the council of Trent (1546) and found a place -among the Apocrypha of the English Bible. Three other books of this name -are extant. Book iii. is included in the Septuagint but not in the -Vulgate. Book iv. is embraced in the Alexandrian, Sinaitic, and other -MSS. of the Septuagint, as well as in some MSS. of Josephus. A "Fifth" -book is contained in the Ambrosian Peshitta, but it seems to be merely a -Syriac reproduction of the sixth book of Josephus's history of the -_Jewish War_. None of the books of Maccabees are contained in the -Vatican (B); all of them are found in a Syriac recension. - -_1 Maccabees_ was originally written in Hebrew, but is preserved only in -a Greek translation. Origen gives a transliteration of "its Semitic -title,"[1] and Jerome says distinctly: "The First Book of Maccabees I -found in Hebrew." The frequent Hebraisms which mark the Greek -translation, as well as the fact that some obscure passages in the Greek -text are best accounted for as mistranslations from the Hebrew, afford -internal evidence of the truth of this testimony. There are good reasons -for regarding the book as a unity, although some scholars (Destinon, -followed by Wellhausen) consider the concluding chapters (xiii.-xvi.) a -later addition unknown to Josephus, who, however, seems to have already -used the Greek. It probably dates from about the beginning of the first -century B.C.[2] - -As it supplies a detailed and accurate record of the forty years from -the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death of Simon (175-135 -B.C.), without doubt the most stirring chapter in Jewish history, the -book is one of the most precious historical sources we possess. In its -careful chronology, based upon the Seleucid era, in the minuteness of -its geographical knowledge, in the frankness with which it records -defeat as well as victory, on the restraint with which it speaks of the -enemies of the Jews, in its command of details, it bears on its face the -stamp of genuineness. Not that it is wholly free from error or -exaggeration, but its mistakes are due merely to defective knowledge of -the outside world, and its overstatements, virtually confined to the -matter of numbers, proceed from a patriotic desire to magnify Jewish -victories. While the author presumably had some written sources at his -disposal,[3] his narrative is probably for the most part founded upon -personal knowledge and recollection of the events recorded, and upon -such first-hand information as, living in the second generation after, -he would still be in a position to obtain. His sole aim is honestly to -relate what he knew of the glorious struggles of his nation. - -Although written in the style of the historical books of the old -Testament, the work is characterized by a religious reticence which -avoids even the use of the divine name, and by the virtual absence of -the Messianic hope. The observance of the law is strongly urged, and the -cessation of prophecy deplored (iv. 46; xiv. 41). There is no allusion -either to the immortality of the soul or to the resurrection of the -dead. The rewards to which the dying Mattathias points his sons are all -for this life. Many scholars are of opinion that the unknown author was -a Sadducee,[4] but all that can be said with certainty is that he was a -Palestinian Jew devotedly attached to the national cause. - - Until the council of Trent 1 Maccabees had only "ecclesiastical" rank, - and although not accepted as canonical by the Protestant churches, it - has always been held in high estimation. Luther says "it closely - resembles the rest of the books of Holy Scripture, and would not be - unworthy to be enumerated with them." - -_2 Maccabees_, the epitome of a larger work in five books by one Jason -of Cyrene, deals with the same history as its predecessor, except that -it begins at a point one year earlier (176 B.C.), and stops short at the -death of Nicanor (161 B.C.), thus covering a period of only fifteen -years. First of all[5] the writer describes the futile attempt of -Heliodorus to rob the Temple, and the malicious intrigues of the -Benjamite Simon against the worthy high priest Onias III. (iii. i-iv. -6). As throwing light upon the situation prior to the Maccabaean revolt -this section of the book is of especial value. Chapters iv. 7-vii. 42 -contain a more detailed narrative of the events recorded in 1 Macc. i. -10-64. The remainder of the book runs parallel to 1 Macc, iii.-vii. - -Originally written in excellent Greek, from a pronouncedly Pharisaic -standpoint, it was possibly directed against the Hasmonaean dynasty. It -shows no sympathy with the priestly class. Both in trustworthiness and -in style it is inferior to 1 Macc. Besides being highly coloured, the -narrative does not observe strict chronological sequence. Instead of the -sober annalistic style of the earlier historian we have a work marked by -hyperbole, inflated rhetoric and homiletic reflection. Bitter invective -is heaped upon the national enemies, and strong predilection is shown -for the marvellous. The fullness and inaccuracy of detail which are a -feature of the book suggest that Jason's information was derived from -the recollections of eye-witnesses orally communicated. In spite of its -obvious defects, however, it forms a useful supplement to the first -book. - -The writer's interests are religious rather than historical. In 1 Macc, -there is a keen sense of the part to be played by the Jews themselves, -of the necessity of employing their own skill and valour; here they are -made to rely rather upon divine intervention. Fantastic apparitions of -angelic and supernatural beings, gorgeously arrayed and mostly upon -horseback, are frequently introduced. In general, the views reflected in -the book are those of the Pharisees. The ungodly will be punished -mercilessly, and in exact correspondence to their sins.[6] The -chastisements of erring Jews are of short duration, and intended to -recall them to duty. If the faithful suffer martyrdom, it is in order to -serve as an example to others, and they shall be compensated by being -raised up "unto an eternal renewal of life." The eschatology of 2 Macc. -is singularly advanced, for it combines the doctrine of a resurrection -with that of immortality. It is worthy of note that the Roman Church -finds support in this book for its teaching with reference to prayers -for the dead and purgatory (xii. 43 seq.). An allusion to Jeremiah as -"he who prayeth much for the people and the holy city" (xv. 14) it -likewise appeals to as favouring its views respecting the intercession -of the saints. - -Neither of Jason's work, nor of the epitomizer's, can the precise date -be determined. The changed relations with Rome (viii. 10, 36) prove, -however, that the latter was written later than 1 Macc.; and it is -equally clear that it was composed before the destruction of Jerusalem, -A.D. 70. - - The account given of the martyrs in chs. vi. and vii. led to frequent - allusions to this book in early patristic literature. Only Augustine, - however, was minded to give it the canonical rank to which it has been - raised by the Roman Church. Luther judged of it as unfavourably as he - judged of 1 Macc, favourably, and even "wished it had never existed." - -_3 Maccabees_, although purporting to be an historical narrative, is -really an animated, if somewhat vapid, piece of fiction written in Greek -somewhere between 100 B.C. and A.D. 70,[7] and apparently preserved only -in part.[8] It has no connexion with the Hasmonaeans, but is a story of -the deliverance experienced by the Egyptian Jews from impending -martyrdom at the hand of Ptolemy IV. Philopator, who reigned in the -century previous to the Maccabaean rising (222-205 B.C.). The title is -of later origin, and rendered possible only by the generalization of the -name Maccabee so as to embrace all who suffered for the ancestral faith. -Josephus refers the legend on which it is based to the time of Ptolemy -VII. Physcon (146-117 B.C.). Some scholars (Ewald, Reuss, Hausrath) -think that what the story really points to is the persecution under -Caligula, but in that case Ptolemy would naturally have been represented -as claiming divine honours. No other source informs us of a visit to -Jerusalem, or of a persecution of the Jews, on the part of Philopator. -Possibly, however, the story may be founded on some historical situation -regarding which we have no definite knowledge. The purpose of the writer -was evidently to cheer his Egyptian brethren during some persecution at -Alexandria. Although the book was favourably regarded in the Syrian, it -was apparently unknown to the Latin Church. Among the Jews it was -virtually ignored. - - Briefly, the tale is as follows:--After the battle of Raphia[9] (217 - B.C.), Ptolemy IV. Philopator insisted on entering the sanctuary at - Jerusalem, but was struck down by the Almighty in answer to the - prayers of the horrified Jews. On his return to Egypt he revenged - himself by curtailing the religious liberty of the Alexandrian Jews, - and by depriving of their civic rights all who refused to worship - Bacchus. Exasperated by their loyalty to their religion, the king - ordered all the Jews in Egypt to be imprisoned in the hippodrome of - Alexandria. Clerks were told off to prepare a list of the prisoners' - names, but after forty days constant toil they had exhausted their - writing materials without finishing their task. Ptolemy further - commanded that 500 elephants should be intoxicated and let loose upon - the occupants of the race-course. Only an accident prevented the - carrying out of this design; the king had slept until it was past the - time for his principal meal. On the following day, in virtue of a - divinely induced forgetfulness, Ptolemy recollected nothing but the - loyalty of the Jews to his throne. The same evening, nevertheless, he - repeated his order for their destruction. Accordingly, on the morning - of the third day, when the king attended to see his commands - executed, things had reached a crisis. The Jews prayed to the Lord for - mercy, and two angels appeared from heaven, to the confusion of the - royal troops, who were trampled down by the elephants. Ptolemy now - vented his wrath upon his counsellors, liberated the Jews, and feasted - them for seven days. They determined that these should be kept as - festal days henceforth in commemoration of their deliverance. The - provincial governors were enjoined to take the Jews under their - protection, and leave was given to the latter to slay those of their - kinsmen who had deserted the faith. They further celebrated their - deliverance at Ptolemais, where they built a synagogue, and they - reached their various abodes to find themselves not only reinstated in - their possessions, but raised in the esteem of the Egyptians. - -_4 Maccabees_ differs essentially from the other books of this name. -While it does not itself aim at being a history, it makes striking use -of Jewish history for purposes of edification. It bears, moreover, a -distinctly philosophical character, and takes the form of a "tractate" -or discourse, addressed to Jews only,[10] upon "the supremacy of pious -reason over the passions." [11] The material is well arranged and -systematically handled. In the prologue (i. 1-12) the writer explains -the aim and scope of his work. Then follows the first main division (i. -13-iii. 18), in which he treats philosophically the proposition that -reason is the mistress of the passions, inquiring what is meant by -"reason" and what by "passion," as well as how many kinds of passion -there are, and whether reason rules them all. The conclusion reached is -that with the exception of forgetfulness and ignorance all the -affections are under the lordship of reason, or at all events of _pious_ -reason. To follow the dictates of pious reason in opposition to natural -inclination is to have learned the secret of victory over the passions. -In the second part of the book (iii. 19-xviii. 5) the writer goes on to -prove his thesis from Jewish history, dwelling in particular upon the -noble stand made against the tyranny of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes by the -priest Eleazar, the seven brothers and their mother--all of whom chose -torture and death rather than apostatize from the faith. Finally he -appeals to his readers to emulate these acts of piety (xvii. 7-xviii. -24). In his gruesome descriptions of physical sufferings the author -offends against good taste even more than the writer of 2 Macc., while -both contrast very unfavourably in this respect with the sober reserve -of the gospel narratives. - -The book is written in a cultured, if somewhat rhetorical, Greek style, -and is unmistakably coloured by the Stoic philosophy. The four cardinal -virtues are represented as forms of wisdom, which again is inseparable -from the Mosaic law. That the writer owes no slavish adherence to any -philosophical system is plain from his independent treatment of the -affections. Although influenced by Hellenism, he is a loyal Jew, -earnestly desirous that all who profess the same faith should adhere to -it in spite of either Greek allurements or barbaric persecution. It is -not to reason as such, but only to pious reason (i.e. to reason -enlightened and controlled by the divine law), that he attributes -lordship over the passions. While in his zeal for legalism he virtually -adopts the standpoint of Pharisaism, he is at one with Jewish Hellenism -in substituting belief in the soul's immortality for the doctrine of a -bodily resurrection. - -The name of the author is unknown. He was, however, clearly a -Hellenistic Jew, probably resident in Alexandria or Asia Minor. In the -early Church the work was commonly ascribed to Josephus and incorporated -with his writings. But apart from the fact that it is found also in -several MSS. of the Septuagint, the language and style of the book are -incompatible with his authorship. So also is the circumstance that 2 -Macc., which forms the basis of 4 Macc., was unknown to Josephus. -Moreover, several unhistorical statements (such as, e.g. that Seleucus -was succeeded by his _son_ Antiochus Epiphanes, iv. 15) militate -against the view that Josephus was the author. The date of composition -cannot be definitely fixed. It is, however, safe to say that the book -must have been written later than 2 Macc., and (in view of the -acceptance it met with in the Christian Church) prior to the destruction -of Jerusalem. Most likely it is a product of the Herodian period. - -_5 Maccabees._ Writing in 1566 Sixtus Senensis mentions having seen at -Lyons a manuscript of a so-called "Fifth Book of Maccabees" in the -library of Santas Pagninus, which was soon afterwards destroyed by fire. -It began with the words: "After the murder of Simon, John his son became -high priest in his stead." Sixtus conjectures that it may have been a -Greek translation of the "chronicles" of John Hyrcanus, alluded to in 1 -Macc., xvi. 24. He acknowledges that it is a history of Hyrcanus -practically on the lines of Josephus, but concludes from its Hebraistic -style that it was not from that writer's pen. The probability, however, -is that it was "simply a reproduction of Josephus, the style being -changed perhaps for a purpose" (Schurer). - -The Arabic "Book of Maccabees" contained in the Paris and London -Polyglotts, and purporting to be a history of the Jews from the affair -of Heliodorus (186 B.C.) to the close of Herod's reign, is historically -worthless, being nothing but a compilation from 1 and 2 Macc. and -Josephus. In the one chapter (xii.) where the writer ventures to detach -himself from these works he commits glaring historical blunders. The -book was written in somewhat Hebraistic Greek subsequent to A.D. 70. In -Cotton's English translation of _The Five Books of Maccabees_ it is this -book that is reckoned the "Fifth." - - The best modern editions of the Greek text of the four books of - Maccabees are those of O. F. Fritzsche (1871) and H. B. Swete - (Cambridge Septuagint, vol. iii., 1894). C. J. Ball's _The Variorum - Apocrypha_ will be found specially useful by those who cannot - conveniently consult the Greek. The best modern commentary is that of - C. L. W. Grimm (1853-1857). C. F. Keil's commentary on 1 and 2 Macc. - is very largely indebted to Grimm. More recently there have appeared - commentaries by E. C. Bissell on 1, 2 and 3 Macc. in Lange-Schaff's - commentary, 1880--the whole Apocrypha being embraced in one volume, - and much of the material being transferred from Grimm; G. Rawlinson on - 1 and 2 Macc. in the _Speaker's Commentary_ 1888 (containing much - useful matter, but marred by too frequent inaccuracy); O. Zockler, on - 1, 2 and 3 Macc., 1891 (slight and unsatisfactory); W. Fairweather and - J. S. Black on 1 Macc. in the _Cambridge Bible for Schools_ (1897); E. - Kautzsch on 1 and 3 Macc., A. Kamphausen on 2 Macc. and A. Deissmann - on 4 Macc. in _Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des Alt. Test._, 1898 (a most - serviceable work for the student of apocryphal literature). Brief but - useful introductions to all the four books of Maccabees are given in - E. Schurer's _Geschichte des Judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu - Christi_ (3rd ed., 1898-1901; Eng. tr. of earlier edition, 1886-1890). - (W. F.*) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] [Greek: Sarbeth Sabanaiel] (Sarbeth Sabanaiel). No satisfactory - explanation of this title has yet been given from the Hebrew (see the - commentaries). The book may, however, have been known to Origen only - in an Aramaic translation, in which case, according to the happy - conjecture of Dalman (_Gramm._ 6) the two words may have represented - the Aramaic [Hebrew: sefer beit Hashmonai] ("book of the Hasmonaean - house"). - - [2] If the book is a unity, ch. xvi. 23 implies that it was written - after the death of Hyrcanus which occurred in 105 B.C. On the other - hand the friendly references to Rome in ch. viii. show that it must - have been written before the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 B.C. - - [3] Cf. ix. 22, xi. 37, xiv. 18, 27. - - [4] See especially Geiger, _Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel_, - 206 seq. - - [5] Prefixed to the book are two spurious letters from Palestinian - Jews (i., ii. 18), having no real connexion with it, or even with one - another, further than that they both urge Egyptian Jews to observe - the Feast of the Dedication. Between these and the main narrative is - inserted the writer's own preface, in which he explains the source - and aim of his work (ii. 19-32). - - [6] iv. 38. 42; v. 9 seq.; ix. 5-18. - - [7] The date of composition can be only approximately determined. As - the writer is acquainted with the Greek additions to Daniel (vi. 6), - the first century B.C. forms the superior limit; and as the book - found favour in the Eastern Church, the first century A.D. forms the - inferior limit. - - [8] Apart from its abrupt commencement, the references in i. 2 to - "the plot" as something already specified, and in ii. 25 to the - king's "before-mentioned" companions, of whom, however, nothing is - said in the previous section of the book, point to the loss of at - least an introductory chapter. - - [9] The statements with reference to the war between Antiochus the - Great and Ptolemy Philopator are in general agreement with those of - the classical historians, and to this extent the tale may be said to - have an historical setting. By Grimm (_Einl._ S 3), the observance of - the two yearly festivals (vi. 26; vii. 19), and the existence of the - synagogue at Ptolemais when the book was written, are viewed as the - witness of tradition to the fact of some great deliverance. Fritzsche - has well pointed out, however (art. "Makkabaer" in Schenkel's - _Bibel-Lexicon_) that in the hands of Jewish writers of the period - nearly every event of consequence has a festival attached to it. - - [10] Even if with Freudenthal we regard the work as a homily actually - delivered to a Jewish congregation--and there are difficulties in the - way of this theory, particularly the absence of a Biblical text--it - was clearly intended for publication. It is essentially a book in the - form of a discourse, whether it was ever orally delivered or not. So - Deissmann in Kautzsch, _Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des A. T._ ii. 151. - - [11] Hence the title sometimes given to it: [Greek: autokratoros - logismou] ("On the supremacy of reason"). It is also styled [Greek: - Makkabaion d', Makkabaikon, eis tous Makkabaious]. - - - - -MacCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE (1817-1882), Irish poet, was born in Dublin on -the 26th of May 1817, and educated there and at Maynooth. His earlier -verses appeared in _The Dublin Satirist_, and in 1843 he became a -regular contributor of political verse to the recently founded _Nation_. -He also took an active part in the Irish political associations. In 1846 -he edited _The Poets and Dramatists of Ireland_ and the _Book of Irish -Ballads_. His collected _Ballads, Poems and Lyrics_ (1850), including -translations from nearly all the modern languages, took immensely with -his countrymen on account of their patriotic ring. This was followed by -_The Bellfounder_ (1857), _Under-glimpses_ and other poems (1857) and -_The Early Life of Shelley_ (1871). In 1853 he began a number of -translations from the Spanish of Calderon's dramas, which won for him a -medal from the Royal Spanish Academy. He had already been granted a -civil list pension for his literary services. He died in Ireland on the -7th of April 1882. - - - - -M'CARTHY, JUSTIN (1830- ), Irish politician, historian and novelist, -was born in Cork on the 22nd of November 1830, and was educated at a -school in that town. He began his career as a journalist, at the age of -eighteen, in Cork. From 1853 to 1859 he was in Liverpool, on the staff -of the _Northern Daily Times_, during which period he married (in March -1855) Miss Charlotte Allman. In 1860 he removed to London, as -parliamentary reporter to the _Morning Star_, of which he became editor -in 1864. He gave up his post in 1868, and, after a lecturing tour in the -United States, joined the staff of the _Daily News_ as leader-writer in -1870. In this capacity he became one of the most useful and respected -upholders of the Liberal politics of the time. He lectured again in -America in 1870-1871, and again in 1886-1887. He represented Co. -Longford in Parliament as a Liberal and Home Ruler from 1879 to 1885; -North Longford, 1885-1886; Londonderry, 1886-1892; and North Longford -from 1892 to 1900. He was chairman of the Anti-Parnellites from the fall -of C. S. Parnell in 1890 until January 1896; but his Nationalism was of -a temperate and orderly kind, and though his personal distinction -singled him out for the chairmanship during the party dissensions of -this period, he was in no active sense the political leader. His real -bent was towards literature. His earliest publications were novels, some -of which, such as _A Fair Saxon_ (1873), _Dear Lady Disdain_ (1875), -_Miss Misanthrope_ (1878), _Donna Quixote_ (1879), attained considerable -popularity. His most important work is his _History of Our Own Times_ -(vols. i.-iv., 1879-1880; vol. v., 1897), which treats of the period -between Queen Victoria's accession and her diamond jubilee. Easily and -delightfully written, and on the whole eminently sane and moderate, -these volumes form a brilliant piece of narrative from a Liberal -standpoint. He also began a _History of the Four Georges_ (1884-1901), -of which the latter half was written by his son, Justin Huntly M'Carthy -(b. 1860), himself the author of various clever novels, plays, poetical -pieces and short histories. Justin M'Carthy, amongst other works, wrote -biographies of Sir Robert Peel (1891), Pope Leo XIII. (1896) and W. E. -Gladstone (1898); _Modern England_ (1898); _The Reign of Queen Anne_ -(1902) and _Reminiscences_ (2 vols., 1899). - - - - -McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY (1813-1843), Scottish divine, was born at -Edinburgh on the 21st of May 1813, was educated at the University and at -the Divinity Hall of his native city, and held pastorates at Larbert, -near Falkirk, and Dundee. A mission of inquiry among the Jews throughout -Europe and in Palestine, and a religious revival at his church in -Dundee, made him feel that he was being called to evangelistic rather -than to pastoral work, but before he could carry out his plans he died, -on the 25th of March 1843. McCheyne, though wielding remarkable -influence in his lifetime, was still more powerful afterwards, through -his _Memoirs and Remains_, edited by Andrew Bonar, which ran into far -over a hundred English editions. Some of his hymns, e.g. "When this -passing world is done," are well known. - - See his _Life_, by J. C. Smith (1910). - - - - -McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON (1826-1885), American soldier, was born in -Philadelphia on the 3rd of December 1826. After passing two years -(1840-1842) in the university of Pennsylvania, he entered the United -States military academy, from which he graduated with high honours in -July 1846. Sent as a lieutenant of engineers to the Mexican War, he took -part in the battles under General Scott, and by his gallantry won the -brevets of first-lieutenant at Contreras-Churubusco and captain at -Chapultepec; he was afterwards detailed as assistant-instructor at West -Point, and employed in explorations in the South-West and in Oregon. -Promoted in 1855 captain of cavalry, he served on a military commission -sent to Europe to study European armies and especially the war in the -Crimea. On his return he furnished an able and interesting report, -republished (1861) under the title of _Armies of Europe_. In 1856 he -designed a saddle, which was afterwards well known as the McClellan. -Resigning his commission in 1857, McClellan became successively chief -engineer and vice-president of the Illinois Central railroad -(1857-1860), general superintendent of the Mississippi & Ohio railroad, -and, a little later, president of the eastern branch of the same, with -his residence in Cincinnati. When the Civil War broke out he was, in -April 1861, made major-general of three months' militia by the governor -of Ohio; but General Scott's favour at Washington promoted him rapidly -(May 14) to the rank of major-general, U.S.A., in command of the -department of the Ohio. Pursuant to orders, on the 26th of May, -McClellan sent a small force across the Ohio river to Philippi, -dispersed the Confederates there early in June, and immensely aided the -Union cause in that region by rapid and brilliant military successes, -gained in the short space of eight days. These operations, though -comparatively trivial as the Civil War developed, brought great results, -in permanently dividing old Virginia by the creation of the state of -West Virginia, and in presenting the first sharp, short and wholly -successful campaign of the war. - -Soon after the first Bull Run disaster he was summoned to Washington, -and the Union hailed him as chieftain and preserver. Only thirty-four -years old, and with military fame and promotion premature and quite in -excess of positive experience, he reached the capital late in July and -assumed command there. At first all was deference and compliance with -his wishes. In November Scott retired that the young general might -control the operations of the whole Union army. McClellan proved himself -extraordinarily able as an organizer and trainer of soldiers. During the -autumn, winter and spring he created the famous Army of the Potomac, -which in victory and defeat retained to the end the impress of -McClellan's work. But he soon showed petulance towards the civil -authorities, from whom he came to differ concerning the political ends -in view; and he now found severe critics, who doubted his capacity for -directing an offensive war; but the government yielded to his plans for -an oblique, instead of a direct, movement upon Richmond and the opposing -army. At the moment of starting he was relieved as general-in-chief. By -the 5th of April a great army was safely transported to Fortress Monroe, -and other troops were sent later, though a large force was (much against -his will) retained to cover Washington. McClellan laid slow siege to -Yorktown, not breaking the thin line first opposed to him, but giving -Johnston full time to reinforce and then evacuate the position. -McClellan followed up the Confederate rearguard and approached Richmond, -using White House on the Pamunkey as a base of supplies; this entailed a -division of his forces on either bank of the Chickahominy. At Fair Oaks -(Seven Pines) was fought on the 31st of May a bloody battle, ending the -following day in a Confederate repulse. Johnston being severely wounded, -Lee came to command on the Southern side. After a pause in the -operations McClellan felt himself ready to attack at the moment when -Lee, leaving a bare handful of men in the Richmond lines, despatched -two-thirds of his entire force to the north of the Chickahominy to -strike McClellan's isolated right wing. McClellan himself made little -progress, and the troops beyond the Chickahominy were defeated after a -strenuous defence; whereupon McClellan planned, and during the -celebrated Seven Days' Battle triumphantly executed, a change of base to -the James river. But the result was strategically a failure, and General -Halleck, who was now general-in-chief, ordered the army to reinforce -General Pope in central Virginia. The order was obeyed reluctantly. - -Pope's disastrous defeats brought McClellan a new opportunity to -retrieve his fame. Again in command of the Army of the Potomac, he was -sent with all available forces to oppose Lee, who had crossed the -Potomac into Maryland early in September. McClellan advanced slowly and -carefully, reorganizing his army as he went. The battle of South -Mountain placed him in a position to attack Lee, and a few days later -was fought the great battle of Antietam, in which Lee was worsted. But -the Confederates safely recrossed the Potomac, and McClellan showed his -former faults in a tardy pursuit. On the eve of an aggressive movement, -which he was at last about to make, he was superseded by Burnside (Nov. -7). McClellan was never again ordered to active command, and the -political elements opposed to the general policy of Lincoln's -administration chose him as presidential candidate in 1864, on a -platform which denounced the war as a failure and proposed negotiating -with the South for peace. McClellan, while accepting his candidacy, -repudiated the platform, like a soldier and patriot. At the polls on the -8th of November Lincoln was triumphantly re-elected president. McClellan -had previously resigned his commission in the army, and soon afterwards -went to Europe, where he remained until 1868. Upon his return he took up -his residence in New York City, where (1868-1869) he was engaged in -superintending the construction of an experimental floating battery. In -1870-1872 he was engineer-in-chief of the city's department of docks. -With Orange, N.J., as his next principal residence, he became governor -of New Jersey (1878-1881). During his term he effected great reforms in -the administration of the state and in the militia. He was offered, but -declined, a second nomination. During his last years he made several -tours of Europe, visited the East, and wrote much for the magazines. He -also prepared monographs upon the Civil War, defending his own action. -He died suddenly of heart-disease on the 29th of October 1885 at Orange. - -McClellan was a clear and able writer and effective speaker; and his -_Own Story_, edited by a friend and published soon after his death, -discloses an honourable character, sensitive to reproach, and -conscientious, even morbidly so, in his patriotism. He carried himself -well in civil life and was of irreproachable private conduct. During the -Civil War, however, he was promoted too early and rapidly for his own -good, and the strong personal magnetism he inspired while so young -developed qualities injurious to a full measure of success and -usefulness, despite his great opportunities. The reasons for his final -displacement in 1862 were both civil and military, and the president had -been forbearing with him. As a soldier he possessed to an extraordinary -degree the enthusiastic affection of his men. With the army that he had -created the mere rumour of his presence was often a spur to the greatest -exertions. That he was slow, and perhaps too tender-hearted, in handling -armed masses for action may be admitted, and though admirable for -defensive war and a safe strategist, he showed himself unfitted to take -the highly essential initiative, both because of temperament and his -habitual exaggeration of obstacles and opposing numbers. But he met and -checked the armies of the Confederacy when they were at their best and -strongest, and his work laid the foundations of ultimate success. - -His son, GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN (b. 1865), graduated in 1886 at -Princeton (from which he received the degree of LL.D. in 1905), and -became a newspaper reporter and editor in New York City. He identified -himself with the Tammany Hall organization, and in 1889-1892 was -treasurer of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge under the city government. -In 1892 he was admitted to the bar, and was elected to the board of -aldermen, of which he was president in 1893 and 1894. In 1895-1903 he -was a Democratic representative in Congress; in 1903 he was elected -mayor of New York City on the Tammany ticket, defeating mayor Seth Low, -the "Fusion" candidate; and in 1905 he was re-elected for a four-year -term, defeating William M. Ivins (Republican) and William R. Hearst -(Independence League). He published _The Oligarchy of Venice_ (1904). - - Besides the report mentioned above, General McClellan wrote a _Bayonet - Exercise_ (1852); _Report on Pacific Railroad Surveys_ (1854); _Report - on the Organization, &c., of the Army of the Potomac_ (1864), a - government publication which he himself republished with the addition - of a memoir of the West Virginian campaign. He also wrote a series of - articles on the Russo-Turkish War for _The North American Review_. See - memoir prefaced to _McClellan's Own Story_, and Michie, _General - McClellan_ ("Great Commanders" series). - - - - -McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER (1812-1900), American soldier and lawyer, was -born in Breckinridge county, Kentucky, on the 30th of May 1812. He was -admitted to the bar in Shawneetown, Illinois, in 1832; in the same year -served as a volunteer in the Black Hawk War, and in 1835 founded the -_Shawneetown Democrat_, which he thereafter edited. As a Democrat he -served in 1836 and in 1840-1843 in the Illinois House of -Representatives, and in 1843-1851 and in 1859-1861 was a representative -in Congress, where in his first term he vigorously opposed the Wilmot -proviso, but in his second term was a strong Unionist and introduced the -resolution of the 15th of July 1861, pledging money and men to the -national government. He resigned from congress, raised in Illinois the -"McClernand Brigade," and was commissioned (May 17, 1861) -brigadier-general of volunteers. He was second in command at the battle -of Belmont (Missouri) in November 1861, and commanded the right wing at -Fort Donelson. On the 21st of March he became a major-general of -volunteers. At Shiloh he commanded a division, which was practically a -reserve to Sherman's. In October 1861 Stanton, secretary of war, -ordered him north to raise troops for the expedition against Vicksburg; -and early in January 1864, at Milliken's Bend, McClernand, who had been -placed in command of one of the four corps of Grant's army, superseded -Sherman as the leader of the force that was to move down the -Mississippi. On the 11th of January he took Arkansas Post. On the 17th, -Grant, after receiving the opinion of Admiral Foote and General Sherman -that McClernand was unfit, united a part of his own troops with those of -McClernand and assumed command in person, and three days later ordered -McClernand back to Milliken's Bend. During the rest of this Vicksburg -campaign there was much friction between McClernand and his colleagues; -he undoubtedly intrigued for the removal of Grant; it was Grant's -opinion that at Champion's Hill (May 16) he was dilatory; and because a -congratulatory order to his corps was published in the press (contrary -to an order of the department and another of Grant) he was relieved of -his command on the 18th of June, and was replaced by General E. O. C. -Ord. President Lincoln, who saw the importance of conciliating a leader -of the Illinois War-Democrats, restored him to his command in 1864, but -McClernand resigned in November of that year. He was district judge of -the Sangamon (Illinois) District in 1870-1873, and was president of the -National Democratic Convention in 1876. He died in Springfield, -Illinois, on the 20th of September 1900. - -His son, EDWARD JOHN MCCLERNAND (b. 1848), graduated at the U.S. -Military Academy in 1870. He served on the frontier against the Indians, -notably in the capture of Chief Joseph in October 1877, became -lieutenant-colonel and assistant adjutant-general of volunteers in 1898, -and served in Cuba in 1898-99. He was then ordered to the Philippines, -where he commanded various districts, and from April 1900 to May 1901, -when he was mustered out of the volunteer service, was acting military -governor. - - - - -MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1618-1694), eldest son -of Sir Charles Gerard, was a member of an old Lancashire family, his -great-grandfather having been Sir Gilbert Gerard (d. 1593) of Ince, in -that county, one of the most distinguished judges in the reign of -Elizabeth. His mother was Penelope Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire. -Charles Gerard was educated abroad, and in the Low Countries learnt -soldiering, in which he showed himself proficient when on the outbreak -of the Civil War in England he raised a troop of horse for the king's -service. Gerard commanded a brigade with distinction at Edgehill, and -gained further honours at the first battle of Newbury and at Newark in -1644, for which service he was appointed to the chief command in South -Wales. Here his operations in 1644 and 1645 were completely successful -in reducing the Parliamentarians to subjection; but the severity with -which he ravaged the country made him personally so unpopular that when, -after the defeat at Naseby in June 1645, the king endeavoured to raise -fresh forces in Wales, he was compelled to remove Gerard from the local -command. Gerard was, however, retained in command of the king's guard -during Charles's march from Wales to Oxford, and thence to Hereford and -Chester in August 1645; and having been severely wounded at Rowton Heath -on the 23rd of September, he reached Newark with Charles on the 4th of -October. On the 8th of November 1645 he was created Baron Gerard of -Brandon in the county of Suffolk; but about the same time he appears to -have forfeited Charles's favour by having attached himself to the party -of Prince Rupert, with whom after the surrender of Oxford Gerard -probably went abroad. He remained on the Continent throughout the whole -period of the Commonwealth, sometimes in personal attendance on Charles -II., at others serving in the wars under Turenne, and constantly engaged -in plots and intrigues. For one of these, an alleged design on the life -of Cromwell, his cousin Colonel John Gerard was executed in the Tower in -July 1654. At the Restoration Gerard rode at the head of the king's -life-guards in his triumphal entry into London; his forfeited estates -were restored, and he received lucrative offices and pensions. In 1668 -he retired from the command of the king's guard to make room for the -duke of Monmouth, receiving, according to Pepys, the sum of L12,000 as -solatium. On the 23rd of July 1679 Gerard was created earl of -Macclesfield and Viscount Brandon. A few months later he entered into -relations with Monmouth, and co-operated with Shaftesbury in protesting -against the rejection of the Exclusion Bill. In September 1685, a -proclamation having been issued for his arrest, Macclesfield escaped -abroad, and was outlawed. He returned with William of Orange in 1688, -and commanded his body-guard in the march from Devonshire to London. By -William he was made a privy councillor, and lord lieutenant of Wales and -three western counties. Macclesfield died on the 7th of January 1694. By -his French wife he left two sons and two daughters. - -His eldest son CHARLES, 2nd earl of Macclesfield (c. 1659-1701), was -born in France and was naturalized in England by act of parliament in -1677. Like his father he was concerned in the intrigues of the duke of -Monmouth; in 1685 he was sentenced to death for being a party to the Rye -House plot, but was pardoned by the king. In 1689 he was elected member -of parliament for Lancashire, which he represented till 1694, when he -succeeded to his father's peerage. Having become a major-general in the -same year, Macclesfield saw some service abroad; and in 1701 he was -selected first commissioner for the investiture of the elector of -Hanover (afterwards King George I.) with the order of the Garter, on -which occasion he also was charged to present a copy of the Act of -Settlement to the dowager electress Sophia. He died on the 5th of -November 1701, leaving no legitimate children. - -In March 1698 Macclesfield was divorced from his wife Anna, daughter of -Sir Richard Mason of Sutton, by act of parliament, the first occasion on -which a divorce was so granted without a previous decree of an -ecclesiastical court. The countess was the mother of two children, who -were known by the name of Savage, and whose reputed father was Richard -Savage, 4th Earl Rivers (d. 1712). The poet Richard Savage (q.v.) -claimed that he was the younger of these children. The divorced countess -married Colonel Henry Brett about the year 1700, and died at the age of -eighty-five in 1753. Her daughter Anna Margaretta Brett was a mistress -of George I. The 2nd earl of Macclesfield was succeeded by his brother -Fitton Gerard, 3rd earl (c. 1665-1702), on whose death without heirs -the title became extinct in December 1702. - -In 1721 the title of earl of Macclesfield was revived in favour of -THOMAS PARKER (c. 1666-1732). The son of Thomas Parker, an attorney at -Leek, young Parker was a student at Trinity College, Cambridge, and -became a barrister in 1691. In 1705 he was elected member of parliament -for Derby, and having gained some reputation in his profession, he took -a leading part in the proceedings against Sacheverell in 1710. In the -same year he was appointed lord chief justice of the queen's bench, but -he refused to become lord chancellor in the following year; however he -accepted this office in 1718, two years after he had been made Baron -Parker of Macclesfield by George I., who held him in high esteem. In -1721 he was created Viscount Parker and earl of Macclesfield, but when -serious charges of corruption were brought against him he resigned his -position as lord chancellor in 1725. In the same year Macclesfield was -impeached, and although he made a very able defence he was found guilty -by the House of Lords. His sentence was a fine of L30,000 and -imprisonment until this was paid. He was confined in the Tower of London -for six weeks, and after his release he took no further part in public -affairs. The earl, who built a grammar school at Leek, died in London on -the 28th of April 1732. - -Macclesfield's only son, GEORGE, (c. 1697-1764) 2nd earl of Macclesfield -of this line, was celebrated as an astronomer. As Viscount Parker he was -member of parliament for Wallingford from 1722 to 1727, but his -interests were not in politics. In 1722 he became a fellow of the Royal -Society, and he spent most of his time in astronomical observations at -his Oxfordshire seat, Shirburn Castle, which had been bought by his -father in 1716; here he built an observatory and a chemical laboratory. -The earl was very prominent in effecting the change from the old to the -new style of dates, which came into operation in 1752. His action in -this matter, however, was somewhat unpopular, as the opinion was fairly -general that he had robbed the people of eleven days. From 1752 until -his death on the 17th of March 1764 Macclesfield was president of the -Royal Society, and he made some observations on the great earthquake of -1755. His successor was his son Thomas (1723-1795), from whom the -present earl is descended. - - For the earls of the Gerard family see Lord Clarendon, _History of the - Rebellion_, ed. by W. D. Macray; E. B. G. Warburton, _Memoirs of - Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers_ (3 vols., 1849); _State Papers of - John Thurloe_ (7 vols., 1742); J. R. Phillips, _Memoirs of the Civil - War in Wales and the Marches, 1642-49_ (2 vols., 1874); and the duke - of Manchester, _Court and Society from Elizabeth to Anne_ (2 vols., - 1864). For Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, see Lord Campbell, _Lives of - the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal_ (1845-1869). - - - - -MACCLESFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in the Macclesfield -parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 166 m. N.W. by N. of -London, on the London & North-Western, North Staffordshire and Great -Central railways. Pop. (1901), 34,624. It lies on and above the small -river Bollin, the valley of which is flanked by high ground to east and -west, the eastern hills rising sharply to heights above 1000 ft. The -bleak upland country retains its ancient name of Macclesfield Forest. -The church of St Michael, standing high, was founded by Eleanor, queen -of Edward I., in 1278, and in 1740 was partly rebuilt and greatly -enlarged. The lofty steeple by which its massive tower was formerly -surmounted was battered down by the Parliamentary forces during the -Civil War. Connected with the Church there are two chapels, one of -which, Rivers Chapel, belonged to a college of secular priests founded -in 1501 by Thomas Savage, afterwards archbishop of York. Both the church -and chapels contain several ancient monuments. The free grammar school, -originally founded in 1502 by Sir John Percival, was refounded in 1552 -by Edward VI., and a commercial school was erected in 1840 out of its -funds. The county lunatic asylum is situated here. The town-hall is a -handsome modern building with a Grecian frontage on two sides. -Originally the trade of Macclesfield was principally in twist and silk -buttons, but this has developed into the manufacture of all kinds of -silk. Besides this staple trade, there are various textile manufactures -and extensive breweries; while stone and slate quarries, as well as -coal-mines, are worked in the neighbourhood. Recreation grounds include -Victoria Park and Peel Park, in which are preserved the old market cross -and stocks. Water communication is provided by the Macclesfield canal. -The borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 3214 -acres. The populous suburb of SUTTON, extending S.S.E. of the town, is -partly included in the borough. - -Previous to the Conquest, Macclesfield (Makesfeld, Mackerfeld, -Macclesfeld, Meulefeld, Maxfield) was held by Edwin, earl of Mercia, and -at the time of the Domesday Survey it formed a part of the lands of the -earl of Chester. The entry speaks of seven hedged enclosures, and there -is evidence of fortification in the 13th century, to which the names -Jordangate, Chestergate and Wallgate still bear witness. In the 15th -century Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, had a fortified manor-house -here, traces of which remain. There is a tradition, supported by a -reference on a plea roll, that Randle, earl of Chester (1181-1232) made -Macclesfield a free borough, but the earliest charter extant is that -granted by Edward, prince of Wales and earl of Chester, in 1261, -constituting Macclesfield a free borough with a merchant gild, and -according certain privileges in the royal forest of Macclesfield to the -burgesses. This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in 1334, by Richard -II. in 1389, by Edward IV. in 1466 and by Elizabeth in 1564. In 1595 -Elizabeth issued a new charter to the town, confirmed by James I. in -1605 and Charles II. in 1666, laying down a formal borough constitution -under a mayor, 2 aldermen, 24 capital burgesses and a high steward. In -1684 Charles II. issued a new charter, under which the borough was -governed until the Municipal Reform Act 1835. The earliest mention of a -market is in a grant by James I. to Charles, prince of Wales and earl of -Chester, in 1617. In the charter of 1666 a market is included among the -privileges confirmed to the borough as those which had been granted in -1605, or by any previous kings and queens of England. The charter of -Elizabeth in 1595 granted an annual fair in June, and this was -supplemented by Charles II. in 1684 by a grant of fairs in April and -September. Except during the three winter months fairs are now held -monthly, the chief being "Barnaby" in June, when the town keeps a week's -holiday. Macclesfield borough sent two members to parliament in 1832 for -the first time. In 1880 it was disfranchised for bribery, and in 1885 -the borough was merged in the county division of Macclesfield. The -manufacture of silk-covered buttons began in the 16th century, and -flourished until the early 18th. The first silk mill was erected about -1755, and silk manufacture on a large scale was introduced about 1790. -The manufacture of cotton began in Macclesfield about 1785. - - See J. Corry, _History of Macclesfield_ (1817). - - - - -M'CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD (1819-1907), British naval officer and -Arctic explorer, was born at Dundalk, Ireland, on the 8th of July 1819, -of a family of Scottish origin. In 1831 he entered the royal navy, -joining the "Samarang" frigate, Captain Charles Paget. In 1843 he passed -his examination for lieutenancy and joined the "Gorgon" steamship, -Captain Charles Hotham, which was driven ashore at Montevideo and -salved, a feat of seamanship on the part of her captain and officers -which attracted much attention. Hitherto, and until 1847, M'Clintock's -service was almost wholly on the American coasts, but in 1848 he joined -the Arctic expedition under Sir James Ross in search of Sir John -Franklin's ships, as second lieutenant of the "Enterprise." In the -second search expedition (1850) he was first lieutenant of the -"Assistance," and in the third (1854) he commanded the "Intrepid." On -all these expeditions M'Clintock carried out brilliant sleigh journeys, -and gained recognition as one of the highest authorities on Arctic -travel. The direction which the search should follow had at last been -learnt from the Eskimo, and M'Clintock accepted the command of the -expedition on board the "Fox," fitted out by Lady Franklin in 1857, -which succeeded in its object in 1859 (see FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN). For this -expedition M'Clintock had obtained leave of absence, but the time -occupied was afterwards counted in his service. He was knighted and -received many other honours on his return. Active service now occupied -him in various tasks, including the important one of sounding in the -north Atlantic, in connexion with a scheme for a north Atlantic cable -route, until 1868. In that year he became naval aide-de-camp to Queen -Victoria. In 1865 he had been elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He -unsuccessfully contested a seat in parliament for the borough of -Drogheda, where he made the acquaintance of Annette Elizabeth, daughter -of R. F. Dunlop of Monasterboice; he married her in 1870. He became -vice-admiral in 1877, and commander-in-chief on the West Indian and -North American station in 1879. In 1882 he was elected an Elder Brother -of Trinity House, and served actively in that capacity. In 1891 he was -created K.C.B. He was one of the principal advisers in the preparations -for the Antarctic voyage of the "Discovery" under Captain Scott. His -book, _The Voyage of the "Fox" in the Arctic Seas_, was first published -in 1859, and passed through several editions. He died on the 17th of -November 1907. - - See Sir C. R. Markham, _Life of Admiral Sir Leopold M'Clintock_ - (1909). - - - - -McCLINTOCK, JOHN (1814-1870), American Methodist Episcopal theologian -and educationalist, was born in Philadelphia on the 27th of October -1814. He graduated at the university of Pennsylvania in 1835, and was -assistant professor of mathematics (1836-1837), professor of mathematics -(1837-1840), and professor of Latin and Greek (1840-1848) in Dickinson -College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He opposed the Mexican War and slavery, -and in 1847 was arrested on the charge of instigating a riot, which -resulted in the rescue of several fugitive slaves; his trial, in which -he was acquitted, attracted wide attention. In 1848-1856 he edited _The -Methodist Quarterly Review_ (after 1885 _The Methodist Review_); from -1857 to 1860 he was pastor of St Paul's (Methodist Episcopal) Church, -New York City; and in 1860-1864 he had charge of the American chapel in -Paris, and there and in London did much to turn public opinion in favour -of the Northern States. In 1865-1866 he was chairman of the central -committee for the celebration of the centenary of American Methodism. He -retired from the regular ministry in 1865, but preached in New -Brunswick, New Jersey, until the spring of 1867, and in that year, at -the wish of its founder, Daniel Drew, became president of the newly -established Drew theological seminary at Madison, New Jersey, where he -died on the 4th of March 1870. A great preacher, orator and teacher, and -a remarkably versatile scholar, McClintock by his editorial and -educational work probably did more than any other man to raise the -intellectual tone of American Methodism, and, particularly, of the -American Methodist clergy. He introduced to his denomination the -scholarly methods of the new German theology of the day--not alone by -his translation with Charles E. Blumenthal of Neander's _Life of Christ_ -(1847), and of Bungener's _History of the Council of Trent_ (1855), but -by his great project, McClintock and Strong's _Cyclopaedia of Biblical, -Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature_ (10 vols., 1867-1881; -Supplement, 2 vols., 1885-1887), in the editing of which he was -associated with Dr James Strong (1822-1894), professor of exegetical -theology in the Drew Theological Seminary from 1868 to 1893, and the -sole editor of the last six volumes of the _Cyclopaedia_ and of the -supplement. With George Richard Crooks (1822-1897), his colleague at -Dickinson College and in 1880-1897 professor of historical theology at -Drew Seminary, McClintock edited several elementary textbooks in Latin -and Greek (of which some were republished in Spanish), based on the -pedagogical principle of "imitation and constant repetition." Among -McClintock's other publications are: _Sketches of Eminent Methodist -Ministers_ (1863); an edition of Richard Watson's _Theological -Institutes_ (1851); and _The Life and Letters of Rev. Stephen Olin_ -(1854). - - See G. R. Crooks, _Life and Letters of the Rev. Dr John McClintock_ - (New York, 1876). - - - - -McCLOSKEY, JOHN (1810-1885), American cardinal, was born in Brooklyn, -New York, on the 20th of March 1810. He graduated at Mt St Mary's -College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, in 1827, studied theology there, was -ordained a priest in 1834, and in 1837, after two years in the college -of the Propaganda at Rome, became rector of St Joseph's, New York City, -a charge to which he returned in 1842 after one year's presidency of St -John's College (afterwards Fordham University), Fordham, New York, then -just opened. In 1844 he was consecrated bishop of Axieren _in partibus_, -and was made coadjutor to Bishop Hughes of New York with the right of -succession; in 1847 he became bishop of the newly created see of Albany; -and in 1864 he succeeded to the archdiocese of New York, then including -New York, New Jersey, and New England. In April 1875 he was invested as -a cardinal, with the title of Sancta Maria supra Minervam, being the -first American citizen to receive this dignity. He attended the conclave -of 1878, but was too late to vote for the new pope. In May 1879 he -dedicated St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City, whose corner-stone -had been laid by Archbishop Hughes in 1858. Archbishop Corrigan became -his coadjutor in 1880 because of the failure of McCloskey's always -delicate health. The fiftieth anniversary of his ordination to the -priesthood was celebrated in 1884. He died in New York City on the 10th -of October 1885. He was a scholar, a preacher, and a man of affairs, -temperamentally quiet and dignified; and his administration differed -radically from that of Archbishop Hughes; he was conciliatory rather -than polemic and controversial, and not only built up the Roman Catholic -Church materially, but greatly changed the tone of public opinion in his -diocese toward the Church. - - - - -M'CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER (1807-1873), English Arctic -explorer, born at Wexford, in Ireland, on the 28th of January 1807, was -the posthumous son of one of Abercrombie's captains and spent his -childhood under the care of his godfather, General Le Mesurier, governor -of Alderney, by whom he was educated for the army. He entered the navy, -however, in 1824, and twelve years later gained his first experience of -Arctic exploration as mate of the "Terror" in the expedition (1836-1837) -commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) George Back. On his return he -obtained his commission as lieutenant, and from 1838 to 1839 served on -the Canadian lakes, being subsequently attached to the North American -and West Indian naval stations, where he remained till 1846. Two years -later he joined the Franklin search expedition (1848-1849) under Sir J. -C. Ross as first lieutenant of the "Enterprise," and on the return of -this expedition was given the command of the "Investigator" in the new -search expedition (1850-1854) which was sent out by way of Bering Strait -to co-operate with another from the north-west. In the course of this -voyage he achieved the distinction of completing (1830) the work -connected with the discovery of a North-West Passage (see Polar -Regions). On his return to England, M'Clure was awarded gold medals by -the English and French geographical societies, was knighted and promoted -to post-rank, his commission being dated back four years in recognition -of his special services. From 1856 to 1861 he served in Eastern waters, -commanding the division of the naval brigade before Canton in 1858, for -which he received a C.B. in the following year. His latter years were -spent in a quiet country life; he attained the rank of rear-admiral in -1867, and of vice-admiral in 1873. - - See Admiral Sherard Osborn, _The Discovery of a North-West Passage_ - (1856). - - - - -MacCOLL, MALCOLM (c. 1838-1907), British clergyman and publicist, was -the son of a Scottish farmer. He was educated at Trinity College, -Glenalmond, for the Scotch Episcopal ministry, and after further study -at the university of Naples was ordained in 1859, and entered on a -succession of curacies in the Church of England, in London and at -Addington, Bucks. He quickly became known as a political and -ecclesiastical controversialist, wielding an active pen in support of W. -E. Gladstone, who rewarded him with the living of St George's, Botolph -Lane, in 1871, and with a canonry of Ripon in 1884. The living was -practically a sinecure, and he devoted himself to political -pamphleteering and newspaper correspondence, the result of extensive -European travel, a wide acquaintance with the leading personages of the -day, strong views on ecclesiastical subjects from a high-church -standpoint, and particularly on the politics of the Eastern Question and -Mahommedanism. He took a leading part in ventilating the Bulgarian and -Armenian "atrocities," and his combative personality was constantly to -the fore in support of the campaigns of Gladstonian Liberalism. He died -in London on the 5th of April 1907. - - - - -McCOMBIE, WILLIAM (1805-1880), Scottish agriculturist, was born at -Tillyfour, Aberdeenshire, where he founded the herd of black-polled -cattle with which his name is associated. He was the first tenant farmer -to represent a Scottish constituency, and was returned to parliament, -unopposed, as Liberal member for the western division of Aberdeen in -1868. He died unmarried in February 1880. His work _Cattle and -Cattle-breeders_ (1867) passed into a fourth edition in 1886. - - - - -McCOOK, ALEXANDER McDOWELL (1831-1903), American soldier, was born in -Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 22nd of April 1831. He graduated at the -U. S. military academy in 1852, served against the Apaches and Utes in -New Mexico in 1853-57, was assistant instructor of infantry tactics at -the military academy in 1858-1861, and in April 1861 became colonel of -the 1st Ohio Volunteers. He served in the first battle of Bull Run; -commanded a brigade in Kentucky in the winter of 1861, a division in -Tennessee and Mississippi early in 1862, and the 1st Corps in Kentucky -in October of the same year; was in command of Nashville in November and -December of that year; and was then engaged in Tennessee until after the -battle of Chickamauga, after which he saw no active service at the front -during the Civil War. He was promoted to be brigadier-general of -volunteers in September 1861, and to be major-general of volunteers in -July 1862, earned the brevet of lieutenant-colonel in the regular army -at the capture of Nashville, Tennessee, that of colonel at Shiloh, and -that of brigadier-general at Perryville, and in March 1865 was breveted -major-general for his services during the war. In February-May 1865 he -commanded the district of Eastern Arkansas. He resigned from the -volunteer service in October 1865, was commissioned lieutenant-colonel -of the 26th Infantry in March 1867, served in Texas, mostly in garrison -duty, until 1874, and in 1886-1890 (except for brief terms of absence) -commanded Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and the infantry and cavalry school -there. He became a brigadier-general in 1890, and a major-general in -1894; retired in 1895; and in 1898-1899 served on a commission to -investigate the United States department of war as administered during -the war with Spain. - -His father, DANIEL MCCOOK (1798-1863), killed at Buffington's Island -during General John H. Morgan's raid in Ohio, and seven of his eight -brothers (three of whom were killed in battle) all served in the Civil -War; this family and that of John McCook (1806-1865), Daniel's brother, -a physician, who served as a volunteer surgeon in the Civil War, are -known as the "fighting McCooks"--four of John's sons served in the Union -army and one in the Union navy. - -JOHN JAMES MCCOOK (b. 1845), the youngest brother of Alexander McDowell -McCook, served in the West and afterwards in the army of the Potomac, -was wounded at Shady Grove, Virginia, in 1864, and in 1865 was breveted -lieutenant-colonel of volunteers; he graduated at Kenyon College in -1866, subsequently practised law in New York City, where he became head -of the firm Alexander & Green; was a prominent member of the -Presbyterian Church, and was a member of the prosecuting committee in -the Briggs heresy trial in 1892-1893. - -His cousin, ANSON GEORGE MCCOOK (b. 1835), a son of John, was admitted -to the Ohio bar in 1861, served throughout the Civil War in the Union -Army, and was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers; he was a -Republican representative in Congress from New York in 1877-1883; and in -1884-1893 was secretary of the United States Senate. - -Another son of John McCook, EDWARD MOODY MCCOOK (1833-1909), was an -efficient cavalry officer in the Union army, was breveted -brigadier-general in the regular army and major-general of volunteers in -1865, was United States minister to Hawaii in 1866-1869, and was -governor of Colorado Territory in 1869-1873, and in 1874-1875. - -His brother, HENRY CHRISTOPHER MCCOOK (b. 1837), was first lieutenant -and afterwards chaplain of the 41st Illinois, was long pastor of the -Tabernacle Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, and was president of the -American Presbyterian Historical Society, but is best known for his -popular and excellent works on entomology, which include: _The -Mound-making Ants of the Alleghanies_ (1877); _The Natural History of -the Agricultural Ants of Texas_ (1879); _Tenants of an Old Farm_ (1884); -_American Spiders and their Spinning-work_ (3 vols., 1889-1893), -_Nature's Craftsmen_ (1907) and _Ant Communities_ (1909). - -Another brother, JOHN JAMES MCCOOK (b. 1843), a cousin of the lawyer of -the same name, was a 2nd lieutenant of volunteers in the Union army in -1861; graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, in 1863, and -at the Berkeley divinity school in 1866; entered the Protestant -Episcopal ministry in 1867, and in 1869 became rector of St John's, East -Hartford, Connecticut; became professor of modern languages in Trinity -College, Hartford, in 1883; in 1895-1897 was president of the board of -directors of the Connecticut reformatory; and wrote on prison reform and -kindred topics. - - - - -MacCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1836-1901), Irish surgeon, was born at -Belfast on the 17th of January 1836, being the son of Dr Henry -MacCormac. He studied medicine and surgery at Belfast, Dublin and Paris, -and graduated in arts, medicine and surgery at the Queen's University of -Ireland, in which he afterwards became an examiner in surgery. He began -practice in Belfast, where he became surgeon to the General Hospital, -but left it for London on his marriage in 1861 to Miss Katherine M. -Charters. In the Franco-German War of 1870 he was surgeon-in-chief to -the Anglo-American Ambulance, and was present at Sedan; and he also -went through the Turco-Servian War of 1876. He became in this way an -authority on gun-shot wounds, and besides being highly successful as a -surgeon was very popular in society, his magnificent physique and Irish -temperament making him a notable and attractive personality. In 1881 he -was appointed assistant-surgeon at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and for -twenty years continued his work there as surgeon, lecturer and -consulting surgeon. In 1881 he acted as honorary secretary-general of -the International Medical Congress in London, and was knighted for his -services. In 1883 he was elected member of the council of the College of -Surgeons, and in 1887 a member of the court of examiners; in 1893 he -delivered the Bradshaw lecture, and in 1896 was elected president, being -re-elected to this office in 1897, 1898, 1899, and 1900 (the centenary -year of the college), an unprecedented record. In 1897 he was created a -baronet, and appointed surgeon-in-ordinary to the prince of Wales. In -1899 he was Hunterian Orator. In the same year he volunteered to go out -to South Africa as consulting surgeon to the forces, and from November -1899 to April 1900 he saw much active service both in Cape Colony and -Natal, his assistance being cordially acknowledged on his return. In -1901 he was appointed honorary serjeant-surgeon to the king. But during -1898 he had suffered from a prolonged illness, and he had perhaps put -too much strain on his strength, for on the 4th of December 1901 he died -somewhat suddenly at Bath. Besides treatises on _Surgical Operations_ -and _Antiseptic Surgery_, and numerous contributions to the medical -journals, MacCormac was the author of _Work under the Red Cross_ and of -an interesting volume commemorating the centenary of the Royal College -of Surgeons in 1900. The latter contains biographical notices of all the -masters and presidents up to that date. - - - - -McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL (1809-1884), American inventor of grain-harvesting -machinery, was born at Walnut Grove, in what is now Roane county, W. -Va., U.S.A., on the 15th of February 1809. His father was a farmer who -had invented numerous labour-saving devices for farmwork, but after -repeated efforts had failed in his attempts to construct a successful -grain-cutting machine. In 1831, Cyrus, then twenty-two years old, took -up the problem, and after careful study constructed a machine which was -successfully employed in the late harvest of 1831 and patented in 1834. -The McCormick reaper after further improvements proved a complete -success; and in 1847 the inventor removed to Chicago, where he -established large works for manufacturing his agricultural machines. -William H. Seward has said of McCormick's invention, that owing to it -"the line of civilization moves westward thirty miles each year." -Numerous prizes and medals were awarded for his reaper, and he was -elected a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, "as -having done more for the cause of agriculture than any other living -man." He died in Chicago on the 13th of May 1884. - - See Herbert N. Casson, _Cyrus Hall McCormick: his Life and Work_ - (Chicago, 1909). - - - - -McCOSH, JAMES (1811-1894), Scottish philosophical writer, was born of a -Covenanting family in Ayrshire, on the 1st of April 1811. He studied at -Glasgow and Edinburgh, receiving at the latter university his M.A., at -the suggestion of Sir William Hamilton, for an essay on the Stoic -philosophy. He became a minister of the Established Church of Scotland, -first at Arbroath and then at Brechin, and took part in the Free Church -movement of 1843. In 1852 he was appointed professor of logic and -metaphysics in Queen's College, Belfast; and in 1868 was chosen -president and professor of philosophy of the college of New Jersey, at -Princeton. He resigned the presidency in 1888, but continued as lecturer -on philosophy till his death on the 16th of November 1894. He was most -successful in college administration, a good lecturer and an effective -preacher. His general philosophical attitude and method were -Hamiltonian; he insisted on severing religious and philosophical data -from merely physical, and though he added little to original thought, he -clearly restated and vigorously used the conclusions of others. In his -controversial writings he often failed to understand the real -significance of the views which he attacked, and much of his criticism -is superficial. - - His chief works are: _Method of Divine Government, Physical and Moral_ - (Edinburgh, 1850, 5th ed., 1856, and frequently republished in New - York); _The Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation_ (Edinburgh, - 1855; new editions, New York, 1867-1880); _Intuitions of the Mind - inductively investigated_ (London and New York, 1860; 3rd rev. ed., - 1872); _An Examination of Mr J. S. Mill's Philosophy_ (London and New - York, 1866; enlarged 1871, several eds.); _Philosophical Papers_ - containing (1) "Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Logic," (2) "Reply to - Mr Mill's third edition," and (3) "Present State of Moral Philosophy - in Britain;" _Religious Aspects of Evolution_ (New York, 1888, 2nd - ed., 1890). For a complete list of his writings see J. H. Dulles, - _McCosh Bibliography_ (Princeton, 1895). - - - - -McCOY, SIR FREDERICK (1823-1899), British palaeontologist, the son of Dr -Simon McCoy, was born in Dublin in 1823, and was educated in that city -for the medical profession. His interests, however, became early centred -in natural history, and especially in geology, and at the age of -eighteen he published a _Catalogue of Organic Remains_ compiled from -specimens exhibited in the Rotunda at Dublin (1841). He assisted Sir R. -J. Griffith (q.v.) by studying the fossils of the carboniferous and -silurian rocks of Ireland, and they prepared a joint _Synopsis of the -Silurian Fossils of Ireland_ (1846). In 1846 Sedgwick secured his -services, and for at least four years he devoted himself to the -determination and arrangement of the fossils in the Woodwardian Museum -at Cambridge. Sedgwick wrote of him as "an excellent naturalist, an -incomparable and most philosophical palaeontologist, and one of the -steadiest and quickest workmen that ever undertook the arrangement of a -museum" (_Life and Letters of Sedgwick_, ii. 194). Together they -prepared the important and now classic work entitled _A Synopsis of the -Classification of the British Palaeozoic Rocks, with a Systematic -Description of the British Palaeozoic Fossils in the Geological Museum -of the University of Cambridge_ (1855). Meanwhile McCoy in 1850 had been -appointed professor of geology in Queen's College, Belfast, and in 1854 -he accepted the newly founded professorship of natural science in the -university of Melbourne. There he lectured for upwards of thirty years; -he established the National Museum of Natural History and Geology in -Melbourne, of which he was director; and becoming associated with the -geological survey of Victoria as palaeontologist, he issued a series of -decades entitled _Prodromus of the Palaeontology of Victoria_. He also -issued the _Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria_. To local societies he -contributed many papers, and he continued his active scientific work for -fifty-eight years--his last contribution, "Note on a new Australian -Pterygotus," being printed in the _Geological Magazine_ for May 1899. He -was elected F.R.S. in 1880, and was one of the first to receive the Hon. -D.Sc. from the university of Cambridge. In 1886 he was made C.M.G., and -in 1891 K.C.M.G. He died in Melbourne on the 16th of May 1899. - - Obituary (with bibliography) in _Geol. Mag._ 1899, p. 283. - - - - -M'CRIE, THOMAS (1772-1835), Scottish historian and divine, was born at -Duns in Berwickshire in November 1772. He studied in Edinburgh -University, and in 1796 he was ordained minister of the Second Associate -Congregation, Edinburgh. In 1806, however, with some others M'Crie -seceded from the "general associate synod," and formed the -"constitutional associate presbytery," afterwards merged in the -"original seceders." He was consequently deposed by the associate synod, -and his congregation withdrew with him and built another place of -worship in which he officiated until his death. M'Crie devoted himself -to investigations into the history, constitution and polity of the -churches of the Reformation; and the first-fruits of his study were -given to the public in November 1811 as _The Life of John Knox, -containing Illustrations of the History of the Reformation in Scotland_, -which procured for the author the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh -University, an honour conferred then for the first time upon a Scottish -dissenting minister. This work, of great learning and value, exercised -an important influence on public opinion at the time. At the -solicitation of his friend Andrew Thomson, M'Crie became a contributor -to _The Edinburgh Christian Instructor_, and in 1817 he subjected some -of Sir W. Scott's works to a criticism which took the form of a -vindication of the Covenanters. Preserving the continuity of his -historical studies, he followed up his first work with _The Life of -Andrew Melville_ (1819). In 1827 he published a _History of the Progress -and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy_, and in 1829 a _History of -the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain_. - -His latest literary undertaking was a life of John Calvin. Only three -chapters were completed when the writer died on the 5th of August 1835, -leaving four sons and one daughter. - - See Thomas M'Crie (1797-1875), _Life of T. M'Crie_ (1840), and Hugh - Miller, _My Schools and Schoolmasters_ (1869). - - - - -MACCULLAGH, JAMES (1809-1847), Irish mathematician and physicist, was -born in 1809, near Strabane, Ireland. After a brilliant career at -Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected fellow in 1832. From 1832 to -1843 he held the chair of mathematics; and during his tenure of this -post he improved in a most marked manner the position of his university -as a mathematical centre. In 1843 he was transferred to the chair of -natural philosophy. Overwork, mainly on subjects beyond the natural -range of his powers, induced mental disease; and he died by his own hand -in October 1847. - - His _Works_ were published in 1880. Their distinguishing feature is - the geometry--which has rarely been applied either to pure space - problems or to known physical questions such as the rotation of a - rigid solid or the properties of Fresnel's wave-surface with such - singular elegance; in this respect his work takes rank with that of - Louis Poinsot. One specially remarkable geometrical discovery of - MacCullagh's is that of the "modular generation of surfaces of the - second degree"; and a noteworthy contribution to physical optics is - his "theorem of the polar plane." But his methods, which, in less - known subjects, were almost entirely tentative, were altogether - inadequate to the solution of the more profound physical problems to - which his attention was mainly devoted, such as the theory of double - refraction, &c. See G. G. Stokes's "Report on Double Refraction" (_B. - A. Report_, 1862). - - - - -MACCULLOCH, HORATIO (1805-1867), Scottish landscape painter, was born in -Glasgow. He studied for a year under John Knox, a Glasgow landscapist of -some repute, was then engaged at Cumnock, painting the ornamental lids -of snuff-boxes, and afterwards employed in Edinburgh by Lizars, the -engraver, to colour the illustrations in Selby's _British Birds_ and -similar works. Meanwhile he was working unweariedly from nature, greatly -influenced in his early practice by the watercolours of H. W. Williams. -Returning to Glasgow in some four or five years, he was employed on -several large pictures for the decoration of a public hall in St -George's Place, and he did a little as a theatrical scene-painter. About -this time he was greatly impressed with a picture by Thomson of -Duddingston. Gradually MacCulloch asserted his individuality, and formed -his own style on a close study of nature; his works form an interesting -link between the old world of Scottish landscape and the new. In 1829 -MacCulloch first figured in the Royal Scottish Academy's exhibition, and -year by year, till his death on the 24th of June 1867, he was a regular -exhibitor. In 1838 he was elected a member of the Scottish Academy. The -subjects of his numerous landscapes were taken almost exclusively from -Scottish scenery. - - Several works by MacCulloch were engraved by William Miller and - William Forrest, and a volume of photographs from his landscapes, with - an excellent biographical notice of the artist by Alexander Fraser, - R.S.A., was published in Edinburgh in 1872. - - - - -McCULLOCH, HUGH (1808-1895), American financier, was born at Kennebunk, -Maine, on the 7th of December 1808. He was educated at Bowdoin College, -studied law in Boston, and in 1833 began practice at Fort Wayne, -Indiana. He was cashier and manager of the Fort Wayne branch of the old -state bank of Indiana from 1835 to 1857, and president of the new state -bank from 1857 to 1863. Notwithstanding his opposition to the National -Banking Act of 1862, he was selected by Secretary Chase as comptroller -of the currency in 1863 to put the new system into operation. His work -was so successful that he was appointed secretary of the treasury by -President Lincoln in 1865, and was continued in office by President -Johnson until the close of his administration in 1869. In his first -annual report, issued on the 4th of December 1865, he strongly urged the -retirement of the legal tenders or greenbacks as a preliminary to the -resumption of specie payments. In accordance with this suggestion an act -was passed, on the 12th of March 1866, authorizing the retirement of not -more than $10,000,000 in six months and not more than $4,000,000 per -month thereafter, but it met with strong opposition and was repealed on -the 4th of February 1868, after only $48,000,000 had been retired. He -was much disappointed by the decision of the United States Supreme Court -upholding the constitutionality of the legal tenders (12 Wallace 457). -Soon after the close of his term of office McCulloch went to England, -and spent six years (1870-1876) as a member of the banking firm of Jay -Cooke, McCulloch & Co. From October 1884 until the close of President -Arthur's term of office in March 1885 he was again secretary of the -treasury. He died at his home near Washington, D.C., on the 24th of May -1895. - - The chief authority for the life of McCulloch is his own book, _Men - and Measures of Half a Century_ (New York, 1888). - - - - -M'CULLOCH, SIR JAMES (1819-1893), Australian statesman, was born in -Glasgow. He entered the house of Dennistoun Brothers, became a partner, -and went to Melbourne to open a branch. In 1854, shortly after his -arrival in Victoria, he was appointed a nominee member of the -Legislative Council, and in the first Legislative Assembly under the new -constitution was returned for the electorate of the Wimmera. In 1857 he -was appointed minister of trade and customs in the second ministry of -Haines, which lasted till 1858, and subsequently he became treasurer in -the Nicholson administration, which held office from October 1859 to -November 1860. In June 1862 the third O'Shanassy ministry was defeated -by a combination between a section of its supporters led by M'Culloch -and the opposition proper under Heales, and M'Culloch became premier and -chief secretary. Hitherto he had been regarded as a supporter of the -landed, squatting and importing interests, but the coalition ministry -introduced a number of measures which at the time were regarded by the -propertied classes in the colony as revolutionary. In addition to -passing a Land Bill, which extended the principle of free selection and -deferred payments, the ministry announced their intention of reducing -the duties on the export of gold and the import duties upon tea and -sugar, and of supplying the deficiency by the imposition of duties -ranging from 5 to 10% upon a number of articles which entered into -competition with the local industries, thus introducing protection. The -mercantile community took alarm at the proposal, and at the general -election of 1864 the ministerial policy was warmly opposed. But a -majority was returned in its favour, and a new tariff was carried -through the popular branch of the legislature. There was no probability -of its being assented to by the Council, which, under the constitution, -had the power of rejecting, although it could not amend, any money Bill. -The government therefore decided upon tacking the tariff to the -Appropriation Bill, and compelling the Council either to agree to the -new fiscal proposals or to refuse to pay the public creditors and the -civil servants. The Council accepted the challenge, and rejected the -Appropriation Bill. But M'Culloch and his colleagues would not give way. -They continued to collect the new duties under the authority of the -Assembly, and took advantage of a clause in the Audit Act which directed -the governor to sign the necessary warrants for the payment of any sum -awarded by verdicts in the supreme court in favour of persons who had -sued the government. M'Culloch borrowed L40,000 from the London -Chartered Bank, of which he was a director, to meet pressing payments, -and the bank at his instigation sued the government for the amount of -the advance. The attorney-general at once accepted judgment, and the -governor, who had placed himself unreservedly in the hands of his -ministers, signed the necessary warrant, and the Treasury repaid to the -bank the amount of its advance, plus interest and costs. In the next -session the tariff was again sent up to the Council, which promptly -rejected it, whereupon the ministry dissolved the assembly and appealed -to the country. The result of the general election was to increase -M'Culloch's majority, and the tariff was again sent to the Council, only -to be again rejected. M'Culloch resigned, but no member of the -opposition was willing to form a ministry, and he resumed office. -Eventually a conference between the two houses was held, and the Council -passed the tariff, after a few modifications in it had been agreed to by -the Assembly. Just at the moment that peace was restored, the governor, -Sir Charles Darling, was recalled by the home government, on the ground -that he had displayed partisanship by assisting M'Culloch's government -and their majority in the Assembly to coerce the Council. In order to -show their gratitude to the dismissed governor, the Assembly decided to -grant a sum of L20,000 to Lady Darling. The home government intimated -that Sir Charles Darling must retire from the Colonial service if this -gift were accepted by his wife, but M'Culloch included the money in the -annual Appropriation Bill, with the result that it was rejected by the -Council. The new governor, Viscount Canterbury, was less complaisant -than his predecessor, but after an unsuccessful attempt to obtain other -advisers, he agreed to recommend the Council to pass the Appropriation -Bill with the L20,000 grant included. The Upper House declined to adopt -this course, and again rejected the Bill. A long and bitter struggle -between the two Chambers ended in another general election in 1868, -which still further increased the ministerial majority; but Lord -Canterbury, in obedience to instructions from the colonial office, -declined to do anything to facilitate the passage of the Darling grant. -M'Culloch resigned, and after protracted negotiations Sir Charles Sladen -formed from the minority in the Assembly a ministry which only lasted -two months. The deadlock seemed likely to become more stringent than -ever, when a communication was received from Sir Charles Darling, that -neither he nor his wife could receive anything like a donation from the -people of Victoria. The attempt to pass the grant was therefore -abandoned, and in July 1868 M'Culloch resumed office with different -colleagues, but resigned in the following year, when he was knighted. He -formed a third ministry in 1870. During this third administration he -passed a measure through both Houses which secured a life annuity of -L1000 per annum to Lady Darling. Additional taxation being necessary, -Sir James M'Culloch was urged by his protectionist supporters to -increase the import duties, but he refused, and proposed to provide for -the deficit by levying a tax upon town, suburban and country property. -This proposal was defeated in the Assembly; Sir James resigned in June -1871, and was appointed agent-general for Victoria in London. He held -that appointment till 1873, was created K.C.M.G. in 1874, returned to -the colony the same year, and in 1875 formed his fourth and last -ministry, which kept power till May 1877, when his party was defeated at -the general election. During his eighteen months of office he had to -encounter a persistent opposition from Berry and his followers, who -systematically obstructed the business of the Assembly, on the ground -that the acting-governor, Sir William Stawell, had improperly refused a -dissolution. Sir James M'Culloch, to counteract this obstruction, -invented the closure, which was afterwards introduced with some -modifications into the house of commons. After his defeat in 1877 Sir -James retired from public life and returned to England, where he died on -the 30th of January 1893 at Ewell, Surrey. He was twice married--first, -in 1841, to Susan, daughter of the Rev. James Renwick, of Muirton, -Scotland; secondly, in 1867, to Margaret, daughter of William Inglis, of -Walflat, Dumbartonshire. He left the house of Dennistoun Brothers in -1862, and founded a new firm at Melbourne in conjunction with Leishman, -Inglis & Co. of London, under the title of M'Culloch, Sellars & Co. He -held several important commercial positions, and was president of the -Melbourne Chamber of Commerce. (G. C. L.) - - - - -MACCULLOCH, JOHN (1773-1835), Scottish geologist, descended from the -Maccullochs of Nether Ardwell in Galloway, was born in Guernsey, on the -6th of October 1773, his mother being a native of that island. Having -displayed remarkable powers as a boy, he was sent to study medicine in -the university of Edinburgh, where he qualified as M.D. in 1793, and -then entered the army as assistant surgeon. Attaching himself to the -artillery, he became chemist to the board of ordnance (1803). He still -continued, however, to practise for a time as a physician, and during -the years 1807-1811 he resided at Blackheath. In 1811 he communicated -his first papers to the Geological Society. They were devoted to an -elucidation of the geological structure of Guernsey, of the Channel -Islands, and of Heligoland. The evidence they afforded of his capacity, -and the fact that he already had received a scientific appointment, -probably led to his being selected in the same year to make some -geological and mineralogical investigations in Scotland. He was asked to -report upon stones adapted for use in powder-mills, upon the suitability -of the chief Scottish mountains for a repetition of the pendulum -experiments previously conducted by Maskelyne and Playfair at -Schiehallion, and on the deviations of the plumb-line along the meridian -of the Trigonometrical Survey. In the course of the explorations -necessary for the purposes of these reports he made extensive -observations on the geology and mineralogy of Scotland. He formed also a -collection of the mineral productions and rocks of that country, which -he presented to the Geological Society in 1814. In that year he was -appointed geologist to the Trigonometrical Survey; and in 1816-1817 he -was president of the Geological Society. Comparatively little had been -done in the investigation of Scottish geology, and finding the field so -full of promise, he devoted himself to its cultivation with great -ardour. One of his most important labours was the examination of the -whole range of islands along the west of Scotland, at that time not -easily visited, and presenting many obstacles to a scientific explorer. -The results of this survey appeared (1819) in the form of his -_Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, including the Isle of -Man_ (2 vols. 8vo, with an atlas of plates in 4to), which forms one of -the classical treatises on British geology. He was elected F.R.S. in -1820. He continued to write papers, chiefly on the rocks and minerals of -Scotland, and had at last gathered so large an amount of information -that the government was prevailed upon in the year 1826 to employ him in -the preparation of a geological map of Scotland. From that date up to -the time of his death he returned each summer to Scotland and traversed -every district of the kingdom, inserting the geological features upon -Arrowsmith's map, the only one then available for his purpose. He -completed the field-work in 1832, and in 1834 his map and memoir were -ready for publication, but these were not issued until 1836, the year -after he died. Among his other works the following may be mentioned: _A -Geological Classification of Rocks with Descriptive Synopses of the -Species and Varieties, comprising the Elements of Practical Geology_ -(1821); _The Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland_, in a series of -letters to Sir Walter Scott (4 vols. 1824); _A System of Geology, with a -Theory of the Earth and an Examination of its Connexion with the Sacred -Records_ (2 vols. 1831). During a visit to Cornwall he was killed by -being dragged along in the wheel of his carriage, on the 21st of August -1835. - - In penning an obituary notice, C. Lyell in 1836 (_Proc. Geol. Soc._ - ii. 357) acknowledged "with gratitude" that he had "received more - instruction from Macculloch's labours in geology than from those of - any living writer." - - - - -M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSAY (1789-1864), British economist and statistician, -was born on the 1st of March 1789 at Whithorn in Wigtownshire. His -family belonged to the class of "statesmen," or small landed -proprietors. He was for some time employed at Edinburgh as a clerk in -the office of a writer to the signet. But, the _Scotsman_ newspaper -having been established at the beginning of 1817, M'Culloch sent a -contribution to the fourth number, the merit of which was at once -recognized; he soon became connected with the management of the paper, -and during 1818 and 1819 acted as editor. Most of his articles related -to questions of political economy, and he delivered lectures in -Edinburgh on that science. He now also began to write on subjects of the -same class in the _Edinburgh Review_, his first contribution being an -article on Ricardo's _Principles of Political Economy_ in 1818. Within -the next few years he gave both public lectures and private instruction -in London on political economy. In 1823 he was chosen to fill the -lectureship established by subscription in honour of the memory of -Ricardo. A movement was set on foot in 1825 by Jeffrey and others to -induce the government to found in the university of Edinburgh a chair of -political economy, separate from that of moral philosophy, the intention -being to obtain the appointment for M'Culloch. This project fell to the -ground; but in 1828 he was made professor of political economy in London -University. He then fixed his residence permanently in London, where he -continued his literary work, being now one of the regular writers in the -_Edinburgh Review_. In 1838 he was appointed comptroller of the -stationery office; the duties of this position, which he held till his -death, he discharged with conscientious fidelity, and introduced -important reforms in the management of the department. Sir Robert Peel, -in recognition of the services he had rendered to political science, -conferred on him a literary pension of L200 per annum. He was elected a -foreign associate of the Institute of France (_Academie des sciences -morales et politiques_). He died in London, after a short illness, on -the 11th of November 1864, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. To his -personal character and social qualities very favourable testimony was -borne by those who knew him best. In general politics he always remained -a Whig pure and simple; though he was in intimate relations with James -Mill and his circle, he never shared the Radical opinions of that group. - - M'Culloch cannot be regarded as an original thinker on political - economy. He did not contribute any new ideas to that science, or - introduce any noteworthy correction of the views, either as to method - or doctrine, generally accepted by the dominant school of his day. But - the work he did must be pronounced, in relation to the wants of his - time, a very valuable one. His name will probably be less permanently - associated with anything he has written on economic science, strictly - so called, than with his great statistical and other compilations. His - _Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation_ (1832) and his - _Statistical Account of the British Empire_ (1837) remain imposing - monuments of his extensive and varied knowledge and his indefatigable - industry. Another useful work of reference, also the fruit of wide - erudition and much labour, is his _Literature of Political Economy_ - (1845). Though weak on the side of the foreign literature of the - science, it is very valuable as a critical and biographical guide to - British writers. - - - - -McCULLOUGH, JOHN EDWARD (1837-1885), American actor, was born in -Coleraine, Ireland, on the 2nd of November 1837. He went to America at -the age of sixteen, and made his first appearance on the stage at the -Arch Street Theatre, Philadelphia, in 1857. In support of Edwin Forrest -and Edwin Booth he played second roles in Shakespearian and other -tragedies, and Forrest left him by will all his prompt books. Virginius -was his greatest success, although even in this part and as Othello he -was coldly received in England (1881). In 1884 he broke down physically -and mentally, and he died in an asylum at Philadelphia on the 8th of -November 1885. - - - - -MACCUNN, HAMISH (1868- ), Scottish musical composer, was born at -Greenock, the son of a shipowner, and was educated at the Royal College -of Music. His first success was with the overture _Land of the Mountain -and Flood_ in 1887 at the Crystal Palace, and this was followed by other -compositions, with a characteristic Scottish colouring. From 1888 to -1894 he was a professor at the Royal College of Music, and this latter -year saw both his marriage to a daughter of John Pettie, R.A., and the -production of his opera _Jeanie Deans_ at Edinburgh. He was for some -years conductor to the Carl Rosa Opera company, and subsequently to -other companies. His opera _Diarmid_ was produced at Covent Garden in -1897, and his other music includes cantatas, overtures, part-songs, -instrumental pieces, and songs, all markedly Scottish in type. - - - - -MACDONALD, FLORA (1722-1790), Jacobite heroine, was the daughter of -Ranald Macdonald of Milton in the island of South Uist in the Hebrides, -and his wife Marion the daughter of Angus Macdonald, minister of South -Uist. Her father died when she was a child, and her mother was abducted -and married by Hugh Macdonald of Armadale. She was brought up under the -care of the chief of her clan, Macdonald of Clanranald, and was partly -educated in Edinburgh. In June 1746 she was living in Benbecula in the -Hebrides when Prince Charles Edward (q.v.) took refuge there after the -battle of Culloden. The prince's companion, Captain O'Neill, sought her -help. The island was held for the government by the local militia, but -the secret sympathies of the Macdonalds were with the Jacobite cause. -After some hesitation Flora promised to help. At a later period she told -the duke of Cumberland, son of George III. and commander-in-chief in -Scotland, that she acted from charity and would have helped him also if -he had been defeated and in distress, a statement which need not be -accepted as quite literally true. The commander of the militia in the -island, a Macdonald, who was probably admitted into the secret, gave her -a pass to the mainland for herself, a manservant, an Irish spinning -maid, Betty Burke, and a boat's crew of six men. The prince was -disguised as Betty Burke. After a first repulse at Waternish, the party -landed at Portree. The prince was hidden in a cave while Flora Macdonald -found help for him in the neighbourhood, and was finally able to escape. -He had left Benbecula on the 27th of June. The talk of the boatmen -brought suspicion on Flora Macdonald, and she was arrested and brought -to London. After a short imprisonment in the Tower, she was allowed to -live outside of it, under the guard of a "messenger" or gaoler. When the -Act of Indemnity was passed in 1747 she was left at liberty. Her courage -and loyalty had gained her general sympathy, which was increased by her -good manners and gentle character. Dr Johnson, who saw her in 1773, -describes her as "a woman of soft features, gentle manners and elegant -presence." In 1750 she married Allen Macdonald of Kingsburgh, and in -1773 they emigrated to America. In the War of Independence he served the -British government and was taken prisoner. In 1779 his wife returned -home in a merchant ship which was attacked by a privateer. She refused -to leave the deck during the action, and was wounded in the arm. She -died on the 5th of March 1790. There is a statue to her memory in -Inverness. Flora Macdonald had a large family of sons, who mostly -entered the army or navy, and two daughters. - - See A. C. Ewald, _Life and Times of Prince Charles Edward_ (1886). The - so-called _Autobiography_ of Flora Macdonald, published by her - grand-daughter F. F. Walde (1870) is of small value. - - - - -MACDONALD, GEORGE (1824-1905), Scottish novelist and poet, was born at -Huntly, Aberdeenshire. His father, a farmer, was one of the Macdonalds -of Glencoe, and a direct descendant of one of the families that suffered -in the massacre. Macdonald's youth was passed in his native town, under -the immediate influence of the Congregational Church, and in an -atmosphere strongly impregnated with Calvinism. He took his degree at -Aberdeen University, and migrated thence to London, studying at Highbury -College for the Congregational ministry. In 1850 he was appointed pastor -of Trinity Congregational Church, Arundel, and, after resigning his cure -there, was engaged in ministerial work in Manchester. His health, -however, was unequal to the strain, and after a short sojourn in Algiers -he settled in London and adopted the profession of literature. In 1856 -he published his first book, _Within and Without_, a dramatic poem; -following it in 1857 with a volume of _Poems_, and in 1858 by the -delightful "faerie romance" _Phantastes_. His first conspicuous success -was achieved in 1862 with _David Elginbrod_, the forerunner of a number -of popular novels, which include _Alec Forbes of Howglen_ (1865), -_Annals of a Quiet Neighbourhood_ (1866), _Robert Falconer_ (1868), -_Malcolm_ (1875), _The Marquis of Lossie_ (1877), and _Donal Grant_ -(1883). He was for a time editor of _Good Words for the Young_, and -lectured successfully in America in 1872-1873. He wrote admirable -stories for the young, and published some volumes of sermons. In 1877 he -was given a civil list pension. He died on the 18th of September 1905. - -Both as preacher and as lecturer on literary topics George Macdonald's -sincerity and moral enthusiasm exercised great influence upon -thoughtful minds. His verse is homely and direct, and marked by -religious fervour and simplicity. As a portrayer of Scottish -peasant-life in fiction he was the precursor of a large school, which -has benefited by his example and surpassed its original leader in -popularity. The religious tone of his novels is relieved by tolerance -and a broad spirit of humour, and the simpler emotions of humble life -are sympathetically treated. - - - - -MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD (1852-1903), British soldier, was born -of humble parentage at Muir of Allan-Grange, Ross-shire, Scotland, in -1852. As a boy he was employed in a draper's shop at Dingwall, but in -1870 he enlisted in the 92nd (Gordon) Highlanders. He rose rapidly -through the non-commissioned ranks, and had already been a -colour-sergeant for some years when, in the Afghan War of 1879, he -distinguished himself in the presence of the enemy so much as to be -promoted to commissioned rank, his advancement being equally acceptable -to his brother officers and popular with the rank and file. As a -subaltern he served in the first Boer War of 1880-81, and at Majuba, -where he was made prisoner, his bravery was so conspicuous that General -Joubert gave him back his sword. In 1885 he served under Sir Evelyn Wood -in the reorganization of the Egyptian army, and he took part in the Nile -Expedition of that year. In 1888 he became a regimental captain in the -British service, but continued to serve in the Egyptian army, being -particularly occupied with the training of the Sudanese battalions. In -1889 he received the D.S.O. for his conduct at Toski and in 1891, after -the action at Tokar, he was promoted substantive major. In 1896 he -commanded a brigade of the Egyptian army in the Dongola Expedition, and -during the following campaigns he distinguished himself in every -engagement, above all in the final battle of Omdurman (1898) at the -crisis of which Macdonald's Sudanese brigade, manoeuvring as a unit with -the coolness and precision of the parade ground, repulsed the most -determined attack of the Mahdists. After this great service Macdonald's -name became famous in England and Scotland, the popular sobriquet of -"Fighting Mac" testifying the interest aroused in the public mind by his -career and his soldierly personality. He was promoted colonel in the -army and appointed an aide-de-camp to the queen, and in 1899 he was -promoted major-general and appointed to a command in India. In December -1899 he was called to South Africa to command the Highland Brigade, -which had just suffered very heavily and had lost its commander, -Major-General A. G. Wauchope, in the battle of Magersfontein. He -commanded the brigade throughout Lord Roberts's Paardeberg, Bloemfontein -and Pretoria operations, and in 1901 he was made a K.C.B. In 1902 he was -appointed to command the troops in Ceylon, but early in the following -year (March 25, 1903) he committed suicide in Paris. A memorial to this -brilliant soldier, in the form of a tower 100 ft. high, was erected at -Dingwall and completed in 1907. - - - - -MACDONALD, JACQUES ETIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE (1765-1840), duke of Taranto -and marshal of France, was born at Sedan on the 17th of November 1765. -His father came of an old Jacobite family, which had followed James II. -to France, and was a near relative of the celebrated Flora Macdonald. In -1785 Macdonald joined the legion raised to support the revolutionary -party in Holland against the Prussians, and after it was disbanded he -received a commission in the regiment of Dillon. On the breaking out of -the Revolution, the regiment of Dillon remained eminently loyal, with -the exception of Macdonald, who was in love with Mlle Jacob, whose -father was enthusiastic for the doctrines of the Revolution. Directly -after his marriage he was appointed aide-de-camp to General Dumouriez. -He distinguished himself at Jemmapes, and was promoted colonel in 1793. -He refused to desert to the Austrians with Dumouriez, and as a reward -was made general of brigade, and appointed to command the leading -brigade in Pichegru's invasion of Holland. His knowledge of the country -proved most useful, and he was instrumental in the capture of the Dutch -fleet by French hussars. In 1797, having been made general of division, -he served first in the army of the Rhine and then in that of Italy. When -he reached Italy, the peace of Campo Formio had been signed, and -Bonaparte had returned to France; but, under the direction of Berthier, -Macdonald first occupied Rome, of which he was made governor, and then -in conjunction with Championnet he defeated General Mack, and -revolutionized the kingdom of Naples under the title of the -Parthenopaean Republic. When Suvarov invaded northern Italy, and was -winning back the conquests of Bonaparte, Macdonald collected all the -troops in the peninsula and moved northwards. With but 30,000 men he -attacked, at the Trebbia, Suvarov with 50,000, and after three days' -fighting, during which he held the Russians at bay, and gave time for -Moreau to come up, he retired in good order to Genoa. After this gallant -behaviour he was made governor of Versailles, and acquiesced, if he did -not co-operate, in the events of the 18th Brumaire. In 1800 he received -the command of the army in Switzerland which was to maintain the -communications between the armies of Germany and of Italy. He carried -out his orders to the letter, and at last, in the winter of 1800-1, he -was ordered to march over the Splugen Pass. This achievement is fully -described by Mathieu Dumas, who was chief of his staff, and is at least -as noteworthy as Bonaparte's famous passage of the St Bernard before -Marengo, though followed by no such successful battle. On his return to -Paris Macdonald married the widow of General Joubert, and was appointed -French plenipotentiary in Denmark. Returning in 1805 he associated -himself with Moreau and incurred the dislike of Napoleon, who did not -include him in his first creation of marshals. Till 1809 he remained -without employment, but in that year Napoleon gave him the command of a -corps and the duties of military adviser to the young prince Eugene -Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. He led the army from Italy till its -junction with Napoleon, and at Wagram commanded the celebrated column of -attack which broke the Austrian centre and won the victory. Napoleon -made him marshal of France on the field of battle, and presently created -him duke of Taranto. In 1810 he served in Spain, and in 1812 he -commanded the left wing of the grand army for the invasion of Russia. In -1813, after sharing in the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen, he was ordered -to invade Silesia, where Blucher defeated him with great loss at the -Katzbach (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). After the terrible battle of -Leipzig he was ordered with Prince Poniatowski to cover the evacuation -of Leipzig; after the blowing up of the bridge, he managed to swim the -Elster, while Poniatowski was drowned. During the defensive campaign of -1814 Macdonald again distinguished himself; he was one of the marshals -sent by Napoleon to take his abdication in favour of his son to Paris. -When all were deserting their old master, Macdonald remained faithful to -him. He was directed by Napoleon to give in his adherence to the new -regime, and was presented by him with the sabre of Murad Bey for his -fidelity. At the Restoration he was made a peer of France and knight -grand cross of the order of St Louis; he remained faithful to the new -order of things during the Hundred Days. In 1815 he became chancellor of -the Legion of Honour (a post he held till 1831), in 1816 major-general -of the royal bodyguard, and he took a great part in the discussions in -the House of Peers, voting consistently as a moderate Liberal. In 1823 -he married Mlle de Bourgony, by whom he had a son, Alexander, who -succeeded on his death in 1840 as duke of Taranto. From 1830 his life -was spent in retirement at his country place Courcelles-le-Roi (Seine et -Oise), where he died on the 7th of September 1840. - -Macdonald had none of that military genius which distinguished Davout, -Massena and Lannes, nor of that military science conspicuous in Marmont -and St Cyr, but nevertheless his campaign in Switzerland gives him a -rank far superior to such mere generals of division as Oudinot and -Dupont. This capacity for independent command made Napoleon, in spite of -his defeats at the Trebbia and the Katzbach, trust him with large -commands till the end of his career. As a man, his character cannot be -spoken of too highly; no stain of cruelty or faithlessness rests on him. - - Macdonald was especially fortunate in the accounts of his military - exploits, Mathieu Dumas and Segur having been on his staff in - Switzerland. See Dumas, _Evenements militaires_; and Segur's rare - tract, _Lettre sur la campagne du General Macdonald dans les Grisons - en 1800 et 1801_ (1802), and _Eloge_ (1842). His memoirs were - published in 1892 (Eng. trans., _Recollections of Marshal Macdonald_), - but are brief and wanting in balance. - - - - -MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER (1815-1891), first premier of the dominion -of Canada, was born in Glasgow on the 11th of January 1815, the third -child of Hugh Macdonald (d. 1841), a native of Sutherlandshire. The -family emigrated to Canada in 1820, settling first at Kingston, Ontario. -At the age of fifteen Macdonald entered a law office; he was called to -the bar in 1836, and began practice in Kingston, with immediate success. -Macdonald entered upon his active career at a critical period in the -history of Canada, and the circumstances of the time were calculated to -stimulate political thought. It was the year before the rebellion of -1837; the condition of the whole country was very unsettled; and it -seemed well-nigh impossible to reconcile differences arising from racial -and political antagonisms. During the rebellion young Macdonald -volunteered for active service, but his military career never went -farther than drilling and marching. The mission of Lord Durham; the -publication of his famous report; the union of the two Canadas; the -administrations of Lord Sydenham, Sir Charles Bagot, and Sir Charles -Metcalfe, filled the years immediately succeeding 1837 with intense -political interest, and in their results have profoundly influenced the -constitution of the British Empire. - -Macdonald made his first acquaintance with public business as an -alderman of Kingston. In 1844 Sir Charles Metcalfe, in his contest with -the Reform party led by Baldwin and Lafontaine, appealed to the -electors, and Macdonald was elected to the provincial assembly as -Conservative member for Kingston. A sentence in his first address to the -electors strikes the dominant note of his public career: "I therefore -need scarcely state my firm belief that the prosperity of Canada depends -upon its permanent connexion with the mother country, and that I shall -resist to the utmost any attempt (from whatever quarter it may come) -which may tend to weaken that union." He took his seat on the 28th of -November as a supporter of the Draper government. During the first three -or four years he spoke little, but devoted himself with assiduity to -mastering parliamentary forms and the business of the house. His -capacity soon attracted attention, and in 1847 he was made -receiver-general with a seat in the executive council, an office soon -exchanged for the more important one of commissioner of Crown-lands. -Although the government of which he thus became a member held office for -only ten months, being placed in a hopeless minority on making an appeal -to the country, Macdonald from this time forward took a position of -constantly increasing weight in his party. - -One of the first acts of the Reform government which succeeded that of -which Macdonald was a member was to pass the Rebellion Losses Bill, made -famous in colonial history by the fact that it brought to a crucial test -the principle of responsible government. The assent of Lord Elgin to the -bill provoked in Montreal a riot which ended in the burning of the -houses of parliament, and so great was the indignation of the hitherto -ultra-loyal Conservative party that many of its most prominent members -signed a document favouring annexation to the United States; Macdonald -on the other hand took steps, in conjunction with others, to form a -British-American league, having for its object the confederation of all -the provinces, the strengthening of the connexion with the mother -country, and the adoption of a national commercial policy. He remained -in opposition from 1848 till 1854, holding together under difficult -circumstances an unpopular party with which he was not entirely in -sympathy. The two great political issues of the time were the -secularization of the clergy reserves in Ontario, and the abolition of -seigniorial tenure in Quebec. Both of these reforms Macdonald long -opposed, but when successive elections had proved that they were -supported by public opinion, he brought about a coalition of -Conservatives and moderate reformers for the purpose of carrying them. - -Out of this coalition was gradually developed the Liberal-conservative -party, of which until his death Macdonald continued to be the most -considerable figure, and which for more than forty years largely moulded -the history of Canada. From 1854 to 1857 he was attorney-general of -Upper Canada, and then, on the retirement of Colonel Tache, he became -prime minister. This first coalition had now accomplished its temporary -purpose, but so closely were parties divided at this period, that the -defeat and reinstatement of governments followed each other in rapid -succession. - -The experiment of applying responsible government on party lines to the -two Canadian provinces at last seemed to have come to a deadlock. Two -general elections and the defeat of four ministries within three years -had done nothing to solve the difficulties of the situation. At this -critical period a proposal was made for a coalition of parties in order -to carry out a broad scheme of British-American confederation. The -immediate proposal is said to have come from George Brown; the large -political idea had long been advocated by Macdonald and Alexander Galt -in Upper Canada--by Joseph Howe and others in the maritime provinces. -The close of the American Civil War, the Fenian raids across the -American border, and the dangers incident to the international -situation, gave a decisive impulse to the movement. Macdonald, at the -head of a representative delegation from Ontario and Quebec, met the -public men of the maritime provinces in conference at Charlottetown in -1864, and the outline of confederation then agreed upon was filled out -in detail at a conference held at Quebec soon afterwards. The actual -framing of the British North America Act, into which the resolutions of -these two conferences were consolidated, was carried out at the -Westminster Palace Hotel in London, during December 1866 and January -1867, by delegates from all the provinces working in co-operation with -the law officers of the Crown, under the presidency of Lord Carnarvon, -then secretary of state for the colonies. Macdonald took the leading -part in all these discussions, and he thus naturally became the first -premier of the Dominion. He was made a K.C.B. in recognition of his -services to the empire. - -The difficulties of organizing the new Dominion, the questions arising -from diverse claims and the various conditions of the country, called -for infinite tact and resource on the part of the premier. Federal -rights were to be safeguarded against the provincial governments, always -jealous of their privileges. The people of Nova Scotia in particular, -dissatisfied with the way in which their province had been drawn into -the Union, maintained a fierce opposition to the Ottawa government, -until their leader, Joseph Howe, fearing an armed rising, came to an -agreement with Macdonald and accepted a seat in his cabinet. The -establishment of a supreme court also occupied the attention of Sir -John, who had a strong sense of the necessity of maintaining the purity -and dignity of the judicial office. The act creating this court was -finally passed during the administration of Alexander Mackenzie. The -pledge made at confederation with regard to the building of the -Intercolonial railway to connect the maritime provinces with those of -the St Lawrence was fulfilled. The North-West Territories were secured -as a part of confederated Canada by the purchase of the rights of the -Hudson's Bay Company, and the establishment of Manitoba as a province in -1870. Canada's interests were protected during the negotiations which -ended in the treaty of Washington in 1871, and in which Sir John took a -leading part as one of the British delegates. In this year British -Columbia entered the confederation, one of the provisions of union being -that a transcontinental railroad should be built within ten years. This -was declared by the opposition to be impossible. It was possible only to -a leader of indomitable will. Charges of bribery against the government -in connexion with the contract for the building of this line led to the -resignation of the cabinet in 1874, and for four years Sir John was in -opposition. But he was by no means inactive. During the summer of 1876 -he travelled through Ontario addressing the people on the subject of a -commercial system looking to the protection of native industries. This -was the celebrated "National Policy," which had been in his thoughts as -long ago as the formation of the British-American League in 1850. The -government of Alexander Mackenzie refused to consider a protection -policy, and determined to adhere to Free Trade, with a tariff for -revenue only. On these strongly defined issues the two parties appealed -to the people in 1878. The Liberal party was almost swept away, and Sir -John, on his return to power, put his policy into effect with a -thoroughness that commanded the admiration even of his opponents, who, -after long resistance, adopted it on their accession to office in 1896. -He also undertook the immediate construction of the Canadian Pacific -railway, which had been postponed by the former government. The line was -begun late in 1880, and finished in November 1885--an achievement which -Sir John ranked among his greatest triumphs. "The faith of Sir John," -says one of his biographers, "did more to build the road than the money -of Mount-Stephen." - -During the remaining years of his life his efforts at administration -were directed mainly towards the organization and development of the -great North-West. From 1878 until his death in 1891 Sir John retained -his position as premier of Canada, and his history is practically that -of Canada (q.v.). For forty-six years of a stormy political life he -remained true to the cardinal policy that he had announced to the -electors of Kingston in 1844. "A British subject I was born; a British -subject I will die," says his last political manifesto to the people of -the Dominion. At his advanced age the anxiety and excitement of the -contested election of 1891 proved too great. On the 29th of May he -suffered a stroke of paralysis, which caused his death eight days later -(June 6). - -The career of Sir John Macdonald must be considered in connexion with -the political history of Canada and the conditions of its government -during the latter half of the 19th century. Trained in a school where -the principles of responsible government were still in an embryonic -state, where the adroit management of coalitions and cabals was -essential to the life of a political party, and where plots and -counterplots were looked upon as a regular part of the political game, -he acquired a dexterity and skill in managing men that finally gave him -an almost autocratic power among his political followers. But great -personal qualities supplemented his political dexterity and sagacity. A -strong will enabled him to overcome the passionate temper which marked -his youth, and later in his career a habit of intemperance, which he at -first shared with many public men of his time. He was a man of strong -ambitions, but these were curbed by a shrewd foresight, which led him -for a long time to submit to the nominal leadership of other and smaller -men. Politics he made his business, and to this he devoted all his -energies. He had the gift of living for the work in hand without feeling -the distraction of other interests. He had a singular faculty for -reading the minds and the motives of men, and to this insight he perhaps -owed the power of adaptability (called by his opponents shiftiness) -which characterized his whole career. To this power the successful -guidance of the Dominion through its critical formative period must be -ascribed. Few political leaders have ever had such a number of -antagonistic elements to reconcile as presented themselves in the first -Canadian parliament after confederation. The man who could manage to -rule a congeries of jealous factions, including Irish Catholics and -Orangemen, French and English anti-federationists and agitators for -independence, Conservatives and Reformers, careful economists and -prodigal expansionists, was manifestly a man of unusual power, superior -to small prejudices, and without strong bias towards any creed or -section. Such a man Macdonald proved himself to be. His personality -stands out at this period as the central power in which each faction -chiefly reposed trust, and under which it could join hands with the -others in the service of the state. His singleness of purpose, personal -independence and indomitable energy enabled him to achieve triumphs -that to others seemed impossible. His methods cannot always be defended, -and were explained by himself only on grounds of necessity and the -character of the electorate with which he had to deal. After the -"Pacific scandal" of 1874 the leader of the opposite party declared that -"John A." (as he was generally called) "has fallen, never to rise -again." Yet he not only cleared his own character from the charges laid -against him, but succeeded four years later in achieving his most signal -party triumph. His natural urbanity allowed him to rule without seeming -to rule. When baffled in minor objects he gave way with a good-natured -flexibility which brought upon him at times charges of inconsistency. -Yet Canada has seen statesmen of more contracted view insist on such -small points, fall, and drag down their party with them. He lived at a -time when the exigencies of state seemed to require the peculiar talents -which he possessed. Entering politics at the dreariest and least -profitable stage in Canadian history, he took the foremost part in the -movement which made of Canada a nation; he guided that nation through -the nebulous stages of its existence, and left it united, strong and -vigorous, a monument to his patriotic and far-sighted statesmanship. His -statue adorns the squares of the principal Canadian towns. In the crypt -of St Paul's Cathedral a memorial has rightly been placed to him as a -statesman, not merely of Canada, but of the empire. In unveiling that -memorial Lord Rosebery fitly epitomized the meaning of his life and work -when he said: "We recognize only this, that Sir John Macdonald had -grasped the central idea that the British Empire is the greatest secular -agency for good now known to mankind; that that was the secret of his -success; and that he determined to die under it, and strove that Canada -should live under it." Macdonald became a member of the Imperial Privy -Council in 1879, and in 1884 he received the Grand Cross of the Bath. -His first wife was his cousin, Miss Isabella Clark, who died in 1858, -leaving one surviving son, the Hon. Hugh John Macdonald, at one time -premier of the province of Manitoba. By his second marriage, to Miss -Bernard in 1867, Macdonald left an only daughter. On his death in 1891 -his widow was created Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe. - - The authorized and fullest biography of Sir John A. Macdonald is one - written by his private secretary, Joseph Pope. Others have been - written by his nephew, Colonel J. Pennington Macpherson, and by J. E. - Collins. A bright and amusing anecdotal life has been compiled by E. - D. Biggar. A condensed biography by G. R. Parkin forms one of the - "Makers of Canada" series (Toronto, 1907; new ed., 1909). - (G. R. P.) - - - - -MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD (1812-1872), Canadian statesman, was born at -St Raphael, Glengarry county, Ontario, on the 12th of December 1812. He -was admitted to the bar in 1840, and settled in Cornwall. In the same -year he married Miss Waggaman, the daughter of an American senator from -Louisiana. In 1841 he was elected to the Canadian parliament for -Glengarry, which seat he held for sixteen years. In 1842 he joined the -Reformers in the cry for constitutional government, and from 1852 to -1854 was Speaker of the house. He was always uncertain in his party -allegiance, and often attacked George Brown, the Liberal leader. Indeed, -he well described himself as "the Ishmael of parliament." In 1862 he was -called on by Lord Monck, the governor-general, to form a ministry, which -by manifold shifts held office till February 1864. In the debates on -federation he opposed the measure, but on its passage was in 1867 -entrusted by the Conservatives with the task of organizing the -provincial government of Ontario. He ruled the province with economy and -efficiency, but was defeated in December 1871 by the Liberals, resigned -the premiership, and died on the 1st of June 1872. - - - - -MACDONALD, LAWRENCE (1799-1878), British sculptor, was born at -Findo-Gask, Perthshire, Scotland. In early life he served as a mason's -apprentice. Having shown an aptitude for stone carving, he became an art -student at the Trustees' Academy, Edinburgh. By the help of friends he -was enabled to visit Rome, where together with other artists he helped -to found the British Academy of Arts. He returned to Edinburgh in 1826. -In 1829 he was elected a member of the Scottish Academy. From 1832 until -his death his home was in Rome. Among his ideal works may be mentioned -"Ulysses and his Dog Argos," "Andromeda chained to the Rock," -"Eurydice," "Hyacinth," a "Siren," and a "Bacchante." - - - - -MACDONELL, JAMES (1841-1879), British journalist, was born at Dyce, -Aberdeenshire. In 1858, after his father's death, he became clerk in a -merchant's office. He began writing in the _Aberdeen Free Press_; in -1862 he was appointed to the staff of the _Daily Review_ at Edinburgh, -and at twenty-two he became editor of the _Northern Daily Express_. In -1865 he went to London to accept a position on the staff of the _Daily -Telegraph_, which he retained until 1875, being special correspondent in -France in 1870 and 1871. In 1873 he became a leader-writer on _The -Times_. He died in London on the 2nd of March 1879. His posthumous -_France since the First Empire_, though incomplete, gave a clever and -accurate account of the French politics of his time. - - - - -MACDONNELL (or MACDONELL), ALESTAIR (i.e. Alexander) RUADH (c. -1725-1761), chief of Glengarry, a Scottish Jacobite who has been -identified by Andrew Lang as the secret agent "Pickle," who acted as a -spy on Prince Charles Edward after 1750. The family were a branch of the -clan Macdonald, but spelt their name Macdonnell or Macdonell. His father -was John, 12th chief of Glengarry, a violent and brutal man, who is said -to have starved his first wife, Alestair's mother, to death on an island -in the Hebrides. Alestair ran away to France while a mere boy in 1738, -and there entered the Royal Scots, a regiment in the French service. In -1743 he commanded a company in it, and in 1744 was sent to Scotland as a -Jacobite agent. In January 1745 he was sent back with messages, and was -in France when Prince Charles Edward landed in Scotland. Late in 1745 he -was captured at sea while bringing a picquet of the Royal Scots to help -the prince. He remained a prisoner in the Tower for twenty-two months, -and when released went abroad. In 1744 his father had made a transfer to -him of the family estates, which were ruined. Alestair, who still -affected to be a Jacobite, lived for a time in great poverty. In 1749 he -was in London, and there is good reason to believe that he then offered -his services as a spy to the British government, with which he -communicated under the name of Pickle. His information enabled British -ministers to keep a close watch on the prince and on the Jacobite -conspiracies. Though he was denounced by a Mrs Cameron, whose husband he -betrayed to death in 1752, he never lost the confidence of the Jacobite -leaders. On the death of his father, in 1754, he succeeded to the -estates, and proved himself a greedy landlord. He died on the 23rd of -December 1761. - - See Andrew Lang, _Pickle the Spy_ (1897) and _The Companions of - Pickle_ (1898). - - - - -MACDONNELL, SORLEY BOY (c. 1505-1590), Scoto-Irish chieftain, son of -Alexander Macdonnell, lord of Islay and Kintyre (Cantire), was born at -Ballycastle, Co. Antrim. From an ancestor who about a hundred years -earlier had married Margaret Bisset, heiress of the district on the -Antrim coast known as the Glynns (or Glens), he inherited a claim to the -lordship of that territory; and he was one of the most powerful of the -Scottish settlers in Ulster whom the English government in the 16th -century found difficulty in bringing into subjection. Many attempts were -made to drive them out of Ireland, in one of which, about 1550, Sorley -Boy Macdonnell was taken prisoner and conveyed to Dublin Castle, where, -however, his confinement was brief. The chief rivals of the Macdonnells -were the Mac Quillins who dominated the northern portion of Antrim, -known as the Route, and whose stronghold was Dunluce Castle, near the -mouth of the Bush. Sorley Boy Macdonnell took an active part in the -tribal warfare between his own clan and the Mac Quillins; and in 1558, -when the latter had been to a great extent overcome, his elder brother -James committed to him the lordship of the Route, his hold on which he -made good by decisively defeating the Mac Quillins in Glenshesk. Sorley -Boy was now too powerful and turbulent to be neglected by Queen -Elizabeth and her ministers, who were also being troubled by his great -contemporary, Shane O'Neill; and the history of Ulster for the next -twenty years consists for the most part of alternating conflict and -alliance between Macdonnells and O'Neills, and attempts on the part of -the English government to subdue them both. With this object Elizabeth -aimed at fomenting the rivalry between the two clans; and she came to -terms sometimes with the one and sometimes with the other. Sorley Boy's -wife was an illegitimate half-sister of Shane O'Neill; but this did not -deter him from leaguing himself with the government against the -O'Neills, if by so doing he could obtain a formal recognition of his -title to the lands of which he was in actual possession. In 1562 Shane -O'Neill paid his celebrated visit to London, where he obtained -recognition by Elizabeth of his claims as head of the O'Neills; and on -his return to Ireland he attacked the Macdonnells, ostensibly in the -English interest. He defeated Sorley Boy near Coleraine in the summer of -1564; in 1565 he invaded the Glynns, and at Ballycastle won a decisive -victory, in which James Macdonnell and Sorley Boy were taken prisoners. -James soon afterwards died, but Sorley Boy remained O'Neill's captive -till 1567, when Shane was murdered by the Macdonnells at Cushendun (see -O'NEILL). Sorley Boy then went to Scotland to enlist support, and he -spent the next few years in striving to frustrate the schemes of Sir -Thomas Smith, and later of the earl of Essex, for colonizing Ulster with -English settlers. Sorley Boy was willing to come to terms with the -government provided his claims to his lands were allowed, but Essex -determined to reduce him to unconditional submission. John Norris was -ordered to proceed by sea from Carrickfergus to Rathlin Island, where -Sorley Boy's children and valuables, together with the families of his -principal retainers, had been lodged for safety; and while the chieftain -was himself at Ballycastle, within sight of the island, the women and -children were massacred by the English. Sorley Boy retaliated by a -successful raid on Carrickfergus and by re-establishing his power in the -Glynns and the Route, which the Mac Quillins made ineffectual attempts -to recover. Macdonnell's position was still further strengthened by an -alliance with Turlough Luineach O'Neill, and by a formidable immigration -of followers from the Scottish islands. In 1584 Sir John Perrot -determined to make a further effort to subdue the turbulent chieftain. -After another expedition to Scotland seeking help, Sorley Boy landed at -Cushendun in January 1585, and his followers regained possession of -Dunluce Castle. In these circumstances Sir John Perrot opened -negotiations with Sorley Boy, who in the summer of 1586 repaired to -Dublin and made submission to Elizabeth's representative. He obtained a -grant to himself and his heirs of all the Route country between the -rivers Bann and Bush, with certain other lands to the east, and was made -constable of Dunluce Castle, For the rest of his life Sorley Boy gave no -trouble to the English government. He died in 1590, and was buried in -Bonamairgy Abbey, at Ballycastle. He is said to have married when over -eighty years of age, as his second wife, a daughter of Turlough Luineach -O'Neill, a kinswoman of his first wife; and two of his five daughters -married members of the O'Neill family. Sorley Boy had several sons by -his first marriage, one of whom, Randal, was created earl of Antrim -(q.v.), and was ancestor of the present holder of that title. - - See G. Hill, _An Historical Account of the Macdonnells of Antrim_ - (London, 1873); Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_ (3 vols., - London, 1885-1890); _Calendar of State Papers: Carew MSS._ i., ii., (6 - vols., 1867-1873); Donald Gregory, _History of the Western Highlands - and Isles of Scotland_ 1493-1625 (London, 1881); Sir J. T. Gilbert, - _History of the Viceroys of Ireland_ (Dublin, 1865). (R. J. M.) - - - - -MACDONOUGH, THOMAS (1786-1825), American sailor, was born in the state -of Delaware, his father being an officer of the Continental Army, and -entered the United States navy in 1800. During his long service as a -lieutenant he took part in the bombardment of Tripoli, and on a -subsequent occasion showed great firmness in resisting the seizure of a -seaman as an alleged deserter from the British navy, his ship at the -time lying under the guns of Gibraltar. When war with England broke out, -in 1812, he was ordered to cruise in the lakes between Canada and the -United States, with his headquarters on lake Champlain. He was -instrumental in saving New York and Vermont from invasion by his -brilliant victory of lake Champlain gained, on the 11th of September -1814, with a flotilla of 14 vessels carrying 86 guns, over Captain -George Downie's 16 vessels and 92 guns. For this important achievement -New York and Vermont granted him estates, whilst Congress gave him a -gold medal. - - - - -MacDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER (1861-1908), American musical composer, was -born in New York City on the 18th of December 1861. His father, an -Irishman of Belfast, had emigrated to America shortly before the boy's -birth. He had a varied education in music, first under Spanish-American -teachers, and then in Europe, at Paris (Debussy being a fellow pupil), -Stuttgart, Wiesbaden and Weimar, where he was chiefly influenced by -Joachim, Raff and Liszt. From 1879 to 1887 he lived in Germany, teaching -and studying, and also appearing as solo pianist at important concerts. -In 1884 he married Marian Nevins, of New York. In 1888 he returned to -America, and settled in Boston till in 1896 he was made professor of -music at Columbia University, New York. He resigned this post in 1904, -and in 1905 overwork and insomnia resulted in a complete cerebral -collapse. He died on the 24th of January 1908. MacDowell's work gives -him perhaps the highest place among American composers. Deeply -influenced by modern French models and by German romanticism, full of -poetry and "atmosphere," and founded on the "programme," idea of -composition, it is essentially creative in the spirit of a searcher -after delicate truths of artistic expression. His employment of touches -of American folk-song, suggested by Indian themes, is characteristic. -This is notably the case with his orchestral _Indian Suite_ (1896) and -_Woodland Sketches_ for the piano. His first concerto, in A minor, for -piano and orchestra, and first pianoforte suite, were performed at -Weimar in 1882. His works include orchestral suites and "poems," songs, -choruses, and various pieces for pianoforte, his own instrument; they -are numbered from _op._ 9 to _op._ 62, his first eight numbered works -being destroyed by him. - - See Lawrence Gilman, _Edward MacDowell_ (1906). - - - - -McDOWELL, IRVIN (1818-1885), American soldier, was born in Columbus, -Ohio, on the 15th of October 1818. He was educated in France, and -graduated at the U. S. military academy in 1838. From 1841 to 1845 he -was instructor, and later adjutant, at West Point. He won the brevet of -captain in the Mexican War, at the battle of Buena Vista, and served as -adjutant-general, chiefly at Washington, until 1861, being promoted -major in 1856. In 1858-1859 he visited Europe. Whilst occupied in -mustering volunteers at the capital, he was made brigadier-general in -May 1861, and placed in command during the premature Virginian campaign -of July, which ended in the defeat at Bull Run. Under McClellan he -became a corps commander and major-general of volunteers (March 1862). -When the Peninsular campaign began McDowell's corps was detained against -McClellan's wishes, sent away to join in the fruitless chase of -"Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, and eventually came under -the command of General Pope, taking part in the disastrous campaign of -Second Bull Run. Involved in Pope's disgrace, McDowell was relieved of -duty in the field (Sept. 1862), and served on the Pacific coast 1864-68. -He became, on Meade's death in November 1872, major-general of regulars -(a rank which he already held by brevet), and commanded successively the -department of the east, the division of the south, and the division of -the Pacific until his retirement in 1882. The latter years of his life -were spent in California, and he died at San Francisco on the 4th of May -1885. As a commander he was uniformly unfortunate. Undoubtedly he was a -faithful, unselfish and energetic soldier, in patriotic sympathy with -the administration, and capable of great achievements. It was his -misfortune to be associated with the first great disaster to the Union -cause, to play the part of D'Erlon at Quatre-Bras between the armies of -Banks and McClellan, and finally to be involved in the catastrophe of -Pope's campaign. That he was perhaps too ready to accept great risks at -the instance of his superiors is the only just criticism to which his -military character was open. - - - - -MACDUFF, a police burgh and seaport of Banffshire, Scotland. Pop. -(1001), 3431. It lies on the right bank of the mouth of the Deveron, 1 -m. E. of Banff and 50(1/4) m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of -Scotland railway. The site was originally occupied by the fishing -village of Doune, but after its purchase by the 1st earl of Fife, about -1732, the name was altered to Macduff by the 2nd earl, who also procured -for it in 1783 a royal charter constituting it a burgh. In honour of the -occasion he rebuilt the market cross, in front of the parish church. The -harbour, safer and more accessible than that of Banff, was constructed -by the duke of Fife, and transferred to the burgh in 1808. The -inhabitants are chiefly employed in the herring fishery, but there is -some boat-building, besides rope-and-sail making, manure works, -saw-mills and oilcake mills. A stone bridge across the Deveron -communicates with Banff. Good bathing facilities, a bracing climate and -a mineral well attract numerous visitors to Macduff every summer. The -burgh unites with Banff, Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie, Kintore and Peterhead -(the Elgin burghs) in returning one member to parliament. - - - - -McDUFFIE, GEORGE (1788-1851), American political leader, was born in -Columbia county, Georgia. He Was admitted to the bar in 1814, and served -in the South Carolina General Assembly in 1818-1821, and in the national -House of Representatives in 1821-1834. In 1821 he published a pamphlet -in which strict construction and states' rights were strongly denounced; -yet in 1832 there were few more uncompromising nullificationists. The -change seems to have been gradual, and to have been determined in part -by the influence of John C. Calhoun. When, after 1824, the old -Democratic-Republican party split into factions, he followed Andrew -Jackson and Martin Van Buren in opposing the Panama Congress and the -policy of making Federal appropriations for internal improvements. He -did not hesitate, however, to differ from Jackson on the two chief -issues of his administration: the Bank and nullification. In 1832 he was -a prominent member of the South Carolina Nullification Convention, and -drafted its address to the people of the United States. He served as -governor in 1834-1836, during which time he helped to reorganize South -Carolina College. From January 1843 until January 1846 he was a member -of the United States Senate. The leading Democratic measures of those -years all received his hearty support. McDuffie, like Calhoun, became an -eloquent champion of state sovereignty; but while Calhoun emphasized -state action as the only means of redressing a grievance, McDuffie paid -more attention to the grievance itself. Influenced in large measure by -Thomas Cooper, he made it his special work to convince the people of the -South that the downfall of protection was essential to their material -progress. His argument that it is the producer who really pays the duty -of imports has been called the economic basis of nullification. He died -at Cherry Hill, Sumter district, South Carolina, on the 11th of March -1851. - - - - -MACE (Fr. _masse_, O. Fr. _mace_, connected with Lat. _mateola_, a -mallet), originally a weapon of offence, made of iron, steel or latten, -capable of breaking through the strongest armour.[1] The earliest -_ceremonial_ maces, as they afterwards became, though at first intended -to protect the king's person, were those borne by the serjeants-at-arms, -a royal body-guard established in France by Philip II., and in England -probably by Richard I. By the 14th century a tendency towards a more -decorative serjeant's mace, encased with precious metals, is noticeable. -The history of the civic mace (carried by the serjeants-at-mace) begins -about the middle of the 13th century, though no examples of that period -are in existence to-day. Ornamented civic maces were considered an -infringement of one of the privileges of the king's serjeants, who, -according to the Commons' petition in 1344, were alone deemed worthy of -having maces enriched with costly metals. This privilege was, however, -granted to the serjeants of London, and later to those of York (in -1396), Norwich (in 1403/4) and Chester (in 1506). Maces covered with -silver are known to have been used at Exeter in 1387/8; two were bought -at Norwich in 1435, and others for Launceston in 1467/8. Several other -cities and towns had silver maces in the next century, and in the 16th -they were almost universally used. Early in the 15th century the flanged -end of the mace, i.e. the head of the war mace, was borne uppermost, and -the small button with the royal arms in the base. By the beginning of -the Tudor period, however, these blade-like flanges, originally made for -offence, degenerated into mere ornaments, while the greater importance -of the end with the royal arms (afterwards enriched with a cresting) -resulted in the reversal of the position. The custom of carrying the -flanged end upward did not die out at once: a few maces were made to -carry both ways, such as the beautiful pair of Winchcombe silver maces, -dating from the end of the 15th century. The Guildford mace is one of -the finest of the fifteen specimens of the 15th century. The flanged -ends of the maces of this period were often beautifully pierced and -decorated. These flanges gradually became smaller, and later (in the -16th and early 17th centuries) developed into pretty projecting -scroll-brackets and other ornaments, which remained in vogue till about -1640. The next development in the embellishment of the shaft was the -reappearance of these small scroll-brackets on the top, immediately -under the head of the mace. They disappear altogether from the foot in -the last half of the 17th century, and are found only under the heads, -or, in rarer instances, on a knob on the shaft. The silver mace-heads -were mostly plain, with a cresting of leaves or flowers in the 15th and -16th centuries. In the reign of James I. they began to be engraved and -decorated with heraldic devices, &c. As the custom of having serjeants' -maces ceased (about 1650), the large maces, borne before the mayor or -bailiffs, came into general use. Thomas Maundy was the chief maker of -maces during the Commonwealth. He made the mace for the House of Commons -in 1649, which is the one at present in use there, though without the -original head with the non-regal symbols, the latter having been -replaced by one with regal symbols at the Restoration. There are two -maces in the House of Lords, the earliest dating from the reign of -William III. The dates of the eight large and massive silver-gilt maces -of the serjeants-at-arms, kept in the jewel-house at the Tower of -London, are as follows: two of Charles II., two of James II., three of -William and Mary, and one of Queen Anne (the cypher of George I. was -subsequently added to the latter). All the foregoing are of the type -which was almost universally adopted, with slight differences, at the -Restoration. The civic maces of the 18th century follow this type, with -some modifications in shape and ornamentation. The historic English -silver maces of the 18th century include the one of 1753 at Norfolk, -Virginia, and that of 1756 of the state of South Carolina, both in the -United States of America; two, made in 1753 and 1787, at Jamaica; that -of 1791 belonging to the colony of Grenada, and the Speaker's mace at -Barbados, dating from 1812; and the silver mace of the old Irish House -of Commons, 1765-1766, now in the possession of Lord Massereene and -Ferrard. - -[Illustration: From Jewitt and Hope's _Corporation Plate and Insignia_ -(1895), by permission of Bemrose & Co. - -FIG. 1.--Group of War Maces of the 15th and 16th centuries.] - -[Illustration: From Jewitt and Hope's _Corporation Plate and Insignia_ -(1895), by permission of Bemrose & Co. - -FIG. 2.--Mace of the House of Commons.] - -Among other maces, more correctly described as staves, in use at the -present time, are those carried before ecclesiastical dignitaries and -clergy in cathedrals and parish churches and the maces of the -universities. At Oxford there are three of the second half of the 16th -century and six of 1723-1724, while at Cambridge there are three of 1626 -and one of 1628, but altered at the Commonwealth and again at the -Restoration. The silver mace with crystal globe of the lord high -treasurer of Scotland, at Holyrood Palace, was made about 1690 by -Francis Garthorne. The remarkable mace or sceptre of the lord mayor of -London is of crystal and gold and set with pearls; the head dates from -the 15th century, while the mounts of the shaft are early medieval. A -mace of an unusual form is that of the Tower ward of London, which has a -head resembling the White Tower in the Tower of London, and which was -made in the reign of Charles II. The beautiful mace of the Cork gilds, -made by Robert Goble of Cork in 1696 for the associated gilds, of which -he had been master, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, where there is -also a large silver mace of the middle of the 18th century, with the -arms of Pope Benedict XIV., which is said to have been used at the -coronation of Napoleon as king of Italy at Milan in 1805. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Jewitt and Hope, _Corporation Plate and Insignia of - Office_, &c. (2 vols., 1895); J. R. Garstin, _Irish State and Civic - Maces_, &c. (1898); J. Paton, _Scottish History and Life_ (1902); J. - H. Buck, _Old Plate_ (1903), pp. 124-140; Cripps, _Old English Plate_ - (9th ed., 1906), pp. 394-404; E. Alfred Jones, _Old Plate at the Tower - of London_ (1908); ed., "Some Historic Silver Maces," _Burlington - Magazine_ (Dec. 1908). (E. A. J.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The mace was carried in battle by medieval bishops (Odo of Bayeux - is represented on the Bayeux tapestry as wielding one) instead of the - sword, so as to conform to the canonical rule which forbade priests - to shed blood.--[ED.] - - - - -MACEDO, JOSE AGOSTINHO DE (1761-1831), Portuguese poet and prose writer, -was born at Beja of plebeian family, and studied Latin and rhetoric with -the Oratorians in Lisbon. He became professed as an Augustinian in 1778, -but owing to his turbulent character he spent a great part of his time -in prison, and was constantly being transferred from one convent to -another, finally giving up the monastic habit to live licentiously in -the capital. In 1792 he was unfrocked, but by the aid of powerful -friends he obtained a papal brief which secularized him and permitted -him to retain his ecclesiastical status. Taking to journalism and -preaching he now made for himself a substantial living and a unique -position. In a short time he was recognized as the leading pulpit orator -of the day, and in 1802 he became one of the royal preachers. Macedo was -the first to introduce from abroad and to cultivate didactic and -descriptive poetry, the best example of which is his notable -transcendental poem _Meditation_ (1813). His colossal egotism made him -attempt to supersede Camoens as Portugal's greatest poet, and in 1814 he -produced _Oriente_, an insipid epic notwithstanding its correct and -vigorous verse, dealing with the same subject as the _Lusiads_--Gama's -discovery of the sea route to India. This amended paraphrase met with a -cold reception, whereupon Macedo published his _Censura dos Lusiadas_, -containing a minute examination and virulent indictment of Camoens. -Macedo founded and wrote for a large number of journals, and the tone -and temper of these and his political pamphlets induced his leading -biographer to name him the "chief libeller" of Portugal, though at the -time his jocular and satirical style gained him popular favour. An -extreme adherent of absolutism, he expended all his brilliant powers of -invective against the Constitutionalists, and advocated a general -massacre of the opponents of the Miguelite regime. Notwithstanding his -priestly office and old age, he continued his aggressive journalistic -campaign, until his own party, feeling that he was damaging the cause by -his excesses, threatened him with proceedings, which caused him in 1829 -to resign the post of censor of books for the Ordinary, to which he had -been appointed in 1824. Though his ingratitude was proverbial, and his -moral character of the worst, when he died in 1831 he left behind him -many friends, a host of admirers, and a great but ephemeral literary -reputation. His ambition to rank as the king of letters led to his -famous conflict with Bocage (q.v.), whose poem _Pena de Taliao_ was -perhaps the hardest blow Macedo ever received. His malignity reached its -height in a satirical poem in six cantos, _Os Burros_ (1812-1814), in -which he pilloried by name men and women of all grades of society, -living and dead, with the utmost licence of expression. His translation -of the _Odes_ of Horace, and his dramatic attempts, are only of value as -evidence of the extraordinary versatility of the man, but his treatise, -if his it be, _A Demonstration of the Existence of God_, at least proves -his possession of very high mental powers. As a poet, his odes on -Wellington and the emperor Alexander show true inspiration, and the -poems of the same nature in his _Lyra anacreontica_, addressed to his -mistress, have considerable merit. - - See _Memorias para la vida intima de Jose Agostinho de Macedo_ (ed. - Th. Braga, 1899); _Cartas e opusculos_ (1900); _Censuras a diversas - obras_ (1901). (E. Pr.) - - - - -MACEDONIA, the name generally given to that portion of European Turkey -which is bounded on the N. by the Kara-Dagh mountain range and the -frontier of Bulgaria, on the E. by the river Mesta, on the S. by the -Aegean Sea and the frontier of Greece, and on the W. by an ill-defined -line coinciding with the mountain chains of Shar (ancient _Scardus_) -Grammus and Pindus. The Macedonia of antiquity was originally confined -to the inland region west of the Axius, between that river and the -Scardus range, and did not include the northern portion, known as -Paeonia, or the coast-land, which, with the eastern districts, was -inhabited by Thracian tribes; the people of the country were not -Hellenic. In modern Macedonia are included the vilayet of Salonica -(Turk. _Selanik_), the eastern and greater portion of the vilayet of -Monastir (sanjaks of Monastir, Servia [Turk. _Selfije_], and part of -that of Kortcha), and the south-eastern portion of the vilayet of -Kossovo (sanjak of Uskub). The greater part of Macedonia is inhabited by -a Slavonic population, mainly Bulgarian in its characteristics; the -coast-line and the southern districts west of the Gulf of Salonica by -Greeks, while Turkish, Vlach and Albanian settlements exist -sporadically, or in groups, in many parts of the country. - - _Geographical Features._--The coast-line is broken by the remarkable - peninsula of Chalcidice, with its three promontories of Athos (ancient - _Acte_), Longus (_Sithonia_) and Cassandra (_Pallene_). The country is - divided into two almost equal portions by the river Vardar (_Axius_), - the valley of which has always constituted the principal route from - Central Europe to the Aegean. Rising in the Shar mountains near - Gostivar (Bulgarian _Kostovo_), the Vardar, flowing to the N.E., - drains the rich elevated plain of Tetovo (Turk. _Kalkandelen_) and, - turning to the S.E. at the foot of Mt Liubotrn, traverses the town and - plain of Uskub, leaving to the left the high plateau of Ovchepolye - ("the sheep-plain"); then flowing through the town of Veles, it - receives on its right, near the ruins of the ancient Stobi, the waters - of its principal tributary, the Tcherna (_Erigon_), which drains the - basin of Monastir and the mountainous region of Morichovo, and after - passing through the picturesque gorge of Demir-Kapu (the Iron Gate) - finds its way to the Gulf of Salonica through the alluvial tract known - as the Campania, extending to the west of that town. The other - important rivers are the Struma (_Strymon_) and Mesta (_Nestus_) to - the east, running almost parallel to the Vardar, and the Bistritza in - the south, all falling into the Aegean. (The Black Drin, issuing from - Lake Ochrida and flowing N.W. to the Adriatic, is for the greater part - of its course an Albanian river.) The Struma, which rises in Mt - Vitosha in Bulgaria, runs through a narrow defile till, within a short - distance of the sea, it expands into Lake Tachino, and falls into the - Aegean near the site of the ancient Amphipolis. The Mesta, rising in - the Rhodope range, drains the valley of Razlog and forms a delta at - its entrance into the Aegean opposite the island of Thasos. The - Bistritza, which has its source in the eastern slope of Mt Grammus, - receives early in its course the outflow from Lake Castoria on the - left; it flows to the S.E. towards the frontier of Greece, where its - course is arrested by the Cambunian mountains; then turning sharply to - the N.E., and passing through the districts of Serfije and Verria, it - reaches the Campania and enters the Gulf of Salonica at a point a few - miles to the S.W. of the mouth of the Vardar. The valleys of most of - the rivers and their tributaries broaden here and there into fertile - upland basins, which were formerly lakes. Of these the extensive - plateau of Monastir, the ancient plain of Pelagonia, about 1500 ft. - above the sea, is the most remarkable; the basins of Tetovo, Uskub, - Kotchane, Strumnitza, Nevrokop, Melnik, Serres and Drama furnish other - examples. The principal lakes are Ochrida (_Lychnitis_) on the - confines of Albania; Prespa, separated from Ochrida by the Galinitza - mountains, and supposed to be connected with it by a subterranean - channel; Castoria, to the S.E. of Prespa; Ostrovo, midway between - Prespa and the Vardar; Tachino (_Cercinitis_) on the lower course of - the Struma; Beshik (_Bolbe_), separating the Chalcidian peninsula from - the mainland, and Doiran (probably _Prasias_), beneath the southern - declivity of the Belasitza mountains; the smaller lakes of Amatovo and - Yenije are in the alluvial plain on either side of the lower Vardar. - Lake Ochrida (q.v.) finds egress into the Black Drin (_Drilon_) at - Struga, where there are productive fisheries. The lacustrine - habitations of the Paeonians on Lake Prasias described by Herodotus - (v. 16) find a modern counterpart in the huts of the fishing - population on Lake Doiran. The surface of the country is generally - mountainous; the various mountain-groups present little uniformity in - their geographical contour. The great chain of Rhodope, continued to - the N.W. by the Rilska and Osogovska Planina, forms a natural boundary - on the north; the principal summit, Musalla (9031 ft.), is just over - the Bulgarian frontier. The adjoining Dospat range culminates in - Belmeken (8562 ft.), also just over the Bulgarian frontier. Between - the upper courses of the Mesta and Struma is the Perim Dagh or Pirin - Planina (_Orbelos_) with Elin (8794 ft.), continued to the south by - the Bozo Dagh (6081 ft.); still further south, overlooking the bay of - Kavala, are the Bunar Dagh and Mt Pangaeus, famous in antiquity for - its gold and silver mines. Between the Struma and the Vardar are the - Belasitza, Krusha and other ranges. West of the Vardar is the lofty - Shar chain (_Scardus_) overlooking the plain of Tetovo and terminating - at its eastern extremity in the pyramidal Liubotrn (according to some - authorities, 10,007 ft., and consequently the highest mountain in the - Peninsula; according to others 8989, 8856, or 8200 ft.). The Shar - range, with the Kara Dagh to the east, forms the natural boundary of - Macedonia on the N.W.; this is prolonged on the west by the - Yaina-Bistra and Yablanitza mountains with several summits exceeding - 7000 ft. in height, the Odonishta Planina overlooking Lake Ochrida on - the west, the Morova Planina, the Grammus range, and Pindus with - Smolika (8546 ft.). The series of heights is broken by the valleys of - the Black Drin and Devol, which flow to the Adriatic. Between the - Vardar and the plain of Monastir the Nija range culminates in - Kaimakchalan (8255 ft.); south-west of Monastir is Mt Peristeri (7720 - ft.) overlooking Lake Prespa on the east; on the west is the Galinitza - range separating it from Lake Ochrida. Between Lake Ostrovo and the - lower Bistritza are the Bermius and Kitarion ranges with Doxa (5240 - ft.) and Turla (about 3280 ft.). South of the Bistritza are the - Cambunian mountains forming the boundary of Thessaly and terminating - to the east in the imposing mass of Etymbos, or Olympus (9794 ft.). - Lastly, Mt Athos, at the extremity of the peninsula of that name, - reaches the height of 6350 ft. The general aspect of the country is - bare and desolate, especially in the neighbourhood of the principal - routes; the trees have been destroyed, and large tracts of land remain - uncultivated. Magnificent forests, however, still clothe the slopes of - Rhodope, Pirin and Pindus. The well-wooded and cultivated districts of - Grevena and Castoria, which are mainly inhabited by a Vlach - population, are remarkably beautiful, and the scenery around Lakes - Ochrida and Prespa is exceedingly picturesque. For the principal - geological formations see BALKAN PENINSULA. - - The climate is severe; the spring is often rainy, and the melted snows - from the encircling mountains produce inundations in the plains. The - natural products are in general similar to those of southern Bulgaria - and Servia--the fig, olive and orange, however, appear on the shores - of the Aegean and in the sheltered valleys of the southern region. The - best tobacco in Europe is grown in the Drama and Kavala districts; - rice and cotton are cultivated in the southern plains. - - _Population._--The population of Macedonia may perhaps be estimated at - 2,200,000. About 1,300,000 are Christians of various churches and - nationalities; more than 800,000 are Mahommedans, and about 75,000 are - Jews. Of the Christians, the great majority profess the Eastern - Orthodox faith, owning allegiance either to the Greek patriarchate or - the Bulgarian exarchate. Among the Orthodox Christians are reckoned - some 4000 Turks. The small Catholic minority is composed chiefly of - Uniate Bulgarians (about 3600), occupying the districts of Kukush and - Doiran; there are also some 2000 Bulgarian Protestants, principally - inhabiting the valley of Razlog. The Mahommedan population is mainly - composed of Turks (about 500,000). In addition to these there are some - 130,000 Bulgars, 120,000 Albanians, 35,000 gipsies and 14,000 Greeks, - together with a smaller number of Vlachs, Jews and Circassians, who - profess the creed of Islam. The untrustworthy Turkish statistics take - religion, not nationality, as the basis of classification. All Moslems - are included in the _millet_, or nation, of Islam. The Rum, or Roman - (i.e. Greek) _millet_ comprises all those who acknowledge the - authority of the Oecumenical patriarch, and consequently includes, in - addition to the Greeks, the Servians, the Vlachs, and a certain number - of Bulgarians; the Bulgar _millet_ comprises the Bulgarians who accept - the rule of the exarchate; the other _millets_ are the _Katolik_ - (Catholics), _Ermeni_ (Gregorian Armenians), _Musevi_ (Jews) and - _Prodesdan_ (Protestants). The population of Macedonia, at all times - scanty, has undoubtedly diminished in recent years. There has been a - continual outflow of the Christian population in the direction of - Bulgaria, Servia and Greece, and a corresponding emigration of the - Turkish peasantry to Asia Minor. Many of the smaller villages are - being abandoned by their inhabitants, who migrate for safety to the - more considerable towns--usually situated at some point where a - mountain pass descends to the outskirts of the plains. In the - agricultural districts the Christian peasants, or _rayas_, are either - small proprietors or cultivate holdings on the estates of Turkish - landowners. The upland districts are thinly inhabited by a nomad - pastoral population. - - _Towns._--The principal towns are Salonica (pop. in 1910, about - 130,000), Monastir (60,000), each the capital of a vilayet, and Uskub - (32,000), capital of the vilayet of Kossovo. In the Salonica vilayet - are Serres (28,000), pleasantly situated in a fertile valley near Lake - Tachino; Nevrokop (6200), Mehomia (5000), and Bansko (6500), in the - valley of the Upper Mesta; Drama (9000), at the foot of the Bozo Dagh, - with its port Kavala (9500); Djumaia (6440), Melnik (4300) and Demir - Hissar (5840) in the valley of the Struma, with Strumnitza (10,160) - and Petrich (7100) in the valley of its tributary, the Strumnitza; - Veles (Turk. _Koprulu_) on the Vardar (19,700); Doiran (6780) and - Kukush (7750); and, to the west of the Vardar, Verria (Slav. _Ber_, - anc. _Beroea_, Turk. _Karaferia_, 10,500), Yenije-Vardar (9599) and - Vodena (anc. _Edessa_, q.v., 11,000). In the portion of the Kossovo - vilayet included in Macedonia are Kalkandelen (Slav. _Tetovo_, - 19,200), Kumanovo (14,500) and Shtip (Turk. _Istib_, 21,000). In the - Monastir vilayet are Prilep (24,000) at the northern end of the - Pelagonian plain, Krushevo (9350), mainly inhabited by Vlachs, Resen - (4450) north of Lake Prespa, Florina (Slav. _Lerin_, 9824); Ochrida - (14,860), with a picturesque fortress of Tsar Samuel, and Struga - (4570), both on the north shore of Lake Ochrida; Dibra (Slav. _Debr_) - on the confines of Albania (15,500), Castoria (Slav. _Kostur_), on the - lake of that name (6190), and Kozhane (6100). (Dibra, Kavala, - Monastir, Ochrida, Salonica, Serres, Uskub and Vodena are described in - separate articles.) - - - The Turks. - -_Races._--Macedonia is the principal theatre of the struggle of -nationalities in Eastern Europe. All the races which dispute the -reversion of the Turkish possessions in Europe are represented within -its borders. The Macedonian probably may therefore be described as the -quintessence of the Near Eastern Question. The Turks, the ruling race, -form less than a quarter of the entire population, and their numbers are -steadily declining. The first Turkish immigration from Asia Minor took -place under the Byzantine emperors before the conquest of the country. -The first purely Turkish town, Yenije-Vardar, was founded on the ruins -of Vardar in 1362. After the capture of Salonica (1430), a strong -Turkish population was settled in the city, and similar colonies were -founded in Monastir, Ochrida, Serres, Drama and other important places. -In many of these towns half or more of the population is still Turkish. -A series of military colonies were subsequently established at various -points of strategic importance along the principal lines of -communication. Before 1360 large numbers of nomad shepherds, or Yuruks, -from the district of Konia, in Asia Minor, had settled in the country; -their descendants are still known as Konariotes. Further immigration -from this region took place from time to time up to the middle of the -18th century. After the establishment of the feudal system in 1397 many -of the Seljuk noble families came over from Asia Minor; their -descendants may be recognized among the beys or Moslem landowners in -southern Macedonia. At the beginning of the 18th century the Turkish -population was very considerable, but since that time it has -continuously decreased. A low birth-rate, the exhaustion of the male -population by military service, and great mortality from epidemics, -against which Moslem fatalism takes no precautions, have brought about a -decline which has latterly been hastened by emigration. On the other -hand, there has been a considerable Moslem immigration from Bosnia, -Servia, Bulgaria and Greece, but the newcomers, _mohajirs_, do not form -a permanent colonizing element. The Turkish rural population is found in -three principal groups: the most easterly extends from the Mesta to -Drama, Pravishta and Orfano, reaching the sea-coast on either side of -Kavala, which is partly Turkish, partly Greek. The second, or central, -group begins on the sea-coast, a little west of the mouth of the -Strymon, where a Greek population intervenes, and extends to the -north-west along the Kara-Dagh and Belasitza ranges in the direction of -Strumnitza, Veles, Shtip and Radovisht. The third, or southern, group is -centred around Kailar, an entirely Turkish town, and extends from Lake -Ostrovo to Selfije (Servia). The second and third groups are mainly -composed of Konariot shepherds. Besides these fairly compact settlements -there are numerous isolated Turkish colonies in various parts of the -country. The Turkish rural population is quiet, sober and orderly, -presenting some of the best characteristics of the race. The urban -population, on the other hand, has become much demoralized, while the -official classes, under the rule of Abdul Hamid II. and his -predecessors, were corrupt and avaricious, and seemed to have parted -with all scruple in their dealings with the Christian peasantry. The -Turks, though still numerically and politically strong, fall behind the -other nationalities in point of intellectual culture, and the contrast -is daily becoming more marked owing to the educational activity of the -Christians. - - - The Greeks and Vlachs. - -The Greek and Vlach populations are not always easily distinguished, as -a considerable proportion of the Vlachs have been hellenized. Both show -a remarkable aptitude for commerce; the Greeks have maintained their -language and religion, and the Vlachs their religion, with greater -tenacity than any of the other races. From the date of the Ottoman -conquest until comparatively recent times, the Greeks occupied an -exceptional position in Macedonia, as elsewhere in the Turkish Empire, -owing to the privileges conferred on the patriarchate of Constantinople, -and the influence subsequently acquired by the great Phanariot families. -All the Christian population belonged to the Greek _millet_ and called -itself Greek; the bishops and higher clergy were exclusively Greek; -Greek was the language of the upper classes, of commerce, literature and -religion, and Greek alone was taught in the schools. The supremacy of -the patriarchate was consummated by the suppression of the autocephalous -Slavonic churches of Ipek in 1766 and Ochrida in 1767. In the latter -half of the 18th century Greek ascendancy in Macedonia was at its -zenith; its decline began with the War of Independence, the -establishment of the Hellenic kingdom, and the extinction of the -Phanariot power in Constantinople. The patriarchate, nevertheless, -maintained its exclusive jurisdiction over all the Orthodox population -till 1870, when the Bulgarian exarchate was established, and the Greek -clergy continued to labour with undiminished zeal for the spread of -Hellenism. Notwithstanding their venality and intolerance, their merits -as the only diffusers of culture and enlightenment in the past should -not be overlooked. The process of hellenization made greater progress in -the towns than in the rural districts of the interior, where the -non-Hellenic populations preserved their languages, which alone saved -the several nationalities from extinction. The typical Greek, with his -superior education, his love of politics and commerce, and his distaste -for laborious occupations, has always been a dweller in cities. In -Salonica, Serres, Kavala, Castoria, and other towns in southern -Macedonia the Hellenic element is strong; in the northern towns it is -insignificant, except at Melnik, which is almost exclusively Greek. The -Greek rural population extends from the Thessalian frontier to Castoria -and Verria (_Beroea_); it occupies the whole Chalcidian peninsula and -both banks of the lower Strymon from Serres to the sea, and from Nigrita -on the west to Pravishta on the east; there are also numerous Greek -villages in the Kavala district. The Mahommedan Greeks, known as -Valachides, occupy a considerable tract in the upper Bistritza valley -near Grevena and Liapsista. The purely Greek population of Macedonia may -possibly be estimated at a quarter of a million. The Vlachs, or Rumans, -who call themselves _Aromuni_ or _Aromani_ (i.e. Romans), are also known -as _Kutzovlachs_ and _Tzintzars_: the last two appellations are, in -fact, nicknames, "Kutzovlach" meaning "lame Vlach," while "Tzintzar" -denotes their inability to pronounce the Rumanian _cinci_ (five). The -Vlachs are styled by some writers "Macedo-Rumans," in contradistinction -to the "Daco-Rumans," who inhabit the country north of the Danube. They -are, in all probability, the descendants of the Thracian branch of the -aboriginal Thraco-Illyrian population of the Balkan Peninsula, the -Illyrians being represented by the Albanians. This early native -population, which was apparently hellenized to some extent under the -Macedonian empire, seems to have been latinized in the period succeeding -the Roman conquest, and probably received a considerable infusion of -Italian blood. The Vlachs are for the most part either highland -shepherds or wandering owners of horses and mules. Their settlements are -scattered all over the mountains of Macedonia: some of these consist of -permanent dwellings, others of huts occupied only in the summer. The -compactest groups are found in the Pindus and Agrapha mountains -(extending into Albania and Thessaly), in the neighbourhood of Monastir, -Grevena and Castoria, and in the district of Meglen. The Vlachs who -settle in the lowland districts are excellent husbandmen. The urban -population is considerable; the Vlachs of Salonica, Monastir, Serres and -other large towns are, for the most part, descended from refugees from -Moschopolis, once the principal centre of Macedonian commerce. The towns -of Metzovo, on the confines of Albania, and Klisura, in the Bistritza -valley, are almost exclusively Vlach. The urban and most of the rural -Vlachs are bilingual, speaking Greek as well as Rumanian; a great number -of the former have been completely hellenized, partly in consequence of -mixed marriages, and many of the wealthiest commercial families of Vlach -origin are now devoted to the Greek cause. The Vlachs of Macedonia -possibly number 90,000, of whom only some 3000 are Mahommedans. The -Macedonian dialect of the Rumanian language differs mainly from that -spoken north of the Danube in its vocabulary and certain phonetic -peculiarities; it contains a number of Greek words which are often -replaced in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin synonyms. - - - The Albanians, Circassians, &c. - -The Albanians, called by the Turks and Slavs _Arnauts_, by the Greeks -[Greek: Apbanitai], and by themselves _Shkyipetar_, have always been the -scourge of western Macedonia. After the first Turkish invasion of -Albania many of the chiefs or beys adopted Mahommedanism, but the -conversion of the great bulk of the people took place in the 16th and -17th centuries. Professing the creed of the dominant power and entitled -to bear arms, the Albanians were enabled to push forward their limits at -the expense of the defenceless population around them, and their -encroachments have continued to the present day. They have not only -advanced themselves, but have driven to the eastward numbers of their -Christian compatriots and a great portion of the once-prosperous Vlach -population of Albania. Albanian revolts and disturbances have been -frequent along the western confines of Macedonia, especially in the -neighbourhood of Dibra: the Slavonic peasants have been the principal -sufferers from these troubles, while the Porte, in pursuance of the -"Islamic policy" adopted by the sultan Abdul Hamid II., dealt tenderly -with the recalcitrant believers. In southern Macedonia the Albanians of -the Tosk race extend over the upper Bistritza valley as far west as -Castoria, and reach the southern and western shores of Lakes Prespa and -Ochrida: they are also numerous in the neighbourhood of Monastir. In -northern Macedonia the Albanians are of the Gheg stock: they have -advanced in large numbers over the districts of Dibra, Kalkandelen and -Uskub, driving the Slavonic population before them. The total number of -Albanians in Macedonia may be estimated at about 120,000, of whom some -10,000 are Christians (chiefly orthodox Tosks). The Circassians, who -occupy some villages in the neighbourhood of Serres, now scarcely number -3000: their predatory instincts may be compared with those of the -Albanians. The Jews had colonies in Macedonia in the time of St Paul, -but no trace remains of these early settlements. The Jews now found in -the country descend from refugees who fled from Spain during the -persecutions at the end of the 15th century: they speak a dialect of -Spanish, which they write with Hebrew characters. They form a -flourishing community at Salonica, which numbers more than half the -population: their colonies at Monastir, Serres and other towns are poor. -A small proportion of the Jews, known as _Deunme_ by the Turks, have -embraced Mahommedanism. - - - The Slavonic Population. - -With the exception of the southern and western districts already -specified, the principal towns, and certain isolated tracts, the whole -of Macedonia is inhabited by a race or races speaking a Slavonic -dialect. If language is adopted as a test, the great bulk of the rural -population must be described as Slavonic. The Slavs first crossed the -Danube at the beginning of the 3rd century, but their great immigration -took place in the 6th and 7th centuries. They overran the entire -peninsula, driving the Greeks to the shores of the Aegean, the Albanians -into the Mirdite country, and the latinized population of Macedonia into -the highland districts, such as Pindus, Agrapha and Olympus. The Slavs, -a primitive agricultural and pastoral people, were often unsuccessful in -their attacks on the fortified towns, which remained centres of -Hellenism. In the outlying parts of the peninsula they were absorbed, or -eventually driven back, by the original populations, but in the central -region they probably assimilated a considerable proportion of the -latinized races. The western portions of the peninsula were occupied by -Serb and Slovene tribes: the Slavs of the eastern and central portions -were conquered at the end of the 7th century by the Bulgarians, a -Ugro-Finnish horde, who established a despotic political organization, -but being less numerous than the subjected race were eventually absorbed -by it. The Mongolian physical type, which prevails in the districts -between the Balkans and the Danube, is also found in central Macedonia, -and may be recognized as far west as Ochrida and Dibra. In general, -however, the Macedonian Slavs differ somewhat both in appearance and -character from their neighbours beyond the Bulgarian and Servian -frontiers: the peculiar type which they present is probably due to a -considerable admixture of Vlach, Hellenic, Albanian and Turkish blood, -and to the influence of the surrounding races. Almost all independent -authorities, however, agree that the bulk of the Slavonic population of -Macedonia is Bulgarian. The principal indication is furnished by the -language, which, though resembling Servian in some respects (e.g. the -case-endings, which are occasionally retained), presents most of the -characteristic features of Bulgarian (see BULGARIA: _Language_). Among -these may be mentioned the suffix-article, the nasal vowels (retained in -the neighbourhood of Salonica and Castoria, but modified elsewhere as in -Bulgarian), the retention of l (e.g. _vulk_ "wolf," _bel_ "white"; -Servian _vuk_, _beo_), and the loss of the infinitive. There are at -least four Slavonic dialects in Macedonia, but the suffix-article, -though varying in form, is a constant feature in all. The Slavs of -western Macedonia are of a lively, enterprising character, and share the -commercial aptitude of the Vlachs: those of the eastern and southern -regions are a quiet, sober, hardworking agricultural race, more -obviously homogeneous with the population of Bulgaria. In upper -Macedonia large family communities, resembling the Servian and Bulgarian -_zadruga_, are commonly found: they sometimes number over 50 members. -The whole Slavonic population of Macedonia may be estimated at about -1,150,000, of whom about 1,000,000 are Christians of the Orthodox faith. -The majority of these own allegiance to the Bulgarian exarchate, but a -certain minority still remains faithful to the Greek patriarchate. The -Moslem Bulgarians form a considerable element: they are found -principally in the valley of the upper Mesta and the Rhodope district, -where they are known as _Pomaks_ or "helpers," i.e. auxiliaries to the -Turkish army. - -_The Racial Propaganda._--The embittered struggle of the rival -nationalities in Macedonia dates from the middle of the 19th century. -Until that period the Greeks, owing to their superior culture and their -privileged position, exercised an exclusive influence over the whole -population professing the Orthodox faith. All Macedonia was either -Moslem or Orthodox Christian, without distinction of nationalities, the -Catholic or Protestant _millets_ being inconsiderable. The first -opposition to Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy came from the Bulgarians. -The Bulgarian literary revival, which took place in the earlier part of -the 19th century, was the precursor of the ecclesiastical and national -movement which resulted in the establishment of the exarchate in 1870 -(see BULGARIA). In the course of the struggle some of the Bulgarian -leaders entered into negotiations with Rome; a Bulgarian Uniate church -was recognized by the Porte, and the pope nominated a bishop, who, -however, was mysteriously deported to Russia a few days after his -consecration (1861). The first exarch, who was elected in 1871, was -excommunicated with all his followers by the patriarch, and a -considerable number of Bulgarians in Macedonia--the so-called -"Bulgarophone Greeks"--fearing the reproach of schism, or influenced by -other considerations, refrained from acknowledging the new spiritual -power. Many of the recently converted uniates, on the other hand, -offered their allegiance to the exarch. The firman of the 28th of -February 1870 specified a number of districts within the present -boundaries of Bulgaria and Servia, as well as in Macedonia, to which -Bulgarian bishops might be appointed; other districts might be subjected -to the exarchate should two-thirds of the inhabitants so desire. In -virtue of the latter provision the districts of Veles, Ochrida and Uskub -declared for the exarchate, but the Turkish government refrained from -sanctioning the nomination of Bulgarian bishops to these dioceses. It -was not till 1891 that the Porte, at the instance of Stamboloff, the -Bulgarian prime minister, whose demands were supported by the Triple -Alliance and Great Britain, issued the _berat_, or exequatur, for -Bulgarian bishops at Ochrida and Uskub; the sees of Veles and Nevrokop -received Bulgarian prelates in 1894, and those of Monastir, Strumnitza -and Dibra in 1898. The Bulgarian position was further strengthened in -the latter year by the establishment of "commercial agents" representing -the principality at Salonica, Uskub, Monastir and Serres. During this -period (1891-1898) the Bulgarian propaganda, entirely controlled by the -spiritual power and conducted within the bounds of legality, made rapid -and surprising progress. Subsequently the interference of the Macedonian -committee at Sofia, in which the advocates of physical force -predominated, and the rivalry of factions did much to injure the -movement; the hostility of the Porte was provoked and the sympathy of -the powers alienated by a series of assassinations and other crimes. -According to the official figures, the Bulgarian schools, which in 1893 -were 554, with 30,267 pupils and 853 teachers, in 1900 numbered 785 -(including 5 gymnasia and 58 secondary schools), with 39,892 pupils and -1250 teachers. A great number of the schools were closed by the Turkish -authorities after the insurrection of 1903 and many had not been -reopened in 1909; the teachers were imprisoned or had fled into exile. - -The Rumanian movement comes next to the Bulgarian in order of time. The -Vlachs had shown greater susceptibility to Greek influence than any of -the other non-Hellenic populations of Macedonia, and, though efforts to -create a Rumanian propaganda were made as early as 1855, it was not till -after the union of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1861 -that any indications of a national sentiment appeared amongst them. In -1886 the principal apostle of the Rumanian cause, a priest named Apostol -Margaritis, founded a gymnasium at Monastir, and the movement, -countenanced by the Porte, supported by the French Catholic missions, -and to some extent encouraged by Austria, has made no inconsiderable -progress since that time. There are now about forty Rumanian schools in -Macedonia, including two gymnasia, and large sums are devoted to their -maintenance by the ministry of education at Bucharest, which also -provides qualified teachers. The Rumanian and Servian movements are at a -disadvantage compared with the Bulgarian, owing to their want of a -separate ecclesiastical organization, the orthodox Vlachs and Serbs in -Turkey owning allegiance to the Greek patriarchate. The governments of -Bucharest and Belgrade therefore endeavoured to obtain the recognition -of Vlach and Servian _millets_, demanding respectively the establishment -of a Rumanian bishopric at Monastir and the restoration of the -patriarchate of Ipek with the appointment of a Servian metropolitan at -Uskub. The Vlach _millet_ was recognized by the Porte by irade on the -23rd of May 1905, but the aims of the Servians, whose active -interference in Macedonia is of comparatively recent date, have not been -realized. Previously to 1878 the hopes of the Servians were centred on -Bosnia, Herzegovina and the vilayet of Kossovo; but when the Berlin -Treaty assigned Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria, the national -aspirations were directed to Macedonia, the Slavonic population of which -was declared to be Servian. The strained relations existing between -Russia and Bulgaria from 1886 to 1895 were to the advantage of the -Servian propaganda, which after 1890 made remarkable progress. Great -expenditure has been incurred by the Servian government in the opening -and maintenance of schools. At the beginning of 1899 there were stated -to be 178 Servian schools in the vilayets of Uskub, Salonica and -Monastir (including fifteen gymnasia), with 321 teachers and 7200 -pupils. - -The Albanian movement is still in an inceptive stage; owing to the -persistent prohibition of Albanian schools by the Turks, a literary -propaganda, the usual precursor of a national revival, was rendered -impossible till the outbreak of the Young Turk revolution in July 1908. -After that date numerous schools were founded and an Albanian committee, -meeting in November 1908, fixed the national alphabet and decided on the -adoption of the Latin character. The educational movement is most -conspicuous among the Tosks, or southern Albanians. Notwithstanding the -encroachments of their rivals, the impoverishment of the patriarchate, -and the injury inflicted on their cause by the Greco-Turkish War of -1897, the Greeks still maintain a large number of schools; according to -statistics prepared at Athens there were in 1901, 927 Greek schools in -the vilayets of Salonica and Monastir (including five gymnasia), with -1397 teachers and 57,607 pupils. The great educational activity -displayed by the proselytizing movements in Macedonia, while tending to -the artificial creation of parties, daily widens the contrast between -the progressive Christian and the backward Moslem populations. - - _Antiquities._--Macedonia, like the neighbouring Balkan countries, - still awaited exploration at the beginning of the 20th century, and - little had been learned of the earlier development of civilization in - these regions. The ancient indigenous population has left many traces - of its presence in the tumuli which occur on the plains, and more - especially along the valley of the Vardar. The unquiet state of the - country went far to prevent any systematic investigation of these - remains; excavations, however, were made by Korte and Franke at - Niausta and near Salonica (see Kretschner, _Einleitung in die - Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, pp. 176, 421), and fragments of - primitive pottery, with peculiar characteristics, were found by - Perdrizet at Tchepelje, on the left bank of Lake Tachino. The oldest - archaeological monuments of Macedonia are its coins, for which the - mines of Crenides (the later Philippi), at the foot of Mt Pangaeus, of - Chalcidice, of the island of Thasos, and of the mountains between Lake - Prasias and the ancient Macedonian kingdom (Herod. v. 17), furnished - abundance of metal. From the reign of Alexander I., in the epoch of - the Persian wars (502-479 B.C.), the Macedonian dynasty issued silver - coins of a purely Greek style. The Thracian communities around Mt - Pangaeus also produced a variety of coins, especially at the beginning - of the 5th century. The great octodrachms of this period were perhaps - struck for the purpose of paying tribute to the Persians when the - country between the Strymon and the Nestos was in their possession; - most of the specimens have been found in Asia Minor. These large - pieces present many characteristics of the Ionian style; it is evident - that the Thracians derived the arts of minting and engraving from the - neighbouring Thasos, itself a colony from the Ionian Paros. The - monarchs of Pella were enthusiastic admirers of Hellenic culture, and - their court was doubtless frequented by Greek sculptors as well as men - of letters, such as Herodotus and Euripides. At Pella has been found a - funerary _stele_ of the late 5th or early 4th century representing a - Macedonian _hetaerus_--a beautiful specimen of the best Greek art, now - preserved in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople. To the - Hellenic period belong the vaulted tombs under tumuli discovered at - Pella, Pydna, Palatitza, and other places; the dead were laid in - marble couches ornamented with sculptures, like those of the so-called - sarcophagus of Alexander at Constantinople. These tombs doubtless - received the remains of the Macedonian nobles and _hetaeri_: in one of - them a fresco representing a conflict between a horseman and a warrior - on foot has been brought to light by Kinch. Similarly constructed - places of sepulture have been found at Eretria and elsewhere in - Greece. At Palatitza the ruins of a remarkable structure, perhaps a - palace, have been laid bare by Heuzey and Daumet. Unlike Greece, where - each independent city had its acropolis, Macedonia offers few remnants - of ancient fortification; most of the country towns appear to have - been nothing more than open market-centres. The most interesting ruins - in the country are those of the Roman and Byzantine epochs, especially - those at Salonica (q.v.). The Byzantine fortifications and aqueduct of - Kavala are also remarkable. At Verria (_Beroea_) may be seen some - Christian remains, at Melnik a palace of the age of the Comneni, at - Serres a fortress built by the Servian tsar Stephen Dushan - (1336-1356). The remains at Filibejik (_Philippi_) are principally of - the Roman and Byzantine periods; the numerous _ex voto_ rock-tablets - of the acropolis are especially interesting. The Roman inscriptions - found in Macedonia are mainly funerary, but include several ephebic - lists. The funerary tablets afford convincing proof of the persistence - of the Thracian element, notwithstanding hellenization and - latinization; many of them, for instance, represent the well-known - Thracian horseman hunting the wild boar. The monastic communities on - the promontory of Athos (q.v.), with their treasures of Byzantine art - and their rich collections of manuscripts, are of the highest - antiquarian interest. - -_History._--For the history of ancient Macedonia see MACEDONIAN -EMPIRE.[1] After its subjugation by the Romans the country was divided -into four districts separated by rigid political and social limitations. -Before long it was constituted a province, which in the time of Augustus -was assigned to the senate. Thenceforward it followed the fortunes of -the Roman empire, and, after the partition of that dominion, of its -eastern branch. Its Thraco-Illyrian inhabitants had already been largely -latinized when Constantine the Great made Byzantium the imperial -residence in A.D. 330; they called themselves Romans and spoke Latin. -Towards the close of the 4th century the country was devastated by the -Goths and Avars, whose incursions possessed no lasting significance. It -was otherwise with the great Slavonic immigration, which took place at -intervals from the 3rd to the 7th century. An important ethnographic -change was brought about, and the greater part of Macedonia was -colonized by the invaders (see BALKAN PENINSULA). - - - Byzantine and Bulgarian Domination. - -The Slavs were in their turn conquered by the Bulgarians (see BULGARIA: -_History_) whose chief Krum (802-815) included central Macedonia in his -dominions. The Byzantines retained the southern regions and Salonica, -which temporarily fell into the hands of the Saracens in 904. With the -exception of the maritime districts, the whole of Macedonia formed a -portion of the empire of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon (893-927); the -Bulgarian power declined after his death, but was revived in western -Macedonia under the Shishman dynasty at Ochrida; Tsar Samuel (976-1014), -the third ruler of that family, included in his dominions Uskub, Veles, -Vodena and Melnik. After his defeat by the emperor Basil II. in 1014 -Greek domination was established for a century and a half. The Byzantine -emperors endeavoured to confirm their positions by Asiatic colonization; -Turkish immigrants, afterwards known as Vardariotes, the first of their -race who appeared in Macedonia, were settled in the neighbourhood of -Salonica in the 9th century; colonies of Uzes, Petchenegs and Kumans -were introduced at various periods from the 11th to the 13th century. -While Greeks and Bulgarians disputed the mastery of Macedonia the -Vlachs, in the 10th century, established an independent state in the -Pindus region, which, afterwards known as Great Walachia, continued to -exist till the beginning of the 14th century. In 1185 southern Macedonia -was exposed to a raid of the Normans under William of Sicily, who -captured Salonica and massacred its inhabitants. After the taking of -Constantinople in 1204 by the Franks of the fourth crusade, the Latin -empire of Romania was formed and the feudal kingdom of Thessalonica was -bestowed on Boniface, marquis of Montferrat; this was overthrown in 1222 -by Theodore, despot of Epirus, a descendant of the imperial house of the -Comneni, who styled himself emperor of Thessalonica and for some years -ruled over all Macedonia. He was defeated and captured by the Bulgarians -in 1230 and the remnant of his possessions, to which his son John -succeeded, was absorbed in the empire of Nicaea in 1234. Bulgarian rule -was now once more established in Macedonia under the powerful monarch -Ivan Asen II. (1218-1241) whose dynasty, of Vlach origin, had been -founded at Trnovo in 1186 after a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars -against the Greeks. A period of decadence followed the extinction of the -Asen dynasty in 1257; the Bulgarian power was overthrown by the Servians -at Velbuzhd (1330), and Macedonia was included in the realm of the great -Servian tsar Dushan (1331-1355) who fixed his capital at Uskub. Dushan's -empire fell to pieces after his death, and the anarchy which followed -prepared the way for the advance of the Turks, to whom not only -contending factions at Constantinople but Servian and Bulgarian princes -alike made overtures. - - - Turkish Rule. - -Macedonia and Thrace were soon desolated by Turkish raids; when it was -too late the Slavonic states combined against the invaders, but their -forces, under the Servian tsar Lazar, were routed at Kossovo in 1389 by -the sultan Murad I. Salonica and Larissa were captured in 1395 by -Murad's son Bayezid, whose victory over Sigismund of Hungary at -Nicopolis in 1396 sealed the fate of the peninsula. The towns in the -Struma valley were yielded to the Turks by John VII. Palaeologus in -1424; Salonica was taken for the last time in 1428 by Murad II. and its -inhabitants were massacred. Large tracts of land were distributed among -the Ottoman chiefs; a system of feudal tenure was developed by Mahommed -II. (1451-1481), each fief furnishing a certain number of armed -warriors. The Christian peasant owners remained on the lands assigned to -the Moslem feudal lords, to whom they paid a tithe. The condition of the -subject population was deplorable from the first, and became worse -during the period of anarchy which coincided with the decadence of the -central power in the 17th and 18th centuries; in the latter half of the -17th century efforts to improve it were made by the grand viziers -Mehemet and Mustafa of the eminent house of Koprulu. The country was -policed by the janissaries (q.v.). Numbers of the peasant proprietors -were ultimately reduced to serfdom, working as labourers on the farms or -_tchifliks_ of the Moslem beys. Towards the end of the 18th century many -of the local governors became practically independent; western Macedonia -fell under the sway of Ali Pasha of Iannina; at Serres Ismail Bey -maintained an army of 10,000 men and exercised a beneficent despotism. -For more than two centuries Albanian incursions, often resulting in -permanent settlements, added to the troubles of the Christian -population. The reforms embodied in the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhane (1839) -and in the Hatt-i-humayun (1856), in both of which the perfect equality -of races and religions was proclaimed, remained a dead letter; the first -"Law of the Vilayets" (1864), reforming the local administration, -brought no relief, while depriving the Christian communities of certain -rights which they had hitherto possessed. - - - European Intervention. - - Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin. - -In 1876 a conference of the powers at Constantinople proposed the -reorganization of the Bulgarian provinces of Turkey in two vilayets -under Christian governors-general aided by popular assemblies. The -"western" vilayet, of which Sofia was to be the capital, included -northern, central and western Macedonia, extending south as far as -Castoria. The _projet de reglement_ elaborated by the conference was -rejected by the Turkish parliament convoked under the constitution -proclaimed on the 23rd of December 1876; the constitution, which was -little more than a device for eluding European intervention, was shortly -afterwards suspended. Under the treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878) -the whole of Macedonia, except Salonica and the Chalcidic peninsula, was -included in the newly formed principality of Bulgaria; this arrangement -was reversed by the Treaty of Berlin (July 13) which left Macedonia -under Turkish administration but provided (Art. xxiii.) for the -introduction of reforms analogous to those of the Cretan Organic Statute -of 1868. These reforms were to be drawn up by special commissions, on -which the native element should be largely represented, and the opinion -of the European commission for eastern Rumelia was to be taken before -their promulgation. The Porte, however, prepared a project of its own, -and the commission, taking this as a basis, drew up the elaborate "Law -of the Vilayets" (Aug. 23, 1880). The law never received the sultan's -sanction, and European diplomacy proved unequal to the task of securing -its adoption. - - - The Macedonian Question. - -The Berlin Treaty, by its artificial division of the Bulgarian race, -created the difficult and perplexing "Macedonian Question." The -population handed back to Turkish rule never acquiesced in its fate; its -discontent was aggravated by the deplorable misgovernment which -characterized the reign of Abdul Hamid II., and its efforts to assert -itself, stimulated by the sympathy of the enfranchised portion of the -race, provoked rival movements on the part of the other Christian -nationalities, each receiving encouragement and material aid from the -adjacent and kindred states. Some insignificant risings took place in -Macedonia after the signature of the Berlin Treaty, but in the interval -between 1878 and 1893 the population remained comparatively tranquil, -awaiting the fulfilment of the promised reforms. - - - Bulgarian Conspiracies. - -In 1893, however, a number of secret revolutionary societies -(_druzhestva_) were set on foot in Macedonia, and in 1894 similar bodies -were organized as legal corporations in Bulgaria. The fall of Stamboloff -in that year and the reconciliation of Bulgaria with Russia encouraged -the revolutionaries in the mistaken belief that Russia would take steps -to revive the provisions of the San Stefano treaty. In 1895 the "Supreme -Macedo-Adrianopolitan Committee" (_Vrkhoven Makedoni-Odrinski Komitet_) -was formed at Sofia and forthwith despatched armed bands into northern -Macedonia; the town of Melnik was occupied for a short time by the -revolutionaries under Boris Sarafoff, but the enterprise ended in -failure. Dispirited by this result, the "Vrkhovists," as the -revolutionaries in Bulgaria were generally styled, refrained from any -serious effort for the next five years; the movement was paralysed by -dissensions among the chiefs, and rival parties were formed under -Sarafoff and General Tzoncheff. Meanwhile the "Centralist" or local -Macedonian societies were welded by two remarkable men, Damian Grueff -and Gotze Delcheff, into a formidable power known as the "Internal -Organization," founded in 1893, which maintained its own police, held -its own tribunals, assessed and collected contributions, and otherwise -exercised an _imperium in imperio_ throughout the country, which was -divided into rayons or districts, and subdivided into departments and -communes, each with its special staff of functionaries. The Internal -Organization, as a rule, avoided co-operation with the revolutionaries -in Bulgaria; it aimed at the attainment of Macedonian autonomy, and at -first endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to enlist the sympathies of the -Greeks and Servians for the programme of "Macedonia for the -Macedonians." - - - Greek Action. - -The principle of autonomy was suspected at Athens and Belgrade as -calculated to ensure Bulgarian predominance and to delay or preclude the -ultimate partition of the country. At Athens, especially, the progress -of the Bulgarian movement was viewed with much alarm; it was feared that -Macedonia would be lost to Hellenism, and in 1896 the _Ethnike Hetaerea_ -(see GREECE and CRETE) sent numerous bands into the southern districts -of the country. The Hetaerea aimed at bringing about a war between -Greece and Turkey, and the outbreak of trouble in Crete enabled it to -accomplish its purpose. During the Greco-Turkish War (q.v.) Macedonia -remained quiet, Bulgaria and Servia refraining from interference under -pressure from Austria, Russia and the other great powers. The reverses -of the Greeks were to the advantage of the Bulgarian movement, which -continued to gain strength, but after the discovery of a hidden depot of -arms at Vinitza in 1897 the Turkish authorities changed their attitude -towards the Bulgarian element; extreme and often barbarous methods of -repression were adopted, and arms were distributed among the Moslem -population. The capture of an American missionary, Miss Stone, by a -Bulgarian band under Sandansky in the autumn of 1901 proved a windfall -to the revolutionaries, who expended her ransom of LT16,000 in the -purchase of arms and ammunition. - - - Troubles in 1902: Intervention of the Powers. - -In 1902 the Servians, after a prolonged conflict with the Greeks, -succeeded with Russian aid in obtaining the nomination of Mgr. -Firmilian, a Servian, to the archbishopric of Uskub. Contemporaneously -with a series of Russo-Bulgarian celebrations in the Shipka pass in -September of that year, an effort was made to provoke a rising in the -Monastir district by Colonel Yankoff, the lieutenant of General -Tzoncheff; in November a number of bands entered the Razlog district -under the general's personal direction. These movements, which were not -supported by the Internal Organization, ended in failure, and merciless -repression followed. The state of the country now became such as to -necessitate the intervention of the powers, and the Austrian and Russian -governments, which had acted in concert since April 1897, drew up an -elaborate scheme of reforms. The Porte, as usual, endeavoured to -forestall foreign interference by producing a project of its own, which -was promulgated in November 1902, and Hilmi Pasha was appointed -Inspector General of the Rumelian vilayets and charged with its -application. The two powers, however, persevered in their intention and -on the 21st of February 1903 presented to the Porte an identic -memorandum proposing a series of reforms in the administration, police -and finance, including the employment of "foreign specialists" for the -reorganization of the gendarmerie. - - - Bulgarian Insurrection in 1903. - -At the same time the Bulgarian government, under pressure from Russia, -arrested the revolutionary leaders in the principality, suppressed the -committees, and confiscated their funds. The Internal Organization, -however, was beyond reach, and preparations for an insurrection went -rapidly forward. In March a serious Albanian revolt complicated the -situation. At the end of April a number of dynamite outrages took place -at Salonica; public opinion in Europe turned against the revolutionaries -and the Turks seized the opportunity to wreak a terrible vengeance on -the Bulgarian population. On the 2nd of August, the feast of St Elias, a -general insurrection broke out in the Monastir vilayet, followed by -sporadic revolts in other districts. The insurgents achieved some -temporary successes and occupied the towns of Krushevo, Klisura and -Neveska, but by the end of September their resistance was overcome; more -than 100 villages were burned by the troops and bashi-bazouks, 8400 -houses were destroyed and 60,000 peasants remained homeless in the -mountains at the approach of winter. - - - The "Murzsteg Programme." - -The Austrian and Russian governments then drew up a further series of -reforms known as the "Murzsteg programme" (Oct. 9, 1903) to which the -Porte assented in principle, though many difficulties were raised over -details. Two officials, an Austrian and a Russian, styled "civil agents" -and charged with the supervision of the local authorities in the -application of reforms, were placed by the side of the inspector-general -while the reorganization of the gendarmerie was entrusted to a foreign -general in the Turkish service aided by a certain number of officers -from the armies of the great powers. The latter task was entrusted to -the Italian General de Giorgis (April 1904), the country being divided -into sections under the supervision of the officers of each power. The -reforms proved a failure, mainly owing to the tacit opposition of the -Turkish authorities, the insufficient powers attributed to the European -officials, the racial feuds and the deplorable financial situation. In -1905 the powers agreed on the establishment of a financial commission on -which the representatives of Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy -would sit as colleagues of the civil agents. The Porte offered an -obstinate resistance to the project and only yielded (Dec. 5) when the -fleets of the powers appeared near the Dardanelles. Some improvement was -now effected in the financial administration, but the general state of -the country continued to grow worse; large funds were collected abroad -by the committees at Athens, which despatched numerous bands largely -composed of Cretans into the southern districts, the Servians displayed -renewed activity in the north, while the Bulgarians offered a dogged -resistance to all their foes. - - - The "Reval Programme." - -The Austro-Russian _entente_ came to an end in the beginning of 1908 -owing to the Austrian project of connecting the Bosnian and Macedonian -railway systems, and Great Britain and Russia now took the foremost -place in the demand for reforms. After a meeting between King Edward -VII. and the emperor Nicholas II. at Reval in the early summer of 1908 -an Anglo-Russian scheme, known as the "Reval programme," was announced; -the project aimed at more effective European supervision and dealt -especially with the administration of justice. Its appearance was almost -immediately followed by the military revolt of the Young Turk or -constitutional party, which began in the Monastir district under two -junior officers, Enver Bey and Niazi Bey, in July. The restoration of -the constitution of 1876 was proclaimed (July 24,1908), and the powers, -anticipating the spontaneous adoption of reforms on the part of -regenerated Turkey, decided to suspend the Reval programme and to -withdraw their military officers from Macedonia. - - See Lejean, _Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Europe_ (Gotha, 1861); Hahn, - _Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik_ (Vienna, 1868); Yastreboff, _Obichai - i pesni turetskikh Serbov_ (St Petersburg, 1886); "Ofeicoff" - (Shopoff), _La Macedoine au point de vue ethnographique, historique et - philologique_ (Philippopolis, 1888); Gopchevitch, _Makedonien und - Alt-Serbien_ (Vienna, 1889); Verkovitch, - _Topografichesko-ethnographicheskii ocherk Makedonii_ (St Petersburg, - 1889); Burada, _Cercetari despre scoalele Romanesci din Turcia_ - (Bucharest, 1890); Tomaschek, _Die heutigen Bewohner Macedoniens_ - (Sonderabdruck aus den Verhandlungen des IX. D. Geographen-Tages in - Wien, 1891) (Berlin, 1891); _Die alten Thraker_ (Vienna, 1893); - Berard, _La Turquie et l'Hellenisme contemporain_, (Paris, 1893); _La - Macedoine_ (Paris, 1900); Shopoff, _Iz zhivota i polozhenieto na - Bulgarite v vilayetite_ (Philippopolis, 1894); Weigand, _Die Aromunen_ - (Leipzig, 1895); _Die nationalen Bestrebungen der Balkanvolker_ - (Leipzig, 1898); Nikolaides, _La Macedoine_ (Berlin, 1899); - "Odysseus," _Turkey in Europe_ (London, 1900); Kunchoff, _Makedonia: - etnografia i statistika_ (Sofia, 1900); _La Macedoine et la Vilayet - d'Andrinople_ (Sofia, 1904), anonymous; L. Villari, _The Balkan - Question_ (London, 1905); H. N. Brailsford, _Macedonia: its Races and - their Future_ (London, 1906); J. Cviji['c], _Grundlinien der - Geographie und Geologie von Mazedonien und Altserbien_ (Gotha, 1908). - For the antiquities, see Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_ - (London, 1864); Heuzey and Daumet, _Mission archeologique en - Macedoine_ (Paris, 1865); Duchesne and Bayet, _Memoire sur une mission - en Macedoine et au Mont Athos_ (Paris, 1876); Barclay V. Head, - _Catalogue of Greek Coins_; Macedonia (London, 1879); Kinch, _L'Arc de - triomphe de Salonique_ (Paris, 1890); _Beretnung om en archaeologisk - Reise i Makedonien_ (Copenhagen, 1893); Mommsen, Suppl. to vol. iii. - _Corpus inscript., latinarum_ (Berlin, 1893); Perdrizet, Articles on - Macedonian archaeology and epigraphy in _Bulletin de correspondance - hellenique_, since 1894. (J. D. B.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Also Alexander, Perdiccas, Philip, &c. - - - - -MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, the name generally given to the empire founded by -Alexander the Great of Macedon in the countries now represented by -Greece and European Turkey, Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, Persia and -eastwards as far as northern India.[1] The present article contains a -general account of the empire in its various aspects. It falls naturally -into two main divisions:--I. The reign of Alexander. II. The period of -his successors, the "Diadochi" and their dynasties. - - - 1. Greeks and Persians. - -I. _The Reign of Alexander._--At the beginning of the 4th century B.C. -two types of political association confronted each other in the lands of -the Eastern Mediterranean,--the Persian monarchy with its huge -agglomeration of subject peoples, and the Greek city-state. Each had a -different principle of strength. The Persian monarchy was strong in its -size, in the mere amount of men and treasure it could dispose of under a -single hand; the Greek state was strong in its _morale_, in the energy -and discipline of its soldiery. But the smallness of the single -city-states and their unwillingness to combine prevented this -superiority in quality from telling destructively upon the bulk of the -Persian empire. The future belonged to any power that could combine the -advantages of both systems, could make a state larger than the Greek -_polis_, and animated by a spirit equal to that of the Greek soldier. -This was achieved by the kings of Macedonia. The work, begun by his -predecessors, of consolidating the kingdom internally and making its -army a fighting-machine of high power was completed by the genius of -Philip II. (359-336 B.C.), who at the same time by war and diplomacy -brought the Greek states of the Balkan peninsula generally to recognize -his single predominance. At the synod of Corinth (338) Philip was -solemnly declared the captain-general ([Greek: strategos autokrator]) of -the Hellenes against the Great King. The attack on Persia was delayed by -the assassination of Philip in 336, and it needed some fighting before -the young Alexander had made his position secure in Macedonia and -Greece. The recognition as captain-general he had obtained at another -synod in Corinth, by an imposing military demonstration in Greece -immediately upon his accession. Then came the invasion of the Persian -empire by Alexander in 334 at the head of an army composed both of -Macedonians and contingents from the allied Greek states. Before this -force the Persian monarchy went down, and when Alexander died eleven -years later (323) a Macedonian empire which covered all the territory of -the old Persian empire, and even more, was a realized fact. - - - 2. Extent of the Empire. - - The empire outside of Macedonia itself consisted of 22 provinces. _In - Europe_, (1) Thrace; _in Asia Minor_, (2) Phrygia on the Hellespont, - (3) Lydia, (4) Caria, (5) Lycia and Pamphylia, (6) Great Phrygia, (7) - Paphlagonia and Cappadocia; _between the Taurus and Iran_, (8) - Cilicia, (9) Syria, (10) Mesopotamia, (11) Babylonia, (12) Susiana; - _in Africa_, (13) Egypt; _in Iran_, (14) Persis, (15) Media, (16) - Parthia and Hyrcania, (17) Bactria and Sogdiana, (18) Areia and - Drangiana, (19) Carmania, (20) Arachosia and Gedrosia; lastly _the - Indian provinces_, (21) the Paropanisidae (the Kabul valley), and (22) - the province assigned to Pithon, the son of Agenor, upon the Indus (J. - Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ III. [ii.], p. 236 seq.; for the Indian - provinces cf. B. Niese, _Gesch. der griech. und maked. Staaten_, I. p. - 500 seq.). Hardly provinces proper, but rather client principalities, - were the two native kingdoms to which Alexander had left the conquered - land beyond the Indus--the kingdoms of Taxiles and Porus. - - - 3. System of Government. - -The conquered empire presented Alexander with a system of government -ready-made, which it was natural for the new masters to take over. For -the Asiatic provinces and Egypt, the old Persian name of _satrapy_ (see -SATRAP) was still retained, but the governor seems to have been styled -officially in Greek _strategos_, although the term _satrap_ certainly -continued current in common parlance. The governors appointed by -Alexander were, in the west of the empire, exclusively Macedonians; in -the east, members of the Old Persian nobility were still among the -satraps at Alexander's death, Atropates in Media, Phrataphernes in -Parthia and Hyrcania, and Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes in the -Paropanisidae. Alexander had at first trusted Persian grandees more -freely in this capacity; in Babylonia, Bactria, Carmania, Susiana he had -set Persian governors, till the ingrained Oriental tradition of -misgovernment so declared itself that to the three latter provinces -certainly Macedonians had been appointed before his death. Otherwise the -only eastern satrapy whose governor was not a Macedonian, was Areia, -under Stasanor, a Cypriote Greek. In the case of certain provinces, -possibly in the empire generally, Alexander established a double -control. The financial administration was entrusted to separate -officials; we hear of such in Lydia (Arr. i. 17, 7), Babylonia (id. iii. -16, 4), and notably in Egypt (id. iii. 5, 4). Higher financial -controllers seem to have been over groups of provinces (Philoxenus over -Asia Minor, Arr. i. 17, 7; see Beloch, _Gr. Gesch._ III. [i] p. 14), and -Harpalus over the whole finances of the empire, with his seat in -Babylon. Again the garrisons in the chief cities, such as Sardis, -Babylon, Memphis Pelusium and Susa, were under commands distinct from -those of the provinces. The old Greek cities of the motherland were not -formally subjects of the empire, but sovereign states, which assembled -at Corinth as members of a great alliance, in which the Macedonian king -was included as a member and held the office of captain-general. The -Greek cities of Asia Minor stood to him in a similar relation, though -not included in the Corinthian alliance, but in federations of their own -(Kaerst, _Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalt._ i. 261 seq.). Their territory -was not part of the king's country (_Inscr. in the Brit. Mus._ No. 400). -Of course, in fact, the power of the king was so vastly superior that -the Greek cities were in reality subject to his dictation, even in so -intimate a matter as the readmission of their exiles, and might be -obliged to receive his garrisons. Within the empire itself, the various -communities were allowed, subject to the interference of the king or his -officials, to manage their own affairs. Alexander is said to have -granted the Lydians to be "free" and "to use the laws of the ancient -Lydians," whatever exactly these expressions may mean (Arr. i. 17, 4). -So too in Egypt, the native monarchs were left as the local authorities -(Arr. iii. 5, 4). Especially to the gods of the conquered people -Alexander showed respect. In Egypt and in Babylon he appeared as the -restorer of the native religions to honour after the unsympathetic rule -of the Persians. The temple of Marduk in Babylon which had fallen began -to rise again at his command. It is possible that he offered sacrifice -to Yahweh in Jerusalem. In Persia, the native aristocracy retained their -power, and the Macedonian governor adopted Persian dress and manners -(Diod. xix. 48, 5; Arr. vi. 30). A new factor introduced by Alexander -was the foundation of Greek cities at all critical points of intercourse -in the conquered lands. These, no doubt, possessed municipal autonomy -with the ordinary organization of the Greek state; to what extent they -were formally and regularly controlled by the provincial authorities we -do not know; Pithon, the satrap of the Indian province is specially -described as sent "in colonias in Indis conditas" (Just. xiii. 4, 21). -The empire included large tracts of mountain or desert, inhabited by -tribes, which the Persian government had never subdued. The subjugation -of such districts could only be by a system of effective military -occupation and would be a work of time; but Alexander made a beginning -by punitive expeditions, as occasion offered, calculated to reduce the -free tribes to temporary quiet; we hear of such expeditions in the case -of the Pisidians, the tribes of the Lebanon, the Uxii (in Khuzistan), -the Tapyri (in the Elburz), the hill-peoples of Bajaor and Swat, the -Cossaei (in Kurdistan); an expedition against the Arabs was in -preparation when Alexander died. - - See A. Kohler, _Reichsverwaltung u. Politik Alexanders des Grossen in - Klio_, v. 303 seq. (1905). - - - 4. Court. - -Alexander, who set out as king of the Macedonians and captain-general of -the Hellenes, assumed after the death of Darius the character of the -Oriental great king. He adopted the Persian garb (Plutarch, _de fort. -Al._ i. 8) including a head-dress, the _diadema_, which was suggested by -that of the Achaemenian king (_Just._ xii. 3, 8). We hear also of a -sceptre as part of his insignia (_Diod._ xviii. 27, 1). The pomps and -ceremonies which were traditional in the East were to be continued. To -the Greeks and Macedonians such a regime was abhorrent, and the -opposition roused by Alexander's attempt to introduce among them the -practice of _proskynesis_ (prostration before the royal presence), was -bitter and effectual. The title of _chiliarch_, by which the Greeks had -described the great king's chief minister, in accordance with the -Persian title which described him as "commander of a thousand," i.e. of -the royal body-guard, was conferred by Alexander upon his friend -Hephaestion. The Greek Chares held the position of chief usher ([Greek: -eisangeleus]). Another Greek, Eumenes of Cardia, was chief secretary -([Greek: archigrammateus]). The figure of the eunuch, so long -characteristic of the Oriental court, was as prominent as ever (e.g. -Bagoas, Plut. _Alex._ 67, &c.; cf. Arr. vii. 24). - -Alexander, however, who impressed his contemporaries by his sexual -continence, kept no harem of the old sort. The number of his wives did -not go beyond two, and the second, the daughter of Darius, he did not -take till a year before his death. In closest contact with the king's -person were the seven, or latterly eight, body-guards, [Greek: -somatophylakes], Macedonians of high rank, including Ptolemy and -Lysimachus, the future kings of Egypt, and Thrace (Arr. vi. 28, 4). The -institution, which the Macedonian court before Alexander had borrowed -from Persia, of a corps of pages composed of the young sons of the -nobility ([Greek: paides basileioi] or [Greek: basilikoi]) continued to -hold an important place in the system of the court and in Alexander's -campaigns (see Arr. iv. 13, 1; Curt. viii. 6, 6; Suid. [Greek: basileioi -paides]; cf. the [Greek: paides] of Eumenes, Diod. xix. 28, 3). - - See Spiecker, _Der Hof und die Hofordnung Alex. d. Grossen_ (1904). - - - 5. Army. - - The army of Alexander was an instrument which he inherited from his - father Philip. Its core was composed of the Macedonian peasantry who - served on foot in heavy armour ("the Foot-companions" [Greek: - pezetairoi]). They formed the phalanx, and were divided into 6 - brigades ([Greek: taxeis]), probably on the territorial system. Their - distinctive arm was the great Macedonian pike (_sarissa_), some 14 ft. - long, of further reach than the ordinary Greek spear. They were - normally drawn up in more open order than the heavy Greek phalanx, and - possessed thereby a mobility and elasticity in which the latter was - fatally deficient. Reckoning 1,500 to each brigade, we got a total for - the phalanx of 9,000 men. Of higher rank than the _pezetaeri_ were the - royal foot-guards ([Greek: basilikoi hypaspistai]), some 3,000 in - number, more lightly armed, and distinguished (at any rate at the time - of Alexander's death) by silver shields. Of these 1,000 constituted - the royal corps ([Greek: to agema to basilikou]). The Macedonian - cavalry was recruited from a higher grade of society than the - infantry, the _petite noblesse_ of the nation. They bore by old custom - the name of the king's Companions ([Greek: hetairoi]), and were - distributed into 8 territorial squadrons ([Greek: ilai]) of probably - some 250 men each, making a normal total of 2,000. In the cavalry also - the most privileged squadron bore the name of the _agema_. The ruder - peoples which were neighbors to the Macedonians (Paeonians, Agrianes, - Thracians) furnished contingents of light cavalry and javelineers - ([Greek: akontistai]). From the Thessalians the Macedonian king, as - overlord, drew some thousand excellent troopers. The rest of - Alexander's army was composed of Greeks, not formally his subjects. - These served partly as mercenaries, partly in contingents contributed - by the states in virtue of their alliance. According to Diodorus - (xvii. 17, 3) at the time of Alexander's passage into Asia, the - mercenaries numbered 5,000, and the troops of the alliance 7,000 foot - and 600 horse. All these numbers take no account of the troops left - behind in Macedonia, 12,000 foot and 1,500 horse, according to - Diodorus. When Alexander was lord of Asia, innovations followed in the - army. Already in 330 at Persepolis, the command went forth that 30,000 - young Asiatics were to be trained as Macedonian soldiers (the - _epigoni_, Arr. vii., 6, 1). Contingents of the fine Bactrian cavalry - followed Alexander into India. Persian nobles were admitted into the - _agema_ of the Macedonian cavalry. A far more radical remodelling of - the army was undertaken at Babylon in 323, by which the old phalanx - system was to be given up for one in which the unit was to be composed - of Macedonians with pikes and Asiatics with missile arms in - combination--a change calculated to be momentous both from a military - point of view in the coming wars, and from a political, in the close - fusion of Europeans and Asiatics. The death of Alexander interrupted - the scheme, and his successors reverted to the older system. In the - wars of Alexander the phalanx was never the most active arm; Alexander - delivered his telling attacks with his cavalry, whereas the - slow-moving phalanx held rather the position of a reserve, and was - brought up to complete a victory when the cavalry charges had already - taken effect. Apart from the pitched battles, the warfare of Alexander - was largely hill-fighting, in which the _hypaspistae_ took the - principal part, and the contingents of light-armed hillmen from the - Balkan region did excellent service. - - For Alexander's army and tactics, beside the regular histories - (Droysen, Niese, Beloch, Kaerst), see D. G. Hogarth, _Journal of - Philol._, xvii. 1 seq. (corrected at some points in his _Philip and - Alexander_). - - - 6. Fusion of Greeks and Asiatics. - -The modifications in the army system were closely connected with -Alexander's general policy, in which the fusion of Greeks and Asiatics -held so prominent a place. He had himself, as we have seen, assumed to -some extent the guise of a Persian king. The Macedonian Peucestas -received special marks of his favour for adopting the Persian dress. The -most striking declaration of his ideals was the marriage feast at Susa -in 324, when a large number of the Macedonian nobles were induced to -marry Persian princesses, and the rank and file were encouraged by -special rewards to take Eastern wives. We are told that among the -schemes registered in the state papers and disclosed after Alexander's -death was one for transplanting large bodies of Asiatics into Europe and -Europeans into Asia, for blending the peoples of the empire by -intermarriage into a single whole (Diod. xviii. 4, 4). How far did -Alexander intend that in such a fusion Hellenic culture should retain -its pre-eminence? How far could it have done so, had the scheme been -realized? It is not impossible that the question may yet be raised again -whether the Eurasian after all is the heir of the ages. - - - 7. Divine Honours. - -High above all the medley of kindreds and tongues, untrammelled by -national traditions, for he had outgrown the compass of any one nation, -invested with the glory of achievements in which the old bounds of the -possible seemed to fall away, stood in 324 the man Alexander. Was he a -man? The question was explicitly suggested by the report that the -Egyptian priest in the Oasis had hailed him in the god's name as the son -of Ammon. The Egyptians had, of course, ascribed deity by old custom to -their kings, and were ready enough to add Alexander to the list. The -Persians, on the other hand, had a different conception of the godhead, -and we have no proof that from them Alexander either required or -received divine honours. From the Greeks he certainly received such -honours; the ambassadors from the Greek states came in 323 with the -character of _theori_, as if approaching a deity (Arr. vii. 23, 2). It -has been supposed that in offering such worship the Greeks showed the -effect of "Oriental" influence, but indeed we have not to look outside -the Greek circle of ideas to explain it. As early as Aeschylus (_Supp._ -991) the proffering of divine honours was a form of expression for -intense feelings of reverence or gratitude towards men which naturally -suggested itself--as a figure of speech in Aeschylus, but the figure had -been translated into action before Alexander not in the well-known case -of Lysander only (cf. the case of Dion, Plut. _Dio_, 29). Among the -educated Greeks rationalistic views of the old mythology had become so -current that they could assimilate Alexander to Dionysus without -supposing him to be supernatural, and to this temper the divine honours -were a mere form, an elaborate sort of flattery. Did Alexander merely -receive such honours? Or did he claim them himself? It would seem that -he did. Many of the assertions as to his action in this line do not -stand the light of criticism (see Hogarth, _Eng. Hist. Rev._ ii., 1887, -p. 317 seq.; Niese, _Historische Zeitschrift_, lxxix., 1897, p. 1, -seq.); even the explicit Statement in Arrian as to Alexander and the -Arabians is given as a mere report; but we have well-authenticated -utterances of Attic orators when the question of the cult of Alexander -came up for debate, which seem to prove that an intimation of the king's -pleasure had been conveyed to Athens. - - - 8. Intercourse and Discovery. - -A new life entered the lands conquered by Alexander. Human intercourse -was increased and quickened to a degree not before known. Commercial -enterprise now found open roads between the Aegean and India; the new -Greek cities made stations in what had been for the earlier Greek -traders unknown lands; an immense quantity of precious metal had been -put into circulation which the Persian kings had kept locked up in their -treasuries (cf. Athen, vi. 231 e). At the same time Alexander himself -made it a principal concern to win fresh geographical knowledge, to -open new ways. The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates -was intended to link India by a waterway with the Mediterranean lands. -So too Heraclides was sent to explore the Caspian; the survey, and -possible circumnavigation, of the Arabian coasts was the last enterprise -which occupied Alexander. The improvement of waterways in the interior -of the empire was not neglected, the Babylonian canal system was -repaired, the obstructions in the Tigris removed. A canal was attempted -across the Mimas promontory (Plin. _N.H._ v. 116). The reports of the -[Greek: Bematistai], Baeton and Diognetus, who accompanied the march of -Alexander's army, gave an exacter knowledge of the geographical -conformation of the empire, and were accessible for later investigators -(Susemihl, _Gesch. d. griech. Litt._, I. p. 544). Greek natural science -was enriched with a mass of new material from the observations of the -philosophers who went with Alexander through the strange lands (H. -Bretzl, _Botanische Forschungen d. Alexanderzuges_, 1903); whilst on the -other hand attempts were made to acclimatize the plants of the -motherland in the foreign soil (Theophr., _Hist. Plant._ iv. 4, 1). - - - 9. Coinage. - - The accession of Alexander brought about a change in the monetary - system of the kingdom. Philip's bimetallic system, which had attempted - artificially to fix the value of silver in spite of the great - depreciation of gold consequent upon the working of the Pangaean - mines, was abandoned. Alexander's gold coinage, indeed (possibly not - struck till after the invasion of Asia), follows in weight that of - Philip's staters; but he seems at once to have adopted for his silver - coins (of a smaller denomination than the tetradrachm) the - Euboic-Attic standard, instead of the Phoenician, which had been - Philip's. With the conquest of Asia, Alexander conceived the plan of - issuing a uniform coinage for the empire. Gold had fallen still - further from the diffusion of the Persian treasure, and Alexander - struck in both metals on the Attic standard, leaving their relation to - adjust itself by the state of the market. This imperial coinage was - designed to break down the monetary predominance of Athens (Beloch, - _Gr. Gesch._ iii. i, 42). None of the coins with Alexander's own image - can be shown to have been issued during his reign; the traditional - gods of the Greeks still admitted no living man to share their - prerogative in this sphere. Athena and Nike alone figured upon - Alexander's gold; Heracles and Zeus upon his silver. - - See L. Muller, _Numismatique d'Alexandre le Grand_ (1855); also - NUMISMATICS: S I. "Greek Coins, Macedonian." - - - 1. History of the "Successors." - -II. _After Alexander._--The external fortunes of the Macedonian Empire -after Alexander's death must be briefly traced before its inner -developments be touched upon.[2] There was, at first, when Alexander -suddenly died in 323, no overt disruption of the empire. The dispute -between the Macedonian infantry and the cavalry (i.e. the commonalty and -the nobles) was as to the person who should be chosen to be the king, -although it is true that either candidate, the half-witted son of Philip -II., Philip Arrhidaeus, or the posthumous son of Alexander by Roxana, -opened the prospect of a long regency exercised by one or more of the -Macedonian lords. The compromise, by which both the candidates should be -kings together, was, of course, succeeded by a struggle for power among -those who wished to rule in their name. The resettlement of dignities -made in Babylon in 323, while it left the eastern commands practically -undisturbed as well as that of Antipater in Europe, placed Perdiccas -(whether as regent or as chiliarch) in possession of the kings' persons, -and this was a position which the other Macedonian lords could not -suffer. Hence the first intestine war among the Macedonians, in which -Antipater, Antigonus, the satrap of Phrygia, and Ptolemy, the satrap of -Egypt, were allied against Perdiccas, who was ultimately murdered in 321 -on the Egyptian frontier (see PERDICCAS [4], EUMENES). A second -settlement, made at Triparadisus in Syria in 321, constituted Antipater -regent and increased the power of Antigonus in Asia. When Antipater -died, in 319, a second war broke out, the wrecks of the party of -Perdiccas, led by Eumenes, combining with Polyperchon, the new regent, -and later on (318) with the eastern satraps who were in arms against -Pithon, the satrap of Media. Cassander, the son of Antipater, -disappointed of the regency, had joined the party of Antigonus. In 316 -Antigonus had defeated and killed Eumenes and made himself supreme from -the Aegean to Iran, and Cassander had ousted Polyperchon from -Macedonia. But now a third war began, the old associates of Antigonus, -alarmed by his overgrown power, combining against him--Cassander, -Ptolemy, Lysimachus, the governor of Thrace, and Seleucus, who had fled -before Antigonus from his satrapy of Babylonia. From 315 to 301 the war -of Antigonus against these four went on, with one short truce in 311. -Antigonus never succeeded in reaching Macedonia, although his son -Demetrius won Athens and Megara in 307 and again (304-302) wrested -almost all Greece from Cassander; nor did Antigonus succeed in expelling -Ptolemy from Egypt, although he led an army to its frontier in 306; and -after the battle of Gaza in 312, in which Ptolemy and Seleucus defeated -Demetrius, he had to see Seleucus not only recover Babylonia but bring -all the eastern provinces under his authority as far as India. Meanwhile -the struggle changed its character in an important respect. King Philip -had been murdered by Olympias in 317; the young Alexander by Cassander -in 310; Heracles, the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, by -Polyperchon in 309. Thus the old royal house became extinct in the male -line, and in 306 Antigonus assumed the title of king. His four -adversaries answered this challenge by immediately doing the same. Even -in appearance the empire was no longer a unity. In 301 the coalition -triumphed over Antigonus in the battle of Ipsus (in Phrygia) and he -himself was slain. Of the four kings who now divided the Macedonian -Empire amongst them, two were not destined to found durable dynasties, -while the house of Antigonus, represented by Demetrius, was after all to -do so. The house of Antipater came to an end in the male line in 294, -when Demetrius killed the son of Cassander and established himself on -the throne of Macedonia. He was however expelled by Lysimachus and -Pyrrhus in 288; and in 285 Lysimachus took possession of all the -European part of the Macedonian Empire. Except indeed for Egypt and -Palestine under Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus now divided the empire -between them, with the Taurus in Asia Minor for their frontier. These -two survivors of the forty years' conflict soon entered upon the -crowning fight, and in 281 Lysimachus fell in the battle of Corupedion -(in Lydia), leaving Seleucus virtually master of the empire. Seleucus' -assassination by Ptolemy Ceraunus in the same year brought back -confusion. - -Ptolemy Ceraunus (the son of the first Ptolemy, and half-brother of the -reigning king of Egypt) seized the Macedonian throne, whilst Antiochus, -the son of Seleucus, succeeded in holding together the Asiatic dominions -of his father. The confusion was aggravated by the incursion of the -Gauls into the Balkan Peninsula in 279; Ptolemy Ceraunus perished, and a -period of complete anarchy succeeded in Macedonia. In 276 Antigonus -Gonatas, the son of Demetrius, after inflicting a crushing defeat on the -Gauls near Lysimachia, at last won Macedonia definitively for his house. -Three solid kingdoms had thus emerged from all the fighting since -Alexander's death: the kingdom of the Antigonids in the original land of -the race, the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the -Seleucids, extending from the Aegean to India. For the next 100 years -these are the three great powers of the eastern Mediterranean. But -already parts of the empire of Alexander had passed from Macedonian rule -altogether. In Asia Minor, Philetaerus a Greek of Tios (Tieium) in -Paphlagonia, had established himself in a position of practical -independence at Pergamum, and his nephew, Attalus, was the father of the -line of kings who reigned in Pergamum till 133--antagonistic to the -Seleucid house, till in 189 they took over the Seleucid possessions west -of the Taurus. In Bithynia a native dynasty assumed the style of kings -in 297. In Cappadocia two Persian houses, relics of the old aristocracy -of Achaemenian days had carved out principalities, one of which became -the kingdom of Pontus and the other the kingdom of Cappadocia (in the -narrower sense); the former regarding Mithradates (281-266) as its -founder, the latter being the creation of the second Ariarathes -(?302-?281). Armenia, never effectively conquered by the Macedonians, -was left in the hands of native princes, tributary only when the -Seleucid court was strong enough to compel. In India, Seleucus had in -302 ceded large districts on the west of the Indus to Chandragupta, who -had arisen to found a native empire which annexed the Macedonian -provinces in the Panjab. - -Whilst the Antigonid kingdom remained practically whole till the Roman -conquest ended it in 168 B.C., and the house of Ptolemy ruled in Egypt -till the death of Cleopatra in 30 B.C., the Seleucid Empire perished by -a slow process of disruption. The eastern provinces of Iran went in 240 -or thereabouts, when the Greek Diodotus made himself an independent king -in Bactria (q.v.) and Sogdiana, and Tiridates, brother of Arsaces, a -"Scythian" chieftain, conquered Parthia (so Arrian, but see PARTHIA). -Armenia was finally lost in 190, when Artaxias founded a new native -dynasty there. Native princes probably ruled in Persis before 166, -though the district was at least nominally subject to Antiochus IV. -Epiphanes till his death in 164 (see PERSIS). In southern Syria, which -had been won by the house of Seleucus from the house of Ptolemy in 198, -the independent Jewish principality was set up in 143. About the same -time Media was totally relinquished to the Parthians. Babylonia was -Parthian from 129. Before 88 the Parthians had conquered Mesopotamia. -Commagene was independent under a king, Mithradates Callinicus, in the -earlier part of the last century B.C. Syria itself in the last days of -the Seleucid dynasty is seen to be breaking up into petty -principalities, Greek or native. From 83 to 69 is the transient episode -of Armenian conquest, and in 64 the last shadow of Seleucid rule -vanished, when Syria was made a Roman province by Pompey. From this time -Rome formally entered upon the heritage of Alexander as far as the -Euphrates, but many of the dynasties which had arisen in the days of -Macedonian supremacy were allowed to go on for a time as client states. -One of them, the royal house of Commagene, not deposed by the Romans -till A.D. 72, had Seleucid blood in its veins through the marriage of a -Seleucid princess with Mithradates Callinicus, and regarded itself as -being a continuation of the Seleucid dynasty. Its kings bore the name of -Antiochus, and were as proud of their Macedonian, as of their Persian, -descent (see the Inscription of Nimrud Dagh, Michel, No. 735). - - - 2. Constitution of the Macedonian Kingdom. - -The Macedonians of Alexander were not mistaken in seeing an essential -transformation of their national monarchy when Alexander adopted the -guise of an Oriental great king. Transplanted into this foreign soil, -the monarchy became an absolute despotism, unchecked by a proud -territorial nobility and a hardy peasantry on familiar terms with their -king. The principle which Seleucus is reported to have enunciated, that -the king's command was the supreme law (App. _Syr._ 61), was literally -the principle of the new Hellenistic monarchies in the East. But the -rights belonging to the Macedonian army as Alexander inherited it did -not altogether disappear. Like the old Roman people, the Macedonian -people under arms had acted especially in the transference of the royal -authority, conferring or confirming the right of the new chief, and in -cases of the capital trials of Macedonians. In the latter respect the -army came regularly into function under Alexander, and in the wars which -followed his death (Diod. xviii. 4, 3; 36, 7; 37, 2, 39, 2; xix. 61, 3), -and in Macedonia; although the power of life and death came _de facto_ -into the hands of the Antigonid king, the old right of the army to act -as judge was not legally abrogated, and friction was sometimes caused by -its assertion (Polyb. v. 27, 5). The right of the army to confer the -royal power was still symbolized in the popular acclamation required on -the accession of a new king, and at Alexandria in troubled times we hear -of "the people" making its will effective in filling the throne, -although it is here hard to distinguish mob-rule from the exercise of a -legitimate function. Thus the people put Euergetes II. on the throne -when Philometor was captured (Polyb. xxix. 23, 4); the people compelled -Cleopatra III. to choose Soter II. as her associate (Just. xxxiv. 3, 2). -In Syria, the usurper Tryphon bases his right upon an election by the -"people" (Just. xxxvi. 1, 7) or "the army" (Jos. _Ant._ xiii. S 219). -Where it is a case of delegating some part of the supreme authority, as -when Seleucus I. made his son Antiochus king for the eastern provinces, -we find the army convoked to ratify the appointment (App. _Syr._ 61). So -too the people is spoken of as appointing the guardians of a king -during his minority (Just. xxxiv. 3, 6). Nor was the power of the army a -fiction. The Hellenistic monarchies rested, as all government in the -last resort must, upon the loyalty of those who wielded the brute force -of the state, and however unlimited the powers of the king might be in -theory, he could not alienate the goodwill of the army with impunity. -The right of primogeniture in succession was recognized as a general -principle; a woman, however, might succeed only so long as there were no -male agnates. Illegitimate children had no rights of succession. In -disturbed times, of course, right yielded to might or to practical -necessities. - -The practice by which the king associated a son with himself, as -secondary king, dates from the very beginning of the kingdoms of the -Successors; Antigonus on assuming the diadem in 306 caused Demetrius -also to bear the title of king. Some ten years later Seleucus appointed -Antiochus as king for the eastern provinces. Thenceforth the practice is -a common one. But the cases of it fall into two classes. Sometimes the -subordinate or joint kingship implies real functions. In the Seleucid -kingdom the territorial expanse of the realm made the creation of a -distinct subordinate government for part of it a measure of practical -convenience. Sometimes the joint-king is merely titular, an infant of -tender years, as for instance Antiochus Eupator, the son of Antiochus -Epiphanes, or Ptolemy Eupator, the son of Ptolemy Philometor. The object -here is to secure the succession in the event of the supreme king's -dying whilst his heir is an infant. The king's government was carried on -by officials appointed by him and responsible to him alone. Government -at the same time, as an Oriental despotism understands it, often has -little in view but the gathering in of the tribute and compulsion of the -subjects to personal service in the army or in royal works, and if -satisfied in these respects will leave much independence to the local -authorities. In the loosely-knit Seleucid realm it is plain that a great -deal more independence was left to the various communities,--cities or -native tribes,--than in Egypt, where the conditions made a bureaucratic -system so easy to carry through. In their outlying possessions the -Ptolemies may have suffered as much local independence as the Seleucids; -the internal government of Jerusalem, for instance, was left to the high -priests. In so far as the older Greek cities fell within their sphere of -power, the successors of Alexander were forced to the same ambiguous -policy as Alexander had been, between recognizing the cities' unabated -claim to sovereign independence and the necessity of attaching them -securely. In Asia Minor, the "enslavement" and liberation of cities -alternated with the circumstances of the hour, while the kings all -through professed themselves the champions of Hellenic freedom, and were -ready on occasion to display munificence toward the city temples or in -public works, such as might reconcile republicans to a position of -dependence. Antiochus III. went so far as to write on one occasion to -the subject Greek cities that if any royal mandate clashed with the -civic laws it was to be disregarded (Plut. _Imp. et duc. apophth._). But -it was the old cry of the "autonomy of the Hellenes," raised by Smyrna -and Lampsacus, which ultimately brought Antiochus III. into collision -with Rome. How anxious the Pergamene kings, with their ardent Hellenism, -were to avoid offence is shown by the elaborate forms by which, in their -own capital, they sought to give their real control the appearance of -popular freedom (Cardinali, Regno di _Pergamo_, p. 281 seq.). A similar -problem confronted the Antigonid dynasty in the cities of Greece itself, -for to maintain a predominant influence in Greece was a ground-principle -of their policy. Demetrius had presented himself in 307 as the -liberator, and driven the Macedonian garrison from the Peiraeus; but his -own garrisons held Athens thirteen years later, when he was king of -Macedonia, and the Antigonid dynasty clung to the points of vantage in -Greece, especially Chalcis and Corinth, till their garrisons were -finally expelled by the Romans in the name of Hellenic liberty. - - - 3. Commerce. - -The new movement of commerce initiated by the conquest of Alexander -continued under his successors, though the break-up of the Macedonian -Empire in Asia in the 3rd century and the distractions of the Seleucid -court must have withheld many advantages from the Greek merchants which -a strong central government might have afforded them. It was along the -great trade-routes between India and the West that the main stream of -riches flowed then as in later centuries. One of these routes was by sea -to south-west Arabia (Yemen), and thence up the Red Sea to Alexandria. -This was the route controlled and developed by the Ptolemaic kings. -Between Yemen and India the traffic till Roman times was mainly in the -hands of Arabians or Indians; between Alexandria and Yemen it was -carried by Greeks (Strabo ii. 118). The west coast of the Red Sea was -dotted with commercial stations of royal foundation from Arsinoe north -of Suez to Arsinoe in the south near the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. From -Berenice on the Red Sea a land-route struck across to the Nile at -Coptos; this route the kings furnished with watering stations. That -there might also be a waterway between Alexandria and the Red Sea, they -cut a canal between the Delta and the northern Arsinoe. It was -Alexandria into which this stream of traffic poured and made it the -commercial metropolis of the world. We hear of direct diplomatic -intercourse between the courts of Alexandria and Pataliputra, i.e. Patna -(Plin. vi. S 58). An alternative route went from the Indian ports to the -Persian Gulf, and thence found the Mediterranean by caravan across -Arabia from the country of Gerrha to Gaza; and to control it was no -doubt a motive in the long struggle of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid houses -for Palestine, as well as in the attempt of Antiochus III. to subjugate -the Gerrhaeans. Or from the Persian Gulf wares might be taken up the -Euphrates and carried across to Antioch; this route lay altogether in -the Seleucid sphere. With Iran Antioch was connected most directly by -the road which crossed the Euphrates at the Zeugma and went through -Edessa and Antioch-Nisibis to the Tigris. The trade from India which -went down the Oxus and then to the Caspian does not seem to have been -considerable (Tarn, _Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xxi. 10 seq.). From Antioch -to the Aegean the land high-road went across Asia Minor by the Cilician -Gates and the Phrygian Apamea. - - - 4. Finance. - -Of the financial organization of the Macedonian kingdoms we know -practically nothing, except in the case of Egypt. Here the papyri and -ostraca have put a large material at our disposal, but the circumstances -in Egypt[3] were too peculiar for us to generalize upon these data as to -the Seleucid and Antigonid realms. That the Seleucid kings drew in a -principal part of their revenues from tribute levied upon the various -native races, distributed in their village communities as tillers of the -soil goes without saying.[4] In districts left in the hands of native -chiefs these chiefs would themselves exploit their villages and pay the -Seleucid court and tribute. To exact tribute from Greek cities was -invidious, but both Antigonid and Seleucid kings often did so -(Antigonid, Diog. Laert. II., 140; Plut. _Dem._ 27; Seleucid, Michel, -No. 37; Polyb. xxi. 43, 2). Sometimes, no doubt, this tribute was -demanded under a fairer name, as the contribution of any ally ([Greek: -syntaxis], not [Greek: phoros]), like the [Greek: Galatika] levied by -Antiochus I. (Michel, No. 37; cf. Polyb. xxii. 27, 2). The royal -domains, again, and royal monopolies, such as salt-mines, were a source -of revenue.[5] As to indirect taxes, like customs and harbour dues, -while their existence is a matter of course (cf. Polyb. v. 89, 8), their -scale, nature and amount is quite unknown to us. Whatever the financial -system of the Antigonid and Seleucid kingdoms may have been, it is -clear that they were far from enjoying the affluence of the Ptolemaic. -During the first Seleucid reigns indeed the revenues of Asia may have -filled its treasuries (see Just. xvii. 2, 13), but Antiochus III. -already at his accession found them depleted (Polyb. v. 50, 1), and from -his reign financial embarrassment, coupled with extravagant expenditure, -was here the usual condition of things. Perseus, the last of the -Antigonid house, amassed a substantial treasure for the expenses of the -supreme struggle with Rome (Polyb. xviii. 35, 4; Liv. xlv, 40), but it -was by means of almost miserly economies. - -Special officials were naturally attached to the service of the -finances. Over the whole department in the Seleucid realm there presided -a single chief ([Greek: ho epi ton prosodon], App. _Syr_. 45). How far -the financial administration was removed from the competence of the -provincial governors, as it seems to have been in Alexander's system, we -cannot say. Seleucus at any rate, as satrap of Babylonia, controlled the -finances of the province (Diod. xix. 55, 3), and so, in the Ptolemaic -system, did the governor of Cyprus (Polyb. xxvii. 13). The fact that -provincial officials [Greek: epi ton prosodon] (in Eriza, _Bull. corr. -hell._ xv. 556) are found does not prove anything, since it leaves open -the question of their being subordinate to the governor. - - - 5. Coinage. - -With the exception of Ptolemaic Egypt, the Macedonian kingdoms followed -in their coinage that of Alexander. Money was for a long while largely -struck with Alexander's own image and superscription; the gold and -silver coined in the names of Antigonid and Seleucid kings and by the -minor principalities of Asia, kept to the Attic standard which Alexander -had established. Only in Egypt Ptolemy I. adopted, at first the Rhodian, -and afterwards the Phoenician, standard, and on this latter standard the -Ptolemaic money was struck during the subsequent centuries. Money was -also struck in their own name by the cities in the several dynasties' -spheres of power, but in most cases only bronze or small silver for -local use. Corinth, however, was allowed to go on striking staters under -Antigonus Gonatas; Ephesus, Cos and the greater cities of Phoenicia -retained their right of coinage under Seleucid or Ptolemaic supremacy. - - - 6. The Court. - -In language and manners the courts of Alexander's successors were Greek. -Even the Macedonian dialect, which it was considered proper for the -kings to use on occasion, was often forgotten (Plut. _Ant._ 27). The -Oriental features which Alexander had introduced were not copied. There -was no _proskynesis_ (or certainly not in the case of Greeks and -Macedonians), and the king did not wear an Oriental dress. The symbol of -royalty, it is true, the _diadem_, was suggested by the head-band of the -old Persian kings (Just. xii. 3, 8); but, whereas, that had been an -imposing erection, the Hellenistic diadem was a simple riband. The -king's state dress was the same in principle as that worn by the -Macedonian or Thessalian horsemen, as the uniform of his own cavalry -officers. Its features were the broad-brimmed hat (_kausia_), the cloak -(_chlamys_) and the high-laced boots (_krepides_) (Plut. _Ant._ 54; -Frontinus, iii. 2, 11). These, in the case of the king, would be of -richer material, colour and adornment. The diadem could be worn round -the kausia; the chlamys offered scope for gorgeous embroidery; and the -boots might be crimson felt (see the description of Demetrius' chlamys -and boots, Plut. _Dem_. 41). There were other traces in the Hellenistic -courts of the old Macedonian tradition besides in dress. One was the -honour given to prowess in the chase (Polyb. xxii. 3, 8; Diod. xxxiv. -34). Another was the fashion for the king to hold wassail with his -courtiers, in which he unbent to an extent scandalous to the Greeks, -dancing or indulging in routs and practical jokes.[6] - -The prominent part taken by the women of the royal house was a -Macedonian characteristic. The history of these kingdoms furnishes a -long list of queens and princesses who were ambitious and masterful -politicians, of which the great Cleopatra is the last and the most -famous. The kings after Alexander, with the exception of Demetrius -Poliorcetes and Pyrrhus, are not found to have more than one legitimate -wife at a time, although they show unstinted freedom in divorce and the -number of their mistresses. The custom of marriages between brothers and -sisters, agreeable to old Persian as to old Egyptian ethics, was -instituted in Egypt by the second Ptolemy when he married his full -sister Arsinoe Philadelphus. It was henceforth common, though not -invariable, among the Ptolemies. At the Seleucid court there seems to be -an instance of it in 195, when the heir-apparent, Antiochus, married his -sister Laodice. The style of "sister" was given in both courts to the -queen, even when she was not the king's sister in reality (Strack, -_Dynastie_, Nos. 38, 40, 43; _Archiv. f. Papyr_, i. 205). The "Friends" -of the king are often mentioned. It is usual for him to confer with a -council ([Greek: synedrion]) of his "Friends" before important -decisions, administrative, military or judicial (e.g. Polyb. v. 16, 5; -22, 8). They form a definite body about the king's person ([Greek: -philon syntagma], Polyb. xxxi. 3, 7); cf. [Greek: hoi philoi] in -contrast with [Greek: hai dynameis], id. v. 50, 9), admission into which -depends upon his favour alone, and is accorded, not only to his -subjects, but to aliens, such as the Greek refugee politicians (e.g. -Hegesianax, Athen. iv. 155b; Hannibal and the Aetolian Thoas take part -in the councils of Antiochus III. A similar body, with a title -corresponding to [Greek: philoi], is found in ancient Egypt (Erman, -_Ancient Egypt_, Eng. trans., p. 72) and in Persia (Spiegel. _Eran. -Alt._ iii. 626); but some such support is so obviously required by the -necessities of a despot's position that we need not suppose it derived -from any particular precedent. The Friends (at any rate under the later -Seleucid and Ptolemaic reigns) were distinguished by a special dress and -badge of gold analogous to the stars and crosses of modern orders. The -dress was of crimson ([Greek: porphyra]); this and the badges were the -king's gift, and except by royal grant neither crimson nor gold might, -apparently, be worn at court (1 Macc. 10, 20; 62; 89; 11, 58; Athen. v. -211b). The order of Friends was organized in a hierarchy of ranks, which -were multiplied as time went on. In Egypt we find them classified as -[Greek: syngeneis, homotimoi tois syngenesin, archisomatophylakes, -protoi philoi, philoi] (in the narrower sense), [Greek: diadochoi]. For -the Seleucid kingdom [Greek: syngeneis, protoi philoi] and [Greek: -philoi] are mentioned. These classes do not appear in Egypt before the -2nd century; Strack conjectures that they were created in imitation of -the Seleucid court. We have no direct evidence as to the institutions of -the Seleucid court in the 3rd century. Certain [Greek: somatophylakes] -of Antiochus I. are mentioned, but we do not know whether the name was -not then used in its natural sense (Strack, _Rhein. Mus._ LV., 1900, p. -161 seq.; Wilamowitz, _Archiv f. Pap._ I., p. 225; Beloch, _Gr. Gesch._ -iii (i), p. 391). As to Macedonia, whatever may have been the -constitution of the court, it is implied that it offered in its -externals a sober plainness in comparison with the vain display and -ceremonious frivolities of Antioch and Alexandria (Polyb. xvi, 22, 5; -Plut. _Cleom._ 31; _Arat_, 15). The position of a Friend did not carry -with it necessarily any functions; it was in itself purely honorary. The -ministers and high officials were, on the other hand, regularly invested -with one or other of the ranks specified. The chief of these ministers -is denoted [Greek: ho epi ton pragmaton], and he corresponds to the -_vizier_ of the later East. All departments of government are under his -supervision, and he regularly holds the highest rank of a kinsman. When -the king is a minor, he acts as guardian or regent ([Greek: epitropos]). -Over different departments of state we find a state secretary ([Greek: -epistolographos] or [Greek: hypomnematographos]: Seleucid, Polyb. xxxi, -3, 16; Ptolemaic, Strack, _Inschriften_ 103) and a minister of finance -([Greek: ho epi ton prosodon] in the Seleucid kingdom; App. _Syr._ 45; -[Greek: dioiketes] in Egypt, Lumbroso, _Econ. Pol._ p. 339). Under each -of these great heads of departments was a host of lower officials, -those, for instance, who held to the province a relation analogous to -that of the head of the department of the realm. Such a provincial -authority is described as [Greek: epi ton prosodon] in the inscription -of Eriza (_Bull. corr. hell._ xv. 556). Beside the officials concerned -with the work of government we have those of the royal household: (1) -the chief-physician, [Greek: archiatros] (for the Seleucid see App. -_Syr._ 59; Polyb. v. 56, 1; Michel, No. 1158; for the Pontic, _Bull. -corr. hell._ vii. 354 seq.); (2) the chief-huntsman, [Greek: -archikunegos] (Dittenb. _Orient. Graec._ 99); (3) the maitre-d'hotel -[Greek: archedeatros] (Dittenb. _Orient. Graec._ 169) (4) the lord of -the queen's bedchamber, [Greek: ho epi tou koitonos tes Basilisses] -(Dittenb. _Orient. Graec._ 256). As in the older Oriental courts, the -high positions were often filled by eunuchs (e.g. Craterus, in last -mentioned inscription). - -It was customary, as in Persia and in old Macedonia, for the great men -of the realm to send their children to court to be brought up with the -children of the royal house. Those who had been so brought up with the -king were styled his [Greek: syntrophoi] (for the Seleucid, Polyb. v. -82, 8 and xxxi. 21, 2; _Bull. corr. hell._ i. 285; 2 Macc. ix. 29; for -the Ptolemaic [Greek: syntrophoi paidiskai] of the queen, Polyb. xv. 33, -11; for the Pontic, _Bull. corr. hell._ vii. 355; for the Pergamene. -Polyb. xxxii. 27, 10, &c.; for the Herodian, Acts 13). It is perfectly -gratuitous to suppose with Deissmann that "the fundamental meaning had -given place to the general meaning of intimate friend." With this custom -we may perhaps bring into connexion the office of [Greek: tropheus] -(Polyb. xxxi. 20, 3; Michel, No. 1158). As under Alexander, so under his -successors, we find a corps of [Greek: Basilikoi paides]. They appear as -a corps, 600 strong, in a triumphal procession at Antioch (Polyb. xxxi. -3, 17; cf. v. 82, 13; Antigonid, Livy, xlv. 6; cf. Curtius, viii. 6, 6). - - - 7. Hellenic Culture. - -All the Hellenistic courts felt it a great part of prestige to be filled -with the light of Hellenic culture. A distinguished philosopher or man -of letters would find them bidding for his presence, and most of the -great names are associated with one or other of the contemporary kings. -Antigonus Gonatas, bluff soldier-spirit that he was, heard the Stoic -philosophers gladly, and, though he failed to induce Zeno to come to -Macedonia, persuaded Zeno's disciple, Persaeus of Citium, to enter his -service. Nor was it philosophers only who made his court illustrious, -but poets like Aratus. The Ptolemaic court, with the museum attached to -it, is so prominent in the literary and scientific history of the age -that it is unnecessary to give a list of the philosophers, the men of -letters and science, who at one time or other ate at King Ptolemy's -table. One may notice that the first Ptolemy himself made a contribution -of some value to historical literature in his account of Alexander's -campaigns; the fourth Ptolemy not only instituted a cult of Homer but -himself published tragedies; and even Ptolemy Euergetes II. issued a -book of memoirs. The Pergamene court was in no degree behind the -Ptolemaic in its literary and artistic zeal. The notable school of -sculpture connected with it is treated elsewhere (see GREEK ART); to its -literary school we probably owe in great part the preservation of the -masterpieces of Attic prose (Susemihl I., p. 4), and two of its kings -(Eumenes I. and Attalus III.) were themselves authors. The Seleucid -court did not rival either of the last named in brilliance of culture; -and yet some names of distinction were associated with it. Under -Antiochus I. Aratus carried out a recension of the _Odyssey_, and -Berossus composed a Babylonian history in Greek; under Antiochus III. -Euphorion was made keeper of the library at Antioch. Antiochus IV., of -course, the enthusiastic Hellenist, filled Antioch with Greek artists -and gave a royal welcome to Athenian philosophers. Even in the -degenerate days of the dynasty, Antiochus Grypus, who had been brought -up at Athens, aspired to shine as a poet. The values recognized in the -great Hellenistic courts and the Greek world generally imposed their -authority upon the dynasties of barbarian origin. The Cappadocian court -admitted the full stream of Hellenistic culture under Ariarathes V. -(Diod. xxxi. 19, 8). One of the kings called Nicomedes in Bithynia -offered immense sums to acquire the Aphrodite of Praxiteles from the -Cnidians (Plin. _N.H._ xxxvi. 21), and to a king Nicomedes the -geographical poem of the Pseudo-Scymnus is dedicated. Even Iranian kings -in the last century B.C. found pleasure in composing, or listening to, -Greek tragedies, and Herod the Great kept Greek men of letters beside -him and had spasmodic ambitions to make his mark as an orator or author -(Nicol. Dam. frag. 4; _F.H.G._ III. p. 350). - - - 8. Divine Honours. - -The offering of divine honours to the king, which we saw begin under -Alexander, became stereotyped in the institutions of the succeeding -Hellenistic kingdoms. Alexander himself was after his death the object -of various local cults, like that which centred in the shrine near -Erythrae (Strabo, xiv. 644). His successors in the first years after his -death recognized him officially as a divinity, except Antipater (Suidas, -s.v. [Greek: Antipatros]), and coins began to be issued with his image. -At Alexandria the state cult of him seems to have been instituted by the -second Ptolemy, when his body was laid in the _Sema_ (Otto, _Priester u. -Tempel_, i. 139 seq.). The successors themselves received divine -honours. Such worship might be the spontaneous homage of a particular -Greek community, like that offered to Antigonus by Scepsis in 311 -(_Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xix. 335 seq.), the Antigonus and Demetrius by -Athens in 307, to Ptolemy I. by the Rhodians in 304, or by Cassandrea to -Cassander, as the city's founder (Ditt. 2nd ed. 178); or it might be -organized and maintained by royal authority. The first proved instance -of a cult of the latter kind is that instituted at Alexandria by the -second Ptolemy for his father soon after the latter's death in 283/2, in -which, some time after, 279/8, he associated his mother Berenice also, -the two being worshipped together as [Greek: theoi soteres] (Theoc. -xvii. 121 seq.). Antiochus I. followed the Ptolemaic precedent by -instituting at Seleucia-in-Pieria a cult for his father as Seleucus Zeus -Nicator. So far we can point to no instance of a cult of the living -sovereign (though the cities might institute such locally) being -established by the court for the realm. This step was taken in Egypt -after the death of Arsinoe Philadelphus (271) when she and her -still-living brother-husband, Ptolemy II., began to be worshipped -together as [Greek: theoi adelphoi]. After this the cult of the reigning -king and queen was regularly maintained in Greek Egypt, side by side -with that of the dead Ptolemies. Under Antiochus II. (261-246) a -document shows us a cult of the reigning king in full working for the -Seleucid realm, with a high priest in each province, appointed by the -king himself; the document declares that the Queen Laodice is now to be -associated with the king. The official surname of Antiochus II., Theos, -suggests that he himself had here been the innovator. Thenceforward, in -the Hellenistic kingdoms of the East the worship of the living sovereign -became the rule, although it appears to have been regarded as given in -anticipation of an apotheosis which did not become actual till death. In -the Pergamene kingdom at any rate, though the living king was worshipped -with sacrifice, the title [Greek: theos] was only given to those who -were dead (Cardinali, _Regno di Pergamo_, p. 153). The Antigonid -dynasty, simpler and saner in its manners, had no official cult of this -sort. The divine honours offered on occasion by the Greek cities were -the independent acts of the cities. - - See Plut. _Arat._ 45; _Cleom._ 16; Kornemann, "Zur Gesch. d. antiken - Herrscherkulte" in _Beitrage z. alt. Gesch._ i. 51 sqq.; Otto, - _Priester u. Tempel_, pp. 138 seq. - - - 9. Surnames. - - There does not seem any clear proof that the surnames which the - Hellenistic kings in Asia and Egypt bore were necessarily connected - with the cult, even if they were used to describe the various kings in - religious ceremonies. Some had doubtless a religious colour, _Theos, - Epiphanes, Soter_; others a dynastic, _Phitopator, Philometor, - Philadelphus_. Under what circumstances, and by whose selection, the - surname was attached to a king, is obscure. It is noteworthy that - while modern books commonly speak of the surnames as _assumed_, the - explanations given by our ancient authorities almost invariably - suppose them to be given as marks of homage or gratitude (_English - Historical Review_, xvi. 629 (1901). The official surnames must not, - of course, be confused with the popular nicknames which were naturally - not recognized by the court, e.g. _Ceraunus_ ("Thunder"), _Hierax_ - ("Hawk"), _Physcon_ ("Pot-belly"), _Lathyrus_ ("Chick-pea"). - - - 10. Armies. - - The armies of Alexander's successors were still in the main principles - of their organization similar to the army with which Alexander had - conquered Asia. During the years immediately after Alexander the very - Macedonians who had fought under Alexander were ranged against each - other under the banners of the several chiefs. The most noted corps - of veterans, Argyraspides (i.e. the royal Hypaspistae) played a great - part in the first wars of the successors, and covered themselves with - infamy by their betrayal of Eumenes. As the soldiers of Alexander died - off, fresh levies of home-born Macedonians could be raised only by the - chief who held the motherland. The other chiefs had to supply - themselves with Macedonians from the numerous colonies planted before - the break-up of the empire in Asia or Egypt, and from such Macedonians - they continued for the next two centuries to form their phalanx. The - breed--at least if the statement which Livy puts into the mouth of a - Roman general can be relied on--degenerated greatly under Asiatic and - Egyptian skies (Liv. xxxviii. 17, 10); but still old names like that - of _pezetaeri_ attached to the phalangites (Plut. _Tib._ 17), and they - still wielded the national _sarissa_. The latter weapon in the - interval between Alexander and the time of Polybius had been increased - to a length of 21 ft. (Polyb. xviii. 12), a proportion inconsistent - with any degree of mobility; once more indeed the phalanx of the 2nd - century seems to have become a body effective by sheer weight only and - disordered by unevenness of ground. The Antigonid kings were never - able from Macedonian levies to put in the field a phalanx of more than - 20,000 at the utmost (Liv. xlii. 51); Antigonus Doson takes with him - to Greece (in 222) one of 10,000 only. The phalanx of Antiochus III. - at Raphia numbered 20,000, and Ptolemy Philopator was able at the same - time to form one of 25,000 men (Polyb. v. 4). As these phalangites are - distinguished both from the Greek mercenaries and the native Egyptian - levies, it looks (although such a fact would be staggering) as if more - Macedonians could be raised for military service in Egypt than in - Macedonia itself (but see Beloch, p. 353). The royal foot-guards are - still described in Macedonia in 171 as the _agema_ (Polyb. v. 25, 1; - 27, 3; Liv. xlii. 51), when they number 2000; at the Ptolemaic court - in 217 the _agema_ had numbered 3000 (Polyb. v. 65, 2); and a similar - corps of _hypaspistae_ is indicated in the Seleucid army (Polyb. vii. - 16, 2; xvi. 18, 7). So too the old name of "Companions" was kept up in - the Seleucid kingdom for the Macedonian cavalry (see Polyb. v. 53, 4, - &c.), and divisions of rank in it are still indicated by the terms - _agema_ and royal squadron ([Greek: basilike hile], see Bevan, _House - of Seleucus_, ii. 288). The Antigonid and Seleucid courts had much - valuable material at hand for their armies in the barbarian races - under their sway. The Balkan hill-peoples of Illyrian or Thracian - stock, the hill-peoples of Asia Minor and Iran, the chivalry of Media - and Bactria, the mounted bowmen of the Caspian steppes, the - camel-riders of the Arabian desert, could all be turned to account. - Iranian troops seem to have been employed on a large scale by the - earlier Seleucids. At Raphia, Antiochus III. had 10,000 men drawn from - the provinces, armed and drilled as Macedonians, and another corps of - Iranians numbering 5000 under a native commander (Polyb. v. 79). The - experiment of arming the native Egyptians on a large scale does not - seem to have been made before the campaign of 217, when Ptolemy IV. - formed corps of the Macedonian pattern from Egyptians and Libyans (cf. - Polyb. v. 107, 2; Ptolemy I. had employed Egyptians in the army, - though chiefly as carriers, Diod. xix. 80, 4). From this time native - rebellions in Egypt are recurrent. To the troops drawn from their own - dominions the mercenaries which the kings procured from abroad were an - important supplement. These were mainly the bands of Greek - _condottieri_, and even for their home-born troops Greek officers of - renown were often engaged. The other class of mercenaries were Gauls, - and from the time of the Gallic invasion of Asia Minor in 279 Gauls or - Galatians were a regular constituent in all armies. They were a weapon - apt to be dangerous to the employer, but the terror they inspired was - such that every potentate sought to get hold of them. The elephants - which Alexander brought back from India were used in the armies of his - successors, and in 302 Seleucus procured a new supply. Thenceforward - elephants, either brought fresh from India or bred in the royal - stables at Apamea, regularly figured in the Seleucid armies. The - Ptolemies supplied themselves with this arm from the southern coasts - of the Red Sea, where they established stations for the capture and - shipping of elephants, but the African variety was held inferior to - the Indian. Scythed chariots such as had figured in the old Persian - armies were still used by the Greek masters of Asia (Seleucus I., - Diod. xx. 113, 4; Molon, Polyb. v. 53, 10; Antiochus III., Liv. - xxxvii. 41), at any rate till the battle of Magnesia. The Hellenistic - armies were distinguished by their external magnificence. They made a - greater display of brilliant metal and gorgeous colour than the Roman - armies, for instance. The description given by Justin of the army - which Antiochus Sidetes took to the East in 130 B.C., boot-nails and - bridles of gold, gives an idea of their standard of splendour (Just. - xxxviii. 10, 1; cf. Polyb. xxxi. 3; Plut. _Eum._ 14; id. _Aemil._ 18; - id. _Sulla_, 16). - - During the 3rd century B.C. Egypt was the greatest sea power of the - eastern Mediterranean, and maintained a large fleet (the figures in - App. _Prooem_, 10 are not trustworthy, see Beloch III. i, 364). Its - control of the Aegean was, however, contested not without success by - the Antigonids, who won the two great sea-fights of Cos (c. 256) and - Andros (227), and wrested the overlordship of the Cyclades from the - Ptolemies. Of the numbers and constitution of the Antigonid fleet we - know nothing.[7] At the Seleucid court in 222 the admiral ([Greek: - nauarchos]) appears as a person of high consideration (Polyb. v. 43, - 1); in his war with Rome Antiochus III. had 107 decked battleships on - the sea at one time. By the Peace of Apamea (188) the Seleucid navy - was abolished; Antiochus undertook to keep no more than 10 ships of - war. - - For the Hellenistic armies and fleets see A. Bauer in L. von Muller's - _Handbuch_, vol. iv.; Delbruck, _Gesch. d. Kriegskunst_ (1900). - - - 11. Treatment of Subject Peoples. - -To their native subjects the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kings were always -foreigners. It was considered wonderful in the last Cleopatra that she -learnt to speak Egyptian (Plut. _Anton._ 27). Natives were employed, as -we have seen, in the army, and Iranians are found under the Seleucids -holding high commands, e.g. Aspasianus the Mede (Polyb. v. 79, 7), -Aribazus, governor of Cilicia (Flinders Petrie, _Papyri_, II., No. 45), -Aribazus, governor of Sardis (Polyb. vii. 17, 9), and Omanes (Michel, -No. 19, l. 104). Native cults the Hellenistic kings thought it good -policy to patronize. Antiochus I. began rebuilding the temple of Nebo at -Borsippa (_Keilinschr. Bibl._ iii. 2, 136 seq.) Antiochus III. bestowed -favours on the Temple at Jerusalem. Even if the documents in Joseph, -_Arch._ xii. SS 138 seq. are spurious, their general view of the -relation of Antiochus III. and Jerusalem is probably true. Even small -local worships, like that of the village of Baetocaece, might secure -royal patronage (_C.I.G._ No. 4474). Of course, financial straits might -drive the kings to lay hands on temple-treasures, as Antiochus III. and -Antiochus IV. did, but that was a measure of emergency. - - - 12. Significance of Macedonian Rule. - -The Macedonian kingdoms, strained by continual wars, increasingly -divided against themselves, falling often under the sway of prodigals -and debauchees, were far from realizing the Hellenic idea of sound -government as against the crude barbaric despotisms of the older East. -Yet, in spite of all corruption, ideas of the intelligent development of -the subject lands, visions of the Hellenic king, as the Greek thinkers -had come to picture him, haunted the Macedonian rulers, and perhaps -fitfully, in the intervals of war or carousal, prompted some degree of -action. Treatises "Concerning Kingship" were produced as a regular thing -by philosophers, and kings who claimed the fine flower of Hellenism, -could not but peruse them. Strabo regards the loss of the eastern -provinces to the Parthians as their passage under a government of lower -type, beyond the sphere of Hellenic [Greek: epimegeia] (Strabo xi. 509). -In the organization of the administrative machinery of these kingdoms, -the higher power of the Hellene to adapt and combine had been operative; -they were organisms of a richer, more complex type than the East had -hitherto known. It was thus that when Rome became a world-empire, it -found to some extent the forms of government ready made, and took over -from the Hellenistic monarchies a tradition which it handed on to the -later world. - - AUTHORITIES.--For the general history of the Macedonian kingdoms, see - Droysen, _Histoire de l'Hellenisme_ (the French translation by - Bouche-Leclercq, 1883-1885, represents the work in its final - revision); A. Holm, _History of Greece_, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, - _Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten_ (1893-1903); - Kaerst, _Gesch. des hellenist. Zeitalters_, vol. i. (1901). A masterly - conspectus of the general character of the Hellenistic kingdoms in - their political, economic and social character, their artistic and - intellectual culture is given by Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ iii. (i.), - 260-556; see also Kaerst, _Studien zur Entwicklung d. Monarchie_; E. - Breccia, _Il Diritto dinastico helle monarchie dei successori - d'Alessandro Magno_ (1903). Popular sketches of the history, - enlightened by special knowledge and a wide outlook, are given by J. - P. Mahaffy, _Alexander's Empire_ ("Stories of the Nations Series"); - _Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Empire_ (1905); _The Silver Age - of the Greek World_ (1906). See also HELLENISM; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID - DYNASTY. (E. R. B.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] For the events which brought this empire into being see ALEXANDER - THE GREAT. For the detailed accounts of the separate dynasties into - which it was divided after Alexander's death, see SELEUCID DYNASTY, - ANTIGONUS, PERGAMUM, &c., and for its effect on the spread of - Hellenic culture see HELLENISM. - - [2] For details see separate articles on the chief generals. - - [3] For Ptolemaic Egypt, see PTOLEMIES and EGYPT. - - [4] A _tenth_ of the produce is suggested to have been the normal tax - by what the Romans found obtaining in the Attalid kingdom. The - references given by Beloch (_Griech. Gesch._ iii. i, p. 343) to prove - it for the Seleucid kingdom are questionable. Beloch refers (1) to - the letter of Demetrius II. to Lasthenes in which [Greek: hai dekatai - kai ta tele] are mentioned, 1 Macc. 11, 35 (Beloch, by an oversight, - refers to the paraphrase of the documents in Joseph. _Ant._ xiii. 4, - S 126 seq., in which the mention of the [Greek: dekatai] is - omitted!). The authenticity of this document is, however, very - doubtful. He refers (2) to Dittenb. 171 (1st ed.), line 101; but here - the tax seems to be, not an imperial one, but one paid to the city of - Smyrna. - - [5] The salt monopoly is mentioned in 1 Macc. 10, 29; 11, 35, a - suspected source, but supported in this detail by the analogy of - Ptolemaic Egypt and Rome. For domains in Antigonid, Attalid and - Bithynian realms, see Cic. _De leg. agr._ ii. 19, 50. - - [6] Antiochus Epiphanes was an extreme case. For the Antigonid court - see Diog. Laert. vii. 13; Plut. _Arat._ 17; for the Seleucid, Athen. - iv. 155b; v. 211a; for the Ptolemaic, Diog. L. vii. 177; Athen. vi. - 246c; Plut. _Cleom._ 33; Just. xxx. 1. - - [7] For the Antigonid [Greek: nauarchos] or admiral, see Polyb. xvi. 6. - - - - -MACEDONIUS, (1) bishop of Constantinople in succession to Eusebius of -Nicomedia, was elected by the Arian bishops in 341, while the orthodox -party elected Paul, whom Eusebius had superseded. The partisans of the -two rivals involved the city in a tumultuous broil, and were not quelled -until the emperor Constantius II. banished Paul. Macedonius was -recognized as patriarch in 342. Compelled by the intervention of -Constans in 348 to resign the patriarchate in favour of his former -opponent, he was reinstalled in 350. He then took vengeance on his -opponents by a general persecution of the adherents of the Nicene -Creed. In 359, on the division of the Arian party into Acacians (or pure -Arians) and semi-Arians or Homoiousians, Macedonius adhered to the -latter, and in consequence was expelled from his see by the council of -Constantinople in 360. He now became avowed leader of the sect of -Pneumatomachi, Macedonians or Marathonians, whose distinctive tenet was -that the Holy Spirit is but a being similar to the angels, subordinate -to and in the service of the Father and the Son, the relation between -whom did not admit of a third. He did not long survive his deposition. - - See the Church Histories of Socrates and Sozomen; Art. in _Dict. Chr. - Biog._; F. Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._; H. M. Gwatkin, - _Arianism_. - -MACEDONIUS, (2) bishop of Mopsuestia, was present at the councils of -Nicaea and Philippopolis, and inclined to the reactionary party who -thought the Athanasians had gone too far. - -MACEDONIUS, (3) bishop of Constantinople (fl. 510), a strict -Chalcedonian who vainly opposed the fanaticism of the monophysite -Severus and was deposed in 513. - - - - -MACEIO or MACAYO, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state of -Alagoas, about 125 m. S.S.W. of Pernambuco, in lat. 9 deg. 39' 35" S., -long. 35 deg. 44' 36" W. Pop. including a large rural district and -several villages (1890), 31,498; (1908, estimate), 33,000. The city -stands at the foot of low bluffs, about a mile from the shore line. The -water-side village of Jaragua, the port of Maceio, is practically a -suburb of the city. South of the port is the shallow entrance to the -Lagoa do Norte, of Lagoa Mundahu, a salt-water lake extending inland for -some miles. Maceio is attractively situated in the midst of large -plantations of coco-nut and _dende_ palms, though the broad sandy beach -in front and the open sun-burned plain behind give a barren character to -its surroundings. The heat is moderated by the S.E. trade winds, and the -city is considered healthful. The public buildings are mostly -constructed of broken stone and mortar, plastered outside and covered -with red tiles, but the common dwellings are generally constructed of -_tapia_--rough trellis-work walls filled in with mud. A light tramway -connects the city and port, and a railway--the Alagoas Central--connects -the two with various interior towns. The port is formed by a stone reef -running parallel with and a half-mile from the shore line, within which -vessels of light draft find a safe anchorage, except from southerly -gales. Ocean-going steamers anchor outside the reef. The exports consist -principally of sugar, cotton, and rum (_aguardiente_). Maceio dates from -1815 when a small settlement there was created a "villa." In 1839 it -became the provincial capital and was made a city by the provincial -assembly. - - - - -McENTEE, JERVIS (1828-1891), American artist, was born at Rondout, New -York, on the 14th of July 1828, and was a pupil of Frederick E. Church. -He was made an associate of the National Academy of Design, New York, in -1860, and a full academician in 1861. In 1869 he visited Europe, -painting much in Italy. He was identified with the Hudson River School, -and excelled in pictures of autumn scenery. He died at Rondout, N.Y., on -the 27th of January 1891. - - - - -MACER, AEMILIUS, of Verona, Roman didactic poet, author of two poems, -one on birds (_Ornithogonia_), the other on the antidotes against the -poison of serpents (_Theriaca_), imitated from the Greek poet Nicander -of Colophon. According to Jerome, he died in 16 B.C. It is possible that -he wrote also a botanical work. The extant hexameter poem _De viribus_ -(or _virtutibus_) _herbarum_, ascribed to Macer, is a medieval -production by Odo Magdunensis, a French physician. Aemilius Macer must -be distinguished from the Macer called _Iliacus_ in the Ovidian -catalogue of poets, the author of an epic poem on the events preceding -the opening of the Iliad. The fact of his being addressed by Ovid in one -of the epistles _Ex Ponto_ shows that he was alive long after Aemilius -Macer. He had been identified with the son or grandson of Theophanes of -Mytilene, the intimate friend of Pompey. - - See Ovid, _Tristia_, iv. 10, 43; Quintilian, _Instit._ x. 1, 56, 87; - R. Unger, _De Macro Nicandri imitatore_ (Friedland, 1845); C. P. - Schulze in _Rheinisches Museum_ (1898), liii. p. 541; for Macer - Iliacus see Ovid, _Ex Ponto_, ii 10, 13, iv. 16, 6; _Amores_, ii. 18. - - - - -MACERATA, a city of the Marches, Italy, the chief town of the province -of Macerata and a bishop's see, 44 m. by rail S. of Ancona. Pop. (1901), -6,176 (town), 22,473 (commune). Crowning a hill 919 ft. above sea-level, -with a picturesque mass of buildings enclosed by walls and towers, -Macerata looks out over the Adriatic. The cathedral is modern, but some -of the churches and palaces are not without interest. Besides the -university, agricultural school and industrial institute, Macerata has a -communal library founded by Leo XII., containing a small but choice -collection of early pictures, and in the municipal buildings, a -collection of antiquities from Helvia Ricina. There is an enormous -amphitheatre or _sferisterio_ for _pallone_, a ball game which is very -popular in the district. The industries comprise the making of bricks, -matches, terra-cotta and chemicals. - -Macerata, as well as Recanati, was founded by the inhabitants of Ricina -after the destruction of their city by Alaric in 408. During the Lombard -period it was a flourishing town; but it was raised from comparative -insignificance by Nicholas IV. to be the seat of the governors of the -March. It was enclosed in the 13th century by a new line of walls more -than 2(1/2) m. in circuit; and in the troubles of the next two hundred -years it had frequent occasion to learn their value. For the most part -it remained faithful to the popes, and in return it was rewarded by a -multitude of privileges. Though in 1797 the inhabitants opened their -gates to the French, two years afterwards, when the country people took -refuge within the walls, the city was taken by storm and delivered to -pillage. The bishopric of Macerata dates from the suppression of the see -of Recanati (1320). - - - - -MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER (1813-1887), English composer, was born -in London on the 2nd of March 1813, and entered the Royal Academy of -Music in 1829. A symphony by him was played at an Academy concert in -1830; for the opening of the Queen's Theatre in Tottenham Street, under -the management of his father, in 1831, he wrote an overture. His _Chevy -Chase_ overture, the orchestral work by which he is perhaps best known, -was written as early as 1836, and in a single night. On leaving the -Academy in 1836, Macfarren was for about a year a music teacher in the -Isle of Man, and wrote two unsuccessful operas. In 1837 he was appointed -a professor at the Academy, and wrote his _Romeo and Juliet_ overture. -In the following year he brought out _The Devil's Opera_, one of his -best works. In 1843 he became conductor at Covent Garden, producing the -_Antigone_ with Mendelssohn's music; his opera on _Don Quixote_ was -produced under Bunn at Drury Lane in 1846; his subsequent operas include -_Charles II._ (1849), _Robin Hood_ (1860), _She Stoops to Conquer_ -(1864), and _Helvellyn_ (1864). A gradual failure of his eyesight, which -had been defective from boyhood, resulted in total blindness in 1865, -but he overcame the difficulties by employing an amanuensis in -composition, and made hardly a break in the course of his work. He was -made principal of the Royal Academy of Music in succession to Sterndale -Bennett in February 1875, and in March of the same year professor of -music in Cambridge University. Shortly before this he had begun a series -of oratorios: _St John the Baptist_ (Bristol, 1873); _Resurrection_ -(Birmingham, 1876); _Joseph_ (Leeds, 1877); and _King David_ (Leeds, -1883). In spite of their solid workmanship, and the skill with which the -ideas are treated, it is difficult to hear or read them through without -smiling at some of the touches of quite unconscious humour often -resulting from the way in which the Biblical narratives have been, as it -were, dramatized. He delivered many lectures of great and lasting value, -and his theoretical works, such as the _Rudiments of Harmony_, and the -treatise on counterpoint, will probably be remembered longer than many -of his compositions. He was knighted in 1883, and died suddenly in -London on the 31st of October 1887. - - An excellent memoir by H. C. Banister appeared in 1891. - - - - -McGEE, THOMAS D'ARCY (1825-1868), Irish-Canadian politician and writer, -second son of James McGee, a coast-guard, was born at Carlingford, Co. -Louth, on the 13th of April 1825. He early showed a remarkable aptitude -for oratory. At the age of thirteen he delivered a speech at Wexford, -and when four years later he emigrated to America he quickly gained a -reputation as a writer and public speaker in the city of Boston. He thus -attracted the attention of O'Connell, and before he was twenty years of -age he returned to London to become parliamentary correspondent of the -_Freeman's Journal_, and shortly afterwards London correspondent of the -_Nation_, to which he also contributed a number of poems. He married in -1847 Mary Theresa Caffry, by whom he had two children. In 1846 he became -one of the moving spirits in the "Young Ireland" party, and in promoting -the objects of that organization he contributed two volumes to the -"Library of Ireland." On the failure of the movement in 1848 McGee -escaped in the disguise of a priest to the United States, where between -1848 and 1853 he established two newspapers, the _New York Nation_ and -the _American Celt_. His writings at first were exceedingly bitter and -anti-English; but as years passed he realized that a greater measure of -political freedom was possible under the British constitution than under -the American. He had now become well-known as an author, and as a -lecturer of unusual ability. In 1857 McGee, driven from the United -States by the scurrilous attacks of the extreme Irish revolutionaries, -took up his abode in Canada, and was admitted to the bar of the province -of Lower Canada in 1861. At the general election in 1858 he was returned -to parliament as the member for Montreal, and for four years he was -regarded as a powerful factor in the house. On the formation of the -Sandfield-Macdonald-Sicotte administration in 1862 he accepted the -office of president of the council. When the cabinet was reconstructed a -year later the Irish were left without representation, and McGee sought -re-election as a member of the opposite party. In 1864 he was appointed -minister of agriculture in the administration of Sir E. P. Tache, and he -served the country in that capacity until his death. He actively -supported the policy of federation and was elected a member of the first -Dominion parliament in 1867. On the 7th of April 1868, after having -delivered a notable speech in the house, he was shot by an assassin as -he was about to enter his house at Ottawa. His utterances against the -Fenian invasion are believed to have been the cause of the crime for -which P. J. Whelan was executed. McGee's loss was keenly felt by all -classes, and within a few weeks of his death parliament granted an -annuity to his widow and children. McGee had great faith in the future -of Canada as a part of the empire. Speaking at St John, N.B., in 1863, -he said: "There are before the public men of British America at this -moment but two courses: either to drift with the tide of democracy, or -to seize the golden moment and fix for ever the monarchical character of -our institutions. I invite every fellow colonist who agrees with me to -unite our efforts that we may give our province the aspect of an empire, -in order to exercise the influence abroad and at home of a state, and to -originate a history which the world will not willingly let die." Sir -Charles Gavan Duffy considered that as a poet McGee was not inferior to -Davis, and that as an orator he possessed powers rarer than those of T. -F. Meagher. - - McGee's principal works are: _A Popular History of Ireland_ (2 vols., - New York, 1862; 1 vol., London, 1869); _Irish Writers of the - Seventeenth Century_ (Dublin, 1846); _Historical Sketches of O'Connell - and his Friends_ (Boston, 1844); _Memoirs of the Life and Conquests of - Art McMurrogh, King of Leinster_ (Dublin, 1847); _Memoir of C. G. - Duffy_ (Dublin, 1849); _A History of the Irish Settlers in North - America_ (Boston, 1851); _History of the Attempts to establish the - Protestant Reformation in Ireland_ (Boston, 1853); _Life of Edward - Maginn, Coadjutor Bishop of Derry_ (New York, 1857); _Catholic History - of North America_ (Boston, 1854); _Canadian Ballads and Occasional - Pieces_ (New York, 1858); _Notes on Federal Governments Past and - Present_ (Montreal, 1865); _Speeches and Addresses, chiefly on the - Subject of the British American Union_ (London, 1865); _Poems_, edited - by Mrs M. A. Sadleir with introductory memoir (New York, 1869). See - Fennings Taylor, _The Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee_ (Montreal, 1867); J. - K. Foran, _Thomas D'Arcy McGee as an Empire Builder_ (Ottawa, 1904); - H. J. O'C. French, _A Sketch of the Life of the Hon. T. D. McGee_ - (Montreal); Appleton's _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_., iv. 116; - N. F. Dvin's _Irishman in Canada_ (1887); C. G. Duffy, _Four Years of - Irish History_ (1883); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish Biography_ - (Dublin, 1878). (A. G. D.) - - - - -McGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN (1861- ), American theologian, was born in -Sauquoit, New York, on the 4th of March 1861, the son of a Presbyterian -clergyman of Scotch descent. He graduated at Western Reserve College in -1882 and at Union theological seminary in 1885, studied in Germany -(especially under Harnack) in 1885-1887, and in Italy and France in -1888, and in that year received the degree of doctor of philosophy at -Marburg. He was instructor (1888-1890) and professor (1890-1893) of -church history at Lane theological seminary, and in 1893 became Washburn -professor of church history in Union theological seminary, succeeding Dr -Philip Schaff. His published work, except occasional critical studies in -philosophy, dealt with church history and the history of dogma. His best -known publication is a _History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age_ -(1897). This book, by its independent criticism and departures from -traditionalism, aroused the opposition of the General Assembly of the -Presbyterian Church; though the charges brought against McGiffert were -dismissed by the Presbytery of New York, to which they had been -referred, a trial for heresy seemed inevitable, and McGiffert, in 1900, -retired from the Presbyterian ministry and entered the Congregational -Church, although he retained his position in Union theological seminary. -Among his other publications are: _A Dialogue between a Christian and a -Jew_ (1888); a translation (with introduction and notes) of Eusebius's -_Church History_ (1890); and _The Apostles' Creed_ (1902), in which he -attempted to prove that the old Roman creed was formulated as a protest -against the dualism of Marcion and his denial of the reality of Jesus's -life on earth. - - - - -McGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER (c. 1730-1793), American Indian chief, was born -near the site of the present Wetumpka, in Alabama. His father was a -Scotch merchant and his mother the daughter of a French officer and an -Indian "princess." Through his father's relatives in South Carolina, -McGillivray received a good education, but at the age of seventeen, -after a short experience as a merchant in Savannah and Pensacola, he -returned to the Muscogee Indians, who elected him chief. He retained his -connexion with business life as a member of the British firm of Panton, -Forbes & Leslie of Pensacola. During the War of Independence, as a -colonel in the British army, he incited his followers to attack the -western frontiers of Georgia and the Carolinas. Georgia confiscated some -of his property, and after the peace of 1783 McGillivray remained -hostile. Though still retaining his British commission, he accepted one -from Spain, and during the remainder of his life used his influence to -prevent American settlement in the south-west. So important was he -considered that in 1790 President Washington sent an agent who induced -him to visit New York. Here he was persuaded to make peace in -consideration of a brigadier-general's commission and payment for the -property confiscated by Georgia; and with the warriors who accompanied -him he signed a formal treaty of peace and friendship on the 7th of -August. He then went back to the Indian country, and remained hostile to -the Americans until his death. He was one of the ablest Indian leaders -of America and at one time wielded great power--having 5000 to 10,000 -armed followers. In order to serve Indian interests he played off -British, Spanish and American interests against one another, but before -he died he saw that he was fighting in a losing cause, and, changing his -policy, endeavoured to provide for the training of the Muscogees in the -white man's civilization. McGillivray was polished in manners, of -cultivated intellect, was a shrewd merchant, and a successful -speculator; but he had many savage traits, being noted for his -treachery, craftiness and love of barbaric display. (W. L. F.) - - - - -MACGILLIVRAY, WILLIAM (1796-1852), Scottish naturalist, was born at -Aberdeen on the 25th of January 1796. At King's College, Aberdeen, he -graduated in 1815, and also studied medicine, but did not complete the -latter course. In 1823 he became assistant to R. Jameson, professor of -natural history in Edinburgh University; and in 1831 he was appointed -curator of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, a -post which he resigned in 1841 to become professor of natural history -and lecturer on botany in Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died at -Aberdeen on the 4th of September 1852. He possessed a wide and -comprehensive knowledge of natural science, gained no less from personal -observations in different parts of Scotland than from a study of -collections and books. His industry and extensive knowledge are amply -shown in his published works. He assisted J. J. Audubon in his classical -works on the _Birds of America_, and edited W. Withering's _British -Plants_. His larger works include biographies of A. von Humboldt, and of -zoologists from Aristotle to Linnaeus, a _History of British -Quadrupeds_, a _History of the Molluscous Animals of Aberdeen, Banff and -Kincardine_, a _Manual of British Ornithology_, and a _History of -British Birds_, in 5 vols. (1837-1852). The last work holds a high rank -from the excellent descriptions of the structure, habits and haunts of -birds, and from the use in classification of characters afforded by -their anatomical structure. His _Natural History of Deeside_, -posthumously published by command of Queen Victoria, was the result of a -sojourn in the highlands of Aberdeenshire in 1850. He made large -collections, alike for the instruction of his students and to illustrate -the zoology, botany and geology of the parts of Scotland examined by -him, especially around Aberdeen, and a number of his original -water-colour drawings are preserved in the British Museum (Natural -History). - - His eldest son, JOHN MACGILLIVRAY (1822-1867), published an account of - the voyage round the world of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake," on board of which - he was naturalist. Another son, PAUL, published an _Aberdeen Flora_ in - 1853. - - - - -MacGREGOR, JOHN ["ROB ROY"] (1825-1892), Scottish canoeist, traveller -and philanthropist, son of General Sir Duncan MacGregor, K.C.B., was -born at Gravesend on the 24th of January 1825. He combined a roving -disposition with a natural taste for mechanics and for literature. In -1839 he went to Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1844 to Trinity, -Cambridge, where he was a wrangler. He was called to the bar in 1851, -but did not pursue his profession. He travelled a great deal in Europe, -Egypt, Palestine, Russia, Algeria and America, and between 1853 and 1863 -was largely occupied with researches into the history and methods of -marine propulsion. He was the pioneer of British canoeing. In 1865 he -started on a long canoeing cruise in his "Rob Roy" canoe, and in this -way made a prolonged water tour through Europe, a record of which he -published in 1866 as _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe_. This book -made MacGregor and his canoe famous. He made similar voyages in later -years in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, the North Sea and Palestine. -Another voyage, in the English Channel and on French waters, was made in -a yawl. He published accounts of all these journeys. He did not, -however, confine his energies to travelling. He was active in charity -and philanthropic work, being one of the founders of the Shoe-black -Brigade. In 1870 and again in 1873 he was elected on the London school -board. He died at Boscombe on the 16th of July 1892. - - - - -MACH, ERNST (1838- ), Austrian physicist and psychologist, was born on -the 18th of February 1838 at Turas in Moravia, and studied at Vienna. He -was professor of mathematics at Gratz (1864-1867), of physics at Prague -(1867-1895), and of physics at Vienna (1895-1901). In 1879 and 1880 as -_Rector Magnificus_ he fought against the introduction of Czech instead -of German in the Prague University. In 1901 he was made a member of the -Austrian house of peers. In philosophy he began with a strong -predilection for the physical side of psychology, and at an early age he -came to the conclusion that all existence is sensation, and, after a -lapse into noumenalism under the influence of Fechner's _Psychophysics_, -finally adopted a universal physical phenomenalism. The Ego he considers -not an entity sharply distinguished from the Non-ego, but merely, as it -were, a medium of continuity of sensory impressions. His whole theory -appears to be vitiated by the confusion of physics and psychology. - - WORKS.--_Kompendium der Physik fur Mediziner_ (Vienna, 1863); - _Einleitung in die Heimholtz'sehe Musiktheorie_ (Gratz, 1866); _Die - Gesch. u. d. Wurzel d. Satzes von d. Erhaltung d. Arbeit_ (Prague, - 1872); _Grundlinien d. Lehre v. d. Bewegungsempfindungen_ (Leipzig, - 1875); _Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung_ (Leipzig, 1883; rev. ed., - 1908; Eng. trans., T. J. McCormack, 1902); _Beitrage zur Analyse d. - Empfindungen_ (Jena, 1886), 5th ed., 1906, entitled _Die Analyse d. - Empfindungen; Leitfaden d. Physik fur Studierende_ (Prague, 1881, in - collaboration); _Popularwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen_ (3rd ed., - Leipzig, 1903); _Die Prinzipien d. Warmelehre_ (2nd ed., 1900); - _Erkenntnis und Irrtum_ (Leipzig, 1905). - - - - -MACHAERODUS, or MACHAIRODUS, the typical genus of a group of long-tusked -extinct cats, commonly known as sabre-tooths. Although best regarded as -a sub-family (_Machaerodontinae_) of the _Felidae_, they are sometimes -referred to a separate family under the name _Nimravidae_ (see -CARNIVORA). The later forms, as well as some of the earlier ones, are -more specialized as regards dentition than the modern _Felidae_, -although in several other respects they exhibit more primitive features. -The general type of dentition is feline, but in some instances more -premolars are retained, as well as a small tubercular molar behind the -lower carnassial. The characteristic feature is, however, the great -development of the upper canines, which in the more specialized types -reach far below the margin of the lower jaw, despite the development of -a flange-like expansion of the extremity of the latter for their -protection. In these extreme forms it is quite evident that the jaws -could not be used in the ordinary manner; and it seems probable that in -attacking prey the lower jaw was dropped to a vertical position, and the -huge upper tusks used as stabbing instruments. The group is believed to -be derived from a creodont allied to the Eocene _Palaeonictis_ (see -CREODONTA). - -_Nimravus_, of the American Oligocene, with two premolars and two molars -in the lower jaw, and comparatively short upper canines, seems to be the -least specialized type; next to which comes _Hoplophoneus_, another -North American Oligocene genus, in which the tubercular lower molar is -lost, and the upper canine is longer. It is noteworthy, however, that -this genus retains the third trochanter to the femur, which is lost in -_Nimravus_. _Machaerodus_, in the wider sense, includes the larger and -more typical forms. In the Pliocene of France and Italy it is -represented by _M. megantereon_, a species not larger than a leopard, -and allied forms occur in the Pliocene of Greece, Hungary, Samos, -Persia, India and China, as well as in the Middle Miocene of France and -Germany. Far larger is the Pleistocene _M. cultridens_ of the caverns of -Europe, with serrated upper tusks several inches in length. From Europe -and Asia the sabre-toothed tigers may be traced into North and thence -into South America, the home of _M. (Smilodon) neogaeus_, the largest of -the whole tribe, whose remains occur in the Brazilian caves and the silt -of the Argentine pampas. This animal was as large as a tiger, with tusks -projecting seven inches from the jaw and very complex carnassials; the -feet were very short, with only four toes to the hind-pair, and the -humerus has lost the foramen at the lower end. Very noteworthy is the -occurrence of an imperfectly known specialized type--_Eusmilus_--in the -Lower Oligocene of Europe and perhaps also North America. Unlike all -other cats, it had only two pairs of lower incisors, and the large -cheek-teeth were reduced to the carnassial and one premolar in advance -of the same. (R. L.*) - - - - -MACHALE, JOHN (1791-1881), Irish divine, was born on the 15th of March -1791 at Tuber-na-Fian, Mayo, and was educated at Maynooth, where after -graduating in 1814 he was ordained priest and appointed lecturer in -theology, succeeding to the professoriate in 1820. In 1825 he became -coadjutor bishop of Killala, and in July 1834 archbishop of Tuam and -metropolitan. He visited Rome in 1831, and was there again at the -proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin -(Dec. 1854) and in 1869-1870 at the Vatican council. Though he did not -favour the dogma of Papal Infallibility he submitted as soon as it was -defined. Machale was an intensely patriotic Irishman, who fought hard -for Catholic Emancipation, for separate Roman Catholic schools, and -against the Queen's Colleges. He translated part of the _Iliad_ (Dublin, -1861), and made an Irish version of some of Moore's melodies and of the -Pentateuch. He died at Tuam on the 7th of November 1881. - - - - -MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1701-1794), French statesman, -was a son of Louis Charles Machault d'Arnouville, lieutenant of police. -In 1721 he was counsel to the parlement of Paris, in 1728 _maitre des -requetes_, and ten years later was made president of the Great Council; -although he had opposed the court in the _Unigenitus_ dispute, he was -appointed intendant of Hainaut in 1743. From this position, through the -influence at court of his old friend Rene Louis, Marquis d'Argenson, he -was called to succeed Orry de Fulvy as controller-general of the -finances in December 1745. He found, on taking office, that in the four -years of the War of the Austrian Succession the economies of Cardinal -Fleury had been exhausted, and he was forced to develop the system of -borrowings which was bringing French finances to bankruptcy. He -attempted in 1749 a reform in the levying of direct taxes, which, if -carried out, would have done much to prevent the later Revolutionary -movement. He proposed to abolish the old tax of a tenth, which was -evaded by the clergy and most of the nobility, and substitute a tax of -one-twentieth which should be levied on all without exception. The cry -for exceptions, however, began at once. The clergy stood in a body by -their historical privileges, and the outcry of the nobility was too -great for the minister to make headway against. Still he managed to -retain his office until July 1754, when he exchanged the controllership -for the ministry of marine. Foreseeing the disastrous results of the -alliance with Austria, he was drawn to oppose more decidedly the schemes -of Mme de Pompadour, whose personal ill-will he had gained. Louis XV. -acquiesced in her demand for his disgrace on the 1st of February 1757. -Machault lived on his estate at Arnouville until the Revolution broke -out, when, after a period of hiding, he was apprehended in 1794 at Rouen -and brought to Paris as a suspect. He was imprisoned in the -Madelonnettes, where he succumbed in a few weeks, at the age of -ninety-three. - -His son, LOUIS CHARLES MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE (1737-1820), was bishop of -Amiens from 1774 until the Revolution. He was famous for his charity; -but proved to be a most uncompromising Conservative at the estates -general of 1789, where he voted consistently against every reform. He -emigrated in 1791, resigned his bishopric in 1801 to facilitate the -concordat, and retired to the ancestral chateau of Arnouville, where he -died in 1820. - - - - -MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE (c. 1300-1377), French poet and musician, was born -in the village of Machault near Rethel in Champagne. Machaut tells us -that he served for thirty years the adventurous John of Luxembourg, king -of Bohemia. He followed his master to Russia and Poland, and, though of -peaceful tastes himself, saw twenty battles and a hundred tourneys. When -John was killed at Crecy in 1346 Machaut was received at the court of -Normandy, and on the accession of John the Good to the throne of France -(1350) he received an office which enabled him to devote himself -thenceforth to music and poetry. Machaut wrote about 1348 in honour of -Charles III., king of Navarre, a long poem much admired by -contemporaries, _Le Jugement du roi de Navarre_. When Charles was thrown -into prison by his father-in-law, King John, Machaut addressed him a -_Confort d'ami_ to console him for his enforced separation from his -young wife, then aged fifteen. This was followed about 1370 by a poem of -9000 lines entitled _La Prise d'Alexandrie_, one of the last chronicles -cast in this form. Its hero was Pierre de Lusignan, king of Cyprus. -Machaut is best known for the strange book telling of the love affair of -his old age with a young and noble lady long supposed to be Agnes of -Navarre, sister of Charles the Bad; Paulin Paris in his edition of the -_Voir dit_ (_Historie vraie_) identified her as Perronne d'Armentieres, -a noble lady of Champagne. In 1362, when Machaut must have been at least -sixty-two years of age, he received a rondeau from Perronne, who was -then eighteen, expressing her devotion. She no doubt wished to play -Laura to his Petrarch, and the _Voir dit_ contains the correspondence -and the poems which they exchanged. The romance, which ended with -Perronne's marriage and Machaut's desire to remain her _doux ami_, has -gleams of poetry, especially in Perronne's verses, but its subject and -its length are both deterrent to modern readers. But Machaut with -Deschamps marks a distinct transition. The _trouveres_ had been -impersonal. It is difficult to gather any details of their personal -history from their work. Machaut and Deschamps wrote of their own -affairs, and the next step in development was to be the self-analysis of -Villon. Machaut was also a musician. He composed a number of motets, -songs and ballads, also a mass supposed to have been sung at the -coronation of Charles V. This was translated into modern notation by -Perne, who read a notice on it before the Institute of France in 1817. - - Machaut's _Oeuvres choisies_ were edited by P. Tarbe (Rheims and - Paris, 1849); _La Prise d'Alexandrie_, by L. de Mas-Latrie (Geneva, - 1877); and _Le Livre du voir-dit_, by Paulin Paris (1875). See also F. - G. Fetis, _Biog. universelle des musiciens ..._ (Paris, 1862), and a - notice on the _Instruments de musique au xiv^e siecle d'apres - Guillaume de Machaut_, by E. Travers (Paris, 1882). - - - - -MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO (1469-1527), Italian statesman and writer, was born -at Florence on the 3rd of May 1469. His ancestry claimed blood -relationship with the lords of Montespertoli, a fief situated between -Val di Pesa and Val d'Elsa, at no great distance from the city. -Niccolo's father, Bernardo (b. 1428), followed the profession of a -jurist. He held landed property worth something like L250 a year of our -money. His son, though not wealthy, was never wholly dependent upon -official income. - -Of Niccolo's early years and education little is known. His works show -wide reading in the Latin and Italian classics, but it is almost certain -that he had not mastered the Greek language. To the defects of -Machiavelli's education we may, in part at least, ascribe the peculiar -vigour of his style and his speculative originality. He is free from the -scholastic trifling and learned frivolity which tainted the rhetorical -culture of his century. He made the world of men and things his study, -learned to write his mother-tongue with idiomatic conciseness, and -nourished his imagination on the masterpieces of the Romans. - -The year of Charles VIII.'s invasion and of the Medici's expulsion from -Florence (1494) saw Machiavelli's first entrance into public life. He -was appointed clerk in the second chancery of the commune under his old -master, the grammarian, Marcello Virgilio Adriani. Early in 1498 Adriani -became chancellor of the republic, and Machiavelli received his vacated -office with the rank of second chancellor and secretary. This post he -retained till the year 1512. The masters he had to serve were the _dieci -di liberta e pace_, who, though subordinate to the _signoria_, exercised -a separate control over the departments of war and the interior. They -sent their own ambassadors to foreign powers, transacted business with -the cities of the Florentine domain, and controlled the military -establishment of the commonwealth. The next fourteen years of -Machiavelli's life were fully occupied in the voluminous correspondence -of his bureau, in diplomatic missions of varying importance, and in the -organization of a Florentine militia. It would be tedious to follow him -through all his embassies to petty courts of Italy, the first of which -took place in 1499, when he was sent to negotiate the continuance of a -loan to Catherine Sforza, countess of Forli and Imola. In 1500 -Machiavelli travelled into France, to deal with Louis XII. about the -affairs of Pisa. These embassies were the school in which Machiavelli -formed his political opinions, and gathered views regarding the state of -Europe and the relative strength of nations. They not only introduced -him to the subtleties of Italian diplomacy, but also extended his -observation over races very different from the Italians. He thus, in the -course of his official business, gradually acquired principles and -settled ways of thinking which he afterwards expressed in writing. - -In 1502 Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini, who bore him several -children, with whom, in spite of his own infidelities, he lived on good -terms, and who survived him twenty-six years. In the same year Piero -Soderini was chosen gonfalonier for life, in accordance with certain -changes in the constitution of the state, which were intended to bring -Florence closer to the Venetian type of government. Machiavelli became -intimately connected with Soderini, assisted him in carrying out his -policy, suggested important measures of military reform which Soderini -adopted, and finally was involved in ruin by his fall. - -The year 1502 was marked by yet another decisive incident in -Machiavelli's life. In October he was sent, much against his will, as -envoy to the camp of Cesare Borgia, duke of Valentinois. The duke was -then in Romagna, and it was Machiavelli's duty to wait upon and watch -him. He was able now to observe those intricate intrigues which -culminated in Cesare's murder of his disaffected captains. From what -remains of Machiavelli's official letters, and from his tract upon the -_Modo che tenne il duca Valentino per ammazzar Vitellozzo Vitelli_, we -are able to appreciate the actual relations which existed between the -two men, and the growth in Machiavelli's mind of a political ideal based -upon his study of the duke's character. Machiavelli conceived the -strongest admiration for Cesare's combination of audacity with -diplomatic prudence, for his adroit use of cruelty and fraud, for his -self-reliance, avoidance of half-measures, employment of native troops, -and firm administration in conquered provinces. More than once, in -letters to his friend Vettori, no less than in the pages of the -_Principe_, Machiavelli afterwards expressed his belief that Cesare -Borgia's behaviour in the conquest of provinces, the cementing of a new -state out of scattered elements, and the dealing with false friends or -doubtful allies, was worthy of all commendation and of scrupulous -imitation. As he watched Cesare Borgia at this, the most brilliant -period of his adventurous career, the man became idealized in his -reflective but imaginative mind. Round him, as a hero, he allowed his -own conceptions of the perfect prince to cluster. That Machiavelli -separated the actual Cesare Borgia, whom he afterwards saw, ruined and -contemptible, at Rome, from this radiant creature of his political -fancy, is probable. That the Cesare of history does not exactly match -the Duca Valentino of Machiavelli's writings is certain. Still the fact -remains that henceforth Machiavelli cherished the ideal image of the -statesman which he had modelled upon Cesare, and called this by the name -of Valentino. - -On his return to Florence early in January 1503, Machiavelli began to -occupy himself with a project which his recent attendance upon Cesare -Borgia had strengthened in his mind. The duties of his office obliged -him to study the conditions of military service as they then existed in -Italy. He was familiar with the disadvantages under which republics -laboured when they engaged professional captains of adventure and levied -mercenary troops. The bad faith of the condottiere Paolo Vitelli -(beheaded at Florence in 1499) had deeply impressed him. In the war with -Pisa he had observed the insubordination and untrustworthiness of -soldiers gathered from the dregs of different districts, serving under -egotistical and irresponsible commanders. His reading in Livy taught him -to admire the Roman system of employing armies raised from the body of -the citizens; and Cesare Borgia's method of gradually substituting the -troops of his own duchy for aliens and mercenaries showed him that this -plan might be adopted with success by the Italians. He was now -determined, if possible, to furnish Florence with a national militia. -The gonfalonier Soderini entered into his views. But obstacles of no -small magnitude arose. The question of money was immediately pressing. -Early in 1503 Machiavelli drew up for Soderini a speech, _Discorso sulla -provisione del danaro_, in which the duty and necessity of liberal -expenditure for the protection of the state were expounded upon -principles of sound political philosophy. Between this date and the last -month of 1506 Machiavelli laboured at his favourite scheme, working out -memorials on the subject for his office, and suggesting the outlines of -a new military organization. On the 6th of December 1506 his plan was -approved by the signoria, and a special ministry, called the nove _di -ordinanza e milizia_, was appointed. Machiavelli immediately became -their secretary. The country districts of the Florentine dominion were -now divided into departments, and levies of foot soldiers were made in -order to secure a standing militia. A commander-in-chief had to be -chosen for the new troops. Italian jealousy shrank from conferring this -important office on a Florentine, lest one member of the state should -acquire a power dangerous to the whole. The choice of Soderini and -Machiavelli fell, at this juncture, upon an extremely ineligible person, -none other than Don Micheletto, Cesare Borgia's cut-throat and assassin. -It is necessary to insist upon this point, since it serves to illustrate -a radical infirmity in Machiavelli's genius. While forming and promoting -his scheme, he was actuated by principles of political wisdom and by the -purest patriotism. But he failed to perceive that such a ruffian as -Micheletto could not inspire the troops of Florence with that devotion -to their country and that healthy moral tone which should distinguish a -patriot army. Here, as elsewhere, he revealed his insensibility to the -ethical element in human nature. - -Meanwhile Italy had been the scene of memorable events, in most of which -Machiavelli took some part. Alexander VI. had died suddenly of fever. -Julius II. had ascended the papal chair. The duke of Valentinois had -been checked in mid-career of conquest. The collapse of the Borgias -threw Central Italy into confusion; and Machiavelli had, in 1505, to -visit the Baglioni at Perugia and the Petrucci at Siena. In the -following year he accompanied Julius upon his march through Perugia into -the province of Emilia, where the fiery pope subdued in person the -rebellious cities of the Church. Upon these embassies Machiavelli -represented the Florentine dieci in quality of envoy. It was his duty to -keep the ministry informed by means of frequent despatches and reports. -All this while the war for the recovery of Pisa was slowly dragging on, -with no success or honour to the Florentines. Machiavelli had to attend -the camp and provide for levies amid his many other occupations. And yet -he found time for private literary work. In the autumn of 1504 he began -his _Decennali_, or _Annals of Italy_, a poem composed in rough terza -rima. About the same time he composed a comedy on the model of -Aristophanes, which is unfortunately lost. It seems to have been called -_Le Maschere_. Giuliano de' Ricci tells us it was marked by stringent -satire upon great ecclesiastics and statesmen, no less than by a -tendency to "ascribe all human things to natural causes or to fortune." -That phrase accurately describes the prevalent bias of its author's -mind. - -The greater part of 1506 and 1507 was spent in organizing the new -militia, corresponding on the subject, and scouring the country on -enlistment service. But at the end of the latter year European affairs -of no small moment diverted Machiavelli from these humbler duties. -Maximilian was planning a journey into Italy in order to be crowned -emperor at Rome, and was levying subsidies from the imperial burghs for -his expenses. The Florentines thought his demands excessive. Though they -already had Francesco Vettori at his court, Soderini judged it advisable -to send Machiavelli thither in December. He travelled by Geneva, all -through Switzerland, to Botzen, where he found the emperor. This journey -was an important moment in his life. It enabled him to study the Swiss -and the Germans in their homes; and the report which he wrote on his -return is among his most effective political studies. What is most -remarkable in it is his concentrated effort to realize the exact -political weight of the German nation, and to penetrate the causes of -its strength and weakness. He attempts to grasp the national character -as a whole, and thence to deduce practical conclusions. The same -qualities are noticeable in his _Ritratti delle cose di Francia_, which -he drew up after an embassy to Louis XII. at Blois in 1510. These notes -upon the French race are more scattered than the report on German -affairs. But they reveal no less acumen combined with imaginative -penetration into the very essence of national existence. - -Machiavelli returned from Germany in June 1508. The rest of that year -and a large part of 1509 were spent in the affairs of the militia and -the war of Pisa. Chiefly through his exertions the war was terminated by -the surrender of Pisa in June 1509. Meanwhile the league of Cambray had -disturbed the peace of Italy, and Florence found herself in a perilous -position between Spain and France. Soderini's government grew weaker. -The Medicean party lifted up its head. To the league of Cambray -succeeded the Holy League. The battle of Ravenna was fought, and the -French retired from Italy. The Florentines had been spectators rather -than actors in these great events. But they were now destined to feel -the full effects of them. The cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, who was -present at the battle of Ravenna, brought a Spanish army into Tuscany. -Prato was sacked in the August of 1512. Florence, in extreme terror, -deposed the gonfalonier, and opened her gates to the princes of the -house of Medici. - -The government on which Machiavelli depended had fallen, never to rise -again. The national militia in which he placed unbounded confidence had -proved inefficient to protect Florence in the hour of need. He was -surrounded by political and personal enemies, who regarded him with -jealousy as the ex-gonfalonier's right-hand man. Yet at first it appears -that he still hoped to retain his office. He showed no repugnance to a -change of masters, and began to make overtures to the Medici. The _nove -della milizia_ were, however, dissolved; and on the 7th of November 1512 -Machiavelli was deprived of his appointments. He was exiled from -Florence and confined to the dominion for one year, and on the 17th of -November was further prohibited from setting foot in the Palazzo -Pubblico. Ruin stared him in the face; and, to make matters worse, he -was implicated in the conspiracy of Pier Paolo Boscoli in February 1513. -Machiavelli had taken no share in that feeble attempt against the -Medici, but his name was found upon a memorandum dropped by Boscoli. -This was enough to ensure his imprisonment. He was racked, and only -released upon Giovanni de' Medici's election to the papacy in March -1513. When he left his dungeon he retired to a farm near San Casciano, -and faced the fact that his political career was at an end. - -Machiavelli now entered upon a period of life to which we owe the great -works that have rendered his name immortal. But it was one of prolonged -disappointment and annoyance. He had not accustomed himself to -economical living; and, when the emoluments of his office were -withdrawn, he had barely enough to support his family. The previous -years of his manhood had been spent in continual activity. Much as he -enjoyed the study of the Latin and Italian classics, literature was not -his business; nor had he looked on writing as more than an occasional -amusement. He was now driven in upon his books for the employment of a -restless temperament; and to this irksomeness of enforced leisure may be -ascribed the production of the _Principe_, the _Discorsi_, the _Arte -della guerra_, the comedies, and the _Historie fiorentine_. The -uneasiness of Machiavelli's mind in the first years of this retirement -is brought before us by his private correspondence. The letters to -Vettori paint a man of vigorous intellect and feverish activity, -dividing his time between studies and vulgar dissipations, seeking at -one time distraction in low intrigues and wanton company, at another -turning to the great minds of antiquity for solace. It is not easy to -understand the spirit in which the author of the _Principe_ sat down to -exchange obscenities with the author of the _Sommario della storia -d'Italia_. At the same time this coarseness of taste did not blunt his -intellectual sagacity. His letters on public affairs in Italy and -Europe, especially those which he meant Vettori to communicate to the -Medici at Rome, are marked by extraordinary fineness of perception, -combined, as usual in his case, with philosophical breadth. In -retirement at his villa near Percussina, a hamlet of San Casciano, -Machiavelli completed the _Principe_ before the end of 1513. This famous -book is an analysis of the methods whereby an ambitious man may rise to -sovereign power. It appears to have grown out of another scarcely less -celebrated work, upon which Machiavelli had been engaged before he took -the _Principe_ in hand, and which he did not finish until some time -afterwards. This second treatise is the _Discorsi sopra la prima deca di -Tito Livio_. - - Cast in the form of comments on the history of Livy, the _Discorsi_ - are really an inquiry into the genesis and maintenance of states. The - _Principe_ is an offshoot from the main theme of the _Discorsi_, - setting forth Machiavelli's views at large and in detail upon the - nature of principalities, the method of cementing them, and the - qualities of a successful autocrat. Being more limited in subject and - more independent as a work of literary art, this essay detaches itself - from the main body of the _Discorsi_, and has attracted far more - attention. We feel that the _Principe_ is inspired with greater - fervency, as though its author had more than a speculative aim in - view, and brought it forth to serve a special crisis. The moment of - its composition was indeed decisive. Machiavelli judged the case of - Italy so desperate that salvation could only be expected from the - intervention of a powerful despot. The unification of Italy in a state - protected by a national army was the cherished dream of his life; and - the peroration of the _Principe_ shows that he meant this treatise to - have a direct bearing on the problem. We must be careful, however, not - to fall into the error of supposing that he wrote it with the sole - object of meeting an occasional emergency. Together with the - _Discorsi_, the _Principe_ contains the speculative fruits of his - experience and observation combined with his deductions from Roman - history. The two works form one coherent body of opinion, not - systematically expressed, it is true, but based on the same - principles, involving the same conclusions, and directed to the same - philosophical end. That end is the analysis of the conception of the - state, studied under two main types, republican and monarchical. Up to - the date of Machiavelli, modern political philosophy had always - presupposed an ideal. Medieval speculation took the Church and the - Empire for granted, as divinely appointed institutions, under which - the nations of the earth must flourish for the space of man's - probation on this planet. Thinkers differed only as Guelfs and - Ghibellines, as leaning on the one side to papal, on the other to - imperial supremacy. In the revival of learning, scholarship supplanted - scholasticism, and the old ways of medieval thinking were forgotten. - But no substantial philosophy of any kind emerged from humanism; the - political lucubrations of the scholars were, like their ethical - treatises, for the most part rhetorical. Still the humanists effected - a delivery of the intellect from what had become the bondage of - obsolete ideas, and created a new medium for the speculative faculty. - Simultaneously with the revival, Italy had passed into that stage of - her existence which has been called the age of despots. The yoke of - the Empire had been shaken off. The Church had taken rank among - Italian tyrannies. The peninsula was, roughly speaking, divided into - principalities and sovereign cities, each of which claimed autocratic - jurisdiction. These separate despotisms owned no common social tie, - were founded on no common _jus_ or right, but were connected in a - network of conflicting interests and changeful diplomatic - combinations. A keen and positive political intelligence emerged in - the Italian race. The reports of Venetian and Florentine ambassadors - at this epoch contain the first germs of an attempt to study politics - from the point of view of science. - - At this moment Machiavelli intervenes. He was conscious of the change - which had come over Italy and Europe. He was aware that the old - strongholds of medieval thought must be abandoned, and that the - decaying ruins of medieval institutions furnished no basis for the - erection of solid political edifices. He felt the corruption of his - country, and sought to bring the world back to a lively sense of the - necessity for reformation. His originality consists in having extended - the positive intelligence of his century from the sphere of - contemporary politics and special interests to man at large regarded - as a political being. He founded the science of politics for the - modern world, by concentrating thought upon its fundamental - principles. He began to study men, not according to some - preconception, but as he found them--men, not in the isolation of one - century, but as a whole in history. He drew his conclusions from the - nature of mankind itself, "ascribing all things to natural causes or - to fortune." In this way he restored the right method of study, a - method which had been neglected since the days of Aristotle. He formed - a conception of the modern state, which marked the close of the middle - ages, and anticipated the next phase of European development. His - prince, abating those points which are purely Italian or strongly - tinctured with the author's personal peculiarities, prefigured the - monarchs of the 16th and 17th centuries, the monarchs whose motto was - _L'etat c'est moi!_ His doctrine of a national militia foreshadowed - the system which has given strength in arms to France and Germany. His - insight into the causes of Italian decadence was complete; and the - remedies which he suggested, in the perorations of the _Principe_ and - the _Arte della guerra_, have since been applied in the unification of - Italy. Lastly, when we once have freed ourselves from the antipathy - engendered by his severance of ethics from the field of politics, when - we have once made proper allowance for his peculiar use of phrases - like _frodi onorevoli_ or _scelleratezze gloriose_, nothing is left - but admiration for his mental attitude. That is the attitude of a - patriot, who saw with open eyes the ruin of his country, who burned - above all things to save Italy and set her in her place among the - powerful nations, who held the duty of self-sacrifice in the most - absolute sense, whose very limitations and mistakes were due to an - absorbing passion for the state he dreamed might be reconstituted. It - was Machiavelli's intense preoccupation with this problem--what a - state is and how to found one in existing circumstances--which caused - the many riddles of his speculative writings. Dazzled, as it were, - with the brilliancy of his own discovery, concentrated in attention on - the one necessity for organizing a powerful coherent nation, he forgot - that men are more than political beings. He neglected religion, or - regarded it as part of the state machinery. He was by no means - indifferent to private virtue, which indeed he judged the basis of all - healthy national existence; but in the realm of politics he postponed - morals to political expediency. He held that the people, as - distinguished from the nobles and the clergy, were the pith and fibre - of nations; yet this same people had to become wax in the hands of the - politician--their commerce and their comforts, the arts which give a - dignity to life and the pleasures which make life liveable, - neglected--their very liberty subordinated to the one tyrannical - conception. To this point the segregation of politics from every other - factor which goes to constitute humanity had brought him; and this it - is which makes us feel his world a wilderness, devoid of atmosphere - and vegetation. Yet some such isolation of the subject matter of this - science was demanded at the moment of its birth, just as political - economy, when first started, had to make a rigid severance of wealth - from other units. It is only by a gradual process that social science - in its whole complexity can be evolved. We have hardly yet discovered - that political economy has unavoidable points of contact with ethics. - - From the foregoing criticism it will be perceived that all the - questions whether Machiavelli meant to corrupt or to instruct the - world, to fortify the hands of tyrants or to lead them to their ruin, - are now obsolete. He was a man of science--one who by the vigorous - study of his subject matter sought from that subject-matter itself to - deduce laws. The difficulty which remains in judging him is a - difficulty of statement, valuation, allowance. How much shall we allow - for his position in Renaissance Italy, for the corruption in the midst - of which he lived, for his own personal temperament? How shall we - state his point of departure from the middle ages, his sympathy with - prevalent classical enthusiasms, his divination of a new period? How - shall we estimate the permanent worth of his method, the residuum of - value in his maxims? - -After finishing the _Principe_, Machiavelli thought of dedicating it to -one of the Medicean princes, with the avowed hope that he might thereby -regain their favour and find public employment. He wrote to Vettori on -the subject, and Giuliano de' Medici, duke of Nemours, seemed to him the -proper person. The choice was reasonable. No sooner had Leo been made -pope than he formed schemes for the aggrandizement of his family. -Giuliano was offered and refused the duchy of Urbino. Later on, Leo -designed for him a duchy in Emilia, to be cemented out of Parma, -Piacenza, Reggio and Modena. Supported by the power of the papacy, with -the goodwill of Florence to back him, Giuliano would have found himself -in a position somewhat better than that of Cesare Borgia; and Borgia's -creation of the duchy of Romagna might have served as his model. -Machiavelli therefore was justified in feeling that here was an -opportunity for putting his cherished schemes in practice, and that a -prince with such alliances might even advance to the grand end of the -unification of Italy. Giuliano, however, died in 1506. Then Machiavelli -turned his thoughts towards Lorenzo, duke of Urbino. The choice of this -man as a possible Italian liberator reminds us of the choice of Don -Micheletto as general of the Florentine militia. To Lorenzo the -_Principe_ was dedicated, but without result. The Medici, as yet at all -events, could not employ Machiavelli, and had not in themselves the -stuff to found Italian kingdoms. - -Machiavelli, meanwhile, was reading his _Discorsi_ to a select audience -in the Rucellai gardens, fanning that republican enthusiasm which never -lay long dormant among the Florentines. Towards the year 1519 both Leo -X. and his cousin, the cardinal Giulio de' Medici, were much perplexed -about the management of the republic. It seemed necessary, if possible, -in the gradual extinction of their family to give the city at least a -semblance of self-government. They applied to several celebrated -politicians, among others to Machiavelli, for advice in the emergency. -The result was a treatise in which he deduced practical conclusions from -the past history and present temper of the city, blending these with his -favourite principles of government in general. He earnestly admonished -Leo, for his own sake and for Florence, to found a permanent and free -state system for the republic, reminding him in terms of noble eloquence -how splendid is the glory of the man who shall confer such benefits upon -a people. The year 1520 saw the composition of the _Arte della guerra_ -and the _Vita di Castruccio_. - - The first of these is a methodical treatise, setting forth - Machiavelli's views on military matters, digesting his theories - respecting the superiority of national troops, the inefficiency of - fortresses, the necessity of relying upon infantry in war, and the - comparative insignificance of artillery. It is strongly coloured with - his enthusiasm for ancient Rome; and specially upon the topic of - artillery it displays a want of insight into the actualities of modern - warfare. We may regard it as a supplement or appendix to the - _Principe_ and the _Discorsi_, since Machiavelli held it for a - fundamental axiom that states are powerless unless completely armed in - permanence. The peroration contains a noble appeal to the Italian - liberator of his dreams, and a parallel from Macedonian history, - which, read by the light of this century, sounds like a prophecy of - Piedmont. - - The _Vita di Castruccio_ was composed at Lucca, whither Machiavelli - had been sent on a mission. This so-called biography of the medieval - adventurer who raised himself by personal ability and military skill - to the tyranny of several Tuscan cities must be regarded in the light - of an historical romance. Dealing freely with the outline of - Castruccio's career, as he had previously dealt with Cesare Borgia, he - sketched his own ideal of the successful prince. Cesare Borgia had - entered into the _Principe_ as a representative figure rather than an - actual personage; so now conversely the theories of the _Principe_ - assumed the outward form and semblance of Castruccio. In each case - history is blent with speculation in nearly the same proportions. But - Castruccio, being farther from the writer's own experience, bears - weaker traits of personality. - - In the same year, 1520, Machiavelli, at the instance of the cardinal - Giulio de' Medici, received commission from the officers of the - _Studio pubblico_ to write a history of Florence. They agreed to pay - him an annual allowance of 100 florins while engaged upon the work. - The next six years were partly employed in its composition, and he - left a portion of it finished, with a dedication to Clement VII., when - he died in 1527. In the _Historie fiorentine_ Machiavelli quitted the - field of political speculation for that of history. But, having - already written the _Discorsi_ and the _Principe_, he carried with him - to this new task of historiography the habit of mind proper to - political philosophy. In his hands the history of Florence became a - text on which at fitting seasons to deliver lessons in the science he - initiated. This gives the work its special character. It is not so - much a chronicle of Florentine affairs, from the commencement of - modern history to the death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492, as a - critique of that chronicle from the point of view adopted by - Machiavelli in his former writings. Having condensed his doctrines in - the _Principe_ and the _Discorsi_, he applies their abstract - principles to the example of the Florentine republic. But the _History - of Florence_ is not a mere political pamphlet. It is the first example - in Italian literature of a national biography, the first attempt in - any literature to trace the vicissitudes of a people's life in their - logical sequence, deducing each successive phase from passions or - necessities inherent in preceding circumstances, reasoning upon them - from general principles, and inferring corollaries for the conduct of - the future. In point of form the _Florentine History_ is modelled upon - Livy. It contains speeches in the antique manner, which may be taken - partly as embodying the author's commentary upon situations of - importance, partly as expressing what he thought dramatically - appropriate to prominent personages. The style of the whole book is - nervous, vivid, free from artifice and rhetoric, obeying the writer's - thought with absolute plasticity. Machiavelli had formed for himself a - prose style, equalled by no one but by Guicciardini in his minor - works, which was far removed from the emptiness of the latinizing - humanists and the trivialities of the Italian purists. Words in his - hands have the substance, the self-evidence of things. It is an - athlete's style, all bone and sinew, nude, without superfluous flesh - or ornament. - -It would seem that from the date of Machiavelli's discourse to Leo on -the government of Florence the Medici had taken him into consideration. -Writing to Vettori in 1513, he had expressed his eager wish to "roll -stones" in their service; and this desire was now gratified. In 1521 he -was sent to Carpi to transact a petty matter with the chapter of the -Franciscans, the chief known result of the embassy being a burlesque -correspondence with Francesco Guicciardini. Four years later, in 1525, -he received a rather more important mission to Venice. But Machiavelli's -public career was virtually closed; and the interest of his biography -still centres in his literary work. We have seen that already, in 1504, -he had been engaged upon a comedy in the manner of Aristophanes, which -is now unfortunately lost. A translation of the _Andria_ and three -original comedies from his pen are extant, the precise dates of which -are uncertain, though the greatest of them was first printed at Rome in -1524. This is the _Mandragola_, which may be justly called the ripest -and most powerful play in the Italian language. - - The plot is both improbable and unpleasing. But literary criticism is - merged in admiration of the wit, the humour, the vivacity, the satire - of a piece which brings before us the old life of Florence in a - succession of brilliant scenes. If Machiavelli had any moral object - when he composed the _Mandragola_, it was to paint in glaring colours - the corruption of Italian society. It shows how a bold and plausible - adventurer, aided by the profligacy of a parasite, the avarice and - hypocrisy of a confessor, and a mother's complaisant familiarity with - vice, achieves the triumph of making a gulled husband bring his own - unwilling but too yielding wife to shame. The whole comedy is a study - of stupidity and baseness acted on by roguery. About the power with - which this picture of domestic immorality is presented there can be no - question. But the perusal of the piece obliges us to ask ourselves - whether the author's radical conception of human nature was not false. - The same suspicion is forced upon us by the _Principe_. Did not - Machiavelli leave good habit, as an essential ingredient of character, - out of account? Men are not such absolute fools as Nicia, nor such - compliant catspaws as Ligurio and Timoteo; women are not such weak - instruments as Sostrata and Lucrezia. Somewhere, in actual life, the - stress of craft and courage acting on the springs of human vice and - weakness fails, unless the hero of the comedy or tragedy, Callimaco or - Cesare, allows for the revolt of healthier instincts. Machiavelli does - not seem to have calculated the force of this recoil. He speculates a - world in which _virtu_, unscrupulous strength of character, shall deal - successfully with frailty. This, we submit, was a deep-seated error in - his theory of life, an error to which may be ascribed the numerous - stumbling-blocks and rocks of offence in his more serious writings. - - Some time after the _Mandragola_, he composed a second comedy, - entitled _Clizia_, which is even homelier and closer to the life of - Florence than its predecessor. It contains incomparable studies of the - Florentine housewife and her husband, a grave business-like citizen, - who falls into the senile folly of a base intrigue. There remains a - short piece without title, the _Commedia in prosa_, which, if it be - Machiavelli's, as internal evidence of style sufficiently argues, - might be accepted as a study for both the _Clizia_ and the - _Mandragola_. It seems written to expose the corruption of domestic - life in Florence, and especially to satirize the friars in their - familiar part of go-betweens, tame cats, confessors and adulterers. - - Of Machiavelli's minor poems, sonnets, _capitoli_ and carnival songs - there is not much to say. Powerful as a comic playwright, he was not a - poet in the proper sense of the term. The little novel of _Belfagor_ - claims a passing word, if only because of its celebrity. It is a - good-humoured satire upon marriage, the devil being forced to admit - that hell itself is preferable to his wife's company. That Machiavelli - invented it to express the irritation of his own domestic life is a - myth without foundation. The story has a medieval origin, and it was - almost simultaneously treated in Italian by Machiavelli, Straparola - and Giovanni Brevio. - -In the spring of 1526 Machiavelli was employed by Clement VII. to -inspect the fortifications of Florence. He presented a report upon the -subject, and in the summer of the same year received orders to attend -Francesco Guicciardini, the pope's commissary of war in Lombardy. -Guicciardini sent him in August to Cremona, to transact business with -the Venetian _provveditori_. Later on in the autumn we find him once -more with Guicciardini at Bologna. Thus the two great Italian historians -of the 16th century, who had been friends for several years, were -brought into relations of close intimacy. - -After another visit to Guicciardini in the spring of 1527, Machiavelli -was sent by him to Civita Vecchia. It seemed that he was destined to be -associated in the papal service with Clement's viceroy, and that a new -period of diplomatic employment was opening for him. But soon after his -return to Florence he fell ill. His son Piero said that he took medicine -on the 20th of June which disagreed with him; and on the 22nd he died, -having received the last offices of the Church. - -There is no foundation for the legend that he expired with profane -sarcasms upon his lips. Yet we need not run into the opposite extreme, -and try to fancy that Machiavelli, who had professed Paganism in his -life, proved himself a believing Christian on his death-bed. That he -left an unfavourable opinion among his fellow citizens is very decidedly -recorded by the historian Varchi. The _Principe_, it seems, had already -begun to prejudice the world against him; and we can readily believe -that Varchi sententiously observes, that "it would have been better for -him if nature had given him either a less powerful intellect or a mind -of a more genial temper." There is in truth a something crude, -unsympathetic, cynical in his mental attitude toward human nature, for -which, even after the lapse of more than three centuries, we find it -difficult to make allowance. The force of his intellect renders this -want of geniality repulsive. We cannot help objecting that one who was -so powerful could have been kindlier and sounder if he willed. We -therefore do him the injustice of mistaking his infirmity for -perversity. He was colour-blind to commonplace morality; and we are -angry with him because he merged the hues of ethics in one grey monotone -of politics. - -In person Machiavelli was of middle height, black-haired, with rather a -small head, very bright eyes and slightly aquiline nose. His thin, close -lips often broke into a smile of sarcasm. His activity was almost -feverish. When unemployed in work or study he was not averse to the -society of boon companions, gave himself readily to transient amours, -and corresponded in a tone of cynical bad taste. At the same time he -lived on terms of intimacy with worthy men. Varchi says that "in his -conversation he was pleasant, obliging to his intimates, the friend of -virtuous persons." Those who care to understand the contradictions of -which such a character was capable should study his correspondence with -Vettori. It would be unfair to charge what is repulsive in their letters -wholly on the habits of the times, for wide familiarity with the -published correspondence of similar men at the same epoch brings one -acquainted with little that is so disagreeable. (J. A. S.) - - Among the many editions of Machiavelli's works the one in 8 vols., - dated Italia, 1813, may be mentioned, and the more comprehensive ones - published by A. Parenti (Florence, 1843) and by A. Usigli (Florence, - 1857). P. Fanfani and L. Passerini began another, which promised to be - the most complete of all; but only 6 vols. were published (Florence, - 1873-1877); the work contains many new and important documents on - Machiavelli's life. The best biography is the standard work of - Pasquale Villari, _La Storia di Niccolo Machiavelli e de' suoi tempi_ - (Florence, 1877-1882; latest ed., 1895; Eng. trans. by Linda Villari, - London, 1892); in vol. ii. there is an exhaustive criticism of the - various authors who have written on Machiavelli. See also T. Mundt, - _Niccolo Machiavelli und das System der modernen Politik_ (3rd ed., - Berlin, 1867); E. Feuerlein, "_Zur Machiavelli-Frage_" in H. von - Sybel's _Histor. Zeitschrift_ (Munich, 1868); P. S. Mancini, - _Prelezioni con un saggio sul Machiavelli_; F. Nitti, _Machiavelli - nella vita e nelle opere_ (Naples, 1876); O. Tomasini, _La Vita e gli - scritti di Niccolo Machiavelli_ (Turin, 1883); L. A. Burd, _Il - Principe, by Niccolo Machiavelli_ (Oxford, 1891); Lord Morley, - _Machiavelli_ (Romanes lecture, Oxford, 1897). _The Cambridge Modern - History_, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1903), contains an essay on Machiavelli - by L. A. Burd, with a very full biography. - - - - -MACHICOLATION (from Fr. _machicoulis_), an opening between a wall and a -parapet, formed by corbelling out the latter, so that the defenders -might throw down stones, melted lead, &c., upon assailants below. - - - - -MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form _machina_ of Gr. [Greek: mechane]), -any device or apparatus for the application or modification of force to -a specific purpose. The term "simple machine" is applied to the six -so-called mechanical powers--the lever, wedge, wheel and axle, pulley, -screw, and inclined plane. For machine-tools see TOOLS. The word machine -was formerly applied to vehicles, such as stage-coaches, &c., and is -still applied to carriages in Scotland; a survival of this use is in the -term "bathing machine." Figuratively, the word is used of persons whose -actions seem to be regulated according to a rigid and unchanging system. -In politics, especially in America, machine is synonymous with party -organization. A stage device of the ancient Greek drama gave rise to the -proverbial expression, "the god from the machine," Lat. _deus ex -machina_, for the disentangling and conclusion of a plot by supernatural -interference or by some accident extraneous to the natural development -of the story. When a god had to be brought on the stage he was floated -down from above by a [Greek: geranos] (crane) or other machine ([Greek: -mechane]). Euripides has been reproached with an excessive use of the -device, but it has been pointed out (A. E. Haigh, _Tragic Drama of the -Greeks_, p. 245 seq.) that only in two plays (_Orestes_ and -_Hippolytus_) is the god brought on for the solution of the plot. In the -others the god comes to deliver a kind of epilogue, describing the -future story of the characters, or to introduce some account of a -legend, institution, &c. - - - - -MACHINE-GUN, a weapon designed to deliver a large number of bullets or -small shells, either by volleys[1] or in very quick succession, at a -high rate of fire. Formerly the mechanism of machine-guns was hand -operated, but all modern weapons are automatic in action, the gas of the -explosion or the force of recoil being utilized to lock and unlock the -breech mechanism, to load the weapon and to eject the fired cartridge -cases. The smaller types approximate to the "automatic rifle," which is -expected to replace the magazine rifle as the arm of the infantryman. -The large types, generically called "pompoms," fire a light artillery -projectile, and are considered by many artillery experts as "the gun of -the future." The medium type, which takes the ordinary rifle ammunition -but is fired from various forms of carriage, is the ordinary machine-gun -of to-day, and the present article deals mainly with this. - - -HISTORICAL SKETCH - -Machine-guns of a primitive kind are found in the early history of -gunpowder artillery, in the form of a grouping or binding of several -small-calibre guns for purposes of a volley or a rapid succession of -shots. The earliest field artillery (q.v.) was indeed chiefly designed -to serve the purpose of a modern machine-gun, i.e. for a mechanical -concentration of musketry. Infantry fire (till the development of the -Spanish arquebus, about 1520) was almost ineffective, and the -disintegration of the masses of pikes, preparatory to the decisive -cavalry charge, had to be effected by guns of one sort or another (see -also INFANTRY). Hence the "cart with gonnes," although the prototype of -the field gun of to-day was actually a primitive _mitrailleuse_. - - - Ribaudequins. - - "Organs." - -Weapons of this sort were freely employed by the Hussites, who fought in -laager formation (_Wagenburg_), but the fitting of two or more hand-guns -or small culverins to a two-wheeled carriage garnished with spikes and -scythe blades (like the ancient war-chariots) was somewhat older, for in -1382 the men of Ghent put into the field 200 "chars de canon" and in -1411 the Burgundian army is said to have had 2000 "ribaudequins" -(meaning probably the weapons, not the carts, in this case). These were -of course hardly more than carts with hand-gun men; in fact most armies -in those days moved about in a hollow square or lozenge of wagons, and -it was natural to fill the carts with the available gunners or archers. -The method of breaking the enemy's "battles" with these carts was at -first, in the ancient manner, to drive into and disorder the hostile -ranks with the scythes. But they contained at least the germ of the -modern machine-gun, for the tubes (_cannes, canons_) were connected by a -train of powder and fired in volleys. As however field artillery -improved (latter half of 15th century), and a cannon-ball could be fired -from a mobile carriage, the ribaudequin ceased to exist, its name being -transferred to heavy hand-guns used as rampart pieces. The idea of the -machine-gun reappeared however in the 16th century. The weapons were now -called "organs" (_orgues_), from the number of pipes or tubes that they -contained. At first used (defensively) in the same way as the -ribaudequins, i.e. as an effective addition to the military equipment of -a war-cart, they were developed, in the early part of the 16th century, -into a really formidable weapon for breaking the masses of the enemy, -not by scythes and spikes but by fire. Fleurange's memoirs assign the -credit of this to the famous gunner and engineer Pedro Navarro, who made -two hundred weapons of a design of his own for Louis XII. These "were -not more than two feet long, and fired fifty shots at a round," but -nevertheless "organs" were relatively rare in the armies of the 16th -century, for the field artillery, though it grew in size and lost in -mobility, had discovered the efficacy of case shot (then called -"perdreaux") against uncovered animate targets, and for work that was -not sufficiently serious for the guns heavy arquebuses were employed. -Infantry fire, too, was growing in power and importance. In 1551 a -French army contained 21 guns and 150 arquebuses _a croc_ and one _piece -facon d'orgue_. By about 1570 it had been found that when an "organ" was -needed all that was necessary was to mount some heavy arquebuses on a -cart, and the organ, as a separate weapon, disappeared from the field, -although under the name of "mantelet" (from the shield which protected -the gunners), it was still used for the defence of breaches in siege -warfare. Diego Ufano, who wrote in the early years of the 17th century, -describes it as a weapon consisting of five or six barrels fired -simultaneously by a common lock, and mentions as a celebrated example -the "Triquetraque of Rome" which had five barrels. Another writer, -Hanzelet, describes amongst other devices a mitrailleuse of four barrels -which was fired from the back of an ass or pony. But such weapons as -these were more curious than useful. For work in the open field the -musket came more and more to the front, its bullet became at least as -formidable as that of an "organ," and when it was necessary to obtain a -concentrated fire on a narrow front arquebuses _a croc_ were mounted for -the nonce in groups of four to six. The "organ" maintained a precarious -existence, and is described by Montecucculi a century later, and one of -twelve barrels figures in the list of military Stores at Hesdin in 1689. -But its fatal defect was that it was neither powerful enough to engage -nor mobile enough to evade the hostile artillery. - -Enthusiastic inventors, of course, produced many models of machine-gun -in the strict sense of the word--i.e. a gun firing many charges, in -volleys or in rapid succession, by a mechanical arrangement of the lock. -Wilhelm Calthoff, a German employed by Louis XIII., produced arquebuses -and muskets that fired six to eight shots per round, but his invention -was a secret, and it seems to have been more of a magazine small arm -than a machine-gun (1640). In 1701 a Lorrainer, Beaufort de Mirecourt, -proposed a machine-gun which had as its purpose the augmentation of -infantry-fire power, so as to place an inferior army on an equality with -a superior. At this time inventors were so numerous and so embarrassing -that the French grand master of artillery, St Hilaire, in 1703 wrote -that he would be glad to have done with "ces sortes de gens a secrets," -some of whom demanded a grant of compensation even when their -experiments had failed. The machine-gun of the 17th and 18th centuries -in fact possessed no advantage over contemporary field artillery, and -the battalion gun in particular, which possessed the long ranging and -battering power that its rival lacked, and was moreover more efficacious -against living targets with its case-shot or grape. As compared with -infantry fire, too, it was less effective and slower than the muskets of -a well-drilled company. Rapid fire was easily arranged, but the rapid -_loading_ which would have compensated for other defects was -unobtainable in the then existing state of gun-making. - -Thus a satisfactory machine-gun was not forthcoming until breech-loading -had been, so to speak, rediscovered, that is until about 1860. At that -time the tactical conditions of armament were peculiar. As regards -artillery, the new (muzzle-loading) long-range rifle sufficed, in the -hand of determined infantry, to keep guns out of case-shot range. This -made the Napoleonic artillery attack an impossibility. At the same time -the infantry rifle was a slow loader, and the augmentation of the volume -of infantry fire attracted the attention of several inventors. The -French, with their artillery traditions, regarded the machine-gun -therefore as a method of restoring the lost superiority of the gunner, -while the Americans, equally in accordance with traditions and local -circumstances, regarded it as a musketry machine. The representative -weapons evolved by each were the _canon a balles_, more commonly called -_mitrailleuse_, and the Gatling gun. - - - The Canon a Balles, 1866-1870. - -The declared purpose of the _canon a balles_ was to replace the old -artillery case-shot attack. Shrapnel, owing to the defects of the -time-fuzes then available, had proved disappointing in the Italian War -of 1859, and the gun itself, of the existing model, was not considered -satisfactory. Napoleon III., a keen student of artillery, maintained a -private arsenal and workshop at the chateau of Meudon[2] and in 1866, in -the alarm following upon Koniggratz, he ordered Commandant Reffye -(1821-1880), the artillery officer he had placed in charge of it, to -produce a machine-gun. Reffye held that the work of a mitrailleuse -should only begin where that of the infantry rifle ceased. The handbook -to his gun issued to the French army in 1870 stated that it was "to -carry balls to distances that the infantry, and the artillery firing -case, could not reach." The most suitable range was given as 1500-2000 -yards against infantry in close order, 2000-2700 against artillery. As -the French shrapnel (_obus a balles_) of these days was only used to -give its peculiar case-shot effect between 550 and 1350 yards, and even -so sparingly and without much confidence in its efficacy, it is clear -that the _canon a balles_ was intended to do the field-gun's work, -except at (what were then) extreme field artillery ranges (2800 and -above), in which case the ordinary gun with common shell (time or -percussion) alone was used. - - Constructed to meet these conditions, the Reffye machine-gun in its - final form resembled outwardly an ordinary field gun, with wheeled - carriage, limber and four-horse team. The gun barrel was in reality a - casing for 25 rifle barrels disposed around a common axis (the idea of - obtaining sweeping effect by disposing the barrels slightly fan-wise - had been tried and abandoned). The barrels were held together at - intervals by wrought-iron plates. They were entirely open at the - breech, a removable false breech containing the firing mechanism (the - cartridge cases were of brass, solid-drawn, like those of the American - and unlike those of the British Gatlings). This false breech, held in - the firing position by a strong screw--resembling roughly those of - contemporary B.L. ordnance such as the Armstrong R. B. L.--consisted - of a plate with 25 holes, which allowed the points of the strikers to - pass through and reach the cartridges. The plate was turned by hand so - that one striker was admitted at a time, the metal of the plate - holding back the rest. To avoid any deflection of the bullet by the - gases at an adjoining muzzle the barrels were fired in an irregular - order. Each gun was provided with four chambers, which were loaded - with their 25 cartridges apiece by a charger, and fixed to the breech - one after the other as quickly as the manipulation of the powerful - retaining screw permitted. The rates of fire were "slow," 3 rounds or - 75 shots a minute, and "rapid," 5 rounds or 125 shots per minute. One - advantage as against artillery that was claimed for the new weapon was - rapidity of ranging. Any ordinary target, such as a hostile gun, - would, it was expected, be accurately ranged by the mitrailleuse - before it was ready to open fire for effect. The ordinary rifle bullet - was employed, but to enhance the case-shot effect a heavy bullet made - up in three parts, which broke asunder on discharge, was introduced in - 1870 in the proportion of one round in nine. The weapon was sighted to - 3000 metres (3300 yds.). The initial velocity was 1558 f.s.; and the - weight of the gun 350 kg. (6.45 cwt.), of the carriage 371 kg. (6.86 - cwt.); total behind the team, 1,485 kg. (27.1 cwt.). - - For an artillery effect, dispersion had to be combined with accuracy. - The rifle-barrels when carefully set gave a very close grouping of - shots on the target, and dispersion was obtained by traversing the gun - during the firing of a round. When this was skilfully performed a - front of 18 metres (about 20 yds.) at l,000 metres range was - thoroughly swept by the cone of bullets. - -The design and manufacture of these mitrailleuses under the personal -orders and at the expense of the emperor enabled the French authorities -to keep their new weapon most secret. Even though, after a time, -mitrailleuses were constructed by scores, and could therefore no longer -be charged to a "sundry" or "petty cash" account in the budget, secrecy -was still maintained. The pieces were taken about, muffled in -tarpaulins, by by-ways and footpaths. In 1869, two years after the -definitive adoption of the weapon, only a few artillery captains were -instructed in its mechanism; the non-commissioned officers who had to -handle the gun in war were called up for practice in July 1870, when -Major Reffye's energies were too much absorbed in turning out the -material so urgently demanded to allow him to devote himself to their -instruction. The natural consequence was that the mitrailleuses were -taken into battle by officers and men of whom nine-tenths had never seen -them fire one round of live cartridges. The purpose of this fatal -secrecy was the maintenance of prestige. No details were given, but it -was confidently announced that war would be revolutionized. One foreign -officer only, Major Fosbery, R.A. (see _R.U.S.I. Journal_, v. xiii.), -penetrated the secret, and he felt himself bound in honour to keep it to -himself, not even communicating it to the War Office. But public -attention was only too fully aroused by these mysterious prophecies. -"The mitrailleuse paid dearly for its fame." The Prussians, who had -examined mitrailleuses of the Gatling or infantry type, were well aware -that the artillery machine-gun was at the least a most formidable -opponent. They therefore ostentatiously rejected the Gatling gun, taught -their troops that the new weapons were in the nature of scientific toys, -and secretly made up their minds to turn the whole weight of their guns -on to the mitrailleuse whenever and wherever it appeared on the field, -and so to overwhelm it at once. This policy they carried into effect in -the War of 1870; and although on occasions the new weapon rendered -excellent service, in general it cruelly disappointed the over-high -hopes of its admirers. And thus, although the Gatling and similar types -of gun were employed to a slight extent by both sides in the later stage -of the war, machine-guns, as a class of armament for civilized warfare, -practically disappeared. - - As a good deal of criticism--after the event--has been levelled at the - French for their "improper use of the machine-gun as a substitute for - artillery," it is necessary to give some summary of the ideas and - rules which were inspired by the inventor or dictated by the - authorities as to its tactical employment. The first principle laid - down was that the gun should not be employed within the zone of the - infantry fight. Officers commanding batteries were explicitly warned - against infantry divisional generals who would certainly attempt to - put the batteries, by sections, amongst the infantry. The second - principle was that the mitrailleuses were to share the work of the - guns, the latter battering obstacles with common shell, and the former - being employed against troops in the open, and especially to cover and - support the infantry advance. This tendency to classify the roles of - the artillery and to tell off the batteries each in its special task - has reappeared in the French, and to a more limited extent in the - British, field artillery of to-day (the Germans alone resolutely - opposing the idea of subdivision). The mitrailleuse of 1870 was, in - fact, intended to do what the perfected Shrapnel of 1910 does, to - transfer the case-shot attack to longer ranges. But, as we have seen, - secrecy had prevented any general spread of knowledge as to the uses - to which the _canon a balles_ was to be put, and consequently, after a - few weeks of the war, we find Reffye complaining that the machine-guns - were being used by their battery commanders "in a perfectly idiotic - fashion. They are only good at a great distance and when used in - masses, and they are being employed at close quarters like a rifle." - The officers in the field, however, held that it was foolish to pit - the mitrailleuse against the gun, which had a longer range, and - exerted themselves to use it as an infantry weapon, a concentrated - company, for which, unlike the Gatlings of 1870 and the machine-guns - of to-day, it was never designed. As to which was right in the - controversy it is impossible to dogmatize and needless to argue. - - - Gatling Gun. - -Very different was the Gatling gun, the invention of Richard Jordan -Gatling (1818-1903), which came into existence and was to a slight -extent used in the field in the latter years of the American Civil -War,[3] and also to a still slighter extent by the Bavarians and the -French in the latter part of the war of 1870. This was distinctively an -infantry type weapon, a sort of revolving rifle, the ten barrels of -which were set around an axis, and fired in turn when brought into -position by the revolving mechanism. This weapon had a long reign, and -was used side by side with the latest automatic machine gun in the -Spanish-American War of 1898. The following account of the old British -service Gatling (fig. 1), as used in the Egyptian and Sudanese -campaigns, is condensed from that in the article "Gun-making," _Ency. -Brit._ 9th ed. - - A block of ten barrels is secured round an axis, which is fixed in a - frame _a a_. On turning the handle _h_ (fig. 2) the spindle _g g_ - causes the worm _f_ to act on the pinion _w_, making the axis and - barrels revolve. A drum T (figs. 1 and 4) is placed on the top at the - breech end of the barrels over a hopper, through a slot in which the - cartridges drop into the carrier (fig. 3). The construction of the - lock is shown in fig. 4. A A A A is a cam, sloping as in the drawing, - which, it must be understood, represents the circular construction - opened out and laid flat. As the barrels, carrier and locks revolve - the slope of the cam forces the locks forward and backward - alternately. At position I. the cartridge has just fallen into the - carrier, the lock and bolt are completely withdrawn. At positions II., - III., IV., the cam is forcing them forward, so that the bolt pushes - the cartridge into the barrel. At IV. the cocking cam R begins to - compress the spiral spring, releasing it at V. Position VI. shows the - cartridge just after firing; the extractor is clutching the base of - the cartridge case, which is withdrawn as the locks retreat down the - slope of the cam, till at X it falls through an aperture to the - ground. The drum consists of a number of vertical channels radiating - from the centre. The cartridges are arranged horizontally, one above - the other, in these channels, bullet ends inwards. The drum revolves - on the pivot b (fig. 3). and the cartridges fall through the aperture - B. When all the channels are emptied, a full drum is brought from the - limber, and substituted for the empty one. Each barrel fires in turn - as it comes to a certain position, so that by turning the handle - quickly an almost continuous stream of bullets can be ejected. - Experimental Gatlings were constructed which could be made to fire - nearly 1000 shots a minute, and an automatic traversing arrangement - was also fitted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Gatling Gun.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Lock of Gatling Gun.] - -As has been said, this weapon had a long reign. It was used with great -effect in the Zulu War at Ulundi and in the Sudan. But a grave -disadvantage of the English pattern was that it had to be used with the -Boxer coiled cartridge supplied for the Martini-Henry rifle, and until -this was replaced by a solid-drawn cartridge case it was impossible to -avoid frequent "jams." The modern, fully automatic, machine gun suffers -from this to a considerable extent, and it was an even more serious -defect with a hand-operated weapon, as the British troops found in their -campaigns against the Mahdists. But the Gatling had many advantages over -its newer rivals as regards simplicity and strength. Theodore Roosevelt, -who commanded sections of both types in the Spanish-American War, speaks -with enthusiasm of the old-fashioned weapon[4] while somewhat -disparaging the Colt automatic. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Nordenfeldt Machine-Gun. - - 1-10, Parts of frame; - 11, Breech plug; - 12, Striker; - 13, Extractor; - 14, Cartridge receiver; - 15-18, 23-31, Lock and trigger parts; - 19-22, Locking action; - 32-35, Loading action; - 36-39, Cartridge receiver; - 40, Cover; - 41-44, Parts of hand-lever, - 45-49, Traversing action, - 50-55, Elevating and trailing action; - 56, 57, Hopper and slide.] - -The Gardner was another type which had a certain vogue[5] and was used -by the British in savage warfare. But, next to the Gatling, the most -important of the hand-operated machine guns was the Nordenfeldt, which -was principally designed for naval use about the time when torpedo-boats -were beginning to be regarded as dangerous antagonists. - - - Nordenfeldt Gun. - - In this weapon the barrels are placed horizontally, and have no - movement. A box containing the locks, bolts, strikers and spiral - springs, one of each corresponding to each barrel, moves straight - backwards and forwards when worked by the handle of the lever on the - right. When the box is drawn back the cartridges fall from the holder - on the top into the carriers simultaneously. When the box is pushed - forward the bolts push the cartridges into the barrel, cocking-catches - compress the spiral springs, the lever releases the catches one after - the other at very minute intervals of time, and the cartridges are - fired in rapid succession. In this piece, careful aim can be taken - from a moving platform, and at the right moment the barrels can be - fired at the object almost simultaneously. - - -PRESENT DAY MACHINE-GUNS. - -Hitherto we have been dealing with weapons worked by hand-power applied -to a lever or winch-handle, the motion of this lever being translated by -suitable mechanism into those by which the cartridges are loaded, fired, -extracted and ejected--the cycle continuing as long as the lever is -worked and there are cartridges in the "hoppers" which feed the gun. In -the modern "automatic" machine-gun, moreover, the loading, firing, -extracting and ejecting are all performed automatically by the gun -itself, either by the recoil of its barrel, or by a small portion of the -gases of explosion being allowed to escape through a minute hole in the -barrel near the muzzle. The following details of the British Maxim, -Hotchkiss and Colt types are reproduced from the article "Machine-guns," -_Ency. Brit._ 10th ed. - -The idea of using the recoil, or a portion of the gases of explosion, -for the working of the breech mechanism is by no means new, the latter -system having been proposed and patented (certainly in a very crude and -probably unworkable form) by (Sir) Henry Bessemer in 1854; but whatever -might be discovered by a search in old patent and other records or in -museums, there can be no doubt that (Sir) Hiram S. Maxim was the first -to produce a finished automatic gun of practical value. His patents in -connexion with this particular class of weapon date back to 1884, and -his gun on the recoil system was, after extensive trials, adopted into -the British army in 1889 and into the navy in 1892. It is very possible -that Bessemer's idea did not bear fruit earlier because the fouling left -by the old forms of "black" or smoky powders was apt to clog the moving -parts and to choke any small port. With modern smokeless powders this -difficulty does not arise. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Maxim Gun on Wheeled Carriage (1900).] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 7 and 8.--Mechanism of Maxim Gun.] - - - Maxim Gun. - - The Maxim gun,[6] as will be seen from figs. 7 and 8, consists of two - parts, the barrel casing (a) and breech casing (d), secured firmly - together. The former (a), which is cylindrical in form, contains the - barrel (b), and the water surrounding it to keep down the very high - temperature attained by rapid fire, and the steam tube (c), which by - the action of a sliding valve allows of the escape of steam but not of - water. The barrel has asbestos packings at its front and rear bearings - in the casing, which allow of its sliding in recoil without the escape - of water. The breech casing (d) is a rectangular oblong box, and - contains the lock and firing mechanism. At its rear end it has handles - (e) by which the gun is directed, and the thumb-piece (m) by which the - trigger is actuated. Its top is closed by a lid, hinged at (i). At its - front is a recess holding the feed-block (f) through which the belt of - cartridges (g) is fed to the gun. - - Attached to the rear of the barrel (b) on either side are two side - plates (h), between which in guides O works the aggregation of parts - D, F, J, K, L, P, T and V, which constitute the lock, and (in - bearings) the crank axle E, crank E', and connecting rod I (see figs. - 7 to 11). - - The connecting rod I joins the lock and crank, being attached to the - side levers J of the former by means of the interrupted screw U; the - latter enables the lock to be detached and removed. - - The crank axle E extends through both sides of the breech casing (d), - slots (k, fig. 7), allowing it a longitudinal movement of about an - inch. To its left-hand end, outside the breech casing, is attached the - fusee chain Y of the recoil spring X (see dotted lines in fig. 7), and - to its right-hand end a bell trunk lever, B B'; the arm B, which - terminates in a knob, being turned by the crank handle, the arm B' - working against the buffer stop C. - - In figs. 8, 9 and 11 the breech is shown closed, and it will be - noticed that the crank pin I' is _above_ the straight line joining the - axis of the barrel, the striker T, and the crank axle E. As the crank - is prevented from further movement _upwards_ by the crank handle B - taking against the check-lever G (fig. 7), it is clear that the - pressure on discharge of the cartridge cannot cause the crank axle to - rotate, and so open the breech as shown in figs. 10 and 12. - - The withdrawal of the lock and opening of the breech are effected as - follows: The _total_ travel in recoil of the barrel is about one inch, - but on discharge the barrel, the side plates and lock all recoil - _together_ for about a quarter of an inch without any disturbance of - the locking as explained above, and by the time this short travel is - completed the _bullet has left the muzzle_. The arm B' of the crank - handle then engages the buffer stop C and causes the crank axle E to - rotate and the crank E' to fall and so draw back the lock from, and - open, the breech. At the same time the fusee chain Y is wound up round - the left-hand end of the crank axle E and the spring X extended. In - the meantime the knob of the buffer handle B swings over, and just as - the lock reaches its rearmost position (as in figs. 10 and 12) strikes - the flat buffer spring H, and, rebounding, assists the crank in - revolving in the reverse direction; the spring X also contracts, and, - unwinding the fusee chain, draws back the lock again and closes the - breech, a fresh cartridge having been placed in the barrel as - explained below. - - The gun is fired by means of the trigger F, which is actuated by the - projection (l) on the trigger bar (S), the latter being drawn back - when the button (m) on the push lever (n) is pressed forwards. If, - therefore, the button he kept permanently pressed, the projection (l) - will always lie in the path of the trigger F just as the lock reaches - its forward position and the breech is closed, and the gun will fire - automatically, and continue to do so as long as there are cartridges - in the belt. - - The loading, extraction and ejection of the cartridges are effected as - follows: The left-hand side-plate is extended forwards a little beyond - the breech, and communicates the reciprocating motion of the barrel to - a lever on the feed-block, which causes the cartridges in the belt to - be fed forward one by one by a "step-by-step" pawl action, the - cartridge which is next to be taken from the belt being arrested - exactly above the breech, the ejector-tube Q being below in the same - vertical plane. - - The extractor D (see figs. 9 to 12) which performs the operations of - inserting, extracting and ejecting the cartridges, travels vertically - in guides on the face of the lock. Projecting outwards from each side - of its top are horns N (figs. 9 and 10). These travel round the edges - of the cams M (fig. 8) situated on each side of the breech casing, and - in conjunction with the spring W (fig. 8), compel the top of the - extractor to take the path shown by the dotted lines and arrows in - figs. 9 to 12. - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] - - The extractor (figs. 11 and 12) is recessed to take a movable plate - (u) termed a "gib," behind which is a spring (v). In the face of the - gib is a recess (w) into which the base of a cartridge can just enter. - On either side of the gib the face of the extractor has undercut - flanges, open at the top and bottom, between which the base of a - cartridge can fit the rim, being held in the undercuts (figs. 9 and - 10). - - It is clear from this arrangement that the base of the cartridge - having been introduced between the flanges at the top of the - extractor, can be pushed down, the spring (v) yielding, till arrested - at the recess (w); and, as the lower edges of this recess are slightly - sloped, further pressure will make it leave the recess (w) and slide - over the face of the gib, leave it, and take up a position in front of - the hole for the point of the striker (x), being now only prevented - from slipping out of the extractor by the extractor spring (y). If - this last be clear of the extractor stop (z) it will yield to pressure - and the cartridge will be free. This is the action in the gun except - that the cartridge is held firm and the extractor pushed against it. - - In fig. 10 the extractor holds a cartridge (r) and a fired case (q) - ready to be pushed into the empty breech and ejector-tube Q - respectively. In the latter there is already a fired case (p), which - will be driven by the fired case (q) beyond the ejector spring R. As - soon as the lock reaches the face of the breech, the cartridge (r) and - case (q) are deposited in the breech and ejector-tube respectively, - and the extractor D _rises_ under the action of the levers L and J, - slides, as already explained, by the bases of the cartridges (r) and - case (q), and then over the base of the cartridge (s) in the belt (g). - Assuming the push-lever (n) to be pressed, the gun fires immediately - this has occurred, and the bullet of the cartridge (r) is expelled. - The position is now that shown in fig. 9. The barrel now recoils and - the lock is withdrawn, taking with it the fresh cartridge (s) from the - belt and the now fired case (r). The extractor travels horizontally - for a time and then drops (as shown by the dotted line and arrows), - assuming the position shown in fig. 12, which is exactly similar to - that in fig. 10 but with different cartridges; continuing the action, - the position shown in fig. 11 is arrived at. It will thus be seen that - each cartridge makes two complete journeys with the extractor; the - first as a live cartridge from the belt to the breech, the second from - the breech to the ejector-tube, the forward journey being always on a - lower level than that of the backward one. The sections in figs. 11 - and 12 clearly show the cocking and firing mechanism and the safety - arrangement. The lock is cocked, after firing, by the arm of the - "tumbler" K, being pressed down by the side lever J as it swings down - when following the crank E'. Safety against firing before the breech - is closed is provided by the projection on the safety lever V, which - does not clear the striker T until lifted by the side lever J at the - top of its travel, that is, when the crank E' has passed the axial - line as already explained. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] - - The lock in its rearmost position is kept in place by the block Z on - the under side of the cover of the breech casing. When in this - position it is clear of the guides O on the side-plates, and if the - cover be opened it can be turned up, unscrewed by a turn through an - eighth of a circle (the screw-thread U being interrupted in four - places) and removed. To prepare the gun for firing, the crank handle - is pushed over by hand to the buffer-spring, thus withdrawing the - extractor, and held in this position; the tongue on the end of a - filled belt is then pushed through the feed-block from the left and - pulled as far as it will go from the opposite side. This places a - cartridge above the breech ready to be seized by the extractor. The - crank handle is now released and the lock flies forwards. The crank - handle is now again pushed over and let go, and the first cartridge - thus taken from the belt and placed in the breech. The gun is ready to - fire. - - To remove a partially filled belt, the crank handle must be pushed - over, thus freeing the extractor from the belt, and the latter - withdrawn after pressing a spring catch under the feed block which - releases the pawls. The gun now has _two_ live cartridges in it--both - in the extractor. Letting go the crank handle, one of them is - deposited in the ejector-tube, and again pushing over and letting go - the crank handle does the same with the second. - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] - - Fig. 13 shows the feed-block and the cartridge belts. The greatest - number usually carried in a belt is 250. - - The gun is sighted to 2,500 yds. and has a folding tangent sight as - shown. Its weight varies from 50 to 60 lb., and it can fire about 450 - rounds per minute. - - [The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of Messrs. - Vickers, Sons & Maxim.] - - - Hotchkiss Gun. - - The Hotchkiss gun, figs. 14 to 16, which has been adopted by the - French army and navy and elsewhere, depends for its action on the use - of a small portion of the gases of the cartridge itself. The barrel A - is firmly attached to the receiver or frame B, the latter containing - the breech and firing mechanism. Under the barrel A, and communicating - with it by a port (c) near the muzzle is a cylinder or tube C. When - the gun is fired, and the bullet has passed the port (c), a portion of - the gases of explosion passes into the cylinder C and drives back the - piston F contained in it, a lug on the under part of the piston - compressing the spring M, the latter, when the trigger N is pulled, - driving back the piston again. The reciprocating motion of the piston - performs all the processes of loading and firing the gun, and the - action is continuous as long as the trigger is kept pressed back. - - The piston F, enlarged and suitably shaped at the rear, actuates the - breech-block H and firing pin or striker J; and, by suitable cam - grooves (f) at about the centre of its length, works the larger - feed-wheel U of the feed-box S; the smaller wheel U on the same axis - in turn imparting a step-by-step motion to the metal feed-strips, each - containing 30 cartridges, so that fresh cartridges are placed one by - one before the face of the breech block ready to be pushed into the - breech when the fired cartridge has been extracted and ejected. - - On the under surface of the piston F, in rear, is a recess or sear (f) - in which the nose of the trigger N engages, holding back the piston - when it has been driven back by the gases. As already stated, a lug on - the under surface just in rear of the cam (f) engages with the front - of the mainspring. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Maxim Feed-block.] - - Taking first the position shown in fig. 15 with the breech closed and - locked and the cartridge fired, it will be seen that the breech is - locked by the _upper_ cam (_f_'), on the end of the piston, F, having - caused the movable locking-dog (h) to fall and bear against the recoil - blocks Z (see fig. 14 also) on the walls of the _receiver_ or frame B. - Consequently the breech is not unlocked until the piston has moved - sufficiently to the rear for the _lower_ cam (_f_') to lift the - locking-dog (h) clear of the recoil blocks Z. As the piston F is not - actuated by the gases until the bullet has passed the port (c), and - then has to move a short distance before the locking-dog is raised, - the bullet is clear of the muzzle _before_ the breech is unlocked. - - As the piston continues to recoil it draws back the striker J and then - the breech-block H, and is then caught and retained by the engagement - of the sear (f) with the trigger N, and the position assumed is that - shown in fig. 14. - - [Illustration: FIGS. 14, 15, 16.--Hotchkiss Gun Mechanism.] - - From the head or nose-piece I of the breech-block projects the claw K - of a spring extractor which, as the cartridge is pushed home by the - breech-block, seizes it, extracting the fired case when the - breech-block is withdrawn. Ejection of the fired case is effected by - means of the ejector L (fig. 16) which catches against the base of the - case, on the opposite side to the extractor claw, and so throws it - sideways through the oblong-pointed opening in the receiver just in - rear of the breech (see fig. 14). - - The platform on the top of the feed-box through which the teeth of the - smaller feed-wheel U project, and on which the feed-strips rest, lies - _below_ the axial line of the breech-block H, so that the face or - nose-piece I of the latter only engages a _portion_ of the base of the - cartridge in the feed-strip as it pushes the cartridge into the - breech, the bullet of the cartridge being guided into the breech by - the incline at the opening of the latter. This point should be - specially noted, the object of the arrangement being to enable the - under surface of the breech-block to clear the clips which hold the - cartridges in the feed-strips. The cartridge therefore, being - extracted in the line of the axis of the block, is ejected through an - opening _above_ its plane of entry in the feed-strip. - - Returning to the position shown in fig. 16, if the trigger be pulled, - the compressed spring M reacts and drives the piston forwards, - carrying the breech-block with it, the latter in turn driving a - cartridge in front of it out of the feed-strip. When the block and - cartridge are home, _and not till then_, the piston completes its - travel, the upper cam (_f_') locking the dog (h), and the firing-pin - protrudes and fires the cartridge. Anything, therefore, which prevents - the breech-block from being home against the breech, or the - locking-dog from falling in front of the recoil blocks Z, renders - firing of the cartridge impossible. Clearly if the trigger be kept - depressed the action becomes automatic. - - A special feature of this gun is the absence of a separate spring to - actuate the firing-pin; the recoil spring M performing this function, - in addition to that of driving the piston forwards. - - The feed-strips have holes in them in which the teeth of the smaller - feed-wheel U engage. The engagement of this feed with the piston F can - be released by pulling out the feed arbor W, so that the strips can be - removed at any time. - - When the last shot in a feed-strip has been fired a stop (V) holds the - piston and block ready for a fresh feed-strip to be inserted. As the - stop V acts quite independently of the trigger, this action takes - place even if the trigger be still depressed after the last cartridge - in a strip has been fired. - - To cock the gun, when in the locked position, a cocking handle G is - provided. This has a long arm projecting to the front with a catch - which takes against the front of the lug on the under side of the - piston. To prepare the gun for action the gun is cocked, and a - feed-strip is pushed into the feed-block. - - The pressure of the gas on the piston is regulated by the regulator - screw D, by means of which the space in the cylinder C in front of the - piston F can be reduced or increased. - - A safety lock R is furnished, which is a "half round" pin which can be - turned so as to enter the semicircular slot just in front of the sear - (f), and so hold back the piston when in the cocked position. - - Radiation of the heat, generated in the barrel by rapid fire, is - facilitated by the radiator (a), which consists of rings on the barrel - close to the breech, which offer an increased surface to the air. - - The gun is sighted to 2000 yds., with the ordinary flap back-sight, - weighs about 53 lb., and can fire from 500 to 600 rounds per minute. - - [The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of the - Hotchkiss Ordnance Company.] - - - Colt Gun. - - The Colt automatic gun, which has been adopted by the American army - and navy, and was used by the British in S. Africa, depends for its - action, similarly to the Hotchkiss, on the escape of a small portion - of the gases of explosion through a port in the barrel a short - distance from the muzzle. Figs. 17 and 18 give a plan, and side - elevation with the left side plate removed, respectively. Into the - recess in the barrel (92) just below the port fits the piston (35), - capable of slight motion round the pivot (36), by which it is attached - to the gas lever (29). The latter is a bell-crank lever pivoted at - (34), its short arm being attached at (46) by a pivot to a long link - with a cross head, termed the retracting connexion (45). This link - extends from a point close to the figures (44), where the arms of the - cross head bear against the ends of two long spiral retracting - springs, (37) and (38), contained in two tubes, (39) and (40), which - are slotted for a few inches of their length to allow the cross head - to follow up and compress the springs. (Only (38) and (40) are shown, - (37) and (39) lying in the same plane of projection.) - - When the gun fires, and the bullet has passed the port, the gases - drive the piston (35) and gas lever (29) downwards, and the momentum - imparted causes them to swing back round the pivot (36), as shown by - the dotted circle. The gas lever is brought up now by the bottom plate - (91); and the retracting springs, compressed by the cross head of the - long link (45) owing to the _forward_ motion of the short arm of the - gas lever, react and drive the gas lever into its forward position - again. - - [Illustration: FIGS. 17 and 18.--Colt Automatic Gun Mechanism.] - - The rotary movement of the gas lever is converted into a reciprocating - movement of the slide (86) by means of the gas lever connexion rod - (31) pivoted at (32) to the gas lever, and at (87) to the slide. - - The slide (86) is a nearly flat bar, travelling in guides in the - receiver, extending from (14) to (87). It is slotted completely - through longitudinally for nearly the whole of its length, this slot - affording an opening through which work the cartridge extractor (82) - and carrier (21). At its rear end it engages by means of a pin (14) in - a cam slot (97) in the bottom rib of the bolt (13), and at (83) it - bears the pivot of the cartridge extractor (82). Its rear end is - enlarged below to form a cam lug (98), and on its right side are two - projections (95) and (96), which work the feed lever (66). - - [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Colt Gun mounted.] - - The feed wheel (61), over which passes the belt containing the - cartridges, is actuated by a pawl "step-by-step" gear by means of the - feed lever (66). - - The carrier (21) is a long trip lever pivoted at (22), and provided - with a spring dog (23) pivoted at (24). - - The bolt (13) is a cylinder with a guide rib extending from its under - surface. It is actuated by the slide by means of the pin (14) and cam - slot (97) as already stated, and is bored through to take the striker - or firing pin (18). The rear end of the latter projects slightly - beyond the rear face of the bolt, being retained in this position by - the spring (19). When this projecting end is pushed into the bolt, the - point protrudes from the front of the bolt and fires the cartridge. - The bolt, when the breech is locked, is held firm by two recoil blocks - on the receiver (not shown), as is explained later. At the front of - the bolt is an extractor (15) with a spring claw for extracting the - fired case. (This is of course quite distinct from the cartridge - extractor (82).) Ejection is effected by means of an ejector - projecting into the path of the fired case. - - The firing of the gun is performed by the cylindrical hammer (6) - hollowed out in rear to contain the mainspring (7). When pushed back - and cocked as shown in fig. 18, it is held during a _portion_ of the - operations of the mechanism by two detents working independently of - each other--the sear (10) and the nose of the trigger (8). The former - is automatically released by a trip lever (not shown) as soon as the - breech is locked, leaving the hammer held by the trigger only. This is - the position shown in fig. 18. The necessity for the two detents is - explained later. - - The hammer, when cocked, can also be permanently locked by the handle - lock (2) actuated by a thumb-piece on the outside of the receiver. The - air compressed in rear of the hammer, as the latter is driven back, - passes through the tube (99) to the breech; and a puff of air is - therefore blown through the barrel after every shot, clearing out - fouling and unconsumed powder, and assisting to an appreciable extent - to keep down the temperature of the barrel. - - Taking the position shown in fig. 18, the hammer is only held back by - the trigger nose, the sear (10) having been released as stated above. - A belt of cartridges (not shown) has been placed on the feed-wheel, - and the cartridge next to be used after the one (not shown) now in the - breech has its rim (or base with rimless cartridges) just above the - hook on the extractor (82). If now the trigger be pulled, the hammer - flies forwards, strikes the protruding end of the firing pin, and the - cartridge fires; the gases cause the gas lever to swing round and - drive back the slide. The pin (14) working in the cam groove (97) - causes the rear of the bolt to _rise_ and clear itself from the recoil - blocks (not shown) on the receiver, and then to move rearwards - horizontally, driving the hammer back until the latter is caught and - held by the sear and trigger. In the meantime the extractor (82) has - pulled a cartridge from the belt, and, assisted by two spring - cartridge guides (80 and 81), of which only (80) is shown, deposits it - on the carrier (21); the projection (95) strikes the feed-lever (66), - and moves the feed mechanism so as to prepare to revolve the - feed-wheel and place a fresh cartridge ready for the next round; and - as the slide completes its travel backwards, the cam (98) strikes the - dog (23) and slightly depresses it (the spring (25) yielding), the - carrier and cartridge on it consequently rising a little and falling - again (this latter action is incidental only to the form of the parts, - and is not a necessity). - - [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Hotchkiss Gun mounted.] - - The retracting springs now react and pull the slide forwards; the cam - (98) strikes the dog (23), which, as the spring arrangement is of the - "non-return" class, does not yield but is depressed, and the front of - the carrier and the cartridge on it are therefore raised sharply, and - the latter placed in the path of the bolt. The bolt being now pulled - forwards, the cartridge is driven off the carrier into the breech, and - the bolt locked by the pin (14), causing the bolt to drop in front of - the recoil blocks; the carrier is pushed down flat by the advance of - the cam lug (98), the trip releases the sear (10), and the projection - (96) pushes back the feed lever, completing the action of feeding a - fresh cartridge forward. The position shown in fig. 17 is now resumed. - - It is clear that were the trigger kept permanently pulled the gun - would fire immediately the bolt was locked and the sear (10) - depressed, and the action would become automatic. - - The object of two detents, though now probably obvious, may here be - explained. The whole action of the gun depends upon the hammer after - it is pushed back by the bolt being _held_ back until the bolt has - gone completely forwards and locked the breech. If only the trigger - detent existed, and that were kept pressed down, the hammer, after - being pushed back by the bolt, would immediately _follow up_ the - latter, and might fire the cartridge prematurely, or fail to fire it - at all; hence the use of the sear in addition to the trigger. - - To cock the lock, or work the mechanism by hand, the gas lever is - pulled round by the pin (30) provided for the purpose, and by this - means the gun is prepared for firing. A brass tongue on the end of the - belt is pushed through the opening above the feed-wheel and then - pulled from the other side of the gun as far as it will go. This - places a cartridge in front of the extractor, and if the gas lever be - now pulled right back and let go, this cartridge is placed in the - breech as already described, and the gun is ready for firing. If it be - desired to remove a belt from the feed, a button (68) is pressed and - the feed-wheel is then free to revolve backwards. - - The gun is sighted with the ordinary rifle-pattern sights, up to 2000 - yds. or more if required. It weighs about 40 lb., and can fire about - 400 rounds per minute as usually adjusted, though this rate can be - increased. There is no means of altering the gas pressure in the field - as with the Hotchkiss. - - [The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of the Colt - Arms Company.] - -Comparing the principle of employing a recoiling barrel with that of -using a portion of the gas, the advantages of the former are that the -recoil is made to do useful work instead of straining the gun and -mounting in its absorption; the latter system, however, has undoubtedly -the advantage in simplicity of mechanism (the Hotchkiss is -extraordinarily simple in construction for an automatic gun), and in the -large margin of power for working the mechanism with certainty in all -conditions of exposure to climate, dust, and dirt. While inferior in -this respect, it is nevertheless the fact that the Maxim has proved -itself in the field even in savage warfare in the roughest country to be -a very efficient and powerful weapon. - -The great difficulty which has to be met in all single-barrel machine -guns is the heating of the barrel. The 7(1/2) pints of water in the -water-jacket of the Maxim gun are raised to boiling point by 600 rounds -of rapid fire--i.e. in about 1(1/2) minutes--and if firing be continued, -about 1(1/2) pints of water are evaporated for every 1000 rounds. -Assuming that the operation is continuous, the rate of waste of energy -due to heat expended on the water _alone_ is equivalent to about 20 -horse-power (294 foot tons per minute). The water-jacket acts well in -keeping down the temperature of the barrel; but apart from the -complications entailed by its use, the provision of water for this -purpose is at times exceedingly troublesome on service. In the Hotchkiss -and Colt guns, which have no water-jacket, an attempt is made to meet -the heating, in the one by the radiator, and in the other by a very -heavy barrel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Tripod mounting (Mark IV.), for British Maxim.] - -One of the most modern types of gun is the Schwarzlose, which is -manufactured at Steyr in Austria, and was adopted by the Austrian army -in 1907. This weapon is remarkable for its simplicity. There are only 10 -main working parts, and any of these can be replaced in a few seconds. -It is operated by the gases of the explosion, has a water-jacket that -allows 3000 rounds to be fired without refilling. The "life" of the -gun-barrel is stated to be 35,000 rounds without serious loss of -accuracy. The weight of the gun is 37.9 lb. It is a belt loader. - -The Italian Perino gun, adopted in 1907, is a recoil-operated weapon, -and is loaded by a metal clip. The Skoda gun, some of which type are -used in Japan and China, is loaded by a hopper feed, and is -gas-operated. The Bergmann gun is a belt loader, but the belt passes -down a "gravity feed" an arrangement which saves a number of working -parts. - -One defect common to all is that it is by no means easy to proportion -the fire to the target, as there are only two rates of fire, viz. rapid -automatic and slow single shots. To fire a single shot requires -practice, since the gun will fire some 7 shots in one _second_, and to -press the trigger and remove the finger or thumb instantly, and at the -same time be ready to traverse to a fresh target, requires considerable -skill. The result of these difficulties is that the target when struck -is often riddled with bullets when one would have sufficed. The aiming -of the gun, when rapid fire is taking place, may also be difficult even -on firmly fixed mountings, owing to vibration. The greater delicacy of -the modern machine gun has been alluded to above.[7] Nevertheless the -advantages of safety, steadiness and lightness which the automatic -weapon possesses, have ensured its victory over the older type of -weapon, and although the simple strong and well-tried Gatling still has -its advocates, every civilized army has adopted one or more of the -automatic types. - - -ORGANIZATION AND TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT[8] - -Although machine-gun tactics are still somewhat indefinite, at least -there are well-marked tendencies which have a close relation to the -general tactical scheme or doctrine adopted by each of the various -armies as suited to its own purposes and conditions. For many years -before the South African and Manchurian wars, the machine-gun had been -freely spoken of as "a diabolical weapon before which nothing could -live," but this did not contribute much to the science of handling it. -Most military powers, indeed, distrusted it--actuated perhaps by the -remembrance of the vain hopes excited by the _canon a balles_. It was -not until the second half of the war of 1904-05 that the Japanese, -taught by the effective handling of the Russian machine-guns at -Liao-Yang, introduced it into their field armies, and although Great -Britain had provided every regular battalion with a Maxim-gun section -some years before the Boer War, and a Volunteer corps, the Central -London Rangers (now 12th bn. London Regiment) had maintained a -(Nordenfeldt) gun section since 1882, instruction in the tactics of the -weapon was confined practically to the simple phrase "the machine-gun is -a weapon of opportunity." More than this, at any rate, is attempted in -the drill-books of to-day. - -One important point is that, whether the guns are used as an arm, in -numbers, or as auxiliaries, in sections, they should be free to move -without having to maintain their exact position relatively to some other -unit. It was in following the infantry firing lines of their own -battalion over the open that the British Maxims suffered most heavily in -South Africa. Another of equal importance is that the machine guns must -co-operate with other troops of their side in the closest possible way; -more, in this regard, is demanded of them than of artillery, owing to -their mobility and the relative ease of obtaining cover. A third factor, -which has been the subject of numerous experiments, is the precise value -of a machine-gun, stated in terms of infantry, i.e. how many rifles -would be required to produce the fire-effect of a machine-gun. A -fourth--and on this the teaching of military history is quite -definite--is the need of concealment and of evading the enemy's -shrapnel. These points, once the datum of efficiency of fire has been -settled, resolve themselves into two conclusions--the necessity for -combining independence and co-operation, and the desirability of -Mercury's winged feet and cap of darkness for the weapon itself. It is -on the former that opinions in Europe vary most. Some armies ensure -co-operation by making the machine-gun section an integral part of the -infantry regimental organization, but in this case the officer -commanding it must be taught and allowed to shake himself free from his -comrades and immediate superiors when necessary. Others ensure -co-operation of the machine-guns as an arm by using them, absolutely -free of infantry control, on batteries; but this brings them face to -face with the risks of showing, not one or two low-lying gun-barrels, -but a number of carriages, limbers and gun teams, within range of the -enemy's artillery. - - - Fire Effect. - - Ranging. - -French experiments are said to show that the fire-power of a machine-gun -is equal to that of 150-200 rifles at exactly known range, and to 60-80 -rifles at ranges judged by the French "instantaneous range-finder." The -German drill-book gives it as equal approximately to that of 80 rifles -on an average. The distinction of known and unknown ranges is due to the -fact that the "cone of dispersion" of a large number of bullets in -collective infantry fire is deeper than that of machine-gun fire. The -latter therefore groups its bullets much more closely about the target -if the latter is in the centre of the cone--viz. at known ranges--but if -the distance be misjudged not only the close central group of 50% of the -shots, but even the outlying rounds may fall well away from the target. -At 1500 yards range the "50 per cent. zone" with the Maxim gun is only -34 yards deep as compared with the 60 yards of a half-company of -rifles.[9] The accuracy of the gun is more marked when the breadth of -the cone of dispersion is taken into account. The "75 per cent." zone is -in the case of the machine-gun about as broad at 2000 yards as that of -collective rifle fire at 500. At the School of Musketry, South Africa, a -trial between 42 picked marksmen and a Maxim at an unknown range at -service targets resulted in 408 rounds from the rifles inflicting a loss -of 54% on the enemy's firing line represented by the targets, and 228 -rounds from the Maxim inflicting one of 64%. Another factor is rapidity -of fire. It is doubtful if infantry can keep up a rate of 12 rounds a -minute for more than two or three minutes at a time without exhaustion -and consequent wild shooting. The machine-gun, with all its limitations -in this respect, can probably, taking a period of twenty or thirty -minutes, deliver a greater volume of fire than fifty rifles, and -assuming that, by one device or another (ranging by observing the strike -of the bullets, the use of a telemeter, or the employment of "combined -sights") the 75% cone of bullets has been brought on to the target, that -fire will be more effective. The serious limiting condition is the need -of accurate ranging. If this is unsatisfactory the whole (and not, as -with infantry, a part) of the fire effect may be lost, and if the safe -expedient of "combined sights"[10] be too freely resorted to, the -consumption of ammunition may be out of all proportion. - - - Vulnerability. - -The vulnerability of machine-guns is quite as important as is their -accuracy. At a minimum, that is when painted a "service" colour, -manoeuvred with skill, and mounted on a low tripod--in several armies -even the shield has been rejected as tending to make guns more -conspicuous--the vulnerability of one gun should be that of one -skirmisher lying down. At a maximum, vulnerability is that of a small -battery of guns and wagons limbered up. - - - Mobility. - -Mobility comes next. The older patterns of hand-operated guns weighed -about 90 lb. at least, without carriage, the earlier patterns of Maxims -(such as that described in detail above) about 60 lb. But the most -modern Maxims weigh no more than 35 lb. Now, such weapons with tripods -can be easily carried to and fro by one or two men over ground that is -impracticable for wheeled carriages. Nevertheless, wheeled carriages are -often used for the ordinary transport of the gun and its equipment, -especially with the heavier models. The simplest machine-gun has a -number of accessories--tools, spare parts, &c.--that must be conveyed -with it, and at the least a pack-animal is indispensable. - -Reducing these conditions to a phrase--the fire effect that can be -reasonably expected of machine-guns is that of fifty or sixty rifles, -the space it takes up in the line can be made to equal that occupied by -two men, and it possesses by turns the speed of a mounted man and the -freedom of movement of an infantryman. - - - Machine-Guns as a Reserve of Fire. - - Machine-Guns with Cavalry. - -The use of the machine-gun (apart from savage warfare) that first -commended itself in Europe was its use as a _mobile reserve of fire_. -Now, the greatest difficulty attending the employment of a reserve of -any sort is the selection of the right moment for its intervention in -the struggle, and experience of manoeuvres of all arms in Germany, where -"machine-gun detachments" began to be formed in 1902, appears to have -been that the machine-guns always came into action too late. On the -other hand, the conditions of the cavalry _versus_ cavalry combat were -more favourable. Here there was every inducement to augment fire-power -without dismounting whole regiments for the purpose. Moreover, -vulnerability was not a fatal defect as against a battery or two of the -enemy's horse artillery, whose main task is to fire with effect into the -closed squadrons of mounted men on the verge of their charge, and above -all to avoid a meaningless duel of projectiles. The use of wheeled -carriages was therefore quite admissible (although in fact the equipment -was detachable from the carriage) and, given the rapidity and sudden -changes of cavalry fighting, both desirable and necessary. Thus, thanks -to the machine-gun, the eternal problem of increasing the fire-power of -mounted troops is at last partially solved, and the solution has -appealed strongly both to armies exceptionally strong in cavalry, as for -example the German, and to those exceptionally weak in that -arm--Denmark, for instance, having two or three light machine-guns _per -squadron_. The object of the weaker cavalry may be to cause the onset of -the stronger to dwindle away into a dismounted skirmish, and this is -most effectually brought about by a fire concentrated enough and heavy -enough to discourage mounted manoeuvres; on the other hand, the stronger -party desires to avoid dismounting a single squadron that can be kept -mounted; and this too may be effected by the machine-guns. What the -result of such a policy on both sides may be, it would be hard to -prophesy, but it is clear at any rate that, whether on the offensive or -on the defensive, skilfully handled machine-guns may enable a cavalry -commander to achieve the difficult and longed-for result--to _give the -law_ to his opponent. The principal difference between the tactics of -the stronger and those of the weaker cavalry in this matter is, that it -is generally advantageous for the former to act by batteries and for the -latter to disperse his machine guns irregularly in pairs. - - - Machine-Guns in Combined Tactics. - -It is not merely in cavalry tactics that the question of "section or -battery" arises. It deeply affects the machine-gun tactics in the battle -of all arms, and it is therefore decided in each service by the use to -which the guns are intended to be put. One powerful current of opinion -is in favour of employing them as a mobile reserve of fire. This opinion -was responsible for the creation of the German machine-gun batteries or -"detachments"; and in the drill regulations issued in 1902 for their -guidance it was stated that the proper use of machine-guns required a -comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the general situation, and that -therefore only the superior leaders could employ them to advantage. -Manoeuvre experience, as mentioned above, has caused considerable -modification in this matter, and while the large machine-gun -"detachments" are now definitely told off to the cavalry, new and -smaller units have been formed, with the title "companies" to indicate -their attachment to the infantry arm. A recent official pronouncement as -to the role of the "companies" (Amendments to _Exerzierreglement fur die -Infanterie_, 1909) is to the effect that the companies are an integral -part of the infantry, that their mission is to augment directly the fire -of the infantry, and that their employment is in the hands of the -infantry regimental commander, who keeps the guns at his own disposition -or distributes them to the battalions as he sees fit. It must be -remembered that the regiment is a large unit, 3000 strong, and the idea -of a "mobile reserve of fire" is tacitly maintained, although it has -been found necessary to depart from the extreme measure of massing the -guns and holding them at the disposal of a general officer. The Japanese -regulations state that in principle the machine-gun battery fights as a -unit; that although it may be advantageously employed with the advanced -guard to assure the possession of supporting points, its true function -is to intervene with full effect in the decisive attack, its use in the -delaying action being "a serious error." In France, on the other hand, -the system of independent sections is most rigidly maintained; when in -barracks, the three sections belonging to an infantry regiment are -combined for drill, but in the field they seem to be used exclusively as -sections. They are not, however, restricted to the positions of their -own battalions; taught probably by the experiences of the British in -South Africa, they co-operate with instead of following the infantry. In -Great Britain, _Field Service Regulations_, part i., 1909, lay down that -"machine-guns are best used in pairs[11] in support of the particular -body of troops to which they belong" (i.e. battalions). "The guns of two -or more units may, if required,[12] be placed under a specially selected -officer and employed as a special reserve of fire in the hands of a -brigade commander" (corresponding to German regimental commander), but -"if an overwhelming fire on a particular point is required, it can be -obtained by concentrating the fire of dispersed pairs of guns." More -explicitly still, "the movements and fire action of these weapons should -be _regulated so as to enable them to open fire immediately a favourable -opportunity arises._" - -Contrasting the German system with the French and English, we may -observe that it is German tactics _as a whole_ that impose a method of -using machine-guns which the Germans themselves recognize as being in -many respects disadvantageous. A German force in action possesses little -depth, i.e. reserves, except on the flanks where the enveloping attack -is intended to be made. Consequently, a German commander needs a reserve -of fire in a mechanical, concentrated form more than a British or a -French commander, and, further, as regards the decisive attack on the -flanks, it is intended not merely to be sudden but even more to be -powerful and overwhelming. These considerations tend to impose both the -massing and the holding in reserve of machine-guns. The French and -British doctrine (see TACTICS) is fundamentally different. Here, whether -the guns be massed or not, there is rarely any question of using the -machine-guns as a special reserve. In the decisive attack, and -especially at the culmination of the decisive attack, when concealment -has ceased and power is everything, the machine-guns can render the -greatest services when grouped and boldly handled. Above all, they must -reach the captured crest in a few minutes, so as to crush the inevitable -offensive return of the enemy's reserves. The decisive attack, moreover, -is not a prearranged affair, as in Germany, but the culmination, "at a -selected point, of gradually increasing pressure relentlessly applied to -the enemy at all points" (_F. S. Regulations_). The holding attack, as -this "pressure" is called, is not a mere feint. It is launched and -developed as a decisive attack, though not completed as such, as it -lacks the necessary reserve strength. Here, then, the machine-gun is -best employed in enabling relatively small forces to advance--not to -assault--without undue loss, that is, in economizing rifles along the -non-decisive front.[13] - -Withal, there are certain principles, or rather details of principle, -that find general acceptance. One of these is the employment of -machine-guns with the advanced guard. In this case the value of the -weapon lies in its enabling the advanced guard both to seize favourable -ground and points of support without undue effort and to hold the -positions gained against the enemy's counter-attack. This applies, -further, to the preliminary stages of an action.[14] Another point is -that as a rule the most favourable range for the machine-gun is -"effective infantry," i.e. 600-1400 yards (which is, _mutatis mutandis_, -the principle of Reffye's mitrailleuse). Its employment at close -infantry range depends entirely on conditions of ground and -circumstances--even supposing that the handiest and most inconspicuous -type of weapon is employed. Thirdly--and this has a considerable bearing -on the other points--the machine-gun both concentrates many rifles on a -narrow front, and concentrates the bullets of many rifles on a narrow -front. The first clause implies that it can be used where there is no -room (physically or tactically) for the fifty or eighty riflemen it -represents (as, for instance, in some slight patch of cover whence the -gun can give effective cross-fire in support of the infantry attack, or -in front of an advanced post, or can watch an exposed flank), and, -further, that it can be swung round laterally on to a fresh target far -more easily than a line of excited and extended infantry can be made to -change front. The second means that the exit of a defile, an exposed -turn in a lane or on a bridge, can be beaten by closely grouped fire at -greater distances and with greater accuracy than is attainable with -riflemen. - -Further, the waste of ammunition and the strain on the weapon caused by -unnecessarily prolonged firing at the rate for which its mechanism is -set--varying between 350 and 700 rounds a minute--have caused it to be -laid down as an axiom in all armies that machine-guns shall deliver -their fire by "bursts" and only on favourable targets. - -Lastly, the reports, both of observers and combatants, are unanimous as -to the immense moral effect produced on the combatants by the -unmistakable drumming sound of the machine-guns, an effect comparable -even at certain stages of the fight to the boom of the artillery itself. - - _Equipments in Use._--Practically all nations have abandoned the - simple wheeled carriage for machine-guns, or rather have adopted the - tripod or table mounting, reserving the wheeled vehicle for the mere - transport of the equipment. Since the Russo-Japanese War the tendency - has been to sacrifice the slight protection afforded by the shield in - order to reduce visibility. The Japanese, who had unprotected field - guns and protected machine-guns in the war, found it advisable to - reverse this procedure, for reasons that can easily be guessed in the - cases of both weapons. - - _Great Britain._--The service machine-gun is the Maxim .303 in., - adjusted to a rate of 450 rounds per minute and sighted (except in a - few weapons) to 2900 yards. The original patterns weighed 60 lb., and - were mounted on wheeled carriages. In the latest pattern, however, the - weight of the gun has been reduced to 36 lb. The old Mark I. cavalry - Maxim carriage, complete with gun, ammunition, &c., weighed 13 cwt. - behind the traces, and the gun was 5 ft. above the ground. It had no - limber. The Mark III. cavalry carriage is much lower (3' 6" from the - ground to the gun), and the gun carriage and limber together only - weigh 13 cwt. Of infantry carriages there were various marks, one of - which is shown in fig. 6. Now, however, all mountings for infantry are - of the tripod type, transported on wheels or on pack animals, but - entirely detachable from the travelling mounting, and in action - practically never used except on the tripod. The Mark IV. tripod - mounting, of which a sketch is given in fig. 21, weighs 48 lb. The - total weight of the fighting equipment is thus 84 lb. only--an - important consideration now that in action the gun is man-carried. The - gun can be adjusted to fire at heights varying from 2' 6" to 1' - 2(1/2)" only from the ground; in its lowest position, then, it is a - little lower than the head of a man firing lying. All the later - infantry machine-gun equipments are for pack transport and have no - shields. - - The organization of the machine-gun arm is regimental. Each cavalry - regiment and each infantry battalion has a section of 2 guns under an - officer. - - _France._--The guns in use are the Puteaux and the Hotchkiss. The unit - is the regimental 2-gun section. Four-horsed carriages with limbers - are used with cavalry, tripods with the infantry sections. No shields. - Weight of the Hotchkiss in use, 50 lb.; of the tripod, 70 lb. The - Puteaux was lightened and improved in 1909. - - _Germany._--As already mentioned the German machine-gun units are - classed as cavalry "detachments" and infantry "companies." The - "detachment" or battery consists of 6 guns and 4 wagons, the vehicles - being of a light artillery pattern and drawn by four horses. The gun - (Maxim) weighs 61 lb., and its fighting carriage 110 lb. The - "companies" have also 6 guns and 4 wagons, but the equipment is - lighter (two-horse), and is not constructed on artillery principles, - nor are the guns fired from their carriages as are those of the - "detachments." The weight of the gun is 38 lb., and that of the - fighting carriage 75 (some accounts give 53 for the latter), the - difference between these weights and those of the mounted equipments, - affording a good illustration of the difference in the tactical - requirements of the cavalry and of the infantry types of gun. The - fighting carriage is a sort of sledge, which is provided with four - legs for fire in the highest position, but can of course be placed on - the ground; the height of the gun, therefore, can be varied from 3' - 6" to 1' 6". The sledges can be dragged across country or carried by - men stretcher fashion, and sometimes several sledges are coupled and - drawn by a horse. - - _Japan._--The Japanese Hotchkiss, as modified since the war with - Russia, is said to weigh 70 lb., and its tripod mounting 40. Each - regiment of infantry has a six-gun battery and each cavalry brigade - one of eight guns. Pack transport is used. - - _Russia._--Since the war eight-gun companies have been formed in the - infantry regiments, and each cavalry regiment has been provided with - two guns. The var organization is, however, unknown. Both wheel and - pack transport are employed for travelling, but the guns are fought - from tripods. Early and somewhat heavy patterns of Maxim (with shield) - are chiefly used, but a great number of very light guns of the Madsen - type have been issued. - - The _Austrian_ gun is the Schwarzlose, of which some details are given - above. Pack transport is used, one mule taking the whole equipment - with 1000 rounds. Weight of the gun 37.9 lb., of the tripod 41 lb. The - height of the tripod can be varied from 9(3/4) in. to 2 ft. above the - ground. It is proposed that each cavalry regiment should have four - guns, and each infantry regiment two. Switzerland adopted the Maxim in - 1902. It is used principally as a substitute for horse artillery. - _Denmark_ and other small states have adopted the Madsen or Rexer - light-type guns in relatively large numbers, especially for cavalry. - In the _United States_ the British organization was after many trials - adopted, and each infantry and cavalry regiment has a two-gun section - of Maxims, with tripod mounting and pack transport. - - See P. Azan, _Les premieres mitrailleuses_ ("Revue d'Histoire de - l'Armee," July 1907); _Le Canon a balles, 1870-1871_ ("Revue d'Hist. - de l'Armee", 1909); Lieut-Colonel E. Rogers in "Journal R. United - Service Institution" of 1905; Capt. R. V. K. Applin, _Machine-gun - Tactics_ (London, 1910) and paper in "J. R. United Service Inst." - (1910); War Office Handbook to the Maxim gun (1907); Capt. Cesbron - Lavau, _Mitrailleuses de cavalerie_; Lieut. Buttin, _L'emploi des - mitrailleuses d'infanterie_; Major J. Goots, _Les Mitrailleuses_ - (Brussels, 1908); and Merkatz, _Unterrichtsbuch fur die - Masch.-Gewehrabteilungen_ (Berlin, 1906); Korzen & Kuhn, - _Waffenlehre_, &c. (C. F. A.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The French term _mitrailleuse_, made famous by the War of 1870, - reappears in other Latin tongues (e.g. Spanish _ametralladora_). It - signifies a weapon which delivers a shower of small projectiles - (_mitraille_--grape or case shot), and has no special reference to - its mechanical (hand or automatic) action. - - [2] Meudon Chateau had long been used for military experiments. The - peasantry credited it with mysterious and terrible secrets, asserting - even that it contained a tannery of human skins, this tradition - perhaps relating to the war balloon constructed there before the - battle of Fleurus (1794). Reffye had also many non-military tasks, - such as the reproduction of a famous set of bas-reliefs, construction - of aeroplanes, and the reconstruction of triremes and balistas. - - [3] A machine-gun of the artillery or volley type, called the "Requa - battery," which had its barrels disposed fan-wise, was also used in - the Civil War. - - [4] The U.S. pattern Gatling hardly differed except in details from - the model, above described, of twenty years earlier. The drum had - been set horizontally instead of vertically and improved in details, - and a "gravity feed," a tall vertical charger, was also used. The - barrels were surrounded with a light casing. Tests made of the - improved Gatling showed that the use of only one barrel at a time - prevented overheating. On one trial 63,000 rounds were fired without - a jam, and without stopping to clean the barrels. Smokeless powder - and the modern cartridge case were of course used. - - [5] The following particulars may be given of the 2-barrelled Gardner - and 3-barrelled Nordenfeldt (land service) converted to take the .303 - cartridge: Weight, 92 and 110 lb. respectively; parapet mounting in - each case 168 lb.; rate of fire of Gardner about 250 rounds per - minute, of the Nordenfeldt about 350. A few of these guns are still - used in fortresses and coast defences. - - [6] Modern improvements in mechanical details are only slight, as may - be found by reference to the official handbooks of the gun, editions - of 1903 and 1907. - - [7] At San-de-pu 1905 the Japanese machine-guns (Hotchkiss) sustained - damage averaging, 1 extractor broken per gun, 1 jam in every 300 - rounds. It should be mentioned, however, that the machine-gun - companies were only formed shortly before the battle. - - [8] In field operations only. For siege warfare see FORTIFICATION AND - SIEGECRAFT. - - [9] For practical purposes in the field, the "effective" beaten zone, - containing 75% of the bullets, is the basis of fire direction both - for the machine-gun and the rifle. The depths of these "effective" - zones are on an average:-- - - +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ - | At | 500 yds. | 1,000 yds. | 1,500 yds. | 2,000 yds.| - +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ - | S.L.E. Rifle | 220 yds. | 120 yds. | 100 yds. | -- | - +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ - | Maxim Gun | 150 yds. | 70 yds. | 60 yds. | 50 yds. | - +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ - - [10] "Combined sights" implies firing with the sights set for two - different ranges, the usual difference being 50 yds. With grouped - machine guns, "progressive fire" with elevations increasing by 25 - yds. is used. This artificially disperses the fire, and therefore - lessens the chance of losing the target through ranging errors. One - ingenious inventor has produced a two-barrelled automatic, in which - the barrels are permanently set to give combined elevations. The - British memorandum of August 1909 seems to regard the facility of - employing combined sights as the principal advantage of the battery - over the section. - - [11] The use of single guns facilitates concealment, but this is - outweighed by the objection that when a jam or other breakdown occurs - the fire ceases altogether. The use of guns in pairs not only - obviates this, but admits of each gun in turn ceasing fire to - economize ammunition, to cool down, &c. This is the old artillery - principle--"one gun is no gun." - - [12] In the instructions issued in August 1909 one of the principal - advantages of grouped sections is stated to be the neutralization of - ranging errors at ranges over 1000 yards. At a less range, it is laid - down, grouped guns form too visible a target, unless the ground is - very favourable. - - [13] The British instructions of August 1909 direct the grouping of - guns in the _decisive_ attack (if circumstances and ground favour - this course) and their use by sections "if the brigade is deployed on - a wide front," i.e. on the _non-decisive_ front; further, that it is - often advisable to disperse the sections of the leading battalions - and to group those of units in reserve. In any case, while the 2, 4 - or 8 guns must be ready to act independently as a special "arm," - their normal work is to give the closest support to the neighbouring - infantry (battalion in the holding, brigade in the decisive, attack). - - [14] In Germany, however, the tendency is not to make holding attacks - but to keep the troops out of harm's way (i.e. too far away for the - enemy to counter-attack) until they can strike effectively. - - - - -MACIAS [_O NAMORODO_] (_fl._ 1360-1390), Galician _trovador_, held some -position in the household of Enrique de Villena. He is represented by -five poems in the _Cancianero de Baena_, and is the reputed author of -sixteen others. Macias lives by virtue of the romantic legends which -have accumulated round his name. The most popular version of his story -is related by Hernan Nunez. According to this tradition, Macias was -enamoured of a great lady, was imprisoned at Arjonilla, and was murdered -by the jealous husband while singing the lady's praises. There may be -some basis of fact for this narrative, which became a favourite subject -with contemporary Spanish poets and later writers. Macias is mentioned -in Rocaberti's _Gloria de amor_ as the Castillan equivalent of -Cabestanh; he afforded a theme to Lope de Vega in _Porfiar hasta morir_; -in the 19th century, at the outset of the romantic movement in Spain, he -inspired Larra (q.v.) in the play _Macias_ and in the historical novel -entitled _El doncel de Don Enrique el doliente_. - - See H. A. Rennert, _Macias, o namorado; a Galician trobador_ - (Philadelphia, 1900); Theodore J. de Puymaigre, _Les vieux auteurs - castillans_ (1889-1890), i. 54-74; _Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano_ - (New York and London, 1902), ed. H. R. Lang; Christian F. Bellermann, - _Die alten Liederbucher der Portugiesen_ (Berlin, 1840). - - - - -MACINTOSH, CHARLES (1766-1843), Scottish chemist and inventor of -waterproof fabrics, was born on the 29th of December 1766 at Glasgow, -where he was first employed as a clerk. He devoted all his spare time to -science, particularly chemistry, and before he was twenty resigned his -clerkship to take up the manufacture of chemicals. In this he was highly -successful, inventing various new processes. His experiments with one of -the by-products of tar, naphtha, led to his invention of waterproof -fabrics, the essence of his patent being the cementing of two -thicknesses of india-rubber together, the india-rubber being made -soluble by the action of the naphtha. For his various chemical -discoveries he was, in 1823, elected F.R.S. He died on the 25th of July -1843. - - See George Macintosh, _Memoir of C. Macintosh_ (1847). - - - - -MACKAY, CHARLES (1814-1889), Scottish writer, was born at Perth, on the -27th of March 1814, and educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, and -in Brussels. In 1830, being then private secretary to a Belgian -ironmaster, he began writing verses and articles for local newspapers. -Returning to London, he devoted himself to literary and journalistic -work, and was attached to the _Morning Chronicle_ (1835-1844). He -published _Memoirs of Extraordinary Public Delusions_ (1841), and -gradually made himself known as an industrious and prolific journalist. -In 1844 he was made editor of the Glasgow _Argus_. His literary -reputation was made by the publication in 1846 of a volume of verses. -_Voices from the Crowd_, some of which were set to music by Henry -Russell and became very popular. In 1848 Mackay returned to London and -worked for the _Illustrated London News_, of which he became editor in -1852. In it he published a number of songs, set to music by Sir Henry -Bishop and Henry Russell, and in 1855 they were collected in a volume; -they included the popular "Cheer, Boys! Cheer!" After his severance from -the _Illustrated London News_, in 1859, Mackay started two unsuccessful -periodicals, and acted as special correspondent for _The Times_ in -America during the Civil War. He edited _A Thousand and One Gems of -English Poetry_ (1867). Mackay died in London on the 24th of December -1889. Marie Corelli (q.v.) was his adopted daughter. His son, Eric -Mackay (1851-1899), was known as a writer of verse, particularly by his -_Love Letters of a Violinist_ (1886). - - - - -MACKAY, HUGH (c. 1640-1692), Scottish general, was the son of Hugh -Mackay of Scourie, Sutherlandshire, and was born there about 1640. He -entered Douglas's (Dumbarton's) regiment of the English army (now the -Royal Scots) in 1660, accompanied it to France when it was lent by -Charles II. to Louis XIV., and though succeeding, through the death of -his two elder brothers, to his father's estates, continued to serve -abroad. In 1669 he was in the Venetian service at Candia, and in 1672 he -was back with his old regiment, Dumbarton's, in the French army, taking -part under Turenne in the invasion of Holland. In 1673 he married Clara -de Bie of Bommel in Gelderland. Through her influence he became, as -Burnet says, "the most pious man that I ever knew in a military way," -and, convinced that he was fighting in an unjust cause, resigned his -commission to take a captaincy in a Scottish regiment in the Dutch -service. He had risen to the rank of major-general in 1685, when the -Scots brigade was called to England to assist in the suppression of the -Monmouth rebellion. Returning to Holland, Mackay was one of those -officers who elected to stay with their men when James II., having again -demanded the services of the Scots brigade, and having been met with a -refusal, was permitted to invite the officers individually into his -service. As major-general commanding the brigade, and also as a privy -councillor of Scotland, Mackay was an important and influential person, -and James chose to attribute the decision of most of the officers to -Mackay's instigation. Soon after this event the Prince of Orange started -on his expedition to England, Mackay's division leading the invading -corps, and in January 1688-89 Mackay was appointed major-general -commanding in chief in Scotland. In this capacity he was called upon to -deal with the formidable insurrection headed by Graham of Claverhouse, -Viscount Dundee. In the battle of Killiecrankie Mackay was severely -defeated, but Dundee was killed, and the English commander, displaying -unexpected energy, subdued the Highlands in one summer. In 1690 he -founded Fort William at Inverlochy, in 1691 he distinguished himself in -the brilliant victory of Aughrim, and in 1692, with the rank of -lieutenant-general, he commanded the British division of the allied army -in Flanders. At the great battle of Steinkirk Mackay's division bore the -brunt of the day unsupported and the general himself was killed. - -Mackay was the inventor of the ring bayonet which soon came into general -use, the idea of this being suggested to him by the failure of the -plug-bayonet to stop the rush of the Highlanders at Killiecrankie. Many -of his despatches and papers were published by the Bannatyne Club in -1883. - - See _Life_ by John Mackay of Rockville (1836); and J. W. Fortescue, - _History of the British Army_, vol. i. - - - - -MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM (1831-1902), American capitalist, was born in -Dublin, Ireland, on the 28th of November 1831. His parents brought him -in 1840 to New York City, where he worked in a ship-yard. In 1851 he -went to California and worked in placer gold-mines in Sierra county. In -1852 he went to Virginia City, Nevada, and there, after losing all he -had made in California, he formed with James G. Fair, James C. Flood and -William S. O'Brien the firm which in 1873 discovered the great Bonanza -vein, more than 1200 ft. deep, in the Comstock lode (yielding in March -of that year as much as $632 per ton, and in 1877 nearly $19,000,000 -altogether); and this firm established the Bank of Nevada in San -Francisco. In 1884, with James Gordon Bennett, Mackay formed the -Commercial Cable Company--largely to fight Jay Gould and the Western -Union Telegraph Company--laid two transatlantic cables, and forced the -toll-rate for transatlantic messages down to twenty-five cents a word. -In connexion with the Commercial Cable Company he formed the Postal -Telegraph Company. Mackay died on the 20th of July 1902 in London. He -gave generously, especially to the charities of the Roman Catholic -Church, and endowed the Roman Catholic orphan asylum in Virginia City, -Nevada. In June 1908 a school of mines was presented to the University -of Nevada, as a memorial to him, by his widow and his son, Clarence H. -Mackay. - - - - -MACKAY, a seaport of Carlisle county, Queensland, Australia, on the -Pioneer river, 625 m. direct N.N.W. Pop. (1901), 4091. The harbour is -not good. Sugar, tobacco and coffee thrive in the district. There are -several important sugar mills, one of which, the largest in Queensland, -is capable of an annual output of 8000 tons. Rum is distilled, and there -are a brewery and a factory for tinning butter for export. Workable coal -is found in the district. This is the port of the Mt Orange and Mt -Gotthart copper mines, and the Mt Britten and Eungella gold-fields. It -is a calling-station for the Queensland royal mail steamers. The town is -named after Captain John Mackay, who discovered the harbour in 1860. - - - - -McKEESPORT, a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the -confluence of the Monongahela and Youghiogheny rivers (both of which are -navigable), 14 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 20,741; (1900), -34,227, of whom 9349 were foreign-born and 748 were negroes; (1910 -census) 42,694. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pittsburg & -Lake Erie and the Pennsylvania railways. The city has a Carnegie -library, a general hospital, and two business schools. Bituminous coal -and natural gas abound in the vicinity, and iron, steel, and tin and -terne plate are extensively manufactured in the city, the tin-plate -plant being one of the most important in the United States. The total -value of the city's factory products was $36,058,447 in 1900 and -$23,054,412 in 1905. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. -The first white settler was David McKee, who established a ferry here in -1769. In 1795 his son John laid out the town, which was named in his -honour, but its growth was very slow until after the discovery of coal -in 1830. McKeesport was incorporated as a borough in 1842 and chartered -as a city in 1890. - - - - -McKEES ROCKS, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on -the Ohio river, about 3 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 1687; (1900) -6352 (1264 foreign-born); (1910) 14,702. McKees Rocks is served by the -Pittsburg & Lake Erie and the Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youghiogheny -railways, the latter a short line extending (13 m.) to Beechmont. -Bituminous coal and natural gas are found in the vicinity, and the -borough ships coal and lumber, and has various important manufactures. -There is an ancient Indian mound here. The first settlement was made in -1830, and the borough incorporated in 1892. - - - - -MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER (1835-1904), English Nonconformist divine, was born -at Truro in Cornwall, on the 14th of January 1835, the son of Patrick -Mackennal, a Scot, who had settled in Cornwall. In 1848 the family -removed to London, and at sixteen he went to Glasgow University. In 1854 -he entered Hackney College to prepare for the Congregational ministry, -and in 1857 he graduated B.A. at London University. After holding -pastorates at Burton-on-Trent (1856-1861), Surbiton (1862-1870), -Leicester (1870-1876), he finally accepted the pastorate of the -Congregational Church at Bowdon, Cheshire, in 1877, in which he remained -till his death. In 1886 he was chairman of the Congregational Union, -which he represented in 1889 at the triannual national council of the -American Congregational churches. The first international council of -Congregationalists held in London in 1891 was partly cause, partly -consequence, of his visit, and Mackennal acted as secretary. In 1892 he -became definitely associated in the public mind with a movement for free -church federation which grew out of a series of meetings held to discuss -the question of home reunion. When the Lambeth articles put forward as a -basis of union were discussed, it was evident that all the free churches -were agreed in accepting the three articles dealing with the Bible, the -Creed and the Sacraments as a basis of discussion, and were also agreed -in rejecting the fourth article, which put the historic episcopate on -the same level as the other three. Omitting the Anglicans, the -representatives of the remaining churches resolved to develop Christian -fellowship by united action and worship wherever possible. Out of this -grew the Free Church Federation, which secures a measure of co-operation -between the Protestant Evangelical churches throughout England. -Mackennal's public action brought him into association with many -well-known political and religious leaders. He was a lifelong advocate -of international peace, and made a remarkable declaration as to the -Christian standard of national action when the Free Church Federation -met at Leeds during the South African War in 1900. - -Besides a volume of sermons under the title _Christ's Healing Touch_, -Mackennal published _The Biblical Scheme of Nature and of Man, The -Christian Testimony, the Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia, The -Kingdom of the Lord Jesus_ and _The Eternal God and the Human Sonship_. -These are contributions to exegetical study or to theological and -progressive religious thought, and have elements of permanent value. He -also made some useful contributions to religious history. In 1893 he -published the _Story of the English Separatists_, and later the _Homes -and Haunts of the Pilgrim Fathers_; he also wrote the life of Dr J. A. -Macfadyen of Manchester. In 1901 he delivered a series of lectures at -Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut, U.S.A., published under the -title _The Evolution of Congregationalism_. He died at Highgate on the -23rd of June 1904. - - See D. Macfadyen, _Life and Letters of Alexander Mackennal_ (1905). - (D. Mn.) - - - - -MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820), Canadian explorer, was probably -a native of Inverness, Emigrating to North America at an early age, he -was for several years engaged in the fur trade at Fort Chippewyan, at -the head of Lake Athabasca, and it was here that his schemes of travel -were formed. His first journey, made in 1789, was from Fort Chippewyan -along the Great Slave Lake, and down the river which now bears his name -to the Arctic Ocean; and his second, made in 1792 and 1793, from Fort -Chippewyan across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast near Cape -Menzies. He wrote an account of these journeys, _Voyages on the River St -Lawrence and through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and -Pacific Oceans_ (London, 1801), which is of considerable interest from -the information it contains about the native tribes. It is prefaced by -an historical dissertation on the Canadian fur trade. Amassing -considerable wealth, Mackenzie was knighted in 1802, and later settled -in Scotland. He died at Mulnain, near Dunkeld, on the 11th of March -1820. - - - - -MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892), Canadian statesman, was born in -Perthshire, Scotland, on the 28th of January, 1822. His father was a -builder, and young Mackenzie emigrated to Canada in 1842, and worked in -Ontario as a stone-mason, setting up for himself later as a builder and -contractor at Sarnia with his brother. In 1852 his interest in questions -of reform led to his becoming the editor of the _Lambton Shield_, a -local Liberal paper. This brought him to the front, and in 1861 he -became a member of the Canadian parliament, where he at once made his -mark and was closely connected with the liberal leader, George Brown. He -was elected for Lambton to the first Dominion house of commons in 1867, -and soon became the leader of the liberal opposition; from 1871 to 1872 -he also sat in the Ontario provincial assembly, and held the position of -provincial treasurer. In 1873 the attack on Sir John Macdonald's -ministry with regard to the Pacific Railway charter resulted in its -defeat, and Mackenzie formed a new government, taking the portfolio of -public works and becoming the first liberal premier of Canada. He -remained in power till 1878, when industrial depression enabled -Macdonald to return to office on a protectionist programme. In 1875 -Mackenzie paid a visit to Great Britain, and was received at Windsor by -Queen Victoria; he was offered a knighthood, but declined it. After his -defeat he suffered from failing health, gradually resulting in almost -total paralysis, but though in 1880 he resigned the leadership of the -opposition, he retained a seat in parliament till his death at Toronto -on the 17th of April 1892. While perhaps too cautious to be the ideal -leader of a young and vigorous community, his grasp of detail, -indefatigable industry, and unbending integrity won him the respect even -of his political opponents. - - His _Life and Times_ by William Buckingham and the Hon. George W. Ross - (Toronto, 1892) contains documents of much interest. See also George - Stewart, _Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin_ - (Toronto, 1878). - - - - -MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847- ), British composer, son of -an eminent Edinburgh violinist and conductor, was born on the 22nd of -August 1847. On the advice of a member of Gung'l's band who had taken up -his residence in Edinburgh, Mackenzie was sent for his musical education -to Sondershausen, where he entered the conservatorium under Ulrich and -Stein, remaining there from 1857 to 1861, when he entered the ducal -orchestra as a violinist. At this time he made Liszt's acquaintance. On -his return home he won the King's Scholarship at the Royal Academy of -Music, and remained the usual three years in the institution, after -which he established himself as a teacher of the piano, &c., in -Edinburgh. He appeared in public as a violinist, taking part in -Chappell's quartette concerts, and starting a set of classical concerts. -He was appointed precentor of St George's Church in 1870, and conductor -of the Scottish vocal music association in 1873, at the same time -getting through a prodigious amount of teaching. He kept in touch with -his old friends by playing in the orchestra of the Birmingham Festivals -from 1864 to 1873. The most important compositions of this period of -Mackenzie's life were the Quartette in E flat for piano and strings. Op. -11, and an overture, _Cervantes_, which owed its first performance to -the encouragement and help of von Bulow. On the advice of this great -pianist, he gave up his Edinburgh appointments, which had quite worn him -out, and settled in Florence in order to compose. The cantatas _The -Bride_ (Worcester, 1881) and _Jason_ (Bristol, 1882) belong to this -time, as well as his first opera. This was commissioned for the Carl -Rosa Company, and was written to a version of Merimee's _Colomba_ -prepared by Franz Hueffer. It was produced with great success in 1883, -and was the first of a too short series of modern English operas; -Mackenzie's second opera, _The Troubadour_, was produced by the same -company in 1886; and his third dramatic work was _His Majesty_, an -excellent comic opera (Savoy Theatre, 1897). In 1884 his _Rose of -Sharon_ was given with very great success at the Norwich Festival; in -1885 he was appointed conductor of Novello's oratorio concerts; _The -Story of Sayid_ came out at the Leeds Festival of 1886; and in 1888 he -succeeded Macfarren as principal of the Royal Academy of Music. _The -Dream of Jubal_ was produced at Liverpool in 1889, and in London very -soon afterwards. A fine setting of the hymn "Veni, Creator Spiritus" was -given at Birmingham in 1891, and the oratorio _Bethlehem_ in 1894. From -1892 to 1899 he conducted the Philharmonic Concerts, and was knighted in -1894. Besides the works mentioned he has written incidental music to -plays, as, for instance, to _Ravenswood_, _The Little Minister_, and -_Coriolanus_; concertos and other works for violin and orchestra, much -orchestral music, and many songs and violin pieces. The romantic side of -music appeals to Mackenzie far more strongly than any other, and the -cases in which he has conformed to the classical conventions are of the -rarest. In the orchestral ballad, _La Belle Dame sans Merci_, he touches -the note of weird pathos, and in the nautical overture _Britannia_ his -sense of humour stands revealed. In the two "Scottish Rhapsodies" for -orchestra, in the music to _The Little Minister_, and in a beautiful -fantasia for pianoforte and orchestra on Scottish themes, he has seized -the essential, not the accidental features of his native music. - - - - -MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691), of Rosehaugh, Scottish lawyer, was -the grandson of Kenneth, first Lord Mackenzie of Kintail, and the nephew -of Colin and George, first and second earls of Seaforth; his mother was -a daughter of Andrew Bruce, principal of St Leonard's College, St -Andrews. He was born at Dundee in 1636, educated at the grammar school -there and at Aberdeen, and afterwards at St Andrews, graduating at -sixteen. He then engaged for three years in the study of the civil law -at Bourges; on his return to Scotland he was called to the bar in 1659, -and before the Restoration had risen into considerable practice. -Immediately after the Restoration he was appointed a "justice-depute," -and it is recorded that he and his colleagues in that office were -ordained by the parliament in 1661 "to repair, once in the week at -least, to Musselburgh and Dalkeith, and to try and judge such persons as -are there or thereabouts delate of witchcraft." In the same year he -acted as counsel for the marquis of Argyll; soon afterwards he was -knighted, and he represented the county of Ross during the four sessions -of the parliament which was called in 1669. He succeeded Sir John Nisbet -as king's advocate in August 1677, and in the discharge of this office -became implicated in all the worst acts of the Scottish administration -of Charles II., earning for himself an unenviable distinction as "the -bloody Mackenzie." His refusal to concur in the measures for dispensing -with the penal laws against Catholics led to his removal from office in -1686, but he was reinstated in February 1688. At the Revolution, being a -member of convention, he was one of the minority of five in the division -on the forfeiture of the crown. King William was urged to declare him -incapacitated for holding any public office, but refused to accede to -the proposal. When the death of Dundee (July 1689) had finally destroyed -the hopes of his party in Scotland, Mackenzie betook himself to Oxford, -where, admitted a student by a grace passed in 1690, he was allowed to -spend the rest of his days in the enjoyment of the ample fortune he had -acquired, and in the prosecution of his literary labours. One of his -last acts before leaving Edinburgh had been to pronounce (March 15, -1689), as dean of the faculty of advocates, the inaugural oration at the -foundation of the Advocates' library. He died at Westminster on the 8th -of May 1691, and was buried in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh. - - While still a young man Sir George Mackenzie appears to have aspired - to eminence in the domain of pure literature, his earliest publication - having been _Aretina, or a Serious Romance_ (anon., 1661); it was - followed, also anonymously, by _Religio Stoici, a Short Discourse upon - Several Divine and Moral Subjects_ (1663); _A Moral Essay, preferring - Solitude to Public Employment_ (1665); and one or two other - disquisitions of a similar nature. His most important legal works are - entitled _A Discourse upon the Laws and Customs of Scotland in Matters - Criminal_ (1674); _Observations upon the Laws and Customs of Nations - as to Precedency, with the Science of Heraldry_ (1680); _Institutions - of the Law of Scotland_ (1684); and _Observations upon the Acts of - Parliament_ (1686); of these the last-named is the most important, the - _Institutions_ being completely overshadowed by the similar work of - his great contemporary Stair. In his _Jus Regium: or the Just and - Solid Foundations of Monarchy in general, and more especially of the - Monarchy of Scotland, maintained_ (1684), Mackenzie appears as an - uncompromising advocate of the highest doctrines of prerogative. His - _Vindication of the Government of Scotland during the reign of Charles - II._ (1691) is valuable as a piece of contemporary history. The - collected _Works_ were published at Edinburgh (2 vols. fol.) in - 1716-1722; and _Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland from the - Restoration of King Charles II._, from previously unpublished MSS., in - 1821. - - See A. Lang, _Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh_ (1909). - - - - -MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831), Scottish novelist and miscellaneous -writer, was born at Edinburgh in August 1745. His father, Joshua -Mackenzie, was a distinguished physician, and his mother, Margaret Rose, -belonged to an old Nairnshire family. Mackenzie was educated at the high -school and the university of Edinburgh, and was then articled to George -Inglis of Redhall, who was attorney for the crown in the management of -exchequer business. In 1765 he was sent to London to prosecute his legal -studies, and on his return to Edinburgh became partner with Inglis, whom -he afterwards succeeded as attorney for the crown. His first and most -famous work, _The Man of Feeling_, was published anonymously in 1771, -and met with instant success. The "Man of Feeling" is a weak creature, -dominated by a futile benevolence, who goes up to London and falls into -the hands of people who exploit his innocence. The sentimental key in -which the book is written shows the author's acquaintance with Sterne -and Richardson, but he had neither the humour of Sterne nor the subtle -insight into character of Richardson. One Eccles of Bath claimed the -authorship of this book, bringing in support of his pretensions a MS. -with many ingenious erasures. Mackenzie's name was then officially -announced, but Eccles appears to have induced some people to believe in -him. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel, _The Man of the World_, -the hero of which was as consistently bad as the "Man of Feeling" had -been "constantly obedient to his moral sense," as Sir Walter Scott says. -_Julia de Roubigne_ (1777), a story in letters, was preferred to his -other novels by "Christopher North," who had a high opinion of Mackenzie -(see _Noctes Ambrosianae_, vol. i. p. 155, ed. 1866). The first of his -dramatic pieces, _The Prince of Tunis_, was produced in Edinburgh in -1773 with a certain measure of success. The others were failures. At -Edinburgh Mackenzie belonged to a literary club, at the meetings of -which papers in the manner of the _Spectator_ were read. This led to the -establishment of a weekly periodical called the _Mirror_ (January 23, -1779-May 27, 1780), of which Mackenzie was editor and chief contributor. -It was followed in 1785 by a similar paper, the _Lounger_, which ran for -nearly two years and had the distinction of containing one of the -earliest tributes to the genius of Robert Burns. Mackenzie was an ardent -Tory, and wrote many tracts intended to counteract the doctrines of the -French Revolution. Most of these remained anonymous, but he acknowledged -his _Review of the Principal Proceedings of the Parliament of 1784_, a -defence of the policy of William Pitt, written at the desire of Henry -Dundas. He was rewarded (1804) by the office of comptroller of the taxes -for Scotland. In 1776 Mackenzie married Penuel, daughter of Sir Ludovick -Grant of Grant. He was, in his later years, a notable figure in -Edinburgh society. He was nicknamed the "man of feeling," but he was in -reality a hard-headed man of affairs with a kindly heart. Some of his -literary reminiscences were embodied in his _Account of the Life and -Writings of John Home, Esq._ (1822). He also wrote a _Life of Doctor -Blacklock_, prefixed to the 1793 edition of the poet's works. He died on -the 14th of January 1831. - - In 1807 _The Works of Henry Mackenzie_ were published surreptitiously, - and he then himself superintended the publication of his _Works_ (8 - vols., 1808). There is an admiring but discriminating criticism of his - work in the _Prefatory Memoir_ prefixed by Sir Walter Scott to an - edition of his novels in Ballantyne's _Novelist's Library_ (vol. v., - 1823). - - - - -McKENZIE, SIR JOHN (1838-1901). New Zealand statesman, was born at -Ard-Ross, Scotland, in 1838, the son of a crofter. He emigrated to -Otago, New Zealand, in 1860. Beginning as a shepherd, he rose to be farm -manager at Puketapu near Palmerston South, and then to be a farmer in a -substantial way in Shag Valley. In 1865 he was clerk to the local road -board and school committee; in 1871 he entered the provincial council of -Otago; and on the 11th of December 1881 was elected member of the House -of Representatives, in which he sat till 1900. He was also for some -years a member of the education board and of the land board of Otago, -and always showed interest in the national elementary school system. In -the House of Representatives he soon made good his footing, becoming -almost at once a recognized spokesman for the smaller sort of rural -settlers and a person of influence in the lobbies. He acted as -government whip for the coalition ministry of Sir Robert Stout and Sir -Julius Vogel, 1884-1887, and, while still a private member, scored his -first success as a land reformer by carrying the "McKenzie clause" in a -land act limiting the area which a state tenant might thenceforth obtain -on lease. He was still, however, comparatively unknown outside his own -province when, in January 1891, his party took office and he aided John -Ballance in forming a ministry, in which he himself held the portfolio -of lands, immigration and agriculture. From the first he made his hand -felt in every matter connected with land settlement and the -administration of the vast public estate. Generally his aim was to break -up and subdivide the great freehold and leasehold properties which in -his time covered four-sevenths of the occupied land of the colony. In -his Land Act of 1892 he consolidated, abolished or amended, fifty land -acts and ordinances dealing with crown lands, and thereafter amended his -own act four times. Though owning to a preference for state tenancy over -freehold, he never stopped the selling of crown land, and was satisfied -to give would-be settlers the option of choosing freehold or leasehold -under tempting terms as their form of tenure. As a compromise he -introduced the lease in perpetuity or holding for 999 years at a quit -rent fixed at 4%; theoretical objections have since led to its -abolition, but for fifteen years much genuine settlement took place -under its conditions. Broadly, however, McKenzie's exceptional success -as lands minister was due rather to unflinching determination to -stimulate the occupation of the soil by working farmers than to the -solution of the problems of agrarian controversy. His best-known -experiment was in land repurchase. A voluntary law (1892) was displaced -by a compulsory act (1894), under which between L5,000,000 and -L6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in buying and subdividing estates for -closer settlements, with excellent results. McKenzie also founded and -expanded an efficient department of agriculture, in the functions of -which inspection, grading, teaching and example are successfully -combined. It has aided the development of dairying, fruit-growing, -poultry-farming, bee-keeping and flax-milling, and done not a little to -keep up the standard of New Zealand products. After 1897 McKenzie had to -hold on in the face of failing health. An operation in London in 1899 -only postponed the end. He died at his farm on the 6th of August 1901, -soon after being called to the legislative council, and receiving a -knighthood. - - - - -MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892), British physician, son of Stephen -Mackenzie, surgeon (d. 1851), was born at Leytonstone, Essex, on the 7th -of July 1837. After going through the course at the London Hospital, and -becoming M.R.C.S. in 1858, he studied abroad at Paris, Vienna and Pesth; -and at Pesth he learnt the use of the newly-invented laryngoscope under -J. N. Czermak. Returning to London in 1862, he worked at the London -Hospital, and took his degree in medicine. In 1863 he won the Jacksonian -prize at the Royal College of Surgeons for an essay on the "Pathology of -the Larynx," and he then devoted himself to becoming a specialist in -diseases of the throat. In 1863 the Throat Hospital in King Street, -Golden Square, was founded, largely owing to his initiative, and by his -work there and at the London Hospital (where he was one of the -physicians from 1866 to 1873) Morell Mackenzie rapidly became recognized -throughout Europe as a leading authority, and acquired an extensive -practice. So great was his reputation that in May 1887, when the crown -prince of Germany (afterwards the emperor Frederick III.) was attacked -by the affection of the throat of which he ultimately died, Morell -Mackenzie was specially summoned to attend him. The German physicians -who had attended the prince since the beginning of March (Karl Gerhardt, -and subsequently Tobold, E. von Bergmann, and others) had diagnosed his -ailment on the 18th of May as cancer of the throat; but Morell Mackenzie -insisted (basing his opinion on a microscopical examination by R. -Virchow of a portion of the tissue) that the disease was not -demonstrably cancerous, that an operation for the extirpation of the -larynx (planned for the 21st of May) was unjustifiable, and that the -growth might well be a benign one and therefore curable by other -treatment. The question was one not only of personal but of political -importance, since it was doubted whether any one suffering from an -incapacitating disease like cancer could, according to the family law of -the Hohenzollerns, occupy the German throne; and there was talk of a -renunciation of the succession by the crown prince. It was freely -hinted, moreover, that some of the doctors themselves were influenced by -political considerations. At any rate, Morell Mackenzie's opinion was -followed: the crown prince went to England, under his treatment, and was -present at the Jubilee celebrations in June. Morell Mackenzie was -knighted in September 1887 for his services, and decorated with the -Grand Cross of the Hohenzollern Order. In November, however, the German -doctors were again called into consultation, and it was ultimately -admitted that the disease really was cancer; though Mackenzie, with very -questionable judgment, more than hinted that it had become malignant -since his first examination, in consequence of the irritating effect of -the treatment by the German doctors. The crown prince (see FREDERICK -III.) became emperor on the 9th of March 1888, and died on the 15th of -June. During all this period a violent quarrel raged between Sir Morell -Mackenzie and the German medical world. The German doctors published an -account of the illness, to which Mackenzie replied by a work entitled -_The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble_ (1888), the publication of -which caused him to be censured by the Royal College of Surgeons. After -this sensational episode in his career, the remainder of Sir Morell -Mackenzie's life was uneventful, and he died somewhat suddenly in -London, on the 3rd of February 1892. He published several books on -laryngoscopy and diseases of the throat. - - - - -MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861), Canadian politician, was born near -Dundee, Scotland, on the 12th of March 1795. His father died before he -was a month old, and the family were left in poverty. After some six -years' work in a shop at Alyth, in April 1820 he emigrated with his -mother to Canada. There he became a general merchant, first at York, -then at Dundas, and later at Queenston. The discontented condition of -Upper Canada drew him into politics, and on the 18th of May 1824 he -published at Queenston the first number of the _Colonial Advocate_, in -which the ruling oligarchy was attacked with great asperity. Most of the -changes which he advocated were wise and have since been adopted; but -the violence of Mackenzie's attacks roused great anger among the social -and political set at York (Toronto), which was headed by John Beverley -Robinson. In November 1824 Mackenzie removed to Toronto, but he had -little capital; his paper appeared irregularly, and was on the point of -suspending publication when his office was attacked and his type thrown -into the bay by a number of the supporters of his opponents. In an -action against the chief rioters he was awarded L625 and costs, was thus -enabled to set up a much larger and more efficient plant, and the -_Colonial Advocate_ ran till the 4th of November 1834. - -In 1828 he was elected member of parliament for York, but was expelled -on the technical ground that he had published in his newspaper the -proceedings of the house without authorization. Five times he was -expelled and five times re-elected by his constituents, till at last the -government refused to issue a writ, and for three years York was without -one of its representatives. In May 1832 he visited England, where he was -well received by the colonial office. Largely as the result of his -representations, many important reforms were ordered by Lord Goderich, -afterwards earl of Ripon, the colonial secretary. While in England, he -published _Sketches of Canada and the United States_, in which, with -some exaggeration, many of the Canadian grievances were exposed. On his -return in March 1834 he was elected mayor of Toronto. During his year of -office, the heroism with which he worked hand in hand with his old -enemy, Bishop Strachan, in fighting an attack of cholera, did not -prevent him from winning much unpopularity by his officiousness, and in -1835 he was not re-elected either as mayor or alderman. In October 1834 -he was elected member of parliament for York, and took his seat in -January 1835, the Reformers being now in the majority. A committee on -grievances was appointed, as chairman of which Mackenzie presented the -admirable _Seventh Report on Grievances_, largely written by himself, in -which the case for the Reformers was presented with force and -moderation, and the adoption of responsible government advocated as the -remedy. - -In the general election of June 1836 the Tory party won a complete -victory, Mackenzie and almost all the prominent Reformers being defeated -at the polls. This totally unexpected defeat greatly embittered him. On -the 4th of July 1836, the anniversary of the adoption of the American -Declaration of Independence, he began the publication of the -_Constitution_, which openly advocated a republican form of government. -Later in the year he was appointed "agent and corresponding secretary" -of the extreme wing of the Reform party, and more and more openly, in -his speeches throughout the province, advocated armed revolt. He was -also in correspondence with Papineau and the other leaders of the -Reformers in Lower Canada, who were already planning a rising. Early in -December 1837 Mackenzie gathered a mob of his followers, to the number -of several hundred, at Gallows Hill, some miles to the north of Toronto, -with the intention of seizing the lieutenant-governor and setting up a -provisional government. Misunderstandings among the leaders led to the -total failure of the revolt, and Mackenzie was forced to fly to the -United States with a price on his head. In the town of Buffalo he -collected a disorderly rabble, who seized and fortified Navy Island, in -the river between the two countries, and for some weeks troubled the -Canadian frontier. After the failure of this attempt he was put to the -most pitiful shifts to make a living. In June 1839 he was tried in the -United States for a breach of the neutrality laws, and sentenced to -eighteen months' imprisonment, of which he served over eleven. While in -gaol at Rochester he published the _Caroline Almanac_, the tone of which -may be judged from its references to "Victoria Guelph, the bloody queen -of England," and by the title given to the British cabinet of "Victoria -Melbourne's bloody divan." He returned to Canada in consequence of the -Amnesty Act 1849. A closer inspection had cured him of his love for -republican institutions. - -In 1851 he was elected to parliament for Haldimand, defeating George -Brown. He at once allied himself with the Radicals (the "Clear Grits"), -and, on the leadership of that party being assumed by Brown, became one -of his lieutenants. He was still miserably poor, but refused all offers -to accept a government position. In 1858 he resigned his seat in the -house, owing to incipient softening of the brain, of which he died on -the 29th of August 1861. - -Turbulent, ungovernable, vain, often the dupe of schemers, Mackenzie -united with much that was laughable not a little that was heroic. He -could neither be bribed, bullied, nor cajoled. Perhaps the best instance -of this is that in 1832 he refused from Lord Goderich an offer of a -position which would have given him great influence in Canada and an -income of L1,500. He was a born agitator, and as such tended to -exaggeration and misrepresentation. But the evils against which he -struggled were real and grave; the milder measures of the Constitutional -Reformers might have taken long to achieve the results which were due to -his hot-headed advocacy. - - The _Life and Times_ by his son-in-law, Charles Lindsey (Toronto, 2 - vols., 1862), is moderate and fair, though tending to smooth over his - anti-British gasconnade while in the United States. An abridgment of - this work was edited by G. G. S. Lindsey for the "Makers of Canada" - series (1909). In _The Story of the Upper Canadian Rebellion_ by J. C. - Dent (2 vols., Toronto, 1885), a bitter attack is made on him, which - drew a savage reply from another son-in-law, John King, K.C., called - _The Other Side of the Story_. The best short account of his career is - given by J. C. Dent in _The Canadian Portrait Gallery_, vol. ii. - (Toronto, 1881). (W. L. G.) - - - - -MACKENZIE, a river of the North-West Territories, Canada, discharging -the waters of the Great Slave Lake into the Arctic Ocean. It was -discovered and first navigated by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1789. It -has an average width of 1 m., an average fall of 6 in. to the mile; an -approximate discharge, at a medium stage, of 500,000 cub. ft. per -second; and a total length, including its great tributary the Peace, of -2,350 m. The latter rises, under the name of the Finlay, in the -mountains of British Columbia, and flows north-east and then south-east -in the great intermontane valley that bounds the Rocky Mountains on the -west, to its confluence with the Parsnip. From the confluence the waters -of the combined rivers, now called the Peace, flow east through the -Rocky Mountains, and then north-east to unite with the river which -discharges the waters of Lake Athabasca; thence to Great Slave Lake it -is known as Slave river. Excluding the rivers which enter these lakes, -the principal tributaries of the Peace are: Omineca, Nation, Parsnip, -Halfway, North Pine, South Pine, Smoky, Battle, and Loon rivers; those -of the Mackenzie are the Liard (650 m. long), which rises near the -sources of the Pelly, west of the Rocky Mountains, and breaks through -that range on its way to join the parent stream, Great Bear river, which -drains Great Bear Lake, Nahanni, Dahadinni, Arctic Red, and Peel rivers. -The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135 deg. W. and 68 deg. 50' -W., after flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta, not yet fully -surveyed. With its continuation, Slave river, it is navigable from the -Arctic Ocean to Fort Smith, a distance of over 1,200 m., and between the -latter and the head of Lesser Slave Lake, a further distance of 625 m., -there is only one obstruction to navigation, the Grand Rapids near Fort -McMurray on the Athabasca river. The Peace is navigable from its -junction with Slave river for about 220 m. to Vermilion Falls. The -Mackenzie is navigable from about the 10th of June to the 20th of -October, and Great Slave Lake from about the 1st of July to the end of -October. All the waters and lakes of this great system are abundantly -stocked with fish, chiefly white fish and trout, the latter attaining to -remarkable size. - - - - -MACKEREL, pelagic fishes, belonging to a small family, _Scombridae_, of -which the tunny, bonito, albacore, and a few other tropical genera are -members. Although the species are fewer in number than in most other -families of fishes, they are widely spread and extremely abundant, -peopling by countless schools the oceans of the tropical and temperate -zones, and approaching the coasts only accidentally, occasionally, or -periodically. - -The mackerel proper (genus _Scomber_) are readily recognized by their -elegantly shaped, well-proportioned body, shining in iridescent colours. -Small, thin, deciduous scales equally cover nearly the entire body. -There are two dorsal fins, the anterior near the head, composed of 11-14 -feeble spines, the second near the tail with all the rays soft except -the first, and behind the second dorsal five or six finlets. The ventral -is immediately below the second dorsal, and is also followed by finlets. -The caudal fin is crescent-shaped, strengthened at the base by two short -ridges on each side. The mouth is wide, armed above and below with a row -of very small fixed teeth. - -No other fish shows finer proportions in the shape of its body. Every -"line" of its build is designed and eminently adapted for rapid -progression through the water; the muscles massed along the vertebral -column are enormously developed, especially on the back and the sides of -the tail, and impart to the body a certain rigidity which interferes -with abruptly sideward motions of the fish. Therefore mackerel generally -swim in a straightforward direction, deviating sidewards only when -compelled, and rarely turning about in the same spot. They are in almost -continuous motion, their power of endurance being equal to the rapidity -of their motions. Mackerel, like all fishes of this family, have a firm -flesh; that is, the muscles of the several segments are interlaced, and -receive a greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in other -fishes. Therefore the flesh, especially of the larger kinds, is of a red -colour; and the energy of their muscular action causes the temperature -of their blood to be several degrees higher than in other fishes. - -All fishes of the mackerel family are strictly carnivorous; they -unceasingly pursue their prey, which consists principally of other fish -and pelagic crustaceans. The fry of clupeoids, which likewise swim in -schools, are followed by the mackerel until they reach some shallow -place, which their enemies dare not enter. - -Mackerel are found in almost all tropical and temperate seas, with the -exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South America. European -mackerel are of two kinds, of which one, the common mackerel, _Scomber -scomber_, lacks, while the other possesses, an air-bladder. The -best-known species of the latter kind is _S. colias_, the "Spanish" -mackerel;[1] a third, _S. pneumatophorus_, is believed by some -ichthyologists to be identical with _S. colias_. Be this as it may, we -have strong evidence that the Mediterranean is inhabited by other -species different from _S. scomber_ and _S. colias_, and well -characterized by their dentition and coloration. Also the species from -St Helena is distinct. Of extra-Atlantic species the mackerel of the -Japanese seas are the most nearly allied to the European, those of New -Zealand and Australia, and still more those of the Indian Ocean, -differing in many conspicuous points. Two of these species occur in the -British seas: _S. scomber_, which is the most common there as well as in -other parts of the North Atlantic, crossing the ocean to America, where -it abounds; and the Spanish mackerel, _S. colias_, which is -distinguished by a somewhat different pattern of coloration, the -transverse black bands of the common mackerel being in this species -narrower, more irregular or partly broken up into spots, while the -scales of the pectoral region are larger, and the snout is longer and -more pointed. The Spanish mackerel is, as the name implies, a native of -the seas of southern Europe, but single individuals or small schools -frequently reach the shores of Great Britain and of the United Stales. - - The home of the common mackerel (to which the following remarks refer) - is the North Atlantic, from the Canary Islands to the Orkneys, and - from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the coasts of Norway to - the United States. - - Towards the spring large schools approach the coasts. Two causes have - been assigned of this migration: first, the instinct of finding a - suitable locality for propagating their species; and, secondly, the - search and pursuit of food, which in the warmer season is more - abundant in the neighbourhood of land than in the open sea. It is - probable that the latter is the chief cause. - - In the month of February, or in some years as early as the end of - January, the first large schools appear at the entrance of the English - Channel, and are met by the more adventurous of the drift-net fishers - many miles west of the Scilly Islands. These early schools, which - consist chiefly of one-year and two-year-old fishes, yield sometimes - enormous catches, whilst in other years they escape the drift-nets - altogether, passing them, for some hitherto unexplained reason, at a - greater depth than that to which the nets reach, viz. 20 ft. As the - season advances, the schools penetrate farther northwards into St - George's Channel or eastwards into the English Channel. The fishery - then assumes proportions which render it next in importance to the - herring and cod fisheries. In Plymouth alone a fleet of some two - hundred boats assembles; and on the French side of the Channel no less - capital and labour are invested in it, the vessels employed being, - though less in number, larger in size than on the English side. The - chief centre, however, of the fishery in the west of England is at - Newlyn, near Penzance, where the small local sailing boats are - outnumbered by hundreds of large boats, both sail and steam, which - come chiefly from Lowestoft for the season. Simultaneously with the - drift-net the deep-sea-seine and shore-seine are used, which towards - June almost entirely supersede the drift-net. Towards the end of May - the old fish become heavy with spawn and are in the highest condition - for the table; and the latter half of June or beginning of July may be - regarded as the time at which the greater part of mackerel spawn. - Considerable numbers of mackerel are taken off Norfolk and Suffolk in - May and June, and also in September and October. There can be no doubt - that they enter the North Sea from the English Channel, and return by - the same route, but others travel round the north of Scotland and - appear in rather small numbers off the east coast of that country. On - the Norwegian coast mackerel fishing does not begin before May, whilst - on the English coasts large catches are frequently made in March. - Large cargoes are annually imported in ice from Norway to the English - market. - - After the spawning the schools break up into smaller companies which - are much scattered, and offer for two or three months employment to - the hand-line fishermen. They now begin to disappear from the coasts - and return to the open sea. Single individuals or small companies are - found, however, on the coast all the year round; they may have become - detached from the main bodies, and be seeking for the larger schools - which have long left on their return migration. - - Although, on the whole, the course and time of the annual migration of - mackerel are marked with great regularity, their appearance and - abundance at certain localities are subject to great variations. They - may pass a spot at such a depth as to evade the nets, and reappear at - the surface some days after farther eastwards; they may deviate from - their direct line of migration, and even temporarily return westwards. - In some years between 1852 and 1867 the old mackerel disappeared off - Guernsey from the surface, and were accidentally discovered feeding at - the bottom. Many were taken at 10 fathoms and deeper with the line, - and all were of exceptionally large size, several measuring 18 in. and - weighing nearly 3 lb.; these are the largest mackerel on record. - - The mackerel most esteemed as food is the common species, and - individuals from 10 to 12 in. in length are considered the best - flavoured. In more southern latitudes, however, this species seems to - deteriorate, specimens from the coast of Portugal, and from the - Mediterranean and Black Sea, being stated to be dry and resembling in - flavour the Spanish mackerel (_S. colias_), which is not esteemed for - the table. (A. C. G.; J. T. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The term "Spanish mackerel" is applied in America to _Cybium - maculatum_. - - - - -McKIM, CHARLES FOLLEN (1847-1909), American architect, was born in -Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of August 1847. His father, -James Miller McKim (1810-1874), originally a Presbyterian minister, was -a prominent abolitionist and one of the founders (1865) of the New York -_Nation_. The son studied at Harvard (1866-1867) and at Paris in the -Ecole des Beaux-Arts (1867-1870), and in 1872 became an architect in New -York City, entering the office of H. H. Richardson; in 1877 he formed a -partnership with William Rutherford Mead (b. 1846), the firm becoming in -1879 McKim, Mead & White, when Stanford White (1853-1906) became a -partner. McKim was one of the founders of the American Academy in Rome; -received a gold medal at the Paris exposition of 1900; in 1903, for his -services in the promotion of architecture, received the King's Medal of -the Royal Institute of British Architects; and in 1907 became a National -Academician. He died at St James, Long Island, N.Y., on the 14th of -September 1909. McKim's name is especially associated with the -University Club in New York, with the Columbia University buildings, -with the additions to the White House (1906), and, more particularly, -with the Boston Public Library, for which the library of Ste Genevieve -in Paris furnished the suggestion. - - - - -MACKINAC ISLAND, a small island in the N.W. extremity of Lake Huron and -a part of Mackinac county, Michigan, and a city and summer resort of the -same name on the island. The city is on the S.E. shore, at the entrance -of the Straits of Mackinac, about 7 m. N.E. of Mackinaw City and 6 m. -E.S.E. of St Ignace. Pop. (1900), 665; (1904), 736; (1910), 714. During -the summer season, when thousands of people come here to enjoy the cool -and pure air and the island's beautiful scenery, the city is served by -the principal steamboat lines on the Great Lakes and by ferry to -Mackinaw city (pop. in 1904, 696), which is served by the Michigan -Central, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Duluth, South Shore & -Atlantic railways. The island is about 3 m. long by 2 m. wide. From the -remarkably clear water of Lake Huron its shores rise for the most part -in tall white limestone cliffs; inland there are strangely shaped rocks -and forests of cedar, pine, fir, spruce, juniper, maple, oak, birch, and -beech. Throughout the island there are numerous glens, ravines, and -caverns, some of which are rich in associations with Indian legends. The -city is an antiquated fishing and trading village with modern hotels, -club-houses, and summer villas. Fort Mackinac and its grounds are -included in a state reservation which embraces about one-half of the -island. - -The original name of the island was Michilimackinac ("place of the big -lame person" or "place of the big wounded person"); the name was -apparently derived from an Algonquian tribe, the Mishinimaki or -Mishinimakinagog, now extinct. The island was long occupied by -Chippewas, the Hurons had a village here for a short time after their -expulsion from the East by the Iroquois, and subsequently there was an -Ottawa village here. The first white settlement or station was -established by the French in 1670 (abandoned in 1701) at Point Saint -Ignace on the north side of the strait. In 1761 a fort on the south side -(built in 1712) was surrendered to the British. By the treaty of Paris -(1783) the right of the United States to this district was acknowledged; -but the fort was held by the British until 1796. In July 1812 a British -force surprised the garrison, which had not yet learned that war had -been declared. In August 1814 an American force under Colonel George -Croghan (1791-1849) attempted to recapture the island but was repulsed -with considerable loss. By the treaty of Ghent, however, the island was -restored, in July 1815, to the United States; Fort Mackinac was -maintained by the Federal government until 1895, when it was ceded to -the state. From 1820 to 1840 the village was one of the principal -stations of the American Fur Company. A Congregational mission was -established among the Chippewas on the island in 1827, but was -discontinued before 1845. The city of Mackinac Island was chartered in -1899. - - See W. C. Richards, "The Fairy Isle of Mackinac," in the _Magazine of - American History_ (July 1891); and R. G. Thwaites, "The Story of - Mackinac," in vol. 14 of the _Collections_ of the State Historical - Society of Wisconsin (Madison, 1898). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 43254.txt or 43254.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/2/5/43254/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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