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diff --git a/43254-h/43254-h.htm b/43254-h/43254-h.htm index 7d8ff13..5c19bd3 100644 --- a/43254-h/43254-h.htm +++ b/43254-h/43254-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVII Slice II - Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island. @@ -145,46 +145,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 2, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2 - "Luray Cavern" to "Mackinac Island" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 20, 2013 [EBook #43254] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43254 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -241,17 +202,17 @@ Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LUTSK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">MACCABEES, BOOKS OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LUTTERWORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">MacCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LUTTRELL, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">M‘CARTHY, JUSTIN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LTTRINGHAUSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LTZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">LTZOW, ADOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">LUXEMBURG, FRANOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-BOUTEVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LÜTTRINGHAUSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LÜTZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">LÜTZOW, ADOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">LUXEMBURG, FRANÇOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-BOUTEVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LUXEMBURG</a> (district)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">MACCLESFIELD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">LUXEMBURG</a> (town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">M‘CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">McCLINTOCK, JOHN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LUXOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">McCLOSKEY, JOHN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">LUXORIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">M‘CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LUYNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">MacCOLL, MALCOLM</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LUZN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">McCOMBIE, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LUZÁN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">McCOMBIE, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">McCOOK, ALEXANDER McDOWELL</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">LUZZATTI, LUIGI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">MacCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">LUZZATTO, MOSES ḤAYIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL</a></td></tr> @@ -269,7 +230,7 @@ Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LYCOPHRON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">MACDONALD, FLORA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">LYCOPODIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">MACDONALD, GEORGE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LYCOSURA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LYCURGUS</a> (founder of the Spartan constitution)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">MACDONALD, JACQUES TIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LYCURGUS</a> (founder of the Spartan constitution)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">MACDONALD, JACQUES ÉTIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LYCURGUS</a> (Attic orator)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LYCURGUS</a> (Greek leader)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LYDD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">MACDONALD, LAWRENCE</a></td></tr> @@ -282,11 +243,11 @@ Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">LYELL, SIR CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">MACDUFF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">LYLY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">McDUFFIE, GEORGE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">LYME REGIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">MACE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LYMINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">MACEDO, JOS AGOSTINHO DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LYMINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">MACEDO, JOSÉ AGOSTINHO DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">MACEDONIA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">LYMPHATIC SYSTEM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">MACEDONIAN EMPIRE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LYNCH, PATRICIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">MACEDONIUS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LYNCHBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">MACEI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LYNCHBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">MACEIÓ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">LYNCH LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">McENTEE, JERVIS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">MACER, AEMILIUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">MACERATA</a></td></tr> @@ -301,11 +262,11 @@ Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">MACHALE, JOHN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">LYONS</a> (city of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">MACHAULT D’ARNOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">LYONS, COUNCILS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">LYRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">MACHIAVELLI, NICCOL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">LYRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">LYRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">MACHICOLATION</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">LYRE-BIRD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">MACHINE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">LYRICAL POETRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">MACHINE-GUN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LYSANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">MACAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LYSANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">MACÍAS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">LYSANIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">MACINTOSH, CHARLES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">LYSIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">MACKAY, CHARLES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">LYSIMACHUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">MACKAY, HUGH</a></td></tr> @@ -332,7 +293,7 @@ Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island</h3> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span></p> <p><span class="bold">LURAY CAVERN,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a large cave in Page county, Virginia, -U.S.A., 39 35′ N. and 78 17′ W., near the village of Luray, +U.S.A., 39° 35′ N. and 78° 17′ W., near the village of Luray, on the Norfork & Western railway. The valley, here 10 m. wide, extends from the Blue Ridge to the Massanutton Mountain. The ridges lie in vast folds and wrinkles; and elevations in the @@ -503,7 +464,7 @@ in one of the chasms, estimated, from the present rate of stalagmitic growth, to have lain where found for not more than five hundred years.</p> -<p>The temperature is uniformly 54 Fahr., coinciding with that +<p>The temperature is uniformly 54° Fahr., coinciding with that of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The air is very pure, and the avenues are not uncomfortably damp. The portions open to the public are now lighted by electric lamps. The registered number @@ -655,7 +616,7 @@ formalism, yet the example of his life and character was a lasting inspiration to saintliness.</p> <p>See S. Schecher, <i>Studies in Judaism</i>, second series, pp. 251 seq.; -<i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, viii. 210; E. Worman in <i>Revue des tudes +<i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, viii. 210; E. Worman in <i>Revue des Études Juives</i>, lvii. 281.</p> </div> <div class="author">(I. A.)</div> @@ -739,13 +700,13 @@ of Bohemia, and under this ruler and his immediate successors it was largely colonized by German immigrants. In 1253 it passed to the margrave of Brandenburg, and about the same time it was divided into an eastern and a western part, Baudissin -proper and Grlitz. In 1319 the former was restored to Bohemia, -which also recovered Grlitz in 1329. During the 14th century +proper and Görlitz. In 1319 the former was restored to Bohemia, +which also recovered Görlitz in 1329. During the 14th century the nobles and the townsmen began to take part in the government, and about this time Upper Lusatia was known as the -district of the six towns (<i>Sechsstdtelandes</i>), these being Bautzen, -Grlitz, Zittau, Lbau, Lauban and Kamenz. From 1377 to -1396 Grlitz was a separate duchy ruled by John, a son of the +district of the six towns (<i>Sechsstädtelandes</i>), these being Bautzen, +Görlitz, Zittau, Löbau, Lauban and Kamenz. From 1377 to +1396 Görlitz was a separate duchy ruled by John, a son of the emperor Charles IV., and, like Lower Lusatia, Upper Lusatia owned the authority of Matthias Corvinus from 1469 to 1490, both districts passing a little later with the kingdoms of Hungary @@ -777,7 +738,7 @@ were 405,173 inhabitants, including 28,234 Wends, in Saxon Upper Lusatia. Laws relating to this district, after passing through the Saxon parliament must be submitted to the Lusatian diet at Bautzen. The chief towns of Upper Lusatia are Bautzen, -Zittau, Lbau, Kamenz, Grlitz, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda and +Zittau, Löbau, Kamenz, Görlitz, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda and Lauban; in Lower Lusatia they are Guben, Kottbus, Forst, Lubben and Spremberg. The principal rivers are the Spree with its tributaries, the Black Elster and the Neisse. Upper Lusatia @@ -789,12 +750,12 @@ making and coal mining.</p> <p>For the history of Lusatia see the collections, <i>Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum antiqui et recentiores</i>, edited by C. G. Hoffmann (4 vols., Leipzig and Bautzen, 1719); and <i>Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum</i> (4 -vols., Grlitz, 1839-1870). See also W. Lippert, <i>Wettiner und +vols., Görlitz, 1839-1870). See also W. Lippert, <i>Wettiner und Wittelsbacher sowie die Niederlausitz im 14 Jahrhundert</i> (Dresden, 1894); T. Scheltz, <i>Gesamtgeschichte der Ober- und Niederlausitz</i>, -Band i. (Halle, 1847), Band ii. (Grlitz, 1882); J. G. Worbs, <i>Urkundenbuch -zur Geschichte des Markgraftums Niederlausitz</i> (Lbben -1897); and J. A. E. Kohler, <i>Die Geschichte der Oberlausitz</i> (Grlitz, +Band i. (Halle, 1847), Band ii. (Görlitz, 1882); J. G. Worbs, <i>Urkundenbuch +zur Geschichte des Markgraftums Niederlausitz</i> (Lübben +1897); and J. A. E. Kohler, <i>Die Geschichte der Oberlausitz</i> (Görlitz, 1867).</p> </div> @@ -871,7 +832,7 @@ in buying from the Templars the island of Cyprus, and there he reigned for the last two years of his life (1192-1194). He is judged harshly by contemporary writers, as <i>simplex</i> and <i>insufficiens</i>; but Dodu (in his <i>Histoire des institutions du royaume -de Jrusalem</i>) suggests that Guy was depreciated because the +de Jérusalem</i>) suggests that Guy was depreciated because the kingdom had been lost in his reign, in much the same way as Godfrey of Bouillon was exalted because Jerusalem had just been won at his accession. Guy was a brave if not a particularly @@ -904,7 +865,7 @@ set on foot an alliance with the pope, Venice and the Hospitallers, which resulted in the capture of Smyrna (1344). The last is Peter I., Hugh’s second son and successor, who reigned from 1359 to 1369, when he was assassinated as the result of a -conspiracy of the barons. Peter and his chancellor de Mezires +conspiracy of the barons. Peter and his chancellor de Mezières represent the last flicker of the crusading spirit (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>).</p> <p>Before the extinction of the line in 1475, it had succeeded in @@ -924,7 +885,7 @@ as guardian for its daughter, and then, in 1489, obtained from her the cession of the island.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, <i>Histoire de l’le de Chypre sous les +<p>See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, <i>Histoire de l’île de Chypre sous les princes de la maison de Lusignan</i> (Paris, 1852-1853); W. Stubbs, <i>Lectures on Medieval and Modern History</i> (3rd ed., Oxford, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -933,7 +894,7 @@ princes de la maison de Lusignan</i> (Paris, 1852-1853); W. Stubbs, <p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A branch of the line continued in Poitou during the 13th century, and ruled in LaMarche till 1303. Hugh de la Marche, whose betrothed -wife, Isabella of Angoulme, King John of England seized (thus +wife, Isabella of Angoulême, King John of England seized (thus bringing upon himself the loss of the greater part of his French possessions), was a nephew of Guy of Lusignan. He ultimately married Isabella, after the death of John, and had by her a number @@ -986,7 +947,7 @@ expiated. The methods of purification consist in ceremonies performed with water, fire, air or earth, or with a branch of a sacred tree, especially of the laurel, and also in sacrifice and other ceremonial. Before entering a temple the worshipper -dipped his hand in the vase of holy water (<span class="grk" title="perirrhantrion">περιῤῥανήριον</span>, <i>aqua +dipped his hand in the vase of holy water (<span class="grk" title="perirrhantêrion">περιῤῥανήριον</span>, <i>aqua lustralis</i>) which stood at the door; before a sacrifice bathing was common; salt-water was more efficacious than fresh, and the celebrants of the Eleusinian mysteries bathed in the sea @@ -1025,14 +986,14 @@ which took place after the regular quinquennial census (<i>lustrum</i>) of the Roman people.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See C. F. Hermann, <i>Griechische Altertmer</i>, ii.; G. F. Schmann, -<i>ib.</i> ii.; P. Stengel, <i>Die griechischen Kultusaltertmer</i> (1898); -Marquardt, <i>Rmische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. p. 200 (1885); P. E. -von Lasaulx, <i>Die Shnopfer der Griechen und Rmer</i> (1841); J. +<p>See C. F. Hermann, <i>Griechische Altertümer</i>, ii.; G. F. Schömann, +<i>ib.</i> ii.; P. Stengel, <i>Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer</i> (1898); +Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. p. 200 (1885); P. E. +von Lasaulx, <i>Die Sühnopfer der Griechen und Römer</i> (1841); J. Donaldson, “On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of the Greeks,” in <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>, xxvii., -1876; and the articles by A. Bouch-Leclercq in Daremberg and -Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquits</i>, and by W. Warde Fowler in +1876; and the articles by A. Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and +Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, and by W. Warde Fowler in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1891).</p> </div> @@ -1262,20 +1223,20 @@ illustratus</i> (Greifswald, 1840).</p> <p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See <i>Hyksos and Israelite Cities</i>, by W. M. Flinders Petrie and J. Garrow Duncan, 1906 (double volume), Brit. Sch. of Arch.</p> -<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> J. de Morgan, <i>Dlgation en Perse</i> (Paris, 1900), vol. i. pl. viii. +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> J. de Morgan, <i>Délégation en Perse</i> (Paris, 1900), vol. i. pl. viii. Nos. 8, 7 and 9.</p> <p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See “The Treasures of the Oxus,” catalogue of the Franks Bequest to the British Museum by Ormonde M. Dalton (London, -1905), pl; xxvi. No. 190; see also J. R. Aspelin, “Les antiquits +1905), pl; xxvi. No. 190; see also J. R. Aspelin, “Les antiquités du nord,” No. 608; also for further references, Kathleen Schlesinger, “Precursors of the Violin Family,” pt. ii. of <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, pp. 407-408, and appendix B, pp. 492-493; and <i>Gazette -archologique</i> (Paris, 1886), vol. xi. pl. x. and p. 70.</p> +archéologique</i> (Paris, 1886), vol. xi. pl. x. and p. 70.</p> <p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> By John Griffiths (London, 1896), vol. ii. pl. 105, cave I. 10, e.</p> -<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Syntagm. Music.</i> pt. ii., “Organographie” (Wolfenbttel, 1618), +<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Syntagm. Music.</i> pt. ii., “Organographie” (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pp. 30 and 58-61.</p> </div> @@ -1298,12 +1259,12 @@ vol. ii. 7th ed., 1901; vol. iii. 7th ed., 1898; vol. iv. 2nd ed., into English. In 1868 he founded and edited the <i>Allgemeine evang.-lutherische Kirchenzeitung</i>, with its supplement the <i>Theologisches Litteraturblatt</i>, and in 1880 became editor of the -<i>Zeitschrift fr kirchl. Wissenschaft und kirchl. Leben.</i></p> +<i>Zeitschrift für kirchl. Wissenschaft und kirchl. Leben.</i></p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His other works include <i>Das Johanneische Evangelium ... erklrt</i> +<p>His other works include <i>Das Johanneische Evangelium ... erklärt</i> (1852-1853; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1875-1876), <i>Offenbarung -Johannis erklrt</i> (1861), <i>Lehre von den letzten Dingen</i> (1861; 3rd ed. +Johannis erklärt</i> (1861), <i>Lehre von den letzten Dingen</i> (1861; 3rd ed. 1885); <i>Kompendium der Dogmatik</i> (1865; 9th ed., 1893), <i>Geschichte der christlichen Ethik</i> (2 vols., 1888-1893), <i>Gnade und Wahrheit</i> (1874), <i>Das Wort des Lebens</i> (1877) and <i>Gnade und Frieden</i> (1880). His @@ -1316,7 +1277,7 @@ vergangenen Tagen</i> (1889; 2nd ed., 1891).</p> <p><span class="bold">LUTHER, MARTIN<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1483-1546), the great German religious reformer, was born at Eisleben on the 10th of November 1483. His father, Hans Luther (Lyder, Luder, Ludher), a peasant from -the township of Mhra in Thuringia, after his marriage with +the township of Möhra in Thuringia, after his marriage with Margarethe Ziegler, had settled in Mansfeld, attracted by the prospects of work in the mines there. The counts of Mansfeld, who, many years before, had started the mining industry, @@ -1585,7 +1546,7 @@ had no great love for Indulgence sellers, and Frederick of Saxony had prohibited Tetzel from entering his territories. But it was easy to reach most parts of Electoral Saxony without actually crossing the frontiers. The Red Cross of the Indulgence seller -had been set up at Zerbst and at Jterbogk, and people had gone +had been set up at Zerbst and at Jüterbogk, and people had gone from Wittenberg to buy the <i>Papal Tickets</i>. Luther believed that the sales were injurious to the morals of the townsmen; he had heard reports of Tetzel’s sermons; he had become wrathful @@ -2075,7 +2036,7 @@ way of war and the path of peace—the latter is the only sure road in the long run. He did his best therefore to prevent the rising and risked his life among the infuriated peasants as readily as when he stood before the emperor and the diet. -When the rebellion was at its height and Thomas Mnzer had +When the rebellion was at its height and Thomas Münzer had sent forth fiery proclamations urging the peasantry “not to let the blood cool on their swords,” Luther issued the pamphlet, which casts a stain on his whole life, in which he hounds on the @@ -2125,8 +2086,8 @@ Magdelena von Bora, Catherine’s aunt, two orphan nieces and a grandniece. At the beginning of his married life Luther must have been in straitened circumstances. He married a portionless nun. On to 1532 his salary was two hundred gulden annually -(about 160 in present money); after 1532 the stipend was -increased to 240 with various payments in kind—corn, wood, +(about £160 in present money); after 1532 the stipend was +increased to £240 with various payments in kind—corn, wood, malt, wine, &c.—which meant a great deal more. The town added occasional gifts to enable Luther to entertain the great personages who came to consult him frequently. Princes made @@ -2274,7 +2235,7 @@ to regain its hold over Germany; and he was the confidential adviser of a large number of the evangelical princes. Luther’s intimacy with his own elector, first John, then John Frederick, helped to give him the place accorded to him by the princes. -The chiefs of the Houses of Anhalt and Lneburg, Duke Henry +The chiefs of the Houses of Anhalt and Lüneburg, Duke Henry of Saxony, Joachim II. of Brandenburg, Albert of Brandenburg and the counts of Mansfeld, were among Luther’s most devoted supporters and most frequently sought his advice. Princely @@ -2363,16 +2324,16 @@ had nailed the <i>theses</i> which had kindled the great conflagration.</p> <i>Corpus Reformatorum</i>, vi.; Mathesius, <i>Historien von ... Martini Lutheri, Anfang, Lehre, Leben und Sterben</i> (Prague, 1896); Myconius, <i>Historia Reformationis 1517-1542</i> (Leipzig, 1718); Ratzeberger, -<i>Geschichte ber Luther und seine Zeit</i> (Jena, 1850); Wrampelmeyer, -<i>Tagebuch ber Dr Martin Luther gefhrt von Dr Conrad Cordatus, -1537</i> (Halle, 1885); Frstemann, <i>Neues Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte +<i>Geschichte über Luther und seine Zeit</i> (Jena, 1850); Wrampelmeyer, +<i>Tagebuch über Dr Martin Luther geführt von Dr Conrad Cordatus, +1537</i> (Halle, 1885); Förstemann, <i>Neues Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der evangelischen Kirchenreformation</i> (Hamburg, 1842); Kolde, -<i>Analecta Lutherana</i> (Gotha, 1883); G. Lsche, <i>Analecta Lutherana -et Melanchthoniana</i> (Gotha, 1892); G. Lsche, <i>Vollstndige Reformations-Acta +<i>Analecta Lutherana</i> (Gotha, 1883); G. Lösche, <i>Analecta Lutherana +et Melanchthoniana</i> (Gotha, 1892); G. Lösche, <i>Vollständige Reformations-Acta und Documenta</i> (Leipzig, 1720-1729); Enders, <i>Dr Martin Luther’s Briefwechsel</i> (5 vols., Frankfurt, 1884-1893); J. Cochlaeus (Rom. Cath.), <i>Commentarius de actis et scriptis M. -Lutheri, &c</i>. (St Victor prope Moguntium). See also J. Kstlin, +Lutheri, &c</i>. (St Victor prope Moguntium). See also J. Köstlin, <i>Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1889); Th. Kolde, <i>Martin Luther, Eine Biographie</i> (2 vols., Gotha, 1884-1893); A. Hausrath, <i>Luther’s Leben</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1904); Lindsay, @@ -2381,7 +2342,7 @@ Modern History</i>, ii. (Cambridge, 1903); <i>History of the Reformation</i>, i. (Edinburgh, 1906).</p> <p>(<i>b</i>) For special incidents: The <i>Theses</i> and their publication: -W. Khler, <i>Luthers 95 Theses sammt seinen Resolutionen, den Gegenschriften +W. Köhler, <i>Luthers 95 Theses sammt seinen Resolutionen, den Gegenschriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, Eck <span class="correction" title="amended from and">und</span> Prierias, und den Antworten Luthers darauf</i> (Leipzig, 1903); Emil Reich, <i>Select Documents illustrating Medieval and Modern History</i> (London, 1905); The @@ -2389,7 +2350,7 @@ Leipzig Disputation: Seidemann, <i>Die Leipziger Disputation im Jahre 1519</i> (Dresden, 1843); Luther before the Diet of Worms: <i>Deutsche Reichstagsakten unter Kaiser Karl V</i>. (Gotha, 1893-1901), ii.; The Marburg Colloquy; Schirrmacher, <i>Briefe und Acten zu der -Geschichte des Religionsgesprches zu Marburg, 1529, und des Reichstages +Geschichte des Religionsgespräches zu Marburg, 1529, und des Reichstages zu Augsburg 1530</i> (Gotha, 1876); Hospinian, <i>Historia Sacramentaria</i>, ii. 123b-126b; Ehrard, <i>Das Dogma vom heiligen Abendmahl und seine Geschichte</i>, ii. (Frankfurt a M., 1846); The Augsburg @@ -2401,7 +2362,7 @@ Confession: Schaff, <i>The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches</i> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Enders, <i>Dr Martin Luther’s Briefwechsel</i>, iii. 292-295; von -Bezold, <i>Zeitschrift fr Kirchengeschichte</i> xx. 186 sqq.; Barge, <i>Andreas +Bezold, <i>Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i> xx. 186 sqq.; Barge, <i>Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt</i>, i. 432 sqq.</p> </div> @@ -2530,7 +2491,7 @@ This alarmed both parties. New conferences were held and various articles of agreement were proposed, the most notable being the <i>Torgau Book</i> (1576). In the end, the greater proportion adopted the <i>Book of Concord</i> (1577), drafted chiefly by Jacob -Andreae of Tbingen, Martin Chemnitz of Brunswick and +Andreae of Tübingen, Martin Chemnitz of Brunswick and Nicolas Selnecker of Leipzig. Its recognition was mainly due to the efforts of Augustus, elector of Saxony. This <i>Book of Concord</i> was accepted by the Lutheran churches of Sweden and @@ -2724,7 +2685,7 @@ government.</p> and 39% of the population. The proportions are continually varying, owing to the new migratory habits of almost every class of the population. Generally speaking, the Roman Catholics -are on the increase in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Wrttemburg; +are on the increase in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Württemburg; and the Evangelicals in the other districts of Germany, especially in the large cities. There is a growing tendency to mixed marriages, which are an important factor in religious @@ -2735,16 +2696,16 @@ changes.</p> sechzehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (Weimar, 1846); Sehling, <i>Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Leipzig, 1902, &c.); Richter, <i>Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts</i> -(8th ed., Leipzig, 1886); Hundeshagen, <i>Beitrge zur Kirchenverfassungsgeschichte +(8th ed., Leipzig, 1886); Hundeshagen, <i>Beiträge zur Kirchenverfassungsgeschichte und Kirchenpolitik inbesondere des Protestantismus</i>, -i. (Wiesbaden, 1864), or in <i>Ausgewhlte kl. Schriften</i>, ii. (Gotha, -1875); Hfling, <i>Grundstze der evangelischen-Lutherischen Kirchenverfassung</i> +i. (Wiesbaden, 1864), or in <i>Ausgewählte kl. Schriften</i>, ii. (Gotha, +1875); Höfling, <i>Grundsätze der evangelischen-Lutherischen Kirchenverfassung</i> (Erlangen, 1850, 3rd ed., 1853); Drews, <i>Das kirchl. -Leben d. deutschen evangelischen Landeskirchen</i> (Tbingen, 1902); -Erich Frster, <i>Die Enstehung der preussischen Landeskirchen unter -der Regierung Knig Friedrich Wilhelms III.</i>, i. (Tbingen, 1905); +Leben d. deutschen evangelischen Landeskirchen</i> (Tübingen, 1902); +Erich Förster, <i>Die Enstehung der preussischen Landeskirchen unter +der Regierung König Friedrich Wilhelms III.</i>, i. (Tübingen, 1905); Emil Sehling, <i>Geschichte der protestantischen Kirchenverfassung</i> -(Leipzig, 1907); articles in Herzog’s <i>Realencyklopdie fr protest. +(Leipzig, 1907); articles in Herzog’s <i>Realencyklopädie für protest. Theologie</i> (3rd ed.), on Kirchenregiment, Kirchenrecht, Kirchenordnung, Konsistorien, Episcopalsystem, Gemeinde, Kollegialsystem, Territorialsystem; Schaff, <i>History of the Creeds of Christendom</i> @@ -2868,14 +2829,14 @@ in London on the 19th of December 1851.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LTTRINGHAUSEN,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian +<p><span class="bold">LÜTTRINGHAUSEN,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 6 m. S.E. of Elberfeld by rail. Pop. (1905) 11,829. It is the seat of various iron and other metal industries, and has cloth and calico mills.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LTZEN,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a town in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of Merseburg +<p><span class="bold">LÜTZEN,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a town in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of Merseburg (pop. in 1905, 3981), chiefly famous as the scene of a great battle fought on the 6/16th of November 1632 between the Swedes, under King Gustavus Adolphus, and the Imperialists, under @@ -2883,12 +2844,12 @@ Wallenstein. On the 5/15th November, Gustavus, with some 20,000 men, advanced from Naumburg on the Saale to meet a contingent of his German allies at Grimma, S.E. of Leipzig, but becoming aware of the presence of Wallenstein’s army near -Ltzen, and that it had been weakened by a large detachment +Lützen, and that it had been weakened by a large detachment sent away under Pappenheim towards Halle, he turned towards -Ltzen. Wallenstein’s posts at Weissenfels and Rippach prevented +Lützen. Wallenstein’s posts at Weissenfels and Rippach prevented him from fighting his main battle the same evening, and the Swedes went into camp near Rippach, a little more than an -hour’s march from Ltzen.</p> +hour’s march from Lützen.</p> <p>Wallenstein made ready to give battle on the following day and recalled Pappenheim. The latter had taken a small castle, @@ -2898,18 +2859,18 @@ before the following morning. Gustavus had now to choose between proceeding to Grimma and fighting Wallenstein on the chance that Pappenheim had not rejoined. He chose the latter. In the mist of the early morning Wallenstein’s army was formed -in line of battle along the Leipzig road with its right on Ltzen. +in line of battle along the Leipzig road with its right on Lützen. Its left was not carried out as far as the Flossgraben in order to leave room on that flank for Pappenheim. His infantry was arranged in five huge oblongs, four of which (in lozenge -formation) formed the centre and one the right wing at Ltzen. +formation) formed the centre and one the right wing at Lützen. These “battalias” had their angles strengthened in the old-fashioned way that had prevailed since Marignan, with small outstanding bodies of musketeers, so that they resembled rectangular forts with bastions. On either side of this centre was the cavalry in two long lines, while in front of the centre -and close to the right at Ltzen were the two batteries of heavy -artillery. Ltzen was set on fire as a precaution. Skirmishers +and close to the right at Lützen were the two batteries of heavy +artillery. Lützen was set on fire as a precaution. Skirmishers lined the bank and the ditch of the Leipzig road. The total strength of the Imperial army was about 12,000 foot and 8000 horse.</p> @@ -2921,7 +2882,7 @@ fog, which delayed the approach and deployment of the Swedes. It was 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> before all was ready. The royal army was in two lines. The infantry in the centre was arrayed in the small and handy battalions then peculiar to Gustavus’s army, the horse -on either wing extended from opposite Ltzen to some distance +on either wing extended from opposite Lützen to some distance beyond Wallenstein’s left, which Pappenheim was to extend on his arrival. By the accident of the terrain, or perhaps, following the experience of Breitenfeld (<i>q.v.</i>), by design, the @@ -2960,7 +2921,7 @@ extreme right, and he was killed here in leading a counter charge.</p> <p>On the extreme left, meanwhile, the “Green” brigade had come to close quarters with Wallenstein’s infantry and guns -about Ltzen, and the heavy artillery had gone forward to +about Lützen, and the heavy artillery had gone forward to close range between the “Green” and the “Yellow” infantry. But the news of Gustavus’s death spread and the fire of the assault died out. Wallenstein advanced in his turn, recaptured @@ -2998,9 +2959,9 @@ by Oskar Ekman. a citizen of Gothenburg (d. 1907), was dedicated on the 6th of November 1907.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Ltzen is famous also as the scene of a victory of Napoleon over +<p>Lützen is famous also as the scene of a victory of Napoleon over the Russians and Prussians on the 2nd of May 1813 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic -Campaigns</a></span>). This battle is often called Gross Grschen.</p> +Campaigns</a></span>). This battle is often called Gross Görschen.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The foregoing account of Gustavus’s last victory is founded chiefly upon Lieut.-Colonel Hon. E. Noel’s <i>Gustaf Adolf</i> @@ -3019,9 +2980,9 @@ elements in the army.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LTZOW, ADOLF,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1782-1834), Prussian +<p><span class="bold">LÜTZOW, ADOLF,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1782-1834), Prussian lieutenant-general, entered the army in 1795, and eleven years -later as a lieutenant took part in the disastrous battle of Auerstdt. +later as a lieutenant took part in the disastrous battle of Auerstädt. He achieved distinction in the siege of Colberg, as the leader of a squadron of Schill’s volunteers. In 1808, as a major, he retired from the Prussian army, indignant at the humiliating @@ -3034,19 +2995,19 @@ to organize a “free corps” consisting of infantry, cavalry and Tirolese marksmen, for operating in the French rear and rallying the smaller governments into the ranks of the allies. This corps played a marked part in the campaign of 1813. But -Ltzow was unable to coerce the minor states, and the wanderings +Lützow was unable to coerce the minor states, and the wanderings of the corps had little military influence. At Kitzen (near Leipzig) the whole corps, warned too late of the armistice of Poischwitz, was caught on the French side of the line of demarcation -and, as a fighting force, annihilated. Ltzow himself, +and, as a fighting force, annihilated. Lützow himself, wounded, cut his way out with the survivors, and immediately began reorganizing and recruiting. In the second part of the campaign the corps served in more regular warfare under -Wallmoden. Ltzow and his men distinguished themselves -at Gadebusch (where Krner fell) and Ghrde (where Ltzow +Wallmoden. Lützow and his men distinguished themselves +at Gadebusch (where Körner fell) and Göhrde (where Lützow himself, for the second time, received a severe wound at the head of the cavalry). Sent next against Denmark, and later -employed at the siege of Jlich, Ltzow in 1814 fell into the hands +employed at the siege of Jülich, Lützow in 1814 fell into the hands of the French. After the peace of 1814 the corps was dissolved, the infantry becoming the 25th Regiment, the cavalry the 6th Ulans. At Ligny he led the 6th Ulans to the charge, but they @@ -3055,42 +3016,42 @@ the hands of the enemy, escaping, however, on the day of Waterloo. Made colonel in this year, his subsequent promotions were: major-general 1822, and lieutenant-general (on retirement) 1830. He died in 1834. One of the last acts of his -life for which Ltzow is remembered is his challenge (which was -ignored) to Blcher, who had been ridden down in the rout of +life for which Lützow is remembered is his challenge (which was +ignored) to Blücher, who had been ridden down in the rout of the 6th Ulans at Ligny, and had made, in his official report, comments thereon, which their colonel considered disparaging.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Koberstein in <i>Preussisches Jahrbuch</i>, vol. xxiii (Berlin, 1868), -and <i>Preussisches Bilderbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1889); K. von Ltzow, <i>Adolf -Ltzows Freikorps</i> (Berlin, 1884); Fr. von Jagwitz, <i>Geschichte des -Ltzowschen Freikorps</i> (Berlin, 1892); and the histories of the +and <i>Preussisches Bilderbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1889); K. von Lützow, <i>Adolf +Lützows Freikorps</i> (Berlin, 1884); Fr. von Jagwitz, <i>Geschichte des +Lützowschen Freikorps</i> (Berlin, 1892); and the histories of the campaigns of 1813 and 1815.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LUXEMBURG, FRANOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-BOUTEVILLE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LUXEMBURG, FRANÇOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-BOUTEVILLE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1628-1695), marshal of France, the -comrade and successor of the great Cond, was born at Paris +comrade and successor of the great Condé, was born at Paris on the 8th of January 1628. His father, the comte de Montmorency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his birth for killing the marquis de Beuvron in a duel, but his aunt, -Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Cond, took charge of +Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Condé, took charge of him and educated him with her son, the duc d’Enghien. The young Montmorency (or Bouteville as he was then called) attached himself to his cousin, and shared his successes and reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. He returned -to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Cond, then much -attached to the duchesse de Chtillon, Montmorency’s sister, +to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Condé, then much +attached to the duchesse de Châtillon, Montmorency’s sister, contrived the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest heiress in France, Madeleine de Luxemburg-Piney, princesse de Tingry and heiress of the Luxemburg dukedom (1661), after which he was created duc de Luxembourg and peer of France. At the opening of the War of Devolution (1667-68), -Cond, and consequently Luxemburg, had no command, but -during the second campaign he served as Cond’s lieutenant-general -in the conquest of Franche Comt. During the four +Condé, and consequently Luxemburg, had no command, but +during the second campaign he served as Condé’s lieutenant-general +in the conquest of Franche Comté. During the four years of peace which followed Luxemburg cultivated the favour of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high command against the Dutch. He defeated the prince of Orange at Woerden and ravaged @@ -3121,11 +3082,11 @@ of England at Leuze on September 18, 1691. Again in the next campaign he covered the king’s siege of Namur, and defeated William at Steenkirk (<i>q.v.</i>) on June 5, 1692; and on July 29, 1693, he won his greatest victory over his old adversary -at Neerwinden, after which he was called <i>le tapissier de Ntre +at Neerwinden, after which he was called <i>le tapissier de Nôtre Dame</i> from the number of captured colours that he sent to the cathedral. He was received with enthusiasm at Paris by all but the king, who looked coldly on a relative and adherent of -the Conds. St Simon describes in the first volume of his +the Condés. St Simon describes in the first volume of his <i>Memoirs</i> how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife to be duc de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place @@ -3139,31 +3100,31 @@ In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit priest Bourdaloue, who said on his death, “I have not lived his life, but I would wish to die his death.” Luxemburg’s morals were bad even in those times, and he had shown little sign of -religious conviction. But as a general he was Cond’s grandest -pupil. Though slothful like Cond in the management of a +religious conviction. But as a general he was Condé’s grandest +pupil. Though slothful like Condé in the management of a campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with happy inspirations, against which no ardour of William’s and no steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death and Catinat’s disgrace close the second period of the military history of the reign of Louis XIV., and Catinat and Luxemburg, -though inferior to Cond and Turenne, were far superior to +though inferior to Condé and Turenne, were far superior to Tallard and Villeroi. He was distinguished for a pungent wit. One of his retorts referred to his deformity. “I never can beat that cursed humpback,” William was reputed to have said of him. “How does he know I have a hump?” retorted Luxemburg, “he has never seen my back.” He left four sons, -the youngest of whom was a marshal of France as Marchal +the youngest of whom was a marshal of France as Maréchal de Montmorency.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See, besides the various memoirs and histories of the time, Beaurain’s <i>Histoire militaire du duc de Luxembourg</i> (Hague and Paris, -1756); <i>Mmoires pour servir a l’histoire du marchal duc de Luxembourg</i> -(Hague and Paris, 1758); Courcelles, <i>Dictionnaire des gnraux -franais</i> (Paris, 1823), vol. viii. There are some interesting facts in +1756); <i>Mémoires pour servir a l’histoire du maréchal duc de Luxembourg</i> +(Hague and Paris, 1758); Courcelles, <i>Dictionnaire des généraux +français</i> (Paris, 1823), vol. viii. There are some interesting facts in Desormeaux’s <i>Histoire de la maison de Montmorency</i> (1764), vols. iv. and v. Camille Rousset’s <i>Louvois</i> and the recent biography of -Luxemburg by Count de Sgur (1907) should also be studied.</p> +Luxemburg by Count de Ségur (1907) should also be studied.</p> </div> @@ -3242,7 +3203,7 @@ and the northern districts are crossed in all directions by outrunners from the Ardennes. The streams mostly join the Moselle, which forms the boundary between Luxemburg and the Rhine province for about 20 m. The Sure or Sauer, the most important -stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosires in Belgian +stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosières in Belgian Luxemburg, crosses the duchy, and forms the eastern boundary from the confluence of the Our till it joins the Moselle after a course of 50 m., during which it receives the Wiltz, Attert, @@ -3287,7 +3248,7 @@ the province is forested and the state requires systematic replanting. Marble, granite and slate quarries are worked in different districts. Successful attempts have been made to introduce fruit cultivation. The province is well watered by -the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sre. The general elevation of +the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sûre. The general elevation of the country is about 500 ft., but the hills and plateaus which form the prominent feature in the scenery of Luxemburg range from 1200 to 1500 ft. The highest point of the province is the @@ -3301,7 +3262,7 @@ pheasants, woodcock and snipe. The area of the province is (d. 1086), and its fortunes were advanced through the election of Count Henry IV. as German king in 1308 and his coronation as emperor under the title of Henry VII. Henry’s son was John, king -of Bohemia, who fell on the field of Crcy, and John’s eldest son +of Bohemia, who fell on the field of Crécy, and John’s eldest son was the emperor Charles IV., while another famous member of the family was Baldwin, archbishop of Treves (1285-1354), who took an active part in imperial affairs. Two of the sons of Charles IV., @@ -3330,12 +3291,12 @@ King Louis XI. accused him of treachery, and he took refuge with Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but the duke handed him over to the king and he was beheaded in 1475. The elder branch of his descendants became extinct in the male line in 1482, and was -merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon-Vendme. +merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon-Vendôme. Louis’s third son, Anthony (d. 1510), founded the family of Luxemburg-Brienne, the senior branch of which became extinct in 1608. A junior branch, however, was the family of the duke of Luxemburg-Piney, whose last representative, Margaret-Charlotte (d. 1680), -married firstly Lon d’Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly +married firstly Léon d’Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly Charles Henry de Clermont-Tonnerre (d. 1674). Her daughter by her second husband, Madeleine Charlotte, married Francis Henry de Montmorenci (d. 1695) and de Luynes, and, subsequently, @@ -3343,8 +3304,8 @@ members of the family of Montmorenci claimed the title of duke of Luxemburg. The Luxembourg palace in Paris owes its name to the fact that it was built on a site belonging to the duke of Luxemburg-Piney.</p> -<p>See N. van Werveke, <i>Beitrge zur Geschichte des Luxemburger -Landes</i> (Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J. Schtter, <i>Geschichte des Luxemburger +<p>See N. van Werveke, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Luxemburger +Landes</i> (Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J. Schötter, <i>Geschichte des Luxemburger Landes</i> (Luxemburg, 1882); and N. Vigner, <i>Histoire de la maison de Luxembourg</i> (Paris, 1619).</p> </div> @@ -3361,9 +3322,9 @@ daughter or nearest heiress of the last male.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LUXEMBURG,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ltzelburg</span> (<i>i.e.</i> the little fortress or +<p><span class="bold">LUXEMBURG,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Lützelburg</span> (<i>i.e.</i> the little fortress or town), the capital of the grand-duchy of the same name (see -above), situated on the Alzette, a tributary of the Sre. Pop. +above), situated on the Alzette, a tributary of the Sûre. Pop. (1905) 20,984. The situation is romantic, steep cliffs overhanging the winding river, and the principal portion of the town with the palace and public buildings covering a central @@ -3375,12 +3336,12 @@ were cut into the rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal viaducts carry the railway and the approach from the railway station to the town. Since the place ceased to be a fortress the population has more than doubled, and the Alzette is lined -with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Htel de Ville +with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hôtel de Ville dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The church of Notre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael, with parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of -Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, slain at Crcy. There are two -annual fte days, one in honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg, +Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, slain at Crécy. There are two +annual fête days, one in honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg, patroness of the city, held on the Sunday before Ascension Day, and the other the annual fair or <i>Schobermesse</i> (tent fair), instituted in 1340 and held each year on the 24th of August.</p> @@ -3388,7 +3349,7 @@ instituted in 1340 and held each year on the 24th of August.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the -department of Haute-Sane, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906) +department of Haute-Saône, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906) 5195. It is situated in a region of forests on the right bank of the Breuchin. It has an abbey-church dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, containing a curious 17th-century organ @@ -3397,17 +3358,17 @@ figure of Hercules. The abbot’s palace (16th and 18th centuries) serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the 15th century and other buildings of the 17th century also remain. There are several mansions and houses dating from various -periods from the 14th to the 16th century. The Maison Carre, +periods from the 14th to the 16th century. The Maison Carrée, once the town hall, an interesting specimen of 15th-century architecture, was built by Perrin Jouffroy, father of Cardinal Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at Luxeuil in 1412, built the house with a graceful balcony and turret which faces the -Maison Carre. The Maison de la Baille and the Maison Franois +Maison Carrée. The Maison de la Baille and the Maison François I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for its mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being ferruginous, and the rest charged with chloride of sodium; -their temperatures range from 70 to 158 F. The water is +their temperatures range from 70° to 158° F. The water is employed for drinking and for baths. The bathing establishment contains a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities and there are also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to be seen in or @@ -3418,7 +3379,7 @@ the distilling of kirsch are carried on.</p> <p>Luxeuil was the Roman <i>Lixovium</i> and contained many fine buildings at the time of its destruction by the Huns under Attila in 451. In 590 St Columban here founded a monastery, -afterwards one of the most famous in Franche Comt. In the +afterwards one of the most famous in Franche Comté. In the 8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens; afterwards rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans in the 9th century and plllaged on several occasions afterwards. @@ -3428,7 +3389,7 @@ the emperor Charles V. and the abbey was suppressed at the Revolution.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See H. Beaumont, <i>tude hist. sur l’abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790</i> +<p>See H. Beaumont, <i>Étude hist. sur l’abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790</i> (Lux. 1895); Grandmongin and A. Garnier, <i>Hist. de la ville et des thermes de Luxeuil</i> (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates.</p> </div> @@ -3458,7 +3419,7 @@ be hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of Amenophis IV. (Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete work was taken in hand by Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.; a long paved road -bordered by recumbent rams led from the faade to the temples +bordered by recumbent rams led from the façade to the temples of Karnak (<i>q.v.</i>) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive court to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of @@ -3479,9 +3440,9 @@ churches within the temple. The greater part of the old village of Luxor lay inside the courts: it was known also as Abu ‘l Haggag from a Moslem saint of the 7th century, whose tomb-mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a high heap of -dbris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the buildings +débris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the buildings and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the expropriation -and clearances by the Service des Antiquits began in +and clearances by the Service des Antiquités began in 1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the ancient avenue.</p> @@ -3508,7 +3469,7 @@ antiquities of the classical period of Rome.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in <i>Journal of Philology</i>, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in -the <i>Anthologia Latina</i>, edited by F. Bcheler and A. Riese (1894).</p> +the <i>Anthologia Latina</i>, edited by F. Bücheler and A. Riese (1894).</p> </div> @@ -3518,14 +3479,14 @@ house. The family of Albert, which sprang from Thomas Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de Boussargues, <i>bailli</i> of Viviers and Valence, and <i>viguier</i> of Bagnols and Pont St Esprit in Languedoc, acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of Indre-et-Loire) in the -16th century. Honor d’Albert (d. 1592), seigneur de Luynes, +16th century. Honoré d’Albert (d. 1592), seigneur de Luynes, was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of Henry IV., and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of artillery in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons: Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of -Louis XIII.; Honor (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who -married Charlotte Eugnie d’Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619, -and was created duke of Chaulnes in 1621; and Lon, seigneur +Louis XIII.; Honoré (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who +married Charlotte Eugénie d’Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619, +and was created duke of Chaulnes in 1621; and Léon, seigneur de Brantes, who became duke of Luxemburg-Piney by his marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of Luxemburg.</p> @@ -3536,7 +3497,7 @@ Charles d’Albert, her son by her first husband; and from that time the title of duke of Chevreuse and duke of Luynes was borne by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes, which also inherited the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of the descendants -of Honor d’Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of Luxemburg-Piney +of Honoré d’Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of Luxemburg-Piney became extinct in 1697.</p> <p>Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up @@ -3554,7 +3515,7 @@ Bastille and lieutenant-general of Normandy, and married Marie de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon. He employed extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he -negotiated the treaty of Angoulme by which Marie de Medici +negotiated the treaty of Angoulême by which Marie de Medici was accorded complete liberty. He was made governor of Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising of nobles in 1620; and in 1621, with slight military ability or achievement, was appointed @@ -3565,7 +3526,7 @@ expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the midst of the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the 15th of December 1621.</p> -<p>His brother Honor (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was +<p>His brother Honoré (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was governor of Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended his province successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste d’Albert d’Ailly (1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became @@ -3581,25 +3542,25 @@ and friend of the Jansenists; Paul d’Albert de Luynes (1703-1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an astronomer; Michel Ferdinand d’Albert d’Ailly (1714-1769), duke of Chaulnes, a writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph -Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honor Thodore Paul +Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honoré Théodore Paul Joseph (1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For the first duke see <i>Recueil des pices les plus curieuses qui ont -est faites pendant le rgne du connestable M. de Luynes</i> (2nd ed., +<p>For the first duke see <i>Recueil des pièces les plus curieuses qui ont +esté faites pendant le règne du connestable M. de Luynes</i> (2nd ed., 1624); Le Vassor, <i>Histoire de Louis XIII.</i> (Paris, 1757); Griffet, -<i>Histoire du rgne de Louis XIII., roi de France et de Navarre</i> (Paris, -1758); V. Cousin, “Le Duc et conntable de Luynes,” in <i>Journal -des savants</i> (1861-1863); B. Zeller, <i>tudes critiques sur le rgne de -Louis XIII.: le conntable de Luynes, Montauban et la Valteline</i> +<i>Histoire du règne de Louis XIII., roi de France et de Navarre</i> (Paris, +1758); V. Cousin, “Le Duc et connétable de Luynes,” in <i>Journal +des savants</i> (1861-1863); B. Zeller, <i>Études critiques sur le règne de +Louis XIII.: le connétable de Luynes, Montauban et la Valteline</i> (Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, <i>La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et Marie de -Mdicis</i> (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, vi.<span class="sp">2</span>, 141-216 +Médicis</i> (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, vi.<span class="sp">2</span>, 141-216 (Paris, 1905).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LUZN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LUZÁN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1702-1754), Spanish critic and poet, was born at Saragossa on the 28th of March 1702. His youth was passed under the care of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he graduated in @@ -3608,22 +3569,22 @@ orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously. Business took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in Madrid as a scholar with a tendency towards innovations in -literature. <i>La Potica, Reglas de la poesa en general y de sus +literature. <i>La Poética, ó Reglas de la poesía en general y de sus principales especies</i> (1737) proved that this impression was correct. He at once took rank as the leader of the literary reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to the Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in -1750, was elected to the “Academia Potica del Buen Gusto,” +1750, was elected to the “Academia Poética del Buen Gusto,” where, on account of his travels, he was known by the sobriquet of <i>El Peregrino</i>. He became master of the mint and treasurer of the royal library. He died at Madrid, after a short illness, on -the 19th of May 1754. Luzn was not the pioneer of Franco-Italian +the 19th of May 1754. Luzán was not the pioneer of Franco-Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most powerful <span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> -exponent, and his <i>Potica</i> is an admirable example of destructive -criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Caldern are indicated -with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzn +exponent, and his <i>Poética</i> is an admirable example of destructive +criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderón are indicated +with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzán is notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one exhausted convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic unities had not the saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and, @@ -3637,7 +3598,7 @@ of the national tradition.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a town of south-western France in -the department of Hautes-Pyrnes, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail. +the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is beautifully situated at a height of 2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a remarkable church, built by the Templars in the 12th and 13th centuries and fortified later. @@ -3647,10 +3608,10 @@ of a fortress; other interesting features are the Romanesque north door and a chapel of the 16th century. The village of St Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of the Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing -Pont Napolon (1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is +Pont Napoléon (1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is visited for its warm sulphurous springs. Discovered in the 16th century, the waters came into vogue after 1820, in which year -they were visited by the duchesses of Angoulme and Berry. +they were visited by the duchesses of Angoulême and Berry. There is much picturesque mountain scenery in the vicinity; 12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is the magnificent rock amphitheatre or <i>cirque</i> of Gavarnie, with its @@ -3695,8 +3656,8 @@ He was again minister of the treasury from November 1903 to March 1905 in Giolitti’s second administration, and for the third time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino’s premiership. During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the -Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3% to be -eventually lowered to 3%, an operation which other ministers +Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3¾% to be +eventually lowered to 3½%, an operation which other ministers had attempted without success; although the actual conversion was not completed until after the fall of the cabinet of which he formed part the merit is entirely his. In 1907 he was @@ -3731,7 +3692,7 @@ Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Grtz, <i>History of the Jews</i>, v. ch. vii.; I. Abrahams, <i>Jewish +<p>See Grätz, <i>History of the Jews</i>, v. ch. vii.; I. Abrahams, <i>Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</i>, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, <i>The Renascence of Hebrew Literature</i>, ch. i.</p> </div> @@ -3751,7 +3712,7 @@ and Zunz (<i>q.v.</i>) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval Hebrew hymnology and secular verse.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Grtz, <i>History of the Jews</i> (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq.; N. +<p>See Grätz, <i>History of the Jews</i> (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq.; N. Slouschz, <i>The Renascence of Hebrew Literature</i>, pp. 84-92; the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, viii. 225-226, with list of works.</p> </div> @@ -3837,7 +3798,7 @@ died within the year.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LYCANTHROPY<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="lykos">λύκος</span>, wolf, <span class="grk" title="anthrpos">ἄνθρωπος</span>, man), a name +<p><span class="bold">LYCANTHROPY<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="lykos">λύκος</span>, wolf, <span class="grk" title="anthrôpos">ἄνθρωπος</span>, man), a name employed (1) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human being to undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology for a form of insanity in which the patient believes that he is @@ -3846,7 +3807,7 @@ transformed into an animal and behaves accordingly.</p> <p>I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to metamorphosis into a wolf (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Werwolf</a></span>), it is in practice used of transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of -kynanthropy (<span class="grk" title="kyn">κύων</span>, dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the +kynanthropy (<span class="grk" title="kyôn">κύων</span>, dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the tiger is the commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan the fox, in Africa the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion, in South America the jaguar; but though there is a tendency @@ -4106,9 +4067,9 @@ en Volkenkunde</i>, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; <i>Med. Zendelingsgenootschap</i xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, <i>Suggestion</i>, p. 418; W. H. Brett, <i>Indians of British Guiana</i>. For the pathological side, see Hack Tuke, <i>Dict. of Psychological Medicine</i>, s.v. “Lycanthropy”; <i>Dict. -des sciences mdicales</i>; Waldmeier, <i>Autobiography</i>, p. 64; A. J. +des sciences médicales</i>; Waldmeier, <i>Autobiography</i>, p. 64; A. J. Hayes, <i>Source of Blue Nile</i>, p. 286 seq.; <i>Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse kgl. -schsische Gesellschaft der Wiss.</i> 17, No. 3.</p> +sächsische Gesellschaft der Wiss.</i> 17, No. 3.</p> </div> <div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> @@ -4131,7 +4092,7 @@ annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but recovered his human form if he abstained from human flesh for ten years. The oldest city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story -has been variously interpreted. According to Weizscker, he +has been variously interpreted. According to Weizsäcker, he was an old Pelasgian or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human sacrifice was offered, bearing a non-Hellenic name similar to <span class="grk" title="Lykos">λύκος</span>, whence the story originated of his metamorphosis into a @@ -4153,7 +4114,7 @@ ceremony an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> which was to prevent the failure of the crops and to avert pestilence (or to protect them and the flocks against the ravages -of wolves). Others (<i>e.g.</i> V. Brard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a +of wolves). Others (<i>e.g.</i> V. Bérard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported into Arcadia by the Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus Phyxios, the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed blood. @@ -4166,19 +4127,19 @@ reminiscence of a superstition similar to the familiar werwolf stories.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See articles by P. Weizscker in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon</i> and by G. -Fougres (<i>s.v.</i> “Lykaia”) in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire -des antiquits</i>; W. Immerwahr, <i>Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens</i>, 1. +<p>See articles by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon</i> and by G. +Fougères (<i>s.v.</i> “Lykaia”) in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>; W. Immerwahr, <i>Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens</i>, 1. (1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, i. (1896), p. 40; A. Lang, <i>Myth, Ritual and Religion</i> (1899); C. Pascal, <i>Studii di -antichit e mitologia</i> (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death +antichità e mitologia</i> (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur alten Geschichte</i>, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, <i>Wald- und Feldkulte</i>, ii. -(1905); G. Fougres, <i>Mantine et l’Arcadie orientale</i> (1898), -p. 202; V. Brard, <i>De l’origine des cultes arcadiens</i> (1894); H. D. -Mller, <i>Mythologie der griechischen Stmme</i>, ii. (1861), p. 78; H. -Usener, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Grres, <i>Berliner -Studien fr classische Philologie</i>, x. 1 (1889), who regards the Lycaea +(1905); G. Fougères, <i>Mantinée et l’Arcadie orientale</i> (1898), +p. 202; V. Bérard, <i>De l’origine des cultes arcadiens</i> (1894); H. D. +Müller, <i>Mythologie der griechischen Stämme</i>, ii. (1861), p. 78; H. +Usener, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Görres, <i>Berliner +Studien für classische Philologie</i>, x. 1 (1889), who regards the Lycaea as a funeral festival connected with the changes of vegetation; Vollgraf, <i>De Ovidii mythopoeia</i>; a concise statement of the various forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, ii. p. 920, @@ -4266,7 +4227,7 @@ eastern part of the eleventh strategia to Cappadocia. The remainder was attached to Cilicia. Its administration and grouping changed often under the Romans. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 371 Lycaonia was first formed into a separate province. It now forms part of the -Konia vilyet.</p> +Konia viláyet.</p> <p>The Lycaonians appear to have retained a distinct nationality in the time of Strabo, but their ethnical affinities are unknown. @@ -4288,12 +4249,12 @@ Oesterr. Archaeolog. Instituts</i>, 194 (Beiblatt) pp. 57-132.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LYCEUM,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> the latinized form of Gr. <span class="grk" title="Lykeion">Λύκειον</span>, the name of a gymnasium and garden with covered walks, near the temple of -Apollo Lyceus (<span class="grk" title="Apolln Aykeios">Ἀπόλλων Λύκειος</span>) at Athens. Aristotle taught +Apollo Lyceus (<span class="grk" title="Apollôn Aykeios">Ἀπόλλων Λύκειος</span>) at Athens. Aristotle taught here, and hence the name was applied to his school of philosophy. The name had been used in many languages for places of instruction, -&c. In France the term <i>lyce</i> is given to the secondary +&c. In France the term <i>lycée</i> is given to the secondary schools which are administered by the state, in contradistinction -to the communal <i>collges</i>.</p> +to the communal <i>collèges</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -4466,8 +4427,8 @@ form of the language. Among the deities mentioned are Trzzube <p>Lycian art was modelled on that of the Greeks. The rock-cut tomb usually represented the house of the living, with an -elaborate faade, but in one or two instances, notably that of -the so-called Harpy-tomb, the faade is surmounted by a tall, +elaborate façade, but in one or two instances, notably that of +the so-called Harpy-tomb, the façade is surmounted by a tall, square tower, in the upper part of which is the sepulchral chamber. Lycian sculpture followed closely the development of Greek sculpture, and many of the sculptures with which the tombs are @@ -4480,14 +4441,14 @@ section “Asia Minor.”</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—C. Fellows, <i>Journal in Asia Minor</i> (1839) and <i>Discoveries in Lycia</i> (1841); T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, <i>Travels -in Lycia</i> (1847); O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, <i>Reisen im sdwestlichen +in Lycia</i> (1847); O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, <i>Reisen im südwestlichen Kleinasien</i> (1884); E. Petersen and F. von Luschan, <i>Reisen in Lykien</i> (1889); O. Treuber, <i>Geschichte der Lykier</i> (1887); G. Perrot -and C. Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquit</i>, v. (1890); P. +and C. Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité</i>, v. (1890); P. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache</i> (1896); S. Bugge, <i>Lykische Studien</i> (from 1897); A. Torp, <i>Lykische -Beitrge</i> (from 1898); V. Thomsen, <i>tudes lyciennes</i> (1899); E. +Beiträge</i> (from 1898); V. Thomsen, <i>Études lyciennes</i> (1899); E. Kalinka and R. Heberdey, <i>Tituli Asiae Minoris</i>, i. (1901); see also articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Xanthus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Myra</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Patara</a></span>.</p> </div> @@ -4496,7 +4457,7 @@ articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Xanthus</a></span>, <span class="s <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LYCK,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Lyk</span>, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province -of East Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Knigsberg, and close to +of East Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Königsberg, and close to the frontier of Poland, on a lake and river of the same name. Pop. (1900) 11,386. It is the chief town of the region known as Masuria. On an island in the lake is a castle formerly belonging @@ -4509,12 +4470,12 @@ cattle.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LYCOPHRON,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> Greek poet and grammarian, was born at Chalcis in Euboea. He flourished at Alexandria in the time of -Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). According to Sudas, he +Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). According to Suïdas, he was the son of Socles, but was adopted by Lycus of Rhegium. He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging the comedies in the Alexandrian library, and as the result of his labours composed a treatise <i>On Comedy</i>. His own compositions, -however, chiefly consisted of tragedies (Sudas gives the titles +however, chiefly consisted of tragedies (Suïdas gives the titles of twenty, of which very few fragments have been preserved), which secured him a place in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians. One of his poems, <i>Alexandra</i> or <i>Cassandra</i>, containing 1474 @@ -4546,11 +4507,11 @@ been a skilful writer of anagrams.</p> (1803); L. Bachmann (1830); G. Kinkel (1880); E. Scheer (1881-1908), vol. ii. containing the scholia. The most complete edition is by C. von Holzinger (with translation, introduction and notes, -1895). There are translations by F. Dehque (1853) and Viscount -Royston (1806; a work of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-Mllendorff, +1895). There are translations by F. Dehèque (1853) and Viscount +Royston (1806; a work of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, <i>De Lycophronis Alexandra</i> (1884); J. Konze, <i>De Dictione Lycophronis</i> (1870). The commentaries of the brothers Tzetzes -have been edited by C. O. Mller (1811).</p> +have been edited by C. O. Müller (1811).</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -4646,7 +4607,7 @@ Remains of a portico, altars and other structures have also been found.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <span class="grk" title="Praktika ts Arch. Hetairias">Πρακτικὰ τῆς Ἀρχ. Ἑταιρίας</span> (1896); G. Dickens, <i>Annual of +<p>See <span class="grk" title="Praktika tês Arch. Hetairias">Πρακτικὰ τῆς Ἀρχ. Ἑταιρίας</span> (1896); G. Dickens, <i>Annual of British School</i> at Athens, xii. and xiii.</p> </div> @@ -4667,8 +4628,8 @@ Lycurgus at Sparta as early as the time of Herodotus, (i. 66), and to the words of the Delphic oracle (Herod. i. 65)—</p> <table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p><span class="grk" title="dix se theon manteusomai anthrpon.">δίζω ἤ σε θεὸν μαντεύσομαι ἤ ἄνθρωπον.</span></p> -<p><span class="grk" title="all’ eti kai mallon theon elpomai, Lykoorge.">ἀλλ᾿ ἔτι καὶ μᾶλλον θεὸν ἔλπομαι, ὦ Λυκόοργε.</span></p> +<p><span class="grk" title="dixô ê se theon manteusomai ê anthrôpon.">δίζω ἤ σε θεὸν μαντεύσομαι ἤ ἄνθρωπον.</span></p> +<p><span class="grk" title="all’ eti kai mallon theon elpomai, ô Lykoorge.">ἀλλ᾿ ἔτι καὶ μᾶλλον θεὸν ἔλπομαι, ὦ Λυκόοργε.</span></p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">If this be so, he is probably to be connected with the cult of @@ -4709,12 +4670,12 @@ priestess to express his views in oracular form.</p> <p><i>The Reforms</i>.—Herodotus says that Lycurgus changed “all the customs,” that he created the military organization of -<span class="grk" title="enmotiai">ἐνωμοτίαι</span> (<i>enomoties</i>), <span class="grk" title="trikades">τριηκάδες</span> (<i>triecades</i>) and <span class="grk" title="syssitia">συσσίτια</span> (<i>syssitia</i>), +<span class="grk" title="enômotiai">ἐνωμοτίαι</span> (<i>enomoties</i>), <span class="grk" title="triêkades">τριηκάδες</span> (<i>triecades</i>) and <span class="grk" title="syssitia">συσσίτια</span> (<i>syssitia</i>), and that he instituted the ephorate and the council of elders. To him, further, are attributed the foundation of the apella (the citizen assembly), the prohibition of gold and silver currency, -the partition of the land (<span class="grk" title="gs anadasmos">γῆς ἀναδασμός</span>) into equal lots, and, in -general, the characteristic Spartan training (<span class="grk" title="agg">ἀγωγή</span>). Some +the partition of the land (<span class="grk" title="gês anadasmos">γῆς ἀναδασμός</span>) into equal lots, and, in +general, the characteristic Spartan training (<span class="grk" title="agôgê">ἀγωγή</span>). Some of these statements are certainly false. The council of elders and the assembly are not in any sense peculiar to Sparta, but are present in the heroic government of Greece as depicted in the @@ -4741,7 +4702,7 @@ decline lay in the marked inequalities of wealth, and they looked upon a redistribution of the land as the reform most urgently needed. But it was characteristic of the Greeks to represent the ideals of the present as the facts of the past, and so such a -story as that of the Lycurgan <span class="grk" title="gs anadasmos">γῆς ἀναδασμός</span> may well have arisen +story as that of the Lycurgan <span class="grk" title="gês anadasmos">γῆς ἀναδασμός</span> may well have arisen at this time. It is at least noteworthy that the plan of Agis to give 4500 lots to Spartans and 15,000 to perioeci suspiciously resembles that of Lycurgus, in whose case the numbers are said @@ -4792,7 +4753,7 @@ Polybius, Diodorus, Polyaenus, &c. Of modern works the most important are: E. Meyer, “Lykurgos von Sparta,” in <i>Forschungen zur alten Geschichte</i> (Halle, 1892), i. 211 sqq.; A. Kopstadt, <i>De rerum Laconicarum constitutionis Lycurgeae origine et indole</i> (Greifswald, -1849); H. K. Stein, <i>Kritik der berlieferung ber den spartanischen +1849); H. K. Stein, <i>Kritik der Überlieferung über den spartanischen Gesetzgeber Lykurg</i> (Glatz, 1882); S. Wide, “Bemerkungen zur spartanischen Lykurglegende,” in <i>Skand</i>. <i>Archiv</i>. i. (1891), 90 sqq.; E. Nusselt, <i>Das Lykurgproblem</i> (Erlangen, 1898); H. Bazin, <i>De @@ -4801,7 +4762,7 @@ divisione</i> (Pforzheim, 1878); A. Busson, <i>Lykurgos und die grosse Rhetra</i> (Innsbruck, 1887); H. Gelzer, “Lykurg und die delphische Priesterschaft” in <i>Rhein</i>. <i>Mus</i>. xxviii. 1 sqq.; F. Winicker, <i>Stand der Lykurgischen Frage</i> (Graudenz, 1884); G. Attinger, <i>Essai sur -Lycurgue et ses institutions</i> (Neuchtel, 1892); the general Greek +Lycurgue et ses institutions</i> (Neuchâtel, 1892); the general Greek histories, and the works on the Spartan constitution cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>.</p> </div> @@ -4820,14 +4781,14 @@ party. He left the care of external relations to his colleagues, and devoted himself to internal organization and finance. He <span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> managed the finances of Athens for twelve successive years -(338-326), at first directly as treasurer of the revenues (<span class="grk" title="ho hepi t -dioiksei">ὁ ἑπὶ τῇ διοικήσει</span>) for four years, and in two succeeding terms, when +(338-326), at first directly as treasurer of the revenues (<span class="grk" title="ho hepi tê +dioikêsei">ὁ ἑπὶ τῇ διοικήσει</span>) for four years, and in two succeeding terms, when the actual office was forbidden him by law, through his son and a nominal official chosen from his party. Part of one of the deeds in which he rendered account of his term of office is still preserved in an inscription. During this time he raised the public income from 600 to 1200 talents yearly. He increased the navy, repaired -the dockyards, and completed an arsenal, the <span class="grk" title="skeuothk">σκευοθήκη</span> +the dockyards, and completed an arsenal, the <span class="grk" title="skeuothêkê">σκευοθήκη</span> designed by the architect Philo. He was also appointed to various other offices connected with the preservation and improvement of the city. He was very strict in his superintendence of the @@ -4871,7 +4832,7 @@ C. Rehdantz (1876); T. Thalheim (1880); C. Scheibe (1885); F. Blass (ed. major, 1889), with bibliography of editions and articles (ed. minor, 1902); E. Sofer (Leipzig, 1905), with notes and introd. There is an index to Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus by L. L. -Forman (Oxford, 1897). The exhaustive treatise of F. Drrbach, +Forman (Oxford, 1897). The exhaustive treatise of F. Dürrbach, <i>L’Orateur Lycurgue</i> (1890), contains a list of the most important review articles on the financial and naval administration of Lycurgus and on his public works; see also C. Droege, <i>De Lycurgo publicarum @@ -4915,7 +4876,7 @@ He retired to Greece and died on the 22nd of May 1851.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LYDD,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the southern -parliamentary division of Kent, England, 71 m. S.E. by E. +parliamentary division of Kent, England, 71½ m. S.E. by E. of London by a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 2675. It lies in the open lowland of Dunge Marsh. To the south-east are the bare shingle banks @@ -4999,7 +4960,7 @@ glen. Close to the church are slight remains of the castle of Lydford.</p> <p>Lydford (<i>Lideford</i>) was one of the four Saxon boroughs of -Devon, and possessed a mint in the days of thelred the Unready. +Devon, and possessed a mint in the days of Æthelred the Unready. It first appears in recorded history in 997, when the Danes made a plundering expedition up the Tamar and Tavy as far as “Hlidaforda.” In the reign of Edward the Confessor it @@ -5413,14 +5374,14 @@ high. Nothing was found in it except a few ashes and a broken vase of Egyptian alabaster. The stone basement which, according to Herodotus, formerly surrounded the mound has disappeared.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—A. von lfers, <i>ber die lydischen Knigsgrber +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—A. von Ölfers, <i>Über die lydischen Königsgräber bei Sardes</i> (1858); H. Gelzer in the <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> (1874); -R. Schubert, <i>Geschichte der Knige von Lydien</i> (1884); G. Perrot -and C. Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquit</i>, v. (1890); O. Radet, +R. Schubert, <i>Geschichte der Könige von Lydien</i> (1884); G. Perrot +and C. Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité</i>, v. (1890); O. Radet, <i>La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades</i> (1893); G. Maspero, <i>Dawn of Civilization</i>, pp. 232-301 (1892) and <i>Passing of the Empires</i>, pp. 339, 388, 603-621 (1900); J. Keil and A. von Premerstein, -<i>Bericht ber eine Reise in Lydien</i> (1908).</p> +<i>Bericht über eine Reise in Lydien</i> (1908).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> @@ -5442,11 +5403,11 @@ dismissed. The date of his death is not known, but he was probably alive during the early years of Justin II. (reigned 565-578). During his retirement he occupied himself in the compilation of works on the antiquities of Rome, three of which have -been preserved: (1) <i>De Ostentis</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri diosmein">Περὶ διοσημειῶν</span>), on the origin +been preserved: (1) <i>De Ostentis</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri diosêmeiôn">Περὶ διοσημειῶν</span>), on the origin and progress of the art of divination; (2) <i>De Magistratibus -reipublicae Romanae</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri archn ts Rhmain politeias">Περὶ ἀρχῶν τῆς Ῥωμαίων πολιτείας</span>), +reipublicae Romanae</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri archôn tês Rhômaiôn politeias">Περὶ ἀρχῶν τῆς Ῥωμαίων πολιτείας</span>), especially valuable for the administrative details of the time of -Justinian; (3) <i>De Mensibus</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri mnn">Περὶ μηνῶν</span>), a history of the different +Justinian; (3) <i>De Mensibus</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri mênôn">Περὶ μηνῶν</span>), a history of the different festivals of the year. The chief value of these books consists in the fact that the author made use of the works (now lost) of old Roman writers on similar subjects. Lydus was also commissioned @@ -5456,7 +5417,7 @@ these, as well as some poetical compositions, are lost.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Editions of (1) by C. Wachsmuth (1897), with full account of the -authorities in the prolegomena; of (2) and (3) by R. Wnsch (1898-1903); +authorities in the prolegomena; of (2) and (3) by R. Wünsch (1898-1903); see also the essay by C. B. Hase (the first editor of the <i>De Ostentis</i>) prefixed to I. Bekker’s edition of Lydus (1837) in the Bonn <i>Corpus scriptorum hist. Byzantinae</i>.</p> @@ -5464,7 +5425,7 @@ Ostentis</i>) prefixed to I. Bekker’s edition of Lydus (1837) in the Bonn <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LYE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>lag</i>, cf. Dutch <i>loog</i>, Ger. <i>Lauge</i>, from the root +<p><span class="bold">LYE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>léag</i>, cf. Dutch <i>loog</i>, Ger. <i>Lauge</i>, from the root meaning to wash, see in Lat. <i>lavare</i>, and Eng. “lather,” froth of soap and water, and “laundry”), the name given to the solution of alkaline salts obtained by leaching or lixiviating wood ashes @@ -5563,7 +5524,7 @@ Sweden, the result of which was his Bakerian lecture to the Royal Society “On the Proofs of the gradual Rising of Land in certain Parts of Sweden.” He also brought before the Geological Society a paper “On the Cretaceous and Tertiary -Strata of Seeland and Men.” In 1835 he became president +Strata of Seeland and Möen.” In 1835 he became president of the Geological Society. In 1837 he was again in Norway and Denmark, and in 1841 he spent a year in travelling through the United States, Canada and Nova Scotia. This last journey, @@ -5586,7 +5547,7 @@ G. Hartung, he accumulated much valuable evidence on the age and deposition of lava-beds and the formation of volcanic cones. He also revisited Sicily in 1858, when he made such observations upon the structure of Etna as refuted the theory of “craters -of elevation” upheld by Von Buch and lie de Beaumont (see +of elevation” upheld by Von Buch and Élie de Beaumont (see <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1859).</p> <p>Lyell was knighted in 1848, and was created a baronet in @@ -5608,7 +5569,7 @@ men.</p> Lyell, is cast in bronze and is to be awarded annually (or from time to time) by the Council of the Geological Society. The medallist may be of any country or either sex. Not less than one-third of the -annual interest of a sum of 2000 is to be awarded with the medal; +annual interest of a sum of £2000 is to be awarded with the medal; the remaining interest, known as the <span class="sc">Lyell Geological Fund</span>, is to be given in one or more portions at the discretion of the Council for the encouragement of geological science.</p> @@ -5942,7 +5903,7 @@ Poetry</i>, iii. 172; “John Lilly and Shakespeare,” by C. C. Hense i (Jan. 1896); J. A. Symonds, <i>Shakespeare’s Predecessors</i> (1883); J. D. Wilson, <i>John Lyly</i> (Cambridge, 1905); A. Ainger, “Euphuism,” in <i>Lectures and Essays</i> (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, <i>John Lyly. -Contribution l’histoire de la Renaissance en Angleterre</i> (1910).</p> +Contribution à l’histoire de la Renaissance en Angleterre</i> (1910).</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> @@ -5976,7 +5937,7 @@ councillors. Area, 1237 acres.</p> <p>No evidence of settlement on the site of Lyme Regis exists before that afforded by a grant, dated 774, purporting to be by Cynewulf, king of the West-Saxons, of land here to the church of -Sherborne, and a similar grant by King thelstan to the church +Sherborne, and a similar grant by King Æthelstan to the church of Glastonbury. In 1086 three manors of Lyme are mentioned: that belonging to Sherborne abbey, which was granted at the dissolution to Thomas Goodwin, who alienated it in the following @@ -6021,7 +5982,7 @@ throne.</p> Forest parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 98 m. S.W. from London by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4165. It lies on the estuary of the Lymington, -which opens into the Solent. The church of St Thomas Becket +which opens into the Solent. The church of St Thomas à Becket is an irregular structure, dating from the reign of Henry VI., but frequently restored. There is some coasting trade, and yacht-building is carried on. Regular passenger steamers serve @@ -6139,7 +6100,7 @@ path of the lymph channels. Moreover, the tissues are at any time liable to be injured, and the injury as well as damaging many cells may cause rupture of capillaries (as in bruising) with escape of red blood-cells into the tissue spaces. If this occurs we know -that the damaged cells are destroyed and their dbris removed +that the damaged cells are destroyed and their débris removed either by digestion by leucocytes or by disintegration and solution. The damage of a tissue also commonly involves an infection of the damaged area with living micro-organisms, and @@ -7567,7 +7528,7 @@ health, Graham was compelled to live mainly in the south of Europe, though while at home he was a prominent sportsman and agriculturist. In 1787 he bought the small estate of Lynedoch or Lednock, a few miles from Perth. In 1791 his wife died -in the Mediterranean, off Hyres. Graham tried to find distraction +in the Mediterranean, off Hyères. Graham tried to find distraction in renewed travels, and during his wanderings fell in with Lord Hood’s fleet on its way to Toulon. He joined it as a volunteer, served on Lord Mulgrave’s staff during the British @@ -7584,7 +7545,7 @@ interest, for the county of Perth. He saw some active service in at the headquarters of the Austrian army in Italy. He took part in the operations against Napoleon Bonaparte, was shut <span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> -up in Mantua with Wrmser’s army, escaped in disguise, and +up in Mantua with Würmser’s army, escaped in disguise, and after many adventures reached the relieving army of Alvinzi just before the battle of Rivoli. On returning to his regiment he served in more “conjunct” expeditions, in one of which, at @@ -7609,7 +7570,7 @@ part in the disastrous Walcheren expedition he was promoted lieutenant-general and sent to Cadiz (1810).</p> <p>In 1811, acting in conjunction with the Spanish army under -General la Pea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>), he took the offensive, +General la Peña (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>), he took the offensive, and won the brilliant action of Barossa (5th of March). The victory was made barren of result by the timidity of the Spanish generals. The latter nevertheless claimed more than their share @@ -7633,7 +7594,7 @@ assault on Bergen op Zoom was, however, disastrously repulsed <p>At the peace Graham retired from active military employment. He was created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in the peerage of -the United Kingdom, but refused the offered pension of 2000 +the United Kingdom, but refused the offered pension of £2000 a year. In 1813 he proposed the formation of a military club in London, and though Lord St Vincent considered such an assemblage of officers to be unconstitutional, Wellington supported @@ -7969,69 +7930,69 @@ died on the 5th of December 1887, when the title became extinct.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LYONS<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Lyon</i>), a city of eastern France, capital of the -department of Rhne, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W. +department of Rhône, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W. of Marseilles on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 430,186; commune, 472,114. Lyons, which in France is second only to Paris in commercial and military importance, is situated -at the confluence of the Rhone and the Sane at an altitude of +at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saône at an altitude of 540 to 1000 ft. above sea-level. The rivers, both flowing south, are separated on the north by the hill on which lies the populous working quarter of Croix-Rousse, then by the narrow tongue of land ending in the Perrache Quarter. The peninsula thus formed is over 3 m. long and from 650 to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed -lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la Rpublique, -the rue de l’Htel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo. -Where it enters Lyons the Sane has on its right the faubourg of +lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la République, +the rue de l’Hôtel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo. +Where it enters Lyons the Saône has on its right the faubourg of Vaise and on its left that of Serin, whence the ascent is made to the top of the hill of Croix-Rousse. Farther on, its right bank -is bordered by the scarped heights of Fourvire, St Irne, +is bordered by the scarped heights of Fourvière, St Irénée, Ste Foy, and St Just, leaving room only for the quays and one or two narrow streets; this is the oldest part of the city. The river sweeps in a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft. above it), which is occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries, and has at its summit the famous church of Notre-Dame de -Fourvire, the resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually.</p> +Fourvière, the resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually.</p> <p>On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town: the -Terreaux, containing the htel de ville, and the chief commercial +Terreaux, containing the hôtel de ville, and the chief commercial establishments; the wealthy residential quarter, centring round the Place Bellecour, one of the finest squares in France; and the -Perrache. The Rhone and Sane formerly met on the site of this +Perrache. The Rhone and Saône formerly met on the site of this quarter, till, in the 18th century, the sculptor Perrache reclaimed it; on the peninsula thus formed stands the principal railway station, the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi, the most extensive promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here, -too, are the docks of the Sane, factories, the arsenal, gas-works -and prisons. The Rhone, less confined than the Sane, flows +too, are the docks of the Saône, factories, the arsenal, gas-works +and prisons. The Rhone, less confined than the Saône, flows swiftly in a wide channel, broken when the water is low in spring by pebbly islets. On the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping upwards to Croix-Rousse, and then the districts of Terreaux, Bellecour and Perrache; on the left it has a low-lying plain, -occupied by the Parc de la Tte d’Or and the quarters of Brotteaux -and Guillotire. The park, together with its lake, comprises +occupied by the Parc de la Tête d’Or and the quarters of Brotteaux +and Guillotière. The park, together with its lake, comprises some 285 acres, and contains a zoological collection, botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the finest greenhouses in France, with unique collections of orchids, palm-trees and <i>Cycadaceae</i>. It is defended from the Rhone by the Quai de la -Tte d’Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separates +Tête d’Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separates it from the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential -quarter. Guillotire to the south consists largely of workmen’s +quarter. Guillotière to the south consists largely of workmen’s dwellings, bordering wide, airy thoroughfares. To the east extend the manufacturing suburbs of Villeurbanne and Montchat. The population, displaced by the demolition of the lofty old houses and the widening of the streets on the peninsula, migrates to the left bank of the Rhone, the extension of the city into the -plain of Dauphin being unhindered.</p> +plain of Dauphiné being unhindered.</p> -<p>The Rhone and the Sane are bordered by fine quays and -crossed by 24 bridges—11 over the Rhone, 12 over the Sane, +<p>The Rhone and the Saône are bordered by fine quays and +crossed by 24 bridges—11 over the Rhone, 12 over the Saône, and 1 at the confluence. Of these the Pont du Change over -the Sane and the Pont de la Guillotire over the Rhone have +the Saône and the Pont de la Guillotière over the Rhone have replaced medieval bridges, the latter of the two preserving a portion of the old structure.</p> -<p>Of the ancient buildings Notre-Dame de Fourvire is the most +<p>Of the ancient buildings Notre-Dame de Fourvière is the most celebrated. The name originally applied to a small chapel built in the 9th century on the site of the old forum (<i>forum vetus</i>) from which it takes its name. It has been often @@ -8042,7 +8003,7 @@ tower surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin. In the city for having escaped occupation by the German troops. The building, finished in 1894, consists of a nave without aisles flanked at each exterior corner by a turret and terminating in -an apse. The faade, the lower half of which is a lofty portico +an apse. The façade, the lower half of which is a lofty portico supported on four granite columns, is richly decorated on its upper half with statuary and sculpture. Marble and mosaic have been lavishly used in the ornamentation of the interior and @@ -8050,7 +8011,7 @@ of the crypt. Round the apse runs a gallery from which, according to an old custom, a benediction is pronounced upon the town annually on the 8th of September. From this gallery a magnificent view of the city and the surrounding country can be -obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourvire rises the cathedral +obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourvière rises the cathedral of St Jean, one of the finest examples of early Gothic architecture in France. Begun in the 12th century, to the end of which the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span> @@ -8066,7 +8027,7 @@ or of Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of Flamboyant Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand two crosses preserved since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the union then agreed upon between the Greek and Latin churches. -Adjoining St Jean is the ancient Mancanterie or singers’ house, +Adjoining St Jean is the ancient Manécanterie or singers’ house, much mutilated and frequently restored, but still preserving graceful Romanesque arcades along its front. St Martin d’Ainay, on the peninsula, is the oldest church in Lyons, dating from the @@ -8086,18 +8047,18 @@ crypt in which St Pothinus officiated still exists. The present church is a Gothic edifice of the 15th century, with the exception of the porch, constructed by Philibert Delorme, a native of Lyons, in the 16th century. The Church of St Paul (12th and -15th centuries), situated on the right bank of the Sane, preserves +15th centuries), situated on the right bank of the Saône, preserves an octagonal central tower and other portions of Romanesque architecture; that of St Bonaventure, originally a chapel of the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the 15th and 19th centuries. With the exception of the imposing prefecture, the vast buildings -of the faculties, which are in the Guillotire quarter, and the law -court, the colonnade of which overlooks the Sane from its right +of the faculties, which are in the Guillotière quarter, and the law +court, the colonnade of which overlooks the Saône from its right bank, the chief civil buildings are in the vicinity of the Place des Terreaux. The east side of this square (so called from the <i>terreaux</i> or earth with which the canal formerly connecting the -Rhone and the Sane hereabouts was filled) is formed by the -htel de ville (17th century), the east faade of which, towards +Rhone and the Saône hereabouts was filled) is formed by the +hôtel de ville (17th century), the east façade of which, towards the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south side of the square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the 17th century as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the school of @@ -8113,36 +8074,36 @@ masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief treasure of the art collection, in which are works by nearly all the great masters. A special gallery contains the works of artists of Lyons, among whom are numbered Antoine Berjon, Meissonier, Paul Chenavard, Puvis de -Chavannes. In the Rue de la Rpublique, between the Place de +Chavannes. In the Rue de la République, between the Place de la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers, each of which contains one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the Palais du Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern buildings of Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the ground floor round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys accommodate the commercial tribunal, the council of trade -arbitration, the chamber of commerce and the <i>Muse historique +arbitration, the chamber of commerce and the <i>Musée historique des Tissus</i>, in which the history of the weaving industry is illustrated by nearly 400,000 examples. In the buildings of the -lyce on the right bank of the Rhone are the municipal library +lycée on the right bank of the Rhone are the municipal library and a collection of globes, among them the great terrestrial globe made at Lyons in 1701, indicating the great African lakes.</p> -<p>The Htel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the +<p>The Hôtel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the beginning of the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of the chief charitable establishments in the city. The present -building dates from the 18th century; its faade, fronting the +building dates from the 18th century; its façade, fronting the west quay of the Rhone for over 1000 ft., was begun according to the designs of Soufflot, architect of the Pantheon at Paris. -The Hospice de la Charit and the military hospital are on the +The Hospice de la Charité and the military hospital are on the same bank slightly farther down stream. The Hospice de -l’Antiquaille, at Fourvire, occupies the site of the palace of the +l’Antiquaille, at Fourvière, occupies the site of the palace of the praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and Caracalla were born. Each of these hospitals contains more than 1000 beds. Lyons has many other benevolent institutions, and is -also the centre of the operations of the Socit de la Propagation +also the centre of the operations of the Société de la Propagation de la Foi. The chief monuments are the equestrian statue of Louis XIV. in the Place Bellecour, the monuments of President -Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the physicist Andr-Marie Ampre, and +Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the physicist André-Marie Ampère, and those in honour of the Republic and in memory of the citizens of the department who fell in the war of 1870-71. The most noteworthy fountain is that in the Place des Terreaux with the @@ -8150,31 +8111,31 @@ leaden group by Bartholdi representing the rivers on their way to the ocean.</p> <p>There are Roman remains—baths, tombs and the relics of a -theatre—in the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Sane. -Three ancient aqueducts on the Fourvire level, from Montromant, +theatre—in the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saône. +Three ancient aqueducts on the Fourvière level, from Montromant, Mont d’Or and Mont Pilat, can still be traced. Magnificent -remains of the latter work may be seen at St Irne and +remains of the latter work may be seen at St Irénée and Chaponost. Traces also exist along the Rhone of a subterranean canal conveying the water of the river to a <i>naumachia</i> (lake for mimic sea-fights). Agrippa made Lyons the starting-point of the principal Roman roads throughout Gaul; and it remains an important centre in the general system of communication owing to its position on the natural highway from north to -south-eastern France. The Sane above the town and the Rhone +south-eastern France. The Saône above the town and the Rhone below have large barge and steamboat traffic. The main line -of the Paris-Lyon-Mditerrane railway runs first through the -station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Sane, and thence to +of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway runs first through the +station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Saône, and thence to that of Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next in importance, that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux quarter, and the line of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d’Aoste -has a terminus at Guillotire; both these lines link up with +has a terminus at Guillotière; both these lines link up with the Paris-Lyon main line. The railway to Montbrison starts -from the terminus of St Paul in Fourvire and that to Bourg, -Trvoux and the Dombes region from the station of Croix-Rousse. +from the terminus of St Paul in Fourvière and that to Bourg, +Trévoux and the Dombes region from the station of Croix-Rousse. A less important line to Vaugneray and Mornant has a terminus at St Just. Besides the extensive system of street tramways, cable tramways (<i>ficelles</i>) run to the summits of the eminences cf -Croix-Rousse, Fourvire and St Just.</p> +Croix-Rousse, Fourvière and St Just.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of @@ -8183,7 +8144,7 @@ immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side by a modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to this is a group of fairly modern detached forts forming an advanced position at the village of Bron), and on the west by a line of detached forts, not -of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the Sane. +of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the Saône. Some older forts and a portion of the old enceinte are still kept up in the city itself, and two of these forts, Montessuy and Caluire, situated on the peninsula, serve with their annexes to connect the northern @@ -8191,48 +8152,48 @@ extremities of the two lines above mentioned. The main line of defence is as usual the outer fort-ring, the perimeter of which is more <span class="sidenote">Defence.</span> than 40 m., and the mean distance from the centre of the -city 6 m. This naturally divides into four sections. In +city 6½ m. This naturally divides into four sections. In the eastern plain, well in advance of the enceinte, eight principal sites have been fortified, Feyzin, Corbas, St Priest, Genas, Azieu, -Meyzieux, Dcines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the +Meyzieux, Décines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the lower to the upper reaches of the Rhone. The northern (or north -eastern) section, between the Rhone and the Sane, has forts Neyron +eastern) section, between the Rhone and the Saône, has forts Neyron and Vancia as its principal defences; these and their subsidiary batteries derive some additional support from the forts Montessuy and Caluire mentioned above. On the north-west side there is a strong group of works disposed like a redan, of which the salient, fort Verdun and annexes, is on the high plateau of Mont d’Or pointing -northward, and the faces, represented by forts Frta and Paillet, are +northward, and the faces, represented by forts Frêta and Paillet, are lower down on the spurs of the ridge, facing north-east and north-west respectively. The south-western section comprises three -principal groups, Bruisson, Cte-Lorette and Montcorin-Champvillard, +principal groups, Bruisson, Côte-Lorette and Montcorin-Champvillard, the last-named crossing its fire over the Lower Rhone with Fort Feyzin. Lastly a connecting battery was built near Chapoly in 1895 to close the gap between the north-western and south-western <span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> sections and to command the westward approaches by the valley of -Charbonnires.</p> +Charbonnières.</p> <p>Lyons is the headquarters of the XIV. army-corps, the seat of an archbishop who holds the title of primate of the Gauls and also that of archbishop of Vienne, and of a prefect, a court of appeal, a court of assizes, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and of two boards of trade arbitration (<i>conseils de prud’hommes</i>). It is the -centre of an <i>acadmie</i> (educational division) and has a university +centre of an <i>académie</i> (educational division) and has a university with faculties of law, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy. -There are also Catholic faculties (<i>facults libres</i>) of law, theology, -science and letters, three <i>lyces</i>, training colleges for teachers and +There are also Catholic faculties (<i>facultés libres</i>) of law, theology, +science and letters, three <i>lycées</i>, training colleges for teachers and numerous minor educational establishments. There are besides many special schools at Lyons, the more important being the school of fine arts which was founded in the 18th century to train competent designers for the textile manufactures, but has also done much for painting and sculpture; an army medical school, schools of drawing, -agriculture, music, commerce (<i>cole suprieure de commerce</i>), weaving, -tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and the coles La -Martinire for free instruction in science and art as applied to +agriculture, music, commerce (<i>école supérieure de commerce</i>), weaving, +tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and the écoles La +Martinière for free instruction in science and art as applied to industry. The veterinary school, instituted in 1761, was the first of its kind in Europe; its laboratory for the study of comparative -physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the <i>Acadmie des +physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the <i>Académie des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts</i> (founded in 1700), Lyons possesses societies of agriculture, natural history, geography, horticulture, &c.</p> @@ -8270,14 +8231,14 @@ and some 33,000 machine looms in the suburbs and neighbouring departments. Allied industries such as dyeing, finishing and printing, employ 12,000 workers. Altogether 300,000 workpeople depend upon the silk industry. In 1905 the total value of the manufacture -was 15,710,000, the chief items being pure silk textures (plain) -3,336,000; textures of silk mixed with other materials 3,180,000; -silk and foulards 1,152,000; muslins 3,800,000, this product -having increased from 100,000 in 1894. Speaking roughly the raw +was £15,710,000, the chief items being pure silk textures (plain) +£3,336,000; textures of silk mixed with other materials £3,180,000; +silk and foulards £1,152,000; muslins £3,800,000, this product +having increased from £100,000 in 1894. Speaking roughly the raw material represents half the value, and the value of the labour the remaining half. About 30% of the silk goods of Lyons finds a market in France. Great Britain imported them to the value of -over 6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over 1,600,000, +over £6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over £1,600,000, notwithstanding the heavy duty. The dyeing industry and the manufacture of chemicals have both developed considerably to meet the requirements of the silk trade. Large quantities of mineral and @@ -8303,20 +8264,20 @@ and charcoal, metals and metal goods, wine and spirits, cheese and chestnuts. Four miles south-west of Lyons is Oullins (pop. 9859) which has the important works of the Paris-Lyon railway.</p> -<p>Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Crdit -Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of 200,000,000 annually +<p>Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Crédit +Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of £200,000,000 annually in Lyons alone; also of coal and metallurgical companies and gas companies, the former extending their operations as far as Russia, the latter lighting numerous towns in France and foreign countries.</p> </div> <p><i>History</i>.—The earliest Gallic occupants of the territory at -the confluence of the Rhone and the Sane were the Segusians. -In 59 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> some Greek refugees from the banks of the Hrault, +the confluence of the Rhone and the Saône were the Segusians. +In 59 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> some Greek refugees from the banks of the Hérault, having obtained permission of the natives to establish themselves beside the Croix-Rousse, called their new town by the Gallic name Lugudunum (<i>q.v.</i>) or Lugdunum; and in 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Lucius -Munatius Plancus brought a Roman colony to Fourvires from +Munatius Plancus brought a Roman colony to Fourvières from Vienne. This settlement soon acquired importance, and was made by Agrippa the starting-point of four great roads. Augustus, besides building aqueducts, temples and a theatre, @@ -8355,7 +8316,7 @@ in 1562; their acts of violence were fiercely avenged in 1572 after the St Bartholomew massacre. Under Henry III. Lyons sided with the League; but it pronounced in favour of Henry IV. The executions of Henri d’Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars, and of -Franois de Thou, who had plotted to overthrow Richelieu, +François de Thou, who had plotted to overthrow Richelieu, took place on the Place des Terreaux in 1642. In 1793 the Royalists and Girondists, powerful in the city, rose against the Convention, but were compelled to yield to the army of the @@ -8368,7 +8329,7 @@ spared, were butchered with grape shot. The town resumed its old name after the fall of Robespierre, and the terrorists in their turn were drowned in large numbers in the Rhone. Napoleon rebuilt the Place Bellecour, reopened the churches, and made -the bridge of Tilsit over the Sane between Bellecour and +the bridge of Tilsit over the Saône between Bellecour and the cathedral. In 1814 and 1815 Lyons was occupied by the Austrians. In 1831, 1834, 1849, 1870 and 1871 it was the scene of violent industrial or political disturbances. In 1840 and 1856 @@ -8377,7 +8338,7 @@ exhibitions were held here in 1872 and 1894, the latter occasion being marked by the assassination of President Carnot.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See S. Charlty, <i>Histoire de Lyon</i> (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart, +<p>See S. Charléty, <i>Histoire de Lyon</i> (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart, <i>L’Ouvrier en soie. Monographie du tisseur lyonnais</i> (Lyon, 1899); A. Vachet, <i>A travers les rues de Lyon</i> (Lyon, 1902); A. Steyert, <i>Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des provinces de Lyonnais Forez, @@ -8426,11 +8387,11 @@ passed resolutions designed to support the Crusaders and revive the struggle for the Holy Land.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Mansi, <i>Collectio conciliorum</i>, tom, xxiii.; Huillard-Brholles, +<p>See Mansi, <i>Collectio conciliorum</i>, tom, xxiii.; Huillard-Bréholles, <i>Historia diplomatica Frederici II</i>., 6 tom. (Paris, 1852-1861); Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, ed. 2, vol. v. (1886), pp. 1105-1126; Fr. W. -Schirrmacher, <i>Kaiser Friederich der Zweite</i> (4 vols., Gttingen, 1859-1865); -H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopdie</i>, ed. 3, vol. ix. +Schirrmacher, <i>Kaiser Friederich der Zweite</i> (4 vols., Göttingen, 1859-1865); +H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, ed. 3, vol. ix. (1901), p. 122 sqq., s.v. “Innocenz IV.”; A. Folz, <i>Kaiser Friedrich II. u. Papst Innocenz IV</i>. (Strassburg, 1905).</p> </div> @@ -8538,24 +8499,24 @@ production of different notes by the shortening of the string, is as different in conception from the lyre and harp as the flute with holes to shorten the column of air is from the syrinx or Pandean pipes. The frame of a lyre consists of a hollow body -or sound-chest (<span class="grk" title="cheion">ἠχεῖον</span>). From this sound-chest are raised two -arms (<span class="grk" title="pcheis">πήχεις</span>), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both +or sound-chest (<span class="grk" title="êcheion">ἠχεῖον</span>). From this sound-chest are raised two +arms (<span class="grk" title="pêcheis">πήχεις</span>), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a -crossbar or yoke (<span class="grk" title="zygon, zygma">ζυγόν, ζύγωμα</span>, or, from its having once been a +crossbar or yoke (<span class="grk" title="zygon, zygôma">ζυγόν, ζύγωμα</span>, or, from its having once been a reed, <span class="grk" title="kalamos">κάλαμος</span>). Another crossbar (<span class="grk" title="malas, hypolyrion">μάλας, ὑπολύριον</span>), fixed on the sound-chest, forms the bridge which transmits the vibrations of the strings. The deepest note was the farthest from the player; but, as the strings did not differ much in length, more weight may have been gained for the deeper notes by thicker strings, as in the violin and similar modern instruments, or they -were turned with slacker tension. The strings were of gut (<span class="grk" title="chord">χορδή</span>, +were turned with slacker tension. The strings were of gut (<span class="grk" title="chordê">χορδή</span>, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> whence chord). They were stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the bridge. There were two ways of tuning: one was to fasten the strings to pegs which might be turned (<span class="grk" title="kollaboi, kollopes">κόλλαβοι, κόλλοπες</span>); the other was to change the place of the string upon the crossbar; probably both expedients -were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether <span class="grk" title="h chordotonos">ἡ χορδοτόνος</span> +were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether <span class="grk" title="hê chordotonos">ἡ χορδοτόνος</span> meant the tuning key or the part of the instrument where the pegs were inserted. The extensions of the arms above the yoke were known as <span class="grk" title="kerata">κέρατα</span>, horns.</p> @@ -8566,9 +8527,9 @@ numbers. They were used without a finger-board, no Greek description or representation having ever been met with that can be construed as referring to one. Nor was a bow possible, the flat sound-board being an insuperable impediment. The -plectrum, however (<span class="grk" title="plktron">πλῆκτρον</span>), was in constant use. It was +plectrum, however (<span class="grk" title="plêktron">πλῆκτρον</span>), was in constant use. It was held in the right hand to set the upper strings in vibration -(<span class="grk" title="krekein, krouein t plktr">κρέκειν, κρούειν τῷ πλήκτρῳ</span>); at other times it hung from +(<span class="grk" title="krekein, krouein tô plêktrô">κρέκειν, κρούειν τῷ πλήκτρῳ</span>); at other times it hung from the lyre by a ribbon. The fingers of the left hand touched the lower strings (<span class="grk" title="psallein">ψάλλειν</span>).</p> @@ -8749,7 +8710,7 @@ of three whole tones would form the disagreeable and untunable interval of a tritonus, two whole tones and a half-tone were tuned, fixing the tetrachord in the consonant interval of the perfect fourth. This succession of four notes being in the grasp of the hand was -called <span class="grk" title="syllab">συλλαβή</span>, just as in language a group of letters incapable of +called <span class="grk" title="syllabê">συλλαβή</span>, just as in language a group of letters incapable of further reduction is called syllable. In the combination of two syllables or tetrachords the modern diatonic scales resemble the Greek so-called disjunct scale, but the Greeks knew nothing of our @@ -8790,14 +8751,14 @@ player, were as follows: <i>Nete</i>, <i>Paranete</i>, <i>Paramese</i>; <i>Mese< <i>Parhypate</i>, <i>Hypate</i>; or <i>Nete</i>, <i>Paranete</i>, <i>Trite</i>, <i>Paramese</i>; <i>Mese</i>, <i>Lichanos</i>, <i>Parhypate</i>, <i>Hypate</i>—the last four from Mese to Hypate being the finger tetrachord, the others touched with the plectrum. -The highest string in pitch was called the last, <span class="grk" title="neat">νεάτη</span>; the lowest -in pitch was called the highest, <span class="grk" title="hypat">ὑπάτη</span>, because it was, in theory at -least, the longest string. The keynote and thumb string was <span class="grk" title="mes">μέση</span>, +The highest string in pitch was called the last, <span class="grk" title="neatê">νεάτη</span>; the lowest +in pitch was called the highest, <span class="grk" title="hypatê">ὑπάτη</span>, because it was, in theory at +least, the longest string. The keynote and thumb string was <span class="grk" title="mesê">μέση</span>, middle; the next lower was <span class="grk" title="lichanos">λίχανος</span>, the first finger or lick-finger -string; <span class="grk" title="trit">τρίτη</span>, the third, being in the plectrum division, was also +string; <span class="grk" title="tritê">τρίτη</span>, the third, being in the plectrum division, was also known as <span class="grk" title="oxeia">ὀξεῖα</span>, sharp, perhaps from the dissonant quality to which we have referred as the cause of its omission. The plectrum and -finger tetrachords together were <span class="grk" title="diapasn">διαπασῶν</span>, through all; in the disjunct +finger tetrachords together were <span class="grk" title="diapasôn">διαπασῶν</span>, through all; in the disjunct scale, an octave.</p> <p>In transcribing the Greek notes into our notation, the absolute @@ -8827,8 +8788,8 @@ wide intervals of a minor and major third, and both impure, to complete the tetrachord.</p> <div class="author">(A. J. H.)</div> -<p>See the article by Thodore Reinach in Daremberg and Saglio, -<i>Antiguits grecques et romaines</i>; Wilhelm Johnsen, <i>Die Lyra, ein +<p>See the article by Théodore Reinach in Daremberg and Saglio, +<i>Antiguités grecques et romaines</i>; Wilhelm Johnsen, <i>Die Lyra, ein Beitrag zur griechischen Kunstgeschichte</i> (Berlin, 1876); Hortense Panum, “Harfe und Lyra in Nord Europa,” <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, Sbd. vii. 1, pp. 1-40 (Leipzig, 1905); A. J. Hipkins, “Dorian and @@ -8856,7 +8817,7 @@ having reached England in 1799, it was described by General Davies as forming a new genus of birds, in the Linnean Society’s <i>Transactions</i> (vi. p. 207, pl. xxii.), no attempt, however, being made to fix its systematic place. In 1802 L. P. Vieillot figured -and described it in a supplement to his <i>Oiseaux Dors</i> as a bird-of-Paradise +and described it in a supplement to his <i>Oiseaux Dorés</i> as a bird-of-Paradise (ii. pp. 30 seq., pls. 14-16), from drawings by Sydenham Edwards, sent him by Parkinson, the manager of the Leverian Museum. The first to describe any portion of its anatomy was @@ -8981,7 +8942,7 @@ spaces being destitute of barbules. The middle pair of feathers and the inner web very narrow; near their base they cross each other, and then diverge, bending round forwards near their tip. The remaining twelve feathers (fig. 3) except near the base are -very thinly furnished with barbs, about in. apart, and those +very thinly furnished with barbs, about ¼ in. apart, and those they possess, on their greater part, though long and flowing, bear no barbules, and hence have a hair-like appearance. The shafts of all are exceedingly strong. In the male of <i>M. alberti</i> @@ -9018,8 +8979,8 @@ the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Erga</i>. These poems were styled epic, in direct contradistinction to the lyric of Pindar and Bacchylides. But inexactly, since it is plain that they were recited, with a plain accompaniment on a stringed instrument. However, the distinction -between epical and lyrical, between <span class="grk" title="ta ep">τὰ ἔπη</span>, what was said, -and <span class="grk" title="ta mel">τὰ μέλη</span>, what was sung, is accepted, and neither Homer nor +between epical and lyrical, between <span class="grk" title="ta epê">τὰ ἔπη</span>, what was said, +and <span class="grk" title="ta melê">τὰ μέλη</span>, what was sung, is accepted, and neither Homer nor Hesiod is among the lyrists. This distinction, however, is often without a difference, as for example, in the case of the so-called <i>Hymns</i> of Homer, epical in form but wholly lyrical in character. @@ -9173,9 +9134,9 @@ of the lyrics of Shelley in relation to those of the songwriters of ancient Greece.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Hegel, <i>Die Phnomenologie des Geistes</i> (1807); T. S. Jouffroy, -<i>Cours d’esthtique</i> (1843); W. Christ, <i>Metrik der Griechen und -Rmer</i>, 2te. Aufl. (1879).</p> +<p>See Hegel, <i>Die Phänomenologie des Geistes</i> (1807); T. S. Jouffroy, +<i>Cours d’esthétique</i> (1843); W. Christ, <i>Metrik der Griechen und +Römer</i>, 2te. Aufl. (1879).</p> </div> <div class="author">(E. G.)</div> @@ -9274,16 +9235,16 @@ was borrowed from Josephus by Luke, who wrongly imagined that Lysanias I. had ruled almost up to the time of the bestowal of his tetrarchy upon Agrippa, and therefore to the days of John the Baptist. Two inscriptions are adduced as evidence for -the existence of a younger Lysanias—Bckh, <i>C.I.G.</i> 4521 and +the existence of a younger Lysanias—Böckh, <i>C.I.G.</i> 4521 and 4523. The former is inconclusive, and in the latter the reading <span class="grk" title="Ans[aniou]">Ανσ[ανιου]</span> is entirely conjectural; the name might equally well be Lysimachus or Lysias.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. Schrer, <i>Geschichte des jdischen Volkes</i> (3rd ed., 1901), i. +<p>See E. Schürer, <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i> (3rd ed., 1901), i. p. 712; and (especially on the inscriptional evidence) E. Renan, -“Mmoire sur la dynastie des Lysanias d’Abilne” in <i>Mmoires de -l’institut imprial de France</i> (xxvi., 1870); also P. W. Schmiedel in +“Mémoire sur la dynastie des Lysanias d’Abilène” in <i>Mémoires de +l’institut impérial de France</i> (xxvi., 1870); also P. W. Schmiedel in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>, s.v.</p> </div> @@ -9395,8 +9356,8 @@ make this adaptation really artistic. His skill can be best appreciated if we turn from the easy flow of his graceful language to the majestic emphasis of Antiphon, or to the self-revealing art of Isaeus. Translated into terms of ancient criticism, he -became the model of the “plain style” (<span class="grk" title="iochnos charaktr, iochn, -lit, aphels lexis">ἰοχνὸς χαρακτήρ, ἰοχνὴ, λιτὴ, ἀφελὴς λέξις</span>: <i>genus tenue</i> or <i>subtile</i>). Greek and then +became the model of the “plain style” (<span class="grk" title="iochnos charaktêr, iochnê, +litê, aphelês lexis">ἰοχνὸς χαρακτήρ, ἰοχνὴ, λιτὴ, ἀφελὴς λέξις</span>: <i>genus tenue</i> or <i>subtile</i>). Greek and then Roman critics distinguished three styles of rhetorical composition—the “grand” (or “elaborate”), the “plain” and the “middle,” the “plain” being nearest to the language of daily life. @@ -9413,10 +9374,10 @@ in vivid description; he has also a happy knack of marking the speaker’s character by light touches. The structure of his sentences varies a good deal according to the dignity of the subject. He has equal command over the “periodic” style -(<span class="grk" title="katestrammen lexis">κατεστραμμένη λέξις</span>) and the non-periodic or “continuous” -(<span class="grk" title="eiromen, dialelumen">εἰρομένη, διαλελυμένη</span>). His disposition of his subject-matter +(<span class="grk" title="katestrammenê lexis">κατεστραμμένη λέξις</span>) and the non-periodic or “continuous” +(<span class="grk" title="eiromenê, dialelumenê">εἰρομένη, διαλελυμένη</span>). His disposition of his subject-matter is always simple. The speech has usually four parts—introduction -(<span class="grk" title="prooimion">προοίμιον</span>), narrative of facts (<span class="grk" title="digsis">διήγησις</span>), proofs (<span class="grk" title="pisteis">πίστεις</span>), +(<span class="grk" title="prooimion">προοίμιον</span>), narrative of facts (<span class="grk" title="diêgêsis">διήγησις</span>), proofs (<span class="grk" title="pisteis">πίστεις</span>), which may be either external, as from witnesses, or internal, derived from argument on the facts, and, lastly, conclusion (<span class="grk" title="epilogos">ἐπίλογος</span>). It is in the introduction and the narrative that @@ -9453,13 +9414,13 @@ after 387,” Blass).</p> <p>B. <span class="sc">Deliberative.</span>—Plea for the Constitution, xxxiv., 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> <p>C. <span class="sc">Forensic, in Public Causes.</span>—I. <i>Relating to Offences directly -against the State (<span class="grk" title="graphai dmosin adikmatn">γραφαὶ δημοσίων ἀδικημάτων</span>); such as treason, malversation +against the State (<span class="grk" title="graphai dêmosiôn adikêmatôn">γραφαὶ δημοσίων ἀδικημάτων</span>); such as treason, malversation in office, embezzlement of public moneys.</i> 1. For Polystratus, xx., 407 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; 2. Defence on a Charge of Taking Bribes, xxi., 402 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; 3. Against Ergocles, xxviii., 389 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; 4. Against Epicrates, xxvii., 389 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; 5. Against Nicomachus, xxx., 399 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; 6. Against the Corndealers, xxii., 386 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (?) II. <i>Cause relating to Unconstitutional -Procedure</i> (<span class="grk" title="graph paranomn">γραφὴ αρανόμων</span>). On the Property of the Brother +Procedure</i> (<span class="grk" title="graphê paranomôn">γραφὴ αρανόμων</span>). On the Property of the Brother of Nicias, xviii., 395 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> III. <i>Causes relating to Claims for Money withheld from the State</i> (<span class="grk" title="apographai">ἀπογραφαί</span>). 1. For the Soldier, ix. (probably not by Lysias, but by an imitator, writing for a real cause), 394 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (?); @@ -9480,25 +9441,25 @@ to Impiety</i> (<span class="grk" title="graphai asebeias">γρα	 spurious, but perhaps contemporary); 2. For Callias, v. (date uncertain); 3. On the Sacred Olive, vii., not before 395 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> -<p>D. <span class="sc">Forensic, in Private Causes.</span>—I. <i>Action for Libel</i> (<span class="grk" title="dik -kakgorias">δίκη κακηγορίας</span>). Against Theomnestus, x., 384-383 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (the so-called second +<p>D. <span class="sc">Forensic, in Private Causes.</span>—I. <i>Action for Libel</i> (<span class="grk" title="dikê +kakêgorias">δίκη κακηγορίας</span>). Against Theomnestus, x., 384-383 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (the so-called second speech, xi., is merely an epitome of the first). II. <i>Action by a Ward -against a Guardian</i> (<span class="grk" title="dik epitrops">δίκη ἐπιτροπῆς</span>). Against Diogeiton, xxxii., 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +against a Guardian</i> (<span class="grk" title="dikê epitropês">δίκη ἐπιτροπῆς</span>). Against Diogeiton, xxxii., 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> III. <i>Trial of a Claim to Property</i> (<span class="grk" title="diadikasia">διαδικασία</span>). On the property of -Eraton, xvii., 397 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> IV. <i>Answer to a Special Plea</i> (<span class="grk" title="pros paragraphn">πρὸς παραγραφήν</span>). +Eraton, xvii., 397 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> IV. <i>Answer to a Special Plea</i> (<span class="grk" title="pros paragraphên">πρὸς παραγραφήν</span>). Against Pancleon, xxiii. (date uncertain).</p> <p>E. <span class="sc">Miscellaneous.</span>—1. To his Companions, a Complaint of -Slanders, viii. (certainly spurious); 2. The <span class="grk" title="ertikos">ἐρωτικός</span> in Plato’s +Slanders, viii. (certainly spurious); 2. The <span class="grk" title="erôtikos">ἐρωτικός</span> in Plato’s <i>Phaedrus</i>, pp. 230 E-234. This has generally been regarded as Plato’s own work; but the certainty of this conclusion will be doubted by those who observe (1) the elaborate preparations made in the -dialogue for a recital of the <span class="grk" title="ertikos">ἐρωτικός</span> which shall be <i>verbally exact</i>, +dialogue for a recital of the <span class="grk" title="erôtikos">ἐρωτικός</span> which shall be <i>verbally exact</i>, and (2) the closeness of the criticism made upon it. If the satirist were merely analysing his own composition, such criticism would have little point. Lysias is the earliest writer who is known to have -composed <span class="grk" title="ertikoi">ἐρωτικόί</span>; it is as representing both rhetoric and a false -<span class="grk" title="ers">ἔρως</span> that he is the object of attack in the <i>Phaedrus</i>.</p> +composed <span class="grk" title="erôtikoi">ἐρωτικόί</span>; it is as representing both rhetoric and a false +<span class="grk" title="erôs">ἔρως</span> that he is the object of attack in the <i>Phaedrus</i>.</p> <p>F. <span class="sc">Fragments.</span>—Three hundred and fifty-five of these are collected by Sauppe, <i>Oratores Attici</i>, ii. 170-216. Two hundred and fifty-two of @@ -9599,7 +9560,7 @@ Seleucus joined him in 301, and at the battle of Ipsus Antigonus was slain. His dominions were divided among the victors, Lysimachus receiving the greater part of Asia Minor. Feeling that Seleucus was becoming dangerously great, he now allied -himself with Ptolemy, marrying his daughter Arsino. Amastris, +himself with Ptolemy, marrying his daughter Arsinoë. Amastris, who had divorced herself from him, returned to Heraclea. When Antigonus’s son Demetrius renewed hostilities (297), during his absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia Minor, @@ -9615,9 +9576,9 @@ allowed to remain in possession of Macedonia with the title of king, but in 285 he was expelled by Lysimachus. Domestic troubles embittered the last years of Lysimachus’s life. Amastris had been murdered by her two sons; Lysimachus treacherously -put them to death. On his return Arsino asked the gift +put them to death. On his return Arsinoë asked the gift of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised -to free the city. In 284 Arsino, desirous of gaining the succession +to free the city. In 284 Arsinoë, desirous of gaining the succession for her sons in preference to Agathocles (the eldest son of Lysimachus), intrigued against him with the help of her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus; they accused him of conspiring @@ -9640,7 +9601,7 @@ Curtius v. 3, x. 30; Diod. Sic. xviii. 3; Polybius v. 67; Plutarch, Empire</i>; Droysen, <i>Hellenismus</i> (2nd ed., 1877); A. Holm, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, <i>Gesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten</i>, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899); J. Beloch, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> -vol. iii. (1904); Hnerwadel, <i>Forschungen zur Gesch. des Knigs +vol. iii. (1904); Hünerwadel, <i>Forschungen zur Gesch. des Königs Lysimachus</i> (1900); Possenti, <i>Il Re Lisimaco di Tracia</i> (1901); Ghione, <i>Note sul regno di Lisimaco</i> (<i>Atti d. real. Accad. di Torino</i>, xxxix.); and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonian Empire</a></span>.</p> @@ -9742,7 +9703,7 @@ Heaven”; and “Pleasant are Thy courts above.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LYTHAM,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> an urban district and watering-place in the Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the -north shore of the estuary of the Ribble, 13 m. W. of Preston +north shore of the estuary of the Ribble, 13½ m. W. of Preston by a joint line of the London & North Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 7185. It has a pier, a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> @@ -9859,7 +9820,7 @@ of the navy.</p> north-western side of Banks Peninsula. Pop. (1906) 3941. It is surrounded by abrupt hills rising to 1600 ft., through which a railway communicates with Christchurch (7 m. N.W.) by a -tunnel 1 m. long. Great breakwaters protect the harbour, +tunnel 1¾ m. long. Great breakwaters protect the harbour, which has an area of 110 acres, with a low-tide depth of 20 to 27 ft. There is a graving dock accessible for vessels of 6000 tons. The produce of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury is @@ -9909,7 +9870,7 @@ Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802-1882), an Irish beauty, niece and adopted daughter of General Sir John Doyle. She was a brilliant but passionate girl, and upon his marriage with her, Bulwer’s mother withdrew the allowance she had hitherto made him. -He had 200 a year from his father, and less than 100 a year +He had £200 a year from his father, and less than £100 a year with his wife, and found it necessary to set to work in earnest. In the year of his marriage he published <i>Falkland</i>, a novel which was only a moderate success, but in 1828 he attracted @@ -10071,7 +10032,7 @@ quickly developing a genuine and intense love of literature and a remarkable facility of expression. In 1849 he left Harrow and studied for a year at Bonn with an English tutor, and on his return with another tutor in England. In 1850 he entered the -diplomatic service as unpaid <i>attach</i> to his uncle, Sir Henry +diplomatic service as unpaid <i>attaché</i> to his uncle, Sir Henry Bulwer, who was then minister at Washington. His advance <span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> in the diplomatic service was continuous, his successive appointments @@ -10186,7 +10147,7 @@ by his son (b. 1876) as 2nd earl.</p> of “Owen Meredith”—than as a statesman. The list of his published works is as follows: <i>Clytemnestra, and other Poems</i>, 1855; <i>The Wanderer</i>, 1858; <i>Lucile</i>, 1860; <i>Serbski -Pesme, or National Songs of Servia</i>, 1861, <i>Tannhuser</i> (in +Pesme, or National Songs of Servia</i>, 1861, <i>Tannhäuser</i> (in collaboration with Mr Julian Fane), 1861; <i>Chronicles and Characters</i>, 1867; <i>Orval, or The Fool of Time</i>, 1868; <i>Fables in Song</i> (2 vols.), 1874; <i>Glenaveril, or The Metamorphoses</i>, 1885; @@ -10245,7 +10206,7 @@ equal length represents not <i>m</i> but <i>s</i>; <i>m</i> when written with fo strokes is <img style="width:23px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img188b.jpg" alt="" />. The five-stroke forms, however, are confined practically to Crete, Melos and Cumae; from the last named the Romans received it along with the rest of their alphabet. The -Phoenician name of the symbol was <i>mem</i>, the Greek name <span class="grk" title="m">μῦ</span> is +Phoenician name of the symbol was <i>mem</i>, the Greek name <span class="grk" title="mû">μῦ</span> is formed on the analogy of the name for <i>n</i>. M represents the bilabial nasal sound, which was generally voiced. It is commonly a stable sound, but many languages, <i>e.g.</i> Greek, Germanic @@ -10258,10 +10219,10 @@ the only difference being that, in pronouncing <i>m</i>, the nasal passage is not closed, thus allowing the sound to be prolonged, while <i>b</i> is an instantaneous or explosive sound. In various languages <i>b</i> is inserted between <b>m</b> and a following consonant, -as in the Gr. <span class="grk" title="mesmbria">μεσημβρία</span> “mid-day,” or the English “number,” +as in the Gr. <span class="grk" title="mesêmbria">μεσημβρία</span> “mid-day,” or the English “number,” Fr. <i>nombre</i> from Lat. <i>numerus</i>. The sound <i>m</i> can in unaccented syllables form a syllable by itself without an audible vowel, -<i>e.g.</i> the <span class="correction" title="amended from Enghlish">English</span> word <i>fathom</i> comes from an Anglo-Saxon <i>fam</i>, +<i>e.g.</i> the <span class="correction" title="amended from Enghlish">English</span> word <i>fathom</i> comes from an Anglo-Saxon <i>faþm</i>, where the <i>m</i> was so used. (For more details as to this phonetic principle, which has important results in the history of language, see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">N</a></span>.)</p> @@ -10305,7 +10266,7 @@ by the Spanish in 1573.</p> <p><span class="bold">MAASTRICHT,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Maestricht</span>, a frontier town and the capital of the province of Limburg, Holland, on the left bank of the Maas at the influx of the river Geer, 19 m. by rail N.N.E. -of Lige in Belgium. Pop. (1904), 36,146. A small portion of +of Liége in Belgium. Pop. (1904), 36,146. A small portion of the town, known as Wyk, lies on the right bank. A stone bridge connecting the two replaced a wooden structure as early as 1280, and was rebuilt in 1683. Formerly a strong fortress, @@ -10357,7 +10318,7 @@ peasants and their cattle.</p> of the Romans, and was the seat of a bishop from 382 to 721. Having formed part of the Frankish realm, it was ruled after 1204 jointly by the dukes of Brabant and the prince-bishops -of Lige. In 1579 it was besieged by the Spaniards under the +of Liége. In 1579 it was besieged by the Spaniards under the duke of Parma, being captured and plundered after a heroic resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and 1794.</p> @@ -10367,7 +10328,7 @@ resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and <p><span class="bold">MABILLON, JOHN<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1632-1707), Benedictine monk of the Congregation of St Maur (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurists</a></span>), was the son of a peasant near Reims. In 1653 he became a monk in the abbey -of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at St Germain-des-Prs +of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at St Germain-des-Prés in Paris, the great literary workshop of the Maurists, where he lived and worked for twenty years, at first under d’Achery, with whom he edited the nine folio volumes of Acta of the @@ -10381,10 +10342,10 @@ It practically created the science of Latin palaeography, and is still the standard work on the subject. In 1685-1686 Mabillon visited the libraries of Italy, to purchase MSS. and books for the King’s Library. On his return to Paris he was called upon -to defend against de Ranc, the abbot of La Trappe, the legitimacy +to defend against de Rancé, the abbot of La Trappe, the legitimacy for monks of the kind of studies to which the Maurists devoted -themselves: this called forth Mabillon’s <i>Trait des tudes -monastiques</i> and his <i>Rflexions sur la rponse de M. l’abb de la</i> +themselves: this called forth Mabillon’s <i>Traité des études +monastiques</i> and his <i>Réflexions sur la réponse de M. l’abbé de la</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> <i>Trappe</i> (1691-1692), works embodying the ideas and programme of the Maurists for ecclesiastical studies. Mabillon produced @@ -10401,11 +10362,11 @@ of December 1707, in the midst of the production of the colossal Benedictine Annals.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The chief authority for his life is the <i>Abrg de la vie de D. J. M.</i> +<p>The chief authority for his life is the <i>Abrégé de la vie de D. J. M.</i> (also in Latin), by his disciple and friend Ruinart (1709). See also, -for a full summary of his works, Tassin, <i>Hist. littraire de la congr. +for a full summary of his works, Tassin, <i>Hist. littéraire de la congr. de St Maur</i> (1770), pp. 205-269. Of modern biographies the best are -those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Bumer (1892)—the former +those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Bäumer (1892)—the former to be especially recommended. A brief sketch by E. C. Butler may be found in the <i>Downside Review</i> (1893).</p> </div> @@ -10458,7 +10419,7 @@ Descent from the Cross (50 figures), on the high altar of the monastery of St Michael of Tongerloo. Philip of Burgundy ordered Mabuse to execute a replica for the church of Middelburg; and the value which was then set on the picture is apparent -from the fact that Drer came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to +from the fact that Dürer came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to see it. In 1568 the altar-piece perished by fire. In 1508 Mabuse accompanied Philip of Burgundy on his Italian mission; and by this accident an important revolution was effected in the art of @@ -10584,12 +10545,12 @@ this was moved to the churchyard of the Predigerkloster at Basel, and was restored, probably by Hans Kluber, in 1568; the fall of the wall in 1805 reduced it to fragments, and only drawings of it remain. A Dance of Death in its simplest form -still survives in the Marienkirche at Lbeck in a 15th-century +still survives in the Marienkirche at Lübeck in a 15th-century painting on the walls of a chapel. Here there are twenty-four figures in couples, between each is a dancing Death linking the groups by outstretched hands, the whole ring being led by a Death playing on a pipe. At Dresden there is a sculptured life-size -series in the old Neustdter Kirchhoff, removed here from +series in the old Neustädter Kirchhoff, removed here from the palace of Duke George in 1701 after a fire. At Rouen in the <i>aitre</i> (atrium) or cloister of St Maclou there also remains a sculptured <i>danse macabre</i>. There was a celebrated fresco of @@ -10618,8 +10579,8 @@ Santo at Pisa.</p> <p>The etymology of the word <i>macabre</i> is itself most obscure. According to Gaston Paris (<i>Romania</i>, xxiv., 131; 1895) it first -occurs in the form <i>macabre</i> in Jean le Fvre’s <i>Respit de la mort</i> -(1376), “Je lis de Macabr la danse,” and he takes this accented +occurs in the form <i>macabre</i> in Jean le Févre’s <i>Respit de la mort</i> +(1376), “Je lis de Macabré la danse,” and he takes this accented form to be the true one, and traces it in the name of the first painter of the subject. The more usual explanation is based on the Latin name, <i>Machabaeorum chora</i>. The seven tortured @@ -10634,8 +10595,8 @@ word <i>magbarah</i>, “cemetery.”</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Peignot, <i>Recherches sur les danses des morts</i> (1826); Douce, <i>Dissertation on the Dance of Death</i> (1833); Massmann, <i>Litteratur der -Totentnze</i> (1840); J. Charlier de Gerson, <i>La Danse macabre des -Stes Innocents de Paris</i> (1874); Seelmann, <i>Die Totentnze des +Totentänze</i> (1840); J. Charlier de Gerson, <i>La Danse macabre des +Stes Innocents de Paris</i> (1874); Seelmann, <i>Die Totentänze des Mittelalters</i> (1893).</p> </div> @@ -10666,7 +10627,7 @@ parliamentary inquiry in 1823 into the whole question of road-making, his views were adopted by the public authorities, and in 1827 he was appointed general surveyor of roads. In pursuing his investigations he had travelled over thirty thousand -miles of road and expended over 5000. Parliament recouped +miles of road and expended over £5000. Parliament recouped him for his expenses and gave him a handsome gratuity, but he declined a proffered knighthood. He died at Moffat, Dumfriesshire, on the 26th of November 1836.</p> @@ -10683,7 +10644,7 @@ in fragments, but the tale is given in the chronicle of Alberic Trium Fontium and in a prose version. <i>Macaire</i> is the product of the fusion of two legends: that of the unjustly repudiated wife and that of the dog who detects the murderer of his master. -For the former motive see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genevive of Brabant</a></span>. The +For the former motive see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geneviève of Brabant</a></span>. The second is found in Plutarch, <i>Script. moral.</i>, ed. Didot ii. (1186), where a dog, like Aubri’s hound, stayed three days without food by the body of its master, and subsequently attacked the @@ -10692,27 +10653,27 @@ Macaire and the dog is paralleled by an interpolation by Giraldus Cambrensis in a MS. of the <i>Hexameron</i> of Saint Ambrose. Aubri’s hound received the name of the “dog of Montargis,” because a representation of the story was painted on a chimney-piece in -the chteau of Montargis in the 15th century. The tale was +the château of Montargis in the 15th century. The tale was early divorced from Carolingian tradition, and Jean de la Taille, in his <i>Discours notable des duels</i> (Paris, 1607), places the incident under Charles V.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Macaire</i> (Paris, 1866), ed. Guessard in the series of <i>Anc. -potes de la France</i>; P. Paris in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxiii. (1873); -L. Gautier, <i>popes franaises</i>, vol. iii. (2nd ed., 1880); G. Paris, <i>Hist. -pot. de Charlemagne</i> (1865); M. J. G. Isola, <i>Storie nerbonesi</i>, vol. i. -(Bologna, 1877); F. Wolf, <i>ber die beiden ... Volksbcher von der -K. Sibille u. Huon de Bordeaux</i> (Vienna, 1857) and <i>ber die neuesten +poètes de la France</i>; P. Paris in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxiii. (1873); +L. Gautier, <i>Épopées françaises</i>, vol. iii. (2nd ed., 1880); G. Paris, <i>Hist. +poét. de Charlemagne</i> (1865); M. J. G. Isola, <i>Storie nerbonesi</i>, vol. i. +(Bologna, 1877); F. Wolf, <i>Über die beiden ... Volksbücher von der +K. Sibille u. Huon de Bordeaux</i> (Vienna, 1857) and <i>Über die neuesten Leistungen der Franzosen</i> (Vienna, 1833). <i>The Dog of Montargis</i>; -or, <i>The Forest of Bondy</i>, imitated from the play of G. de Pixrcourt, +or, <i>The Forest of Bondy</i>, imitated from the play of G. de Pixérécourt, was played at Covent Garden (Sept. 30, 1814).</p> <p>“Robert Macaire” was the name given to the modern villain -in the <i>Auberge des Adrets</i> (1823), a melodrama in which Frdrick +in the <i>Auberge des Adrets</i> (1823), a melodrama in which Frédérick <span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> -Lematre made his reputation. The type was sensibly modified in -<i>Robert Macaire</i> (1834), a sequel written by Lematre in collaboration +Lemaître made his reputation. The type was sensibly modified in +<i>Robert Macaire</i> (1834), a sequel written by Lemaître in collaboration with Benjamin Antier, and well-known on the English stage as <i>Macaire</i>. R. L. Stevenson and W. E. Henley used the same type in their play <i>Macaire</i>.</p> @@ -10780,10 +10741,10 @@ pp. 46,218.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MACAO<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (A-Ma-ngao, “Harbour of the goddess A-Ma”; Port. <i>Macau</i>), a Portuguese settlement on the coast of China, in -22 N., 132 E. Pop. (1896), Chinese, 74,568; Portuguese, 3898; +22° N., 132° E. Pop. (1896), Chinese, 74,568; Portuguese, 3898; other nationalities, 161—total, 78,627. It consists of a tongue of -land 2 m. in length and less than 1 m. in breadth, running -S.S.W. from the island of Hiang Shang (Port. <i>Anam</i>) on the +land 2½ m. in length and less than 1 m. in breadth, running +S.S.W. from the island of Hiang Shang (Port. <i>Ançam</i>) on the western side of the estuary of the Canton River. Bold and rocky hills about 300 ft. high occupy both extremities of the peninsula, the picturesque city, with its flat-roofed houses painted blue, @@ -10803,8 +10764,8 @@ partly left in its native wildness strewn with huge granite boulders and partly transformed into a fine botanical garden. During the south-west (summer) monsoon great quantities (67 in.) of rain fall, especially in July and August. The mean -temperature is 74.3 F.; in July, the hottest month, the -temperature is 84.2; in February, the coldest, it is 59. On +temperature is 74.3° F.; in July, the hottest month, the +temperature is 84.2°; in February, the coldest, it is 59°. On the whole the climate is moist. Hurricanes are frequent. Of the Portuguese inhabitants more than three-fourths are natives of Macao—a race very inferior in point of physique to their @@ -10829,8 +10790,8 @@ prohibited in 1874, and much of the actual trade is more or less of the nature of smuggling. The commodities otherwise mostly dealt in are opium, tea, rice, oil, raw cotton, fish and silk. The total value of exports and imports was in 1876-1877 upwards -of 1,536,000. In 1880 it had increased to 2,259,250, and in -1898 to 3,771,615. Commercial intercourse is most intimate +of £1,536,000. In 1880 it had increased to £2,259,250, and in +1898 to £3,771,615. Commercial intercourse is most intimate with Hong-Kong, Canton, Batavia and Goa. The preparation and packing of tea is the principal industry in the town. In fishing a large number of boats and men are employed.</p> @@ -10856,7 +10817,7 @@ nations; and, though his antagonists procured his assassination the Chinese government persistently refused to recognize the claim of the Portuguese to territorial rights, alleging that they were merely lessees or tenants at will, and until 1849 the Portuguese -paid to the Chinese an annual rent of 71 per annum. +paid to the Chinese an annual rent of £71 per annum. This diplomatic difficulty prevented the conclusion of a commercial treaty between China and Portugal for a long time, but an arrangement for a treaty was come to in 1887 on the following @@ -10971,7 +10932,7 @@ Rabelais was so extraordinary that no examination of <i>Pantagruel</i> can be complete without a reference to it (cf. <i>Gargantua</i>, i. 19). It was immediately imitated in Italy by a number of minor poets; and in France a writer whose real name was Antoine de la -Sabl, but who called himself Antonius de Arena (d. 1544), +Sablé, but who called himself Antonius de Arena (d. 1544), published at Avignon in 1573 a <i>Meygra entrepriza</i>, which was a burlesque account of Charles V.’s disastrous campaign in Provence. Folengo in Italy and Arena in France are considered @@ -10987,14 +10948,14 @@ who died by falling off the branch of an elm-tree:—</p> <p>Ex ormo cadit, et clunes obvertit Olympo.</p> </div> </td></tr></table> -<p class="noind">Molire employed macaronic verse in the ceremonial scene with +<p class="noind">Molière employed macaronic verse in the ceremonial scene with the doctors in <i>Le Malade imaginaire</i>. Works in macaronic prose are rarer. An <i>Anti-Clopinus</i> by Antony Hotman may be mentioned and the amusing <i>Epistolae obscurorum virorum</i> (1515). Macaronic prose was not unknown as an artifice of serious oratory, and abounds (<i>e.g.</i>) in the sermons of Michel Menot (1440-1518), who says of the prodigal son, <i>Emit sibi pulcheras -caligas d’carlate, bien tires</i>.</p> +caligas d’écarlate, bien tirées</i>.</p> <p>The use of true macaronics has never been frequent in Great Britain, where the only prominent example of it is the <i>Polemo-Middinia</i> @@ -11020,8 +10981,8 @@ considered legitimate specimens of the type as laid down by Folengo.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Ch. Nodier, <i>Du Langage factice appel macaronique</i> (1834); -Genthe, <i>Histoire de la posie macaronique</i> (1831).</p> +<p>See Ch. Nodier, <i>Du Langage factice appelé macaronique</i> (1834); +Genthe, <i>Histoire de la poésie macaronique</i> (1831).</p> </div> <div class="author">(E. G.)</div> @@ -11092,7 +11053,7 @@ the west coast of the southern peninsula of the island, near the southern extremity of the Macassar Strait, which separates Celebes from Borneo. Macassar consists of the Dutch town and port, known as Vlaardingen, and the Malay town which lies -inland. Macassar’s trade amounts to about 1,250,000 annually, +inland. Macassar’s trade amounts to about £1,250,000 annually, and consists mainly of coffee, trepang, copra, gums, spices and valuable timber.</p> @@ -11190,13 +11151,13 @@ fatherly kindness by “Conversation” Sharp.</p> powers, Macaulay began to aspire to a political career. But the shadow of pecuniary trouble early began to fall upon his path. When he went to college his father believed himself to -be worth 100,000. But commercial disaster overtook the house +be worth £100,000. But commercial disaster overtook the house of Babington & Macaulay, and the son now saw himself compelled -to work for his livelihood. His Trinity fellowship of 300 +to work for his livelihood. His Trinity fellowship of £300 a year became of great consequence to him, but it expired in -1831; he could make at most 200 a year by writing; and a +1831; he could make at most £200 a year by writing; and a commissionership of bankruptcy, which was given him by Lord -Lyndhurst in 1828, and which brought him in about 400 a year, +Lyndhurst in 1828, and which brought him in about £400 a year, was swept away, without compensation, by the ministry which came into power in 1830. Macaulay was reduced to such straits that he had to sell his Cambridge gold medal.</p> @@ -11287,8 +11248,8 @@ and editors what Dryden bore from Tonson and what Mackintosh bore from Lardner, is horrible to me.” Macaulay was thus prepared to accept the offer of a seat in the supreme council of India, created by the new India Act. The salary of the office -was fixed at 10,000, out of which he calculated to be able to -save 30,000 in five years. His sister Hannah accepted his +was fixed at £10,000, out of which he calculated to be able to +save £30,000 in five years. His sister Hannah accepted his proposal to accompany him, and in February 1834 the brother and sister sailed for Calcutta.</p> @@ -11319,7 +11280,7 @@ beautiful form the spirit of the law of England, in a compass which by comparison with the original may be regarded as almost absurdly small. The Indian penal code is to the English criminal law what a manufactured article ready for use is to the materials -out of which it is made. It is to the French code pnal, and to +out of which it is made. It is to the French code pénal, and to the German code of 1871, what a finished picture is to a sketch. It is simpler and better expressed than Livingston’s code for Louisiana; and its practical success has been complete.”</p> @@ -11439,7 +11400,7 @@ Hungarian, Russian, Bohemian, Italian, French, Dutch and Spanish. Flattering marks of respect were heaped upon the author by foreign academies. His pecuniary profits were (for that time) on a scale commensurate with the reputation of the -book: the cheque he received for 20,000 has become a landmark +book: the cheque he received for £20,000 has become a landmark in literary history.</p> <p>In May 1856 he quitted the Albany, in which he had passed @@ -11488,7 +11449,7 @@ and desired fortune as the means of obtaining them; but there was nothing mercenary or selfish in his nature. When he had raised himself to opulence, he gave away with an open hand, not seldom rashly. His very last act was to write a letter to a -poor curate enclosing a cheque for 25. The purity of his morals +poor curate enclosing a cheque for £25. The purity of his morals was not associated with any tendency to cant.</p> <p>The lives of men of letters are often records of sorrow or @@ -11608,8 +11569,8 @@ Bacon; Sir L. Stephen, <i>Hours in a Library</i>, vol. ii. (1892); Lord Morley, <i>Critical Miscellanies</i> (1877), vol. ii.; Lord Avebury, <i>Essays and Addresses</i> (1903); Thum, <i>Anmerkungen zu Macaulay’s History of England</i> (Heilbronn, 1882). A bibliography of German criticism -of Macaulay is given in G. Krting’s <i>Grd. der engl. Literatur</i> (4th -ed., Mnster, 1905).</p> +of Macaulay is given in G. Körting’s <i>Grd. der engl. Literatur</i> (4th +ed., Münster, 1905).</p> </div> @@ -11920,9 +11881,9 @@ extinct.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—1 and 2 Macc. and Josephus are the main sources for the Maccabaean history. For references in classical authors -see E. Schrer, <i>Geschichte des jdischen Volkes</i> (1901, p 106 seq.). +see E. Schürer, <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes</i> (1901, p 106 seq.). Besides the numerous modern histories of Israel (<i>e.g.</i> those by -Drenbourg, Ewald, Stanley, Stade, Renan, Schrer, Kent, Wellhausen, +Dérenbourg, Ewald, Stanley, Stade, Renan, Schürer, Kent, Wellhausen, Guthe), see also Madden, <i>Coins of the Jews</i> (1881), H. Weiss’s <i>Judas Makkabaeus</i> (1897), and the articles in the <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, Hastings’s <i>Dict. Bible</i>, the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. Among more popular @@ -12212,7 +12173,7 @@ Hyrcanus practically on the lines of Josephus, but concludes from its Hebraistic style that it was not from that writer’s pen. The probability, however, is that it was “simply a reproduction of Josephus, the style being changed perhaps for a purpose” -(Schrer).</p> +(Schürer).</p> <p>The Arabic “Book of Maccabees” contained in the Paris and London Polyglotts, and purporting to be a history of the Jews @@ -12238,21 +12199,21 @@ commentary, 1880—the whole Apocrypha being embraced in one volume, and much of the material being transferred from Grimm; G. Rawlinson on 1 and 2 Macc. in the <i>Speaker’s Commentary</i> 1888 (containing much useful matter, but marred by too frequent -inaccuracy); O. Zckler, on 1, 2 and 3 Macc., 1891 (slight and unsatisfactory); +inaccuracy); O. Zöckler, on 1, 2 and 3 Macc., 1891 (slight and unsatisfactory); W. Fairweather and J. S. Black on 1 Macc. in the <i>Cambridge Bible for Schools</i> (1897); E. Kautzsch on 1 and 3 Macc., A. Kamphausen on 2 Macc. and A. Deissmann on 4 Macc. in <i>Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des Alt. Test.</i>, 1898 (a most serviceable work for the student of apocryphal literature). Brief but useful introductions -to all the four books of Maccabees are given in E. Schrer’s <i>Geschichte -des Jdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (3rd ed., 1898-1901; +to all the four books of Maccabees are given in E. Schürer’s <i>Geschichte +des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (3rd ed., 1898-1901; Eng. tr. of earlier edition, 1886-1890).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. F.*)</div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <span class="grk" title="Sarbth Sabanaiel">Σαρβὴθ Σαβαναιέλ</span> (Sarbeth Sabanaiel). No satisfactory explanation +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <span class="grk" title="Sarbêth Sabanaiel">Σαρβὴθ Σαβαναιέλ</span> (Sarbeth Sabanaiel). No satisfactory explanation of this title has yet been given from the Hebrew (see the commentaries). The book may, however, have been known to Origen only in an Aramaic translation, in which case, according to the @@ -12294,11 +12255,11 @@ an introductory chapter.</p> <p><a name="ft9q" id="ft9q" href="#fa9q"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The statements with reference to the war between Antiochus the Great and Ptolemy Philopator are in general agreement with those of the classical historians, and to this extent the tale may be -said to have an historical setting. By Grimm (<i>Einl.</i> 3), the observance +said to have an historical setting. By Grimm (<i>Einl.</i> § 3), the observance of the two yearly festivals (vi. 26; vii. 19), and the existence of the synagogue at Ptolemais when the book was written, are viewed as the witness of tradition to the fact of some great deliverance. -Fritzsche has well pointed out, however (art. “Makkaber” in +Fritzsche has well pointed out, however (art. “Makkabäer” in Schenkel’s <i>Bibel-Lexicon</i>) that in the hands of Jewish writers of the period nearly every event of consequence has a festival attached to it.</p> @@ -12311,8 +12272,8 @@ form of a discourse, whether it was ever orally delivered or not. So Deissmann in Kautzsch, <i>Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des A. T.</i> ii. 151.</p> <p><a name="ft11q" id="ft11q" href="#fa11q"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Hence the title sometimes given to it: <span class="grk" title="autokratoros logismou">αύτοκράτορος λογισμοῦ</span> -(“On the supremacy of reason”). It is also styled <span class="grk" title="Makkabain d’, -Makkabakon, eis tous Makkabaious">Μακκαβαίων δ᾽, Μακκαβαῒκόν, εἰς τοὺς Μακκαβαίους</span>.</p> +(“On the supremacy of reason”). It is also styled <span class="grk" title="Makkabaiôn d’, +Makkabaïkon, eis tous Makkabaious">Μακκαβαίων δ᾽, Μακκαβαῒκόν, εἰς τοὺς Μακκαβαίους</span>.</p> </div> @@ -12660,7 +12621,7 @@ entry into London; his forfeited estates were restored, and he received lucrative offices and pensions. In 1668 he retired from the command of the king’s guard to make room for the duke of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> -Monmouth, receiving, according to Pepys, the sum of 12,000 +Monmouth, receiving, according to Pepys, the sum of £12,000 as solatium. On the 23rd of July 1679 Gerard was created earl of Macclesfield and Viscount Brandon. A few months later he entered into relations with Monmouth, and co-operated with @@ -12721,7 +12682,7 @@ and earl of Macclesfield, but when serious charges of corruption were brought against him he resigned his position as lord chancellor in 1725. In the same year Macclesfield was impeached, and although he made a very able defence he was found guilty -by the House of Lords. His sentence was a fine of 30,000 and +by the House of Lords. His sentence was a fine of £30,000 and imprisonment until this was paid. He was confined in the Tower of London for six weeks, and after his release he took no further part in public affairs. The earl, who built a grammar @@ -13477,7 +13438,7 @@ under the authority of the Assembly, and took advantage of a clause in the Audit Act which directed the governor to sign the necessary warrants for the payment of any sum awarded by verdicts in the supreme court in favour of persons who had sued -the government. M‘Culloch borrowed 40,000 from the London +the government. M‘Culloch borrowed £40,000 from the London Chartered Bank, of which he was a director, to meet pressing payments, and the bank at his instigation sued the government for the amount of the advance. The attorney-general at once @@ -13500,7 +13461,7 @@ Sir Charles Darling, was recalled by the home government, on the ground that he had displayed partisanship by assisting M‘Culloch’s government and their majority in the Assembly to coerce the Council. In order to show their gratitude to the dismissed -governor, the Assembly decided to grant a sum of 20,000 +governor, the Assembly decided to grant a sum of £20,000 to Lady Darling. The home government intimated that Sir Charles Darling must retire from the Colonial service if this gift were accepted by his wife, but M‘Culloch included the money in @@ -13508,7 +13469,7 @@ the annual Appropriation Bill, with the result that it was rejected by the Council. The new governor, Viscount Canterbury, was less complaisant than his predecessor, but after an unsuccessful attempt to obtain other advisers, he agreed to recommend -the Council to pass the Appropriation Bill with the 20,000 grant +the Council to pass the Appropriation Bill with the £20,000 grant included. The Upper House declined to adopt this course, and again rejected the Bill. A long and bitter struggle between the two Chambers ended in another general election in 1868, @@ -13526,7 +13487,7 @@ and in July 1868 M‘Culloch resumed office with different colleagues, but resigned in the following year, when he was knighted. He formed a third ministry in 1870. During this third administration he passed a measure through both Houses -which secured a life annuity of 1000 per annum to Lady Darling. +which secured a life annuity of £1000 per annum to Lady Darling. Additional taxation being necessary, Sir James M‘Culloch was urged by his protectionist supporters to increase the import duties, but he refused, and proposed to provide for the deficit @@ -13661,8 +13622,8 @@ held till his death, he discharged with conscientious fidelity, and introduced important reforms in the management of the department. Sir Robert Peel, in recognition of the services he had rendered to political science, conferred on him a literary -pension of 200 per annum. He was elected a foreign associate -of the Institute of France (<i>Acadmie des sciences morales et +pension of £200 per annum. He was elected a foreign associate +of the Institute of France (<i>Académie des sciences morales et politiques</i>). He died in London, after a short illness, on the 11th of November 1864, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. To his personal character and social qualities very favourable @@ -13697,7 +13658,7 @@ actor, was born in Coleraine, Ireland, on the 2nd of November 1837. He went to America at the age of sixteen, and made his first appearance on the stage at the Arch Street Theatre, Philadelphia, in 1857. In support of Edwin Forrest and Edwin -Booth he played second rles in Shakespearian and other +Booth he played second rôles in Shakespearian and other tragedies, and Forrest left him by will all his prompt books. Virginius was his greatest success, although even in this part and as Othello he was coldly received in England (1881). In @@ -13867,7 +13828,7 @@ in 1907.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MACDONALD, JACQUES TIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">MACDONALD, JACQUES ÉTIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1765-1840), duke of Taranto and marshal of France, was born at Sedan on the 17th of November 1765. His father came of an old Jacobite family, which had followed James II. to France, @@ -13907,7 +13868,7 @@ he received the command of the army in Switzerland which was to maintain the communications between the armies of Germany and of Italy. He carried out his orders to the letter, and at last, in the winter of 1800-1, he was ordered to march -over the Splgen Pass. This achievement is fully described +over the Splügen Pass. This achievement is fully described by Mathieu Dumas, who was chief of his staff, and is at least as noteworthy as Bonaparte’s famous passage of the St Bernard before Marengo, though followed by no such successful battle. @@ -13918,15 +13879,15 @@ and incurred the dislike of Napoleon, who did not include him in his first creation of marshals. Till 1809 he remained without employment, but in that year Napoleon gave him the command of a corps and the duties of military adviser to the young prince -Eugne Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. He led the army from +Eugène Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. He led the army from Italy till its junction with Napoleon, and at Wagram commanded the celebrated column of attack which broke the Austrian centre and won the victory. Napoleon made him marshal of France on the field of battle, and presently created him duke of Taranto. In 1810 he served in Spain, and in 1812 he commanded the left wing of the grand army for the invasion of Russia. In 1813, -after sharing in the battles of Ltzen and Bautzen, he was -ordered to invade Silesia, where Blcher defeated him with +after sharing in the battles of Lützen and Bautzen, he was +ordered to invade Silesia, where Blücher defeated him with great loss at the Katzbach (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). After the terrible battle of Leipzig he was ordered with Prince Poniatowski to cover the evacuation of Leipzig; after the blowing @@ -13936,7 +13897,7 @@ Macdonald again distinguished himself; he was one of the marshals sent by Napoleon to take his abdication in favour of his son to Paris. When all were deserting their old master, Macdonald remained faithful to him. He was directed by -Napoleon to give in his adherence to the new rgime, and was +Napoleon to give in his adherence to the new régime, and was presented by him with the sabre of Murad Bey for his fidelity. At the Restoration he was made a peer of France and knight grand cross of the order of St Louis; he remained faithful to @@ -13952,7 +13913,7 @@ life was spent in retirement at his country place Courcelles-le-Roi 1840.</p> <p>Macdonald had none of that military genius which distinguished -Davout, Massna and Lannes, nor of that military +Davout, Masséna and Lannes, nor of that military science conspicuous in Marmont and St Cyr, but nevertheless his campaign in Switzerland gives him a rank far superior to such mere generals of division as Oudinot and Dupont. This @@ -13965,10 +13926,10 @@ or faithlessness rests on him.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Macdonald was especially fortunate in the accounts of his military -exploits, Mathieu Dumas and Sgur having been on his staff in -Switzerland. See Dumas, <i>vnements militaires</i>; and Sgur’s rare -tract, <i>Lettre sur la campagne du Gnral Macdonald dans les Grisons -en 1800 et 1801</i> (1802), and <i>loge</i> (1842). His memoirs were published +exploits, Mathieu Dumas and Ségur having been on his staff in +Switzerland. See Dumas, <i>Événements militaires</i>; and Ségur’s rare +tract, <i>Lettre sur la campagne du Général Macdonald dans les Grisons +en 1800 et 1801</i> (1802), and <i>Éloge</i> (1842). His memoirs were published in 1892 (Eng. trans., <i>Recollections of Marshal Macdonald</i>), but are brief and wanting in balance.</p> </div> @@ -14049,7 +14010,7 @@ party, of which until his death Macdonald continued to be the most considerable figure, and which for more than forty years largely moulded the history of Canada. From 1854 to 1857 he was attorney-general of Upper Canada, and -then, on the retirement of Colonel Tach, he became prime +then, on the retirement of Colonel Taché, he became prime minister. This first coalition had now accomplished its temporary purpose, but so closely were parties divided at this period, that the defeat and reinstatement of governments followed @@ -14531,7 +14492,7 @@ his military character was open.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MACDUFF,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a police burgh and seaport of Banffshire, Scotland. Pop. (1001), 3431. It lies on the right bank of the -mouth of the Deveron, 1 m. E. of Banff and 50 m. N.W. of +mouth of the Deveron, 1 m. E. of Banff and 50¼ m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway. The site was originally occupied by the fishing village of Doune, but after its purchase by the 1st earl of Fife, about 1732, the name @@ -14745,7 +14706,7 @@ forbade priests to shed blood.—[<span class="sc">Ed.</span>]</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MACEDO, JOS AGOSTINHO DE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1761-1831), Portuguese +<p><span class="bold">MACEDO, JOSÉ AGOSTINHO DE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1761-1831), Portuguese poet and prose writer, was born at Beja of plebeian family, and studied Latin and rhetoric with the Oratorians in Lisbon. He became professed as an Augustinian in 1778, but owing to his @@ -14775,7 +14736,7 @@ libeller” of Portugal, though at the time his jocular and satirical style gained him popular favour. An extreme adherent of absolutism, he expended all his brilliant powers of invective against the Constitutionalists, and advocated a general massacre -of the opponents of the Miguelite rgime. Notwithstanding his +of the opponents of the Miguelite régime. Notwithstanding his priestly office and old age, he continued his aggressive journalistic campaign, until his own party, feeling that he was damaging the cause by his excesses, threatened him with proceedings, which @@ -14785,7 +14746,7 @@ his ingratitude was proverbial, and his moral character of the worst, when he died in 1831 he left behind him many friends, a host of admirers, and a great but ephemeral literary reputation. His ambition to rank as the king of letters led to his famous -conflict with Bocage (<i>q.v.</i>), whose poem <i>Pena de Talio</i> was perhaps +conflict with Bocage (<i>q.v.</i>), whose poem <i>Pena de Talião</i> was perhaps the hardest blow Macedo ever received. His malignity reached its height in a satirical poem in six cantos, <i>Os Burros</i> (1812-1814), in which he pilloried by name men and women of all @@ -14800,8 +14761,8 @@ same nature in his <i>Lyra anacreontica</i>, addressed to his mistress, have considerable merit.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Memorias para la vida intima de Jos Agostinho de Macedo</i> -(ed. Th. Braga, 1899); <i>Cartas e opusculos</i> (1900); <i>Censuras diversas +<p>See <i>Memorias para la vida intima de José Agostinho de Macedo</i> +(ed. Th. Braga, 1899); <i>Cartas e opusculos</i> (1900); <i>Censuras á diversas obras</i> (1901).</p> </div> <div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> @@ -14823,7 +14784,7 @@ were not Hellenic. In modern Macedonia are included the vilayet of Salonica (Turk. <i>Selanik</i>), the eastern and greater portion of the vilayet of Monastir (sanjaks of Monastir, Servia [Turk. <i>Selfije</i>], and part of that of Kortcha), and the south-eastern -portion of the vilayet of Kossovo (sanjak of Uskb). +portion of the vilayet of Kossovo (sanjak of Usküb). The greater part of Macedonia is inhabited by a Slavonic population, mainly Bulgarian in its characteristics; the coast-line and the southern districts west of the Gulf of Salonica by @@ -14840,7 +14801,7 @@ principal route from Central Europe to the Aegean. Rising in the Shar mountains near Gostivar (Bulgarian <i>Kostovo</i>), the Vardar, flowing to the N.E., drains the rich elevated plain of Tetovo (Turk. <i>Kalkandelen</i>) and, turning to the S.E. at the foot of Mt Liubotrn, -traverses the town and plain of Uskb, leaving to the left the high +traverses the town and plain of Usküb, leaving to the left the high plateau of Ovchepolye (“the sheep-plain”); then flowing through the town of Veles, it receives on its right, near the ruins of the ancient Stobi, the waters of its principal tributary, the Tcherna (<i>Erigon</i>), @@ -14869,8 +14830,8 @@ the S.W. of the mouth of the Vardar. The valleys of most of the rivers and their tributaries broaden here and there into fertile upland basins, which were formerly lakes. Of these the extensive plateau of Monastir, the ancient plain of Pelagonia, about 1500 ft. above -the sea, is the most remarkable; the basins of Tetovo, Uskb, -Kotchan, Strumnitza, Nevrokop, Melnik, Serres and Drama furnish +the sea, is the most remarkable; the basins of Tetovo, Usküb, +Kotchané, Strumnitza, Nevrokop, Melnik, Serres and Drama furnish other examples. The principal lakes are Ochrida (<i>Lychnitis</i>) on the confines of Albania; Prespa, separated from Ochrida by the Galinitza mountains, and supposed to be connected with it by a subterranean @@ -14956,7 +14917,7 @@ together with a smaller number of Vlachs, Jews and Circassians, who profess the creed of Islam. The untrustworthy Turkish statistics take religion, not nationality, as the basis of classification. All Moslems are included in the <i>millet</i>, or nation, of Islam. The -Rm, or Roman (<i>i.e.</i> Greek) <i>millet</i> comprises all those who acknowledge +Rûm, or Roman (<i>i.e.</i> Greek) <i>millet</i> comprises all those who acknowledge the authority of the Oecumenical patriarch, and consequently includes, in addition to the Greeks, the Servians, the Vlachs, and a certain number of Bulgarians; the Bulgar <i>millet</i> comprises the @@ -14977,17 +14938,17 @@ inhabited by a nomad pastoral population.</p> <p><i>Towns.</i>—The principal towns are Salonica (pop. in 1910, about 130,000), Monastir (60,000), each the capital of a vilayet, and -Uskb (32,000), capital of the vilayet of Kossovo. In the Salonica +Usküb (32,000), capital of the vilayet of Kossovo. In the Salonica vilayet are Serres (28,000), pleasantly situated in a fertile valley near Lake Tachino; Nevrokop (6200), Mehomia (5000), and Bansko (6500), in the valley of the Upper Mesta; Drama (9000), at the foot of the Bozo Dagh, with its port Kavala (9500); Djumaia (6440), Melnik (4300) and Demir Hissar (5840) in the valley of the Struma, with Strumnitza (10,160) and Petrich (7100) in the valley of its -tributary, the Strumnitza; Veles (Turk. <i>Koprl</i>) on the Vardar +tributary, the Strumnitza; Veles (Turk. <i>Koprülü</i>) on the Vardar (19,700); Doiran (6780) and Kukush (7750); and, to the west of the Vardar, Verria (Slav. <i>Ber</i>, anc. <i>Beroea</i>, Turk. <i>Karaferia</i>, 10,500), -Yenij-Vardar (9599) and Vodena (anc. <i>Edessa</i>, <i>q.v.</i>, 11,000). In +Yenijé-Vardar (9599) and Vodena (anc. <i>Edessa</i>, <i>q.v.</i>, 11,000). In the portion of the Kossovo vilayet included in Macedonia are Kalkandelen (Slav. <i>Tetovo</i>, 19,200), Kumanovo (14,500) and Shtip (Turk. <i>Istib</i>, 21,000). In the Monastir vilayet are Prilep (24,000) @@ -14997,8 +14958,8 @@ Florina (Slav. <i>Lerin</i>, 9824); Ochrida (14,860), with a picturesque fortress of Tsar Samuel, and Struga (4570), both on the north shore of Lake Ochrida; Dibra (Slav. <i>Debr</i>) on the confines of Albania (15,500), Castoria (Slav. <i>Kostur</i>), on the lake of that name (6190), -and Kozhan (6100). (Dibra, Kavala, Monastir, Ochrida, Salonica, -Serres, Uskb and Vodena are described in separate articles.)</p> +and Kozhané (6100). (Dibra, Kavala, Monastir, Ochrida, Salonica, +Serres, Usküb and Vodena are described in separate articles.)</p> </div> <p><i>Races.</i>—Macedonia is the principal theatre of the struggle of @@ -15011,7 +14972,7 @@ Near Eastern Question. The Turks, the ruling race, form less than a quarter of the entire population, and their numbers are steadily declining. The first Turkish immigration from Asia Minor took place under the Byzantine emperors before the conquest -of the country. The first purely Turkish town, Yenij-Vardar, +of the country. The first purely Turkish town, Yenijé-Vardar, was founded on the ruins of Vardar in 1362. After the capture of Salonica (1430), a strong Turkish population was settled in the city, and similar colonies were founded in Monastir, @@ -15045,8 +15006,8 @@ a little west of the mouth of the Strymon, where a Greek population intervenes, and extends to the north-west along the Kara-Dagh and Belasitza ranges in the direction of Strumnitza, Veles, Shtip and Radovisht. The third, or southern, group is centred -around Kalar, an entirely Turkish town, and extends from Lake -Ostrovo to Selfij (Servia). The second and third groups are +around Kaïlar, an entirely Turkish town, and extends from Lake +Ostrovo to Selfijé (Servia). The second and third groups are mainly composed of Konariot shepherds. Besides these fairly compact settlements there are numerous isolated Turkish colonies in various parts of the country. The Turkish rural @@ -15109,7 +15070,7 @@ district. The Mahommedan Greeks, known as Valachides, occupy a considerable tract in the upper Bistritza valley near Grevena and Liapsista. The purely Greek population of Macedonia may possibly be estimated at a quarter of a million. The -Vlachs, or Rumans, who call themselves <i>Aromuni</i> or <i>Aromni</i> +Vlachs, or Rumans, who call themselves <i>Aromuni</i> or <i>Aromâni</i> (<i>i.e.</i> Romans), are also known as <i>Kutzovlachs</i> and <i>Tzintzars</i>: the last two appellations are, in fact, nicknames, “Kutzovlach” meaning “lame Vlach,” while “Tzintzar” denotes their inability @@ -15175,7 +15136,7 @@ west as Castoria, and reach the southern and western shores of Lakes Prespa and Ochrida: they are also numerous in the neighbourhood of Monastir. In northern Macedonia the Albanians are of the Gheg stock: they have advanced in large numbers -over the districts of Dibra, Kalkandelen and Uskb, driving the +over the districts of Dibra, Kalkandelen and Usküb, driving the Slavonic population before them. The total number of Albanians in Macedonia may be estimated at about 120,000, of whom some 10,000 are Christians (chiefly orthodox Tosks). The @@ -15190,7 +15151,7 @@ Spanish, which they write with Hebrew characters. They form a flourishing community at Salonica, which numbers more than half the population: their colonies at Monastir, Serres and other towns are poor. A small proportion of the Jews, known -as <i>Deunm</i> by the Turks, have embraced Mahommedanism.</p> +as <i>Deunmé</i> by the Turks, have embraced Mahommedanism.</p> <p>With the exception of the southern and western districts already specified, the principal towns, and certain isolated tracts, @@ -15283,18 +15244,18 @@ present boundaries of Bulgaria and Servia, as well as in Macedonia, to which Bulgarian bishops might be appointed; other districts might be subjected to the exarchate should two-thirds of the inhabitants so desire. In virtue of the latter provision the districts -of Veles, Ochrida and Uskb declared for the exarchate, +of Veles, Ochrida and Usküb declared for the exarchate, but the Turkish government refrained from sanctioning the nomination of Bulgarian bishops to these dioceses. It was not till 1891 that the Porte, at the instance of Stamboloff, the Bulgarian prime minister, whose demands were supported by the Triple Alliance and Great Britain, issued the <i>berat</i>, or exequatur, -for Bulgarian bishops at Ochrida and Uskb; the sees of Veles +for Bulgarian bishops at Ochrida and Usküb; the sees of Veles and Nevrokop received Bulgarian prelates in 1894, and those of Monastir, Strumnitza and Dibra in 1898. The Bulgarian position was further strengthened in the latter year by the establishment of “commercial agents” representing the principality at -Salonica, Uskb, Monastir and Serres. During this period +Salonica, Usküb, Monastir and Serres. During this period (1891-1898) the Bulgarian propaganda, entirely controlled by the spiritual power and conducted within the bounds of legality, made rapid and surprising progress. Subsequently the interference @@ -15335,8 +15296,8 @@ therefore endeavoured to obtain the recognition of Vlach and Servian <i>millets</i>, demanding respectively the establishment of a Rumanian bishopric at Monastir and the restoration of the patriarchate of Ipek with the appointment of a Servian metropolitan -at Uskb. The Vlach <i>millet</i> was recognized by the -Porte by irad on the 23rd of May 1905, but the aims of the +at Usküb. The Vlach <i>millet</i> was recognized by the +Porte by iradé on the 23rd of May 1905, but the aims of the Servians, whose active interference in Macedonia is of comparatively recent date, have not been realized. Previously to 1878 the hopes of the Servians were centred on Bosnia, Herzegovina @@ -15349,7 +15310,7 @@ advantage of the Servian propaganda, which after 1890 made remarkable progress. Great expenditure has been incurred by the Servian government in the opening and maintenance of schools. At the beginning of 1899 there were stated to be 178 -Servian schools in the vilayets of Uskb, Salonica and Monastir +Servian schools in the vilayets of Usküb, Salonica and Monastir (including fifteen gymnasia), with 321 teachers and 7200 pupils.</p> <p>The Albanian movement is still in an inceptive stage; owing @@ -15381,7 +15342,7 @@ these regions. The ancient indigenous population has left many traces of its presence in the tumuli which occur on the plains, and more especially along the valley of the Vardar. The unquiet state of the country went far to prevent any systematic investigation of -these remains; excavations, however, were made by Krte and +these remains; excavations, however, were made by Körte and Franke at Niausta and near Salonica (see Kretschner, <i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache</i>, pp. 176, 421), and fragments of primitive pottery, with peculiar characteristics, were found by @@ -15468,7 +15429,7 @@ of the empire of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon (893-927); the Bulgarian power declined after his death, but was revived in western Macedonia under the Shishman dynasty at Ochrida; Tsar Samuel (976-1014), the third -ruler of that family, included in his dominions Uskb, +ruler of that family, included in his dominions Usküb, Veles, Vodena and Melnik. After his defeat by the emperor Basil II. in 1014 Greek domination was established for a century and a half. The Byzantine emperors endeavoured to confirm @@ -15501,7 +15462,7 @@ Greeks. A period of decadence followed the extinction of the Asen dynasty in 1257; the Bulgarian power was overthrown by the Servians at Velbuzhd (1330), and Macedonia was included in the realm of the great Servian tsar Dushan (1331-1355) who -fixed his capital at Uskb. Dushan’s empire fell to pieces after +fixed his capital at Usküb. Dushan’s empire fell to pieces after his death, and the anarchy which followed prepared the way for the advance of the Turks, to whom not only contending factions at Constantinople but Servian and Bulgarian princes @@ -15529,7 +15490,7 @@ during the period of anarchy which coincided with the decadence of the central power in the 17th and 18th centuries; in the latter half of the 17th century efforts to improve it were made by the grand viziers Mehemet and Mustafa of the eminent house of -Koprl. The country was policed by the janissaries (<i>q.v.</i>). +Koprülü. The country was policed by the janissaries (<i>q.v.</i>). Numbers of the peasant proprietors were ultimately reduced to serfdom, working as labourers on the farms or <i>tchifliks</i> of the Moslem beys. Towards the end of the 18th century many of the @@ -15540,7 +15501,7 @@ beneficent despotism. For more than two centuries Albanian <span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> incursions, often resulting in permanent settlements, added to the troubles of the Christian population. The reforms embodied -in the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhan (1839) and in the Hatt-i-humayun +in the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhané (1839) and in the Hatt-i-humayun (1856), in both of which the perfect equality of races and religions was proclaimed, remained a dead letter; the first “Law of the Vilayets” (1864), reforming the local administration, brought @@ -15555,7 +15516,7 @@ popular assemblies. The “western” vilayet, of Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin.</span> which Sofia was to be the capital, included northern, central and western Macedonia, extending south as -far as Castoria. The <i>projet de rglement</i> elaborated +far as Castoria. The <i>projet de règlement</i> elaborated by the conference was rejected by the Turkish parliament convoked under the constitution proclaimed on the 23rd of December 1876; the constitution, which was little more @@ -15611,7 +15572,7 @@ effort for the next five years; the movement was paralysed by dissensions among the chiefs, and rival parties were formed under Sarafoff and General Tzoncheff. Meanwhile the “Centralist” or local Macedonian societies were welded by two remarkable -men, Damian Grueff and Gotz Delcheff, into a formidable power +men, Damian Grueff and Gotzé Delcheff, into a formidable power known as the “Internal Organization,” founded in 1893, which maintained its own police, held its own tribunals, assessed and collected contributions, and otherwise exercised an <i>imperium in @@ -15631,7 +15592,7 @@ country. At Athens, especially, the progress of the <span class="sidenote">Greek Action.</span> Bulgarian movement was viewed with much alarm; it was feared that Macedonia would be lost to Hellenism, and in 1896 -the <i>Ethnik Hetaerea</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>) sent numerous +the <i>Ethniké Hetaerea</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>) sent numerous bands into the southern districts of the country. The Hetaerea aimed at bringing about a war between Greece and Turkey, and the outbreak of trouble in Crete enabled it to accomplish its @@ -15640,18 +15601,18 @@ remained quiet, Bulgaria and Servia refraining from interference under pressure from Austria, Russia and the other great powers. The reverses of the Greeks were to the advantage of the Bulgarian movement, which continued to gain strength, but after -the discovery of a hidden dpt of arms at Vinitza in 1897 the +the discovery of a hidden dépôt of arms at Vinitza in 1897 the Turkish authorities changed their attitude towards the Bulgarian element; extreme and often barbarous methods of repression were adopted, and arms were distributed among the Moslem population. The capture of an American missionary, Miss Stone, by a Bulgarian band under Sandansky in the autumn of 1901 proved a windfall to the revolutionaries, who expended her -ransom of T16,000 in the purchase of arms and ammunition.</p> +ransom of £T16,000 in the purchase of arms and ammunition.</p> <p>In 1902 the Servians, after a prolonged conflict with the Greeks, succeeded with Russian aid in obtaining the nomination of Mgr. -Firmilian, a Servian, to the archbishopric of Uskb. +Firmilian, a Servian, to the archbishopric of Usküb. Contemporaneously with a series of Russo-Bulgarian <span class="sidenote">Troubles in 1902: Intervention of the Powers.</span> celebrations in the Shipka pass in September of that @@ -15699,10 +15660,10 @@ winter.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span></p> <p>The Austrian and Russian governments then drew up a -further series of reforms known as the “Mrzsteg programme” +further series of reforms known as the “Mürzsteg programme” (Oct. 9, 1903) to which the Porte assented in principle, though many difficulties were raised over -<span class="sidenote">The “Mrzsteg Programme.”</span> +<span class="sidenote">The “Mürzsteg Programme.”</span> details. Two officials, an Austrian and a Russian, styled “civil agents” and charged with the supervision of the local authorities in the application of reforms, @@ -15752,34 +15713,34 @@ and to withdraw their military officers from Macedonia.</p> <p>See Lejean, <i>Ethnographie de la Turquie d’Europe</i> (Gotha, 1861); Hahn, <i>Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik</i> (Vienna, 1868); Yastreboff, <i>Obichai i pesni turetskikh Serbov</i> (St Petersburg, 1886); “Ofeicoff” -(Shopoff), <i>La Macdoine au point de vue ethnographique, historique et +(Shopoff), <i>La Macédoine au point de vue ethnographique, historique et philologique</i> (Philippopolis, 1888); Gopchevitch, <i>Makedonien und Alt-Serbien</i> (Vienna, 1889); Verkovitch, <i>Topografichesko-ethnographicheskii ocherk Makedonii</i> (St Petersburg, 1889); Burada, <i>Cercetari despre scoalele Romanesci din Turcia</i> (Bucharest, 1890); Tomaschek, <i>Die heutigen Bewohner Macedoniens</i> (Sonderabdruck aus den Verhandlungen des IX. D. Geographen-Tages in Wien, 1891) -(Berlin, 1891); <i>Die alten Thrker</i> (Vienna, 1893); Berard, <i>La Turquie -et l’Hellnisme contemporain</i>, (Paris, 1893); <i>La Macdoine</i> (Paris, +(Berlin, 1891); <i>Die alten Thräker</i> (Vienna, 1893); Berard, <i>La Turquie +et l’Hellénisme contemporain</i>, (Paris, 1893); <i>La Macédoine</i> (Paris, 1900); Shopoff, <i>Iz zhivota i polozhenieto na Bulgarite v vilayetite</i> (Philippopolis, 1894); Weigand, <i>Die Aromunen</i> (Leipzig, 1895); -<i>Die nationalen Bestrebungen der Balkanvlker</i> (Leipzig, 1898); -Nikolaides, <i>La Macdoine</i> (Berlin, 1899); “Odysseus,” <i>Turkey in +<i>Die nationalen Bestrebungen der Balkanvölker</i> (Leipzig, 1898); +Nikolaides, <i>La Macédoine</i> (Berlin, 1899); “Odysseus,” <i>Turkey in Europe</i> (London, 1900); Kunchoff, <i>Makedonia: etnografia i statistika</i> -(Sofia, 1900); <i>La Macdoine et la Vilayet d’Andrinople</i> (Sofia, 1904), +(Sofia, 1900); <i>La Macédoine et la Vilayet d’Andrinople</i> (Sofia, 1904), anonymous; L. Villari, <i>The Balkan Question</i> (London, 1905); H. N. Brailsford, <i>Macedonia: its Races and their Future</i> (London, 1906); J. Cvijić, <i>Grundlinien der Geographie und Geologie von Mazedonien und Altserbien</i> (Gotha, 1908). For the antiquities, see Texier and Pullan, <i>Byzantine Architecture</i> (London, 1864); Heuzey and Daumet, -<i>Mission archologique en Macdoine</i> (Paris, 1865); Duchesne and -Bayet, <i>Mmoire sur une mission en Macdoine et au Mont Athos</i> +<i>Mission archéologique en Macédoine</i> (Paris, 1865); Duchesne and +Bayet, <i>Mémoire sur une mission en Macédoine et au Mont Athos</i> (Paris, 1876); Barclay V. Head, <i>Catalogue of Greek Coins</i>; Macedonia (London, 1879); Kinch, <i>L’Arc de triomphe de Salonique</i> (Paris, 1890); <i>Beretnung om en archaeologisk Reise i Makedonien</i> (Copenhagen, 1893); Mommsen, Suppl. to vol. iii. <i>Corpus inscript., latinarum</i> (Berlin, 1893); Perdrizet, Articles on Macedonian archaeology and -epigraphy in <i>Bulletin de correspondance hellnique</i>, since 1894.</p> +epigraphy in <i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>, since 1894.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> @@ -15822,7 +15783,7 @@ by the genius of Philip II. (359-336 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who at the time by war and diplomacy brought the Greek states of the Balkan peninsula generally to recognize his single predominance. At the synod of Corinth (338) Philip was solemnly declared the -captain-general (<span class="grk" title="stratgos autokratr">στρατηγὸς αὐτοκράτωρ</span>) of the Hellenes against +captain-general (<span class="grk" title="stratêgos autokratôr">στρατηγὸς αὐτοκράτωρ</span>) of the Hellenes against the Great King. The attack on Persia was delayed by the assassination of Philip in 336, and it needed some fighting before the young Alexander had made his position secure in Macedonia @@ -15934,7 +15895,7 @@ the Elburz), the hill-peoples of Bajaor and Swat, the Cossaei when Alexander died.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Khler, <i>Reichsverwaltung u. Politik Alexanders des Grossen +<p>See A. Köhler, <i>Reichsverwaltung u. Politik Alexanders des Grossen in Klio</i>, v. 303 seq. (1905).</p> </div> @@ -15948,7 +15909,7 @@ that of the Achaemenian king (<i>Just.</i> xii. 3, 8). We hear also of a sceptre as part of his insignia (<i>Diod.</i> xviii. 27, 1). The pomps and ceremonies which were traditional in the East were to be continued. To the Greeks and Macedonians such a -rgime was abhorrent, and the opposition roused by Alexander’s +régime was abhorrent, and the opposition roused by Alexander’s attempt to introduce among them the practice of <i>proskynesis</i> (prostration before the royal presence), was bitter and effectual. The title of <i>chiliarch</i>, by which the Greeks had described the @@ -15966,7 +15927,7 @@ his sexual continence, kept no harem of the old sort. The number of his wives did not go beyond two, and the second, the daughter of Darius, he did not take till a year before his death. In closest contact with the king’s person were the seven, or -latterly eight, body-guards, <span class="grk" title="smatophylakes">σωματοφύλακες</span>, Macedonians of high +latterly eight, body-guards, <span class="grk" title="sômatophylakes">σωματοφύλακες</span>, Macedonians of high rank, including Ptolemy and Lysimachus, the future kings of Egypt, and Thrace (Arr. vi. 28, 4). The institution, which the Macedonian court before Alexander had borrowed from Persia, @@ -15994,7 +15955,7 @@ brigade, we got a total for the phalanx of 9,000 men. Of higher rank than the <i>pezetaeri</i> were the royal foot-guards (<span class="grk" title="basilikoi hypaspistai">βασιλικοὶ ὐπασπίσται</span>), some 3,000 in number, more lightly armed, and distinguished (at any rate at the time of Alexander’s death) by silver shields. Of these -1,000 constituted the royal corps (<span class="grk" title="to agma to basilikou">τὸ ἄγημα τὸ βασιλικόν</span>). The Macedonian +1,000 constituted the royal corps (<span class="grk" title="to agêma to basilikou">τὸ ἄγημα τὸ βασιλικόν</span>). The Macedonian cavalry was recruited from a higher grade of society than the infantry, the <i>petite noblesse</i> of the nation. They bore by old custom the name of the king’s Companions (<span class="grk" title="hetairoi">ἑταῖροι</span>), and were distributed @@ -16124,7 +16085,7 @@ The improvement of waterways in the interior of the empire was not neglected, the Babylonian canal system was repaired, the obstructions in the Tigris removed. A canal was attempted across the Mimas promontory (Plin. <i>N.H.</i> v. 116). The reports -of the <span class="grk" title="Bmatistai">βηματισταί</span>, Baeton and Diognetus, who accompanied +of the <span class="grk" title="Bêmatistai">βηματισταί</span>, Baeton and Diognetus, who accompanied the march of Alexander’s army, gave an exacter knowledge of the geographical conformation of the empire, and were accessible for later investigators (Susemihl, <i>Gesch. d. griech. Litt.</i>, I. p. 544). @@ -16159,8 +16120,8 @@ still admitted no living man to share their prerogative in this sphere. Athena and Nike alone figured upon Alexander’s gold; Heracles and Zeus upon his silver.</p> -<p>See L. Mller, <i>Numismatique d’Alexandre le Grand</i> (1855); also -<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: I. “Greek Coins, Macedonian.”</p> +<p>See L. Müller, <i>Numismatique d’Alexandre le Grand</i> (1855); also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: § I. “Greek Coins, Macedonian.”</p> </div> <p>II. <i>After Alexander.</i>—The external fortunes of the Macedonian @@ -16341,7 +16302,7 @@ put Euergetes II. on the throne when Philometor was captured (Polyb. xxix. 23, 4); the people compelled Cleopatra III. to choose Soter II. as her associate (Just. xxxiv. 3, 2). In Syria, the usurper Tryphon bases his right upon an election by the -“people” (Just. xxxvi. 1, 7) or “the army” (Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xiii. 219). +“people” (Just. xxxvi. 1, 7) or “the army” (Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xiii. § 219). Where it is a case of delegating some part of the supreme authority, as when Seleucus I. made his son Antiochus king for the eastern provinces, we find the army convoked to ratify the @@ -16429,21 +16390,21 @@ the great trade-routes between India and the West that the main stream of riches flowed then as in later centuries. One of these routes was by sea to south-west Arabia (Yemen), and thence up the Red Sea to Alexandria. This was the route controlled -and developed by the Ptolemac kings. Between Yemen +and developed by the Ptolemaïc kings. Between Yemen and India the traffic till Roman times was mainly in the hands of Arabians or Indians; between Alexandria and Yemen it was carried by Greeks (Strabo ii. 118). The west coast of the Red Sea was dotted with commercial stations of royal foundation -from Arsino north of Suez to Arsino in the south near the +from Arsinoë north of Suez to Arsinoë in the south near the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. From Berenice on the Red Sea a land-route struck across to the Nile at Coptos; this route the kings furnished with watering stations. That there might also be a waterway between Alexandria and the Red Sea, they cut -a canal between the Delta and the northern Arsino. It was +a canal between the Delta and the northern Arsinoë. It was Alexandria into which this stream of traffic poured and made it the commercial metropolis of the world. We hear of direct diplomatic intercourse between the courts of Alexandria and -Pataliputra, <i>i.e.</i> Patna (Plin. vi. 58). An alternative route +Pataliputra, <i>i.e.</i> Patna (Plin. vi. § 58). An alternative route went from the Indian ports to the Persian Gulf, and thence found the Mediterranean by caravan across Arabia from the country of Gerrha to Gaza; and to control it was no doubt a motive in @@ -16473,7 +16434,7 @@ as tillers of the soil goes without saying.<a name="fa4t" id="fa4t" href="#ft4t" hands of native chiefs these chiefs would themselves exploit their villages and pay the Seleucid court and tribute. To exact tribute from Greek cities was invidious, but both Antigonid and -Seleucid kings often did so (Antigonid, Diog. Lart. II., 140; +Seleucid kings often did so (Antigonid, Diog. Laërt. II., 140; Plut. <i>Dem.</i> 27; Seleucid, Michel, No. 37; Polyb. xxi. 43, 2). Sometimes, no doubt, this tribute was demanded under a fairer name, as the contribution of any ally (<span class="grk" title="syntaxis">σύνταξις</span>, not <span class="grk" title="phoros">φόρος</span>), like @@ -16498,14 +16459,14 @@ miserly economies.</p> <p>Special officials were naturally attached to the service of the finances. Over the whole department in the Seleucid realm -there presided a single chief (<span class="grk" title="ho epi tn prosodn">ὁ ἐπὶ τῶν προσόδων</span>, App. <i>Syr</i>. 45). +there presided a single chief (<span class="grk" title="ho epi tôn prosodôn">ὁ ἐπὶ τῶν προσόδων</span>, App. <i>Syr</i>. 45). How far the financial administration was removed from the competence of the provincial governors, as it seems to have been in Alexander’s system, we cannot say. Seleucus at any rate, as satrap of Babylonia, controlled the finances of the province (Diod. xix. 55, 3), and so, in the Ptolemaic system, did the governor of Cyprus (Polyb. xxvii. 13). The fact that provincial officials -<span class="grk" title="epi tn prosodn">ἐπὶ πῶν προσόδων</span> (in Eriza, <i>Bull. corr. hell.</i> xv. 556) are found does +<span class="grk" title="epi tôn prosodôn">ἐπὶ πῶν προσόδων</span> (in Eriza, <i>Bull. corr. hell.</i> xv. 556) are found does not prove anything, since it leaves open the question of their being subordinate to the governor.</p> @@ -16566,7 +16527,7 @@ they show unstinted freedom in divorce and the number of their mistresses. The custom of marriages between brothers and sisters, agreeable to old Persian as to old Egyptian ethics, was instituted in Egypt by the second Ptolemy when he married -his full sister Arsino Philadelphus. It was henceforth common, +his full sister Arsinoë Philadelphus. It was henceforth common, though not invariable, among the Ptolemies. At the Seleucid court there seems to be an instance of it in 195, when the heir-apparent, Antiochus, married his sister Laodice. The style of @@ -16576,7 +16537,7 @@ was not the king’s sister in reality (Strack, <i>Dynastie</i>, Nos. 38, king are often mentioned. It is usual for him to confer with a council (<span class="grk" title="synedrion">συνέδριον</span>) of his “Friends” before important decisions, administrative, military or judicial (<i>e.g.</i> Polyb. v. 16, 5; 22, 8). -They form a definite body about the king’s person (<span class="grk" title="philn +They form a definite body about the king’s person (<span class="grk" title="philôn syntagma">φίλων σύνταγμα</span>, Polyb. xxxi. 3, 7); cf. <span class="grk" title="hoi philoi">οἱ φίλοι</span> in contrast with <span class="grk" title="hai dynameis">αἱ δυνάμεις</span>, id. v. 50, 9), admission into which depends upon his favour alone, and is accorded, not only to his subjects, but @@ -16588,7 +16549,7 @@ corresponding to <span class="grk" title="philoi">φίλοι Alt.</i> iii. 626); but some such support is so obviously required by the necessities of a despot’s position that we need not suppose it derived from any particular precedent. The Friends -(at any rate under the later Seleucid and Ptolemac reigns) were +(at any rate under the later Seleucid and Ptolemaïc reigns) were distinguished by a special dress and badge of gold analogous to the stars and crosses of modern orders. The dress was of crimson (<span class="grk" title="porphyra">πορφύρα</span>); this and the badges were the king’s gift, @@ -16597,13 +16558,13 @@ apparently, be worn at court (1 Macc. 10, 20; 62; 89; 11, 58; Athen. v. 211b). The order of Friends was organized in a hierarchy of ranks, which were multiplied as time went on. In Egypt we find them classified as <span class="grk" title="syngeneis, homotimoi tois -syngenesin, archismatophylakes, prtoi philoi, philoi">συγγενεῖς, ὁμότιμοι τοῖς συγγενέσιν, ἀρχισωματοφύλακες, πρῶτοι φίλοι, φίλοι</span> (in the narrower -sense), <span class="grk" title="diadochoi">διάδοχοι</span>. For the Seleucid kingdom <span class="grk" title="syngeneis, prtoi +syngenesin, archisômatophylakes, prôtoi philoi, philoi">συγγενεῖς, ὁμότιμοι τοῖς συγγενέσιν, ἀρχισωματοφύλακες, πρῶτοι φίλοι, φίλοι</span> (in the narrower +sense), <span class="grk" title="diadochoi">διάδοχοι</span>. For the Seleucid kingdom <span class="grk" title="syngeneis, prôtoi philoi">συγγενεῖς, πρῶτοι φίλοι</span> and <span class="grk" title="philoi">φίλοι</span> are mentioned. These classes do not appear in Egypt before the 2nd century; Strack conjectures that they were created in imitation of the Seleucid court. We have no direct evidence as to the institutions of the Seleucid court in -the 3rd century. Certain <span class="grk" title="smatophylakes">σωματοφύλακες</span> of Antiochus I. are +the 3rd century. Certain <span class="grk" title="sômatophylakes">σωματοφύλακες</span> of Antiochus I. are mentioned, but we do not know whether the name was not then used in its natural sense (Strack, <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> LV., 1900, p. 161 seq.; Wilamowitz, <i>Archiv f. Pap.</i> I., p. 225; Beloch, <i>Gr. @@ -16616,29 +16577,29 @@ of a Friend did not carry with it necessarily any functions; it was in itself purely honorary. The ministers and high officials were, on the other hand, regularly invested with one or other of the ranks specified. The chief of these ministers -is denoted <span class="grk" title="ho epi tn pragmatn">ὁ ἐπὶ τῶν πραγμάτων</span>, and he corresponds to the +is denoted <span class="grk" title="ho epi tôn pragmatôn">ὁ ἐπὶ τῶν πραγμάτων</span>, and he corresponds to the <i>vizier</i> of the later East. All departments of government are under his supervision, and he regularly holds the highest rank of a kinsman. When the king is a minor, he acts as guardian or regent (<span class="grk" title="epitropos">ἐπίτροπος</span>). Over different departments of state -we find a state secretary (<span class="grk" title="epistolographos">ἐπιστολογράφος</span> or <span class="grk" title="hypomnmatographos">ὑπομνηματογράφος</span>: +we find a state secretary (<span class="grk" title="epistolographos">ἐπιστολογράφος</span> or <span class="grk" title="hypomnêmatographos">ὑπομνηματογράφος</span>: Seleucid, Polyb. xxxi, 3, 16; Ptolemaic, Strack, <i>Inschriften</i> 103) -and a minister of finance (<span class="grk" title="ho epi tn prosodn">ὁ ἐπὶ τῶν προσόδων</span> in the Seleucid -kingdom; App. <i>Syr.</i> 45; <span class="grk" title="dioikts">διοικήτης</span> in Egypt, Lumbroso, <i>Econ. +and a minister of finance (<span class="grk" title="ho epi tôn prosodôn">ὁ ἐπὶ τῶν προσόδων</span> in the Seleucid +kingdom; App. <i>Syr.</i> 45; <span class="grk" title="dioikêtês">διοικήτης</span> in Egypt, Lumbroso, <i>Econ. Pol.</i> p. 339). Under each of these great heads of departments was a host of lower officials, those, for instance, who held to the province a relation analogous to that of the head of the department of the realm. Such a provincial authority is described as -<span class="grk" title="epi tn prosodn">ἐπὶ τῶν προσόδων</span> in the inscription of Eriza (<i>Bull. corr. hell.</i> +<span class="grk" title="epi tôn prosodôn">ἐπὶ τῶν προσόδων</span> in the inscription of Eriza (<i>Bull. corr. hell.</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span> xv. 556). Beside the officials concerned with the work of government we have those of the royal household: (1) the chief-physician, <span class="grk" title="archiatros">ἀρχιατρός</span> (for the Seleucid see App. <i>Syr.</i> 59; Polyb. v. 56, 1; Michel, No. 1158; for the Pontic, <i>Bull. corr. hell.</i> vii. -354 seq.); (2) the chief-huntsman, <span class="grk" title="archikungos">ἀρχικυνηγός</span> (Dittenb. <i>Orient. -Graec.</i> 99); (3) the matre-d’htel <span class="grk" title="archedeatros">ἀρχεδέατρος</span> (Dittenb. <i>Orient. +354 seq.); (2) the chief-huntsman, <span class="grk" title="archikunêgos">ἀρχικυνηγός</span> (Dittenb. <i>Orient. +Graec.</i> 99); (3) the maître-d’hôtel <span class="grk" title="archedeatros">ἀρχεδέατρος</span> (Dittenb. <i>Orient. Graec.</i> 169) (4) the lord of the queen’s bedchamber, <span class="grk" title="ho epi tou -koitnos ts Basilisss">ὁ επὶ τοῦ κοιτῶνος τὴς βασιλίσσης</span> (Dittenb. <i>Orient. Graec.</i> 256). As in +koitônos tês Basilissês">ὁ επὶ τοῦ κοιτῶνος τὴς βασιλίσσης</span> (Dittenb. <i>Orient. Graec.</i> 256). As in the older Oriental courts, the high positions were often filled by eunuchs (<i>e.g.</i> Craterus, in last mentioned inscription).</p> @@ -16656,7 +16617,7 @@ place to the general meaning of intimate friend.” With this custom we may perhaps bring into connexion the office of <span class="grk" title="tropheus">τροφεύς</span> (Polyb. xxxi. 20, 3; Michel, No. 1158). As under Alexander, so under his successors, we find a corps of <span class="grk" title="Basilikoi -pades">βασιλικοί παῖδες</span>. They appear as a corps, 600 strong, in a triumphal +paîdes">βασιλικοί παῖδες</span>. They appear as a corps, 600 strong, in a triumphal procession at Antioch (Polyb. xxxi. 3, 17; cf. v. 82, 13; Antigonid, Livy, xlv. 6; cf. Curtius, viii. 6, 6).</p> @@ -16718,7 +16679,7 @@ himself was after his death the object of various local cults, like that which centred in the shrine near Erythrae (Strabo, xiv. 644). His successors in the first years after his death recognized him officially as a divinity, except Antipater -(Sudas, <i>s.v.</i> <span class="grk" title="Antipatros">Αντίπατρος</span>), and coins began to be issued with his +(Suïdas, <i>s.v.</i> <span class="grk" title="Antipatros">Αντίπατρος</span>), and coins began to be issued with his image. At Alexandria the state cult of him seems to have been instituted by the second Ptolemy, when his body was laid in the <i>Sema</i> (Otto, <i>Priester u. Tempel</i>, i. 139 seq.). The successors @@ -16733,13 +16694,13 @@ first proved instance of a cult of the latter kind is that instituted at Alexandria by the second Ptolemy for his father soon after the latter’s death in 283/2, in which, some time after, 279/8, he associated his mother Berenice also, the two being worshipped -together as <span class="grk" title="theoi stres">θεοὶ σωτῆρες</span> (Theoc. xvii. 121 seq.). Antiochus I. +together as <span class="grk" title="theoi sôtêres">θεοὶ σωτῆρες</span> (Theoc. xvii. 121 seq.). Antiochus I. followed the Ptolemaic precedent by instituting at Seleucia-in-Pieria a cult for his father as Seleucus Zeus Nicator. So far we can point to no instance of a cult of the living sovereign (though the cities might institute such locally) being established by the court for the realm. This step was taken in -Egypt after the death of Arsino Philadelphus (271) when +Egypt after the death of Arsinoë Philadelphus (271) when she and her still-living brother-husband, Ptolemy II., began to be worshipped together as <span class="grk" title="theoi adelphoi">θεοὶ ἀδελφοί</span>. After this the cult of the reigning king and queen was regularly maintained @@ -16764,7 +16725,7 @@ independent acts of the cities.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Plut. <i>Arat.</i> 45; <i>Cleom.</i> 16; Kornemann, “Zur Gesch. d. antiken -Herrscherkulte” in <i>Beitrge z. alt. Gesch.</i> i. 51 sqq.; Otto, <i>Priester u. +Herrscherkulte” in <i>Beiträge z. alt. Gesch.</i> i. 51 sqq.; Otto, <i>Priester u. Tempel</i>, pp. 138 seq.</p> <p>There does not seem any clear proof that the surnames which @@ -16827,7 +16788,7 @@ is indicated in the Seleucid army (Polyb. vii. 16, 2; xvi. 18, 7). So too the old name of “Companions” was kept up in the Seleucid kingdom for the Macedonian cavalry (see Polyb. v. 53, 4, &c.), and divisions of rank in it are still indicated by the terms <i>agema</i> and -royal squadron (<span class="grk" title="basilik hil">βασιλικὴ ἵλη</span>, see Bevan, <i>House of Seleucus</i>, ii. 288). +royal squadron (<span class="grk" title="basilikê hilê">βασιλικὴ ἵλη</span>, see Bevan, <i>House of Seleucus</i>, ii. 288). The Antigonid and Seleucid courts had much valuable material at hand for their armies in the barbarian races under their sway. The Balkan hill-peoples of Illyrian or Thracian stock, the hill-peoples of @@ -16886,7 +16847,7 @@ navy was abolished; Antiochus undertook to keep no more than 10 ships of war.</p> <p>For the Hellenistic armies and fleets see A. Bauer in L. von -Mller’s <i>Handbuch</i>, vol. iv.; Delbrck, <i>Gesch. d. Kriegskunst</i> (1900).</p> +Müller’s <i>Handbuch</i>, vol. iv.; Delbrück, <i>Gesch. d. Kriegskunst</i> (1900).</p> </div> <p>To their native subjects the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kings @@ -16903,7 +16864,7 @@ cults the Hellenistic kings thought it good policy to patronize. Antiochus I. began rebuilding the temple of Nebo at Borsippa (<i>Keilinschr. Bibl.</i> iii. 2, 136 seq.) Antiochus III. bestowed favours on the Temple at Jerusalem. Even if the documents in Joseph, -<i>Arch.</i> xii. 138 seq. are spurious, their general view of the relation +<i>Arch.</i> xii. §§ 138 seq. are spurious, their general view of the relation of Antiochus III. and Jerusalem is probably true. Even small local worships, like that of the village of Baetocaece, might secure royal patronage (<i>C.I.G.</i> No. 4474). Of course, @@ -16939,8 +16900,8 @@ the later world.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the general history of the Macedonian kingdoms, -see Droysen, <i>Histoire de l’Hellnisme</i> (the French translation by -Bouch-Leclercq, 1883-1885, represents the work in its final revision); +see Droysen, <i>Histoire de l’Hellénisme</i> (the French translation by +Bouché-Leclercq, 1883-1885, represents the work in its final revision); A. Holm, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, <i>Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten</i> (1893-1903); Kaerst, <i>Gesch. des hellenist. Zeitalters</i>, vol. i. (1901). A masterly conspectus of the general @@ -16974,8 +16935,8 @@ by what the Romans found obtaining in the Attalid kingdom. The references given by Beloch (<i>Griech. Gesch.</i> iii. [i.], p. 343) to prove it for the Seleucid kingdom are questionable. Beloch refers (1) to the letter of Demetrius II. to Lasthenes in which <span class="grk" title="hai dekatai kai ta -tel">δεκαταὶ καὶ τὰ τέλη</span> are mentioned, 1 Macc. 11, 35 (Beloch, by an oversight, refers to -the paraphrase of the documents in Joseph. <i>Ant.</i> xiii. 4, 126 seq., +telê">δεκαταὶ καὶ τὰ τέλη</span> are mentioned, 1 Macc. 11, 35 (Beloch, by an oversight, refers to +the paraphrase of the documents in Joseph. <i>Ant.</i> xiii. 4, § 126 seq., in which the mention of the <span class="grk" title="dekatai">δεκαταί</span> is omitted!). The authenticity of this document is, however, very doubtful. He refers (2) to Dittenb. 171 (1st ed.), line 101; but here the tax seems to be, not an @@ -16987,7 +16948,7 @@ Ptolemaic Egypt and Rome. For domains in Antigonid, Attalid and Bithynian realms, see Cic. <i>De leg. agr.</i> ii. 19, 50.</p> <p><a name="ft6t" id="ft6t" href="#fa6t"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Antiochus Epiphanes was an extreme case. For the Antigonid -court see Diog. Lart. vii. 13; Plut. <i>Arat.</i> 17; for the Seleucid, +court see Diog. Laërt. vii. 13; Plut. <i>Arat.</i> 17; for the Seleucid, Athen. iv. 155b; v. 211a; for the Ptolemaic, Diog. L. vii. 177; Athen. vi. 246c; Plut. <i>Cleom.</i> 33; Just. xxx. 1.</p> @@ -17035,17 +16996,17 @@ the monophysite Severus and was deposed in 513.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MACEI<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Maay</span>, a city and port of Brazil and capital of -the state of Alagas, about 125 m. S.S.W. of Pernambuco, in -lat. 9 39′ 35″ S., long. 35 44′ 36″ W. Pop. including a large +<p><span class="bold">MACEIÓ<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Maçayó</span>, a city and port of Brazil and capital of +the state of Alagôas, about 125 m. S.S.W. of Pernambuco, in +lat. 9° 39′ 35″ S., long. 35° 44′ 36″ W. Pop. including a large rural district and several villages (1890), 31,498; (1908, estimate), 33,000. The city stands at the foot of low bluffs, about a mile -from the shore line. The water-side village of Jaragu, the -port of Macei, is practically a suburb of the city. South -of the port is the shallow entrance to the Laga do Norte, -of Laga Mundah, a salt-water lake extending inland for -some miles. Macei is attractively situated in the midst of large -plantations of coco-nut and <i>dend</i> palms, though the broad +from the shore line. The water-side village of Jaraguá, the +port of Maceió, is practically a suburb of the city. South +of the port is the shallow entrance to the Lagôa do Norte, +of Lagôa Mundahú, a salt-water lake extending inland for +some miles. Maceió is attractively situated in the midst of large +plantations of coco-nut and <i>dendé</i> palms, though the broad sandy beach in front and the open sun-burned plain behind give a barren character to its surroundings. The heat is moderated by the S.E. trade winds, and the city is considered healthful. @@ -17053,13 +17014,13 @@ The public buildings are mostly constructed of broken stone and mortar, plastered outside and covered with red tiles, but the common dwellings are generally constructed of <i>tapia</i>—rough trellis-work walls filled in with mud. A light tramway -connects the city and port, and a railway—the Alagas Central—connects +connects the city and port, and a railway—the Alagôas Central—connects the two with various interior towns. The port is formed by a stone reef running parallel with and a half-mile from the shore line, within which vessels of light draft find a safe anchorage, except from southerly gales. Ocean-going steamers anchor outside the reef. The exports consist principally -of sugar, cotton, and rum (<i>aguardiente</i>). Macei dates +of sugar, cotton, and rum (<i>aguardiente</i>). Maceió dates from 1815 when a small settlement there was created a “villa.” In 1839 it became the provincial capital and was made a city by the provincial assembly.</p> @@ -17121,7 +17082,7 @@ of Ricina after the destruction of their city by Alaric in 408. During the Lombard period it was a flourishing town; but it was raised from comparative insignificance by Nicholas IV. to be the seat of the governors of the March. It was enclosed in the 13th -century by a new line of walls more than 2 m. in circuit; and +century by a new line of walls more than 2½ m. in circuit; and in the troubles of the next two hundred years it had frequent occasion to learn their value. For the most part it remained faithful to the popes, and in return it was rewarded by a multitude @@ -17214,7 +17175,7 @@ office of president of the council. When the cabinet was reconstructed a year later the Irish were left without representation, and McGee sought re-election as a member of the opposite party. In 1864 he was appointed minister of agriculture in the administration -of Sir E. P. Tach, and he served the country in that +of Sir E. P. Taché, and he served the country in that capacity until his death. He actively supported the policy of federation and was elected a member of the first Dominion parliament in 1867. On the 7th of April 1868, after having delivered @@ -17415,7 +17376,7 @@ of German in the Prague University. In 1901 he was made a member of the Austrian house of peers. In philosophy he began with a strong predilection for the physical side of psychology, and at an early age he came to the conclusion that all existence -is sensation, and, after a lapse into nomenalism under the influence +is sensation, and, after a lapse into noümenalism under the influence of Fechner’s <i>Psychophysics</i>, finally adopted a universal physical phenomenalism. The Ego he considers not an entity sharply distinguished from the Non-ego, but merely, as it were, @@ -17424,16 +17385,16 @@ theory appears to be vitiated by the confusion of physics and psychology.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—<i>Kompendium der Physik fr Mediziner</i> (Vienna, 1863); +<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—<i>Kompendium der Physik für Mediziner</i> (Vienna, 1863); <i>Einleitung in die Heimholtz’sehe Musiktheorie</i> (Gratz, 1866); <i>Die Gesch. u. d. Wurzel d. Satzes von d. Erhaltung d. Arbeit</i> (Prague, 1872); <i>Grundlinien d. Lehre v. d. Bewegungsempfindungen</i> (Leipzig, 1875); <i>Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung</i> (Leipzig, 1883; rev. ed., 1908; -Eng. trans., T. J. McCormack, 1902); <i>Beitrge zur Analyse d. +Eng. trans., T. J. McCormack, 1902); <i>Beiträge zur Analyse d. Empfindungen</i> (Jena, 1886), 5th ed., 1906, entitled <i>Die Analyse d. -Empfindungen; Leitfaden d. Physik fr Studierende</i> (Prague, 1881, -in collaboration); <i>Populrwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen</i> (3rd ed., -Leipzig, 1903); <i>Die Prinzipien d. Wrmelehre</i> (2nd ed., 1900); +Empfindungen; Leitfaden d. Physik für Studierende</i> (Prague, 1881, +in collaboration); <i>Populärwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen</i> (3rd ed., +Leipzig, 1903); <i>Die Prinzipien d. Wärmelehre</i> (2nd ed., 1900); <i>Erkenntnis und Irrtum</i> (Leipzig, 1905).</p> </div> @@ -17515,11 +17476,11 @@ Tuam on the 7th of November 1881.</p> <p><span class="bold">MACHAULT D’ARNOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1701-1794), French statesman, was a son of Louis Charles Machault d’Arnouville, lieutenant of police. In 1721 he was counsel to -the parlement of Paris, in 1728 <i>matre des requtes</i>, and ten years +the parlement of Paris, in 1728 <i>maître des requêtes</i>, and ten years later was made president of the Great Council; although he had opposed the court in the <i>Unigenitus</i> dispute, he was appointed intendant of Hainaut in 1743. From this position, through -the influence at court of his old friend Ren Louis, Marquis +the influence at court of his old friend René Louis, Marquis d’Argenson, he was called to succeed Orry de Fulvy as controller-general of the finances in December 1745. He found, on taking office, that in the four years of the War of the Austrian Succession @@ -17552,18 +17513,18 @@ He was famous for his charity; but proved to be a most uncompromising Conservative at the estates general of 1789, where he voted consistently against every reform. He emigrated in 1791, resigned his bishopric in 1801 to facilitate the concordat, and -retired to the ancestral chteau of Arnouville, where he died in +retired to the ancestral château of Arnouville, where he died in 1820.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1300-1377), French poet and -musician, was born in the village of Machault near Rthel in +musician, was born in the village of Machault near Réthel in Champagne. Machaut tells us that he served for thirty years the adventurous John of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia. He followed his master to Russia and Poland, and, though of peaceful tastes himself, saw twenty battles and a hundred tourneys. -When John was killed at Crcy in 1346 Machaut was received at +When John was killed at Crécy in 1346 Machaut was received at the court of Normandy, and on the accession of John the Good to the throne of France (1350) he received an office which enabled him to devote himself thenceforth to music and poetry. Machaut @@ -17579,7 +17540,7 @@ of Cyprus. Machaut is best known for the strange book telling of the love affair of his old age with a young and noble lady long supposed to be Agnes of Navarre, sister of Charles the Bad; Paulin Paris in his edition of the <i>Voir dit</i> (<i>Historie vraie</i>) identified -her as Perronne d’Armentires, a noble lady of Champagne. +her as Perronne d’Armentières, a noble lady of Champagne. In 1362, when Machaut must have been at least sixty-two years of age, he received a rondeau from Perronne, who was then eighteen, expressing her devotion. She no doubt wished to @@ -17589,7 +17550,7 @@ which ended with Perronne’s marriage and Machaut’s desire to remain her <i>doux ami</i>, has gleams of poetry, especially in Perronne’s verses, but its subject and its length are both deterrent to modern readers. But Machaut with Deschamps -marks a distinct transition. The <i>trouvres</i> had been impersonal. +marks a distinct transition. The <i>trouvères</i> had been impersonal. It is difficult to gather any details of their personal history from their work. Machaut and Deschamps wrote of their own affairs, and the next step in development was to be the self-analysis @@ -17600,27 +17561,27 @@ This was translated into modern notation by Perne, who read a notice on it before the Institute of France in 1817.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Machaut’s <i>Oeuvres choisies</i> were edited by P. Tarb (Rheims and +<p>Machaut’s <i>Oeuvres choisies</i> were edited by P. Tarbé (Rheims and Paris, 1849); <i>La Prise d’Alexandrie</i>, by L. de Mas-Latrie (Geneva, 1877); and <i>Le Livre du voir-dit</i>, by Paulin Paris (1875). See also -F. G. Ftis, <i>Biog. universelle des musiciens ...</i> (Paris, 1862), and a -notice on the <i>Instruments de musique au xiv<span class="sp">e</span> sicle d’aprs Guillaume +F. G. Fétis, <i>Biog. universelle des musiciens ...</i> (Paris, 1862), and a +notice on the <i>Instruments de musique au xiv<span class="sp">e</span> siècle d’après Guillaume de Machaut</i>, by E. Travers (Paris, 1882).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MACHIAVELLI, NICCOL<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1469-1527), Italian statesman +<p><span class="bold">MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1469-1527), Italian statesman and writer, was born at Florence on the 3rd of May 1469. His ancestry claimed blood relationship with the lords of Montespertoli, a fief situated between Val di Pesa and Val d’Elsa, at -no great distance from the city. Niccol’s father, Bernardo +no great distance from the city. Niccolò’s father, Bernardo (b. 1428), followed the profession of a jurist. He held landed -property worth something like 250 a year of our money. His +property worth something like £250 a year of our money. His son, though not wealthy, was never wholly dependent upon official income.</p> -<p>Of Niccol’s early years and education little is known. His +<p>Of Niccolò’s early years and education little is known. His works show wide reading in the Latin and Italian classics, but it is almost certain that he had not mastered the Greek language. To the defects of Machiavelli’s education we may, in part at @@ -17639,7 +17600,7 @@ Marcello Virgilio Adriani. Early in 1498 Adriani became chancellor of the republic, and Machiavelli received his vacated office with the rank of second chancellor and secretary. This post he retained till the year 1512. The masters he -had to serve were the <i>dieci di libert e pace</i>, who, though +had to serve were the <i>dieci di libertà e pace</i>, who, though subordinate to the <i>signoria</i>, exercised a separate control over the departments of war and the interior. They sent their own ambassadors to foreign powers, transacted business @@ -17651,7 +17612,7 @@ varying importance, and in the organization of a Florentine militia. It would be tedious to follow him through all his embassies to petty courts of Italy, the first of which took place in 1499, when he was sent to negotiate the continuance of a loan -to Catherine Sforza, countess of Forl and Imola. In 1500 +to Catherine Sforza, countess of Forlì and Imola. In 1500 Machiavelli travelled into France, to deal with Louis XII. about the affairs of Pisa. These embassies were the school in which Machiavelli formed his political opinions, and gathered views @@ -17965,7 +17926,7 @@ of the middle ages, and anticipated the next phase of European development. His prince, abating those points which are purely Italian or strongly tinctured with the author’s personal peculiarities, prefigured the monarchs of the 16th and 17th centuries, the monarchs -whose motto was <i>L’tat c’est moi!</i> His doctrine of a national militia +whose motto was <i>L’état c’est moi!</i> His doctrine of a national militia foreshadowed the system which has given strength in arms to France and Germany. His insight into the causes of Italian decadence was complete; and the remedies which he suggested, in the perorations @@ -18181,7 +18142,7 @@ craft and courage acting on the springs of human vice and weakness fails, unless the hero of the comedy or tragedy, Callimaco or Cesare, allows for the revolt of healthier instincts. Machiavelli does not seem to have calculated the force of this recoil. He speculates a -world in which <i>virt</i>, unscrupulous strength of character, shall deal +world in which <i>virtù</i>, unscrupulous strength of character, shall deal successfully with frailty. This, we submit, was a deep-seated error in his theory of life, an error to which may be ascribed the numerous stumbling-blocks and rocks of offence in his more serious writings.</p> @@ -18278,17 +18239,17 @@ Usigli (Florence, 1857). P. Fanfani and L. Passerini began another, which promised to be the most complete of all; but only 6 vols. were published (Florence, 1873-1877); the work contains many new and important documents on Machiavelli’s life. The best biography -is the standard work of Pasquale Villari, <i>La Storia di Niccol +is the standard work of Pasquale Villari, <i>La Storia di Niccolò Machiavelli e de’ suoi tempi</i> (Florence, 1877-1882; latest ed., 1895; Eng. trans. by Linda Villari, London, 1892); in vol. ii. there is an exhaustive criticism of the various authors who have written on -Machiavelli. See also T. Mundt, <i>Niccol Machiavelli und das +Machiavelli. See also T. Mundt, <i>Niccolò Machiavelli und das System der modernen Politik</i> (3rd ed., Berlin, 1867); E. Feuerlein, “<i>Zur Machiavelli-Frage</i>” in H. von Sybel’s <i>Histor. Zeitschrift</i> (Munich, 1868); P. S. Mancini, <i>Prelezioni con un saggio sul Machiavelli</i>; F. Nitti, <i>Machiavelli nella vita e nelle opere</i> (Naples, 1876); -O. Tomasini, <i>La Vita e gli scritti di Niccol Machiavelli</i> (Turin, 1883); -L. A. Burd, <i>Il Principe, by Niccol Machiavelli</i> (Oxford, 1891); +O. Tomasini, <i>La Vita e gli scritti di Niccolò Machiavelli</i> (Turin, 1883); +L. A. Burd, <i>Il Principe, by Niccolò Machiavelli</i> (Oxford, 1891); Lord Morley, <i>Machiavelli</i> (Romanes lecture, Oxford, 1897). <i>The Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1903), contains an essay on Machiavelli by L. A. Burd, with a very full biography.</p> @@ -18304,7 +18265,7 @@ upon assailants below.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MACHINE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (through Fr. from Lat. form <i>machina</i> of Gr. -<span class="grk" title="mchan">μηχανή</span>), any device or apparatus for the application or +<span class="grk" title="mêchanê">μηχανή</span>), any device or apparatus for the application or modification of force to a specific purpose. The term “simple machine” is applied to the six so-called mechanical powers—the lever, wedge, wheel and axle, pulley, screw, and inclined @@ -18321,7 +18282,7 @@ machina</i>, for the disentangling and conclusion of a plot by supernatural interference or by some accident extraneous to the natural development of the story. When a god had to be brought on the stage he was floated down from above by a -<span class="grk" title="geranos">γέρανος</span> (crane) or other machine (<span class="grk" title="mchan">μηχανή</span>). Euripides has +<span class="grk" title="geranos">γέρανος</span> (crane) or other machine (<span class="grk" title="mêchanê">μηχανή</span>). Euripides has been reproached with an excessive use of the device, but it has been pointed out (A. E. Haigh, <i>Tragic Drama of the Greeks</i>, p. 245 seq.) that only in two plays (<i>Orestes</i> and <i>Hippolytus</i>) is @@ -18404,7 +18365,7 @@ shot (then called “perdreaux”) against uncovered animate targets, and for work that was not sufficiently serious for the guns heavy arquebuses were employed. Infantry fire, too, was growing in power and importance. In 1551 a French army -contained 21 guns and 150 arquebuses <i> croc</i> and one <i>pice faon +contained 21 guns and 150 arquebuses <i>à croc</i> and one <i>pièce façon d’orgue</i>. By about 1570 it had been found that when an “organ” <span class="sidenote">“Organs.”]</span> was needed all that was necessary was to mount some @@ -18422,7 +18383,7 @@ But such weapons as these were more curious than useful. For work in the open field the musket came more and more to the front, its bullet became at least as formidable as that of an “organ,” and when it was necessary to obtain a concentrated -fire on a narrow front arquebuses <i> croc</i> were mounted for the +fire on a narrow front arquebuses <i>à croc</i> were mounted for the nonce in groups of four to six. The “organ” maintained a precarious existence, and is described by Montecucculi a century later, and one of twelve barrels figures in the list of military @@ -18443,7 +18404,7 @@ augmentation of infantry-fire power, so as to place an inferior army on an equality with a superior. At this time inventors were so numerous and so embarrassing that the French grand master of artillery, St Hilaire, in 1703 wrote that he would be -glad to have done with “ces sortes de gens secrets,” some of +glad to have done with “ces sortes de gens à secrets,” some of whom demanded a grant of compensation even when their experiments had failed. The machine-gun of the 17th and 18th centuries in fact possessed no advantage over contemporary @@ -18469,31 +18430,31 @@ with their artillery traditions, regarded the machine-gun therefore as a method of restoring the lost superiority of the gunner, while the Americans, equally in accordance with traditions and local circumstances, regarded it as a musketry machine. The -representative weapons evolved by each were the <i>canon balles</i>, +representative weapons evolved by each were the <i>canon à balles</i>, more commonly called <i>mitrailleuse</i>, and the Gatling gun.</p> -<p>The declared purpose of the <i>canon balles</i> was to replace the +<p>The declared purpose of the <i>canon à balles</i> was to replace the old artillery case-shot attack. Shrapnel, owing to the defects of the time-fuzes then available, had proved disappointing in the Italian War of 1859, and the gun itself, of the existing model, was not considered satisfactory. Napoleon III., a keen student of artillery, maintained a private arsenal and workshop at the -chteau of Meudon<a name="fa2u" id="fa2u" href="#ft2u"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and in 1866, in the alarm following upon +château of Meudon<a name="fa2u" id="fa2u" href="#ft2u"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and in 1866, in the alarm following upon <span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> -Kniggrtz, he ordered Commandant Reffye (1821-1880), the +Königgrätz, he ordered Commandant Reffye (1821-1880), the artillery officer he had placed in charge of it, to produce a machine-gun. Reffye held that the work of a mitrailleuse should only begin where that of the infantry rifle ceased. The handbook to his gun issued to the French army in 1870 stated that it was -<span class="sidenote">The Canon Balles, 1866-1870.</span> +<span class="sidenote">The Canon à Balles, 1866-1870.</span> “to carry balls to distances that the infantry, and the artillery firing case, could not reach.” The most suitable range was given as 1500-2000 yards against infantry in close order, 2000-2700 against artillery. -As the French shrapnel (<i>obus balles</i>) of these days was only +As the French shrapnel (<i>obus à balles</i>) of these days was only used to give its peculiar case-shot effect between 550 and 1350 yards, and even so sparingly and without much confidence in -its efficacy, it is clear that the <i>canon balles</i> was intended to +its efficacy, it is clear that the <i>canon à balles</i> was intended to do the field-gun’s work, except at (what were then) extreme field artillery ranges (2800 and above), in which case the ordinary gun with common shell (time or percussion) alone was used.</p> @@ -18595,14 +18556,14 @@ The second principle was that the mitrailleuses were to share the work of the guns, the latter battering obstacles with common shell, and the former being employed against troops in the open, and especially to cover and support the infantry advance. This tendency -to classify the rles of the artillery and to tell off the batteries each +to classify the rôles of the artillery and to tell off the batteries each in its special task has reappeared in the French, and to a more limited extent in the British, field artillery of to-day (the Germans alone resolutely opposing the idea of subdivision). The mitrailleuse of 1870 was, in fact, intended to do what the perfected Shrapnel of 1910 does, to transfer the case-shot attack to longer ranges. But, as we have seen, secrecy had prevented any general spread of knowledge -as to the uses to which the <i>canon balles</i> was to be put, and +as to the uses to which the <i>canon à balles</i> was to be put, and consequently, after a few weeks of the war, we find Reffye complaining that the machine-guns were being used by their battery commanders “in a perfectly idiotic fashion. They are only good at a great @@ -19325,10 +19286,10 @@ itself in the field even in savage warfare in the roughest country to be a very efficient and powerful weapon.</p> <p>The great difficulty which has to be met in all single-barrel -machine guns is the heating of the barrel. The 7 pints of +machine guns is the heating of the barrel. The 7½ pints of water in the water-jacket of the Maxim gun are raised to boiling -point by 600 rounds of rapid fire—<i>i.e.</i> in about 1 minutes—and -if firing be continued, about 1 pints of water are evaporated +point by 600 rounds of rapid fire—<i>i.e.</i> in about 1½ minutes—and +if firing be continued, about 1½ pints of water are evaporated for every 1000 rounds. Assuming that the operation is continuous, the rate of waste of energy due to heat expended on the water <i>alone</i> is equivalent to about 20 horse-power (294 foot @@ -19391,7 +19352,7 @@ wars, the machine-gun had been freely spoken of as “a diabolical weapon before which nothing could live,” but this did not contribute much to the science of handling it. Most military powers, indeed, distrusted it—actuated perhaps by the -remembrance of the vain hopes excited by the <i>canon balles</i>. +remembrance of the vain hopes excited by the <i>canon à balles</i>. It was not until the second half of the war of 1904-05 that the Japanese, taught by the effective handling of the Russian machine-guns at Liao-Yang, introduced it into their field armies, @@ -19572,8 +19533,8 @@ matter, and while the large machine-gun “detachments” are now definitely told off to the cavalry, new and smaller units have been formed, with the title “companies” to indicate their attachment to the infantry arm. A recent official -pronouncement as to the rle of the “companies” (Amendments -to <i>Exerzierreglement fr die Infanterie</i>, 1909) is to the effect +pronouncement as to the rôle of the “companies” (Amendments +to <i>Exerzierreglement für die Infanterie</i>, 1909) is to the effect that the companies are an integral part of the infantry, that their mission is to augment directly the fire of the infantry, and that their employment is in the hands of the infantry regimental @@ -19715,7 +19676,7 @@ except on the tripod. The Mark IV. tripod mounting, of which a sketch is given in fig. 21, weighs 48 ℔. The total weight of the fighting equipment is thus 84 ℔ only—an important consideration now that in action the gun is man-carried. The gun can be adjusted -to fire at heights varying from 2′ 6″ to 1′ 2″ only from the ground; +to fire at heights varying from 2′ 6″ to 1′ 2½″ only from the ground; in its lowest position, then, it is a little lower than the head of a man firing lying. All the later infantry machine-gun equipments are for pack transport and have no shields.</p> @@ -19767,7 +19728,7 @@ of very light guns of the Madsen type have been issued.</p> <p>The <i>Austrian</i> gun is the Schwarzlose, of which some details are given above. Pack transport is used, one mule taking the whole equipment with 1000 rounds. Weight of the gun 37.9 ℔, of the -tripod 41 ℔. The height of the tripod can be varied from 9 in. +tripod 41 ℔. The height of the tripod can be varied from 9¾ in. to 2 ft. above the ground. It is proposed that each cavalry regiment should have four guns, and each infantry regiment two. Switzerland adopted the Maxim in 1902. It is used principally as a substitute @@ -19778,16 +19739,16 @@ was after many trials adopted, and each infantry and cavalry regiment has a two-gun section of Maxims, with tripod mounting and pack transport.</p> -<p>See P. Azan, <i>Les premires mitrailleuses</i> (“Revue d’Histoire de -l’Arme,” July 1907); <i>Le Canon balles, 1870-1871</i> (“Revue d’Hist. -de l’Arme”, 1909); Lieut-Colonel E. Rogers in “Journal R. United +<p>See P. Azan, <i>Les premières mitrailleuses</i> (“Revue d’Histoire de +l’Armée,” July 1907); <i>Le Canon à balles, 1870-1871</i> (“Revue d’Hist. +de l’Armée”, 1909); Lieut-Colonel E. Rogers in “Journal R. United Service Institution” of 1905; Capt. R. V. K. Applin, <i>Machine-gun Tactics</i> (London, 1910) and paper in “J. R. United Service Inst.” (1910); War Office Handbook to the Maxim gun (1907); Capt. Cesbron Lavau, <i>Mitrailleuses de cavalerie</i>; Lieut. Buttin, <i>L’emploi des mitrailleuses d’infanterie</i>; Major J. Goots, <i>Les Mitrailleuses</i> -(Brussels, 1908); and Merkatz, <i>Unterrichtsbuch fr die Masch.-Gewehrabteilungen</i> -(Berlin, 1906); Korzen & Khn, <i>Waffenlehre</i>, &c.</p> +(Brussels, 1908); and Merkatz, <i>Unterrichtsbuch für die Masch.-Gewehrabteilungen</i> +(Berlin, 1906); Korzen & Kühn, <i>Waffenlehre</i>, &c.</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> @@ -19799,7 +19760,7 @@ signifies a weapon which delivers a shower of small projectiles (<i>mitraille</i>—grape or case shot), and has no special reference to its mechanical (hand or automatic) action.</p> -<p><a name="ft2u" id="ft2u" href="#fa2u"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Meudon Chteau had long been used for military experiments. +<p><a name="ft2u" id="ft2u" href="#fa2u"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Meudon Château had long been used for military experiments. The peasantry credited it with mysterious and terrible secrets, asserting even that it contained a tannery of human skins, this tradition perhaps relating to the war balloon constructed there @@ -19894,31 +19855,31 @@ for the enemy to counter-attack) until they can strike effectively.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MACAS<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> [<i>O NAMORODO</i>] (<i>fl.</i> 1360-1390), Galician <i>trovador</i>, +<p><span class="bold">MACÍAS<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> [<i>O NAMORODO</i>] (<i>fl.</i> 1360-1390), Galician <i>trovador</i>, held some position in the household of Enrique de Villena. He is represented by five poems in the <i>Cancianero de Baena</i>, -and is the reputed author of sixteen others. Macas lives by +and is the reputed author of sixteen others. Macías lives by virtue of the romantic legends which have accumulated round his name. The most popular version of his story is related -by Hernn Nuez. According to this tradition, Macas was +by Hernán Nuñez. According to this tradition, Macías was enamoured of a great lady, was imprisoned at Arjonilla, and was murdered by the jealous husband while singing the lady’s praises. There may be some basis of fact for this narrative, which became a favourite subject with contemporary Spanish -poets and later writers. Macas is mentioned in Rocaberti’s +poets and later writers. Macías is mentioned in Rocaberti’s <i>Gloria de amor</i> as the Castillan equivalent of Cabestanh; he afforded a theme to Lope de Vega in <i>Porfiar hasta morir</i>; in the 19th century, at the outset of the romantic movement <span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> -in Spain, he inspired Larra (<i>q.v.</i>) in the play <i>Macas</i> and in +in Spain, he inspired Larra (<i>q.v.</i>) in the play <i>Macías</i> and in the historical novel entitled <i>El doncel de Don Enrique el doliente</i>.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See H. A. Rennert, <i>Macias, o namorado; a Galician trobador</i> -(Philadelphia, 1900); Thodore J. de Puymaigre, <i>Les vieux auteurs +(Philadelphia, 1900); Théodore J. de Puymaigre, <i>Les vieux auteurs castillans</i> (1889-1890), i. 54-74; <i>Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano</i> (New York and London, 1902), ed. H. R. Lang; Christian F. Bellermann, -<i>Die alten Liederbcher der Portugiesen</i> (Berlin, 1840).</p> +<i>Die alten Liederbücher der Portugiesen</i> (Berlin, 1840).</p> </div> @@ -20251,13 +20212,13 @@ important compositions of this period of Mackenzie’s life were the Quartette in E flat for piano and strings. Op. 11, and an <span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span> overture, <i>Cervantes</i>, which owed its first performance to the -encouragement and help of von Blow. On the advice of this +encouragement and help of von Bülow. On the advice of this great pianist, he gave up his Edinburgh appointments, which had quite worn him out, and settled in Florence in order to compose. The cantatas <i>The Bride</i> (Worcester, 1881) and <i>Jason</i> (Bristol, 1882) belong to this time, as well as his first opera. This was commissioned for the Carl Rosa Company, and was written -to a version of Merime’s <i>Colomba</i> prepared by Franz Hueffer. +to a version of Merimée’s <i>Colomba</i> prepared by Franz Hueffer. It was produced with great success in 1883, and was the first of a too short series of modern English operas; Mackenzie’s second opera, <i>The Troubadour</i>, was produced by the same @@ -20386,7 +20347,7 @@ but Eccles appears to have induced some people to believe in him. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel, <i>The Man of the World</i>, the hero of which was as consistently bad as the “Man of Feeling” had been “constantly obedient to his -moral sense,” as Sir Walter Scott says. <i>Julia de Roubign</i> (1777), +moral sense,” as Sir Walter Scott says. <i>Julia de Roubigné</i> (1777), a story in letters, was preferred to his other novels by “Christopher North,” who had a high opinion of Mackenzie (see <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>, vol. i. p. 155, ed. 1866). The first of his dramatic @@ -20473,7 +20434,7 @@ the occupation of the soil by working farmers than to the solution of the problems of agrarian controversy. His best-known experiment was in land repurchase. A voluntary law (1892) was displaced by a compulsory act (1894), under which -between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in +between £5,000,000 and £6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in buying and subdividing estates for closer settlements, with excellent results. McKenzie also founded and expanded an efficient department of agriculture, in the functions of which @@ -20569,7 +20530,7 @@ which was headed by John Beverley Robinson. In November his paper appeared irregularly, and was on the point of suspending publication when his office was attacked and his type thrown into the bay by a number of the supporters of his opponents. In -an action against the chief rioters he was awarded 625 and costs, +an action against the chief rioters he was awarded £625 and costs, was thus enabled to set up a much larger and more efficient plant, and the <i>Colonial Advocate</i> ran till the 4th of November 1834.</p> @@ -20648,7 +20609,7 @@ Mackenzie united with much that was laughable not a little that was heroic. He could neither be bribed, bullied, nor cajoled. Perhaps the best instance of this is that in 1832 he refused from Lord Goderich an offer of a position which would have given -him great influence in Canada and an income of 1,500. He +him great influence in Canada and an income of £1,500. He was a born agitator, and as such tended to exaggeration and misrepresentation. But the evils against which he struggled were real and grave; the milder measures of the Constitutional @@ -20694,8 +20655,8 @@ Liard (650 m. long), which rises near the sources of the Pelly, west of the Rocky Mountains, and breaks through that range on its way to join the parent stream, Great Bear river, which drains Great Bear Lake, Nahanni, Dahadinni, Arctic Red, and Peel -rivers. The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135 W. and -68 50′ W., after flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta, +rivers. The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135° W. and +68° 50′ W., after flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta, not yet fully surveyed. With its continuation, Slave river, it is navigable from the Arctic Ocean to Fort Smith, a distance of over 1,200 m., and between the latter and the head of Lesser Slave Lake, @@ -20879,7 +20840,7 @@ of August 1847. His father, James Miller McKim (1810-1874), originally a Presbyterian minister, was a prominent abolitionist and one of the founders (1865) of the New York <i>Nation</i>. The son studied at Harvard (1866-1867) and at Paris in the -cole des Beaux-Arts (1867-1870), and in 1872 became an +École des Beaux-Arts (1867-1870), and in 1872 became an architect in New York City, entering the office of H. H. Richardson; in 1877 he formed a partnership with William Rutherford Mead (b. 1846), the firm becoming in 1879 McKim, Mead & @@ -20894,7 +20855,7 @@ McKim’s name is especially associated with the University Club in New York, with the Columbia University buildings, with the additions to the White House (1906), and, more particularly, with the Boston Public Library, for which the library of -Ste Genevive in Paris furnished the suggestion.</p> +Ste Geneviève in Paris furnished the suggestion.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -20959,383 +20920,7 @@ Historical Society of Wisconsin (Madison, 1898).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 43254-h.htm or 43254-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/2/5/43254/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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