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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 18:21:42 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 18:21:42 -0800 |
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diff --git a/43254-0.txt b/43254-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b8b283 --- /dev/null +++ b/43254-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18722 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43254 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LUTHER, MARTIN: "... den Gegenschriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, + Eck und Prierias, und den Antworten Luthers darauf ..." 'und' + amended from 'and'. + + ARTICLE LYLY, JOHN: "What the further relations between them were + we have no means of knowing ..." 'between' amended from 'beween'. + + ARTICLE LYRE: "Examination of the construction of the instruments + thus identified reveals the fact that both possessed + characteristics which have persisted throughout the middle ages to + the present day in various instruments evolved from these two + archetypes." 'identified' amended from 'indentified'. + + ARTICLE M: "... which survives in its earliest representations in + Greek. The greater length of the first limb of m is characteristic + of the earliest forms." 'survives' amended from 'survivies'. + + ARTICLE M: "The sound m can in unaccented syllables form a syllable + by itself without an audible vowel, e.g. the English word fathom + comes from an Anglo-Saxon fathm, where the m was so used." + 'English' amended from 'Enghlish'. + + ARTICLE MABUSE, JAN: "At Scawby he illustrates the legend of the + count of Toulouse, who parted with his worldly goods to assume the + frock of a hermit. " 'worldly' amended from 'wordly'. + + ARTICLE MACAQUE: "Mention of some of the more important species, + typifying distinct sub-generic groups, is made in the article + Primates." 'is' added. + + ARTICLE MACEDONIA: "... it contains a number of Greek word which + are often replaced in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin + synonyms." 'words' amended from 'works'. + + ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ: "Machiavelli returned from Germany in + June 1508." 'Machiavelli' amended from 'Michiavelli'. + + ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ: "He was exiled from Florence and + confined to the dominion for one year, and on the 17th of November + was further prohibited from setting foot in the Palazzo Pubblico." + 'further' amended from 'futher'. + + ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ: "It seems written to expose the + corruption of domestic life in Florence, and especially to satirize + the friars in their familiar part of go-betweens, tame cats, + confessors and adulterers." 'familiar' amended from 'familar'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVII, SLICE II + + Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + LURAY CAVERN MACABRE + LURCH McADAM, JOHN LOUDON + LURGAN MACAIRE + LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON McALESTER + LURISTAN MACALPINE, JOHN + LUSATIA MACAO + LUSHAI HILLS MACAQUE + LUSIGNAN MACARONI + LUSSIN MACARONICS + LUSTRATION MACARSCA + LUTE MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY + LUTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST MACASSAR + LUTHER, MARTIN MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY + LUTHERANS MACAW + LUTHER LEAGUE MACBETH + LUTON MACCABEES + LUTSK MACCABEES, BOOKS OF + LUTTERWORTH MacCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE + LUTTRELL, HENRY M'CARTHY, JUSTIN + LÜTTRINGHAUSEN McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY + LÜTZEN McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON + LÜTZOW, ADOLF McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER + LUXEMBURG, DE MONTMORENCY-B. MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD + LUXEMBURG (district) MACCLESFIELD + LUXEMBURG (town) M'CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD + LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS McCLINTOCK, JOHN + LUXOR McCLOSKEY, JOHN + LUXORIUS M'CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER + LUYNES MacCOLL, MALCOLM + LUZÁN DE SUELVES, IGNACIO McCOMBIE, WILLIAM + LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR McCOOK, ALEXANDER McDOWELL + LUZZATTI, LUIGI MacCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM + LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL + LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID McCOSH, JAMES + LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN McCOY, SIR FREDERICK + LYALL, EDNA M'CRIE, THOMAS + LYALLPUR MACCULLAGH, JAMES + LYCAEUS MACCULLOCH, HORATIO + LYCANTHROPY McCULLOCH, HUGH + LYCAON M'CULLOCH, SIR JAMES + LYCAONIA MACCULLOCH, JOHN + LYCEUM M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSAY + LYCIA McCULLOUGH, JOHN EDWARD + LYCK MACCUNN, HAMISH + LYCOPHRON MACDONALD, FLORA + LYCOPODIUM MACDONALD, GEORGE + LYCOSURA MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD + LYCURGUS (Spartan) MACDONALD, JACQUES ÉTIENNE ALEXANDRE + LYCURGUS (Attic orator) MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER + LYCURGUS (Greek leader) MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD + LYDD MACDONALD, LAWRENCE + LYDENBURG MACDONELL, JAMES + LYDFORD MACDONNELL, ALESTAIR RUADH + LYDGATE, JOHN MACDONNELL, SORLEY BOY + LYDIA MACDONOUGH, THOMAS + LYDUS, JOANNES LAURENTIUS MacDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER + LYE McDOWELL, IRVIN + LYELL, SIR CHARLES MACDUFF + LYLY, JOHN McDUFFIE, GEORGE + LYME REGIS MACE + LYMINGTON MACEDO, JOSÉ AGOSTINHO DE + LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION MACEDONIA + LYMPHATIC SYSTEM MACEDONIAN EMPIRE + LYNCH, PATRICIO MACEDONIUS + LYNCHBURG MACEIÓ + LYNCH LAW McENTEE, JERVIS + LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY MACER, AEMILIUS + LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID MACERATA + LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER + LYNN McGEE, THOMAS D'ARCY + LYNTON and LYNMOUTH McGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN + LYNX McGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER + LYON, MARY MASON MACGILLIVRAY, WILLIAM + LYON, NATHANIEL MacGREGOR, JOHN + LYONNESSE MACH, ERNST + LYONS, EDMUND LYONS MACHAERODUS + LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON LYONS MACHALE, JOHN + LYONS (city of France) MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE, BAPTISTE DE + LYONS, COUNCILS OF MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE + LYRA MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ + LYRE MACHICOLATION + LYRE-BIRD MACHINE + LYRICAL POETRY MACHINE-GUN + LYSANDER MACÍAS + LYSANIAS MACINTOSH, CHARLES + LYSIAS MACKAY, CHARLES + LYSIMACHUS MACKAY, HUGH + LYSIPPUS MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM + LYSIS OF TARENTUM MACKAY + LYSISTRATUS McKEESPORT + LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS McKEES ROCKS + LYTHAM MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER + LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER + LYTTELTON MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER + LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE BULWER-LYTTON MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL + LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE + M MACKENZIE, HENRY + MAAS, JOSEPH McKENZIE, SIR JOHN + MAASIN MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL + MAASSLUIS MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON + MAASTRICHT MACKENZIE (river of Canada) + MABILLON, JOHN MACKEREL + MABINOGION McKIM, CHARLES FOLLEN + MABUSE, JAN MACKINAC ISLAND + MACABEBE + + + + +LURAY CAVERN, a large cave in Page county, Virginia, U.S.A., 39° 35´ N. +and 78° 17´ W., near the village of Luray, on the Norfork & Western +railway. The valley, here 10 m. wide, extends from the Blue Ridge to the +Massanutton Mountain. The ridges lie in vast folds and wrinkles; and +elevations in the valley are often found to be pierced by erosion. Cave +Hill, 300 ft. above the water-level, had long been an object of local +interest on account of its pits and oval hollows or sink-holes, through +one of which, on the 13th of August 1878, Andrew J. Campbell and others +entered, thus discovering the cavern now described. + +The Luray cavern does not date beyond the Tertiary period, though carved +from the Silurian limestone. At some period, long subsequent to its +original excavation, and after many large stalactites had grown, it was +completely filled with glacial mud charged with acid, whereby the +dripstone was eroded into singularly grotesque shapes. After the mud had +been mostly removed by flowing water, these eroded forms remained amid +the new growths. To this contrast may be ascribed some of the most +striking scenes in the cave. The many and extraordinary monuments of +aqueous energy include massive columns wrenched from their place in the +ceiling and prostrate on the floor; the Hollow Column, 40 ft. high and +30 ft. in diameter, standing erect, but pierced by a tubular passage +from top to bottom; the Leaning Column nearly as large, undermined and +tilting like the campanile of Pisa; the Organ, a cluster of stalactites +in the chamber known as the Cathedral; besides a vast bed of +disintegrated carbonates left by the whirling flood in its retreat +through the great space called the Elfin Ramble. + +The stalactitic display exceeds that of any other cavern known. The old +material is yellow, brown or red; and its wavy surface often shows +layers like the gnarled grain of costly woods. The new stalactites +growing from the old, and made of hard carbonates that had already once +been used, are usually white as snow, though often pink, blue or +amber-coloured. The Empress Column is a stalagmite 35 ft. high, +rose-coloured, and elaborately draped. The double column, named from +Professors Henry and Baird, is made of two fluted pillars side by side, +the one 25 and the other 60 ft. high, a mass of snowy alabaster. +Several stalactites in the Giant Hall exceed 50 ft. in length. The +smaller pendants are innumerable; in the canopy above the Imperial +Spring it is estimated that 40,000 are visible at once. + +The "cascades" are wonderful formations like foaming cataracts caught in +mid-air and transformed into milk-white or amber alabaster. The +Chalcedony Cascade displays a variety of colours. Brand's Cascade, the +finest of all, is 40 ft. high and 30 ft. wide, and is unsullied and +wax-like white, each ripple and braided rill seeming to have been +polished. + +The Swords of the Titans are monstrous blades, eight in number, 50 ft. +long, 3 to 8 ft. wide, hollow, 1 to 2 ft. thick, but drawn down to an +extremely thin edge, and filling the cavern with tones like tolling +bells when struck heavily by the hand. Their origin and also that of +certain so-called scarfs and blankets is from carbonates deposited by +water trickling down a sloping and corrugated surface. Sixteen of these +alabaster scarfs hang side by side in Hovey's Balcony, three white and +fine as crape shawls, thirteen striated like agate with every shade of +brown, and all perfectly translucent. Down the edge of each a tiny rill +glistens like silver, and this is the ever-plying shuttle that weaves +the fairy fabric. + +[Illustration: Luray Cavern. Scale 500 ft. to the inch. + + 1. The Vestibule. 19. Chalcedony Cascade. + 2. Washington's Pillar. 20. Coral Spring. + 3. Flower Garden. 21. The Dragon. + 4. Amphitheatre. 22. Bootjack Alley. + 5. Natural Bridge. 23. Scaly Column. + 6. Fish Market. 24. Lost Blanket. + 7. Crystal Spring. 25. Helen's Scarf. + 8. Proserpine's Pillar. 26. Chapman's Lake. + 9. The Spectral Column. 27. Broaddus Lake. + 10. Hovey's Balcony. 28. Castles on the Rhine. + 11. Oberon's Grot. 29. Imperial Spring. + 12. Titania's Veil. 30. The Skeleton. + 13. Saracen's Tent. 31. The Twin Lakes. + 14. The Organ. 32. The Engine Room. + 15. Tower of Babel. 33. Miller's Room. + 16. Empress Column. 34. Hawes Cabinet. + 17. Hollow Column. 35. Specimen Avenue. + 18. Henry-Baird Column. 36. Proposed Exit.] + +Streams and true springs are absent, but there are hundreds of basins, +varying from 1 to 50 ft. in diameter, and from 6 in. to 15 ft. in depth. +The water in them is exquisitely pure, except as it is impregnated by +the carbonate of lime, which often forms concretions, called according +to their size, pearls, eggs and snowballs. A large one is known as the +cannon ball. On fracture these spherical growths are found to be +radiated in structure. + + Calcite crystals, drusy, feathery or fern-like, line the sides and + bottom of every water-filled cavity, and indeed constitute the + substance of which they are made. Variations of level at different + periods are marked by rings, ridges and ruffled margins. These are + strongly marked about Broaddus Lake and the curved ramparts of the + Castles on the Rhine. Here also are polished stalagmites, a rich buff + slashed with white, and others, like huge mushrooms, with a velvety + coat of red, purple or olive-tinted crystals. In some of the smaller + basins it sometimes happens that, when the excess of carbonate acid + escapes rapidly, there is formed, besides the crystal bed below, a + film above, shot like a sheet of ice across the surface. One pool 12 + ft. wide is thus covered so as to show but a third of its surface. The + quantity of water in the cavern varies greatly at different seasons. + Hence some stalactites have their tips under water long enough to + allow tassels of crystals to grow on them, which, in a drier season, + are again coated over with stalactitic matter; and thus singular + distortions are occasioned. Contiguous stalactites are often inwrapped + thus till they assume an almost globular form, through which by making + a section the primary tubes appear. Twig-like projections, to which + the term _helictite_ has been applied by the present writer, are met + with in certain portions of the cave, and are interesting by their + strange and uncouth contortions. Their presence is due to lateral + outgrowths of crystals shooting from the side of a growing stalactite, + or to deflections caused by currents of air, or to the existence of a + diminutive fungus peculiar to the locality and designated from its + habitat _Mucor stalactitis_. The Toy-Shop is an amusing collection of + these freaks of nature. + +The dimensions of the various chambers included in Luray Cavern cannot +easily be stated, on account of the great irregularity of their +outlines. Their size may be seen from the diagram. But it should be +understood that there are several tiers of galleries, and the vertical +depth from the highest to the lowest is 260 ft. The large tract of land +owned by the Luray Caverns Corporations covers all possible modes of +entrance. + +The waters of this cavern appear to be entirely destitute of life; and +the existing fauna comprises only a few bats, rats, mice, spiders, flies +and small centipedes. When the cave was first entered, the floor was +covered with thousands of tracks of raccoons, wolves and bears--most of +them probably made long ago, as impressions made in the tenacious clay +that composes most of the cavern floor would remain unchanged for +centuries. Layers of excrementitious matter appear, and also many small +bones, along with a few large ones, all of existing species. The traces +of human occupation are pieces of charcoal, flints, moccasin tracks and +a single skeleton embedded in stalagmite in one of the chasms, +estimated, from the present rate of stalagmitic growth, to have lain +where found for not more than five hundred years. + +The temperature is uniformly 54° Fahr., coinciding with that of Mammoth +Cave, Kentucky. The air is very pure, and the avenues are not +uncomfortably damp. The portions open to the public are now lighted by +electric lamps. The registered number of visitors in 1906 was 18,000. A +unique and highly successful experiment merits mention, by which the +cool pure air of Luray Cavern is forced through all the rooms of the +Limair sanatorium erected in 1901, by Mr T. C. Northcott, president of +the Luray Caverns Corporation, on the summit of Cave Hill. Tests made +for several successive years by means of culture media and sterile +plates, demonstrated the perfect bacteriologic purity of the air, first +drawn into the caverns through myriads of rocky crevices that served as +natural filters, then further cleansed by floating over the transparent +springs and pools, and finally supplied to the inmates of the +sanatorium. + + For a full description see an article by Dr G. L. Hunner, of Johns + Hopkins University, in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for April 1904. + (H. C. H.) + + + + +LURCH, a word with several meanings, the etymological relationships of +which are obscure. The chief uses which survive are--(1) in the phrase +"to leave in the lurch," to abandon some one, to leave him in a position +of great difficulty; (2) a stagger, sudden leaning over, originally a +nautical expression of a sudden "list" made by a ship; (3) the name of a +dog, the "lurcher" used by poachers, properly a cross between a sheepdog +or collie and a greyhound. In (1) "lurch" is the name of a game, of +which nothing is known (it is supposed to have resembled backgammon), +and also of a state of the score in various games, in which the loser +either scores nothing or is beaten by very heavy points. In this sense +the term is practically obsolete. It was taken from Fr. _lourche_, +connected with many German forms, now only dialectical such as +_Lortsch_, _Lurtsch_, _Lorz_, _Lurz_, all for some kind of game, but +also meaning left-hand, wrong, which the _New English Dictionary_ thinks +is the origin of the word, it being first used as a term in gambling. In +(2) "lurch" occurs first in the form "lee-lurches," sudden rolls a ship +takes to leeward in a heavy sea, which may be a corruption of +"lee-latch," defined in Smyth's _Sailor's Word Book_ as dropping to +leeward of the course. In (3) "lurch" is probably another form of +"lurk," to lie in wait for, watch stealthily, hence to pilfer, steal. + + + + +LURGAN, a market-town of Co. Armagh, Ireland, well situated on high +ground overlooking Lough Neagh a few miles to the north; 20 m. S.W. of +Belfast by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 11,782. The parish +church of Shankill (this parish including Lurgan) has a finely +proportioned tower. Contiguous to the town is Lurgan Castle, a fine +modern Elizabethan structure, the seat of Lord Lurgan. Lurgan is famed +for its diapers, and the linen trade is of the first importance, but +there are also tobacco factories and coach factories. It is governed by +an urban district council. Lurgan was founded by William Brownlow, to +whom a grant of the town was made by James I. In 1619 it consisted of +forty-two houses, all inhabited by English settlers. It was burned by +the insurgents in 1641, and again by the troops of James II. After its +restoration in 1690 a patent for a market and fair was obtained. + + + + +LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (1534-1572), Jewish mystic, was born in +Jerusalem. From his German descent he was surnamed _Ashkenazi_ (the +German), and we find that epithet applied to him in a recently +discovered document of date 1559. In that year Isaac Luria was living in +Cairo and trading as a spice merchant with his headquarters in +Alexandria. He had come to Egypt as a boy after his father's death, and +was brought up by his wealthy maternal uncle Mordecai Francis. The boy, +according to the legends which soon grew round his life, was a +"wonder-child," and early displayed marvellous capacity. He married as a +lad of fifteen, his bride being his cousin. For some time he continued +his studies; later on when engaged in business there was no break in +this respect. Two years after his marriage he became possessed of a copy +of the Kabbalistic "Bible"--the _Zohar_ of Moses de Léon (q.v.). In +order to meditate on the mystic lore he withdrew to a hut by the Nile, +returning home for the Sabbath. Luria afterwards gave to the Sabbath a +mystic beauty such as it had never before possessed. Thus passed several +years; he was still young, but his new mode of life produced its effects +on a man of his imagination and saintly piety. He became a visionary. +Elijah, who had been his godfather in his babyhood, now paid him +frequent visits, initiating him into sublime truths. By night Luria's +soul ascended to heaven and conversed with celestial teachers who had +once been men of renown on earth. + +In 1566 at earliest Luria removed to Safed. This Palestinian town was in +the 16th century the headquarters of the Kabbala. A large circle of +Talmudists lived there; at their head Joseph Qaro, then over eighty +years of age. Qaro's son married Luria's daughter, and Qaro rejoiced at +the connexion, for he had a high opinion of Luria's learning. Mysticism +is often the expression of a revolt against authority, but in Luria's +case mysticism was not divorced from respect for tradition. After his +arrival at Safed Luria lived at most six years, and died in 1572. But +these years were momentous for Judaism. He established an extraordinary +reputation; his personality had a winning attractiveness; and he founded +a school of mystics who powerfully affected Judaism after the master's +death. The Holy Spirit, we are told, rested on him, drawn to him by the +usual means of the mystics--self-flogging, ablutions and penance. He had +wonderful gifts of insight, and spoke to the birds. Miracles abounded. +More soberly true is the statement that he went on long walks with +enthusiastic disciples, whom he taught without books. Luria himself +wrote no mystical works; what we know of his doctrines and habits comes +chiefly from his Boswell, Hayim Vital. + + There was little of originality in Luria's doctrines; the theory of + emanations, the double belief in the process of the Divine Essence as + it were self-concentrating (_Zimzum_) and on the other hand as + expanding throughout creation; the philosophical "sceptism" which + regards God as unknowable but capable of direct intuition by + feeling--these were all common elements of mystical thought. Luria was + an inspirer of saintly conduct rather than an innovator in theories. + Not beliefs, he said, but believers need rebirth. As he rose in the + morning he prayed: "O God, grant that throughout this coming day I may + be able to love my neighbour as myself." Never would he retire to rest + until he had fulfilled his definite engagements to those who had + served him. Luria and his school altered the very look of the Jewish + Prayer Book. Prayer was his main prop. By it men became controllers of + the earthly world and reached God. He or his school introduced + innumerable ritual customs, some of them beautiful enough. On Sabbath + he dressed in white, wearing a four-fold garment to typify the four + letters of the Divine Name. The Sabbath was to him an actual cult. It + was a day of the most holy joy. Resuming the Talmudic idea of an + Over-soul present in every Israelite on the Sabbath, Luria and his + school made play with this Over-soul, fed it with spiritual and + material dainties and evolved an intricate maze of mystic ceremonial, + still observed by countless masses. Another strong point with Luria + was penance. The confessions of sin which he introduced descend to + minute ritual details and rise to the most exalted aspects of social + and spiritual life. He deprecated general confessions and demanded + that the individual must lay bare the recesses of his heart. Hayim + Vital reports that on his death-bed Luria said to his disciples: "Be + at peace with one another: bear with one another: and so be worthy of + my coming again to reveal to you what no mortal ear has heard before." + His mystic ceremonial became a guide to religious practice, and though + with this there came in much meaningless and even bewildering + formalism, yet the example of his life and character was a lasting + inspiration to saintliness. + + See S. Schecher, _Studies in Judaism_, second series, pp. 251 seq.; + _Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 210; E. Worman in _Revue des Études + Juives_, lvii. 281. (I. A.) + + + + +LURISTAN, in the wider sense (as its name implies) the "Land of the +Lurs," namely that part of western Persia which is bounded by Turkish +territory on the west and extends for about 400 m. N.W.-S.E. from +Kermanshah to Fars with a breadth of 100 to 140 m. It is chiefly +mountainous, being intersected by numerous ranges running N.W.-S.E. The +central range has many summits which are almost within the line of +perpetual snow, rising to 13,000 ft. and more, and in it are the sources +of Persia's most important rivers, as the Zayendeh-rud, Jarahi, Karun, +Diz, Abi, Kerkheh. Between the higher ranges are many fertile plains and +low hilly districts, well watered but comparatively little cultivated in +consequence of intertribal feuds. The Lurs are thought to be aboriginal +Persians with a mixture of Semitic blood. Their language is a dialect of +Persian and does not differ materially from Kurdish. Outwardly they are +Mussulmans of the Shiah branch, but most of them show little veneration +for either Prophet or Koran, and the religion of some of them seems to +be a mixture of Ali-Illahism involving a belief in successive +incarnations combined with mysterious, ancient, heathen rites. The +northern part of Luristan, which was formerly known as Lurikuchik +(little Luristan), is inhabited by the Feili Lurs and these are divided +into the Pishkuh (cis-montane) Lurs in the east and Pushtkuh +(ultra-montane) Lurs in the west adjoining Turkish territory. They +number about 350,000. Little Luristan was governed by a race of +independent princes of the Khurshidi dynasty, and called atabegs, from +1155 to the beginning of the 17th century when the last atabeg, Shah +Verdi Khan, was removed by Shah Abbas I. and the government of the +province given to Husain Khan, the chief of a rival tribe, with the +title of vali in exchange for that of atabeg. The descendants of Husain +Khan have retained the title but now govern only the Pushtkuh Lurs, to +whom only the denomination of Feili is at present applied. The southern +part of Luristan was formerly known as Lur i Buzurg (great Luristan) and +is composed of the Bakhtiari division of the Arabistan province and the +districts of the Mamasennis and Kuhgilus which belong to Fars. The +Bakhtiaris number about 200,000, the others 40,000. Great Luristan was +an independent state under the Fazlevieh atabegs from 1160 until 1424, +and its capital was Idaj, now represented by mounds and ruins at Malamir +60 m. S.E. of Shushter. + + + + +LUSATIA (Ger. _Lausitz_), a name applied to two neighbouring districts +in Germany, Upper and Lower Lusatia, belonging now mainly to Prussia, +but partly to Saxony. The name is taken from the Lusitzi, a Slav tribe, +who inhabited Lower Lusatia in the 9th and 10th centuries. + +In the earliest times Lower Lusatia reached from the Black Elster to the +Spree; its inhabitants, the Lusitzi, were conquered by the German king, +Henry the Fowler, and by the margrave Gero in the 10th century. Their +land was formed into a separate march, which for about three centuries +was sometimes attached to, and sometimes independent of, the margraviate +of Meissen, its rulers being occasionally called margraves of Lusatia. +In 1303 it was purchased by the margrave of Brandenburg, and after other +changes it fell in 1368 into the hands of the king of Bohemia, the +emperor Charles IV., who already possessed Upper Lusatia. During the +Hussite wars its people remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church. In +1469 they recognized Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, as their +sovereign, but in 1490 they came again under the rule of the Bohemian +king. + +The district now known as Upper Lusatia was occupied by a Slav tribe, the +Milzeni, who like the Lusitzi, were subdued by Henry the Fowler early in +the 10th century. For about three centuries it was called Baudissin +(Bautzen), from the name of its principal fortress. In the 11th and 12th +centuries it was connected at different periods with Meissen, Poland and +Bohemia. Towards 1160 the emperor Frederick I. granted it to Ladislas, +king of Bohemia, and under this ruler and his immediate successors it was +largely colonized by German immigrants. In 1253 it passed to the margrave +of Brandenburg, and about the same time it was divided into an eastern +and a western part, Baudissin proper and Görlitz. In 1319 the former was +restored to Bohemia, which also recovered Görlitz in 1329. During the +14th century the nobles and the townsmen began to take part in the +government, and about this time Upper Lusatia was known as the district +of the six towns (_Sechsstädtelandes_), these being Bautzen, Görlitz, +Zittau, Löbau, Lauban and Kamenz. From 1377 to 1396 Görlitz was a +separate duchy ruled by John, a son of the emperor Charles IV., and, like +Lower Lusatia, Upper Lusatia owned the authority of Matthias Corvinus +from 1469 to 1490, both districts passing a little later with the +kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia to the German king, Ferdinand I. The "six +towns" were severely punished for their share in the war of the league of +Schmalkalden, and about this time the reformed teaching made very rapid +progress in Lusatia, the majority of the inhabitants becoming +Protestants. The name of Lusatia hitherto confined to Lower Lusatia, was +soon applied to both districts, the adjectives Upper and Lower being used +to distinguish them. In 1620, early in the Thirty Years' War, the two +Lusatias were conquered by the elector of Saxony, John George I., who was +allowed to keep them as the price of his assistance to the emperor +Ferdinand I. In 1635 by the treaty of Prague they were definitely +transferred from Bohemia to Saxony, although the emperor as king of +Bohemia retained a certain supremacy for the purpose of guarding the +rights and privileges of the Roman Catholics. They suffered much during +the wars of the 18th century. By the peace of Vienna (1815) the whole of +Lower Lusatia and part of Upper Lusatia were transferred from Saxony to +Prussia. + +The area of the part of Upper Lusatia retained by Saxony was slightly +increased in 1845; it is now about 960 sq. m. In 1900 Lower Lusatia +contained 461,973 inhabitants, of whom 34,837 were Wends; the portion of +Upper Lusatia belonging to Prussia had 305,080 inhabitants, of whom +24,361 were Wends. There were 405,173 inhabitants, including 28,234 +Wends, in Saxon Upper Lusatia. Laws relating to this district, after +passing through the Saxon parliament must be submitted to the Lusatian +diet at Bautzen. The chief towns of Upper Lusatia are Bautzen, Zittau, +Löbau, Kamenz, Görlitz, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda and Lauban; in Lower +Lusatia they are Guben, Kottbus, Forst, Lübben and Spremberg. The +principal rivers are the Spree with its tributaries, the Black Elster +and the Neisse. Upper Lusatia is generally mountainous and picturesque, +Lower Lusatia is flat and sandy. The chief industries are linen weaving, +cloth making and coal mining. + + For the history of Lusatia see the collections, _Scriptores rerum + Lusaticarum antiqui et recentiores_, edited by C. G. Hoffmann (4 + vols., Leipzig and Bautzen, 1719); and _Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum_ + (4 vols., Görlitz, 1839-1870). See also W. Lippert, _Wettiner und + Wittelsbacher sowie die Niederlausitz im 14 Jahrhundert_ (Dresden, + 1894); T. Scheltz, _Gesamtgeschichte der Ober- und Niederlausitz_, + Band i. (Halle, 1847), Band ii. (Görlitz, 1882); J. G. Worbs, + _Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Markgraftums Niederlausitz_ (Lübben + 1897); and J. A. E. Köhler, _Die Geschichte der Oberlausitz_ (Görlitz, + 1867). + + + + +LUSHAI HILLS, a mountainous district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, south +of Cachar, on the border between Assam and Burma. Area, 7227 sq. m.; +pop. (1901) 82,434. The hills are for the most part covered with dense +bamboo jungle and rank undergrowth; but in the eastern portion, owing +probably to a smaller rainfall, open grass-covered slopes are found, +with groves of oak and pine interspersed with rhododendrons. These hills +are inhabited by the Lushais and cognate tribes, but the population is +extremely scanty. From the earliest known times the original inhabitants +were Kukis, and the Lushais were not heard of until 1840, when they +invaded the district from the north. Their first attack upon British +territory took place in November 1849, and after that date they proved +one of the most troublesome tribes on the north-east frontier of India; +but operations in 1890 resulted in the complete pacification of the +northern Lushai villages, and in 1892 the eastern Lushais were reduced +to order. The management of the South Lushai hill country was +transferred from Bengal to Assam in 1898. To obtain more efficient +control over the country the district has been divided into eighteen +circles, each in charge of an interpreter, through whom all orders are +transmitted to the chiefs. The Welsh Presbyterian Mission began work at +Aijal in 1897, and the people have shown unexpected readiness to accept +education. According to the census of 1901 the total number of Lushais +in Assam was 63,452. + + See Colonel T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of N.E. India_ (1870); _Lushai + Hills Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1906). + + + + +LUSIGNAN, the name of a family which sprang from Poitou[1] and +distinguished itself by its connexion with the kingdom of Jerusalem, and +still more by its long tenure of the kingdom of Cyprus (1192-1475). A +Hugh de Lusignan appears in the ill-fated crusade of 1100-1101; another +Hugh, the Brown, came as a pilgrim to the Holy Land in 1164, and was +taken prisoner by Nureddin. In the last quarter of the 12th century the +two brothers Amalric and Guy, sons of Hugh the Brown, played a +considerable part in the history of the Latin East. About 1180 Amalric +was constable of the kingdom of Jerusalem; and he is said to have +brought his handsome brother Guy to the notice of Sibylla, the widowed +heiress of the kingdom. Guy and Sibylla were married in 1180; and Guy +thus became heir presumptive of the kingdom, if the young Baldwin V., +Sibylla's son by her first marriage to William of Montferrat, should die +without issue. He acted as regent in 1183, but he showed some incapacity +in the struggle with Saladin, and was deprived of all right of +succession. In 1186, however, on the death of Baldwin V., he succeeded +in obtaining the crown, in spite of the opposition of Raymund of +Tripoli. Next year he suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of +Hittin, and was taken prisoner by Saladin. Released on parole in 1188, +he at once broke his parole, and began the siege of Acre. Difficulties, +however, had arisen with Conrad of Montferrat; and when Guy lost his +wife Sibylla in 1190, and Conrad married Isabella, her sister, now +heiress of the kingdom, these difficulties culminated in Conrad's laying +claim to the crown. Guy found his cause espoused in 1191 by the overlord +of his house, Richard I. of England; but Conrad's superior ability, and +the support of the French crusaders, ultimately carried the day, and in +1192 Richard himself abandoned the pretensions of Guy, and recognized +Conrad as king. Though Conrad was almost immediately assassinated, the +crown did not return to Guy, but went to Henry of Champagne, who +married the widowed Isabella. Guy found some satisfaction for his loss +in buying from the Templars the island of Cyprus, and there he reigned +for the last two years of his life (1192-1194). He is judged harshly by +contemporary writers, as _simplex_ and _insufficiens_; but Dodu (in his +_Histoire des institutions du royaume de Jerusalem_) suggests that Guy +was depreciated because the kingdom had been lost in his reign, in much +the same way as Godfrey of Bouillon was exalted because Jerusalem had +just been won at his accession. Guy was a brave if not a particularly +able knight; and his instant attack on Acre after his release by Saladin +shows that he had the _sentiment de ses devoirs_. + +He was succeeded in Cyprus by his brother Amalric, who acquired the +title of king of Cyprus from the emperor Henry VI., and became king of +Jerusalem in 1197 by his marriage to Isabella, after the death of Henry +of Champagne (see AMALRIC II.). Amalric was the founder of a dynasty of +kings of Cyprus, which lasted till 1475, while after 1269 his +descendants regularly enjoyed the title of kings of Jerusalem. The +scions of the house of Lusignan proved themselves the most sincere of +crusaders. They possessed in Cyprus a kingdom, in which they had +vindicated for themselves a stronger hold over their feudatories than +the kings of Jerusalem had ever enjoyed, and in which trading centres +like Famagusta flourished vigorously; and they used the resources of +their kingdom, in conjunction with the Hospitallers of Rhodes, to check +the progress of the Mahommedans. + +Among the most famous members of the house who ruled in Cyprus three may +be mentioned. The first is Hugh III. (the Great), who was king from 1267 +to 1285: to him, apparently, St Thomas dedicated his _De Regimine +Principum_; and it is in his reign that the kingdom of Jerusalem becomes +permanently connected with that of Cyprus. The second is Hugh IV. +(1324-1359), to whom Boccaccio dedicated one of his works, and who set +on foot an alliance with the pope, Venice and the Hospitallers, which +resulted in the capture of Smyrna (1344). The last is Peter I., Hugh's +second son and successor, who reigned from 1359 to 1369, when he was +assassinated as the result of a conspiracy of the barons. Peter and his +chancellor de Mezières represent the last flicker of the crusading +spirit (see CRUSADES). + +Before the extinction of the line in 1475, it had succeeded in putting a +branch on the throne of Armenia. Five short-lived kings of the house +ruled in Armenia after 1342, "Latin exiles," as Stubbs says, "in the +midst of several strange populations all alike hostile." The kingdom of +Armenia fell before the sultan of Egypt, who took prisoner its last king +Leo V. in 1375, though the kings of Cyprus afterwards continued to bear +the title; the kingdom of Cyprus itself continued to exist under the +house of Lusignan for 100 years longer. The mother of the last king, +James III. (who died when he was two years old), was a Venetian lady, +Catarina Cornaro. She had been made a daughter of the republic at the +time of her marriage to the king of Cyprus; and on the death of her +child the republic first acted as guardian for its daughter, and then, +in 1489, obtained from her the cession of the island. + + See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, _Histoire de l'île de Chypre sous les + princes de la maison de Lusignan_ (Paris, 1852-1853); W. Stubbs, + _Lectures on Medieval and Modern History_ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1900). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A branch of the line continued in Poitou during the 13th century, + and ruled in LaMarche till 1303. Hugh de la Marche, whose betrothed + wife, Isabella of Angoulême, King John of England seized (thus + bringing upon himself the loss of the greater part of his French + possessions), was a nephew of Guy of Lusignan. He ultimately married + Isabella, after the death of John, and had by her a number of sons, + half-brothers of Henry III. of England, who came over to England, + amongst other foreign favourites, during his reign. + + + + +LUSSIN, a small island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Gulf of Quarnero, +forming together with the adjacent islands of Veglia and Cherso an +administrative district in the Austrian crownland of Istria. Pop. (1900) +11,615. The island is 24 m. in length, is of an average breadth of 1.64 +m., being little more than 300 yds. wide at its narrowest point, and has +an area of 29 sq. m. The chief town and principal harbour is +Lussinpiccolo (pop. 7207), which is the most important trading centre in +the Quarnero group. The town has become a favourite winter resort, its +climate resembling that of Nice. To the south-east of it is Lussingrande +(pop. 2349), with an old Venetian palace and a shipbuilding wharf. The +island was first peopled at the end of the 14th century. Its inhabitants +are renowned seamen. + + + + +LUSTRATION, a term that includes all the methods of purification and +expiation among the Greeks and Romans. Among the Greeks there are two +ideas clearly distinguishable--that human nature must purify itself +([Greek: katharsis]) from guilt before it is fit to enter into communion +with God or even to associate with men, and that guilt must be expiated +voluntarily ([Greek: hilasmos]) by certain processes which God has +revealed, in order to avoid the punishment that must otherwise overtake +it. It is not possible to make such a distinction among the Latin terms +_lustratio_, _piacula_, _piamenta_, _caerimoniae_, and even among the +Greeks it is not consistently observed. Guilt and impurity arose in +various ways; among the Greeks, besides the general idea that man is +always in need of purification, the species of guilt most insisted on by +religion are incurred by murder, by touching a dead body, by sexual +intercourse, and by seeing a prodigy or sign of the divine will. The +last three spring from the idea that man had been without preparation +and improperly brought into communication with God, and was therefore +guilty. The first, which involves a really moral idea of guilt, is far +more important than the others in Hellenic religion. Among the Romans we +hear more of the last species of impurity; in general the idea takes the +form that after some great disaster the people become convinced that +guilt has been incurred and must be expiated. The methods of +purification consist in ceremonies performed with water, fire, air or +earth, or with a branch of a sacred tree, especially of the laurel, and +also in sacrifice and other ceremonial. Before entering a temple the +worshipper dipped his hand in the vase of holy water ([Greek: +perirrhanterion], _aqua lustralis_) which stood at the door; before a +sacrifice bathing was common; salt-water was more efficacious than +fresh, and the celebrants of the Eleusinian mysteries bathed in the sea +([Greek: halade, mystai]); the water was more efficacious if a firebrand +from the altar were plunged in it. The torch, fire and sulphur ([Greek: +to theion]) were also powerful purifying agents. Purification by air was +most frequent in the Dionysiac mysteries; puppets suspended and swinging +in the air (_oscilla_) formed one way of using the lustrative power of +the air. Rubbing with sand and salt was another method. The sacrifice +chiefly used for purification by the Greeks was a pig; among the Romans +it was always, except in the Lupercalia, a pig, a sheep and a bull +(_suovetaurilia_). In Athens a purificatory sacrifice and prayer was +held before every meeting of the ecclesia; the Maimacteria,[1] in honour +of Zeus Maimactes (the god of wrath), was an annual festival of +purification, and at the Thargelia two men (or a woman and a man) were +sacrificed on the seashore, their bodies burned and the ashes thrown +into the sea, to avert the wrath of Apollo. On extraordinary occasions +lustrations were performed for a whole city. So Athens was purified by +Epimenides after the Cylonian massacre, and Delos in the Peloponnesian +War (426 B.C.) to stop the plague and appease the wrath of Apollo. In +Rome, besides such annual ceremonies as the _Ambarvalia_, _Lupercalia_, +_Cerialia_, _Paganalia_, &c., there was a lustration of the fleet before +it sailed, and of the army before it marched. Part of the ceremonial +always consisted in leading or carrying the victims round the impure +persons or things. After any disaster the _lustratio classium_ or +_exercitus_ was often again performed, so as to make certain that the +gods got all their due. The _Amburbium_, a solemn procession of the +people round the boundaries of Rome, was a similar ceremonial performed +for the whole city on occasions of great danger or calamity; the +_Ambilustrium_ (so called from the sacrificial victims being carried +round the people assembled on the Campus Martius) was the purificatory +ceremony which took place after the regular quinquennial census +(_lustrum_) of the Roman people. + + See C. F. Hermann, _Griechische Altertümer_, ii.; G. F. Schömann, + _ib._ ii.; P. Stengel, _Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer_ (1898); + Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. p. 200 (1885); P. E. von + Lasaulx, _Die Sühnopfer der Griechen und Römer_ (1841); J. Donaldson, + "On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of the Greeks," in + _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xxvii., 1876; and + the articles by A. Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, + _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, and by W. Warde Fowler in Smith's + _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1891). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Maimacteria does not actually occur in ancient authorities as the + name of a festival. + + + + +LUTE (Arabic _al'ud_, "the wood"; Fr. _luth_; Ital. _liuto_; Span. +_laud_; Ger. _Laute_; Dut. _luit_), an ancient stringed musical +instrument, derived in form as well as name from the Arabs. The complete +family consisted of the pandura, tanbur or mandoline as treble, the lute +as alto or tenor, the barbiton or theorbo as bass, and the chitarrone as +double bass. The Arab instrument, with convex sound-body, pointing to +the resonance board or membrane having been originally placed upon a +gourd, was strung with silk and played with a plectrum of shell or +quill. It was adopted by the Arabs from Persia. Instruments with vaulted +backs are all undoubtedly of Eastern origin; the distinct type, +resembling the longitudinal section of a pear, is more specially traced +in ancient India, Persia and the countries influenced by their +civilization. This type of instrument includes many families which +became known during the middle ages of western Europe, being introduced +into southern Europe and Spain by the Moors, into southern Russia by the +Persians of the Sassanian period, into Greece from the confines of the +Byzantine Empire. As long as the strings were plucked by fingers or +plectrum the large pear-shaped instrument may be identified as the +archetype of the lute. When the bow, obtained from Persia, was applied +to the instrument by the Arabs, a fresh family was formed, which was +afterwards known in Europe as rebab and later rebec. The largest member +of the ancient lute family--the bass lute or theorbo--has been +identified with the barbiton. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Post-Mycenaean terra-cotta figure, with ancient +lute (1000 B.C.) from the cemetery at Goshen.] + + Until recently the existence of these ancient stringed instruments was + presumed on the evidence of the early medieval European instruments + and of the meagre writings extant, such as those of Farabi.[1] But a + chain of plastic evidence can now be offered, beginning with the Greek + post-Mycenaean age (c. 1000 B.C.). A statuette of a female musician + playing upon a large lute with only an embryonic neck, on which + nevertheless the left hand is stopping strings, was unearthed in Egypt + in a tomb of the XXth Dynasty in the cemetery of Goshen by the members + of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt,[2] under the direction + of Professor Flinders Petrie, to whose courtesy we owe the photograph + (fig. 1) here reproduced. It is difficult to form a conclusive opinion + as to the number of strings the artist intended to represent, owing to + the decorative figures following the direction of the strings, but, + judging from the position of the right hand plucking a string, there + may have been seven. Among a number of terra-cotta figures of + musicians, brought to light during the excavations in a Tell at Suza + and dating from the 8th century B.C.,[3] although there is no + instrument that might be identified with the alto lute, the treble + lute or tanbur is represented with a long, curved neck and a head bent + back to increase the tension, and there is also an instrument having a + smaller and more elongated body than the lute. On one of the friezes + from Afghanistan presented to the British Museum by Major-General + Cunningham, which formed the risers of steps leading to the tope at + Jumal Garhi, dating from the 1st century A.D. are represented scenes + of music and dancing. Here the archetype of the lute appears several + times; it had four strings, and the head was bent back at right angles + to the neck. In the 6th century A.D. illustrations of this early lute + are no longer rare, more especially on Persian silver-work of the + Sassanian period[4] and in the paintings of the Buddhist cave-temples + of Ajanta.[5] Several representations of the barbiton are extant from + the classical Roman period. + + The modern Egyptian 'ud is the direct descendant of the Arabic lute, + and, according to Lane, is strung with seven pairs of catgut strings + played by a plectrum. A specimen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, + given by the khedive, has four pairs only, which appears to have been + the old stringing of the instrument. When frets (cross-lines dividing + the neck or finger-board to show the fingering) are employed they are + of catgut disposed according to the Arabic scale of seventeen + intervals in the octave, consisting of twelve limmas, an interval + rather less than our equal semitone, and five commas, which are very + small but quite recognizable differences of pitch. + + The lute family is separated from the guitars, also of Eastern origin, + by the formation of the sound body, which is in all lutes pear-shaped, + without the sides or ribs necessary to the structure of the + flat-backed guitar and cither. Observing this distinction, we include + with the lute the little Neapolitan mandoline of 2 ft. long and the + large double-necked Roman chitarrone, not infrequently 6 ft. long. + Mandolines are partly strung with wire, and are played with a + plectrum, indispensable for metal or short strings. Perhaps the + earliest lutes were so played, but the large lutes and theorbos strung + with catgut have been invariably touched by the fingers only, the + length permitting this more sympathetic means of producing the tone. + + Praetorius,[6] writing when the lute was in universal favour, mentions + seven varieties distinguished by size and tuning. The smallest would + be larger than a mandoline, and the melody string, the "chanterelle," + often a single string, lower in pitch. Praetorius calls this an octave + lute, with the chanterelle C or D. The two discant lutes have + respectively B and A, the alto G, the tenor E, the bass D, and the + great octave bass G, an octave below the alto lute which may be taken + as the model lute cultivated by the amateurs of the time. The bass + lutes were theorbos, that is, double-necked lutes, as described below. + The accordance of an alto lute was [musical notes] founded upon that + of the original eight-stringed European lute, to which the highest and + lowest notes had, in course of time, been added. A later addition was + the [musical notes] also on the finger-board, and bass strings, double + or single, known as diapasons, which, descending to the deep C of the + violoncello, were not stopped with the fingers. The diapasons were + tuned as the key of the piece of music required. Fig. 2 represents an + Italian instrument made by one of the most celebrated lute makers, + Venere of Padua, in 1600; it is 3 ft. 6 in. high, and has six pairs of + unisons and eight single diapasons. The finger-board, divided into + approximately equal half tones by the frets, as a rule eight in + number, was often further divided on the higher notes, for ten, + eleven, or, as in the woodcut, even twelve, semitones. The head, + bearing the tuning pegs, was placed at an obtuse or a right angle to + the neck, to increase the bearing of the strings upon the nut, and be + convenient for sudden requirements of tuning during performance, the + trouble of keeping a lute in tune being proverbial. + + The lute was in general use during the 16th and 17th centuries. In the + 18th it declined; still J. S. Bach wrote a "partita" for it. The + latest date we have met with of an engraved publication for the lute + is 1760. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lute, by Venere of Padua.] + + The large double-necked lute, with two sets of tuning pegs, the lower + for the finger-board, the higher for the diapason strings, was known + as the theorbo; also, and especially in England, as the arch-lute; + and, in a special form, the neck being then very long, as the + chitarrone. Theorbo and chitarrone appear together at the close of the + 16th century, and their introduction was synchronous with the rise of + accompanied monody in music, that is, of the oratorio and the opera. + Peri, Caccini and Monteverde used theorbos to accompany their + newly-devised recitative, the invention of which in Florence, from the + impulse of the Renaissance, is well known. The height of a theorbo + varied from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft., the Paduan being always the largest, + excepting the Roman 6-ft. long chitarrone. These large lutes had very + deep notes, and doubtless great liberties were allowed in tuning, but + the strings on the finger-board followed the lute accordance already + given, or another quoted by Baron (_Untersuchung des Instruments der + Lauten_, Nuremberg, 1727) as the old theorbo or "violway" (see Mace, + _Musick's Monument_, London, 1676):-- + + [Illustration] + + We find again both these accordances varied and transposed a tone + higher, perhaps with thinner strings, or to accommodate local + differences of pitch. Praetorius recommends the chanterelles of + theorbos being tuned an octave lower on account of the great strain. + By such a change, another authority, the Englishman Thomas Mace, says, + the life and spruceness of airy lessons were quite lost. The theorbo + or arch-lute had at last to give way to the violoncello and double + bass, which are still used to accompany the "recitativo secco" in + oratorios and operas. Handel wrote a part for a theorbo in _Esther_ + (1720); after that date it appears no more in orchestral scores, but + remained in private use until nearly the end of the century. + + The lute and the organ share the distinction of being the first + instruments for which the oldest instrumental compositions we possess + were written. For the lute, however, they were not written in our + present notation, but in tablature, "lyrawise," a system by which as + many lines were drawn horizontally as there were pairs of strings on + the finger-board, the frets, distributed at intervals of a semitone, + being distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, repeated from A, + representing the open string, for each line. This was the English and + French manner; the Italian was by numbers instead of letters. The + signs of time were placed over the stave, and were not repeated unless + the mensural values changed. (A. J. H.; K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Latin translation by J. G. L. Kosegarten, _Alii Ispahenensis + Liber ... Arabice editur adjectaque translatione adnotationibusque + illustratus_ (Greifswald, 1840). + + [2] See _Hyksos and Israelite Cities_, by W. M. Flinders Petrie and + J. Garrow Duncan, 1906 (double volume), Brit. Sch. of Arch. + + [3] J. de Morgan, _Délégation en Perse_ (Paris, 1900), vol. i. pl. + viii. Nos. 8, 7 and 9. + + [4] See "The Treasures of the Oxus," catalogue of the Franks Bequest + to the British Museum by Ormonde M. Dalton (London, 1905), pl; xxvi. + No. 190; see also J. R. Aspelin, "Les antiquités du nord," No. 608; + also for further references, Kathleen Schlesinger, "Precursors of the + Violin Family," pt. ii. of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, pp. + 407-408, and appendix B, pp. 492-493; and _Gazette archéologique_ + (Paris, 1886), vol. xi. pl. x. and p. 70. + + [5] By John Griffiths (London, 1896), vol. ii. pl. 105, cave I. 10, + e. + + [6] _Syntagm. Music._ pt. ii., "Organographie" (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), + pp. 30 and 58-61. + + + + +LUTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST (1823-1902), German Lutheran theologian, was +born at Maroldsweisach, Bavaria, on the 22nd of March 1823. He studied +theology at Erlangen and Berlin, and in 1856 became professor ordinarius +of systematic theology and New Testament exegesis at Leipzig. In 1865 he +was made a counsellor to the consistory, in 1871 canon of Meissen +cathedral, and in 1887 a privy councillor to the church. He died at +Leipzig on the 21st of September 1902. A strictly orthodox theologian, +and a clear writer, though not a very profound scholar, Luthardt became +widely appreciated as the author of apologetic lectures. These were +collected under the title _Apologie des Christentums_ (vol. i., 1864, +14th ed. 1896; vol. ii. 7th ed., 1901; vol. iii. 7th ed., 1898; vol. iv. +2nd ed., 1880), a work of which the first three volumes have been +translated into English. In 1868 he founded and edited the _Allgemeine +evang.-lutherische Kirchenzeitung_, with its supplement the +_Theologisches Litteraturblatt_, and in 1880 became editor of the +_Zeitschrift für kirchl. Wissenschaft und kirchl. Leben._ + + His other works include _Das Johanneische Evangelium ... erklärt_ + (1852-1853; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1875-1876), _Offenbarung Johannis + erklärt_ (1861), _Lehre von den letzten Dingen_ (1861; 3rd ed. 1885); + _Kompendium der Dogmatik_ (1865; 9th ed., 1893), _Geschichte der + christlichen Ethik_ (2 vols., 1888-1893), _Gnade und Wahrheit_ (1874), + _Das Wort des Lebens_ (1877) and _Gnade und Frieden_ (1880). His + autobiography was published with the title _Erinnerungen aus + vergangenen Tagen_ (1889; 2nd ed., 1891). + + + + +LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546), the great German religious reformer, was +born at Eisleben on the 10th of November 1483. His father, Hans Luther +(Lyder, Luder, Ludher), a peasant from the township of Möhra in +Thuringia, after his marriage with Margarethe Ziegler, had settled in +Mansfeld, attracted by the prospects of work in the mines there. The +counts of Mansfeld, who, many years before, had started the mining +industry, made a practice of building and letting out for hire small +furnaces for smelting the ore. Hans Luther soon leased one, then three. +In 1491 he became one of the four elected members of the village council +(_vier Herren von der Gemeinde_); and we are told that the counts of +Mansfeld held him in esteem. The boy grew up amid the poor, coarse +surroundings of the German peasant life, imbibing its simple beliefs. He +was taught that the Emperor protected the poor people against the Turk, +that the Church was the "Pope's House," wherein the Bishop of Rome had +all the rights of the house-father. He shared the common superstitions +of the time and some of them never left him. + +Young Martin went to the village school at Mansfeld; to a school at +Magdeburg kept by the Brethren of the Common Lot; then to the well-known +St George's school at Eisenach. At Magdeburg and Eisenach Luther was "a +poor student," i.e. a boy who was received into a hospice where he lived +rent-free, attended school without paying fees, and had the privilege of +begging for his bread at the house-doors of the town; in return for +which he sang as a chorister in the church to which the school was +attached. Luther was never a "wandering student"; his parents were too +careful of their child to permit him to lead the life of wandering +licence which marked these pests of medieval German scholastic life. At +Eisenach he attracted the notice of the wife of a wealthy merchant of +Eisenach, whom his biographers usually identify as Frau Cotta. + +After three happy years at Eisenach, Luther entered the university of +Erfurt (1501), then the most famous in Germany. Hans Luther had been +prospering, and was more than ever resolved to make his son a lawyer. +Young Luther entered his name on the matriculation book in letters which +can still be read "Martinus Ludher ex Mansfelt," a free student, no +longer embarrassed by great poverty. In Luther's time Erfurt was the +intellectual centre of Germany and its students were exposed to a +variety of influences which could not fail to stimulate young men of +mental ability. + +Its theology was, of course, scholastic, but of what was then called the +modern type, the Scotist; its philosophy was the nominalist system of +William of Occam, whose great disciple, Gabriel Biel (d. 1495), had been +one of its most famous professors; Nicholas de Lyra's (d. 1340) system +of biblical interpretation had been long taught there by a succession of +able teachers; Humanism had won an early entrance to the university; the +anti-clerical teaching of John of Wessel, who had himself taught at +Erfurt for fifteen years (1445-1460), had left its mark on the place and +was not forgotten. Hussite propagandists, even in Luther's time, +secretly visited the town and whispered among the students their +anti-clerical Christian socialism. Papal legates to Germany seldom +failed to visit the university and by their magnificence bore witness to +the majesty of the Roman church. + +A study of the scholastic philosophy was then the preliminary training +for a course of law, and Luther worked so hard at the prescribed studies +that he had little leisure, he said, for classical learning. He attended +none of the Humanist lectures, but he read a good many of the Latin +authors and also learned a little Greek. He never was a member of the +Humanist circle; he was too much in earnest about religious questions +and of too practical a turn of mind. The young Humanists would have +gladly welcomed him into their select band. They dubbed him the +"philosopher," the "musician," recalled in after days his fine social +disposition, his skill in playing the lute, and his ready power in +debate. He took the various degrees in an unusually brief time. He was +bachelor in 1502 and master in 1505. His father, proud of his son's +steady application and success, sent him the costly present of a _Corpus +Juris_. He may have begun to study law. Suddenly he plunged into the +Erfurt Convent of the Augustinian Eremites and after due noviciate +became a monk. + +The action was so unexpected that his contemporaries felt bound to give +all manner of explanations which have been woven into accounts which are +legendary. Nothing is known about the cause of the sudden plunge but +what Luther has himself revealed. He has told us that he entered the +monastery because he doubted of himself, and that his action was sudden +because he knew that his father would have disapproved of his intention. + +The word "doubt" has made historians think of intellectual +difficulties--of the "theological scepticism" taught by Occam and Biel, +of the disintegrating criticism of Humanism. But there is no trace of +any theological difficulties in Luther's mind in the struggles which +sent him into the convent and distracted him there. He was driven to do +what he did by the pressure of a practical religious need, the desire to +save his soul. The fires of hell and the shades of purgatory, which are +the constant background of Dante's "Paradiso," were present to Luther +from childhood. + +Luther was the greatest religious genius which the 16th century +produced, and the roots of the movement in which he was the central +figure must be sought for in the popular religious life of the last +decades of the 15th and opening decades of the 16th centuries--a field +which has been neglected by almost all his biographers. When it is +explored traces of at least five different types of religious sentiment +can be discovered. Pious parents, whether among the burghers or +peasants, seem to have taught their children a simple evangelical faith. +Martin Luther and thousands of children like him were trained at home to +know the creed, the ten commandments, the Lord's prayer, and such simple +hymns as _Ein Kindelein so lobelich_, _Nun bitten wir den Heiligen +Geist_ and _Crist ist erstanden_; and they were taught to believe that +God for Christ's sake freely pardons sin. They learned that simple faith +which Luther afterwards expounded in his _Small Catechism_ and called +the _Kinderlehre_. When lads trained like himself entered school and +college they came in contact with that religious revival which +characterized the last half of the 15th century. Fear seemed to brood +over the peoples of Western Europe. The plague devastated the badly +drained towns, new diseases spread death, the fear of the Turks was +permanent. All this went to feed revival, which, founded on fear, +refused to see in Jesus Christ anything but a stern judge, and made the +Virgin Mother and Anna the "grandmother" the intercessors; which found +consolation in pilgrimages from shrine to shrine; which believed in +crude miracles, and in the thought that God could be best served within +convent walls. Luther's mind was caught in this current of feeling. He +records how it was burnt into him by pictures which filled his boyish +imagination. Jesus in the painted window of Mansfeld church, stern of +face, sword in hand, sitting on a rainbow, coming to judge; an +altar-piece at Magdeburg, in which a ship with its crew was sailing on +to heaven, carrying no layman on board; the deeds of St Elizabeth +emblazoned on the window of St George's parish church at Eisenach; the +living pictures of a young nobleman who had turned monk to save his +soul, of a monk, the holiest man Luther had ever known, who was aged far +beyond his years by his maceration; and many others of the same kind. + +Alongside this we can trace the growth of another religious movement of +a different kind. We can see a sturdy common-sense religion taking +possession of multitudes in Germany, which insisted that laymen might +rule in many departments supposed to belong exclusively to the clergy. +The _jus episcopale_ which Luther afterwards claimed for the secular +authorities had been practically exercised in Saxony and Brandenburg; +cities and districts had framed police regulations which set aside +ecclesiastical decrees about holidays and begging; the supervision of +charity was passing from the hands of the church into those of laymen; +and religious confraternities which did not take their guidance from the +clergy were increasing. Lastly, the medieval Brethren were engaged in +printing and distributing tracts, mystical, anti-clerical, sometimes +socialist. All these influences abounded as Luther was growing to +manhood and laid their marks upon him. It was the momentary power of the +second which drove him into the convent, and he selected the monastic +order which represented all that was best in the revival of the latter +half of the 15th century--the Augustinian Eremites. + +In the convent Luther set himself to find salvation. The last word of +that Scotist theology which ruled at the close of the middle ages was +that man must work out his own salvation, and Luther tried to do so in +the most approved later medieval fashion by the strictest asceticism. He +fasted and scourged himself; he practised all the ordinary forms of +maceration and invented new ones, all to no purpose. His theological +studies, part of the convent education, told him that pardon could be +had through the Sacrament of Penance, and that the first part of the +sacrament was sorrow for sin. The older theology declared that such +sorrow must be based on love to God. Had he this love? God always +appeared to him as an implacable judge, threatening punishment for +breaking a law which it was impossible to keep. He confessed to himself +that he often hated this arbitrary Will which Scotist theology called +God. The later theology, taught in the convent by John of Palz and John +Nathin, said that sorrow might be based on a meaner motive provided the +Sacrament of Penance was continually resorted to. Luther wearied his +superiors with his attendance at the confessional. He was looked upon as +a young saint, and his reputation extended throughout the convents of +his order. The young saint felt himself to be no nearer the pardon of +God; he thought that he was "gallows-ripe." At last his superiors seemed +to discover his real difficulties. Partly by their help, partly by study +of the scriptures, he came to understand that God's pardon was to be won +by trusting to His promises. Thus after two years of indescribable +mental conflicts Luther found peace. The struggle marked him for life. +His victory gave him a sense of freedom, and the feeling that life was +given by God to be enjoyed. In all external things he remained +unchanged. He was a faithful son of the medieval church, with its +doctrines, ceremonies and usages. + +Soon after he had attained inward peace, Luther was ordained. He +continued his studies in theology, devoting himself to the more +"experimental" portions of Augustine, Bernard and Gerson. He showed +himself a good man of business and was advanced in his order. In 1508 he +was sent with some other monks to Wittenberg to assist the small +university which had been opened there in 1502 by Frederick the Wise, +elector of Saxony. It was there that Luther began to preach, first in a +small chapel to the monks of his order; later taking the place of one of +the town's clergy who was in ill-health. From Wittenberg he was sent by +the chiefs of the German Augustinian Eremites to Rome on a mission +concerning the organization of the order. He went up with the feelings +of the medieval pilgrim rather than with the intoxication of the ardent +Humanist. On his return (1512) he was sent by Staupitz, his +vicar-general, to Erfurt to take the necessary steps for higher +graduation in theology, in order to succeed Staupitz himself as +professor of theology in Wittenberg. He graduated as Doctor of the Holy +Scripture, took the Wittenberg doctor's oath to defend the evangelical +truth vigorously (_viriliter_), became a member of the Wittenberg +Senate, and three weeks later succeeded Staupitz as professor of +theology. + +From the first Luther's lectures in theology differed from those +ordinarily given at the time. He had no opinions on theological subjects +at variance with the theology taught at Erfurt and elsewhere. No one +attributed any heretical views to the young Wittenberg professor. He +differed from others because he looked at theology in a more practical +way. He thought it ought to be made useful to guide men to the grace of +God and to tell them how to persevere in a life of joyous obedience to +God and His commandments. His teaching was "experimental" from the +beginning. Besides he believed that he had been specially set apart to +lecture on the Holy Scriptures, and he began by commenting on the Psalms +and on the Epistles of St Paul. He never knew much Hebrew and was not +specially strong in Greek; so he used the Vulgate in his prelections. He +had a huge widely printed volume on his desk, and wrote the notes for +his lectures on the margins and between the lines. Some of the pages +survive. They contain in the germ the leading thoughts of what became +Lutheran theology. At first he expressed himself in the phrases common +to scholastic theology, when these were found to be inadequate in words +borrowed from the mystical writers of the 14th and 15th centuries, and +then in new phrases more appropriate to the circle of fresh thoughts. +Those new thoughts at first simply pushed aside the ordinary theology +taught in the schools without staying to criticize it. Gradually, +however, Luther began to find that there was some real opposition +between what he was teaching and the theology he had been taught in the +Erfurt convent. It appeared characteristically enough on the practical +and not on the speculative side of theology in a sermon on _Indulgences_ +preached in July 1516. Once begun the breach widened, until Luther +could contrast "our theology" with what was taught at Erfurt, and by +September he began to write against the scholastic theology, to declare +that it was Pelagian at heart, that it repudiated the Augustinian +doctrines of grace, and neglected to teach the supreme value of that +faith "which throws itself upon God." + +These lectures and the teaching they contained soon made a great +impression. Students began to flock to the small obscure university of +Wittenberg, and the elector grew proud of the teacher who was making his +university famous. It was at this interesting stage of his own religious +career that he felt himself compelled to stand forth in opposition to +what he believed to be a great religious scandal, and almost +unconsciously to become a Reformer. + +Luther began his work as a Reformer by proposing to discuss the true +meaning of Indulgences. The occasion was an Indulgence proclaimed by +Pope Leo X., farmed by the archbishop of Mainz, and preached by John +Tetzel, a Dominican monk and a famed seller of Indulgences. Many of the +German princes had no great love for Indulgence sellers, and Frederick +of Saxony had prohibited Tetzel from entering his territories. But it +was easy to reach most parts of Electoral Saxony without actually +crossing the frontiers. The Red Cross of the Indulgence seller had been +set up at Zerbst and at Jüterbogk, and people had gone from Wittenberg +to buy the _Papal Tickets_. Luther believed that the sales were +injurious to the morals of the townsmen; he had heard reports of +Tetzel's sermons; he had become wrathful on reading the letter of +recommendation of the archbishop; and friends had urged him to +interfere. He protested with a characteristic combination of caution and +courage. The church of All Saints (the castle church) was closely +connected with the university of Wittenberg. Its doors were commonly +used for university proclamations. The Elector Frederick was a great +collector of relics and had stored them in his church. He had procured +an Indulgence for all who attended its services on All Saints' Day, and +crowds commonly gathered. Luther nailed ninety-five _theses_ on the +church door on that day, the 1st of November 1517, when the crowd could +see and read them. + +The proceeding was strictly academic. The matter discussed, to judge by +the writings of theologians, was somewhat obscure; and Luther offered +his _theses_ as an attempt to make it clearer. No one was supposed to be +committed to every opinion he advanced in such a way. But the _theses_ +posted somehow touched heart and conscience in a way unusual in the +common subjects of academic disputation. Every one wanted to read them. +The University Press could not supply copies fast enough. They were +translated into German, and were known throughout Germany in less than a +fortnight. Within a month they had been heard of all over western and +southern Europe. Luther himself was staggered at the way they were +received. He said he had never meant to determine, but to debate. + +The _theses_ were singularly unlike what might have been expected from a +professor of theology. They made no attempt at theological definition, +no pretence at logical arrangement; they were anything but a brief +programme of reformation. They were simply ninety-five sledge-hammer +blows directed against the most flagrant ecclesiastical abuse of the +age. They were addressed to the "common" man and appealed to his common +sense of spiritual things. + +The practice of offering, selling and buying Indulgences (see +INDULGENCE) was everywhere common in the beginning of the 16th century. +The beginnings go back more than a thousand years before the time of +Luther. In the earliest church life, when Christians fell into sin, they +were required to make public confession before the congregation, to +declare their sorrow, and to vow to perform certain acts which were +regarded as evidence of the sincerity of their repentance. When the +custom of public confession before the congregation had changed to +private confession to the clergy, it became the confessor's duty to +impose these satisfactions. It was thought only right that there should +be some uniformity in dealing with repentant sinners, and books +appeared giving lists of sins and what were supposed to be suitable +satisfactions. When the sins confessed were very heinous the +satisfactions were correspondingly severe and sometimes lasted over many +years. About the 7th century arose a custom of commuting or relaxing +these imposed satisfactions. A penance of several years fasting might be +commuted into saying so many prayers, or giving an arranged amount in +alms, or even into a money-fine. In the last case the analogy of the +Wergeld of the German tribal codes was commonly followed. The usage +generally took the form that any one who visited a church, to which the +Indulgence had been attached, on a day named, and gave a contribution to +its funds, had his penance shortened by one-seventh, one-third or +one-half, as might be arranged. This was the origin of Indulgences +properly so-called. They were always mitigations of satisfactions or +penances which had been imposed by the church as outward signs of inward +sorrow, tests of fitness for pardon, and the needful precedents of +absolution. Luther uttered no protest against Indulgences of this kind. +He held that what the church had imposed the church could remit. + +This old and simple conception of Indulgences had been greatly altered +since the beginning of the 13th century. The institution of penance had +been raised to the dignity of a sacrament, and this had changed both the +place and the character of satisfactions. Under the older conception the +order had been Sorrow (_Contritio_), Confession, Satisfaction (or due +manifestation of sorrow in ways prescribed) and Absolution. Under the +newer theory the order was Sorrow, Confession, Absolution, Satisfaction, +and both satisfaction and sorrow took new meanings. It was held that +Absolution removed guilt and freed from eternal punishment, but that +something had to be done to free the penitent from temporal punishment +whether in this life or in purgatory. Satisfactions took the new meaning +of the temporal punishments due in this life and the substitute for the +pains of purgatory. The new thought of a treasury of merits (_thesaurus +meritorum_) introduced further changes. It was held that the good deeds +over and above what were needed for their own salvation by the living or +by the saints in heaven, together with the inexhaustible merits of +Christ, were all deposited in a treasury out of which they could be +taken by the pope and given by him to the faithful. They could be added +to the satisfactions actually done by penitents. Thus Satisfactions +became not merely signs of sorrow but actual merits, which freed men +from the need to undergo the temporal pains here and in purgatory which +their sins had rendered them liable to. By an Indulgence merits could be +transferred from the storehouse to those who required them. The change +made in the character of Sorrow made Indulgences all the more necessary +for the indifferent penitent. On the older theory Sorrow (_Contritio_) +had for its one basis love to God; but on the newer theory the +starting-point might be a less worthy king of sorrow (_Attritio_) which +it was held would be changed into the more worthy kind in the Sacrament +of Penance. The conclusion was naturally drawn that a process of +penitence which began with sorrow of the more unworthy kind needed a +larger amount of Satisfactions or penance than what began with +Contrition. Hence for the indifferent Christian, _Attrition_, +_Confession_ and _Indulgence_ became the three heads in the scheme of +the church of the later middle ages for his salvation. The one thing +which satisfied his conscience was the burdensome thing he had to do, +and that was to procure an Indulgence--a matter made increasingly easy +for him as time went on. + + This doctrine of _Attrition_ had not the undivided support of the + theologians of the later medieval church; but it was taught by the + Scotists and was naturally a favourite theme with the sellers of + Indulgences. Nor were all theologians at one upon the whole theory of + Indulgences. The majority of the best theologians held that + Indulgences had nothing to do with the pardoning of guilt, but only + with freeing from temporal penalties in this life or in purgatory. But + the common people did not discriminate, and believed that when they + bought an Indulgence they were purchasing pardon from sin; and Luther + placed himself in the position of the ordinary Christian uninstructed + in the niceties of theological distinctions. + + His _Ninety-five Theses_ made six different assertions about + Indulgences and their efficacy:-- + + i. An Indulgence is and can only be the remission of a merely + ecclesiastical penalty; the church can remit what the church has + imposed; it cannot remit what God has imposed. + + ii. An Indulgence can never remit guilt; the pope himself cannot do + such a thing; God has kept that in His own hand. + + iii. It cannot remit the divine punishment for sin; that also is in + the hands of God alone. + + iv. It can have no efficacy for souls in Purgatory; penalties imposed + by the church can only refer to the living; death dissolves them; what + the pope can do for souls in Purgatory is by prayer, not by + jurisdiction or the power of the keys. + + v. The Christian who has true repentance has already received pardon + from God altogether apart from an Indulgence, and does not need one; + Christ demands this true repentance from every one. + + vi. The Treasury of Merits has never been properly defined; it is hard + to say what it is, and it is not properly understood by the people; it + cannot be the merits of Christ and of His saints, because these act of + themselves and quite apart from the intervention of the pope; it can + mean nothing more than that the pope, having the power of the keys, + can remit ecclesiastical penalties imposed by the church; the true + Treasure-house of merits is the Holy Ghost of the grace and glory of + God. + +The unexpected effect of the _Theses_ was that the sale of Indulgences +began to decline rapidly, and the archbishop of Mainz, disappointed in +his hopes of revenue, sent a copy to Rome. The pope thinking that the +whole dispute was a monkish quarrel, contented himself with asking the +general of the Augustinian Eremites to keep his monks quiet. This was +not easy. Tetzel, in conjunction with a friend, Conrad Wimpina, had +published a set of counter-theses. John Mayr of Eck, a noted +controversialist and professor of theology in the university of +Ingolstadt, scented the Hussite heresy in the _Theses_, and denounced +them in a tract entitled _Obelisks_. Luther at once answered in his +_Asterisks_. A controversy raged in Germany. Meanwhile, at Rome, +Silvester Mazzolini of Prierio, a Dominican monk and Inquisitor, had +been studying the _Theses_, was profoundly dissatisfied with them, and +wrote a _Dialogue about the Power of the Pope, against the presumptuous +conclusions of Martin Luther_. This book reached Germany about the +middle of January 1518, and increased the tumult. + +Luther's friends had been provokingly silent about the _Theses_; but in +April 1518, at the annual chapter of the Augustinian Eremites held at +Heidelberg, Luther heard his positions temperately discussed, and found +somewhat to his astonishment that his views were not acceptable to all +his fellow monks. On his return to Wittenberg he began an answer to his +opponents. He carefully considered his positions, found them +unassailable, and published his _Resolutions_, the most carefully +written of all his works. The book practically discarded all the ideas +and practices concerning Indulgences which had come into the medieval +church since the beginning of the 13th century, and all the ingenious +explanations of the scholastic theologians from Bonaventura and Thomas +Aquinas downwards. The effect of the controversy was a great decrease in +the sale of Indulgences in Germany, and the Papal Curia saw with alarm a +prolific source of revenue decaying. It was felt that Luther must be +silenced. He was accordingly summoned to Rome. To obey would have meant +death; to refuse in his own name would have been contumacy. But the +peremptory summons could be construed as an attack on the university of +Wittenberg, and both the elector of Saxony and the emperor Maximilian so +regarded it. The result was that Pope Leo cancelled the summons, and it +was arranged that Luther should appear before the papal Legate to the +German Diet, Thomas de Vio, Cardinal Cajedtan, at Augsburg. The +interview was not very successful. At its conclusion Luther wrote two +appeals--one from the pope ill-informed to the pope well-informed, and +the other to a General Council. True to his habit of taking the German +people into his confidence, he wrote an account of his interview with +the Legate, and published it under the title of the _Acta Augustana_. + +The publication greatly increased the sympathy of almost all classes in +Germany for Luther. They saw in him a pious man, an esteemed professor, +who had done nothing but propose a discussion on the notoriously +intricate subject of Indulgences, peremptorily ordered to recant and to +remain silent. The elector Frederick shared the common feelings and +resolved to defend the man who had made his university so famous. His +action compelled the Roman Curia to pause. Germany was on the eve, it +was believed, of an election of a king of the Romans; it was possible +that an imperial election was not far distant; Frederick was too +important a personage to offend. So the condemnation by the +Cardinal-Legate was withdrawn for the time, and the pope resolved to +deal with the matter otherwise. He selected one of his chamberlains, +Charles von Miltitz, the elector's private agent at Rome, and +commissioned him to deal with the matter as he best could. Miltitz +received the "golden rose" to give to Frederick, and was furnished with +several letters in all of which the pope spoke of Luther as a "child of +the devil." His holiness had probably forgotten the fact when he +addressed Luther some months later as "his dear son." + +When Miltitz arrived in Germany he discovered that the movement was much +more important than the Roman Curia had imagined. He had not to deal +with the opposition of a recalcitrant monk, but with the awakening of a +nation. He resolved to meet with Tetzel and with Luther privately before +he produced his credentials. Tetzel he could not see; the man was afraid +to leave his convent; but he had lengthy interviews with Luther in the +house of Spalatin the chaplain and private secretary of the elector +Frederick. There he disowned the sermons of the pardon-sellers, let it +be seen that he did not approve of the action of the Legate, and so +prevailed with Luther that the latter promised to write a submissive +letter to the pope, to exhort people to reverence the Roman See, to say +that Indulgences were useful to remit canonical penances, and to promise +to write no more on the matter unless he happened to be attacked. Luther +did all this. A reconciliation might have taken place had the Roman +Curia supported Miltitz. But the Curia did not support Miltitz, and +placed more faith in Eck, who was eager to extinguish Luther in a public +discussion. + +Luther had been spending the time between his interview with the Legate +at Augsburg (Oct. 1518) and the Leipzig Disputation (June 1519) in +severe and disquieting studies. He had found that all his opponents had +pursued one line of argument: the power to issue an Indulgence is simply +one case of the universal papal jurisdiction; Indulgences are what the +pope proclaims them to be, and to attack them is to attack the power of +the pope; the pope represents the Roman church, which is actually the +universal church, and to oppose the pope is to defy the whole church of +Christ; whoever attacks such a long-established system as that of +Indulgences is a heretic. Such was the argument. Luther felt himself +confronted with the pope's absolute supremacy in all ecclesiastical +matters. It was a plea whose full force he felt. The papal supremacy was +one of his oldest inherited beliefs. He re-examined his convictions +about justifying faith and whether they did lead to his declarations +about Indulgences. He could come to no other conclusion. It then became +necessary to examine the papal claims. He set himself to study the +Decretals, and to his amazement and indignation he found that they were +full of frauds. It is hard to say whether the discovery brought him more +joy or more grief. His letters show him half-exultant and +half-terrified. While he was in this state of mind he received Eck's +challenge to dispute with him at Leipzig on the papal supremacy. + +This Leipzig Disputation was perhaps the most important point in +Luther's career. He met Eck in June 1519. It soon appeared that the +intention of that practised debater was to force Luther into some +admission which would justify opponents in accusing him of holding the +opinions of Huss, who had been condemned by the great German Council of +Constance. In this he was eminently successful. Eck left Leipzig +triumphant, and Luther returned to Wittenberg much depressed. As usual +he wrote out and published an account of the Disputation, which was an +appeal to his fellow Germans. The result surpassed his expectations. The +Disputation made him see that his protest against the abuses of +Indulgences was no criticism of an excrescence on the medieval +ecclesiastical system, but an attack on its centre of existence. He saw +that he stood for the spiritual priesthood of all believers and that +medievalism in religion meant that man cannot approach God without a +priestly mediator. The people also saw his position and rallied round +him; and the Humanists discerned in him a champion against the old +intolerance against which they had been revolting in vain. Luther's +depression fled. Sermons, pamphlets, letters from his tireless pen +flooded the land, and Luther began to be the leader of a German revolt +against Rome. + +The year 1520 saw the publication of his three most important works, all +written at a time when he was fully convinced that he had broken for +ever with Rome. They were, _On the Liberty of a Christian Man_, _An +Address to the Nobility of the German Nation_, and _On the Babylonian +Captivity of the Church of God_--the three primary treatises, as they +have been called. + +Meanwhile at Rome the pope had entrusted Eck and Prierias with the +preparation of a bull (_Exurge Domine_) against Luther--a bull which +followed the line of Eck's charges at Leipzig. The reformer had been +expecting it ever since the Disputation at Leipzig, and had resolved to +answer it by one striking act which would impress the imagination of +every man. He posted up a notice inviting the Wittenberg students to +witness the burning of the bull (10th of December 1520). Rome had shot +its last ecclesiastical bolt. Nothing remained but an appeal to the +secular power, and this was at once prepared. + +The emperor Maximilian had died suddenly (12th January 1519), and for +long Germany was disturbed with intrigues about the succession--the +papal policy being specially tortuous. The widely expressed desire for a +German emperor secured the unanimous election of Charles, the grandson +of Maximilian and the king of Spain. Never were a people more mistaken +and disappointed. The veins of Charles were full of German blood, but he +was his mother's son. It was the Spaniard, not the German, who faced +Luther at Worms. + +Charles was crowned at Aachen, 23rd of October 1520, and opened his +first German diet at Worms, 22nd of January 1521. The pope had selected +two envoys to wait on the young emperor, one of them, Jerome Aleander, +being specially appointed to secure the outlawry of Luther. The agenda +of the diet contained many things seriously affecting all Germany, but +the one problem which every one was thinking about was how Luther would +be dealt with. The Electoral College was divided. The archbishop of +Cologne, the elector of Brandenburg and his brother the archbishop of +Mainz were for instant outlawry, while the elector of Saxony, who was +resolved to protect Luther, had great influence with the archbishop of +Trier and the Count Palatine of the Rhine. + +Aleander had no difficulty in persuading Charles, while both were still +in the Netherlands, to put Luther under the ban within his hereditary +dominions, and the papal nuncio expected that the decree would be +extended to the whole German empire. But Charles at first refused to +deal summarily with Luther so far as Germany was concerned. The emperor +even wrote to the elector of Saxony, asking him to bring Luther with him +to the diet for examination. Gradually he came to think that Luther +might be condemned without appearing. The members of the diet were slow +to come to any conclusion. At last they made up their minds, and +presented a memorial to the emperor (19th of February 1521) in which +they reminded him that no imperial edict could be published against +Luther without their sanction, and proposed that he should be invited to +Worms under a safe-conduct and be there examined. They also suggested +that Luther should be heard upon the papal claims, and ended by asking +the emperor to deliver Germany from the papal tyranny. The emperor +agreed to summon Luther under a safe-conduct, and that he should be +heard; but he refused to mix his case with that of grievances against +Rome. He had no sooner made the promise than he seems to have repented +it. He saw no need for Luther's appearance. He tried to get him +condemned unheard. An edict against Luther had been drafted (15th of +February) which the diet refused to sanction. A few days later a second +edict was drafted which ordered the burning of Luther's books. The diet +again objected. Finally four days after the safe-conduct had been +despatched the emperor revised this second edict, limited it to the +seizure of Luther's books, and published it on his own authority without +consulting the diet (10th March). After Luther had begun his journey, +this edict was posted up along his route in order to intimidate him; +other means were taken to make him turn aside from Worms; but he was +resolved to go there and nothing daunted him. He reached the town (16th +April) and was met by encouraging crowds. He was summoned to appear +before the diet on the 17th and measures were taken to prevent him doing +more than answering definite questions put to him. He was asked whether +certain books had been written by him and whether he was prepared to +maintain or to abjure what he had written. He asked time to prepare an +answer to the second question. The diet was anxious to hear Luther, if +the emperor was not, and his request was granted. He thus defeated the +plot to keep him silent. On the 18th he made his second appearance and +delivered the speech, which electrified his audience. At the close he +was threatened by Spaniards in the diet. The Germans ringed him round, +and, with their hands raised high in the fashion of a landsknecht who +had struck a successful blow, passed out into the street and escorted +him to his lodgings. Next day (April 19th) the emperor proposed to place +Luther under the ban of the empire and read to the assembly a brief +statement of his own views. The diet objected, and asked for a +conference between Luther and some selected members. Conferences were +held, but came to nothing. No compromise was possible between the +declaration that man's conscience could only be bound by the Word of God +and the emperor's belief in the infallibility of a general council. The +commission had to report that its efforts had failed. Luther was ordered +to leave Worms and to return to Wittenberg. His safe-conduct was to +expire twenty-one days after the 16th of April. Then he was liable to be +seized and put to death as a pestilent heretic. There only remained to +draft and publish the edict containing the ban. Days passed and it did +not appear. Suddenly the startling news reached Worms that Luther had +disappeared, no one knew where. It was reported that his body had been +found in a silver-mine pierced with a dagger. The news flew over Germany +and beyond it that he had been slain by papal emissaries. At Worms the +indignation of the populace was intense. The public buildings were +placarded during the night with an intimation that four hundred knights +had sworn not to leave Luther unavenged, and the ominous words +_Bundschuh, Bundschuh, Bundschuh_ (the watchword of peasant revolts) +were written at the foot. The combination suggested an alliance between +the lesser knights and the peasants, dreaded by all the ruling classes. +The true story of Luther's disappearance was not known until long +afterwards. After the failure of the conference the elector of Saxony +had commissioned two of the councillors to convey Luther to a place of +safety without telling him where it was. Many weeks elapsed before +Frederick himself learned that Luther was safe in his own castle of the +Wartburg. The disappearance did not mean that Luther had ceased to be a +leader of men; but it marked the beginning of an organized national +opposition to Rome. + +It was not till the 25th of May that the edict against Luther was +presented to a small number of members of the diet, after the elector of +Saxony and many important members had left Worms. It threatened all +Luther's sympathisers with extermination, and practically proclaimed an +Albigensian war in Germany. But few public documents prepared with so +much care have proved so futile. The latter half of 1521 saw the silent +spread of Lutheran opinions all over Germany. This was not unaccompanied +with dangers. Every movement for reform carries within it the seeds of +revolution, and Luther's was no exception to the rule. + +The revolution began in Wittenberg during Luther's seclusion in the +Wartburg. Andrew Boden of Carlstadt, a colleague of Luther's in the +university of Wittenberg, was strongly impressed with the contradiction +which he believed to exist between evangelical teaching and the usages +of medieval ecclesiastical life. He denounced monastic vows, a +distinctive dress for the clergy, the thought of a propitiatory mass, +and the presence of images and pictures in the churches. Zwilling, a +young Augustinian Eremite, added his fiery denunciations. His preaching +stirred the commonalty. Turbulent crowds invaded two of the churches and +rioted inside. The excitement of the people was increased by the arrival +of three men known in history as the _Zwickau prophets_. Melanchthon +felt himself powerless to restrain the tumult. The magistrates of the +town were won over and issued an ordinance which attempted to express in +legislation the new evangelical ideas. Duke George of Saxony, a resolute +opponent of the Reformation, threatened to make the diet interfere. +Luther became alarmed, and, not without a private hint from the elector +of Saxony,[1] left his retreat and appeared among his townsmen. His +presence and exertions restored order, and the conservative reformation +resumed its quiet course. From this time onwards to the outbreak of the +Peasants' War (1525) Luther was the real leader of the German nation, +and everything seemed to promise a gradual reformation without tumult. + +The Peasants' War ended this anticipation. From one point of view this +insurrection was simply the last, the most wide-spreading and the most +disastrous of these revolts, which had been almost chronic in Germany +during the later decades of the 15th and earlier years of the 16th +century and which had been almost continuous between 1503 and 1517. All +the social and economic causes which produced them were increasingly +active in 1524 and 1525. But it is undoubted that the religious revolt +intensified the rebellion of the lower classes. Luther's voice awoke +echoes he never dreamt of. The times were ripe for revolution, and the +message which spoke of a religious democracy could not fail to suggest +the social democracy also. In his appeal to the _Nobility of the German +Nation_ he had stated with severe precision the causes of social +discontent. Himself a peasant's son and acquainted with the grievances +under which the peasant lived, he had at various times formulated most +of the demands which afterwards figured conspicuously in the Twelve +Articles. The insurgents had good cause to regard him as a sympathiser. +But Luther, rightly or wrongly, believed that of the two ways in which +wrongs can be set right--the way of war and the path of peace--the +latter is the only sure road in the long run. He did his best therefore +to prevent the rising and risked his life among the infuriated peasants +as readily as when he stood before the emperor and the diet. When the +rebellion was at its height and Thomas Münzer had sent forth fiery +proclamations urging the peasantry "not to let the blood cool on their +swords," Luther issued the pamphlet, which casts a stain on his whole +life, in which he hounds on the ruling classes to suppress the +insurgents with all violence. In the end the rebellion, formidable as it +seemed for a few months, was crushed, and a heavier yoke was laid on the +shoulders of the unfortunate peasants. + +This year, 1525, saw the parting of the ways in the movement for reform. +It ceased to be national and became ecclesiastical. It divided into +three separate parts. One, guided by Luther himself, ended, after a long +struggle with pope and emperor, in the establishment of evangelical +churches under the rule of the secular authorities of the territories +which adopted the Lutheran Reformation. Another, remaining true to the +principles, doctrines, usages and hierarchy of the medieval church, +dreamt only of a purification of moral life, and saw its end realised in +the reforms of the council of Trent. The third, gathering together the +more revolutionary impulses, expanded into that complex movement called +Anabaptism--which spread over western Europe from England to Poland and +from Scandinavia to northern Italy, and endured a long and sanguinary +persecution at the hands of the civil authorities in most European +countries. Its strength and popularity, especially among the artizan +classes, have been very much underrated by most historians. + +During the storm of the Peasants' War (13th of June 1525) Luther married +Catherine von Bora, the daughter of a noble but impoverished family +belonging to Meissen. She had been a Cistercian nun in the convent of +Nimtzch near Grimma--a convent reserved for ladies of noble birth. +Luther's writings, circulating through Saxony, had penetrated the +convent walls and had convinced most of the inmates of the unlawfulness +of monastic vows. Catherine and eight companions resolved to escape. +Their relatives refused to aid them, and they applied to Luther. He +entrusted the business to Leonhard Koppe of Torgau, and the rescue was +safely carried out (4th of April 1523). The rescued nuns found places of +refuge in the families of Wittenberg burghers. The elector John of +Saxony (who had succeeded his brother Frederick) gave Luther the house +which had served as the Augustinian Convent. The family gathered in this +three-storeyed building, with its back windows looking over the Elbe and +its front door opening on a great garden, was latterly Luther and his +wife, their three sons and two daughters, Magdelena von Bora, +Catherine's aunt, two orphan nieces and a grandniece. At the beginning +of his married life Luther must have been in straitened circumstances. +He married a portionless nun. On to 1532 his salary was two hundred +gulden annually (about £160 in present money); after 1532 the stipend +was increased to £240 with various payments in kind--corn, wood, malt, +wine, &c.--which meant a great deal more. The town added occasional +gifts to enable Luther to entertain the great personages who came to +consult him frequently. Princes made him presents in money. This enabled +Luther to purchase from his wife's brother the small estate of Zulsdorf. +Catherine, too, was an excellent house-wife. She made the long-neglected +garden profitable; kept pigs and poultry; rented other gardens; stocked +a fishpond; farmed in a small way; and had her house full of boarders. +Luther had a high opinion of her intelligence; she took rank among those +consulted on all important occasions; in one letter to her, seldom +quoted, he gives the fairest statement he ever made about the views of +Zwingli on the Sacrament of the Supper. + +The diet of Speyer (1526) saw Germany divided into a Protestant and a +Romanist party. After much debate a compromise was arrived at, which +foreshadowed the religious peace of Augsburg of 1555. It was resolved +that the Word of God should be preached without disturbance, that +indemnity should be given for past offences against the edict of Worms, +and that meanwhile each state should live religiously as it hoped to +answer for its conduct to God and the emperor. The Lutherans interpreted +this to mean the right to frame ecclesiastical regulations for various +principalities and to make changes in public worship. Luther busied +himself in simplifying the service, in giving advice, anxiously sought +for, about the best modes of organising ecclesiastical affairs. In the +diet held at Speyer in 1529 a compact Roman Catholic majority faced a +weak Lutheran minority. The emperor declared through his commissioners +that he abolished "by his imperial and absolute authority" the clause in +the ordinance of 1526 on which the Lutherans had relied when they began +to organize their territorial churches. The majority of the diet +supported the emperor in this, and further proceeded to decree that no +ecclesiastical body was to be deprived of its revenues or authority. +This meant that throughout all Germany medieval ecclesiastical rule was +to be upheld, and that none of the revenues of the medieval church could +be appropriated for Protestant uses. On this a portion of the Protestant +minority drafted a legal protest, in which the signers declared that +they meant to abide by the decision of the diet of 1526 and refused to +be bound by that of 1529. From this protest came the name _Protestant_. + +A minority in such a case could only maintain their protest if they were +prepared to defend each other by force in case of an attack. Three days +after the protest had been read, many of the protesting cities and +states concluded "a secret and particular treaty," and Philip of Hesse, +the ablest statesman among the Protesters, saw the need for a general +union of all evangelical Christians in the empire. The difficulties in +the way were great. The Saxons and the Swiss, Luther and Zwingli, were +in fierce controversy about the true doctrine of the sacrament of the +Supper. Luther was a patriotic German who was for ever bewailing the +disintegration of the Fatherland; Zwingli was full of plans for +confederations of Swiss cantons with South German cities, which could +not fail to weaken the empire. Luther had but little trust in the +"common man"; Zwingli was a thorough democrat. When Luther thought of +the Swiss reformer he muttered as Archbishop Parker did of John +Knox--"God keep us from such visitations as Knox hath attempted in +Scotland; the people to be orderers of things." Above all Luther had +good grounds for believing that at the conference at Memmingen friends +of Zwingli had helped to organize a Peasants' War and to link the social +revolution to the religious awakening. All these suspicions were in +Luther's mind when he consented very half-heartedly to meet Zwingli at a +conference to be held in Philip of Hesse's castle at Marburg. The debate +proceeded as such debates usually do. Zwingli attacked the weakest part +of Luther's theory--the _ubiquity_ of the body of Christ; and Luther +attacked Zwingli's exegesis of the words of the institution. Neither +sought to bring out their points of agreement. Yet the conference did +good; it showed that the Protestants were agreed on all doctrinal points +but one. If union was for the present impossible, there were hopes for +it in the future. + +In 1530 the emperor Charles, resolved to crush the Reformation, himself +presided at the diet. The Protestant divisions were manifest. Three +separate confessions were presented to the emperor--one from Zwingli, +one by the theologians of the four cities of Strassbourg, Constance, +Lindau and Memmingen (_Confessio Tetrapolitana_), and the _Augsburg +Confession_, the future symbol of the Lutheran church. The third was the +most important, and the emperor seriously set himself to see whether it +might not be made the basis of a compromise. He found that +reconciliation was hopeless. Thereupon the diet resolved that the edict +of Worms was to be enforced against Luther and his partizans; that the +ecclesiastical jurisdictions were to be preserved; and that all the +church property taken possession of by the Lutheran princes was to be +restored; and that in all cases of dispute the last court of appeal was +to be the Imperial Court of Appeals. The last provision meant that the +growing Protestantism was to be fought by harrassing litigation--_nicht +fechten sondern rechten_ was the phrase. + +Luther was not present at the diet nor at the negotiations. He was still +an outlaw according to imperial ideas. Melanchthon took his place as +leader. + +The decision of the diet compelled the Protestant princes to face the +new and alarming situation. They met in conference in mid-winter at the +little town of Schmalkald, and laid the foundations of what became the +powerful Schmalkald League, which effectually protected the Protestants +of Germany until it was broken up by the intrigues of the imperial +party. From the time of the formation of this league, Luther retired +gradually from the forefront of a reformation movement which had become +largely political, and busied himself with reforms in public worship and +suggestions for an organization of the polity of the Evangelical church. +In this work his natural conservatism is apparent, and he contented +himself with such changes as would make room for the action of +evangelical principles. He disclaimed the right of suggesting a common +order of worship or a uniform ecclesiastical polity; and Lutheran ritual +and polity, while presenting common features, did not follow one common +use. It may be said generally that while Luther insisted on a service in +the vernacular, including the singing of German hymns, he considered it +best to retain most of the ceremonies, the vestments and the uses of +lights on the altar, which had existed in the unreformed church, while +he was careful to explain that their retention might be dispensed with +if thought necessary. To the popular mind the great distinction between +the Lutheran and the medieval church service, besides the use of the +vernacular and the supreme place assigned to preaching, was that the +people partook of the cup in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; and the +Lutheran service became popularly distinguished from the Reformed +because it retained, while the Reformed did away with, most of the +medieval ceremonies and vestments (see LUTHERANS). The variations in the +details of the polity of the Lutheran churches were very numerous, but +they all preserved the same distinctive principles. Two conceptions lay +at the basis--the thought of the spiritual priesthood of all believers +and the belief that the state was a divine ordinance, that the +magistracy might represent the whole body of believers and that +discipline and administration might be exercised through courts +constituted somewhat like the consistorial courts of the medieval +bishops, their members being appointed by the magistracy. + +The last years of Luther's life were spent in incessant labour disturbed +by almost continuous ill-health. He was occupied in trying to unite +firmly together the whole evangelical movement; he laboured to give his +countrymen a good system of schools; he was on the watch to defeat any +attempt of the Roman Curia to regain its hold over Germany; and he was +the confidential adviser of a large number of the evangelical princes. +Luther's intimacy with his own elector, first John, then John Frederick, +helped to give him the place accorded to him by the princes. The chiefs +of the Houses of Anhalt and Lüneburg, Duke Henry of Saxony, Joachim II. +of Brandenburg, Albert of Brandenburg and the counts of Mansfeld, were +among Luther's most devoted supporters and most frequently sought his +advice. Princely correspondence was not always pleasant. It took its +most disagreeable form when Philip of Hesse besieged Luther with +requests to give his sanction to taking a second wife while his first +was still alive. Luther's weakness brought the second great blot on his +career. The document sanctioning the bigamy of the landgrave was signed +by Martin Bucer, Luther and Melanchthon, and is a humiliating paper. It +may be thus summarized. According to the original commandment of God, +marriage is between one man and one woman, and this original precept has +been confirmed by our Lord; but sin brought it about that first Lamech, +then the heathen, and then Abraham, took more than one wife, and this +was permitted under the law. We are now living under the Gospel, which +does not give prescribed rules for the external life and has not +expressly prohibited bigamy. The law of the land expresses the original +commandment of God, and the plain duty of the pastorate is to denounce +bigamy. Nevertheless, the pastorate, in single cases of the direst need +and to prevent worse, may sanction bigamy in a purely exceptional way. +Such a bigamous marriage is a true marriage in the sight of God (the +necessity being proved), but it is not a true marriage in the eye of +public law and custom. Such a marriage and the dispensation for it ought +to be kept secret; if it is made known, the dispensation becomes _eo +ipso_ invalid and the marriage is mere concubinage. The principle which +underlies this extraordinary paper is probably the conception that the +Protestant church has the same dispensing power which the medieval +church claimed, but that it was to be exercised altogether apart from +fees of any kind. + +In his later years Luther became more tolerant on the sacramental +question which divided him from the South German cities, although he +never departed from his strong opposition to the supposed views of +Zwingli himself. He consented to a conference, which, as he was too ill +to leave home, met at Wittenberg (May-June 1536). After prolonged +discussion the differences were narrowed to one point--the presence of +the body of Christ _extended in space_ in the sacrament of the Supper. +It was agreed in the _Wittenberg Concord_ to leave this an open +question. Thus North and South Germany were united. It is possible that +had Luther lived longer his followers might have been united with the +Swiss. He repeatedly expressed an admiration for Calvin's writings on +the subject of the sacrament; and Melanchthon believed that if the Swiss +accepted Calvin's theory of the Supper, the Wittenberg Concord could be +extended to include them. But the _Consensus Tigurinus_, which dates the +adhesion of the Swiss to the views of Calvin, was not signed until 1549, +when Luther was already dead. + +Year by year Luther had been growing weaker, his attacks of illness more +frequent and his bodily pains more continuous. Despite the entreaties +of wife and elector he resolved to do what he could to end some trifling +dispute about inheritance which threatened the peace of the House of +Mansfeld. He left Wittenberg in bitterly cold weather on the 23rd of +January 1546, and the journey was tedious and hazardous. He was accepted +as arbiter and his decision brought an end to the strife. He preached in +Eisleben (February 14) with all his old fervour; but suddenly said +quietly: "This and much more is to be said about the Gospel; but I am +too weak and we will close here." These were his last words in the +pulpit. On the 16th and 17th the deeds of reconciliation were signed and +Luther's work was done. The end came swiftly. He was very ill on the +evening of the 17th; he died on the early morning of the 18th of +February 1546 in his sixty-third year. + +The elector of Saxony and Luther's family resolved that he must be +buried at Wittenberg, and on the 20th the funeral procession began its +long march. The counts of Mansfeld, the magistrates of the city and all +the burghers of Eisleben accompanied the coffin to the gates of their +town. A company of fifty light-armed troops commanded by the young +counts of Mansfeld headed the procession and went with it all the way to +Wittenberg. The following was temporarily swelled as it passed through +villages and towns. Delegates from the elector of Saxony met it as it +crossed the boundaries of the principality. Luther was laid to rest in +the Castle church on whose door he had nailed the _theses_ which had +kindled the great conflagration. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) For Luther's life as a whole: Melanchthon, + "Historia de vita et actis Lutheri" (Wittenberg, 1545), in the _Corpus + Reformatorum_, vi.; Mathesius, _Historien von ... Martini Lutheri, + Anfang, Lehre, Leben und Sterben_ (Prague, 1896); Myconius, _Historia + Reformationis 1517-1542_ (Leipzig, 1718); Ratzeberger, _Geschichte + über Luther und seine Zeit_ (Jena, 1850); Wrampelmeyer, _Tagebuch über + Dr Martin Luther geführt von Dr Conrad Cordatus, 1537_ (Halle, 1885); + Förstemann, _Neues Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der evangelischen + Kirchenreformation_ (Hamburg, 1842); Kolde, _Analecta Lutherana_ + (Gotha, 1883); G. Lösche, _Analecta Lutherana et Melanchthoniana_ + (Gotha, 1892); G. Lösche, _Vollständige Reformations-Acta und + Documenta_ (Leipzig, 1720-1729); Enders, _Dr Martin Luther's + Briefwechsel_ (5 vols., Frankfurt, 1884-1893); J. Cochlaeus (Rom. + Cath.), _Commentarius de actis et scriptis M. Lutheri, &c_. (St Victor + prope Moguntium). See also J. Köstlin, _Martin Luther, sein Leben und + seine Schriften_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1889); Th. Kolde, _Martin Luther, + Eine Biographie_ (2 vols., Gotha, 1884-1893); A. Hausrath, _Luther's + Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1904); Lindsay, _Luther and the German + Reformation_ (Edinburgh, 1900); _Cambridge Modern History_, ii. + (Cambridge, 1903); _History of the Reformation_, i. (Edinburgh, 1906). + + (b) For special incidents: The _Theses_ and their publication: W. + Köhler, _Luthers 95 Theses sammt seinen Resolutionen, den + Gegenschriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, Eck und Prierias, und den Antworten + Luthers darauf_ (Leipzig, 1903); Emil Reich, _Select Documents + illustrating Medieval and Modern History_ (London, 1905); The Leipzig + Disputation: Seidemann, _Die Leipziger Disputation im Jahre 1519_ + (Dresden, 1843); Luther before the Diet of Worms: _Deutsche + Reichstagsakten unter Kaiser Karl V_. (Gotha, 1893-1901), ii.; The + Marburg Colloquy; Schirrmacher, _Briefe und Acten zu der Geschichte + des Religionsgespräches zu Marburg, 1529, und des Reichstages zu + Augsburg 1530_ (Gotha, 1876); Hospinian, _Historia Sacramentaria_, ii. + 123b-126b; Ehrard, _Das Dogma vom heiligen Abendmahl und seine + Geschichte_, ii. (Frankfurt a M., 1846); The Augsburg Confession: + Schaff, _The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches_ (London, + 1877), _History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (London, 1877). + (T. M. L.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Enders, _Dr Martin Luther's Briefwechsel_, iii. 292-295; von + Bezold, _Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte_ xx. 186 sqq.; Barge, + _Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt_, i. 432 sqq. + + + + +LUTHERANS, the general title given to those Christians who have adopted +the principles of Martin Luther in his opposition to the Roman Church, +to the followers of Calvin, and to the sectaries of the times of the +Reformation. Their distinctive name is the _Evangelical_, as opposed to +the _Reformed_ church. Their dogmatic symbols are usually said to +include nine separate creeds which together form the _Book of Concord_ +(_Liber Concordiae_). Three belong to the Early Christian church--the +_Apostles' Creed_, the _Nicene Creed_ (in its Western form, i.e. with +the _filioque_), and the so-called _Athanasian Creed_; six come from the +16th century--the _Augsburg Confession_, the _Apology for the Augsburg +Confession_, the _Schmalkald Articles_, Luther's two _Catechisms_, and +the _Form of Concord_. But only the three early creeds and the Augsburg +Confession are recognized by all Lutherans. Luther's Catechisms, +especially the shorter of the two, have been almost universally +accepted, but the Form of Concord was and is expressly rejected by many +Lutheran churches. The Augsburg Confession and Luther's Short Catechism +may therefore be said to contain the distinctive principles which all +Lutherans are bound to maintain, but, as the principal controversies of +the Lutheran church all arose after the publication of the Augsburg +Confession and among those who had accepted it, it does not contain all +that is distinctively Lutheran. Its universal acceptance is perhaps due +to the fact that it exists in two forms (the _variata_ and the +_invariata_) which vary slightly in the way in which they state the +doctrine of the sacrament of the Supper. The _variata_ edition was +signed by Calvin, in the meaning, he said, of its author Melanchthon. + +After Luther's death the more rigid Lutherans declared it to be their +duty to preserve the _status religionis in Germania per Lutherum +instauratus_, and to watch over the _depositum Jesu Christi_ which he +had committed to their charge. As Luther was a much greater preacher +than a systematic thinker, it was not easy to say exactly what this +deposit was, and controversies resulted among the Lutheran theologians +of the 16th century. The Antinomian controversy was the earliest +(1537-1560). It arose from differences about the precise meaning of the +word "law" in Luther's distinction between law and gospel. Luther +limited the meaning of the word to mean a definite command accompanied +by threats, which counts on terror to produce obedience. He declared +that Christ was not under the dominion of the law in this sense of the +word, and that believers enter the Christian life only when they +transcend a rule of life which counts on selfish motives for obedience. +But law may mean ethical rule, and the Antinomians so understood it, and +interpreted Luther's declaration to mean that believers are not under +the dominion of the moral law. The controversy disturbed the Lutheran +church for more than twenty years. + +The Arminian controversy in the Reformed church, the Jansenist +controversy in the Roman Catholic church, had their parallel in three +separate disputes among the Lutherans lasting from 1550 to 1580. (1) +George Major, discussing the relation of good works to conversion, +declared that such works were both useful and necessary to holiness. He +was attacked by Flacius and Amsdorf, and after a long controversy, full +of ambiguities and lacking in the exhibition of guiding principles, he +was condemned because his statement savoured of Pelagianism. (2) The +same problem took a new form in the Synergist controversy, which +discussed the first impulse in conversion. One party taught that while +the first impulse must come from the Holy Spirit the work might be +compared to reviving a man _apparently_ dead. It was answered that the +sinner was _really_ dead, and that the work of the Spirit was to give an +actually new life. The latter assertion was generally approved of. (3) +Then a fresh controversy was started by the assertion that sin was part +of the substance of man in his fallen condition. It was answered that +sin had not totally destroyed man's ethical nature, and that grace +changed what was morally insensitive into what was morally sensitive, so +that there could be a co-operation between God's grace and man's will. + +The controversy raised by Andrew Osiander was more important. He felt +that Luther had omitted to make adequate answer to an important +practical question, how Christ's death on the cross could be brought +into such actual connexion with every individual believer as to be the +ground of his actual justification. The medieval church had spanned the +centuries by supposing that Christ's death was continuous down through +the age in the sacrifice of the Mass; Protestant theology had nothing +equivalent. He proposed to supply the lack by the theory that +justification is a real work done in the individual by the same Christ +who died so many centuries ago. Redemption, he said, was the result of +the historical work of Christ; but justification was the work of the +living risen Christ, dwelling within the believer and daily influencing +him. Osiander's theory did not win much support, but it was the +starting-point of two separate doctrines. In the Lutheran church, +Striegel taught that the principal effect of Christ's work on the cross +was to change the attitude of God towards the whole human race, and +that, in consequence, when men come into being and have faith, they can +take advantage of the change of attitude effected by the past historical +work of Christ. The Reformed church, on the other hand, constructed +their special doctrine of the limited reference in the atonement. + +The other controversies concerned mainly the doctrine of the sacrament +of the Supper, and Luther's theory of Consubstantiation. This required a +doctrine of _Ubiquity_, or the omnipresence of the body of Christ +extended in space, and therefore of its presence in the communion +elements. Calvin had taught that the true way to regard substance was to +think of its power (_vis_), and that the presence of a substance was the +immediate application of its power. The presence of the body of Christ +in the sacramental elements did not need a presence extended in space. +Melanchthon and many Lutherans accepted the theory of Calvin, and +alleged that Luther before his death had approved of it. Whereupon the +more rigid Lutherans accused their brethren of Crypto-Calvinism, and +began controversies which dealt with that charge and with a defence of +the idea of ubiquity. + +The university of Jena, led by Matthias Flacius, was the headquarters of +the stricter Lutherans, while Wittenberg and Leipzig were the centres of +the Philippists or followers of Melanchthon. Conferences only increased +the differences. The Lutheran church seemed in danger of falling to +pieces. This alarmed both parties. New conferences were held and various +articles of agreement were proposed, the most notable being the _Torgau +Book_ (1576). In the end, the greater proportion adopted the _Book of +Concord_ (1577), drafted chiefly by Jacob Andreae of Tübingen, Martin +Chemnitz of Brunswick and Nicolas Selnecker of Leipzig. Its recognition +was mainly due to the efforts of Augustus, elector of Saxony. This _Book +of Concord_ was accepted by the Lutheran churches of Sweden and of +Hungary in 1593 and 1597; but it was rejected by the Lutheran churches +of Denmark, of Hesse, of Anhalt, of Pomerania and of several of the +imperial cities. It was at first adopted and then rejected by Brunswick, +the Palatinate and Brandenburg. The churches within Germany which +refused the _Book of Concord_ became for the most part Calvinistic or +Reformed. They published, as was the fashion among the Reformed +churches, separate creeds for themselves, but almost all accepted the +_Heidelberg Catechism_. These differences in the German Protestant +churches of the second half of the 16th century are reflected in the +great American Lutheran church. The church exists in three separate +organizations. The General Synod of the Evangelical Church of the United +States, organized in 1820, has no other creed than the _Augsburg +Confession_, so liberally interpreted as not to exclude Calvinists. The +Synodical Conference of North America, organized in 1872, compels its +pastors to subscribe to the whole of the nine creeds contained in the +Book of Concord. The General Council, a secession from the General +Synod, was organized in 1867, and accepts the "unaltered" (_invariata_) +_Augsburg Confession_ in its original sense, and the other Lutheran +symbols as explanatory of the Augsburg Confession. + +The divided state of German Protestantism, resulting from these +theological differences, contributed in no small degree to the disasters +of the Thirty Years' War, and various attempts were made to unite the +two confessions. Conferences were held at Leipzig (1631), Thorn (1645), +Cassel (1661); but without success. At length the union of the two +churches was effected by the force of the civil authorities in Prussia +(1817), in Nassau (1817), in Hesse (1823), in Anhalt-Dessau (1827) and +elsewhere. These unions for the most part aimed, not at incorporating +the two churches in doctrine and in worship, but at bringing churches or +congregations professing different confessions under one government and +discipline. They permitted each congregation to use at pleasure the +_Augsburg Confession_ or the _Heidelberg Catechism_. The enforced union +in Prussia was combined with the publication of a new liturgy intended +for common use. This led to secessions from the state church. These +seceders were at first treated with great harshness, but have won their +way to toleration, and form the Lutheran Free churches of Germany. + +The most important of these latter is the Evangelical Lutheran church of +Prussia, sometimes called the Old Lutherans. It came into being in 1817 +and gradually gained the position of a tolerated nonconformist church +(1845 being the date of its complete recognition by the state). At the +1905 census it numbered 51,600 members under 75 pastors. Its affairs are +managed by an _Oberkirchencollegium_, with four ordained and two lay +members. The Evangelical Lutheran Immanuel Synod came into being in +1864, and has a membership of 5300 with 13 ordained pastors. Its +headquarters is Liegnitz. The Independent Evangelical Lutheran church in +the lands of Hesse arose partly on account of the slumbering opposition +to the union of 1823 and more particularly in consequence of an attempt +made at a stricter union in 1874. It has a membership of about 1800. The +_renitente_ church of Lower Hesse has a membership of 2400. The +Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Hanover has a membership of 3050 +under 10 ordained pastors. The Hermannsburg Free Church has a membership +of about 2000 under 2 pastors. The Evangelical Lutheran Community in +Baden has a membership of about 1100 with 2 ordained pastors. The +Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Saxony has a membership of about +3780 with 15 ordained pastors. These free churches exist separate from +the State Evangelical United Church (_Evangelische unirte Landskirche_). + +The general system of ecclesiastical government which prevails among all +Lutheran churches is called the _consistorial_. It admits of great +variety of detail under certain common features of organization. It +arose partly from the makeshift policy of the times of the Reformation, +and partly from Luther's strong belief that the _jus episcopale_ +belonged in the last resort to the civil authorities. It may be most +generally described by saying that the idea was taken from the +consistorial courts through which the medieval bishops managed the +affairs of their dioceses. Instead of the appointments to the membership +of the consistories being made by the bishops, they were made by the +supreme civil authority, whatever that might be. Richter, in his +_Evangelische Kirchenordnungen des 16ten Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols., 1846), +has collected more than one hundred and eight separate ecclesiastical +constitutions, and his collection is confessedly imperfect. The +publication of a complete collection by Emil Sehling was begun in 1902. + +The liturgies of the Lutheran churches exhibit the same diversities in +details as appear in their constitutions. It may be said in general that +while Luther insisted that public worship ought to be conducted in a +language understood by the people, and that all ideas and actions which +were superstitious and obscured the primary truth of the priesthood of +all believers should be expurged, he wished to retain as much as +possible of the public service of the medieval church. The external +features of the medieval churches were retained; but the minor altars, +the _tabernacula_ to contain the Host, and the light permanently burning +before the altar, were done away with. The ecclesiastical year with its +fasts and festivals was retained in large measure. In 1526 Luther +published the _German Mass and order of Divine Service_, which, without +being slavishly copied, served as a model for Lutheran communities. It +retained the altar, vestments and lights, but explained that they were +not essential and might be dispensed with. The peril attending the +misuse of pictures in churches was recognized, but it was believed to be +more than counterbalanced by the instruction given through them when +their presence was not abused. In short Luther contented himself with +setting forth general principles of divine service, leaving them to be +applied as his followers thought best. The consequence was that there is +no uniform Lutheran liturgy. In his celebrated _Codex Liturgicus +Ecclesiae Lutheranae in epitomen redactus_ (Leipzig, 1848), Daniel has +used 98 different liturgies and given specimens to show the differences +which they exhibit. + +The divergences in ritual and organization, the principle underlying all +the various ecclesiastical unions, viz. to combine two different +confessions under one common government, and, resulting from it, the +possibility of changing from one confession to another, have all +combined to free the state churches from any rigid interpretation of +their theological formulas. A liberal and a conservative theology +(rationalist and orthodox) exist side by side within the churches, and +while the latter clings to the theology of the 16th century, the former +ventures to raise doubts about the truth of such a common and simple +standard as the Apostles' Creed. The extreme divergence in doctrinal +position is fostered by the fact that the theology taught in the +universities is in a great measure divorced from the practical religious +life of the people, and the theological opinions uttered in the +theological literature of the country cannot be held to express the +thoughts of the members of the churches. In each state the sovereign is +still held to be the _summus episcopus_. He appoints a minister of +public worship, and through him nominates the members of the governing +body, the _Oberkirchenrath_ or _Consistorium_ or _Directorium_. This +council deals with the property, patronage and all other ecclesiastical +matters. But each parish elects its own council for parochial affairs, +which has a legal status and deals with such matters as the +ecclesiastical assessments. Delegates from these parish councils form +the _Landessynode_. In cases that call for consultation together, the +_Consistorium_ and the Synod appoint committees to confer. In +Alsace-Lorraine about half of those entitled to vote appear at the +polls; but in other districts of Germany very little interest is shown +in the elections to the parish councils. + +The income of the state churches is derived from four sources. The state +makes an annual provision for the stipends of the clergy, for the +maintenance of fabrics and for other ecclesiastical needs. The +endowments for church purposes, of which there are many, and which are +destined to the support of foreign missions, clerical pensions, supply +of books to the clergy, &c. are administered by the supreme council. The +voluntary contributions of the people are all absorbed in the common +income of the national churches and are administered by the supreme +council. Each parish is legally entitled to levy ecclesiastical +assessments for defined purposes. + +Appointments to benefices are in the hands of the state (sometimes with +consent of parishes), of private patrons and of local parish councils. +The number of these benefices is always increasing; and in 1897 they +amounted to 16,400, or 300 more than in 1890. The state appoints to 56%, +private and municipal patrons to 34%, and congregations to 10% of the +whole. Customs vary in different states; thus in Schleswig-Holstein the +state nominates but the parish elects; in Alsace-Lorraine the +directorium or supreme consistory appoints, but the appointment must be +confirmed by the viceroy; in Baden the state offers the parish a +selection from six names and then appoints the one chosen. + +The Lutheran state churches of Denmark, Sweden and Norway have retained +the episcopate. In all of them the king is recognized to be the _summus +episcopus_ or supreme authority in all ecclesiastical matters, but in +Norway and Sweden his power is somewhat limited by that of parliament. +The king exercises his ecclesiastical authority through a minister who +superintends religion and education. The position and functions of the +bishops vary in the different countries. In all the rite of ordination +is in their hands. In Denmark they are the inspectors of the clergy and +of the schools. In Sweden they preside over local consistories composed +of clerical and lay members. The episcopate in all three countries +accommodates itself to something like the Lutheran consistorial system +of ecclesiastical government. + +The two leading religions within Germany are the Evangelical (Lutheran) +and the Roman Catholic, including respectively 58 and 39% of the +population. The proportions are continually varying, owing to the new +migratory habits of almost every class of the population. Generally +speaking, the Roman Catholics are on the increase in Prussia, Bavaria, +Saxony and Württemburg; and the Evangelicals in the other districts of +Germany, especially in the large cities. There is a growing tendency to +mixed marriages, which are an important factor in religious changes. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des + sechzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Weimar, 1846); Sehling, _Die evangelischen + Kirchenordnungen des 16ten Jahrhunderts_ (Leipzig, 1902, &c.); + Richter, _Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts_ + (8th ed., Leipzig, 1886); Hundeshagen, _Beiträge zur + Kirchenverfassungsgeschichte und Kirchenpolitik inbesondere des + Protestantismus_, i. (Wiesbaden, 1864), or in _Ausgewählte kl. + Schriften_, ii. (Gotha, 1875); Höfling, _Grundsätze der + evangelischen-Lutherischen Kirchenverfassung_ (Erlangen, 1850, 3rd + ed., 1853); Drews, _Das kirchl. Leben d. deutschen evangelischen + Landeskirchen_ (Tübingen, 1902); Erich Forster, _Die Enstehung der + preussischen Landeskirchen unter der Regierung König Friedrich + Wilhelms III._, i. (Tübingen, 1905); Emil Sehling, _Geschichte der + protestantischen Kirchenverfassung_ (Leipzig, 1907); articles in + Herzog's _Realencyklopädie für protest. Theologie_ (3rd ed.), on + Kirchenregiment, Kirchenrecht, Kirchenordnung, Konsistorien, + Episcopalsystem, Gemeinde, Kollegialsystem, Territorialsystem; Schaff, + _History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (London, 1877). (T. M. L.) + + + + +LUTHER LEAGUE, a religious association for young people in the United +States of America. It began with a local society founded by delegates of +six Lutheran church societies in New York City in 1888. The first +national convention was held at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 30th and +31st of October 1895. The basis of the league is the Augsburg +Confession. Its membership is open to "any society of whatever name +connected with a Lutheran congregation or a Lutheran institution of +learning." According to the constitution its objects are "to encourage +the formation of the young people's societies in all Lutheran +congregations in America, to urge their affiliation with their +respective state or territorial leagues, and with this league to +stimulate the various young people's societies to greater Christian +activity and to foster the spirit of loyalty to the church." The league +publishes a monthly paper, _The Luther League Review_, in Washington. +According to its official report it had 70,000 members in 1906, which +had increased to more than 100,000 in 1910. + + + + +LUTON, a market town and municipal borough in the southern or Luton +parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 30 m. N.W. by N. of +London by the Midland railway, served also by a branch of the Great +Northern. Pop. (1901) 36,404. It lies in a narrow valley on the south +flank of the Chiltern Hills, on the upper part of the river Lea. The +church of St Mary is mainly Decorated, but has portions of Early English +and Perpendicular work. It has brasses and monuments of interest and a +late Decorated baptistery of stone, an ornate roofed structure, +octagonal in form. The font within it is Early English. Luton is the +principal seat in England of the straw-plait manufacture, and large +quantities of hats and other straw goods have been exported, though in +recent years the industry has suffered from increased foreign +competition. The industry originated with the colony of straw-plaiters +transplanted by James I. from Scotland, whither they had been brought +from Lorraine by Queen Mary. The town has also foundries, motor car +works and other manufactures. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen +and 18 councillors. Area, 3133 acres. + + + + +LUTSK (Polish, _Luck_), a town of southern Russia, in the government of +Volhynia, on the Styr, 51 m. by rail N.W. of Kovel. Pop. (1900) 17,701. +It is supposed to have been founded in the 7th century; in the 11th +century it was known as Luchesk, and was the chief town of an +independent principality. In the 15th century it was the seat of a +bishop and became wealthy, but during the wars between Russia and Poland +in the second half of the 16th century, and especially after the +extermination of its 40,000 inhabitants, it lost its importance. In 1791 +it was taken by Russia. Its inhabitants, many of them Jews, live mainly +by shipping goods on the Styr. Among its buildings is a 16th-century +castle. Lutsk is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. + + + + +LUTTERWORTH, a market town in the Harborough parliamentary division of +Leicestershire, England; 90 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Central +railway. Pop. (1901) 1734. It lies in a pleasant undulating country on +the small river Swift, an affluent of the Avon. The church of St Mary is +a fine building, mainly Decorated and Perpendicular, wherein are +preserved relics of John Wycliffe, who was rector here from 1374 until +his death in 1384. The exhumation and burning of his body in 1428, when +the ashes were cast into the Swift, gave rise to the saying that their +distribution by the river to the ocean resembled that of Wycliffe's +doctrines over the world. Wycliffe is further commemorated by a modern +obelisk in the town. Trade is principally agricultural. + + + + +LUTTRELL, HENRY (c. 1765-1851), English wit and writer of society verse, +was the illegitimate son of Henry Lawes Luttrell, 2nd earl of Carhampton +(1743-1821), a grandson of Colonel Henry Luttrell (c. 1655-1717), who +served James II. in Ireland in 1689 and 1690, and afterwards deserted +him, being murdered in Dublin in November 1717. Colonel Luttrell's son +Simon (1713-1787) was created earl of Carhampton in 1785, and the +latter's son was Henry Lawes Luttrell. Before succeeding to the peerage, +the 2nd earl, then Colonel Luttrell, had won notoriety by opposing John +Wilkes at the Middlesex election of 1769. He was beaten at the poll, but +the House of Commons declared that he and not Wilkes had been elected. +In 1796 he was made commander of the forces in Ireland and in 1798 he +became a general. Being an Irish peer, Carhampton was able to sit in the +English parliament until his death in April 1821. The earldom became +extinct on the death of his brother John, the 3rd earl, in 1829. + +Henry Luttrell secured a seat in the Irish parliament in 1798 and a post +in the Irish government, which he commuted for a pension. Introduced +into London society by the duchess of Devonshire, his wit made him +popular. Soon he began to write verse, in which the foibles of +fashionable people were outlined. In 1820 he published his _Advice to +Julia_, of which a second edition, altered and amplified, appeared in +1823 as _Letters to Julia in Rhyme_. This poem, suggested by the ode to +Lydia in the first book of Horace's Odes, was his most important work. +His more serious literary contemporaries nicknamed it "Letters of a +Dandy to a Dolly." In 1827 in _Crockford House_ he wrote a satire on the +high play then in vogue. Byron characterized him as "the best sayer of +good things, and the most epigrammatic conversationist I ever met"; Sir +Walter Scott wrote of him as "the great London wit," and Lady +Blessington described him as the one talker "who always makes me think." +Luttrell died in London on the 19th of December 1851. + + + + +LÜTTRINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 6 m. +S.E. of Elberfeld by rail. Pop. (1905) 11,829. It is the seat of various +iron and other metal industries, and has cloth and calico mills. + + + + +LÜTZEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of Merseburg (pop. in +1905, 3981), chiefly famous as the scene of a great battle fought on the +6/16th of November 1632 between the Swedes, under King Gustavus +Adolphus, and the Imperialists, under Wallenstein. On the 5/15th +November, Gustavus, with some 20,000 men, advanced from Naumburg on the +Saale to meet a contingent of his German allies at Grimma, S.E. of +Leipzig, but becoming aware of the presence of Wallenstein's army near +Lützen, and that it had been weakened by a large detachment sent away +under Pappenheim towards Halle, he turned towards Lützen. Wallenstein's +posts at Weissenfels and Rippach prevented him from fighting his main +battle the same evening, and the Swedes went into camp near Rippach, a +little more than an hour's march from Lützen. + +Wallenstein made ready to give battle on the following day and recalled +Pappenheim. The latter had taken a small castle, the reduction of which +was one of the objects of his expedition, but his men had dispersed to +plunder and could not be rallied before the following morning. Gustavus +had now to choose between proceeding to Grimma and fighting Wallenstein +on the chance that Pappenheim had not rejoined. He chose the latter. In +the mist of the early morning Wallenstein's army was formed in line of +battle along the Leipzig road with its right on Lützen. Its left was not +carried out as far as the Flossgraben in order to leave room on that +flank for Pappenheim. His infantry was arranged in five huge oblongs, +four of which (in lozenge formation) formed the centre and one the +right wing at Lützen. These "battalias" had their angles strengthened in +the old-fashioned way that had prevailed since Marignan, with small +outstanding bodies of musketeers, so that they resembled rectangular +forts with bastions. On either side of this centre was the cavalry in +two long lines, while in front of the centre and close to the right at +Lützen were the two batteries of heavy artillery. Lützen was set on fire +as a precaution. Skirmishers lined the bank and the ditch of the Leipzig +road. The total strength of the Imperial army was about 12,000 foot and +8000 horse. + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF LÜTZEN November 16th., 1632.] + +Gustavus's hopes of an early decision were frustrated by the fog, which +delayed the approach and deployment of the Swedes. It was 8 A.M. before +all was ready. The royal army was in two lines. The infantry in the +centre was arrayed in the small and handy battalions then peculiar to +Gustavus's army, the horse on either wing extended from opposite Lützen +to some distance beyond Wallenstein's left, which Pappenheim was to +extend on his arrival. By the accident of the terrain, or perhaps, +following the experience of Breitenfeld (q.v.), by design, the right of +the Swedes was somewhat nearer to the enemy than the left. In front, +near the centre, were the heavy guns and each infantry battalion had its +own light artillery. The force of infantry and cavalry on either side +was about equal, the Swedes had perhaps rather less cavalry and rather +more infantry, but their artillery was superior to Wallenstein's. Not +until 11 was it possible to open fire, for want of a visible target, but +about noon, after a preliminary cannonade, Gustavus gave the word to +advance. + +The king himself commanded the right wing, which had to wait until small +bodies of infantry detached for the purpose had driven in the +Imperialist skirmish line, and had then to cross a ditch leading the +horses. They were not charged by the Imperialists at this moment, for +Pappenheim had not yet arrived, and the usual cavalry tactics of the day +were founded on the pistol and not on the sword and the charging horse. +Gaining at last room to form, the Swedes charged and routed the first +line of the Imperial cavalry but were stopped by the heavy squadrons of +cuirassiers in second line, and at that moment Gustavus galloped away to +the centre where events had taken a serious turn. The Swedish centre +(infantry) had forced their way across the Leipzig road and engaged +Wallenstein's living forts at close quarters. The "Blue" +brigade--Gustavus's infantry wore distinctive colours--overran the +battery of heavy guns, and the "Swedish"[1] and "Yellow" brigades +engaged the left face of the Imperialist lozenge with success. But a gap +opened between the right of the infantry and the left of the cavalry and +Wallenstein's second line squadrons pressed into it. It was this which +brought Gustavus from the extreme right, and he was killed here in +leading a counter charge. + +On the extreme left, meanwhile, the "Green" brigade had come to close +quarters with Wallenstein's infantry and guns about Lützen, and the +heavy artillery had gone forward to close range between the "Green" and +the "Yellow" infantry. But the news of Gustavus's death spread and the +fire of the assault died out. Wallenstein advanced in his turn, +recaptured his guns and drove the Swedes over the road. + +But the fiery Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took up the command and +ordered a fresh advance. He was too good a soldier to waste his reserves +and only brought up a few units of the second line to help the +disordered brigades of the first. Again the Imperialists were driven in +and their guns recaptured, this time all along the line. About three in +the afternoon the Swedes were slowly bearing back Wallenstein's stubborn +infantry when Pappenheim appeared. The famous cavalry leader had brought +on his mounted men ahead of the infantry and asking, "Where is the king +of Sweden?" charged at once in the direction of the enemy's right. +Wallenstein thus gained time to reestablish his order, and once more the +now exhausted brigades of the Swedish first line were driven over the +road. But Pappenheim fell in the moment of victory and his death +disheartened the Imperialists almost as much as the fall of Gustavus had +disheartened the Swedes. For the last time Bernhard, wounded as he was, +forced the Swedish army to the attack. The three infantry brigades of +his second line had not been engaged,[2] and as usual the last closed +reserve, resolutely handled, carried the day. Wallenstein's army gave +way at all points and the Swedes slept on the battlefield. The infantry +of Pappenheim's corps did not appear on the field until the battle was +over. Of the losses on either side no accurate statement can be given, +but the Swedish "Green" and "Yellow" brigades are said to have lost +five-sixths of their numbers. Near the spot where Gustavus fell a +granite boulder was placed in position on the day after the battle. A +canopy of cast-iron was erected over this "Schwedenstein" in 1832, and +close by, a chapel, built by Oskar Ekman. a citizen of Gothenburg (d. +1907), was dedicated on the 6th of November 1907. + + Lützen is famous also as the scene of a victory of Napoleon over the + Russians and Prussians on the 2nd of May 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC + CAMPAIGNS). This battle is often called Gross Görschen. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The foregoing account of Gustavus's last victory is + founded chiefly upon Lieut.-Colonel Hon. E. Noel's _Gustaf Adolf_ + (London, 1904) and a paper by the same officer in the _Journal of the + United States Institution of India_ (Oct. 1908), which should be + consulted for further details. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] So called as being the only brigade containing no foreign + elements in the army. + + [2] They had, however, found detachments to reinforce the first line. + + + + +LÜTZOW, ADOLF, FREIHERR VON (1782-1834), Prussian lieutenant-general, +entered the army in 1795, and eleven years later as a lieutenant took +part in the disastrous battle of Auerstädt. He achieved distinction in +the siege of Colberg, as the leader of a squadron of Schill's +volunteers. In 1808, as a major, he retired from the Prussian army, +indignant at the humiliating treaty of Tilsit. He took part in the +heroic venture of his old chief Schill in 1809; wounded at Dodendorf and +left behind, he thereby escaped the fate of his comrades. In 1811 he was +restored to the Prussian army as major, and at the outbreak of the "war +of liberation" received permission from Scharnhorst to organize a "free +corps" consisting of infantry, cavalry and Tirolese marksmen, for +operating in the French rear and rallying the smaller governments into +the ranks of the allies. This corps played a marked part in the campaign +of 1813. But Lützow was unable to coerce the minor states, and the +wanderings of the corps had little military influence. At Kitzen (near +Leipzig) the whole corps, warned too late of the armistice of +Poischwitz, was caught on the French side of the line of demarcation +and, as a fighting force, annihilated. Lützow himself, wounded, cut his +way out with the survivors, and immediately began reorganizing and +recruiting. In the second part of the campaign the corps served in more +regular warfare under Wallmoden. Lützow and his men distinguished +themselves at Gadebusch (where Körner fell) and Göhrde (where Lützow +himself, for the second time, received a severe wound at the head of the +cavalry). Sent next against Denmark, and later employed at the siege of +Jülich, Lützow in 1814 fell into the hands of the French. After the +peace of 1814 the corps was dissolved, the infantry becoming the 25th +Regiment, the cavalry the 6th Ulans. At Ligny he led the 6th Ulans to +the charge, but they were broken by the French cavalry, and he finally +remained in the hands of the enemy, escaping, however, on the day of +Waterloo. Made colonel in this year, his subsequent promotions were: +major-general 1822, and lieutenant-general (on retirement) 1830. He died +in 1834. One of the last acts of his life for which Lützow is remembered +is his challenge (which was ignored) to Blücher, who had been ridden +down in the rout of the 6th Ulans at Ligny, and had made, in his +official report, comments thereon, which their colonel considered +disparaging. + + See Koberstein in _Preussisches Jahrbuch_, vol. xxiii (Berlin, 1868), + and _Preussisches Bilderbuch_ (Leipzig, 1889); K. von Lützow, _Adolf + Lützows Freikorps_ (Berlin, 1884); Fr. von Jagwitz, _Geschichte des + Lutzowschen Freikorps_ (Berlin, 1892); and the histories of the + campaigns of 1813 and 1815. + + + + +LUXEMBURG, FRANÇOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-BOUTEVILLE, DUKE OF +(1628-1695), marshal of France, the comrade and successor of the great +Condé, was born at Paris on the 8th of January 1628. His father, the +comte de Montmorency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his +birth for killing the marquis de Beuvron in a duel, but his aunt, +Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Condé, took charge of him and +educated him with her son, the duc d'Enghien. The young Montmorency (or +Bouteville as he was then called) attached himself to his cousin, and +shared his successes and reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. +He returned to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Condé, then much +attached to the duchesse de Châtillon, Montmorency's sister, contrived +the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest heiress in +France, Madeleine de Luxemburg-Piney, princesse de Tingry and heiress of +the Luxemburg dukedom (1661), after which he was created duc de +Luxembourg and peer of France. At the opening of the War of Devolution +(1667-68), Condé, and consequently Luxemburg, had no command, but during +the second campaign he served as Condé's lieutenant-general in the +conquest of Franche Comté. During the four years of peace which followed +Luxemburg cultivated the favour of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high +command against the Dutch. He defeated the prince of Orange at Woerden +and ravaged Holland, and in 1673 made his famous retreat from Utrecht to +Maestricht with only 20,000 men in face of 70,000, an exploit which +placed him in the first rank of generals. In 1674 he was made captain of +the gardes du corps, and in 1675 marshal of France. In 1676 he was +placed at the head of the army of the Rhine, but failed to keep the duke +of Lorraine out of Philipsburg; in 1677 he stormed Valenciennes; and in +1678 he defeated the prince of Orange, who attacked him at St Denis +after the signature of the peace of Nijmwegen. His reputation was now +high, and it is reputed that he quarrelled with Louvois, who managed to +involve him in the "affair of the poisons" (see LA VOISIN, CATHERINE) +and get him sent to the Bastille. Rousset in his _Histoire de Louvois_ +has shown that this quarrel is probably apocryphal. There is no doubt +that Luxemburg spent some months of 1680 in the Bastille, but on his +release took up his post at court as _capitaine des gardes_. When the +war of 1690 broke out, the king and Louvois recognized that Luxemburg +was the only general fit to cope with the prince of Orange, and he was +put in command of the army of Flanders. On the 1st of July 1690 he won a +great victory over the prince of Waldeck at Fleurus. In the following +year he commanded the army which covered the king's siege of Mons and +defeated William III. of England at Leuze on September 18, 1691. Again +in the next campaign he covered the king's siege of Namur, and defeated +William at Steenkirk (q.v.) on June 5, 1692; and on July 29, 1693, he +won his greatest victory over his old adversary at Neerwinden, after +which he was called _le tapissier de Nôtre Dame_ from the number of +captured colours that he sent to the cathedral. He was received with +enthusiasm at Paris by all but the king, who looked coldly on a relative +and adherent of the Condes. St Simon describes in the first volume of +his _Memoirs_ how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France +according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife to be duc +de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place him second on the +roll. The affair is described with St Simon's usual interest in the +peerage, and was chiefly checked through his assiduity. In the campaign +of 1694, Luxemburg did little in Flanders, except that he conducted a +famous march from Vignamont to Tournay in face of the enemy. On his +return to Versailles for the winter he fell ill, and died on January 4, +1695. In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit priest +Bourdaloue, who said on his death, "I have not lived his life, but I +would wish to die his death." Luxemburg's morals were bad even in those +times, and he had shown little sign of religious conviction. But as a +general he was Condé's grandest pupil. Though slothful like Condé in the +management of a campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with +happy inspirations, against which no ardour of William's and no +steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death and +Catinat's disgrace close the second period of the military history of +the reign of Louis XIV., and Catinat and Luxemburg, though inferior to +Condé and Turenne, were far superior to Tallard and Villeroi. He was +distinguished for a pungent wit. One of his retorts referred to his +deformity. "I never can beat that cursed humpback," William was reputed +to have said of him. "How does he know I have a hump?" retorted +Luxemburg, "he has never seen my back." He left four sons, the youngest +of whom was a marshal of France as Maréchal de Montmorency. + + See, besides the various memoirs and histories of the time, Beaurain's + _Histoire militaire du duc de Luxembourg_ (Hague and Paris, 1756); + _Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire du marechal duc de Luxembourg_ + (Hague and Paris, 1758); Courcelles, _Dictionnaire des généraux + français_ (Paris, 1823), vol. viii. There are some interesting facts + in Desormeaux's _Histoire de la maison de Montmorency_ (1764), vols. + iv. and v. Camille Rousset's _Louvois_ and the recent biography of + Luxemburg by Count de Ségur (1907) should also be studied. + + + + +LUXEMBURG, a district in the European low countries, of which the +eastern part forms the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and the western is the +Belgian province of that name (for map, see BELGIUM). The name is +derived from the chief town. + +Under the Romans the district was included in the province of _Belgica +prima_, afterwards forming part of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia and +of the empire of Charlemagne. About 1060 it came under the rule of +Conrad (d. 1086), who took the title of count of Luxemburg. His +descendants ruled the county, first in the male and then in the female +line, until the death of the emperor Sigismund in 1437. Through the +marriage of Sigismund's daughter, Elizabeth, with the German king, +Albert II., Luxemburg, which had been made a duchy in 1354, passed to +the house of Habsburg, but was seized in 1443 by Philip III. the Good, +duke of Burgundy, who based his claim upon a bargain concluded with +Sigismund's niece Elizabeth (d. 1451). Regained by the Habsburgs in 1477 +when Mary, daughter and heiress of duke Charles the Bold, married the +German king Maximilian I., the duchy passed to Philip II. of Spain in +1555, though subject to the laws of the empire, of which it still formed +part. After a section had been ceded to France in 1659, the remainder +was given to the emperor Charles VI. by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. +It was conquered by France in 1795, and retained by that power until the +end of the Napoleonic wars. The congress of Vienna (1814-1815) erected +Luxemburg into a grand-duchy, added part of the duchy of Bouillon to it, +and assigned it to William I., king of the Netherlands, in return for +the German territories of the house of Orange-Nassau, which Napoleon had +confiscated in 1806, and which were given by the congress to the king +of Prussia. In 1830 when the Belgian provinces separated from Holland, +an effort was made to include Luxemburg in the new kingdom of the +Belgians; but in November 1831 the powers decided that part of the +grand-duchy should be retained by the king of Holland, who refused to +accept this arrangement. Consequently the whole of Luxemburg remained in +the possession of the Belgians until 1838, when the treaty of the 19th +of April, concluded at the conference of London, enforced the partition +of 1831. + +The grand-duchy of Luxemburg, the portion under the rule of William I. +retaining the name, was ruled by the kings of Holland until the death of +William III. in 1890. William's daughter, Wilhelmina, succeeded to the +throne of Holland, but under the Salic law[1] the grand-duchy passed to +his kinsman, Adolphus, duke of Nassau, who died in 1905, and was +succeeded by his son William (b. 1852). + +By modifications of the treaty of Vienna the garrisoning of the fortress +of Luxemburg had passed into Prussian hands, an arrangement which lasted +until 1867. In the previous year the German Confederation, to which the +grand-duchy of Luxemburg had belonged since 1815, had been dissolved; +but the Prussians maintained their garrison in Luxemburg, which was not +included in the new North German Confederation, while King William III. +proposed to sell his rights over the grand-duchy to France. The +Prussians were irritated by this proposal, but war was averted, and the +question was referred to a conference of the powers in London. The +treaty of London, signed on the 11th of May 1867, decided that the +Prussian garrison must be withdrawn and the fortress dismantled, which +was done in 1872. At the same time the great powers guaranteed the +neutrality of the grand-duchy, and although a member of the German +_Zollverein_, Luxemburg now forms a sovereign and independent state. + +The GRAND-DUCHY lies S.E. of Belgium. Its area is 999 sq. m., with a +population (1905) of 246,455. The people are nearly all Catholics. The +country is rich in iron ore. The hills in the south of the duchy are a +continuation of the Lorraine plateau, and the northern districts are +crossed in all directions by outrunners from the Ardennes. The streams +mostly join the Moselle, which forms the boundary between Luxemburg and +the Rhine province for about 20 m. The Sure or Sauer, the most important +stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosières in Belgian Luxemburg, +crosses the duchy, and forms the eastern boundary from the confluence of +the Our till it joins the Moselle after a course of 50 m., during which +it receives the Wiltz, Attert, Alzette, White and Black Ernz, &c. The +soil of Luxemburg is generally good; the southern districts are on the +whole the most fertile as well as the most populous. Building materials +of all sorts are obtained throughout the duchy. Besides the iron +furnaces, situated in the south near the Lorraine plateau, there are +tanneries, weaving and glove-making factories, paper-mills for all sorts +of paper, breweries and distilleries, and sugar refineries. A German +patois mixed with French words is spoken throughout the country; but +French, which is employed by the commercial community, is also the +common speech on the French and Belgian frontiers. Though liberty of +worship prevails, Roman Catholicism is almost the sole form. The +government is in the hands of the grand-duke, who sanctions and +promulgates the laws. There is a council (_staatsrat_) of 15 members. +There is a chamber of deputies with 48 members elected by the cantons +(12 in number) for six years, half the body being elected every three +years. No law can be passed without the consent of the chamber. Bills +are introduced by the grand-duke, but the house has also the right of +initiative. A single battalion (150) of volunteers composes the +grand-ducal army. The gendarmerie consists of about 150 men. There are +cantonal courts and two district courts, one at Luxemburg, the other at +Diekirch, and a high court at Luxemburg. The bishopric of Luxemburg +holds its authority directly from the Holy See. From 13,000,000 to +17,000,000 francs is the annual amount of the state budget, and the +debt, consisting of loans contracted principally for the construction of +railways, of which there are about 350 m., is 12,000,000 francs. + +Among towns next to the capital, Luxemburg, are Echternach and Diekirch, +both worthy of note for their blast furnaces. Grevenmacher is the centre +of a great wine district. + +The PROVINCE OF LUXEMBURG is the largest and least populous of the nine +provinces of Belgium. Its capital is Arlon, which lies near the borders +of the grand-duchy. A considerable part of the province is forested and +the state requires systematic replanting. Marble, granite and slate +quarries are worked in different districts. Successful attempts have +been made to introduce fruit cultivation. The province is well watered +by the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sûre. The general elevation of the +country is about 500 ft., but the hills and plateaus which form the +prominent feature in the scenery of Luxemburg range from 1200 to 1500 +ft. The highest point of the province is the Baraque de Fraiture (1980 +ft.), N.E. of La Roche. The woods are well stocked with red and roe +deer, wild boar, hares, rabbits, pheasants, woodcock and snipe. The area +of the province is 1725 sq. m. The population was 225,963 in 1904. + + The HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG was descended from Count Conrad (d. 1086), and + its fortunes were advanced through the election of Count Henry IV. as + German king in 1308 and his coronation as emperor under the title of + Henry VII. Henry's son was John, king of Bohemia, who fell on the + field of Crécy, and John's eldest son was the emperor Charles IV., + while another famous member of the family was Baldwin, archbishop of + Treves (1285-1354), who took an active part in imperial affairs. Two + of the sons of Charles IV., Wenceslaus and Sigismund, succeeded in + turn to the imperial throne, and one of his nephews, Jobst, margrave + of Moravia, was chosen German king in opposition to Sigismund in 1410. + The French branch of the Luxemburg family was descended from Waleran + (d. 1288), lord of Ligny and Roussy, a younger son of Count Henry II. + Waleran's great-grandson was Guy (d. 1371), who married Matilda, + sister and heiress of Guy V., count of Saint-Pol (d. 1360), and was + created count of Ligny in 1367. Guy's son, Waleran (d. 1417), who + became constable of France in 1412, had been carried as a prisoner to + England, and had married Matilda, daughter of Thomas Holland, earl of + Kent (d. 1360) and half-sister of King Richard II. To avenge Richard's + death he made a raid on the Isle of Wight, and then took part in the + civil wars in France. He left no sons, and was succeeded by his + nephew, Peter, count of Brienne (d. 1433), who, like his brother Louis + (d. 1443), cardinal archbishop of Rouen and chancellor of France, was + found on the side of the English in their struggle against France. + Another of Peter's brothers, John (d. 1440), a stout supporter of + England, was made governor of Paris by Henry V. He sold Joan of Arc to + the English. Peter's son and successor, Louis, fought at first for + England, but about 1440 he entered the service of France and obtained + the office of constable. King Louis XI. accused him of treachery, and + he took refuge with Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but the duke + handed him over to the king and he was beheaded in 1475. The elder + branch of his descendants became extinct in the male line in 1482, and + was merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon-Vendôme. + Louis's third son, Anthony (d. 1510), founded the family of + Luxemburg-Brienne, the senior branch of which became extinct in 1608. + A junior branch, however, was the family of the duke of + Luxemburg-Piney, whose last representative, Margaret-Charlotte (d. + 1680), married firstly Léon d'Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly + Charles Henry de Clermont-Tonnerre (d. 1674). Her daughter by her + second husband, Madeleine Charlotte, married Francis Henry de + Montmorenci (d. 1695) and de Luynes, and, subsequently, members of the + family of Montmorenci claimed the title of duke of Luxemburg. The + Luxembourg palace in Paris owes its name to the fact that it was built + on a site belonging to the duke of Luxemburg-Piney. + + See N. van Werveke, _Beiträge zur Geschichte des Luxemburger Landes_ + (Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J. Schötter, _Geschichte des Luxemburger + Landes_ (Luxemburg, 1882); and N. Vigner, _Histoire de la maison de + Luxembourg_ (Paris, 1619). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It should be noticed, however, that the Salic law is subordinate + to the Nassau family law, which provides for the succession in the + case of the _complete extinction_ of males. Thus Article xlii. of the + Nassau Pact of the 30th of June 1783 provides "that in the event of + the extinction of males, the rights of succession pass to the + daughter or nearest heiress of the last male." + + + + +LUXEMBURG, or LUTZELBURG (i.e. the little fortress or town), the capital +of the grand-duchy of the same name (see above), situated on the +Alzette, a tributary of the Sûre. Pop. (1905) 20,984. The situation is +romantic, steep cliffs overhanging the winding river, and the principal +portion of the town with the palace and public buildings covering a +central plateau. The more densely populated parishes of Clausen, +Pfaffenthal and Grund lie in the valley. As a fortress Luxemburg was +considered the strongest in Europe after Gibraltar, which it was +supposed to resemble because many of its casemates were cut into the +rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal viaducts carry the railway +and the approach from the railway station to the town. Since the place +ceased to be a fortress the population has more than doubled, and the +Alzette is lined with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hôtel +de Ville dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The +church of Nôtre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael, with +parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of Luxemburg, +king of Bohemia, slain at Crécy. There are two annual fête days, one in +honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg, patroness of the city, held on the +Sunday before Ascension Day, and the other the annual fair or +_Schobermesse_ (tent fair), instituted in 1340 and held each year on the +24th of August. + + + + +LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of +Haute-Saône, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906) 5195. It is situated in a +region of forests on the right bank of the Breuchin. It has an +abbey-church dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, containing a +curious 17th-century organ loft in the form of an immense bracket +supported by a colossal figure of Hercules. The abbot's palace (16th and +18th centuries) serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the +15th century and other buildings of the 17th century also remain. There +are several mansions and houses dating from various periods from the +14th to the 16th century. The Maison Carrée, once the town hall, an +interesting specimen of 15th-century architecture, was built by Perrin +Jouffroy, father of Cardinal Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at +Luxeuil in 1412, built the house with a graceful balcony and turret +which faces the Maison Carrée. The Maison de la Baille and the Maison +François I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont +Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for its +mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being ferruginous, +and the rest charged with chloride of sodium; their temperatures range +from 70° to 158° F. The water is employed for drinking and for baths. +The bathing establishment contains a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities +and there are also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to be seen in or +near it. Luxeuil has a communal college. Copper-founding, the spinning +and weaving of cotton, lace-making, dyeing and the distilling of kirsch +are carried on. + +Luxeuil was the Roman _Lixovium_ and contained many fine buildings at +the time of its destruction by the Huns under Attila in 451. In 590 St +Columban here founded a monastery, afterwards one of the most famous in +Franche Comté. In the 8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens; +afterwards rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans in +the 9th century and plllaged on several occasions afterwards. The abbey +schools were celebrated in the middle ages and the abbots had great +influence; but their power was curtailed by the emperor Charles V. and +the abbey was suppressed at the Revolution. + + See H. Beaumont, _Etude hist. sur l'abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790_ (Lux. + 1895); Grandmongin and A. Garnier, _Hist. de la ville et des thermes + de Luxeuil_ (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates. + + + + +LUXOR, more properly El-Aksur, "The Castles" (plur. of kasr), a town of +Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile 450 m. above Cairo by river +and 418 by rail. Pop. (1907 census) 12,644. It is the centre for +visitors to the ruins of and about Thebes, and is frequented by +travellers and invalids in the winter season, several fine hotels having +been built for their accommodation. There are Anglican and Roman +Catholic churches, and a hospital for natives, opened in 1891. The +district is the seat of an extensive manufacture of forged antiques. + +The temple of Luxor is one of the greatest of the monuments of Thebes +(q.v.). It stands near the river bank on the S.W. side of the town and +measures nearly 300 yds. from back to front. There may have been an +earlier temple here, but the present structure, dedicated to the Theban +triad of Ammon, Mut and Khons, was erected by Amenophis III. The great +colonnade, which is its most striking feature, was apparently intended +for the nave of a hypostyle hall like that of Karnak, but had to be +hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of Amenophis IV. +(Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete work was taken in hand by +Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.; +a long paved road bordered by recumbent rams led from the façade to the +temples of Karnak (q.v.) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and +Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive court +to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of axis. He +embellished the walls and pylons of his court with scenes from his +victories over Hittites and Syrians, and placed a number of colossal +statues within it. In front of the pylon Rameses set up colossi and a +pair of obelisks (one of which was taken to Paris in 1831 and re-erected +in the Place de la Concorde). A few scenes and inscriptions were added +by later kings, but the above is practically the history of the temple +until Alexander the Great rebuilt the sanctuary itself. The chief +religious festival of Thebes was that of "Southern Opi," the ancient +name of Luxor. The sacred barks of the divinities preserved in the +sanctuary of Karnak were then conveyed in procession by water to Luxor +and back again; a representation of the festal scenes is given on the +walls of the great colonnade. The Christians built churches within the +temple. The greater part of the old village of Luxor lay inside the +courts: it was known also as Abu 'l Haggag from a Moslem saint of the +7th century, whose tomb-mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a +high heap of débris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the +buildings and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the +expropriation and clearances by the Service des Antiquités began in +1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the ancient +avenue. + + See G. Daressy, _Notice explicative des ruines du temple de Louxor_ + (Cairo, 1803); Baedeker's _Egypt_. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +LUXORIUS, Roman writer of epigrams, lived in Africa during the reigns of +the Vandal kings Thrasamund, Hilderic and Gelimer (A.D. 496-534). He +speaks of his poor circumstances, but from the superscription +_clarissimus_ and _spectabilis_ in one MS., he seems to have held a high +official position. About a hundred epigrams by him in various metres +(the elegiac predominating) have been preserved. They are after the +manner of Martial, and many of them are coarse. They deal chiefly with +the games of the circus and works of art, and the language shows the +author to have been well acquainted with the legends and antiquities of +the classical period of Rome. + + Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in _Journal + of Philology_, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in the + _Anthologia Latina_, edited by F. Bücheler and A. Riese (1894). + + + + +LUYNES, a territorial name belonging to a noble French house. The family +of Albert, which sprang from Thomas Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de +Boussargues, _bailli_ of Viviers and Valence, and _viguier_ of Bagnols +and Pont St Esprit in Languedoc, acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of +Indre-et-Loire) in the 16th century. Honoré d'Albert (d. 1592), seigneur +de Luynes, was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of +Henry IV., and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of +artillery in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons: +Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of Louis XIII.; +Honoré (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who married Charlotte Eugénie +d'Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619, and was created duke of Chaulnes +in 1621; and Léon, seigneur de Brantes, who became duke of +Luxemburg-Piney by his marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of +Luxemburg. + +By her marriage with Claude of Lorraine, duke of Chevreuse, Marie de +Rohan, the widow of the first duke of Luynes, acquired in 1655 the duchy +of Chevreuse, which she gave in 1663 to Louis Charles d'Albert, her son +by her first husband; and from that time the title of duke of Chevreuse +and duke of Luynes was borne by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes, +which also inherited the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of +the descendants of Honoré d'Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of +Luxemburg-Piney became extinct in 1697. + +Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up at court +and attended the dauphin, who later became Louis XIII. The king shared +his fondness for hunting and rapidly advanced him in favour. In 1615 he +was appointed commander of the Louvre and counsellor, and the following +year grand falconer of France. He used his influence over the king in +the court intrigues against the queen-mother Marie de Medici and her +favourite Concini. It was Luynes who, with Vitry, captain of the guard, +arranged the plot that ended in Concini's assassination (1617) and +secured all the latter's possessions in Italy and France. In the same +year he was appointed captain of the Bastille and lieutenant-general of +Normandy, and married Marie de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon. +He employed extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but +sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he negotiated +the treaty of Angoulême by which Marie de Medici was accorded complete +liberty. He was made governor of Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising +of nobles in 1620; and in 1621, with slight military ability or +achievement, was appointed constable of France. His rapid rise to power +made him a host of enemies, who looked upon him as but a second Concini. +In order to justify his newly-won laurels, Luynes undertook an +expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the midst of +the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the 15th of December 1621. + +His brother Honoré (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was governor of +Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended his province +successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste d'Albert d'Ailly +(1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became marshal of France (1741). +Louis Joseph d'Albert de Luynes (1670-1750), prince of Grimberghen, was +in the service of the emperor Charles VII., and became field-marshal and +ambassador in France. + +Several members of the family of Albert were distinguished in letters +and science. Louis Charles d'Albert (1620-1690), duke of Luynes, son of +the constable, was an ascetic writer and friend of the Jansenists; Paul +d'Albert de Luynes (1703-1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an +astronomer; Michel Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly (1714-1769), duke of +Chaulnes, a writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph +Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honoré Théodore Paul Joseph +(1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology. + + For the first duke see _Recueil des pièces les plus curieuses qui ont + esté faites pendant le règne du connestable M. de Luynes_ (2nd ed., + 1624); Le Vassor, _Histoire de Louis XIII._ (Paris, 1757); Griffet, + _Histoire du règne de Louis XIII., roi de France et de Navarre_ + (Paris, 1758); V. Cousin, "Le Duc et connétable de Luynes," in + _Journal des savants_ (1861-1863); B. Zeller, _Études critiques sur le + règne de Louis XIII.: le connétable de Luynes, Montauban et la + Valteline_ (Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, _La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et + Marie de Medicis_ (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, vi.^2, + 141-216 (Paris, 1905). + + + + +LUZÁN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO (1702-1754), Spanish critic +and poet, was born at Saragossa on the 28th of March 1702. His youth was +passed under the care of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he +graduated in philosophy at the university of Catania. In 1723 he took +minor orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and +took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously. Business +took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in Madrid as a scholar +with a tendency towards innovations in literature. _La Poética, ó Reglas +de la poesía en general y de sus principales especies_ (1737) proved +that this impression was correct. He at once took rank as the leader of +the literary reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the +respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to the +Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in 1750, was +elected to the "Academia Poética del Buen Gusto," where, on account of +his travels, he was known by the sobriquet of _El Peregrino_. He became +master of the mint and treasurer of the royal library. He died at +Madrid, after a short illness, on the 19th of May 1754. Luzán was not +the pioneer of Franco-Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most +powerful exponent, and his _Poética_ is an admirable example of +destructive criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderon are +indicated with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzán is +notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one exhausted +convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic unities had not the +saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and, though he succeeded in +banishing the older dramatists from the boards, he and his school failed +to produce a single piece of more than mediocre merit. His theories, +derived chiefly from Muratori, were ineffective in practice; but their +ingenuity cannot be denied, and they acted as a stimulus to the +partisans of the national tradition. + + + + +LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR, a town of south-western France in the department of +Hautes-Pyrénées, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is +beautifully situated at a height of 2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a +remarkable church, built by the Templars in the 12th and 13th centuries +and fortified later. The crenelated ramparts with which it is +surrounded, and the tower to the north of the apse resembling a keep, +give it the aspect of a fortress; other interesting features are the +Romanesque north door and a chapel of the 16th century. The village of +St Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of the +Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing Pont Napoleon +(1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is visited for its warm +sulphurous springs. Discovered in the 16th century, the waters came into +vogue after 1820, in which year they were visited by the duchesses of +Angoulême and Berry. There is much picturesque mountain scenery in the +vicinity; 12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is +the magnificent rock amphitheatre or _cirque_ of Gavarnie, with its +cascade, one of the highest in Europe. + + + + +LUZZATTI, LUIGI (1841- ), Italian economist and financier, was born of +Jewish parents at Venice on the 11th of March 1841. After completing his +studies in law at the university of Padua, he attracted the attention of +the Austrian police by his lectures on political economy, and was +obliged to emigrate. In 1863 he obtained a professorship at the Milan +Technical Institute; in 1867 he was appointed professor of +constitutional law at Padua, whence he was transferred to the university +of Rome. Gifted with eloquence and energy, he popularized in Italy the +economic ideas of Schultze-Delitzsch, worked for the establishment of a +commercial college at Venice, and contributed to the spread of people's +banks on a basis of limited liability throughout the country. In 1869 he +was appointed by Minghetti under secretary of state to the ministry of +agriculture and commerce, in which capacity he abolished government +control over commercial companies and promoted a state inquiry into the +conditions of industry. Though theoretically a free trader, he was +largely instrumental in creating the Italian protective system. In 1877 +he participated in the commercial negotiations with France, in 1878 +compiled the Italian customs tariff, and subsequently took a leading +part in the negotiations of all the commercial treaties between Italy +and other countries. Appointed minister of the treasury in the first Di +Rudini cabinet of 1891, he imprudently abolished the system of frequent +clearings of bank-notes between the state banks, a measure which +facilitated the duplication of part of the paper currency and hastened +the bank crisis of 1893. In 1896 he entered the second Di Rudini cabinet +as minister of the treasury, and by timely legislation helped to save +the bank of Naples from failure. After his fall from office in June +1898, his principal achievement was the negotiation of the +Franco-Italian commercial treaty, though, as deputy, journalist and +professor, he continued to take an active part in all political and +economic manifestations. He was again minister of the treasury from +November 1903 to March 1905 in Giolitti's second administration, and for +the third time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino's premiership. +During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the +Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3¾% to be eventually +lowered to 3½%, an operation which other ministers had attempted without +success; although the actual conversion was not completed until after +the fall of the cabinet of which he formed part the merit is entirely +his. In 1907 he was president of the co-operative congress at Cremona. + + See L. Carpi's _Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. ii. (Milan, 1886), which + contains a biographical sketch of Luzzatti. + + + + +LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM (1707-1747), Hebrew dramatist and mystic, was born +in Padua 1707, and died at Acre 1747. He was influenced by Isaac Luria +(q.v.) on the mystical side, and on the poetical side by Italian drama +of the school of Guarini (q.v.). He attacked Léon of Modena's +anti-Kabbalistic treatises, and as a result of his conflict with the +Venetian Rabbinate left Italy for Amsterdam, where, like Spinoza, he +maintained himself by grinding lenses. Here, in 1740, he wrote his +popular religious manual the _Path of the Upright_ (_Messilath +Yesharim_) and other ethical works. He visited London, but finally +settled in Palestine, where he died. Luzzatto's most lasting work is in +the realm of Hebrew drama. His best-known compositions are: the _Tower +of Victory_ (_Migdal 'Oz_) and _Glory to the Upright_ (_Layesharim +Tehillah_). Both of these dramas, which were not printed at the time but +were widely circulated in manuscript, are of the type which preceded the +Shakespearean age--they are allegorical and all the characters are +types. The beautiful Hebrew style created a new school of Hebrew poetry, +and the Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses +Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto. + + See Grätz, _History of the Jews_, v. ch. vii.; I. Abrahams, _Jewish + Life in the Middle Ages_, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, _The Renascence + of Hebrew Literature_, ch. i. (I. A.) + + + + +LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID (1800-1865), Jewish scholar, was born at Trieste +in 1800, and died at Padua in 1865. He was the most distinguished of the +Italian Jewish scholars of the 19th century. The first Jew to suggest +emendations to the text of the Hebrew Bible, he edited Isaiah +(1856-1867), and wrote a commentary on the Pentateuch (1871). His +grammatical works were mostly written in Italian. He also contributed to +the history of the Synagogue liturgy, and enjoys with Geiger (q.v.) and +Zunz (q.v.) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval Hebrew +hymnology and secular verse. + + See Grätz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq.; N. + Slouschz, _The Renascence of Hebrew Literature_, pp. 84-92; the + _Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 225-226, with list of works. (I. A.) + + + + +LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN (1835- ), Anglo-Indian civil servant and man of +letters, son of the Rev. Alfred Lyall, was born in 1835, and educated at +Eton and Haileybury. He entered the Bengal civil service in 1855, saw +service during the Mutiny in the Bulandshahr district, at Meerut, and +with the Khaki Risala of volunteers. He was commissioner in Berar +(1867), secretary to the government of India in the Home and Foreign +departments, lieutenant-governor of the North-western Provinces +(1882-1887), and member of the Council of India (1888-1903). Among his +writings, his _Verses Written in India_ (1889) attained considerable +popularity, and in his _Asiatic Studies_ (1882 and 1899) he displays a +deep insight into Indian life and character. He wrote the _Life_ of Lord +Dufferin (1905), and made numerous contributions to periodical +literature. + + + + +LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of ADA ELLEN BAYLY (1857-1903), English +novelist. She was born at Brighton in 1857, the daughter of a barrister. +Her parents died while she was a child, and she was brought up at +Caterham, Surrey. At Eastbourne, where most of her life was spent, she +was well known for her philanthropic activity. She died on the 8th of +February 1903. Edna Lyall's vogue as a novelist was the result of a +combination of the story-teller's gift with a sincere ethical and +religious spirit of Christian tolerance, which at the time was new to +many readers. Though her _Won by Waiting_ (1879) had some success, it +was with _Donovan_ (1882) and _We Two_ (1884), in which the persecuted +atheist was inevitably identified with Charles Bradlaugh, that she +became widely popular. Other novels were _In the Golden Days_ (1885), a +story of the Great Rebellion; _Knight Errant_ (1887); _Autobiography of +a Slander_ (1887); _A Hardy Norseman_ (1889); _Derrick Vaughan_, _The +Story of a Novelist_ (1889); _To Right the Wrong_ (1892); _Doreen_ +(1894), a statement of the case for Irish Home Rule; _The Autobiography +of a Truth_ (1896), the proceeds of which were devoted to the Armenian +Relief Fund; _In Spite of All_ (1901), which had originally been +produced by Mr Ben Greet as a play; and _The Bruges Letters_ (1902), a +book for children. + + A _Life_ by J. N. Escreet appeared in 1904, and a shorter account of + her by the Rev. G. A. Payne was printed at Manchester in 1903. + + + + +LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. It +was constituted in 1904 to comprise the "Chenab Colony," being the waste +portion of the former Jhang district that is now irrigated by the Lower +Chenab canal. Area, 3075 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by +a section of the North-western railway. The headquarters are at Lyallpur +town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a +lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning and +pressing cotton. + + See _Chenab Colony Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1904). + + + + +LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, [Greek: Lychaion oros]: mod. _Diaphorti_), a +mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said to have been +born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon, +who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practised on its summit. +This seems to have involved a human sacrifice, and a feast in which the +man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as +Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of +a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no +shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it died +within the year. + + + + +LYCANTHROPY (Gr. [Greek: lykos], wolf, [Greek: anthropos], man), a name +employed (1) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human being to +undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology for a form of +insanity in which the patient believes that he is transformed into an +animal and behaves accordingly. + +I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to +metamorphosis into a wolf (see WERWOLF), it is in practice used of +transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of kynanthropy +([Greek: kyon], dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the tiger is the +commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan the fox, in Africa +the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion, in South America the +jaguar; but though there is a tendency for the most important +carnivorous animal of the area to take the first place in stories and +beliefs as to transformation, the less important beasts of prey and even +harmless animals like the deer also figure among the wer-animals. + +Lycanthropy is often confused with transmigration; but the essential +feature of the wer-animal is that it is the alternative form or the +double of a living human being, while the soul-animal is the vehicle, +temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead human being. The vampire +is sometimes regarded as an example of lycanthropy; but it is in human +form, sometimes only a head, sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a +living person, at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave +to prey upon the living. + +Even if the denotation of lycanthropy be limited to the +animal-metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed +together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat +capriciously applied. The transformation may be voluntary or +involuntary, temporary or permanent; the wer-animal may be the man +himself metamorphosed, it may be his double whose activity leaves the +real man to all appearance unchanged, it may be his soul, which goes +forth seeking whom it may devour and leaving its body in a state of +trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a +real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connexion with its +owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a +phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the +human being. + +The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of +sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the +supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are +also attributed to the magician, male and female, all the world over; +and witch superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with, +lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of +lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another +direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself +in connexion with the bush-soul of the West African and the _nagual_ of +Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn +on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate +association of the bush-soul or the _nagual_ with a human being are not +termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will be well to touch on both these +beliefs here. + +In North and Central America, and to some extent in West Africa, +Australia and other parts of the world, every male acquires at puberty a +tutelary spirit (see DEMONOLOGY); in some tribes of Indians the youth +kills the animal of which he dreams in his initiation fast; its claw, +skin or feathers are put into a little bag and become his "medicine" and +must be carefully retained, for a "medicine" once lost can never be +replaced. In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by +means of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal +causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession of a +tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician. In +Alaska the candidate for magical powers has to leave the abodes of men; +the chief of the gods sends an otter to meet him, which he kills by +saying "O" four times; he then cuts out its tongue and thereby secures +the powers which he seeks. The Malays believe that the office of +_pawang_ (priest) is only hereditary if the soul of the dead priest, in +the form of a tiger, passes into the body of his son. While the familiar +is often regarded as the alternative form of the magician, the _nagual_ +or bush-soul is commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human +being. Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa, +in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole of the +population of certain areas. The people of Banana are said to change +themselves by magical means, composed of human embryos and other +ingredients, but in their leopard form they may do no hurt to mankind +under pain of retaining for ever the beast shape. In other cases the +change is supposed to be made for the purposes of evil magic and human +victims are not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of +demarcation, and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected +with nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with +metempsychosis, as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as suggested by J. +F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the Zulu belief that the +magician's familiar is really a transformed human being; when he finds a +dead body on which he can work his spells without fear of discovery, the +wizard breathes a sort of life into it, which enables it to move and +speak, it being thought that some dead wizard has taken possession of +it. He then burns a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts +the tongue. Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified +body into the form of some animal, hyena, owl or wild cat, the latter +being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's servant +and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however, to inflict +sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by its master. + + _Lycanthropy in Europe._--The wolf is the commonest form of the + wer-animal (see WERWOLF), though in the north the bear disputes its + pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated with the + belief. Marcellus of Sida, who wrote under the Antonines, gives an + account of a disease which befell people in February; but a + pathological state seems to be meant. + + _Lycanthropy in Africa._--In Abyssinia the power of transformation is + attributed to the Boudas, and at the same time we have records of + pathological lycanthropy (see below). Blacksmiths are credited with + magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant that + the Boudas are workers in iron and clay; in the _Life of N. Pearce_ + (i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed + transformation which took place in his presence and almost before his + eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than + coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience. + + _The Wer-tiger of the East Indies._--The Poso-Alfures of central + Celebes believe that man has three souls, the _inosa_, the _angga_ and + the _tanoana_. The _inosa_ is the vital principle; it can be detected + in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the great + natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The _angga_ is the + intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes to + the under-world, and, unlike the _inosa_, which is believed to be + dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an + immaterial body. The _tanoana_ is the divine in man and after death + returns to its lord, Poewempala boeroe. It goes forth during sleep, + and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he + dreams. According to another account, the _tanoana_ is the substance + by which man lives, thinks and acts; the _tanoana_ of man, plants and + animals is of the same nature. A man's _tanoana_ can be strengthened + by those of others; when the _tanoana_ is long away or destroyed the + man dies. The _tanoana_ seems to be the soul of which lycanthropic + feats are asserted. + + Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's + "inside" can take the form of a cat, wild pig, ape, deer or other + animal, and afterwards resume human form; it is termed _lamboyo_. The + exact relation of the _lamboyo_ to the _tanoana_ does not seem to be + settled; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According + to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others + hold that werwolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating food + left by a werwolf or even by leaning one's head against the same + pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes a + werwolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that werwolfism + can be cured; the breast and stomach of the werman must be rubbed and + pinched, just as when any other witch object has to be extracted. The + patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves the body in the form + of snakes and worms. There are certain marks by which a werman can be + recognized. His eyes are unsteady and sometimes green with dark + shadows underneath. He does not sleep soundly and fireflies come out + of his mouth. His lips remain red in spite of betel chewing, and he + has a long tongue. The Todjoers add that his hair stands on end. + + Some of the forms of the _lamboyo_ are distinguishable from ordinary + animals by the fact that they run about among the houses; the + wer-buffalo has only one horn, and the wer-pig transforms itself into + an ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the werman does + not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the sorcerer, + only sends out a messenger. The _lamboyo_ attacks by preference + solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The victim + feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the _lamboyo_ then assumes human + form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his victim, + scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the liver and eats + it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long tongue and + joins it together. When the victim comes to himself again he has no + idea that anything unusual has happened to him. He goes home, but soon + begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies, but before his death he + is able sometimes to name the werman to whom he has fallen a victim. + + From this account it might be inferred that the _lamboyo_ was + identical with the _tanoana_; the absence of the _lamboyo_ seems to + entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human form. + In other cases, however, the _lamboyo_ seems to be analogous to the + familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how a man once + came to a house and asked the woman to give him a rendezvous; it was + night and she was asleep; the question was put three times before the + answer was given "in the tobacco plantation." The husband was awake, + and next day followed his wife, who was irresistibly drawn thither. + The werman came to meet her in human form, although his body was + engaged in building a new house, and caused the woman to faint by + stamping three times on the ground. Thereupon the husband attacked the + werman with a piece of wood, and the latter to escape transformed + himself into a leaf; this the husband put into a piece of bamboo and + fastened the ends so that he could not escape. He then went back to + the village and put the bamboo in the fire. The werman said "Don't," + and as soon as it was burnt he fell dead. + + In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to be due + to the malevolence of a werwolf, her husband watched by her body. For, + like Indian witches, the werwolf, for some reason, wishes to revive + his victim and comes in human form to carry off the coffin. As soon as + the woman was brought to life the husband attacked the werwolf, who + transformed himself into a piece of wood and was burnt. The woman + remained alive, but her murderer died the same night. + + According to a third form of the belief, the body of the werman is + itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a party + were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions heard a deer + and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came back and said he + had been shot. Although no marks were to be seen he died a few days + later. + + In Central Java we meet with another kind of wer-tiger. The power of + transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the use of + spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, &c. Save when + it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile to man; + in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night and to guard + the plantations from wild pigs, exactly as the _balams_ (magicians) of + Yucatan were said to guard the corn fields in animal form. Variants of + this belief assert that the werman does not recognize his friends + unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as a mendicant and + transforms himself to take vengeance on those who refuse him alms. + Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds; for them the tiger is + friendly; he reserves his wrath for their enemies, and a man is said + to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just vengeance. + + _Lycanthropy in South America._--According to K. F. P. v. Martius the + _kanaima_ is a human being who employs poison to carry out his + function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the _kanaima_ + as a jaguar, which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a + cannibalistic sorcerer. The Europeans of Brazil hold that the seventh + child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a wer-man or + woman, and takes the form of a horse, goat, jaguar or pig. + +II. As a pathological state lycanthropy may be described as a kind of +hysteria, and may perhaps be brought into connexion with the form of it +known as _latah_. It is characterized by the patient's belief that he +has been metamorphosed into an animal, and is often accompanied by a +craving for strange articles of food, including the flesh of living +beings or of corpses. In the lower stages of culture the state of the +patient is commonly explained as due to possession, but where he leaves +the neighbourhood of man real metamorphosis may be asserted, as in +ordinary lycanthropic beliefs. Marcellus of Sida says that in Greece the +patients frequented the tombs at night; they were recognizable by their +yellow complexion, hollow eyes and dry tongue. The Garrows of India are +said to tear their hair when they are seized with the complaint, which +is put down to the use of a drug applied to the forehead; this recalls +the stories of the witch's salve in Europe. In Abyssinia the patient is +usually a woman; two forms are distinguished, caused by the hyena and +the leopard respectively. A kind of trance ushers in the fit; the +fingers are clenched, the eyes glazed and the nostrils distended; the +patient, when she comes to herself, laughs hideously and runs on all +fours. The exorcist is a blacksmith; as a rule, he applies onion or +garlic to her nose and proceeds to question the evil spirit. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the anthropological side of the subject see + bibliography to WERWOLF; also _Tijdskrift voor indische Taal, Land en + Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; _Med. + Zendelingsgenootschap_, xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, _Suggestion_, p. 418; + W. H. Brett, _Indians of British Guiana_. For the pathological side, + see Hack Tuke, _Dict. of Psychological Medicine_, s.v. "Lycanthropy"; + _Dict. des sciences médicales_; Waldmeier, _Autobiography_, p. 64; A. + J. Hayes, _Source of Blue Nile_, p. 286 seq.; _Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse + kgl. sächsische Gesellschaft der Wiss._ 17, No. 3. (N. W. T.) + + + + +LYCAON, in Greek mythology, son of Pelasgus, the mythical first king of +Arcadia. He, or his fifty impious sons, entertained Zeus and set before +him a dish of human flesh; the god pushed away the dish in disgust and +either killed the king and his sons by lightning or turned them into +wolves (Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 198). Some say that Lycaon +slew and dished up his own son Nyctimus (Clem. Alex. _Protrept._ ii. 36; +Nonnus, _Dionys._ xviii. 20; Arnobius iv. 24). The deluge was said to +have been sent by Zeus in the time of Deucalion in consequence of the +sons' impiety. Pausanias (viii. 2) says that Lycaon sacrificed a child +to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and immediately after the +sacrifice was turned into a wolf. This gave rise to the story that a man +was turned into a wolf at each annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but +recovered his human form if he abstained from human flesh for ten years. +The oldest city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first +civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story has been +variously interpreted. According to Weizsäcker, he was an old Pelasgian +or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human sacrifice was offered, bearing a +non-Hellenic name similar to [Greek: Lykos], whence the story originated +of his metamorphosis into a wolf. His cult was driven out by that of the +Hellenic Zeus, and Lycaon himself was afterwards represented as an evil +spirit, who had insulted the new deity by setting human flesh before +him. Robertson Smith considers the sacrifices offered to the wolf-Zeus +in Arcadia to have been originally cannibal feasts of a wolf-tribe, who +recognized the wolf as their totem. Usener and others identify Lycaon +with Zeus Lycaeus, the god of light, who slays his son Nyctimus (the +dark) or is succeeded by him, in allusion to the perpetual succession of +night and day. According to Ed. Meyer, the belief that Zeus Lycaeus +accepted human sacrifice in the form of a wolf was the origin of the +myth that Lycaon, the founder of his cult, became a wolf, i.e. +participated in the nature of the god by the act of sacrifice, as did +all who afterwards duly performed it. W. Mannhardt sees in the ceremony +an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of which was to +prevent the failure of the crops and to avert pestilence (or to protect +them and the flocks against the ravages of wolves). Others (e.g. V. +Bérard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported +into Arcadia by the Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus +Phyxios, the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed +blood. Another explanation is that the place of the sacred wolf once +worshipped in Arcadia was taken in cult by Zeus Lycaeus, and in popular +tradition by Lycaon, the ancestor of the Arcadians, who was supposed to +have been punished for his insulting treatment of Zeus. It is possible +that the whole may be merely a reminiscence of a superstition similar to +the familiar werwolf stories. + + See articles by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher's _Lexikon_ and by G. + Fougères (s.v. "Lykaia") in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des + antiquités_; W. Immerwahr, _Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_, 1. + (1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, i. (1896), + p. 40; A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_ (1899); C. Pascal, _Studii + di antichità e mitologia_ (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death + honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten + Geschichte_, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_, + ii. (1905); G. Fougères, _Mantinée et l'Arcadie orientale_ (1898), p. + 202; V. Bérard, _De l'origine des cultes arcadiens_ (1894); H. D. + Müller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stämme_, ii. (1861), p. 78; H. + Usener, _Rheinisches Museum_, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Görres, + _Berliner Studien für classische Philologie_, x. 1 (1889), who regards + the Lycaea as a funeral festival connected with the changes of + vegetation; Vollgraf, _De Ovidii mythopoeia_; a concise statement of + the various forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, _Griechische + Mythologie_, ii. p. 920, n. 4; see also LYCANTHROPY; D. Bassi, "Apollo + Liceo," in _Rivista di storia antica_, i. (1895); and Frazer's + _Pausanias_, iv. p. 189. (J. H. F.) + + + + +LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a large region in the interior of Asia +Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the E. by Cappadocia, on +the N. by Galatia, on the W. by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the S. it +extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the country +popularly called in earlier times Cilicia Tracheia and in the Byzantine +period Isauria; but its boundaries varied greatly at different times. +The name is not found in Herodotus, but Lycaonia is mentioned by +Xenophon as traversed by Cyrus the younger on his march through Asia. +That author describes Iconium as the last city of Phrygia; and in Acts +xiv. 5 St Paul, after leaving Iconium, crossed the frontier and came to +Lystra in Lycaonia. Ptolemy, on the other hand, includes Lycaonia as a +part of the province of Cappadocia, with which it was associated by the +Romans for administrative purposes; but the two countries are clearly +distinguished both by Strabo and Xenophon and by authorities generally. + +Lycaonia is described by Strabo as a cold region of elevated plains, +affording pasture to wild asses and to sheep; and at the present day +sheep abound, but asses are practically unknown. Amyntas, king of +Galatia, to whom the district was for a time subject, maintained there +not less than three hundred flocks. It forms part of the interior +tableland of Asia Minor, and has an elevation of more than 3000 ft. It +suffers from want of water, aggravated in some parts by abundance of +salt in the soil, so that the northern portion, extending from near +Iconium to the salt lake of Tatta and the frontiers of Galatia, is +almost wholly barren, only small patches being cultivated near Iconium +and the large villages. The soil, where water is supplied, is +productive. In ancient times great attention was paid to storing and +distributing the water, so that much land now barren was formerly +cultivated and supported a large number of cities. + +The plain is interrupted by some minor groups of mountains, of volcanic +character, of which the Kara Dagh in the south, a few miles north of +Karaman, rises above 7000 ft., while the Karadja Dagh, north-east of it, +though of inferior elevation, presents a striking range of volcanic +cones. The mountains in the north-west, near Iconium and Laodicea, are +the termination of the Sultan Dagh range, which traverses a large part +of Phrygia. + +The Lycaonians appear to have been in early times to a great extent +independent of the Persian empire, and were like their neighbours the +Isaurians a wild and lawless race of freebooters; but their country was +traversed by one of the great natural lines of high road through Asia +Minor, from Sardis and Ephesus to the Cilician gates, and a few +considerable towns grew up along or near this line. The most important +was Iconium, in the most fertile spot in the country, of which it was +always regarded by the Romans as the capital, although ethnologically it +was Phrygian. It is still called Konia, and it was the capital of the +Seljuk Turkish empire for several centuries. A little farther north, +immediately on the frontier of Phrygia, stood Laodicea (Ladik), called +Combusta, to distinguish it from the Phrygian city of that name; and in +the south, near the foot of Mount Taurus, was Laranda, now called +Karaman, which has given name to the province of Karamania. Derbe and +Lystra, which appear from the Acts of the Apostles to have been +considerable towns, were between Iconium and Laranda. There were many +other towns, which became bishoprics in Byzantine times. Lycaonia was +Christianized very early; and its ecclesiastical system was more +completely organized in its final form during the 4th century than that +of any other region of Asia Minor. + +After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, Lycaonia was given by the +Romans to Eumenes II., king of Pergamos. About 160 B.C. part of it, the +"Tetrarchy of Lycaonia," was added to Galatia; and in 129 B.C. the +eastern half (usually called during the following 200 years Lycaonia +proper) was given to Cappadocia as an eleventh strategia. In the +readjustment of the Provinciae, 64 B.C., by Pompey after the Mithradatic +wars, he gave the northern part of the tetrarchy to Galatia and the +eastern part of the eleventh strategia to Cappadocia. The remainder was +attached to Cilicia. Its administration and grouping changed often under +the Romans. In A.D. 371 Lycaonia was first formed into a separate +province. It now forms part of the Konia viláyet. + +The Lycaonians appear to have retained a distinct nationality in the +time of Strabo, but their ethnical affinities are unknown. The mention +of the Lycaonian language in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 11) shows +that the native language was spoken by the common people at Lystra about +A.D. 50; and probably it was only later and under Christian influence +that Greek took its place. + + See Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (1890), + _Historical Commentary on Galatians_ (1899) and _Cities of St Paul_ + (1907); also an article on the topography in the _Jahreshefte des + Oesterr. Archaeolog. Instituts_, 194 (Beiblatt) pp. 57-132. + (W. M. Ra.) + + + + +LYCEUM, the latinized form of Gr. [Greek: Lykeion], the name of a +gymnasium and garden with covered walks, near the temple of Apollo +Lyceus ([Greek: Apollon Aykeios]) at Athens. Aristotle taught here, and +hence the name was applied to his school of philosophy. The name had +been used in many languages for places of instruction, &c. In France the +term _lycée_ is given to the secondary schools which are administered by +the state, in contradistinction to the communal _collèges_. + + + + +LYCIA, in ancient geography, a district in the S.W. of Asia Minor, +occupying the coast between Caria and Pamphylia, and extending inland as +far as the ridge of Mt Taurus. The region thus designated is a peninsula +projecting southward from the great mountain masses of the interior. It +is for the most part a rugged mountainous country, traversed by +offshoots of the Taurus range, which terminate on the coast in lofty +promontories. The coast, though less irregular than that of Caria, is +indented by a succession of bays--the most marked of which is the Gulf +of Macri (anc. _Glaucus Sinus_) in the extreme west. A number of smaller +bays, and broken rocky headlands, with a few small islets, constitute +the coast-line thence to the S.E. promontory of Lycia, formed by a long +narrow tongue of rocky hill, known in ancient times as the "Sacred +Promontory" (Hiera Acra), with three small adjacent islets, called the +Chelidonian islands, which was regarded by some ancient geographers as +the commencement of Mt. Taurus. Though the mountain ranges of Lycia are +all offshoots of Mt, Taurus, in ancient times several of them were +distinguished by separate names. Such were Daedala in the west, +adjoining the Gulf of Macri, Cragus on the sea-coast, west of the valley +of the Xanthus, Massicytus (10,000 ft.) nearly in the centre of the +region, and Solyma in the extreme east above Phaselis (7800 ft.). The +steep and rugged pass between Solyma and the sea, called the Climax +("Ladder"), was the only direct communication between Lycia and +Pamphylia. + +The only two considerable rivers are: (1) the Xanthus, which descends +from the central mass of Mt Taurus, and flows through a narrow valley +till it reaches the city of the same name, below which it forms a plain +of some extent before reaching the sea, and (2) the Limyrus, which +enters the sea near Limyra. The small alluvial plains at the mouths of +these rivers are the only level ground in Lycia, but the hills that rise +thence towards the mountains are covered with a rich arborescent +vegetation. The upper valleys and mountain sides afford good pasture for +sheep, and the main Taurus range encloses several extensive upland +basin-shaped valleys (_vailas_), which are characteristic of that range +throughout its extent (see ASIA MINOR). + + The limits of Lycia towards the interior seem to have varied at + different times. The high and cold upland tract to the north-east, + called Milyas, was by some writers included in that province, though + it is naturally more connected with Pisidia. According to Artemidorus + (whose authority is followed by Strabo), the towns that formed the + Lycian league in the days of its integrity were twenty-three in + number; but Pliny states that Lycia once possessed seventy towns, of + which only twenty-six remained in his day. Recent researches have + fully confirmed the fact that the sea-coast and the valleys were + thickly studded with towns, many of which are proved by existing + remains to have been places of importance. By the aid of inscriptions + the position of the greater part of the cities mentioned in ancient + authors can be fixed. On the gulf of Glaucus, near the frontiers of + Caria, stood Telmessus, an important place, while a short distance + inland from it were the small towns of Daedala and Cadyanda. At the + entrance of the valley of the Xanthus were Patara, Xanthus itself, + and, a little higher up, Pinara on the west and Tlos on the east side + of the valley, while Araxa stood at the head of the valley, at the + foot of the pass leading into the interior. Myra, one of the most + important cities of Lycia, occupied the entrance of the valley of the + Andriacus; on the coast between this and the mouth of the Xanthus + stood Antiphellus, while in the interior at a short distance were + found Phellus, Cyaneae and Candyba. In the alluvial plain formed by + the rivers Arycandus and Limyrus stood Limyra, and encircling the same + bay the three small towns of Rhodiapolis, Corydalla and Gagae. + Arycanda commanded the upper valley of the river of the same name. On + the east coast stood Olympus, one of the cities of the league, while + Phaselis, a little farther north, which was a much more important + place, never belonged to the Lycian league and appears always to have + maintained an independent position. + + The cold upland district of the Milyas does not seem to have contained + any town of importance. Podalia appears to have been its chief place. + Between the Milyas and the Pamphylian Gulf was the lofty mountain + range of Solyma, which was supposed to derive its name from the + Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer in connexion with the Lycians and + the story of Bellerophon. In the flank of this mountain, near a place + called Deliktash, was the celebrated fiery source called the Chimaera, + which gave rise to many fables. It has been visited in modern times by + Captain F. Beaufort, T. A. B. Spratt and Edward Forbes, and other + travellers, and is merely a stream of inflammable gas issuing from + crevices in the rocks, such as are found in several places in the + Apennines. No traces of recent volcanic action exist in Lycia. + +_History._--The name of the Lycians, _Lukki_, is first met with in the +Tel el-Amarna tablets (1400 B.C.) and in the list of the nations from +the eastern Mediterranean who invaded Egypt in the reign of Mineptah, +the successor of Rameses II. At that time they seem to have occupied the +Cilician coast. Their occupation of Lycia was probably later, and since +the Lycian inscriptions are not found far inland, we may conclude that +they entered the country from the sea. On the other hand the name +appears to be preserved in Lycaonia, where some bands of them may have +settled. According to Herodotus they called themselves Termilae, written +Trmmile in the native inscriptions, and he further states that the +original inhabitants of the country were the Milyans and Solymi, the +Lycians being invaders from Crete. In this tradition there is a +reminiscence of the fact that the Lycians had been sea-rovers before +their settlement in Lycia. The Lycian Sarpedon was believed to have +taken part in the Trojan war. The Lydians failed to subdue Lycia, but +after the fall of the Lydian empire it was conquered by Harpagus the +general of Cyrus, Xanthus or Arnna, the capital, being completely +destroyed. While acknowledging the suzerainty of Persia, however, the +Lycians remained practically independent, and for a time joined the +Delian league. "The son of Harpagus" on the obelisk of Xanthus boasts of +having sacked numerous cities in alliance with the Athenian goddess. The +Lycians were incorporated into the empire of Alexander and his +successors, but even after their conquest by the Romans, preserved their +federal institutions as late as the time of Augustus. According to +Strabo the principal towns in the league were Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, +Olympus, Myra and Tlos; each of these had three votes in the general +assembly, while the other towns had only two or one. Taxation and the +appointment of the Lyciarch and other magistrates were vested in the +assembly. Under Claudius Lycia was formally annexed to the Roman empire, +and united with Pamphylia: Theodosius made it a separate province. + +_Antiquities._--Few parts of Asia Minor were less known in modern times +than Lycia up to the 19th century. Captain Beaufort was the first to +visit several places on the sea-coast, and the remarkable rock-hewn +tombs of Telmessus had been already described by Dr Clarke, but it was +Sir Charles Fellows who first discovered and drew attention to the +extraordinary richness of the district in ancient remains, especially of +a sepulchral character. His visits to the country in 1838 and 1840 were +followed by an expedition sent by the British government in 1842 to +transport to England the valuable monuments now in the British Museum, +while Admiral Spratt and Edward Forbes explored the interior, and laid +down its physical features on an excellent map. The monuments thus +brought to light are among the most interesting of those discovered in +Asia Minor, and prove the existence of a distinct native architecture, +especially in the rock-cut tombs. But the theatres found in almost every +town, some of them of very large size, are sufficient to attest the +pervading influence of Greek civilization; and this is confirmed by the +sculptures, which are for the most part wholly Greek. None of them, +indeed, can be ascribed to a very early period, and hardly any trace can +be found of the influence of Assyrian or other Oriental art. + +One of the most interesting results of these recent researches has been +the discovery of numerous inscriptions in the native language of the +country, and written in an alphabet peculiar to Lycia. A few of these +inscriptions are bilingual, in Greek and Lycian, and the clue thus +afforded to their interpretation has been followed up, first by Daniel +Sharpe and Moritz Schmidt, and in more recent years by J. Imbert, W. +Arkwright, V. Thomsen, A. Torp, S. Bugge and E. Kalinka. + +The alphabet was derived from the Doric alphabet of Rhodes, but ten +other characters were added to it to express vocalic and other sounds +not found in Greek. The attempts to connect the language with the +Indo-European family have been unsuccessful; it belongs to a separate +family of speech which we may term "Asianic." Most of the inscriptions +are sepulchral; by far the longest and most important is that on an +obelisk found at Xanthus, which is a historical document, the concluding +part of it being in a peculiar dialect, supposed to be an older and +poetical form of the language. Among the deities mentioned are Trzzube +(Trosobis) and Trqqiz or Trqqas. + +Lycian art was modelled on that of the Greeks. The rock-cut tomb usually +represented the house of the living, with an elaborate façade, but in +one or two instances, notably that of the so-called Harpy-tomb, the +façade is surmounted by a tall, square tower, in the upper part of which +is the sepulchral chamber. Lycian sculpture followed closely the +development of Greek sculpture, and many of the sculptures with which +the tombs are adorned are of a high order of merit. The exquisite +bas-reliefs on a Lycian sarcophagus now in the museum of Constantinople +are among the finest surviving examples of classical art. The +bas-reliefs were usually coloured. For the coinage, see NUMISMATICS, +section "Asia Minor." + + AUTHORITIES.--C. Fellows, _Journal in Asia Minor_ (1839) and + _Discoveries in Lycia_ (1841); T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, _Travels + in Lycia_ (1847); O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, _Reisen im südwestlichen + Kleinasien_ (1884); E. Petersen and F. von Luschan, _Reisen in Lykien_ + (1889); O. Treuber, _Geschichte der Lykier_ (1887); G. Perrot and C. + Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, v. (1890); P. + Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_ + (1896); S. Bugge, _Lykische Studien_ (from 1897); A. Torp, _Lykische + Beiträge_ (from 1898); V. Thomsen, _Études lyciennes_ (1899); E. + Kalinka and R. Heberdey, _Tituli Asiae Minoris_, i. (1901); see also + articles XANTHUS, MYRA, PATARA. (A. H. S.) + + + + +LYCK, or LYK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East +Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Königsberg, and close to the frontier of +Poland, on a lake and river of the same name. Pop. (1900) 11,386. It is +the chief town of the region known as Masuria. On an island in the lake +is a castle formerly belonging to the Teutonic order, and dating from +1273, now used as a prison. There are iron-foundries, distilleries, +breweries, tanneries, paper mills and flour mills, and a trade in grain +and cattle. + + + + +LYCOPHRON, Greek poet and grammarian, was born at Chalcis in Euboea. He +flourished at Alexandria in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 +B.C.). According to Suïdas, he was the son of Socles, but was adopted by +Lycus of Rhegium. He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging +the comedies in the Alexandrian library, and as the result of his +labours composed a treatise _On Comedy_. His own compositions, however, +chiefly consisted of tragedies (Suïdas gives the titles of twenty, of +which very few fragments have been preserved), which secured him a place +in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians. One of his poems, _Alexandra_ +or _Cassandra_, containing 1474 iambic lines, has been preserved entire. +It is in the form of a prophecy uttered by Cassandra, and relates the +later fortunes of Troy and of the Greek and Trojan heroes. References to +events of mythical and later times are introduced, and the poem ends +with a reference to Alexander the Great, who was to unite Asia and +Europe in his world-wide empire. The style is so enigmatical as to have +procured for Lycophron, even among the ancients, the title of "obscure" +([Greek: skoteinos]). The poem is evidently intended to display the +writer's knowledge of obscure names and uncommon myths; it is full of +unusual words of doubtful meaning gathered from the older poets, and +many long-winded compounds coined by the author. It has none of the +qualities of poetry, and was probably written as a show-piece for the +Alexandrian school. It was very popular in the Byzantine period, and was +read and commented on very frequently; the collection of scholia by +Isaac and John Tzetzes is very valuable, and the MSS. of the _Cassandra_ +are numerous.[1] A few well-turned lines which have been preserved from +Lycophron's tragedies show a much better style; they are said to have +been much admired by Menedemus of Eretria, although the poet had +ridiculed him in a satyric drama. Lycophron is also said to have been a +skilful writer of anagrams. + + Editio princeps (1513); J. Potter (1697, 1702); L. Sebastiani (1803); + L. Bachmann (1830); G. Kinkel (1880); E. Scheer (1881-1908), vol. ii. + containing the scholia. The most complete edition is by C. von + Holzinger (with translation, introduction and notes, 1895). There are + translations by F. Deheque (1853) and Viscount Royston (1806; a work + of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _De Lycophronis + Alexandra_ (1884); J. Konze, _De Dictione Lycophronis_ (1870). The + commentaries of the brothers Tzetzes have been edited by C. O. Müller + (1811). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Two passages of the _Cassandra_, 1446-1450 and 1226-1282, in + which the career of the Roman people and their universal empire are + spoken of, could not possibly have been written by an Alexandrian + poet of 250 B.C. Hence it has been maintained by Niebuhr and others + that the poem was written, by a later poet mentioned by Tzetzes, but + the opinion of Welcker that these paragraphs are a later + interpolation is generally considered more probable. + + + + +LYCOPODIUM, the principal genus of the Lycopodiaceae, a natural order of +the Fern-allies (see PTERIDOPHYTA). They are flowerless herbs, with an +erect, prostrate or creeping widely-branched stem, with small simple +leaves which thickly cover the stem and branches. The "fertile" leaves +are arranged in cones, and bear spore-cases (sporangia) in their axils, +containing spores of one kind only. The prothallium developed from the +spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size, and bears +the male and female organs (_antheridia_ and _archegonia_). There are +about a hundred species widely distributed in temperate and tropical +climates; five occur in Britain on heaths and moors, chiefly in +mountainous districts, and are known as club-mosses The commonest +species, _L. clavatum_, is also known as stag-horn moss. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 1.--Lycopodium clavatum. + + A, Old prothallus. + B, Prothallus bearing a young sporophyte. + G, Polian of a mature plant, showing the creeping habit, the + adventitious roots and the specialized erect branches bearing the + strobile or cones. + H, Sporophyte bearing the single sporangium on its upper surface. + J, Spore.] + + Gerard, in 1597, described two kinds of lycopodium (_Herball_, p. + 1373) under the names _Muscus denticulatus_ and _Muscus clavatus_ (_L. + clavatum_) as "Club Mosse or Woolfes Clawe Mosse," the names being in + Low Dutch, "Wolfs Clauwen," from the resemblance of the club-like or + claw-shaped shoots to the toes of a wolf, "whereupon we first named it + _Lycopodion_." Gerard also speaks of its emetic and many other + supposed virtues. _L. Selago_ and _L. catharticum_ (a native of the + Andes) have been said to be, at least when fresh, cathartic; but, with + the exception of the spores of _L. clavatum_ ("lycopodium powder"), + lycopodium as a drug has fallen into disuse. The powder is used for + rolling pills in, as a dusting powder for infants' sores, &c. A + _tinctura lycopodii_, containing one part of the powder to ten of + alcohol (90%), has been given, in doses of 15 to 60 minims, in cases + of irritation and spasm of the bladder. The powder is highly + inflammable, and is used in pyrotechny and for artificial lightning on + the stage. If the hand be covered with the powder it cannot be wetted + on being plunged into water. Another use of lycopodium is for dyeing; + woollen cloth boiled with species of lycopodium, as _L. clavatum_, + becomes blue when dipped in a bath of Brazil wood. + + + + +LYCOSURA (mod. _Palaeokastro_ or _Siderokastro_), a city of Arcadia, +reputed to be the most ancient city in Greece, and to have been founded +by Lycaon the son of Pelasgus. Its fame in later times was chiefly +associated with the temple of Despoena, containing the colossal group +made by Damophon of Messene, of Despoena and Demeter seated, with +Artemis and the Titan Anytus standing beside them. The temple and +considerable remains of the group of sculpture were found in 1889. The +date of both has been a matter of dispute, Damophon being placed at +dates varying from the 4th century B.C. to the age of Hadrian. But it +has now been shown that he lived in the 2nd century B.C. Remains of a +portico, altars and other structures have also been found. + + See [Greek: Praktika tes Arch. Hetairias] (1896); G. Dickens, _Annual + of British School_ at Athens, xii. and xiii. + + + + +LYCURGUS (Gr. [Greek: Lykourgos]), in Greek history, the reputed founder +of the Spartan constitution. Plutarch opens his biography of Lycurgus +with these words: "About Lycurgus the lawgiver it is not possible to +make a single statement that is not called in question. His genealogy, +his travels, his death, above all, his legislative and constitutional +activity have been variously recorded, and there is the greatest +difference of opinion as to his date." Nor has modern historical +criticism arrived at any certain results. Many scholars, indeed, suppose +him to be in reality a god or hero, appealing to the existence of a +temple and cult of Lycurgus at Sparta as early as the time of Herodotus, +(i. 66), and to the words of the Delphic oracle (Herod. i. 65)-- + + [Greek: dixo e se theon manteusomai e anthropon. + all' eti kai mallon theon elpomai, o Lykoorge.] + +If this be so, he is probably to be connected with the cult of Apollo +Lycius or with that of Zeus Lycaeus. But the majority of modern +historians agree in accepting Lycurgus as an historical person, however +widely they may differ about his work. + +According to the Spartan tradition preserved by Herodotus, Lycurgus was +a member of the Agiad house, son of Agis I. and brother of Echestratus. +On the death of the latter he became regent and guardian of his nephew +Labotas (Leobotes), who was still a minor. Simonides, on the other hand, +spoke of him as a Eurypontid, son of Prytanis and brother of Eunomus, +and later the tradition prevailed which made him the son of Eunomus and +Dionassa, and half-brother of the king Polydectes, on whose death he +became guardian of the young king Charillus. According to Herodotus he +introduced his reforms immediately on becoming regent, but the story +which afterwards became generally accepted and is elaborated by Plutarch +represented him as occupying for some time the position of regent, then +spending several years in travels, and on his return to Sparta carrying +through his legislation when Charillus was king. This latter version +helped to emphasize the disinterestedness of the lawgiver, and also +supplied a motive for his travels--the jealousy of those who accused him +of trying to supplant his nephew on the throne. He is said to have +visited Crete, Egypt and Ionia, and some versions even took him to +Spain, Libya and India. + +Various beliefs were held as to the source from which Lycurgus derived +his ideas of reform. Herodotus found the tradition current among the +Spartans that they were suggested to Lycurgus by the similar Cretan +institutions, but even in the 5th century there was a rival theory that +he derived them from the Delphic oracle. These two versions are united +by Ephorus, who argued that, though Lycurgus had really derived his +system from Crete, yet to give it a religious sanction he had persuaded +the Delphic priestess to express his views in oracular form. + +_The Reforms._--Herodotus says that Lycurgus changed "all the customs," +that he created the military organization of [Greek: enomotiai] +(_enomoties_), [Greek: triekades] (_triecades_) and [Greek: syssitia] +(_syssitia_), and that he instituted the ephorate and the council of +elders. To him, further, are attributed the foundation of the apella +(the citizen assembly), the prohibition of gold and silver currency, the +partition of the land ([Greek: ges anadasmos]) into equal lots, and, in +general, the characteristic Spartan training ([Greek: agoge]). Some of +these statements are certainly false. The council of elders and the +assembly are not in any sense peculiar to Sparta, but are present in the +heroic government of Greece as depicted in the Homeric poems. The +ephors, again, are almost universally held to be either an immemorial +heritage of the Dorian stock or--and this seems more probable--an +addition to the Spartan constitution made at a later date than can be +assigned to Lycurgus. Further, the tradition of the Lycurgan partition +of the land is open to grave objections. Grote pointed out (_History of +Greece_, pt. ii. ch. 6) that even from the earliest historical times we +find glaring inequalities of property at Sparta, and that the tradition +was apparently unknown to all the earlier Greek historians and +philosophers down to Plato and Aristotle: Isocrates (xii. 259) expressly +denied that a partition of land had ever taken place in the Spartan +state. Again, the tradition presupposes the conquest by the Spartans of +the whole, or at least the greater part, of Laconia, yet Lycurgus must +fall in the period when the Spartans had not yet subjugated even the +middle Eurotas plain, in which their city lay. Finally, we can point to +an adequate explanation of the genesis of the tradition in the ideals +of the reformers of the latter part of the 3rd century, led by the kings +Agis IV. and Cleomenes III. (q.v.). To them the cause of Sparta's +decline lay in the marked inequalities of wealth, and they looked upon a +redistribution of the land as the reform most urgently needed. But it +was characteristic of the Greeks to represent the ideals of the present +as the facts of the past, and so such a story as that of the Lycurgan +[Greek: ges anadasmos] may well have arisen at this time. It is at least +noteworthy that the plan of Agis to give 4500 lots to Spartans and +15,000 to perioeci suspiciously resembles that of Lycurgus, in whose +case the numbers are said to have been 9000 and 30,000 respectively. +Lastly, the prohibition of gold and silver money cannot be attributed to +Lycurgus, for at so early a period coinage was yet unknown in Greece. + +Lycurgus, then, did not create any of the main elements of the Spartan +constitution, though he may have regulated their powers and defined +their position. But tradition represented him as finding Sparta the prey +of disunion, weakness and lawlessness, and leaving her united, strong +and subject to the most stable government which the Greek world had ever +seen. Probably Grote comes near to the truth when he says that Lycurgus +"is the founder of a warlike brotherhood rather than the lawgiver of a +political community." To him we may attribute the unification of the +several component parts of the state, the strict military organization +and training which soon made the Spartan hoplite the best soldier in +Greece, and above all the elaborate and rigid system of education which +rested upon, and in turn proved the strongest support of, that +subordination of the individual to the state which perhaps has had no +parallel in the history of the world. + +Lycurgus's legislation is very variously dated, and it is not possible +either to harmonize the traditions or to decide with confidence between +them. B. Niese (_Hermes_, xlii. 440 sqq.) assigns him to the first half +of the 7th century B.C. Aristotle read Lycurgus's name, together with +that of Iphitus, on the discus at Olympia which bore the terms of the +sacred truce, but even if the genuineness of the document and the +identity of this Lycurgus with the Spartan reformer be granted, it is +uncertain whether the discus belongs to the so-called first Olympiad, +776 B.C., or to an earlier date. Most traditions place Lycurgus in the +9th century: Thucydides, whom Grote follows, dates his reforms shortly +before 804, Isocrates and Ephorus go back to 869, and the chronographers +are divided between 821, 828 and 834 B.C. Finally, according to a +tradition recorded by Xenophon (_Resp. Laced_. x. 8), he was +contemporary with the Heraclidae, in which case he would belong to the +10th century B.C. + + AUTHORITIES.--Our chief ancient authorities, besides Plutarch's + biography, are:--Herodotus i. 65; Xenophon, _Respublica + Lacedaemoniorum_; Ephorus _ap_. Strabo x. 481, 482; Aristotle, + _Politics_, ii.; Pausanias iii. and v. 4; and scattered passages in + Plato, Isocrates, Polybius, Diodorus, Polyaenus, &c. Of modern works + the most important are: E. Meyer, "Lykurgos von Sparta," in + _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_ (Halle, 1892), i. 211 sqq.; A. + Kopstadt, _De rerum Laconicarum constitutionis Lycurgeae origine et + indole_ (Greifswald, 1849); H. K. Stein, _Kritik der Überlieferung + über den spartanischen Gesetzgeber Lykurg_ (Glatz, 1882); S. Wide, + "Bemerkungen zur spartanischen Lykurglegende," in _Skand_. _Archiv_. + i. (1891), 90 sqq.; E. Nusselt, _Das Lykurgproblem_ (Erlangen, 1898); + H. Bazin, _De Lycurgo_ (Paris, 1885); C. Reuss, _De Lycurgea quae + fertur agrorum divisione_ (Pforzheim, 1878); A. Busson, _Lykurgos und + die grosse Rhetra_ (Innsbruck, 1887); H. Gelzer, "Lykurg und die + delphische Priesterschaft" in _Rhein_. _Mus_. xxviii. 1 sqq.; F. + Winicker, _Stand der Lykurgischen Frage_ (Graudenz, 1884); G. + Attinger, _Essai sur Lycurgue et ses institutions_ (Neuchâtel, 1892); + the general Greek histories, and the works on the Spartan constitution + cited under SPARTA. (M. N. T.) + + + + +LYCURGUS (c. 396-325 B.C.), one of the "ten" Attic orators. Through +his father, Lycophron, he belonged to the old Attic priestly family of +the Eteobutadae. He is said to have been a pupil both of Plato and of +Isocrates. His early career is unknown, but after the real character of +the struggle with Philip of Macedon became manifest he was recognized, +with Demosthenes and Hypereides, as one of the chiefs of the national +party. He left the care of external relations to his colleagues, and +devoted himself to internal organization and finance. He managed the +finances of Athens for twelve successive years (338-326), at first +directly as treasurer of the revenues ([Greek: ho hepi te dioikesei]) +for four years, and in two succeeding terms, when the actual office was +forbidden him by law, through his son and a nominal official chosen from +his party. Part of one of the deeds in which he rendered account of his +term of office is still preserved in an inscription. During this time he +raised the public income from 600 to 1200 talents yearly. He increased +the navy, repaired the dockyards, and completed an arsenal, the [Greek: +skeuotheke] designed by the architect Philo. He was also appointed to +various other offices connected with the preservation and improvement of +the city. He was very strict in his superintendence of the public +morals, and passed a sumptuary law to restrain extravagance. He did much +to beautify the city; he reconstructed the great Dionysiac theatre and +the gymnasium in the Lyceum, and erected the Panathenaic stadium on the +Ilissus. He is mentioned as the proposer of five laws, of which the most +famous was that statues of the three great tragedians should be erected +in the theatre, and that their works should be carefully edited and +preserved among the state archives. For his services he was honoured +with crowns, statues and a seat in the town hall; and after his death +his friend Stratocles drew up a decree (still extant in pseudo-Plutarch, +_Vit. dec. orat._ p. 851; see also E. L. Hicks, _Greek Historical +Inscriptions_, 1st ed., No. 145), ordering the erection of a statue of +bronze to Lycurgus, and granting the honours of the Prytaneum to his +eldest son. He was one of the orators whose surrender was demanded by +Alexander the Great, but the people refused to give him up. He died +while president of the theatre of Dionysus, and was buried on the road +leading to the Academy at the expense of the state. + +Lycurgus was a man of action; his orations, of which fifteen were +published, are criticized by the ancients for their awkward arrangement, +harshness of style, and the tendency to digressions about mythology and +history, although their noble spirit and lofty morality are highly +praised. The one extant example, _Against Leocrates_, fully bears out +this criticism. After the battle of Chaeroneia (338), in spite of the +decree which forbade emigration under pain of death, Leocrates had fled +from Athens. On his return (probably about 332) he was impeached by +Lycurgus, but acquitted, the votes of the judges being equally divided. + + The speech has been frequently edited. Editio princeps (Aldine, 1513); + F. G. Kiessling (1847) with M. H. E. Meier's commentary on + pseudo-Plutarch's _Life of Lycurgus_ and the fragments of his + speeches; C. Rehdantz (1876); T. Thalheim (1880); C. Scheibe (1885); + F. Blass (ed. major, 1889), with bibliography of editions and articles + (ed. minor, 1902); E. Sofer (Leipzig, 1905), with notes and introd. + There is an index to Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus by L. L. Forman + (Oxford, 1897). The exhaustive treatise of F. Dürrbach, _L'Orateur + Lycurgue_ (1890), contains a list of the most important review + articles on the financial and naval administration of Lycurgus and on + his public works; see also C. Droege, _De Lycurgo publicarum + pecuniarum administratore_ (Minden, 1880). Several fragments of his + various laws have been preserved in inscriptions (_Corpus + inscriptionum atticarum_, ii. 162, 163, 173, 176, 180). On the history + of the period see authorities under DEMOSTHENES. + + + + +LYCURGUS, "THE LOGOTHETE" (1772-1851), Greek leader in the War of +Independence, was born in the island of Samos. He was educated at +Constantinople, received the usual training, and followed the customary +career of a Phanariot Greek. He accompanied Constantine Ypsilanti when +he was appointed hospodar of Walachia, as secretary, and served +Ypsilanti's successor, Alexander Soutzos, as treasurer and chancellor +(Logothete). In 1802 he returned to Samos, and having become suspected +by the Turkish government was imprisoned. He fled to Smyrna, when he was +pardoned and released by the Turks. When the War of Independence began +he induced his countrymen to declare Samos independent, and was chosen +ruler. His share in the War of Independence is chiefly memorable because +he provoked the massacre of Chios in 1822. Lycurgus conducted an +expedition of 2500 to that island, which was held by a Turkish garrison +under Velna Pasha. His force was insufficient, the time was ill-chosen, +for a strong Turkish fleet was at sea, and Lycurgus displayed utter +incapacity as a military leader. After these events, he was deposed by +the Samians, but recovered some influence and had a share in the defence +of Samos against the Turks in 1824. When the island was left under the +authority of Turkey by the protocol of the 3rd of February 1830, he +helped to obtain autonomy for the Samians. He retired to Greece and died +on the 22nd of May 1851. + + See G. Finlay, _History of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1861). + + + + +LYDD, a market town and municipal borough in the southern parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 71½ m. S.E. by E. of London by a branch of +the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 2675. It lies in the +open lowland of Dunge Marsh. To the south-east are the bare shingle +banks of the promontory of Dungeness. Its church of All Saints has a +beautiful Perpendicular tower with rich vaulting within. The +neighbourhood affords pasture for large flocks of sheep. On the land +known as the Rypes, in the neighbourhood, there is a military camp, with +artillery and rifle ranges; hence the name given to the explosive +"lyddite." The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 12,043 acres. + +The first settlement at Lydd (Hlide, Lide, Lyde) was probably due to its +convenience as a fishing-station. After the Conquest it became a seaport +of some consequence and although now, owing to the alteration of the +coast, it stands nearly 3 m. inland a number of its inhabitants are +still fishermen. In 774 land in Lydd was granted by Offa to the monks of +Christ Church, Canterbury, and the archbishop of Canterbury evidently +held the lordship of the town from an early date. At some time before +the reign of Edward I. Lydd was made a member of the Cinque Port of +Romney, and in 1290 was granted the same liberties and free customs as +the Cinque Ports on condition of aiding the service of its head-port to +the crown with one ship. This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in +1365. The corporation also possesses documents of 1154, 1399 and 1413, +granting to the archbishop's men of Lydd the privileges enjoyed by the +Cinque Ports and confirming all former privileges. Lydd is called a +borough in the Hundred Rolls. Its incorporation under a bailiff, of +which there is evidence in the 15th century, may have been due to the +archbishop or to the court of Shepway, but it was not incorporated by +the crown until 1885, when, by a charter under the Municipal Acts, the +last bailiff was elected the first mayor. In 1494 a grant was made to +the bailiff, jurats and commonalty of a yearly fair on the 12th of July +and two days following. A fair was held under this grant until 1874. + + + + +LYDENBURG, a town and district of the Transvaal, South Africa. The town +is 60 m. by rail N.N.E. of Belfast on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. +Pop. (1904) 1523. It is picturesquely situated on the Spekboom tributary +of the Olifants river at an altitude of 4900 ft. Some 15 m. E. is the +Mauchberg (8725 ft.), the highest point in the Transvaal. The town is +the chief centre for the Lydenburg goldfields. Next to Lydenburg the +most important settlement in these goldfields is Pilgrim's Rest, pop. +(1904) 1188, 23 m. N.E. of Lydenburg. Lydenburg (the town of suffering) +was founded in 1846 by Boers who two years previously had established +themselves farther north at Ohrigstad, which they abandoned on account +of the fever endemic there. Lydenburg at once became the capital of a +district (of the same name) which then embraced all the eastern part of +the Transvaal. In 1856 the Boers of Lydenburg separated from their +brethren and proclaimed an independent republic, which was, however, +incorporated with the South African Republic in 1860. The discovery of +gold near the town was made in 1869, and in 1873 the first successful +goldfield in the Transvaal was opened here. It was not until 1910, +however, that Lydenburg was placed in railway communication with the +rest of the country. The present district of Lydenburg consists of the +north-east and central parts of the original district. In the Lulu +Mountains, a spur of the Drakensberg, and some 40 m. N.W. of Lydenburg, +was the stronghold of the Kaffir chief Sikukuni, whose conflict with the +Boers in 1876 was one of the causes which led to the annexation of the +Transvaal by Great Britain in 1877. (See TRANSVAAL: _History_.) + + + + +LYDFORD, or LIDFORD, a village, once an important town, in the western +parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, near the western confines +of Dartmoor, 27 m. N. of Plymouth by the London & South-Western railway. +From its Perpendicular church of St Petrock fine views of the Dartmoor +tors are seen. The village stands on the small river Lyd, which +traverses a deep narrow chasm, crossed by a bridge of single span; and +at a little distance a tributary stream forms a cascade in an exquisite +glen. Close to the church are slight remains of the castle of Lydford. + +Lydford (_Lideford_) was one of the four Saxon boroughs of Devon, and +possessed a mint in the days of Aethelred the Unready. It first appears +in recorded history in 997, when the Danes made a plundering expedition +up the Tamar and Tavy as far as "Hlidaforda." In the reign of Edward the +Confessor it was the most populous centre in Devonshire after Exeter, +but the Domesday Survey relates that forty houses had been laid waste +since the Conquest, and the town never recovered its former prosperity; +the history from the 13th century centres round the castle, which is +first mentioned in 1216, when it was granted to William Briwere, and was +shortly afterwards fixed as the prison of the stannaries and the +meeting-place of the Forest Courts of Dartmoor. A gild at Lideford is +mentioned in 1180, and the pipe roll of 1195 records a grant for the +reestablishment of the market. In 1238 the borough, which had hitherto +been crown demesne, was bestowed by Henry III. on Richard, earl of +Cornwall, who in 1268 obtained a grant of a Wednesday market and a three +days' fair at the feast of St Petrock. The borough had a separate +coroner and bailiff in 1275, but it was never incorporated by charter, +and only once, in 1300, returned members to parliament. Lydford prison +is described in 1512 as "one of the most hainous, contagious and +detestable places in the realm," and "Lydford Law" was a by-word for +injustice. At the time of the Commonwealth the castle was entirely in +ruins, but in the 18th century it was restored and again used as a +prison and as the meeting-place of the manor and borough courts. + + + + +LYDGATE, JOHN (c. 1370-c. 1451), English poet, was born at the village +of Lydgate, some 6 or 7 m. from Newmarket. It is, however, with the +Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds that he is chiefly associated. +Probably he was educated at the school attached to the monastery, and in +his _Testament_ he has drawn a lively picture of himself as a typical +orchard-robbing boy, who had scant relish for matins, fought, and threw +creed and paternoster at the cock. He was ordained sub-deacon in 1389, +deacon in 1393, and priest in 1397. These dates are valuable as enabling +us to fix approximately the date of his birth, which must have occurred +somewhere about 1370. Lydgate passed as a portent of learning, and, +according to Bale, he pursued his studies not only at both the English +universities but in France and Italy. Koeppel (see _Laurents de +Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von Boccaccios De Casibus_, +Munich, 1885) has thrown much doubt on this statement as regards Italy, +but Lydgate knew France and visited Paris in an official capacity in +1426. Bale is also the authority for another assertion that figures in +what has been aptly termed the poet's "traditional biography," viz. that +Lydgate, on completing his own education, kept school for the sons of +noblemen and gentlemen. This "traditional biography" prolongs his life +to the year 1461, but it is quite improbable that he lived many years +after 1446, when Abbot Curteys died and John Baret, treasurer of Bury, +signed an extant receipt for a pension which he shared with Lydgate, and +which continued to be paid till 1449. If it be true, as Bishop Alcock of +Ely affirms, that Lydgate wrote a poem on the loss of France and +Gascony, it seems necessary to suppose that he lived two years longer, +and thus indications point to the year 1451, or thereabouts, as the date +of his death. + +Lydgate had a consuming passion for literature, and it was probably that +he might indulge this taste more fully that in 1434 he retired from the +priorate of Hatfield Broadoak (or Hatfield Regis), to which he had been +appointed in June 1423. After 1390--but whilst he was still a young +man--he made the acquaintance of Geoffrey Chaucer, with whose son +Thomas he was on terms of considerable intimacy. This friendship appears +to have decided Lydgate's career, and in his _Troy-book_ and elsewhere +are reverent and touching tributes to his "master." The passages in +question do not exaggerate his obligations to the "well of English." The +themes of all his more ambitious poems can be traced to Chaucerian +sources. _The Story of Thebes_, for instance, was doubtless suggested by +the "romance" which Cressida and her companions are represented as +reading when interrupted by Pandarus (_Troilus and Cressida_, II. +xii.-xvi.). The _Falls of Princes_, again, is merely the _Monk's Tale_ +"writ large." + +Lydgate is a most voluminous writer. The _Falls of Princes_ alone +comprises 7000 stanzas; and his authentic compositions reach the +enormous total of 150,000 lines. Cursed with such immoderate fluency +Lydgate could not sustain himself at the highest level of artistic +excellence; and, though imbued with a sense of the essentials of poetry, +and eager to prove himself in its various manifestations, he stinted +himself of the self-discipline necessary to perfection of form. As the +result the bulk of his composition is wholly or comparatively +rough-hewn. That he was capable of better work than is suggested by his +average accomplishment is shown by two allegorical poems--the _Complaint +of the Black Knight_ and the _Temple of Glass_ (once attributed to +Hawes). In these he reveals himself as a not unworthy successor of +Chaucer, and the pity of it is that he should have squandered his powers +in a futile attempt to create an entire literature. For a couple of +centuries Lydgate's reputation equalled, if it did not surpass, that of +his master. This was in a sense only natural, since he was the real +founder of the school of which Stephen Hawes was a distinguished +ornament, and which "held the field" in English letters during the long +and dreary interval between Chaucer and Spenser. One of the most obvious +defects of this school is excessive attachment to polysyllabic terms. +Lydgate is not quite so great a sinner in this respect as are some of +his successors, but his tendency cannot be mistaken, and John Metham is +amply justified in his censure-- + + Eke John Lydgate, sometime monk of Bury, + His books indited with terms of rhetoric + And half-changed Latin, with conceits of poetry. + +Pedantry was an inevitable effect of the early Renaissance. French +literature passed through the same phase, from which indeed it was later +in emerging; and the ultimate consequence was the enrichment of both +languages. It must be conceded as no small merit in Lydgate that, in an +age of experiment he should have succeeded so often in hitting the right +word. Thomas Warton remarks on his lucidity. Since his writings are read +more easily than Chaucer's, the inference is plain--that he was more +effectual as a maker of our present English. In spite of that, Lydgate +is characteristically medieval--medieval in his prolixity, his +platitude, his want of judgment and his want of taste; medieval also in +his pessimism, his Mariolatry and his horror of death. These attributes +jarred on the sensitive Ritson, who racked his brains for contumelious +epithets such as "stupid and disgusting," "cart-loads of rubbish," &c.; +and during the greater part of the 18th and 19th centuries Lydgate's +reputation was at its lowest ebb. Recent criticism has been far more +impartial, and almost too much respect has been paid to his attainments, +especially in the matter of metre, though Lydgate himself, with +offensive lightheartedness, admits his poor craftsmanship. + + Lydgate's most doughty and learned apologist is Dr Schick, whose + preface to the _Temple of Glass_ embodies practically all that is known + or conjectured concerning this author, including the chronological + order of his works. With the exception of the _Damage and Destruction + in Realms_--an account of Julius Caesar, his wars and his death--they + are all in verse and extremely multifarious--narrative, devotional + hagiological, philosophical and scientific, allegorical and moral, + historical, satirical and occasional. The _Troy-book_, undertaken at + the command of Henry V., then prince of Wales, dates from 1412-1420; + the _Story of Thebes_ from 1420-1422; and the _Falls of Princes_ + towards 1430. His latest work was _Secreta Secretorum_ or _Secrets of + Old Philosophers_, rhymed extracts from a pseudo-Aristotelian treatise. + Lydgate certainly possessed extraordinary versatility, which enabled + him to turn from elaborate epics to quite popular poems like the + _Mumming at Hertford_, _A Ditty of Women's Horns_ and _London + Lickpenny_. The humour of this last is especially bright and effective, + but, unluckily for the author, the piece is believed to have been + retouched by some other hand. The longer efforts partake of the nature + of translations from sundry medieval compilations like those of Guido + di Colonna and Boccaccio, which are in Latin. + + See publications of the Early English Text Society, especially the + _Temple of Glass_, edited by Dr Schick; Koeppel's _Lydgate's Story of + Thebes, eine Quellenuntersuchung_ (Munich, 1884), and the same + scholar's _Laurents de Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von + Boccaccios De Casibus Illustrium Virorum_ (Munich, 1885); Warton's + _History of English Poetry_; Ritson's _Bibliotheca Anglo-Poética_; + Furnivall's _Political Poems_ (E. E. T. S.); and Sidney Lee's article + in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (F. J. S.) + + + + +LYDIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor, the boundaries of +which it is difficult to fix, partly because they varied at different +epochs. The name is first found under the form of _Luddi_ in the +inscriptions of the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal, who received tribute +from Gyges about 660 B.C. In Homer we read only of Maeonians (_Il_. ii. +865, v. 43, x. 431), and the place of the Lydian capital Sardis is taken +by Hyde (_Il_. xx. 385), unless this was the name of the district in +which Sardis stood (see Strabo xiii. p. 626).[1] The earliest Greek +writer who mentions the name is Mimnermus of Colophon, in the 37th +Olympiad. According to Herodotus (i. 7), the Meiones (called Maeones by +other writers) were named Lydians after Lydus, the son of Attis, in the +mythical epoch which preceded the rise of the Heraclid dynasty. In +historical times the Maeones were a tribe inhabiting the district of the +upper Hermus, where a town called Maeonia existed (Pliny, _N.H._ v. 30; +Hierocles, p. 670). The Lydians must originally have been an allied +tribe which bordered upon them to the north-west, and occupied the plain +of Sardis or Magnesia at the foot of Tmolus and Sipylus. They were cut +off from the sea by the Greeks, who were in possession, not only of the +Bay of Smyrna, but also of the country north of Sipylus as far as Temnus +in the pass (_boghaz_), through which the Hermus forces its way from the +plain of Magnesia into its lower valley.[2] In a Homeric epigram the +ridge north of the Hermus, on which the ruins of Temnus lie, is called +Sardene. Northward the Lydians extended at least as far as the Gygaean +Lake (Lake Coloe, mod. Mermereh), and the Sardene range (mod. Dumanli +Dagh). The plateau of the Bin Bir Tepe, on the southern shore of the +Gygaean Lake, was the chief burial-place of the inhabitants of Sardis, +and is still thickly studded with tumuli, among which is the "tomb of +Alyattes" (260 ft. high). Next to Sardis the chief city was Magnesia ad +Sipylum (q.v.), in the neighbourhood of which is the famous seated +figure of "Niobe" (_Il_. xxiv. 614-617), cut out of the rock, and +probably intended to represent the goddess Cybele, to which the Greeks +attached their legend of Niobe. According to Pliny (v. 31), Tantalis, +afterwards swallowed up by earthquake in the pool Sale or Saloe, was the +ancient name of Sipylus and "the capital of Maeonia" (Paus. vii. 24; +Strabo xii. 579). Under the Heraclid dynasty the limits of Lydia must +have been already extended, since according to Strabo (xiii. 590), the +authority of Gyges reached as far as the Troad. Under the Mermnads Lydia +became a maritime as well as an inland power. The Greek cities were +conquered, and the coast of Ionia included within the Lydian kingdom. +The successes of Alyattes and of Croesus finally changed the Lydian +kingdom into a Lydian empire, and all Asia Minor westward of the Halys, +except Lycia, owned the supremacy of Sardis. Lydia never again shrank +back into its original dimensions. After the Persian conquest the +Maeander was regarded as its southern boundary, and in the Roman period +it comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the one side and +Phrygia and the Aegean on the other. + +Lydia proper was exceedingly fertile. The hill-sides were clothed with +vine and fir, and the rich broad plain of Hermus produced large +quantities of corn and saffron. The climate of the plain was soft but +healthy, though the country was subject to frequent earthquakes. The +Pactolus, which flowed from the fountain of Tarne in the Tmolus +mountains, through the centre of Sardis, into the Hermus, was believed +to be full of golden sand; and gold mines were worked in Tmolus itself, +though by the time of Strabo the proceeds had become so small as hardly +to pay for the expense of working them (Strabo xiii. 591). Maeonia on +the east contained the curious barren plateau known to the Greeks as the +Katakekaumene ("Burnt country"), once a centre of volcanic disturbance. +The Gygaean lake (where remains of pile dwellings have been found) still +abounds with carp. + +Herodotus (i. 171) tells us that Lydus was a brother of Mysus and Car. +The statement is on the whole borne out by the few Lydian, Mysian and +Carian words that have been preserved, as well as by the general +character of the civilization prevailing among the three nations. The +race was probably a mixed one, consisting of aborigines and Aryan +immigrants. It was characterized by industry and a commercial spirit, +and, before the Persian conquest, by bravery. The religion of the +Lydians resembled that of the other civilized nations of Asia Minor. It +was a nature worship, which at times became wild and sensuous. By the +side of the supreme god Medeus stood the sun-god Attis, as in Phrygia +the chief object of the popular cult. He was at once the son and +bridegroom of Cybele (q.v.) or Cybebe, the mother of the gods, whose +image carved by Broteas, son of Tantalus, was adored on the cliffs of +Sipylus (Paus. iii. 22). The cult may have been brought westward by the +Hittites who have left memorials of themselves in the pseudo-Sesostris +figures of Kara-bel (between Sardis and Ephesus) as well as in the +figure of the Mother-goddess, the so-called Niobe. At Ephesus, where she +was adored under the form of a meteoric stone, she was identified with +the Greek Artemis (see also GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). Her mural crown +is first seen in the Hittite sculptures of Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA and +HITTITES) on the Halys. The priestesses by whom she was served are +depicted in early art as armed with the double-headed axe, and the +dances they performed in her honour with shield and bow gave rise to the +myths which saw in them the Amazons, a nation of woman-warriors. The +pre-Hellenic cities of the coast--Smyrna, Samorna (Ephesus), Myrina, +Cyme, Priene and Pitane--were all of Amazonian origin, and the first +three of them have the same name as the Amazon Myrina, whose tomb was +pointed out in the Troad. The prostitution whereby the Lydian girls +gained their dowries (Herod, i. 93) was a religious exercise, as among +the Semites, which marked their devotion to the goddess Cybele. In the +legend of Heracles, Omphale takes the place of Cybele, and was perhaps +her Lydian title. Heracles is here the sun-god Attis in a new form; his +Lydian name is unknown, since E. Meyer has shown (_Zeitschr. d. Morg. +Gesell._ xxxi. 4) that Sandon belongs not to Lydia but to Cilicia. By +the side of Attis stood Manes or Men, identified later with the +Moon-god. + +According to the native historian Xanthus (460 B.C.) three dynasties +ruled in succession over Lydia. The first, that of the Attiads, is +mythical. It was headed by a god, and included geographical personages +like Lydus, Asies and Meies, or such heroes of folk-lore as Cambletes, +who devoured his wife. To this mythical age belongs the colony which, +according to Herodotus (i. 94), Tyrsenus, the son of Attis, led to +Etruria. Xanthus, however, puts Torrhebus in the place of Tyrsenus, and +makes him the eponym of a district in Lydia. It is doubtful whether +Xanthus recognized the Greek legends which brought Pelops from Lydia, or +rather Maeonia, and made him the son of Tantalus. The second dynasty was +also of divine origin, but the names which head it prove its connexion +with the distant East. Its founder, a descendant of Heracles and +Omphale, was, Herodotus tells us (i. 7), a son of Ninus and grandson of +Belus. The Assyrian inscriptions have shown that the Assyrians had never +crossed the Halys, much less known the name of Lydia, before the age of +Assur-bani-pal, and consequently the theory which brought the Heraclids +from Nineveh must be given up. But the Hittites, another Oriental +people, deeply imbued with the elements of Babylonian culture, had +overrun Asia Minor and established themselves on the shores of the +Aegean before the reign of the Egyptian king Rameses II. + +The subject allies who then fight under their banners include the Masu +or Mysians and the Dardani of the Troad, while the Hittites have left +memorials in Lydia. G. Dennis discovered an inscription in Hittite +hieroglyphics attached to the figure of "Niobe" on Sipylus, and a +similar inscription accompanies the figure (in which Herodotus, ii. 106, +wished to see Sesostris or Rameses II.) in the pass of Karabel. We learn +from Eusebius that Sardis was first captured by the Cimmerii 1078 B.C.; +and since it was four centuries later before the real Cimmerii (q.v.) +appeared on the horizon of history, we may perhaps find in the statement +a tradition of the Hittite conquest. As the authority of the Hittite +satraps at Sardis began to decay the Heraclid dynasty arose. According +to Xanthus, Sadyattes and Lixus were the successors of Tylon the son of +Omphale. After lasting five hundred and five years, the dynasty came to +an end in the person of Sadyattes, as he is called by Nicolas of +Damascus, whose account is doubtless derived from Xanthus. The name +Candaules, given him by Herodotus, meant "dog strangler" and was a title +of the Lydian Hermes. Gyges (q.v.) put him to death and established the +dynasty of the Mermnads, 687 B.C. Gyges initiated a new policy, that of +making Lydia a maritime power; but towards the middle of his reign the +kingdom was overrun by the Cimmerii. The lower town of Sardis was taken, +and Gyges sent tribute to Assur-bani-pal, as well as two Cimmerian +chieftains he had himself captured in battle. A few years later Gyges +joined in the revolt against Assyria, and the Ionic and Carian +mercenaries he despatched to Egypt enabled Psammetichus to make himself +independent. Assyria, however, was soon avenged. The Cimmerian hordes +returned, Gyges was slain in battle (652 B.C.), and Ardys his son and +successor returned to his allegiance to Nineveh. The second capture of +Sardis on this occasion was alluded to by Callisthenes (Strabo xiii. +627). Alyattes, the grandson of Ardys, finally succeeded in extirpating +the Cimmerii, as well as in taking Smyrna, and thus providing his +kingdom with a port. The trade and wealth of Lydia rapidly increased, +and the Greek towns fell one after the other before the attacks of the +Lydian kings. Alyattes's long reign of fifty-seven years saw the +foundation of the Lydian empire. All Asia Minor west of the Halys +acknowledged his sway, and the six years' contest he carried on with the +Medes was closed by the marriage of his daughter Aryenis to Astyages. +The Greek cities were allowed to retain their own institutions and +government on condition of paying taxes and dues to the Lydian monarch, +and the proceeds of their commerce thus flowed into the imperial +exchequer. The result was that the king of Lydia became the richest +prince of his age. Alyattes was succeeded by Croesus (q.v.), who had +probably already for some years shared the royal power with his father, +or perhaps grandfather, as V. Floigl thinks (_Geschichte des semitischen +Alterthums_, p. 20). He reigned alone only fifteen years, Cyrus the +Persian, after an indecisive battle on the Halys, marching upon Sardis, +and capturing both acropolis and monarch (546 B.C.). The place where the +acropolis was entered was believed to have been overlooked by the +mythical Meles when he carried the lion round his fortress to make it +invulnerable; it was really a path opened by one of the landslips, which +have reduced the sandstone cliff of the acropolis to a mere shell, and +threaten to carry it altogether into the plain below. The revolt of the +Lydians under Pactyas, whom Cyrus had appointed to collect the taxes, +caused the Persian king to disarm them, though we can hardly credit the +statement that by this measure their warlike spirit was crushed. Sardis +now became the western capital of the Persian empire, and its burning by +the Athenians was the indirect cause of the Persian War. After Alexander +the Great's death, Lydia passed to Antigonus; then Achaeus made himself +king at Sardis, but was defeated and put to death by Antiochus. The +country was presented by the Romans to Eumenes, and subsequently formed +part of the proconsular province of Asia. By the time of Strabo (xiii. +631) its old language was entirely supplanted by Greek. + + The Lydian empire may be described as the industrial power of the + ancient world. The Lydians were credited with being the inventors, not + only of games such as dice, huckle-bones and ball (Herod, i. 94), but + also of coined money. The oldest known coins are the electrum coins of + the earlier Mermnads (Madden, _Coins of the Jews_, pp. 19-21), stamped + on one side with a lion's head or the figure of a king with bow and + quiver; these were replaced by Croesus with a coinage of pure gold and + silver. To the latter monarch were probably due the earliest gold + coins of Ephesus (Head, _Coinage of Ephesus_, p. 16). The electrum + coins of Lydia were of two kinds, one weighing 168.4 grains for the + inland trade, and another of 224 grains for the trade with Ionia. The + standard was the silver mina of Carchemish (as the Assyrians called + it) which contained 8656 grains. Originally derived by the Hittites + from Babylonia, but modified by themselves, this standard was passed + on to the nations of Asia Minor during the period of Hittite conquest, + but was eventually superseded by the Phoenician mina of 11,225 grains, + and continued to survive only in Cyprus and Cilicia (see also + NUMISMATICS). The inns, which the Lydians were said to have been the + first to establish (Herod. i. 94), were connected with their attention + to commercial pursuits. Their literature has wholly perished. They + were celebrated for their music and gymnastic exercises, and their art + formed a link between that of Asia Minor and that of Greece. R. + Heberdey's excavations at Ephesus since 1896, like those of D. G. + Hogarth in 1905, belong to the history of Greek and not native art. + The ivory figures, however, found by Hogarth on the level of the + earliest temple of Artemis show Asiatic influence, and resemble the + so-called "Phoenician" ivories from the palace of Sargon at Calah + (Nimrud). For a description of a pectoral of white gold, ornamented + with the heads of animals, human faces and the figure of a goddess, + discovered in a tomb on Tmolus, see _Academy_, January 15, 1881, p. + 45. Lydian sculpture was probably similar to that of the Phrygians. + Phallic emblems, for averting evil, were plentiful; the summit of the + tomb of Alyattes is crowned with an enormous one of stone, about 9 ft. + in diameter. The tumulus itself is 281 yds. in diameter and about half + a mile in circumference. It has been partially excavated by G. + Spiegelthal and G. Dennis, and a sepulchral chamber discovered in the + middle, composed of large well-cut and highly polished blocks of + marble, the chamber being 11 ft. long, nearly 8 ft. broad and 7 ft. + high. Nothing was found in it except a few ashes and a broken vase of + Egyptian alabaster. The stone basement which, according to Herodotus, + formerly surrounded the mound has disappeared. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. von Ölfers, _Über die lydischen Königsgräber bei + Sardes_ (1858); H. Gelzer in the _Rheinisches Museum_ (1874); R. + Schubert, _Geschichte der Könige von Lydien_ (1884); G. Perrot and C. + Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, v. (1890); O. Radet, + _La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades_ (1893); G. Maspero, + _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 232-301 (1892) and _Passing of the + Empires_, pp. 339, 388, 603-621 (1900); J. Keil and A. von + Premerstein, _Bericht über eine Reise in Lydien_ (1908). (A. H. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Pliny (v. 30) makes it the Maeonian name. + + [2] See Sir W. M. Ramsay in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ii. 2. + + + + +LYDUS ("THE LYDIAN"), JOANNES LAURENTIUS, Byzantine writer on +antiquarian subjects, was born at Philadelphia in Lydia about A.D. 490. +At an early age he set out to seek his fortune in Constantinople, and +held high court and state offices under Anastasius and Justinian. In 552 +he lost favour, and was dismissed. The date of his death is not known, +but he was probably alive during the early years of Justin II. (reigned +565-578). During his retirement he occupied himself in the compilation +of works on the antiquities of Rome, three of which have been preserved: +(1) _De Ostentis_ ([Greek: Peri diosemeion]), on the origin and progress +of the art of divination; (2) _De Magistratibus reipublicae Romanae_ +([Greek: Peri archon tes Rhomaion politeias]), especially valuable for +the administrative details of the time of Justinian; (3) _De Mensibus_ +([Greek: Peri menon]), a history of the different festivals of the year. +The chief value of these books consists in the fact that the author made +use of the works (now lost) of old Roman writers on similar subjects. +Lydus was also commissioned by Justinian to compose a panegyric on the +emperor, and a history of his successful campaign against Persia; but +these, as well as some poetical compositions, are lost. + + Editions of (1) by C. Wachsmuth (1897), with full account of the + authorities in the prolegomena; of (2) and (3) by R. Wünsch + (1898-1903); see also the essay by C. B. Hase (the first editor of the + _De Ostentis_) prefixed to I. Bekker's edition of Lydus (1837) in the + Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byzantinae_. + + + + +LYE (O. Eng. _leag_, cf. Dutch _loog_, Ger. _Lauge_, from the root +meaning to wash, see in Lat. _lavare_, and Eng. "lather," froth of soap +and water, and "laundry"), the name given to the solution of alkaline +salts obtained by leaching or lixiviating wood ashes with water, and +sometimes to a solution of a caustic alkali. Lixiviation (Lat. +_lixivium_, lye, _lix_, ashes) is the action of separating, by the +percolation of water, a soluble from an insoluble substance. "Leaching," +the native English term for this process, is from "leach," to water, the +root probably being the same as in "lake." + + + + +LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875), British geologist, was the eldest son of +Charles Lyell of Kinnordy, Forfarshire, and was born on the 14th of +November 1797, on the family estate in Scotland. His father (1767-1849) +was known both as a botanist and as the translator of the _Vita Nuova_ +and the _Convito_ of Dante: the plant _Lyellia_ was named after him. +From his boyhood Lyell had a strong inclination for natural history, +especially entomology, a taste which he cultivated at Bartley Lodge in +the New Forest, to which his family had removed soon after his birth. In +1816 he entered Exeter College, Oxford, where the lectures of Dr +Buckland first drew his attention to geological study. After taking his +degree of B.A. in 1819 (M.A. in 1821) he entered Lincoln's Inn, and in +1825, after a delay caused by chronic weakness of the eyes, he was +called to the bar, and went on the western circuit for two years. During +this time he was slowly gravitating towards the life of a student of +science. In 1819 he had been elected a fellow of the Linnean and +Geological Societies, communicating his first paper, "On a Recent +Formation of Freshwater Limestone in Forfarshire," to the latter society +in 1822, and acting as one of the honorary secretaries in 1823. In that +year he went to France, with introductions to Cuvier, Humboldt and other +men of science, and in 1824 made a geological tour in Scotland in +company with Dr Buckland. In 1826 he was elected a fellow of the Royal +Society, from which in later years he received both the Copley and Royal +medals; and in 1827 he finally abandoned the legal profession, and +devoted himself to geology. + +At this time he had already begun to plan his chief work, _The +Principles of Geology_. The subsidiary title, "An Attempt to Explain the +Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference to Causes now in +Operation," gives the keynote of the task to which Lyell devoted his +life. A journey with Murchison in 1828 gave rise to joint papers on the +volcanic district of Auvergne and the Tertiary formations of +Aix-en-Provence. After parting with Murchison he studied the marine +remains of the Italian Tertiary Strata and then conceived the idea of +dividing this geological system into three or four groups, characterized +by the proportion of recent to extinct species of shells. To these +groups, after consulting Dr Whewell as to the best nomenclature, he gave +the names now universally adopted--Eocene (_dawn of recent_), Miocene +(_less of recent_), and Pliocene (_more of recent_); and with the +assistance of G. P. Deshayes he drew up a table of shells in +illustration of this classification. The first volume of the _Principles +of Geology_ appeared in 1830, and the second in January 1832. Received +at first with some opposition, so far as its leading theory was +concerned, the work had ultimately a great success, and the two volumes +had already reached a second edition in 1833 when the third, dealing +with the successive formations of the earth's crust, was added. Between +1830 and 1872 eleven editions of this work were published, each so much +enriched with new material and the results of riper thought as to form a +complete history of the progress of geology during that interval. Only a +few days before his death Sir Charles finished revising the first volume +of the 12th edition; the revision of the second volume was completed by +his nephew Mr (afterwards Sir) Leonard Lyell; and the work appeared in +1876. + +In August 1838 Lyell published the _Elements of Geology_, which, from +being originally an expansion of one section of the _Principles_, became +a standard work on stratigraphical and palaeontological geology. This +book went through six editions in Lyell's lifetime (some intermediate +editions being styled _Manual of Elementary Geology_), and in 1871 a +smaller work, the _Student's Elements of Geology_, was based upon it. +His third great work, _The Antiquity of Man_, appeared in 1863, and ran +through three editions in one year. In this he gave a general survey of +the arguments for man's early appearance on the earth, derived from the +discoveries of flint implements in post-Pliocene strata in the Somme +valley and elsewhere; he discussed also the deposits of the Glacial +epoch, and in the same volume he first gave in his adhesion to Darwin's +theory of the origin of species. A fourth edition appeared in 1873. + +In 1831-1833 Lyell was professor of geology at King's College, London, +and delivered while there a course of lectures, which became the +foundation of the _Elements of Geology_. In 1832 he married Mary +(1809-1873) eldest daughter of Leonard Horner (q.v.), and she became +thenceforward associated with him in all his work, and by her social +qualities making his home a centre of attraction. In 1834 he made an +excursion to Denmark and Sweden, the result of which was his Bakerian +lecture to the Royal Society "On the Proofs of the gradual Rising of +Land in certain Parts of Sweden." He also brought before the Geological +Society a paper "On the Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of Seeland and +Möen." In 1835 he became president of the Geological Society. In 1837 he +was again in Norway and Denmark, and in 1841 he spent a year in +travelling through the United States, Canada and Nova Scotia. This last +journey, together with a second one to America in 1845, resulted not +only in papers, but also in two works not exclusively geological, +_Travels in North America_ (1845) and _A Second Visit to the United +States_ (1849). During these journeys he estimated the rate of recession +of the falls of Niagara, the annual average accumulation of alluvial +matter in the delta of the Mississippi, and studied those vegetable +accumulations in the "Great Dismal Swamp" of Virginia, which he +afterwards used in illustrating the formation of beds of coal. He also +studied the coal-formations in Nova Scotia, and discovered in company +with Dr (afterwards Sir J. W.) Dawson (q.v.) of Montreal, the earliest +known landshell, _Pupa vetusta_, in the hollow stem of a Sigillaria. In +bringing a knowledge of European geology to bear upon the extended +formations of North America Lyell rendered immense service. Having +visited Madeira and Teneriffe in company with G. Hartung, he accumulated +much valuable evidence on the age and deposition of lava-beds and the +formation of volcanic cones. He also revisited Sicily in 1858, when he +made such observations upon the structure of Etna as refuted the theory +of "craters of elevation" upheld by Von Buch and Élie de Beaumont (see +_Phil. Trans._, 1859). + +Lyell was knighted in 1848, and was created a baronet in 1864, in which +year he was president of the British Association at Bath. He was elected +corresponding member of the French Institute and of the Royal Academy of +Sciences at Berlin, and was created a knight of the Prussian Order of +Merit. + +During the later years of his life his sight, always weak, failed him +altogether. He died on the 22nd of February 1875, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey. Among his characteristics were his great thirst for +knowledge, his perfect fairness and sound judgment; while the extreme +freshness of his mind enabled him to accept and appreciate the work of +younger men. + + The LYELL MEDAL, established in 1875 under the will of Sir Charles + Lyell, is cast in bronze and is to be awarded annually (or from time + to time) by the Council of the Geological Society. The medallist may + be of any country or either sex. Not less than one-third of the annual + interest of a sum of £2000 is to be awarded with the medal; the + remaining interest, known as the LYELL GEOLOGICAL FUND, is to be given + in one or more portions at the discretion of the Council for the + encouragement of geological science. + + See _Life, Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart._, edited + by his sister-in-law, Mrs Lyell (2 vols., 1881); _Charles Lyell and + Modern Geology_, by T. G. Bonney (1895). (H. B. Wo.) + + + + +LYLY (LILLY, or LYLIE), JOHN (1553-1606), English writer, the famous +author of _Euphues_, was born in Kent in 1553 or 1554. At the age of +sixteen, according to Wood, he became a student of Magdalen College, +Oxford, where in due time he proceeded to his bachelor's and master's +degrees (1573 and 1575), and from whence we find him in 1574 applying to +Lord Burghley "for the queen's letters to Magdalen College to admit him +fellow." The fellowship, however, was not granted, and Lyly shortly +after left the university. He complains of what seems to have been a +sentence of rustication passed upon him at some period in his academical +career, in his address to the gentlemen scholars of Oxford affixed to +the second edition of the first part of _Euphues_, but in the absence of +any further evidence it is impossible to fix either its date or its +cause. If we are to believe Wood, he never took kindly to the proper +studies of the university. "For so it was that his genius being +naturally bent to the pleasant paths of poetry (as if Apollo had given +to him a wreath of his own bays without snatching or struggling) did in +a manner neglect academical studies, yet not so much but that he took +the degrees in arts, that of master being compleated 1575." After he +left Oxford, where he had already the reputation of "a noted wit," Lyly +seems to have attached himself to Lord Burghley. "This noble man," he +writes in the "Glasse for Europe," in the second part of _Euphues_ +(1580), "I found so ready being but a straunger to do me good, that +neyther I ought to forget him, neyther cease to pray for him, that as he +hath the wisdom of Nestor, so he may have the age, that having the +policies of Ulysses he may have his honor, worthy to lyve long, by whom +so many lyve in quiet, and not unworthy to be advaunced by whose care so +many have been preferred." Two years later we possess a letter of Lyly +to the treasurer, dated July 1582, in which the writer protests against +some accusation of dishonesty which had brought him into trouble with +his patron, and demands a personal interview for the purpose of clearing +his character. What the further relations between them were we have no +means of knowing, but it is clear that neither from Burghley nor from +the queen did Lyly ever receive any substantial patronage. In 1578 he +began his literary career by the composition of _Euphues, or the Anatomy +of Wit_, which was licensed to Gabriel Cawood on the 2nd of December, +1578, and published in the spring of 1579. In the same year the author +was incorporated M.A. at Cambridge, and possibly saw his hopes of court +advancement dashed by the appointment in July of Edmund Tylney to the +office of master of the revels, a post at which, as he reminds the queen +some years later, he had all along been encouraged to "aim his courses." +_Euphues and his England_ appeared in 1580, and, like the first part of +the book, won immediate popularity. For a time Lyly was the most +successful and fashionable of English writers. He was hailed as the +author of "a new English," as a "raffineur de l'Anglois"; and, as Edmund +Blount, the editor of his plays, tells us in 1632, "that beautie in +court which could not parley Euphuism was as little regarded as she +which nowe there speakes not French." After the publication of +_Euphues_, however, Lyly seems to have entirely deserted the novel form +himself, which passed into the hands of his imitators, and to have +thrown himself almost exclusively into play-writing, probably with a +view to the mastership of revels whenever a vacancy should occur. Eight +plays by him were probably acted before the queen by the children of the +Chapel Royal and the children of St Paul's between the years 1584 and +1589, one or two of them being repeated before a popular audience at the +Blackfriars Theatre. Their brisk lively dialogue, classical colour and +frequent allusions to persons and events of the day maintained that +popularity with the court which _Euphues_ had won. Lyly sat in +parliament as member for Hindon in 1589, for Aylesbury in 1593, for +Appleby in 1597 and for Aylesbury a second time in 1601. In 1589 Lyly +published a tract in the Martin Marprelate controversy, called _Pappe +with an hatchet, alias a figge for my Godsonne; Or Crack me this nut; Or +a Countrie Cuffe, &c._[1] About the same time we may probably date his +first petition to Queen Elizabeth. The two petitions, transcripts of +which are extant among the Harleian MSS., are undated, but in the first +of them he speaks of having been ten years hanging about the court in +hope of preferment, and in the second he extends the period to thirteen +years. It may be conjectured with great probability that the ten years +date from 1579, when Edmund Tylney was appointed master of the revels +with a tacit understanding that Lyly was to have the next reversion of +the post. "I was entertained your Majestie's servaunt by your own +gratious favor," he says, "strengthened with condicions that I should +ayme all my courses at the Revells (I dare not say with a promise, but +with a hopeful Item to the Revercion) for which these ten yeres I have +attended with an unwearyed patience." But in 1589 or 1590 the mastership +of the revels was as far off as ever--Tylney in fact held the post for +thirty-one years--and that Lyly's petition brought him no compensation +in other directions may be inferred from the second petition of 1593. +"Thirteen yeres your highnes servant but yet nothing. Twenty freinds +that though they saye they will be sure, I finde them sure to be slowe. +A thousand hopes, but all nothing; a hundred promises but yet nothing. +Thus casting up the inventory of my friends, hopes, promises and tymes, +the _summa totalis_ amounteth to just nothing." What may have been +Lyly's subsequent fortunes at court we do not know. Edmund Blount says +vaguely that Elizabeth "graced and rewarded" him, but of this there is +no other evidence. After 1590 his works steadily declined in influence +and reputation; other stars were in possession of the horizon; and so +far as we know he died poor and neglected in the early part of James +I.'s reign. He was buried in London at St Bartholomew the Less on the +20th of November, 1606. He was married, and we hear of two sons and a +daughter. + +_Comedies._--In 1632 Edmund Blount published "Six Court Comedies," +including _Endymion_ (1591), _Sappho and Phao_ (1584), _Alexander and +Campaspe_ (1584), _Midas_ (1592), _Mother Bombie_ (1594) and _Gallathea_ +(1592). To these should be added the _Woman in the Moone_ (Lyly's +earliest play, to judge from a passage in the prologue and therefore +earlier than 1584, the date of _Alexander and Campaspe_), and _Love's +Metamorphosis_, first printed in 1601. Of these, all but the last are in +prose. A _Warning for Faire Women_ (1599) and _The Maid's Metamorphosis_ +(1600) have been attributed to Lyly, but on altogether insufficient +grounds. The first editions of all these plays were issued between 1584 +and 1601, and the majority of them between 1584 and 1592, in what were +Lyly's most successful and popular years. His importance as a dramatist +has been very differently estimated. Lyly's dialogue is still a long way +removed from the dialogue of Shakespeare. But at the same time it is a +great advance in rapidity and resource upon anything which had gone +before it; it represents an important step in English dramatic art. His +nimbleness, and the wit which struggles with his pedantry, found their +full development in the dialogue of _Twelfth Night_ and _Much Ado about +Nothing_, just as "Marlowe's mighty line" led up to and was eclipsed by +the majesty and music of Shakespearian passion. One or two of the songs +introduced into his plays are justly famous and show a real lyrical +gift. Nor in estimating his dramatic position and his effect upon his +time must it be forgotten that his classical and mythological plots, +flavourless and dull as they would be to a modern audience, were charged +with interest to those courtly hearers who saw in Midas Philip II., +Elizabeth in Cynthia and perhaps Leicester's unwelcome marriage with +Lady Sheffield in the love affair between Endymion and Tellus which +brings the former under Cynthia's displeasure. As a matter of fact his +reputation and popularity as a play-writer were considerable. Gabriel +Harvey dreaded lest Lyly should make a play upon their quarrel; Meres, +as is well known, places him among "the best for comedy"; and Ben Jonson +names him among those foremost rivals who were "outshone" and outsung by +Shakespeare. + +_Euphues._--It was not, however, as a dramatist, but as the author of +_Euphues_, that Lyly made most mark upon the Elizabethan world. His +plays amused the court circle, but the "new English" of his novel +threatened to permanently change the course of English style. The plot +of _Euphues_ is extremely simple. The hero, whose name may very possibly +have been suggested by a passage in Ascham's _Schoolmaster_, is +introduced to us as still in bondage to the follies of youth, +"preferring fancy before friends, and this present humour before honour +to come." His travels bring him to Naples, where he falls in love with +Lucilla, the governor's light-minded daughter. Lucilla is already +pledged to Euphues's friend Philautus, but Euphues's passion betrays his +friendship, and the old lover finds himself thrown over by both friend +and mistress. Euphues himself, however, is very soon forsaken for a more +attractive suitor. He and Philautus make up their quarrel, and Euphues +writes his friend "a cooling card," to be "applied to all lovers," which +is so severe upon the fair sex that Lyly feels it necessary to balance +it by a sort of apology addressed "to the grave matrons and honest +maidens of Italy." Euphues then leaves Naples for his native Athens, +where he gives himself up to study, of which the first fruits are two +long treatises--the first, "Euphues and his Ephoebus," a disquisition on +the art of education addressed to parents, and the second, "Euphues and +Atheos," a discussion of the first principles of religion. The remainder +of the book is filled up with correspondence between Euphues and his +friends. We have letters from Euphues to Philautus on the death of +Lucilla, to another friend on the death of his daughter, to one Botonio +"to take his exile patiently," and to the youth Alcius, remonstrating +with him on his bad behaviour at the university. Finally a pair of +letters, the first from Livia "at the emperour's court to Euphues at +Athens," answered by "Euphues to Livia," wind up the first part, and +announce to us Euphues's intention of visiting England. An address from +Lyly to Lord Delawarr is affixed, to which was added in the second +edition "An Address to the Gentlemen Scholars of England." + +_Euphues and his England_ is rather longer than the first part. Euphues +and Philautus travel from Naples to England. They arrive at Dover, halt +for the night at Fidus's house at Canterbury, and then proceed to +London, where they make acquaintance with Surius, a young English +gentleman of great birth and noble blood; Psellus, an Italian nobleman +reputed "great in magick"; Martius, an elderly Englishman; Camilla, a +beautiful English girl of insignificant family; Lady Flavia and her +niece Fraunces. After endless correspondence and conversation on all +kinds of topics, Euphues is recalled to Athens, and from there +corresponds with his friends. "Euphues' Glasse for Europe" is a +flattering description of England sent to Livia at Naples. It is the +most interesting portion of the book, and throws light upon one or two +points of Lyly's own biography. The author naturally seized the +opportunity for paying his inevitable tribute to the queen, and pays it +in his most exalted style. "O fortunate England that hath such a queene, +ungratefull if thou praye not for hir, wicked if thou do not love hir, +miserable if thou lose hir!"--and so on. The book ends with Philautus's +announcement of his marriage to Fraunces, upon which Euphues sends +characteristic congratulations and retires, "tormented in body and +grieved in mind," to the Mount of Silexedra, "where I leave him to his +musing or Muses." + +Such is a brief outline of the book which for a time set the fashion for +English prose. Two editions of each part appeared within the first year +after publication, and thirteen editions of both are enumerated up to +1636, after which, with the exception of a modernized version in 1718, +_Euphues_ was never reprinted until 1868, when Dr Arber took it in hand. +The reasons for its popularity are not far to seek. As far as matter was +concerned it fell in with all the prevailing literary fashions. Its long +disquisitions on love, religion, exile, women or education, on court +life and country pleasures, handled all the most favourite topics in the +secularized speculation of the time; its foreign background and travel +talk pleased a society of which Lyly himself said "trafic and travel +hath woven the nature of all nations into ours and made this land like +arras full of device which was broadcloth full of workmanship"; and, +although Lyly steered clear in it of the worst classical pedantries of +the day, the book was more than sufficiently steeped in classical +learning, and based upon classical material, to attract a literary +circle which was nothing if not humanist. A large proportion of its +matter indeed was drawn from classical sources. The general tone of +sententious moralizing may be traced to Plutarch, from whom the treatise +on education, "Euphues and his Ephoebus," and that on exile, "Letter to +Botonio to take his exile patiently," are literally translated, as well +as a number of other shorter passages either taken direct from the Latin +versions or from some of the numerous English translations of Plutarch +then current. The innumerable illustrations based upon a kind of pseudo +natural history are largely taken from Pliny, while the mythology is +that of Virgil and Ovid. + +It was not the matter of _Euphues_, however, so much as the style which +made it famous (see EUPHUISM). The source of Lyly's peculiar style has +been traced by Dr Landmann (_Der Euphuismus_, _sein Wesen_, _seine +Quelle_, _seine Geschichte_, &c. Giessen, 1881) to the influence of Don +Antonio de Guevara, whose _Libro Aureo de Marco Aurelio_ (1529)--a sort +of historical romance based upon Plutarch and upon Marcus Aurelius's +_Meditations_, the object of which was to produce a "mirror for +princes," of the kind so popular throughout the Renaissance--became +almost immediately popular in England. The first edition, or rather a +French version of it, was translated into English by Lord Berners in +1531, and published in 1534. Before 1560 twelve editions of Lord +Berners's translation had been printed, and before 1578 six different +translators of this and later works of Guevara had appeared. The +translation, however, which had most influence upon English literature +was that by North, the well-known translator of Plutarch, in 1557, +called _The Dial for Princes, Compiled by the Reverend Father in God Don +Antony of Guevara, Byshop of Guadix, &c., Englished out of the Frenche +by Th. North_. The sententious and antithetical style of the _Dial for +Princes_ is substantially that of _Euphues_, though Guevara on the whole +handles it better than his imitator, and has many passages of real force +and dignity. The general plan of the two books is also much the same. In +both the biography is merely a peg on which to hang moral disquisitions +and treatises. The use made of letters is the same in both. Even the +names of some of the characters are similar. Thus Guevara's Lucilla is +the flighty daughter of Marcus Aurelius. Lyly's Lucilla is the flighty +daughter of Ferardo, governor of Naples; Guevara's Livia is a lady at +the court of Marcus Aurelius, Lyly's Livia is a lady at the court "of +the emperor," of whom no further description is given. The 9th, 10th, +11th and 12th chapters of the _Dial for Princes_ suggested the +discussion between Euphues and Atheos. The letter from Euphues to Alcius +is substantially the same in subject and treatment as that from Marcus +Aurelius to his nephew Epesipo. Both Guevara and Lyly translated +Plutarch's work _De educatione liberorum_, Lyly, however, keeping closer +than the Spanish author to the original. The use made by Lyly of the +university of Athens was an anachronism in a novel intended to describe +his own time. He borrowed it, however, from Guevara, in whose book a +university of Athens was of course entirely in place. The "cooling card +for all fond lovers" and the address to the ladies and gentlemen of +Italy have their counterparts among the miscellaneous letters by Guevara +affixed by North to the _Dial for Princes_; and other instances of +Lyly's use of these letters, and of two other treatises by Guevara on +court and country life, could be pointed out. + +Lyly was not the first to appropriate and develop the Guevaristic style. +The earliest book in which it was fully adopted was _A petite Pallace of +Pettie his Pleasure_, by George Pettie, which appeared in 1576, a +production so closely akin to _Euphues_ in tone and style that it is +difficult to believe it was not by Lyly. Lyly, however, carried the +style to its highest point, and made it the dominant literary fashion. +His principal followers in it were Greene, Lodge and Nash, his principal +opponent Sir Philip Sidney; the _Arcadia_ in fact supplanted _Euphues_, +and the Euphuistic taste proper may be said to have died out about 1590 +after a reign of some twelve years. According to Landmann, Shakespeare's +_Love's Labour Lost_ is a caricature of the Italianate and pedantic +fashions of the day, not of the peculiar style of _Euphues_. The only +certain allusion in Shakespeare to the characteristics of Lyly's famous +book is to be found in _Henry IV._, where Falstaff, playing the part of +the king, says to Prince Hal, "Harry, I do not only marvel where thou +spendest thy time, but also how thou art accompanied; for, though the +camomile the more it is trodden on the faster it grows, yet youth the +more it is wasted the sooner it wears." Here the pompous antithesis is +evidently meant to caricature the peculiar Euphuistic sentence of court +parlance. (M. A. W.) + + See Lyly's _Complete Works_, ed. R. W. Bond (3 vols., 1902); + _Euphues_, from early editions, by Edward Arber (1868); A. W. Ward, + _English Dramatic Literature_, i. 151; J. P. Collier, _History of + Dramatis Poetry_, iii. 172; "John Lilly and Shakespeare," by C. C. + Hense in the _Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakesp. Gesellschaft_, vols. + vii. and viii. (1872, 1873); F. W. Fairholt, _Dramatic Works of John + Lilly_ (2 vols., 1858); _Shakespeare's Euphuism_, by W. L. Rushton; + H. Morley, "Euphuism" in the _Quarterly Review_ (1861); R. W. Bond, + "John Lyly, Novelist and Dramatist," in the _Quarterly Review_ (Jan. + 1896); J. A. Symonds, _Shakespeare's Predecessors_ (1883); J. D. + Wilson, _John Lyly_ (Cambridge, 1905); A. Ainger, "Euphuism," in + _Lectures and Essays_ (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, _John Lyly. + Contribution à l'histoire de la Renaissance en Angleterre_ (1910). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The evidence for his authorship may be found in Gabriel Harvey's + _Pierce's Supererogation_ (written November 1589, published 1593), in + Nash's _Have with you to Saffron Walden_ (1596), and in various + allusions in Lyly's own plays. See Fairholt's _Dramatic Works of John + Lilly_, i. 20. + + + + +LYME REGIS, a market town and municipal borough and watering-place in +the western parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 151 m. +W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway, the terminus of +a light railway from Axminster. Pop. (1901) 2095. It is situated at the +mouth of a narrow combe or valley opening upon a fine precipitous +coast-line; there is a sandy shore affording excellent bathing, and the +country inland is beautiful. The church of St Michael and All Angels is +mainly Perpendicular, but the tower (formerly central) and the portion +west of it are Norman. A guildhall and assembly rooms are the chief +public buildings. The principal industries are stone-quarrying and the +manufacture of cement. There is a curved pier of ancient foundation +known as the Cobb. The harbour, with a small coasting trade, is under +the authority of the corporation. The borough is under a mayor, 4 +aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1237 acres. + +No evidence of settlement on the site of Lyme Regis exists before that +afforded by a grant, dated 774, purporting to be by Cynewulf, king of +the West-Saxons, of land here to the church of Sherborne, and a similar +grant by King Aethelstan to the church of Glastonbury. In 1086 three +manors of Lyme are mentioned: that belonging to Sherborne abbey, which +was granted at the dissolution to Thomas Goodwin, who alienated it in +the following year; that belonging to Glastonbury, which seems to have +passed into lay lands during the middle ages, and that belonging to +William Belet. The last was acquired by the family of Bayeux, from whom +it passed by marriage to Elias de Rabayne, whose nephew, Peter Baudrat, +surrendered it to the crown in 1315-1316 when the king became lord of +one moiety of the borough, henceforth known as Lyme Regis. Lyme ranked +as a port in 1234, and Edward I. in 1284 granted to the town a charter +making it a free borough, with a merchant gild, and in the same year the +mayor and bailiffs are mentioned. In the following January the bailiffs +were given freedom from pleading without the borough, freedom from toll +and privileges implying considerable foreign trade; the importance of +the port is also evident from the demand of two ships for the king's +service in 1311. In 1332-1333 Edward III. granted Lyme to the burgesses +at a fee-farm of 32 marks; on the petition of the inhabitants, who were +impoverished by tempests and high tides, this was reduced to 100 +shillings in 1410 and to 5 marks in 1481. In 1591 Elizabeth incorporated +Lyme, and further charters were obtained from James I., Charles II. and +William III. Lyme returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832 +when the representation was reduced to one. The borough was +disfranchised in 1867. The fairs granted in 1553 for the 1st of February +and the 20th of September are now held on altered dates. Trade with +France in wine and cloth was carried on as early as 1284, but was +probably much increased on the erection of the Cobb, first mentioned in +1328 as built of timber and rock. Its medieval importance as the only +shelter between Portland Roads and the river Exe caused the burgesses to +receive grants of quayage for its maintenance in 1335 and many +subsequent years, while its convenience probably did much to bring upon +Lyme the unsuccessful siege by Prince Maurice in 1644. In 1685 Lyme was +the scene of the landing of James, duke of Monmouth, in his attempt upon +the throne. + + + + +LYMINGTON, a municipal borough and seaport in the New Forest +parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 98 m. S.W. from London by +the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4165. It lies on the +estuary of the Lymington, which opens into the Solent. The church of St +Thomas à Becket is an irregular structure, dating from the reign of +Henry VI., but frequently restored. There is some coasting trade, and +yacht-building is carried on. Regular passenger steamers serve Yarmouth +in the Isle of Wight. In summer the town is frequented for sea-bathing. +It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1515 +acres. + +There was a Roman camp near Lymington (_Lentune_, _Lementon_), and Roman +relics have been found, but there is no evidence that a town existed +here until after the Conquest. Lymington dates its importance from the +grant of the town to Richard de Redvers, earl of Devon, in the reign of +Henry I. No charter has been found, but a judgment given under a writ of +_quo warranto_ in 1578 confirms to the burgesses freedom from toll, +passage and pontage, the tolls and stallage of the quay and the right to +hold two fairs--privileges which they claimed under charters of Baldwin +de Redvers and Isabel de Fortibus, countess of Albemarle, in the 13th +century, and Edward Courtenay, earl of Devon, in 1405. The town was +governed by the mayor and burgesses until the corporation was reformed +in 1835. A writ for the election of a member to parliament was issued in +the reign of Edward III., but no return was made. From 1585 two members +were regularly returned; the number was reduced to one in 1867, and in +1885 the representation was merged in that of the county. Fairs on the +13th and 14th of May and the 2nd and 3rd of October, dating from the +13th century, are still held. The Saturday market probably dates from +the same century. Lymington was made a port in the reign of Henry I., +and its large shipping trade led to frequent disputes with Southampton +as to the levying of duties. The case was tried in 1329 and decided +against Lymington, but in 1750 the judgment was reversed, and since then +the petty customs have been regularly paid. From an early date and for +many centuries salt was the staple manufacture of Lymington. The rise of +the mineral saltworks of Cheshire led to its decline in the 18th +century, and later the renewed importance of Southampton completed its +decay. + + See E. King, _Borough and Parish of Lymington_ (London, 1879). + + + + +LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION. Lying close to the blood-vessels of a limb or +organ a further set of vessels may be observed. They are very pale in +colour, often almost transparent and very thin-walled. Hence they are +frequently difficult to find and dissect. These are the lymphatic +vessels, and they are found to be returning a fluid from the tissues to +the bloodstream. When traced back to the tissues they are seen to divide +and ultimately to form minute anastomosing tubules, the _lymph +capillaries_. The capillaries finally terminate in the spaces between +the structures of the tissue, but whether their free ends are closed or +are in open communication with the tissue spaces is still undecided. The +study of their development shows that they grow into the tissue as a +closed system of minute tubes, which indicates that in all probability +they remain permanently closed. If we trace the lymphatic vessels +towards the thorax we find that in some part of their course they +terminate in structures known as lymphatic glands. From these again +fresh lymphatic vessels arise which carry the fluid towards the main +lymph-vessel, the _thoracic duct_. This runs up the posterior wall of +the thorax close to the aorta, and finally opens into the junction of +the internal jugular and left subclavian veins. The lymph-vessels from +the right side of the head and neck and from the right arm open, +however, into the right subclavian vein (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM below). + +_Chemical Constitution of Lymph._--The lymph collected from the thoracic +duct during hunger is almost water clear and yellowish in colour. Its +specific gravity varies from 1015 to 1025. It tastes salt and has a +faint odour. It is alkaline in reaction, but is much less alkaline than +blood-serum. Like blood it clots, but clots badly, only forming a soft +clot which quickly contracts. The lymph collected from a lymphatic +before it has passed through a lymph gland contains a few leucocytes, +and though the number of lymphocytes is greater in the lymph after it +has flowed through a gland it is never very great. In normal states +there are no red blood corpuscles. + +The total solids amount to 3.6 to 5.7%, the variations depending upon +the amount of protein present. The lymph during hunger contains only a +minute quantity of fat. Sugar (dextrose) is present in the same +concentration as in the blood. The inorganic constituents are the same +as in blood, but apparently the amounts of Ca, Mg and P2O5 are rather +less than in serum. Urea is present to the same amount as in blood. If +the lymph be collected after a meal, one important alteration is to be +found. It now contains an abundance of fat in a very fine state of +subdivision, if fat be present in the food. The concentrations of +protein and dextrose are not altered during the absorption of these +substances. + +_The Significance of Lymph._--In considering the significance and use of +lymph we must note in the first place that it forms an alternative +medium for the removal of water, dissolved materials, formed elements or +particles away from the tissues. All materials supplied to a tissue are +brought to it by the blood, and are discharged from the blood through +the capillary wall. They thus come to lie in the tissue spaces between +the cells, and from this supply of material in a dissolved state the +cells take up the food they require. In the opposite direction the cell +discharges its waste products into this same tissue fluid. The removal +of material from the tissue fluid may be effected either by its being +absorbed through the capillary wall into the bloodstream, or by sending +it into the lymphatic vessels and thus away from the tissue. From this +point of view the lymphatics may be looked upon in a sense as a drainage +system of the tissues. Again, besides discharging fluid and dissolved +material into the tissue spaces, the blood may also discharge +leucocytes, and under many conditions this emigration of leucocytes may +be very extensive. These also may leave the tissue space by the path of +the lymph channels. Moreover, the tissues are at any time liable to be +injured, and the injury as well as damaging many cells may cause rupture +of capillaries (as in bruising) with escape of red blood-cells into the +tissue spaces. If this occurs we know that the damaged cells are +destroyed and their débris removed either by digestion by leucocytes or +by disintegration and solution. The damage of a tissue also commonly +involves an infection of the damaged area with living micro-organisms, +and these are at once admitted to the tissue spaces. Hence we see that +the lymphatics may be provided as channels by which a variety of +substances can be removed from the tissue spaces. The question at once +arises, is the lymph channel at all times open to receive the materials +present in the tissue space? If such be the case, lymph is simply tissue +fluid, and anything that modifies the constitution or amount of the +tissue fluid should in like proportion lead to a variation in the amount +and constitution of the lymph. But if the lymph capillary is a closed +tubule at its commencement this does not follow. + +From these considerations we see that in the first instance the whole +problem of lymph formation is intimately bound up with the study of the +interchanges of material between the blood and the various tissue cells. +The exchange of material between blood and tissue cell may possibly be +determined in one or both of two ways. Either it may result from changes +taking place within the tissue cell, or the tissue cell remaining +passive material may be sent to or withdrawn from it owing to a change +occurring either in the composition of the blood or to a change in the +circulation through the tissue. Let us take first the results following +increased activity of a tissue. We know that increased activity of a +tissue means increased chemical change within the tissue and the +production of new chemical bodies of small molecular size (e.g. water, +carbonic acid, &c.). The production of these metabolites means the +destruction of some of the tissue substance, and to make good this loss +the tissue must take a further amount of material from the blood. We +know that this takes place, and moreover that the waste products +resulting from activity are ultimately removed. The question then +becomes: When does this restoration take place, and what is the +intermediate state of the tissue? We know that increased activity is +always accompanied by an increase in the blood-supply, indicating a +greater supply of nutritive material, though it may be that, the +increased supply required at the actual time of activity is oxygen only. +Simultaneously the opportunity for a more rapid removal of the waste +products is provided. We have to inquire then: Does this increased +vascularity necessarily mean an increased outpouring of water and +dissolved material into the tissues, for this might follow directly +from the greater filling of the capillaries, or from the increased +attracting power of the tissues to water (osmotic effect) due to the +sudden production of substances of small molecular size within the +tissue? The other possibility is that the increased volume of blood sent +to the tissue is for the sole purpose of giving it a more rapid supply +of oxygen, and that the ordinary normal blood-supply would amply suffice +for renewing the chemical material used up during activity. Tissues +undoubtedly vary among themselves in the amount of water and other +materials they take from the blood when thrown into activity, and their +behaviour in this respect depends upon the work they are called upon to +perform. We must discriminate between the substance required by and +consumed by the tissue, the chemical food which on combustion yields the +energy by which the tissue performs work, and, on the other hand, the +substance taken from the blood and either with or without further +elaboration discharged from the tissue (as, for instance, in the process +of secretion). The tissue contains in itself a store of food amply +sufficient to enable it to continue working for a long time after its +blood-supply has been stopped, and everything indicates that the supply +of chemical energy to the tissue may be slow or even withheld for a +considerable time. Hence we are led to conclude that the increased flow +of blood sent to a tissue when it is thrown into activity is first and +foremost to give that tissue an increased oxygen supply; secondly, to +remove waste carbonic acid; thirdly, and only in the case of some +tissues, to provide water salts and other materials for the outpouring +of a secretion, as an instance of which we may take the kidney as a +type. Hence there is no need to suppose that an extensive accumulation +of fluid and dissolved substances takes place within a tissue when it +becomes active. This must be an accumulation which would lead to an +engorgement of the tissue spaces and then to a discharge of fluid along +the lymph channels. To enable us to determine the various points just +raised we must know whether an increased blood-supply to a tissue +necessarily means an increased exudation of fluid into the tissue +spaces, and moreover we must study the exchange of fluid between a +tissue and the blood under as varied a series of conditions as possible, +subsequently examining whether exchange of fluid and other substances +between the tissue and the blood necessarily determines quantitatively +the amount of lymph flowing from the tissue. Hence we will first study +the exchanges between the blood and a tissue, and then turn our +attention to the lymph-flow from the tissues. + +_The Exchanges of Fluids and dissolved Substances between the Blood and +the Tissues._--Numerous experiments have been performed in studying the +conditions under which fluid passes into the tissues and tissue +spaces--or in the reverse direction into the blood. We may group them +into (1) conditions during which the total volume of circulating fluid +is increased or decreased; (2) conditions in which the character of the +blood is altered, e.g. it is made more watery or its saline +concentration is altered; (3) conditions in which the blood-supply to +the part is altered; (4) conditions in which the physical character of +the capillary wall is altered. + +1. The total volume of blood in an animal has been increased among other +ways by the transfusion of the blood of one animal directly into the +veins of a second of the same species. It is found that within a very +short time a large percentage of the plasma has been discharged from the +blood-vessels. It has been sent into the tissues, notably the muscles, +and it may be noted in passing without producing any increase in the +lymph-flow from these vessels. An analogous experiment, but one which +avoids the fallacy introduced by injecting a second animal's blood, has +been performed by driving all the blood out of one hind limb by applying +a rubber bandage tightly round it from the foot upwards. This increases +the volume of blood circulating in the rest of the body, and again a +rapid disappearance of the fluid part of the blood from the vessels was +observed--the fluid being mainly sent into the muscles, as was indicated +by showing that the specific gravity of the muscles fell during the +experiment. The experiments converse to these have also been studied. +Bleeding is very rapidly followed by a large inflow of fluid into the +circulating blood--this fluid being derived from all the tissues, and +especially again from the muscles. Or again, when the bandage from the +limb in the above-cited experiment was removed, the total capacity of +the circulatory system was thereby suddenly increased, and it was found +that the total volume of blood increased correspondingly, the increased +volume of fluid being drawn from the tissues and especially again from +the muscles. The rapidity with which this movement of fluid into or out +of the blood takes place is very striking. The explanation usually +offered is that the movement is effected by changes in the capillary +pressure due to the alteration in the volume of blood circulating. While +this seems feasible when the volume of blood is increased, it does not +offer a satisfactory explanation of the rapid movement of fluid from the +tissues when the volume of the blood is decreased. One must therefore +look for yet further factors in this instance. + +2. Let us next turn attention to the second of our three main +variations, viz. that in which the composition of the blood is altered. +It has long been known that the injection of water, or of solutions of +soluble bodies such as salts, urea, sugar, &c., leads to a very rapid +exchange of water and salts between the blood and the tissues. Thus if a +solution less concentrated than the blood be injected, the blood is +thereby diluted, but with very great rapidity water leaves the blood and +is taken up by the tissues. Again, if a strong sugar or salt solution be +injected, the first effect is a big discharge of water from the tissues +into the blood and the movement of fluid is effected with great +rapidity. In these instances a new physical factor is brought into play, +viz. that of osmosis. When a solution of lower osmotic pressure than the +blood is injected the osmotic pressure of the blood falls temporarily +below that of the tissues, and water is therefore attracted to the +tissues. The converse is the case when a solution of osmotic pressure +higher than the blood is injected. This at first sight seems to be an +all-sufficient explanation of the results recorded, but difficulties +arise when we find that the tissues are not equally active in producing +the effects. Thus it is found that the muscles and skin act as the chief +water dépôt, while such tissues as the liver, intestines or pancreas +take a relatively small share in the exchange. Again, when a strong +sodium chloride solution is injected a considerable part of the sodium +chloride is soon found to have left the blood, and it has been shown +that the chloride dépôt is not identical with the water dépôt. The lung, +for instance, is found to take up relatively far more of the salt than +other tissues. Simultaneously with the passage of the salt into the +tissue an exchange of water from the tissue into the blood can be +observed, both processes being carried out very rapidly. The result is +that the blood very quickly returns to a state in which its osmotic +pressure is only slightly raised; the tissue, on the other hand, loses +water and gains salt, and its osmotic pressure and specific gravity +therefore rises. Again, the tissues do not participate equally in +producing the final result, nor is the tissue which gives up the largest +amount of water necessarily that which gains the largest amount of salt. +The results following the injection of solutions of other bodies of +small molecular size, e.g. urea or sugar, are quite analogous to those +above described in the case of the non-toxic salt solutions. Hence we +see that the rate of exchange of fluid and dissolved substance between a +tissue and the blood can be extremely rapid and that the exchange can +take place in either direction. We may also conclude that the main cause +of the exchange, and possibly the only one, is the osmotic action set up +by the solution injected, and that muscle tissue is particularly active +in the process. + +Seeing that a very considerable amount of water or of dissolved +substance can be taken up from the blood into a tissue, the question +next arises: Where is this material held, in the tissue cell or in the +tissue space? Immediately the water or salt leaves the blood it reaches +the tissue space, but unless the process be extreme in amount it +probably passes at once into the tissue cell itself and is stored there. +If the process is excessive oedema is set up and fluid accumulates in +the tissue space. + +These, taken quite briefly, are some of the more important conditions +under which fluid exchanges, take place. They are selected here because +of the extent and rapidity of the changes effected. + +3. The third factor which may bring about a change in the amount of +fluid sent to a tissue is a variation in the capillary pressure. A rise +in capillary pressure will, if filtration can occur through the +capillary wall, cause an increased exudation of fluid from the blood. +Thus the rise in general blood-pressure following the injection of a +salt solution could cause an increased filtration into the tissues. Or +again, the hydraemia following a salt injection would favour an +increased exudation because the blood would be more readily filtrable. +We, however, know very little of the effect of changes in capillary +pressure upon movement of fluid into the tissue spaces and tissues, most +of such observations being confined to a study of their effect upon +lymph-flow. We will therefore return to them in this connexion. + +4. The remaining factor to be mentioned is a change in the character of +the capillary wall. It is well known that many poisons can excite an +increased exudation from the blood and the tissue may become oedematous. +Of such bodies we may mention cantharidin and the lymphogogues of Class +I (see later). A like change is also probably the cause of the oedema of +nephritis and of heart disease. It has also been suggested that the +capillaries of different organs show varying degrees of permeability, a +suggestion to which we will return later. + +_Lymph Formation._--There are two theories current at the present day +offering explanations of the manner in which lymph is formed. The first, +which owes its inception to Ludwig, explains lymph formation upon +physical grounds. Thus according to this theory the lymphatics are open +capillary vessels at their origin in the tissues along which the tissue +fluid is driven. The tissue fluid is discharged from the blood by +filtration, and therefore its amount varies directly with the capillary +pressure. The amount of fluid movement also is further determined by +osmotic actions and by the permeability of the capillary wall. + +The second theory first actively enunciated by Heidenhain regards lymph +formation as a secretory process of the capillary wall, i.e. one in the +discharge of which these cells perform work and are not merely passive +as in the former theory. As we shall see, it is now probable that +neither theory is completely correct. + +In considering lymph formation we have to examine both the total amount +of lymph formed in the body and the variations in amount leaving each +separate organ under different conditions. In most investigations the +lymph was collected from the thoracic duct, i.e. it was the lymph +returned from all parts of the body with the exception of the right arm +and right side of the head and neck. The collection of the lymph from +organs is much more difficult to effect, and hence has not, to the +present, been so extensively studied. We will consider first variations +in the amount of the thoracic duct lymph. Lymph is always flowing along +the thoracic duct, and if the body is at rest, it has been shown that +this lymph is coming practically entirely from the intestines and liver, +chiefly, moreover, from the liver. The variations in the amount flowing +under various conditions has been extensively studied. We will discuss +them under the following headings: Changes brought about (a) by altered +circulatory conditions, (b) by the injection of various substances, and +(c) as a result of throwing an organ into activity. + +Ligature of the portal vein leads to an increased flow of duct lymph. +Ligature of the inferior vena cava above the diaphragm also leads to a +large increase in the flow of duct lymph. Ligature of the aorta may +result in either an increased or decreased flow of direct lymph. One +explanation of these results has been offered from a study of the +changes in capillary pressure set up in the main organs involved. Thus, +after ligature of the portal vein the capillary pressure in the +intestines rises, and it was proved that the increase in thoracic duct +lymph came from the intestines. Ligaturing the inferior vena cava causes +a big rise in the pressure in the liver capillaries, the intestinal +capillary pressure remaining practically unaltered. Here it was proved +that the increase in lymph-flow came from the liver and was more +copious in amount than in the former instance. A further difference is +that this lymph is more concentrated, a feature which always +characterizes liver lymph. Ligature of the aorta may or may not cause a +rise in the liver capillary pressure, and it has been shown that if the +pressure rises there is an increased lymph-flow from the liver and +conversely. The increase of lymph comes entirely in this instance also +from the liver. It is in fact but a special instance of the former +experiment. From these results it has been argued that lymph formation +is simply a filtration fundamentally, and the lymph-flow is determined +mainly by the capillary pressure. Variations in the quantity of lymph +issuing from different organs have been on this theory ascribed to +differences in the permeability of the capillaries of the organs. Thus +as liver lymph is richest in protein content and is produced in greatest +amount, it has been concluded that the liver capillaries possess the +highest permeability. The intestines stand next in producing a +concentrated lymph, and their capillaries are therefore assumed to stand +second as regards permeability. Lastly, the lymph coming from limbs and +other organs is much poorer in solids and much less copious in amount. +Hence it is argued that their capillaries show the least permeability. +It is, however, very unsafe to compare the liver capillaries with those +of other organs, since they are not in reality capillaries but rather +venous sinuses, and their relation to the liver cells is +characteristically different from that of ordinary capillaries. If an +animal is at rest, no lymph flows from the hind limbs. To obtain a +sample of limb lymph it is necessary to massage the limb. If, however, +the veins to the limb be ligatured, we obtain a flow of lymph. The +ligature of course causes a rise of the capillary pressure, and it has +been argued that this rise of pressure starts a filtration through the +capillary wall and hence a flow of lymph. But the stoppage of the +blood-flow also damages the capillary wall and tissue cells by +asphyxiation, and the resulting lymph-flow is in all probability the +resultant of many complex processes. This case is analogous to the +production of oedema in cases of heart disease where the circulation is +feeble and the oxygen supply to the parts deficient. The results of +these experiments form the main evidence in support of the filtration +theory of lymph formation. They were first systematically studied by +Heidenhain, to whom we owe so much of our knowledge of lymph formation. +He did not, however, conclude that they established the filtration +theory. + +In continuing his observations Heidenhain next studied the results +following the injection of a number of substances into the blood. He +found many which on injection gave rise to an increased lymph-flow from +the thoracic duct, and arranged them in two classes. As instances of +lymphogogues of the first class we may mention extract of mussels, leech +extract, peptone, extract of crayfish muscle, extract of strawberries, +of raspberries and many other like substances. Lymphogogues of the +second class comprise neutral salt solutions, urea, sugar, &c. +Considering the latter class first we may take as a type a solution of +sodium chloride. Injection of such a solution causes a large increase in +the lymph-flow, and it has been proved that the lymph comes from the +liver and intestines only--chiefly from the former. It is especially to +be noted that there is no lymph-flow from the limbs, and the same is +true for all lymphogogues of this class. As indicated above, the +injection of a saline solution leads to a large and rapidly effected +transport of fluid from the blood into muscle tissue, but though there +is this large increase in tissue fluid, no lymph flows from the tissue. +This result very powerfully disfavours the filtration theory of lymph +formation. It practically refutes the idea that lymph formation is +solely dependent upon such processes as filtration, osmosis and +capillary permeability only. It brings out quite clearly that the +exchange of fluid and dissolved salts, &c., between the blood and a +tissue, and the flow of lymph from that tissue, are two separate and +distinct processes, and especially that the first does not determine the +second. Also it is to be noted that the injection of a strong salt +solution also excites a flow of duct lymph, again arising from the liver +and intestines, but none from the limbs. In this instance, as previously +stated, the muscles of the limbs are losing water, and so presumably +are the liver and intestinal cells. This independence of tissue-blood +exchange and lymph-flow is distinctly in favour of the view, which is +rapidly gaining ground from histological observations, that in all +instances the lymphatics commence in a tissue as closed capillary +vessels. + +Turning, in the next place, to the lymphogogues of the first class, it +has been proved that the origin of this increase of flow is again from +the liver. Very many of the substances of this class are bodies which +may when taken cause urticarial (nettle-rash) eruptions, a state which +is generally regarded as being due to an action upon the capillary +endothelium. Their action as lymphogogues is also generally ascribed to +an effect upon the capillary wall rendering it according to some more +permeable, according to others leading to a direct secretory action on +the part of the endothelium. We also know that many of the bodies of +this class act upon the liver in other directions than in exciting an +increased lymph production. Thus they may cause an increase in bile +secretion, or, as in the case of peptone, the liver cells may be excited +to produce a new chemical material, in this instance an antithrombin. + +We have now to consider the effect of throwing an organ into activity +upon the lymph-flow from the organ. In all cases in which it has been +examined it is found that increased activity is accompanied by increased +lymph-flow. Thus, to take the instance of the submaxillary gland, which +at rest does not discharge any lymph, stimulation of the chorda tympani +is followed by a flow of lymph accompanying the flow of saliva +simultaneously excited. The stimulation of the nerve also produces +dilatation of the blood-vessels and therefore a rise in capillary +pressure. But that this vascular change is not the factor determining +the lymph-flow is proved by the administration of a small dose of +atropine, which arrests the secretion without influencing the vascular +reaction following chorda stimulation. After the atropine no lymph-flow +occurs on stimulating the nerve. Many other instances of a similar kind +might be adduced. Thus, we have seen that peptone specifically excites +the liver cells and also causes an increased lymph-flow from the liver; +or, as a last instance, the injection of bile salt excites a flow of +bile and also excites a flow of lymph from the liver. The supporters of +the filtration theory have argued that as activity of a tissue is +necessarily accompanied by the discharge of metabolites from the active +tissue cells, and as these are of small molecular size, they must set up +an osmotic effect. Water is therefore drawn into the tissue spaces, and +this rise in fluid content results mechanically in a flow of lymph from +the organ. The lymph simply drains away along the open lymphatics. This +argument, however, loses all its force when we recall the fact that we +may set up an enormous flow of fluid and salt into a tissue and its +tissue spaces without causing the least flow of lymph. Further, there is +no reason to suppose that the metabolites discharged from a tissue +during activity are produced in large quantities. The chief metabolite +is undoubtedly carbonic acid, and this diffuses very rapidly and is +quickly carried away by the blood. If, moreover, as is probably the +case, the lymphatics commence as closed capillaries, we have a further +difficulty in explaining how the fluid is driven through the lymphatic +wall. Either we must imagine the wall to be porous or there must be a +greater pressure outside than inside, and it is very difficult to +conceive how this is possible. As a general conclusion, then, it seems +much more probable that we are here dealing with a secretory process, +and that the active tissue produces some substance or substances--it may +be carbonic acid--which throws the lymphatic capillary cells into +activity. + +To sum up in a few words the present state of our knowledge as to lymph +formation we may say that the exchange of water and salts between the +blood and the tissues is probably entirely determined by processes of +filtration and osmosis. Further, that the physical condition of the +capillary cells is frequently altered by many chemical substances, and +that in consequence it may permit exudation into the tissue spaces much +more freely. In the next place, the flow of lymph from a tissue is not +solely determined by the amount of the tissue fluids. The lymph +capillaries start as closed tubules, and the endothelial walls of these +tubules play an active part (secretory) in determining when water and +other substances shall be admitted into the capillary and further +determine the quantity of such discharge. Apparently, too, these cells +are specifically excited when the tissue is thrown into activity, the +exciting substance being a metabolite from the active tissue. Leucocytes +also are capable of passing through or between the endothelial cells of +the lymph capillary. (T. G. Br.) + + + + +LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. In anatomy, the lymphatic system (Lat. _lympha_, clear +water) comprises the _lymphoid_ or _adenoid_ tissue so plentifully +distributed about the body, especially in the course of the alimentary +canal (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES), _lymph spaces_, _lymphatic vessels_ of +which the lacteals are modifications, _lymphatic glands_, _haemolymph +glands_, and the _thoracic_ and _right lymphatic ducts_ by which the +lymph (q.v.) finally reaches the veins. + +_Lymph spaces_ are mere spaces in the connective tissue, which usually +have no special lining, though sometimes there is a layer of endothelial +cells like those of the lymphatic and blood vessels. Most of these +spaces are very small, but sometimes, as in the case of the +_sub-epicranial space_ of the scalp, the _capsule of Tenon_ in the +orbit, and the _retropharyngeal space_ in the neck, they are large and +are adaptations to allow free movement. Opening from these spaces, and +also communicating with the serous membranes by small openings called +stomata,[1] are the _lymph capillaries_ (see VASCULAR SYSTEM), which +converge to the _lymphatic vessels_. These resemble veins in having an +internal layer of endothelium, a middle unstriped muscular coat, and an +external coat of fibrous tissue, though in the smaller vessels the +middle coat is wanting. They have numerous endothelial valves, formed of +two crescentic segments allowing the lymph to pass toward the root of +the neck. When the vessels are engorged these valves are marked by a +constriction, and so the lymphatics have a beaded appearance. The +vessels divide and anastomose very freely, and for this reason they do +not, like the veins, increase in calibre as they approach their +destination. It is usual to divide the lymphatic vessels into a +superficial and a deep set; speaking generally, the superficial ones are +found near the course of the superficial veins, while the deeper ones +accompany the arteries. Probably any single drop of lymph passes sooner +or later through one or more lymphatic glands, and so those vessels +which are approaching a gland are called _afferent_, while those leaving +are spoken of as _efferent lymphatics_. The _lacteals_ are special +lymphatic vessels which carry the chyle from the intestine; they begin +in lymphatic spaces in the villi and round the solitary and agminated +glands, and pass into the mesentery, where they come in contact with a +large number of _mesenteric glands_ before reaching the _receptaculum +chyli_. + +The _lymphatic glands_ are pink bodies situated in the course of the +lymphatic vessels, to which they act as filters. They are generally oval +in shape and about the size of a bean, but sometimes, especially in the +groin, they form irregular flattened masses 2 in. long, while, at other +times, they are so small as almost to escape notice. They are usually +found in groups. + + Each gland has a fibrous capsule from which trabeculae pass toward the + centre, where they break up and interlace, forming a network, and in + this way a cortical and medullary region for each gland is + distinguished; the intervals are nearly filled by lymphoid tissue, but + close to the trabeculae is a lymph path or sinus, which is only + crossed by the reticular stroma of the lymphoid tissue, and this + probably acts as a mechanical sieve, entangling foreign particles; as + an example of this the bronchial glands are black from carbon strained + off in its passage from the lungs, while the axillary glands in a + tattooed arm are blue. The blood-vessels enter at one spot, the + _hilum_, and are distributed along the trabeculae. In addition to + their function as filters the lymphatic glands are probably one of the + sources from which the leucocytes are derived. + + The exact position of the various groups of glands is very important + from a medical point of view, but here it is only possible to give a + brief sketch which will be helped by reference to the accompanying + diagram. In the head are found _occipital_ and _mastoid glands_ (fig. + 1, [beta]), which drain the back of the scalp; _internal maxillary_ + _glands_, in the zygomatic fossa, draining the orbit, palate, nose + and membranes of the brain; _preauricular glands_ (fig. 1, [alpha]), + embedded in the parotid, draining the side of the scalp, pinna, + tympanum and lower eyelid; and _buccal glands_, draining the cheek + region. In the neck are the _superficial cervical glands_ (fig. 1, + [gamma]), along the course of the external jugular vein, draining the + surface of the neck; the _submaxillary glands_ (fig. 1, [delta]), + lying just above the salivary gland of the same name and draining the + front of the face and scalp; the _submental glands_ (fig. 1, + [epsilon]), beneath the chin, draining the lower lip, as well as + sometimes the upper, and the front of the tongue; the _retropharyngeal + glands_, draining the naso-pharynx and tympanum; the _pretracheal + glands_, draining the trachea and lower part of the thyroid body; and + the _deep cervical glands_, which are by far the most important and + form a great mass close to the internal jugular vein; they receive + afferent vessels from most of the glands already mentioned and so are + liable to be affected in any trouble of the head or neck, especially + of the deeper parts. Into them the lymphatics of the brain pass + directly. The lower part of this mass is sometimes distinguished as a + separate group called the _supra-clavicular glands_, which drain the + back of the neck and receive afferents from the occipital and axillary + glands. The efferents from the deep cervical glands join to form a + common vessel known as the _jugular lymphatic trunk_, and this usually + opens into the thoracic duct on the left side and the right lymphatic + duct on the right. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Superficial Lymphatic Vessels and Glands. + + [alpha], Preauricular. + [beta], Mastoid. + [gamma], Superficial cervical. + [delta], Submaxillary. + [epsilon], Submental. + [zeta], Infraclavicular. + [eta], Anterior axillary. + [theta], Supratrochlear. + [iota], Antecubital. + [kappa], Inguinal. + [lambda], Superficial femoral.] + + In the thorax are found _intercostal glands_ (fig. 2, I.), near the + vertebral column draining the back of the thoracic walls and pleura; + _internal mammary glands_, draining the front of the same parts as + well as the inner part of the breast and the upper part of the + abdominal wall; _diaphragmatic glands_, draining that structure and + the convex surface of the liver; _anterior, middle, posterior and + superior mediastinal glands_, draining the contents of those cavities. + The _bronchial glands_, draining the lungs, have already been referred + to. + + In the abdomen and pelvis the glands are usually grouped round the + large arteries and are divided into visceral and parietal. Among the + visceral are the _gastric glands_, draining the stomach (these are + divided into _coronary_, _subpyloric_ and _retropyloric_ groups); the + _splenic glands_ at the hilum of the spleen, draining that organ, the + tail of the pancreas and the fundus of the stomach; the _hepatic + glands_ in the small omentum, draining the lower surface and deep + parts of the liver; the _pancreatic glands_, behind the lesser sac of + the peritoneum, draining the head and body of the pancreas, the + _superior mesenteric glands_; from one to two hundred in number, lying + in the mesentery and receiving the lacteals; the _ileo-caecal glands_, + draining the caecum, one of which is known as the _appendicular_ gland + and drains the vermiform appendix and right ovary; the _colic glands_ + along the right and middle colic arteries, draining the ascending and + transverse colon; the _inferior mesenteric glands_ in the course of + that artery, draining the descending iliac and pelvic colons; the + _rectal_ glands, behind the rectum, draining its upper part. + + Among the parietal glands are the _external iliac glands_, divided + into a lateral and mesial set (see fig. 2, E.I.), and receiving the + inguinal efferent vessels and lymphatics from the bladder, prostate, + cervix uteri, upper part of the vagina, glans penis vel clitoridis and + urethra. The _supra_ and _infra-umbilical glands_ receive the deep + lymphatics of the abdominal wall, the former communicating with the + liver, the latter with the bladder. From the latter, vessels pass to + the epigastric gland lying in front of the termination of the external + iliac artery. The _internal iliac glands_ (fig. 2, I. I.) are situated + close to the branches of this artery and drain the rectum, vagina, + prostate, urethra, buttock and perinaeum. _Common iliac glands_ (fig. + 2, C.I.) lie around that artery and receive afferents from the + external and internal iliac glands as well as a few from the pelvic + viscera.[2] The _aortic glands_ are grouped all round the length of + the aorta, and are divided into _pre_-, _retro_- and _lateral aortic_ + groups (fig. 2 P.A. and L), all of which communicate freely. The upper + preaortic glands are massed round the coeliac axis, and receive + afferents from the gastric, hepatic, splenic and pancreatic glands; + they are known as _coeliac glands_. The _lateral aortic glands_ drain + the kidney, adrenal, testis, ovary, fundus of uterus and lateral + abdominal walls. In the upper extremity a few small glands are + sometimes found near the deep arteries of the forearm. At the bend of + the elbow are the _ante-cubital_ glands (fig. 1 [lambda]) and just + above the internal condyle, one or two _supra-trochlear glands_ (fig. + 1, [theta]). The _axillary glands_ (fig. 1, [eta]) are perhaps the + most practically important in the body. They are divided into four + sets: (1) _external_, along the axillary vessels, draining the greater + part of the arm; (2) _anterior_, behind the lower border of the + pectoralis major muscle, draining the surface of the thorax including + the breast and upper part of the abdomen; (3) _posterior_ along the + subscapular artery, draining the back and side of the trunk as low as + the umbilical zone; (4) superior or _infra-clavicular glands_ (fig. 1, + [zeta]), receiving the efferents of the former groups as well as + lymphatics accompanying the cephalic vein. In the lower limb all the + superficial lymphatics pass up to the groin, where there are two sets + of glands arranged like a T. The _superficial femoral_ glands (fig. 1, + [lambda]) are the vertical ones, and are grouped round the internal + saphenous vein; they are very large, drain the surface of the leg, and + are usually in two parallel rows. The _inguinal glands_ form the + cross bar of the T (fig. 1, [kappa]), and drain part of the buttock, + the surface of the abdomen below the umbilicus and the surface of the + genital organs. The deep lymphatics of the leg drain into the + _anterior tibial gland_ on that artery, the _popliteal glands_ in that + space, and the _deep femoral glands_ surrounding the common femoral + vein. + +[Illustration: From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_. + +FIG. 2.--Deep Lymphatic Glands and Vessels of the Thorax and Abdomen +(diagrammatic). Afferent vessels are represented by continuous lines and +efferent and interglandular vessels by dotted lines. + + C. Common iliac glands. + C.I. Common intestinal trunk. + D.C. Deep cervical glands. + E.I. External iliac glands. + I. Intercostal glands and vessels. + I.I. Internal iliac glands. + L. Lateral aortic glands. + M. Mediastinal glands and vessels. + P.A. Pre-aortic glands and vessels. + R.C. Receptaculum chylii. + R.L.D. Right lymphatic duct. + S. Sacral glands. + S.A. Scalenus anticus muscle. + T.D. Thoracic duct.] + +The _thoracic duct_ begins as an irregular dilatation known as the +_receptaculum chyli_, opposite the first and second lumbar vertebrae, +which receives all the abdominal lymphatics as well as those of the +lower intercostal spaces. The duct runs up on the right of the aorta +through the posterior mediastinum and then traverses the superior +mediastinum to the left of the oesophagus. At the root of the neck it +receives the lymphatics of the left arm and left side of the neck and +opens into the beginning of the left innominate vein, usually by more +than one opening. + +The _right lymphatic duct_ collects the lymphatics from the right side +of the neck and thorax, the right arm, right lung, right side of the +heart and upper surface of the liver; it is often represented by several +ducts which open separately into the right innominate vein. + +_Haemolymph glands_ are structures which have only been noticed since +1884. They differ from lymphatic glands in their much greater +vascularity. They assist the spleen in the destruction of red blood +corpuscles, and probably explain or help to explain the fact that the +spleen can be removed without ill effects. In man they extend along the +vertebral column from the coeliac axis to the pelvis, but are specially +numerous close to the renal arteries. + + T. Lewis suggests that lymphatic and haemolymph glands should be + classified in the following way:-- + + / Haemal glands. / Simple. + | \ Specialized (Spleen) + | + Haemolymph | / 1. Blood and lymph sinuses + Glands. < Haemal lymphatic < separate. + | glands. | 2. Blood lymph sinuses. + | \ 3. Other combined forms. + | + \ Lymphatic glands. + + Details and references will be found in papers by T. Lewis, _J. Anat. + & Phys._ vol. xxxviii. p. 312; W. B. Drummond, _Journ. Anat. and + Phys._ vol. xxxiv. p. 198; A. S. Warthin, _Journ. Med. Research_, + 1901, p. 3, and H. Dayton, _Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences_, 1904, p. + 448. For further details of man's lymphatic system see _The + Lymphatics_ by Delamere, Poirier and Cuneo, translated by C. H. Leaf + (London, 1903). + + _Embryology._--The lymphatic vessels are possibly developed by the + hollowing out of mesenchyme cells in the same way that the arteries + are; these cells subsequently coalesce and form tubes (see VASCULAR + SYSTEM). There is, however, a good deal of evidence to show that they + are originally offshoots of the venous system, and that their + permanent openings into the veins are either their primary points of + communication or are secondarily acquired. The lymphatic and + haemolymph glands are probably formed by the proliferation of + lymphocytes around networks of lymphatic vessels; the dividing + lymphocytes form the lymphoid tissue, and eventually the network + breaks up to form distinct glands into which blood vessels penetrate. + If the blood vessels enlarge more than the lymphatic, haemolymph + glands result, but if the lymphatic vessels become predominant + ordinary lymphatic glands are formed. At an early stage in the embryo + pig two thoracic ducts are formed, one on either side of the aorta, + and the incomplete fusion of these may account for the division often + found in man's duct. In the embryo pig too there have been found two + pairs of lymph hearts for a short period. + + See A. S. Warthin, _Journ. Med. Research_, vol. vii. p. 435; F. R. + Sabin, _Am. Journ. of Anat._ i., 1902; and, for literature, + _Development of the Human Body_, by J. P. McMurrich (London, 1906), + and Quain's _Anatomy_ (vol. i., London, 1908). + + _Comparative Anatomy._--A lymphatic system is recognized in all the + Craniata, and in the lower forms (fishes and Amphibia) it consists + chiefly of lymph spaces and sinuses in communication with the coelom. + In fishes, for instance, there is a large _subvertebral lymph sinus_ + surrounding the aorta and another within the spinal canal. In Amphibia + the subvertebral sinus is also found, and in the Anura (frogs and + toads) there is a great _subcutaneous lymph sinus_. _Lymph hearts_ are + muscular dilatations of vessels and are found in fishes, amphibians, + reptiles and bird embryos, and drive the lymph into the veins; they + are not known in adult mammals. + + In birds the thoracic duct is first recognized, and opens into both + right and left precaval veins, as it always does in some mammals. In + birds, however, some of the lymphatics open into the sacral veins, and + it is doubtful whether true lymphatic glands ever occur. In birds and + mammals lymphatic vessels become more definite and numerous and are + provided with valves. + + Haemolymph glands are present in mammals and birds, but have not been + seen lower in the scale, though S. Vincent and S. Harrison point out + the resemblance of the structure of the head kidney of certain + Teleostean fishes to them (_Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxxi. p. + 176). + + For further details see _Comparative Anat. of Vertebrates_, by R. + Wiedersheim (London, 1907). (F. G. P.) + + + _Diseases of the Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands._ + + _Lymphadenitis_ or inflammatory infection of the lymphatic glands, is + a condition characterized by hyperaemia of and exudation into the + gland, which becomes reader, firmer and larger than usual. Three + varieties may be distinguished: simple, suppurative and tuberculous. + The cause is always the absorption of some toxic or infective material + from the periphery. This may take place in several of the acute + infectious diseases, notably in scarlet fever, mumps, diphtheria and + German measles, or may be the result of poisoned wounds. The lymphatic + glands are also affected in constitutional diseases such as syphilis. + Simple lymphadenitis usually subsides of its own accord, but if toxins + are produced in the inflamed area the enlargement is obvious and + painful, while if pyogenic organisms are absorbed the inflammation + progresses to suppuration. + + _Tuberculous lymphadenitis_ (scrofula) is due to the infection of the + lymph glands by Koch's tubercle bacillus. This was formerly known as + "King's Evil," as it was believed that the touch of the royal hand had + power to cure it. It occurs most commonly in children and young adults + whose surroundings are unhealthy, and who are liable to develop + tuberculous disease from want of sufficient food and fresh air. Some + local focus of irritation is usually present. The ways in which the + tubercle bacillus enters the body are much disputed, but catarrh of + the mucous membranes is regarded as a predisposing factor, and the + tonsils as a probable channel of infection. Any lymphoid tissue in the + body may be the seat of tuberculous disease, but the glands of the + neck are the most commonly involved. The course of the disease is slow + and may extend over a period of years. The earliest manifestation is + an enlargement of the gland. It is possible in this stage for + spontaneous healing to take place, but usually the disease progresses + to caseation, in which tuberculous nodules are found diffused + throughout the gland. Occasionally this stage may end in calcification + of the caseous matter, the gland shrinking and becoming hard; but + frequently suppuration follows from liquefaction of the caseating + material. Foci of pus occur throughout the gland, causing destruction + of the tissue, so that the gland may become a single abscess cavity. + If left to itself the abscess sooner or later bursts at one or several + points, leaving ulcerated openings through which a variable amount of + pus escapes. Temporary healing may take place, to be again followed by + further breaking down of the gland. This condition, if untreated, may + persist for years and may finally give rise to a general tuberculosis. + The treatment consists mainly in improving the general health with + good diet, fresh air (particularly sea air), cod-liver oil and iron, + and the removal of all sources of local irritation such as enlarged + tonsils, adenoids, &c. Vaccination with tuberculin (TR) may be useful. + Suppuration and extension of the disease require operative measures, + and removal of the glands _en masse_ can now be done through so small + an opening as to leave only a very slight scar. + + In _Tabes mesenterica_ (tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands), + usually occurring in children, the glands of the mesentery and + retroperitonaeum become enlarged, and either caseate or occasionally + suppurate. The disease may be primary or may be secondary to + tuberculous disease of the intestines or to pulmonary phthisis. The + patients are pale, wasted and anaemic, and the abdomen may be + enormously enlarged. There is usually moderate fever, and thin watery + diarrhoea. The caseating glands may liquefy and give rise to an + inflammatory attack which may simulate appendicitis. Limited masses + are amenable to surgical treatment and may be removed, while in the + earlier stages constitutional treatment gives good results. + Tuberculous peritonitis frequently supervenes on this condition. + + _Lymphadenoma_ (Hodgkin's Disease), a disease which was first fully + described by Hodgkin in 1832, is characterized by a progressive + enlargement of the lymphatic glands all over the body, and generally + starts in the glands of the neck. The majority of cases occur in young + adults, and preponderate in the male sex. The first symptom is usually + enlargement of a gland in the neck, with generally progressive growth + of the glands in the submaxillary region and axilla. The inguinal + glands are early involved, and after a time the internal lymph glands + follow. The enlargements are at first painless, but in the later + stages symptoms are caused by pressure on the surrounding organs, and + when the disease starts in the deeper structures the first symptoms + may be pain in the chest and cough, pain in the abdomen, pain and + oedema in the legs. The glands may increase until they are as large as + eggs, and later may become firmly adherent one to another, forming + large lobulated tumours. Increase of growth in this manner in the neck + may cause obstructive dyspnoea and even death. In the majority of + cases the spleen enlarges, and in rare instances lymphoid tumours may + be found on its surface. Anaemia is common and is secondary in + character; slight irregular fever is present, and soon a great and + progressive emaciation takes place. The cases are of two types, the + acute cases in which the enlargements take place rapidly and death may + occur in two to three months, and the chronic cases in which the + disease may remain apparently stationary. In acute lymphadenoma the + prognosis is very unfavourable. Recovery sometimes takes place in the + chronic type of the disease. Early surgical intervention has in some + cases been followed by success. The application of X-rays is a + valuable method of treatment, superficial glands undergoing a rapid + diminution in size. Of drugs arsenic is of the most service, and + mercurial inunction has been recommended by Dreschfeld. Organic + extracts have of late been used in the treatment of lymphadenoma. + + _Glandular Fever_ is an acute infectious fever, generally occurring in + epidemics, and was first described by E. Pfeiffer in 1889. It usually + affects children and has a tendency to run through all the children of + a family. The incubation period is said to be about 7 days. The onset + is sudden, with pain in the neck and limbs, headache, vomiting, + difficulty in swallowing and high temperature. On the second day, or + sometimes on the first, swelling of the cervical glands is noticed, + and later the posterior cervical, axillary and inguinal glands become + enlarged and tender. In about half the cases the spleen and liver are + enlarged and there is abdominal tenderness. West found the mesenteric + nodes enlarged in 37 cases. Nephritis is an occasional complication, + and constipation is very usual. The disease tends to subside of + itself, and the fever usually disappears after a few days; the + glandular swellings may, however, persist from one to three weeks. + Considerable anaemia has been noticed to follow the illness. Rest in + bed while the glands are enlarged, and cod-liver oil and iron to meet + the anaemia, are the usual treatment. + + _Status lymphaticus_ (lymphatism) is a condition found in children and + some adults, characterized by an enlargement of the lymphoid tissues + throughout the body and more particularly by enlargement of the thymus + gland. There is a special lowering of the patient's powers of + resistance, and it has been said to account for a number of cases of + sudden death. In all cases of status lymphaticus the thymus has been + found enlarged. At birth the gland (according to Bovaird and Nicoll) + weighs about 6 grammes, and does not increase after birth. In + lymphatism it may weigh from 10 to 50 grammes. The clinical features + are indefinite, and the condition frequently passes unrecognized + during life. In most cases there is no hint of danger until the fatal + syncope sets in, which may be after any slight exertion or shock, the + patient becoming suddenly faint, gasping and cyanosed, and the heart + stopping altogether before the respirations have ceased. The most + trifling causes have brought on fatal issues, such as a wet pack + (Escherich) or a hypodermic injection, or even a sudden plunge into + water though the head is not immersed. The greater number of deaths + occur during the administration of anaesthetics, which seem peculiarly + dangerous to these subjects. When an attack of syncope takes place no + treatment is of any avail. + + Virchow, West and Goodhardt have described a form of asthma in adults + which they ascribe to a hypertrophied thymus gland and term "thymic + asthma." + + _Diseases of the Spleen._--Physiological variations and abnormalities + and absence of the spleen are so rare as to require no comment. The + most usual pathological condition which gives rise to symptoms is that + of _wandering spleen_, which may or may not be secondary to a + wandering left kidney. It may produce symptoms of dragging and + discomfort, dyspepsia, vomiting and abdominal pain, and sometimes + jaundice (Treves), or the pedicle may become twisted, producing + extremely severe symptoms. The treatment is entirely surgical. Abscess + in the spleen occasionally occurs, usually in association with + infective endocarditis or with general pyaemia. The spleen may be the + seat of primary _new growths_, but these are rare, and only in a small + portion of cases does it share in the metastatic reproduction of + carcinoma. Infection of the spleen plays a prominent part in many + diseases, such as malaria, typhoid fever, lymphadenoma and leucaemia. + + Diseases of the thyroid gland (see GOITRE) and _Addison's disease_ (of + the suprarenal glands) are treated separately. (H. L. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It has recently been stated that stomata do not exist in the + peritoneum. + + [2] For further details of the pelvic glands see "Seventh Report of + the Committee of Collective Investigation," _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ + xxxii. 164. + + + + +LYNCH, PATRICIO (1825-1886) Chilean naval officer, was born in +Valparaiso on the 18th of December 1825, his father being a wealthy +Irish merchant resident in Chile, and his mother, Carmen Solo de +Saldiva, a descendant of one of the best-known families in the country. +Entering the navy in 1837, he took part in the operations which led to +the fall of the dictator, Santa Cruz. Next, he sought a wider field, and +saw active service in the China War on board the British frigate +"Calliope." He was mentioned in despatches for bravery, and received the +grade of midshipman in the British service. Returning to Chile in 1847 +he became lieutenant, and seven years later he received the command of a +frigate, but was deprived of his command for refusing to receive on +board his ship political suspects under arrest. The Spanish War saw him +again employed, and he was successively maritime prefect of Valparaiso, +colonel of National Guards, and, finally, captain and minister of marine +in 1872. In the Chile-Peruvian War a brilliant and destructive naval +raid, led by him, was followed by the final campaign of Chorrillos and +Miraflores (1880), in which he led at first a brigade (as colonel) and +afterwards a division under Baquedano. His services at the battle of +Chorrillos led to his appointment to command the Army of Occupation in +Peru. This difficult post he filled with success, but his action in +putting the Peruvian president, Garcia Calderon, under arrest excited +considerable comment. His last act was to invest Iglesias with supreme +power in Peru, and he returned to his own country in 1883. Promoted +rear-admiral, he served as Chilean Minister at Madrid for two years, and +died at sea in 1886. Lynch is remembered as one of the foremost of +Chile's naval heroes. + + + + +LYNCHBURG, a city of Campbell county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the James +river, about 125 m. W. by S. of Richmond. Pop. (1900) 18,891, of whom +8254 were negroes; (1910) 29,494. It is served by the Southern, the +Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western railways. Its terraced hills +command fine views of mountain, valley and river scenery, extending +westward to the noble Peaks of Otter and lesser spurs of the Blue Ridge +about 20 m. distant. On an elevation between Rivermont Avenue and the +James river are the buildings of Randolph-Macon Woman's college (opened +in 1893), which is conducted by a self-perpetuating board under the +auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and is one of the +Randolph-Macon system of collèges and academies (see ASHLAND, VA.). In +Lynchburg, too, are the Virginia Christian college (co-educational, +1903), and the Virginia collegiate and industrial school for negroes. +The city has a public library, well-equipped hospitals, public parks and +the Rivermont Viaduct, 1100 ft. long and 140 ft. high. Lynchburg is the +see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Tobacco of a superior quality and +large quantities of coal, iron ore and granite are produced in the +neighbourhood. Good water power is furnished by the James river, and +Lynchburg is one of the principal manufacturing cities of the state. The +boot and shoe industry was established in 1900, and is much the most +important. In 1905 the city was the largest southern manufacturer of +these articles and one of the largest distributors in the country. The +factory products increased in value from $2,993,551 in 1900 to +$4,905,435 in 1905, or 65.9%. + +Lynchburg, named in honour of John Lynch, who inherited a large tract of +land here and in 1757 established a ferry across the James, was +established as a village by Act of Assembly in 1786, was incorporated as +a town in 1805, and became a city in 1852. During the Civil War it was +an important base of supplies for the Confederates; on the 16th of June +1864 it was invested by Major-General David Hunter (1802-1886), but +three days later he was driven away by General Jubal A. Early. In 1908 +the city's corporate limits were extended. + + + + +LYNCH LAW, a term loosely applied to various forms of executing rough +popular justice, or what is thought to be justice, for the punishment of +offenders by a summary procedure, ignoring, or even contrary to, the +strict forms of law. The word _lynching_ "originally signified a +whipping for reformatory purposes with more or less disregard for its +legality" (Cutler), or the infliction of minor punishments without +recourse to law; but during and after the Reconstruction Period in the +United States, it came to mean, generally, the summary infliction of +capital punishment. Lynch law is frequently prevalent in sparsely +settled or frontier districts where government is weak and officers of +the law too few and too powerless to enforce law and preserve order. The +practice has been common in all countries when unsettled frontier +conditions existed, or in periods of threatened anarchy. In what are +considered civilized countries it is now found mainly in Russia, +south-eastern Europe and in America, but it is essentially and almost +peculiarly an American institution. The origin of the name is obscure; +different writers have attempted to trace it to Ireland, to England, to +South Carolina, to Pennsylvania and to Virginia. It is certain that the +name was first used in America, but it is not certain whether it came +from Lynch's Creek, South Carolina, where summary justice was +administered to outlaws, or from Virginia and Pennsylvania, where men +named Lynch were noted for dealing out summary punishment to +offenders.[1] In Europe early examples of a similar phenomenon are found +in the proceedings of the Vehmgerichte in medieval Germany, and of +Lydford law, gibbet law or Halifax law, Cowper justice and Jeddart +justice in the thinly settled and border districts of Great Britain; and +since the term "lynch law" came into colloquial use, it is loosely +employed to cover any case in which a portion of the community takes the +execution of its ideas of justice into its own hands, irrespective of +the legal authorities. + +In America during the 18th and 19th centuries the population expanded +westward faster than well-developed civil institutions could follow, and +on the western frontier were always desperadoes who lived by preying on +the better classes. To suppress these desperadoes, in the absence of +strong legal institutions, resort was continually made to lynch law. +There was little necessity for it until the settlement crossed the +Alleghany Mountains, but the following instances of lynching in the East +may be mentioned: (1) the mistreatment of Indians in New England and the +Middle Colonies in disregard of laws protecting them; (2) the custom +found in various colonies of administering summary justice to +wife-beaters, idlers and other obnoxious persons; (3) the acts of the +Regulators of North Carolina, 1767-1771; (4) the popular tribunals of +the Revolutionary period, when the disaffection toward Great Britain +weakened the authority of the civil governments and the war replaced +them by popular governments, at a time when the hostilities between +"Patriots" and "Tories" were an incentive to extra-legal violence. In +the South, lynching methods were long employed in dealing with +agitators, white and black, who were charged with endeavouring to excite +the slaves to insurrection or to crime against their masters, and in +dealing with anti-slavery agitators generally. + +In the West, from the Alleghanies to the Golden Gate, the pioneer +settlers resorted to popular justice to get rid of bands of outlaws, and +to regulate society during that period when laws were weak or confused, +when the laws made in the East did not suit western conditions, and when +courts and officials were scarce and distant. The Watauga settlements +and the "State" of Franklin furnished examples of lynch law procedure +almost reduced to organization. Men trained in the rough school of the +wilderness came to have more regard for quick, ready-made, personal +justice than for abstract justice and statutes; they were educated to +defend themselves, to look to no law for protection or regulation; +consequently they became impatient of legal forms and lawyers' +technicalities; an appeal to statute law was looked upon with suspicion, +and, if some personal matter was involved, was likely to result in +deadly private feuds. Thus were formed the habits of thought and action +of the western pioneers. Lynch law, not civil law, cleared the western +forests, valleys and mountain passes of horse and cattle thieves, and +other robbers and outlaws, gamblers and murderers. This was especially +true of California and the states of the far West. H. H. Bancroft, the +historian of _Popular Tribunals_, wrote in 1887 that "thus far in the +history of these Pacific States far more has been done toward righting +wrongs and administering justice outside the pale of law than within +it." However, the lack of regard for law fostered by the conditions +described led to a survival of the lynching habit after the necessity +for it passed away. In parts of the Southern states, where the whites +are few and greatly outnumbered by the blacks, certain of the conditions +of the West have prevailed, and since emancipation released the blacks +from restraint many of the latter have been lawless and turbulent. The +Reconstruction, by giving to the blacks temporary political supremacy, +increased the friction between the races, and greatly deepened +prejudice. The numerous protective societies of whites, 1865-1876, +culminating in the Ku Klux movement, may be described as an application +of lynch law. With the increase of negro crimes came an increase of +lynchings, due to prejudice, to the fact that for some time after +Reconstruction the governments were relatively weak, especially in the +districts where the blacks outnumber the whites, to the fact that +negroes nearly always shield criminals of their own race against the +whites, and to the frequent occurrence of the crime of rape by negro men +upon white women. + +Since 1882 the Chicago _Tribune_ has collected statistics of lynching, +and some interesting facts may be deduced from these tables.[2] During +the twenty-two years from 1882 to 1903 inclusive, the total number of +persons lynched in the United States was 3337, the number decreasing +during the last decade; of these 2385 were in the South and 752 in the +North; of those lynched in the East and West 602 were white and 75 +black, and of those in the South 567 were white and 1985 black.[3] +Lynchings occur mostly during periods of idleness of the lower classes; +in the summer more are lynched for crimes against the person and in the +winter (in the West) for crimes against property; the principal causes +of lynching in the South are murder and rape, in the North and West, +murder and offences against property; more blacks than whites were +lynched between 1882 and 1903, the numbers being 2060 negroes, of whom +40 were women, and 1169 whites, of whom 23 were women; of the 707 blacks +lynched for rape 675 were in the South; 783 blacks were lynched for +murder, and 753 of these were in the South; most of the lynchings of +whites were in the West; the lynching of negroes increased somewhat +outside of the South and decreased somewhat in the South. Lynching +decreases and disappears in a community as the population grows denser +and civil institutions grow stronger; as better communications and good +police make it harder to commit crime; and as public sentiment is +educated to demand legal rather than illegal and irregular infliction of +punishment for even the most horrible of crimes. + + See James E. Cutler, _Lynch Law_ (New York, 1905), an admirable and + unbiased discussion of the subject; H. H. Bancroft, _Popular + Tribunals_ (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887); C. H. Shinn, _Mining Camps: + A Study in American Frontier Government_ (New York, 1885); and J. C. + Lester and D. L. Wilson, _Ku Klux Klan_ (New York, 1905). + (W. L. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The usual explanation is that the name was derived from Charles + Lynch (1736-1796), a justice of the peace in Virginia after 1774, who + in 1780, toward the close of the War of Independence, greatly + exceeded his powers in the punishment of Tories or Loyalists detected + in a conspiracy in the neighbourhood of his home in Bedford county, + Va. Lynch was a man of influence in his community, was for many years + a member of the Virginia legislature, was a member of the famous + Virginia Convention of 1776 and was later (in 1781) an officer in the + American army. See an article, "The Real Judge Lynch," in the + _Atlantic Monthly_, vol. lxxxviii. (Boston, 1901). + + [2] They have been corrected and somewhat modified by Dr. J. E. + Cutler, from whose book the figures above have been taken. Lynching + as used in this connexion applies exclusively to the illegal + infliction of capital punishment. + + [3] For present purposes the former slave states (of 1860) constitute + the South; the West is composed of the territory west of the + Mississippi river, excluding Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and + Oklahoma; the East includes those states east of the Mississippi + river not included in the Southern group; the East and the West make + up the North as here used--that is, the former free states of 1860. + + + + +LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, BARON (1772-1863), lord chancellor of +England, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1772. He was the son of +John Singleton Copley, the painter. He was educated at a private school +and Cambridge university, where he was second wrangler and fellow of +Trinity. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1804, he gained a +considerable practice. In 1817 he was one of the counsel for Dr J. +Watson, tried for his share in the Spa Fields riot. On this occasion +Copley so distinguished himself as to attract the attention of +Castlereagh and other Tory leaders, under whose patronage he entered +parliament as member for Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight. He afterwards +sat for Ashburton, 1818-1826, and for Cambridge university 1826-1827. He +was solicitor-general in 1819, attorney-general in 1824, master of the +rolls in 1826 and lord chancellor in 1827, with the title of Lord +Lyndhurst. Before being taken up by the Tories, Copley was a man of the +most advanced views, a republican and Jacobin; and his accession to the +Tories excited a good deal of comment, which he bore with the greatest +good humour. He gave a brilliant and eloquent but by no means rancorous +support to all the reactionary measures of his chief. The same year that +he became solicitor-general he married the beautiful and clever widow +of Lieut.-Colonel Charles Thomas of the Coldstream Guards, and began to +take a conspicuous place in society, in which his noble figure, his +ready wit and his never-failing _bonhomie_ made him a distinguished +favourite. + +As solicitor-general he took a prominent part in the trial of Queen +Caroline. To the great Liberal measures which marked the end of the +reign of George IV. and the beginning of that of William IV. he gave a +vigorous opposition. He was lord chief baron of the exchequer from 1831 +to 1834. During the Melbourne administration from 1835 to 1841 he +figured conspicuously as an obstructionist in the House of Lords. In +these years it was a frequent practice with him, before each prorogation +of parliament, to entertain the House with a "review of the session," in +which he mercilessly attacked the Whig government. His former adversary +Lord Brougham, disgusted at his treatment by the Whig leaders, soon +became his most powerful ally in opposition; and the two dominated the +House of Lords. Throughout all the Tory governments from 1827 Lyndhurst +held the chancellorship (1827-1830 and 1834-1835); and in the Peel +administration (1841-1846) he resumed that office for the last time. As +Peel never had much confidence in Lyndhurst, the latter did not exert so +great an influence in the cabinet as his position and experience +entitled him to do. But he continued a loyal member of the party. As in +regard to Catholic emancipation, so in the agitation against the corn +laws, he opposed reform till his chief gave the signal for concession, +and then he cheerfully obeyed. After 1846 and the disintegration of the +Tory party consequent on Peel's adoption of free trade, Lord Lyndhurst +was not so assiduous in his attendance in parliament. Yet he continued +to an extreme old age to take a lively interest in public affairs, and +occasionally to astonish the country by the power and brilliancy of his +speeches. That which he made in the House of Lords on the 19th of June +1854, on the war with Russia, made a sensation in Europe; and throughout +the Crimean War he was a strong advocate of the energetic prosecution of +hostilities. In 1859 he denounced with his old energy the restless +ambition of Napoleon III. When released from office he came forward +somewhat as the advocate of liberal measures. His first wife had died in +1834, and in August 1837 he had married Georgina, daughter of Lewis +Goldsmith. She was a Jewess; and it was therefore natural that he +strenuously supported the admission of Jews into parliament. He also +advocated women's rights in questions of divorce. At the age of +eighty-four he passed the autumn at Dieppe, "helping to fly paper kites, +and amusing himself by turns with the writings of the Greek and Latin +fathers on divorce and the amorous novels of Eugene Sue." His last +speech, marked by "his wonted brilliancy and vigour," was delivered in +the House of Lords at the age of eighty-nine. He died in London on the +12th of October 1863. He left no male issue and the title became +extinct. + + See _Lives of the Lord Chancellors of England_, vol. viii. (Lords + Lyndhurst and Brougham), by Lord Campbell (1869). Campbell was a + personal friend, but a political opponent. Brougham's _Memoirs_; + _Greville Memoirs_; _Life of Lord Lyndhurst_ (1883) by Sir Theodore + Martin; J. B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1906). + + + + +LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID (c. 1490-c. 1555), Scottish poet, was the son of +David Lyndsay of the Mount, near Cupar-Fife, and of Garmylton, near +Haddington. His place of birth and his school are undetermined. It is +probable that his college life was spent at St Andrews university, on +the books of which appears an entry "Da Lindesay" for the session +1508-1509. He was engaged at court, first as an equerry, then as an +"usher" to the young Prince James, afterwards James V. In 1522 he +married Janet Douglas, a court seamstress, and seven years later was +appointed Lyon King of Arms, and knighted. He was several times engaged +in diplomatic business (twice on embassies abroad--to the Netherlands +and France), and he was, in virtue of his heraldic office, a general +master of ceremonies. After the death of James V., in 1542, he continued +to sit in parliament as commissioner for Cupar-Fife; and in 1548 he was +member of a mission to Denmark which obtained certain privileges for +Scottish merchants. There is reason to believe that he died in or about +1555. + +Most of Lyndsay's literary work, by which he secured great reputation in +his own day and by which he still lives, was written during the period +of prosperity at court. In this respect he is unlike his predecessor +Gavin Douglas (q.v.), who forsook literature when he became a +politician. The explanation of the difference is partly to be found in +the fact that Lyndsay's muse was more occasional and satirical, and that +the time was suitable to the exercise of his special gifts. It is more +difficult to explain how he enjoyed a freedom of speech which is without +parallel even in more secure times. He chastised all classes, from his +royal master to the most simple. There is no evidence that he abjured +Catholicism; yet his leading purpose was the exposure of its errors and +abuses. His aid was readily accepted by the reforming party, and by +their use of his work he shared with their leaders throughout many +generations a reputation which is almost exclusively political and +ecclesiastical. + +Lyndsay's longer poems are _The Dreme_ (1134 lines), _The Testament and +Complaynt of the Papynago_ (1190 lines), _The Testament of Squyer +Meldrum_ (1859 lines), _Ane Dialog betwix Experience and ane Courteour +of the Miserabyll Estait of the World_ (6333 lines), and _Ane Pleasant +Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis_ (over 4000 lines). These represent, with +reasonable completeness, the range of Lyndsay's literary talent. No +single poem can give him a chief place, though here and there, +especially in the last, he gives hints of the highest competence. Yet +the corporate effect of these pieces is to secure for him the allowance +of more than mere intellectual vigour and common sense. There is in his +craftsmanship, in his readiness to apply the traditional methods to +contemporary requirements, something of that accomplishment which makes +even the second-rate man of letters interesting. + +Lyndsay, the last of the Makars, is not behind his fellow-poets in +acknowledgment to Chaucer. As piously as they, he reproduces the +master's forms; but in him the sentiment and outlook have suffered +change. His nearest approach to Chaucer is in _The Testament of Squyer +Meldrum_, which recalls the sketch of the "young squire"; but the +reminiscence is verbal rather than spiritual. Elsewhere his memory +serves him less happily, as when he describes the array of the lamented +Queen Magdalene in the words which Chaucer had applied to the eyes of +his wanton Friar. So too, in the _Dreme_, the allegorical tradition +survives only in the form. "Remembrance" conducts the poet over the +old-world itinerary, but only to lead him to speculation on Scotland's +woes and to an "Exhortatioun to the Kingis Grace" to bring relief. The +tenor is well expressed in the motto from the Vulgate--"_Prophetias +nolite spernere. Omnia autem probate: quod bonum est tenete._" This +didactic habit is freely exercised in the long _Dialog_ (sometimes +called the _Monarche_), a universal history of the medieval type, in +which the falls of princes by corruption supply an object lesson to the +unreformed church of his day. The _Satyre_ is more direct in its attack +on ecclesiastical abuse; and its dramatic form permits more lively +treatment. This piece is of great historical interest, being the only +extant example of a complete Scottish morality. It is in respect of +literary quality Lyndsay's best work, and in dramatic construction and +delineation of character it holds a high place in this _genre_. The +farcical interludes (in places too coarse for modern taste) supply many +touches of genuine comedy; and throughout the play there are passages, +as in the speeches of Veritie in the First Part and of Dame Chastitie in +the "Interlude of the Sowtar and the Taylor," in which word and line are +happily conceived. The _Testament of the Papyngo_ (popinjay), drawn in +the familiar medieval manner, is another tract for the time, full of +admonition to court and clergy. Of his shorter pieces, _The Complaynt +and Publict Confessions of the Kingis Auld Hound, callit Bagsche, +directit to Bawtie, the Kingis best belovit Dog, and his companyeonis_, +and the _Answer to the Kingis Flyting_ have a like pulpit resonance. The +former is interesting as a forerunner of Burns's device in the "Twa +Dogs." The _Deploratioun of the_ _Deith of Queen Magdalene_ is in the +extravagant style of commemoration illustrated in Dunbar's Elegy on the +Lord Aubigny. The _Justing betwix James Watsoun and Jhone Barbour_ is a +contribution to the popular taste for boisterous fun, in spirit, if not +in form, akin to the _Christis Kirk on the Grene_ series; and +indirectly, with Dunbar's _Turnament_ and _Of ane Blak-Moir_, a +burlesque of the courtly tourney. Lyndsay approaches Dunbar in his +satire _The Supplicatioun in contemptioun of syde taillis_ ("wide" +trains of the ladies), which recalls the older poet's realistic lines on +the filthy condition of the city streets. In Lyndsay's _Descriptioun of +Pedder Coffeis_ (pedlars) we have an early example of the studies in +vulgar life which are so plentiful in later Scottish literature. In +_Kitteis Confessioun_ he returns, but in more sprightly mood, to his +attack on the church. + +In Lyndsay we have the first literary expression in Scotland of the +Renaissance. His interest lies on the theological side of the revival; +he is in no sense a humanist, and he is indifferent to the artistic +claims of the movement. Still he appeals to the principle which is +fundamental to all. He demands first-hand impression. He feels that men +must get their lesson direct, not from intermediaries who understand the +originals no more "than they do the ravyng of the rukis." Hence his +persistent plea for the vernacular, nowhere more directly put than in +the _Dialog_, in the "Exclamatioun to the Redar, toucheyng the wrytting +of the vulgare and maternall language." Though he is concerned only in +the theological and ecclesiastical application of this, he undoubtedly +stimulated the use of the vernacular in a Scotland which in all literary +matters beyond the concern of the irresponsible poet still used the +_lingua franca_ of Europe. + + A complete edition of Lyndsay's poetical works was published by David + Laing in 3 vols. in 1879. This was anticipated during the process of + preparation by a cheaper edition (slightly expurgated) by the same + editor in 1871 (2 vols.). The E.E.T.S. issued the first part of a + complete edition in 1865 (ed. F. Hall). Five parts have appeared, four + edited by F. Hall, the fifth by J. A. H. Murray. For the bibliography + see Laing's 3 vol. edition, _u.s._ iii. pp. 222 et seq., and the + E.E.T.S. edition _passim_. See also the editions by Pinkerton (1792), + Sibbald (1803), and Chalmers (1806); and the critical accounts in + Henderson's _Scottish Vernacular Literature_ (1898), Gregory Smith's + _Transition Period_ (1900), and J. H. Millar's _Literary History of + Scotland_ (1903). A professional work prepared by Lyndsay in the Lyon + Office, entitled the _Register of Scottish Arms_ (now preserved in MS. + in the Advocates' Library), was printed in 1821 and reprinted in 1878. + It remains the most authoritative document on Scottish heraldry. + (G. G. S.) + + + + +LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM, 1ST BARON (1748-1843), British general, was the +son of Thomas Graeme, laird of Balgowan, and was born on the 19th of +October 1748. He was educated by private tutors, among whom was James +Macpherson (q.v.), and was a gentleman commoner of Christ Church, +Oxford, between 1766 and 1768. He then travelled on the continent of +Europe, and in 1772 unsuccessfully contested a parliamentary seat in +Perthshire. In 1774 he married a daughter of the ninth Lord Cathcart, +and took a house in the Leicestershire hunting country. After a few +years, owing to the state of his wife's health, Graham was compelled to +live mainly in the south of Europe, though while at home he was a +prominent sportsman and agriculturist. In 1787 he bought the small +estate of Lynedoch or Lednock, a few miles from Perth. In 1791 his wife +died in the Mediterranean, off Hyères. Graham tried to find distraction +in renewed travels, and during his wanderings fell in with Lord Hood's +fleet on its way to Toulon. He joined it as a volunteer, served on Lord +Mulgrave's staff during the British occupation of Toulon, and returned, +after the failure of the expedition, to Scotland, where he organized a +regiment of infantry, the 90th Foot, Perthshire Volunteers (now 2nd +Battalion Scottish Rifles). Graham's men were the first regiment in the +army to be equipped and trained wholly as light infantry, though they +were not officially recognized as such for many years. In the same year +(1794) Graham became member of parliament, in the Whig interest, for the +county of Perth. He saw some active service in 1795 in "conjunct +expeditions" of the army and navy, and in 1796, being then a brevet +colonel, he was appointed British commissioner at the headquarters of +the Austrian army in Italy. He took part in the operations against +Napoleon Bonaparte, was shut up in Mantua with Würmser's army, escaped +in disguise, and after many adventures reached the relieving army of +Alvinzi just before the battle of Rivoli. On returning to his regiment +he served in more "conjunct" expeditions, in one of which, at Messina, +he co-operated with Nelson, and in 1799 he was sent as brigadier-general +to invest the fortress of Valetta, Malta. He blockaded the place for two +years, and though Major-General Pigot arrived shortly before the close +of the blockade and assumed command, the conquest of Malta stands almost +wholly to the credit of Graham and his naval colleague Sir Alexander +Ball. In 1801 Graham proceeded to Egypt, where his regiment was engaged +in Abercromby's expedition, but arrived too late to take part in any +fighting. He took the opportunity afforded by the peace of Amiens to +visit Turkey, Austria, Germany and France, and only resumed command of +his regiment in 1804. When the latter was ordered to the West Indies he +devoted himself to his duties as a member of parliament. He sat for +Perthshire until 1807, when he was defeated, as he was again in 1812. +Graham was with Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in Spain 1808-1809, and was +present at his death at the battle of Corunna. In 1809 he became a +major-general, and after taking part in the disastrous Walcheren +expedition he was promoted lieutenant-general and sent to Cadiz (1810). + +In 1811, acting in conjunction with the Spanish army under General la +Peña (see PENINSULAR WAR), he took the offensive, and won the brilliant +action of Barossa (5th of March). The victory was made barren of result +by the timidity of the Spanish generals. The latter nevertheless claimed +more than their share of the credit, and Graham answered them with +spirit. One of the Spanish officers he called out, fought and disarmed, +and after refusing with contempt the offer of a Spanish dukedom, he +resigned his command in the south and joined Wellington in Portugal. His +seniority as lieutenant-general made him second in command of +Wellington's army. He took part in the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, and +commanded a wing of the army in the siege of Badajoz and the advance to +Salamanca. In July 1812, his eyesight becoming seriously impaired, he +went home, but rejoined in time to lead the detached wing of the army in +the wide-ranging manoeuvre which culminated in the battle of Vittoria. +Graham was next entrusted with the investment and siege of San +Sebastian, which after a desperate defence fell on the 9th of September +1813. He then went home, but in 1814 accepted the command of a corps to +be despatched against Antwerp. His assault on Bergen op Zoom was, +however, disastrously repulsed (3rd of February 1814). + +At the peace Graham retired from active military employment. He was +created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in the peerage of the United Kingdom, +but refused the offered pension of £2000 a year. In 1813 he proposed the +formation of a military club in London, and though Lord St Vincent +considered such an assemblage of officers to be unconstitutional, +Wellington supported it and the officers of the army and navy at large +received the idea with enthusiasm. Lynedoch's portrait, by Sir T. +Lawrence, is in possession of this club, the (Senior) United Service. In +his latter years he resumed the habits of his youth, travelling all over +Europe, hunting with the Pytchley so long as he was able to sit his +horse, actively concerned in politics and voting consistently for +liberal measures. At the age of ninety-two he hastened from Switzerland +to Edinburgh to receive Queen Victoria when she visited Scotland after +her marriage. He died in London on the 18th of December 1843. He had +been made a full general in 1821, and at the time of his death was a +G.C.B., Colonel of the 1st (Royal Scots) regiment, and governor of +Dumbarton Castle. + + See biographies by John Murray Graham (2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1877) and + Captain A. M. Delavoye (London, 1880); also the latter's _History of + the 90th_ (_Perthshire Volunteers_) (London, 1880), _Philipparts' + Royal Military Calendar_ (1820), ii. 147, and _Gentleman's Magazine_, + new series, xxi. 197. + + + + +LYNN, a city and seaport of Essex county, Massachusetts, 9 m. N.E. of +Boston, on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900) 68,513, of +whom 17,742 were foreign-born (6609 being English Canadians, 5306 +Irish, 1527 English and 1280 French Canadians), and 784 were negroes; +(1910 census) 89,336. It is served by the Boston & Maine and the Boston, +Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by an interurban electric railway, and +has an area of 10.85 sq. m. The business part is built near the shore on +low, level ground, and the residential sections are on the higher +levels. Lynn Woods, a beautiful park, covers more than 2000 acres. On +the shore, which has a fine boulevard, is a state bath house. The city +has a handsome city hall, a free public library, founded in 1862, a +soldiers' monument and two hospitals. Lynn is primarily a manufacturing +city. The first smelting works in New England were established here in +1643. More important and earlier was the manufacture of boots and shoes, +an industry introduced in 1636 by Philip Kertland, a Buckingham man; a +corporation of shoemakers existed here in 1651, whose papers were lost +in 1765. There were many court orders in the seventeenth century to +butchers, tanners, bootmakers and cordwainers; and the business was made +more important by John Adam Dagyr (d. 1808), a Welshman who came here in +1750 and whose work was equal to the best in England. In 1767 the output +was 80,000 pairs; in 1795 about 300,000 pairs of women's shoes were made +by 600 journeymen and 200 master workmen. The product of women's shoes +had become famous in 1764, and about 1783 the use of morocco had been +introduced by Ebenezer Breed. In 1900 and 1905 Lynn was second only to +Brockton among the cities of the United States in the value of boots and +shoes manufactured, and outranked Brockton in the three allied +industries, the manufacture of boots and shoes, of cut stock and of +findings. In the value of its total manufactured product Lynn ranked +second to Boston in the state in 1905, having been fifth in 1900; the +total number of factories in 1905 was 431; their capital was +$23,139,185; their employees numbered 21,540; and their product was +valued at $55,003,023 (as compared with $39,347,493 in 1900). Patent +medicines and compounds and the manufacture of electrical machinery are +prominent industries. The Lynn factories of the General Electric Company +had in 1906 an annual product worth between $15,000,000 and $20,000,000. +The foreign export of manufactured products is estimated at $5,000,000 a +year. + +Lynn was founded in 1629 and was called Saugus until 1637, when the +present name was adopted, from Lynn Regis, Norfolk, the home of the Rev. +Samuel Whiting (1597-1679), pastor at Lynn from 1636 until his death. +From Lynn Reading was separated in 1644, Lynnfield in 1782, Saugus in +1815, and, after the incorporation of the city of Lynn in 1850, +Swampscott in 1852, and in 1853 Nahant, S. of Lynn, on a picturesque +peninsula and now a fashionable summer resort. + + See James R, Newhall, _History of Lynn_ (Lynn, 1883), and H. K. + Sanderson, _Lynn in the Revolution_ (1910). + + + + +LYNTON and LYNMOUTH, two seaside villages in the Barnstaple +parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Bristol Channel; +17 m. E. of Ilfracombe, served by the Lynton light railway, which joins +the South Western and Great Western lines at Barnstaple. Both are +favoured as summer resorts. Lynmouth stands where two small streams, the +East Lyn and West Lyn, flow down deep and well-wooded valleys to the +sea. Lynton is on the cliff-edge, 430 ft. above. A lift connects the +villages. The industries are fishing and a small coasting trade. Not far +off are the Doone Valley, part of the vale of the East Lyn, here called +Badgeworthy water, once the stronghold of a notorious band of robbers +and famous through R. D. Blackmore's novel _Lorna Doone_; Watersmeet, +where two streams, the Tavy and Walkham, join amid wild and beautiful +scenery; and the Valley of Rocks, a narrow glen strewn with immense +boulders. Lynton is an urban district, with a population (1901) of 1641. + + + + +LYNX (Lat. _Lynx_, Gr. [Greek: lynx], probably connected with [Greek: +leuosein], to see), a genus of mammals of the family _Felidae_, by some +naturalists regarded only as a subgenus or section of the typical genus +_Felis_ (see CARNIVORA). As an English word (lynx) the name is used of +any animal of this group. It is not certain to which of these, if to any +of them, the Greek name [Greek: lynx] was especially applied, though it +was more probably the caracal (q.v.) than any of the northern species. +The so-called lynxes of Bacchus were generally represented as resembling +leopards rather than any of the species now known by the name. Various +fabulous properties were attributed to the animal, whatever it was, by +the ancients, that of extraordinary powers of vision, including ability +to see through opaque substances, being one; whence the epithet +"lynx-eyed," which has survived to the present day. + +Lynxes are found in the northern and temperate regions of both the Old +and New World; they are smaller than leopards, and larger than true wild +cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail, ears tufted at the tip, and +pupil of the eye linear when contracted. Their fur is generally long and +soft, and always longish upon the cheeks. Their colour is light brown or +grey, and generally spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the +feet are more or less covered by the hair that grows between them. The +skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the other cats. +Their habits are exactly those of the other wild cats. Their food +consists of any mammals or birds which they can overpower. They commit +extensive ravages upon sheep and poultry. They generally frequent rocky +places and forests, being active climbers, and passing much of their +time among the branches of the trees. Their skins are of considerable +value in the fur trade. The northern lynx (_L. lynx_ or _L. borealis_) +of Scandinavia, Russia, northern Asia, and till lately the forest +regions of central Europe, has not inhabited Britain during the historic +period, but its remains have been found in cave deposits of Pleistocene +age. Dr W. T. Blanford says that the characters on which E. Blyth relied +in separating the Tibetan lynx (_L. isabellinus_) from the European +species are probably due to the nature of its habitat among rocks, and +that he himself could find no constant character justifying separation. +The pardine lynx (_L. pardinus_) from southern Europe is a very handsome +species; its fur is rufous above and white beneath. + +[Illustration: From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot's _Monograph of the +Felidae_. + +European Lynx.] + +Several lynxes are found in North America; the most northerly has been +described as the Canadian lynx (_L. canadensis_); the bay lynx (_L. +rufus_), with a rufous coat in summer, ranges south to Mexico, with +spotted and streaked varieties--_L. maculatus_ in Texas and southern +California, and _L. fasciatus_ in Washington and Oregon. The first three +were regarded by St George Mivart as local races of the northern lynx. A +fifth form, the plateau lynx (_L. baileyi_), was described by Dr C. H. +Merriam in 1890, but the differences between it and the bay lynx are +slight and unimportant. + + + + +LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849), American educationalist, was born on the +28th of February 1797 on a farm near Buckland, Franklin county, +Massachusetts. She began to teach when she was seventeen, and in 1817, +with the earnings from her spinning and weaving, she went to Sanderson +Academy, Ashfield. She supported herself there, at Amherst Academy, +where she spent one term, and at the girls' school in Byfield, +established in 1819 by Joseph Emerson (1777-1833), where she went in +1821, by teaching in district schools and by conducting informal normal +schools. In 1822-1824 she was assistant principal of Sanderson Academy, +and then taught in Miss Zilpah P. Grant's Adams Female Academy, in +Londonderry (now Derry), N.H. This school had only summer sessions, and +Miss Lyon spent her winters in teaching, especially at Buckland and at +Ashfield, and in studying chemistry and natural science with Edward +Hitchcock, the geologist. In 1828-1834 she taught in Miss Grant's +school, which in 1828 had been removed to Ipswich, and for two years +managed the school in Miss Grant's absence. In 1828-1830 she had kept up +her winter "normal" school at Buckland, and this was the beginning of +her greater plan, "a permanent institution consecrated to the training +of young women for usefulness ... designed to furnish every advantage +which the state of education in this country will allow ... to put +within reach of students of moderate means such opportunities that none +can find better." She was assisted by Dr Hitchcock, and her own mystical +enthusiasm and practical common sense secured for her plan ready +financial support. In 1835 a site was selected near the village of South +Hadley and Mount Holyoke; in 1836 the school was incorporated as Mount +Holyoke Female Seminary; and on the 8th of November 1837 it opened with +Mary Lyon as principal, and, as assistant, Miss Eunice Caldwell, +afterwards well known as Mrs J. P. Cowles of Ipswich Academy. Miss Lyon +died at Mount Holyoke on the 5th of March 1849, having served nearly +twelve years as principal of the seminary, on a salary of $200 a year. +From her work at Holyoke sprang modern higher education for women in +America. + + See Edward Hitchcock, _Life and Labors of Mary Lyon_ (1851); B. B. + Gilchrist, _Life of Mary Lyon_ (Boston, 1910). + + + + +LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861), American soldier, was born in Ashford, +Connecticut, on the 14th of July 1818, and graduated at West Point in +1841. He was engaged in the Seminole War and the war with Mexico, won +the brevet of captain for his gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, and +was wounded in the assault on the city of Mexico. In 1850, while serving +in California, he conducted a successful expedition against the Indians. +He was promoted captain in 1851, and two years later was ordered to the +East, when he became an ardent opponent of "States' Rights" and slavery. +He was stationed in Kansas and in Missouri on the eve of the Civil War. +In Missouri not only was sentiment divided, but the two factions were +eager to resort to force long before they were in the other border +states. Lyon took an active part in organizing the Union party in +Missouri, though greatly hampered, at first by the Federal government +which feared to provoke hostilities, and afterwards by the military +commander of the department, General W. S. Harney. On Harney's removal +in April 1861, Lyon promptly assumed the command, called upon Illinois +to send him troops, and mustered the Missouri contingent into the United +States' service. He broke up the militia camp at St Louis established by +the secessionist governor of Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, and but for +the express prohibition of Harney, who had resumed the command, would +have proceeded at once to active hostilities. In all this Lyon had +co-operated closely with Francis P. Blair, Jr., who now obtained from +President Lincoln the definitive removal of Harney and the assignment of +Lyon to command the Department of the West, with the rank of +brigadier-general. On Lyon's refusal to accede to the Secessionists' +proposal that the state should be neutral, hostilities opened in +earnest, and Lyon, having cleared Missouri of small hostile bands in the +central part of the state, turned to the southern districts, where a +Confederate army was advancing from the Arkansas border. The two forces +came to action at Wilson's Creek on the 10th of August 1861. The Union +forces, heavily outnumbered, were defeated, and Lyon himself was killed +while striving to rally his troops. He bequeathed almost all he +possessed, some $30,000, to the war funds of the national government. + + See A. Woodward, _Memoir of General Nathaniel Lyon_ (Hartford, 1862); + James Peckham, _Life of Lyon_ (New York, 1866); and T. L. Snead, _The + Fight for Missouri_ (New York, 1886). Also _Last Political Writings of + General Nathaniel Lyon_ (New York, 1862). + + + + +LYONNESSE, LYONESSE, LEONNOYS or LEONAIS, a legendary country off the +south coast of Cornwall, England. Lyonnesse is the scene of many +incidents in the Arthurian romances, and especially in the romances of +Tristram and Iseult. It also plays an important part in purely Cornish +tradition and folk-lore. Early English chronicles, such as the +_Chronicon e chronicis_ of Florence of Worcester, who died in 1118, +described minutely and without a suggestion of disbelief the flourishing +state of Lyonnesse, and its sudden disappearance beneath the sea. The +legend may be a greatly exaggerated version of some actual subsidence of +inhabited land. There is also a very ancient local tradition, apparently +independent of the story of Lyonnesse, that the Scilly Islands formed +part of the Cornish mainland within historical times. + + See _Florentii Wigorniensis monachi Chronicon ex chronicis_, &c., ed. + B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849). + + + + +LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858), British admiral, was born at +Burton, near Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 21st of November 1790. He +entered the navy, and served in the Mediterranean, and afterwards in the +East Indies, where in 1810 he won promotion by distinguished bravery. He +became post-captain in 1814, and in 1826 commanded the "Blonde" frigate +at the blockade of Navarino, and took part with the French in the +capture of Kasteo Morea. Shortly before his ship was paid off in 1835 he +was knighted. From 1840 till 1853 Lyons was employed on the diplomatic +service, being successively minister to Greece, Switzerland and Sweden. +On the outbreak of the war with Russia he was appointed second in +command of the British fleet in the Black Sea under Admiral Dundas, whom +he succeeded in the chief command in 1854. As admiral of the inshore +squadron he had the direction of the landing of the troops in the +Crimea, which he conducted with marvellous energy and despatch. +According to Kinglake, Lyons shared the "intimate counsels" of Lord +Raglan in regard to the most momentous questions of the war, and toiled, +with a "painful consuming passion," to achieve the object of the +campaign. His principal actual achievements in battle were two--the +support he rendered with his guns to the French at the Alma in attacking +the left flank of the Russians, and the bold and brilliant part he took +with his ship the "Agamemnon" in the first bombardment of the forts of +Sebastopol; but his constant vigilance, his multifarious activity, and +his suggestions and counsels were much more advantageous to the allied +cause than his specific exploits. In 1855 he was created vice-admiral; +in June 1856 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Lyons +of Christchurch. He died on the 23rd of November 1858. + + See Adam S. Eardley-Wilmot, R.N., _Life of Lord Lyons_ (1898). + + + + +LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817-1887), British +diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born at Lymington on the 26th of +April 1817. He entered the diplomatic service, and in 1859-1864 was +British minister at Washington, where, after the outbreak of the Civil +War, the extremely important negotiations connected with the arrest of +the Confederate envoys on board the British mail-steamer "Trent" +devolved upon him. After a brief service at Constantinople, he succeeded +Lord Cowley at the Paris embassy in 1867. In the war of 1870 he used his +best efforts as a mediator, and accompanied the provisional government +to Tours. He continued to hold his post with universal acceptance until +November 1887. He died on the 5th of December 1887, when the title +became extinct. + + + + +LYONS (Fr. _Lyon_), a city of eastern France, capital of the department +of Rhône, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W. of Marseilles on +the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 430,186; commune, 472,114. +Lyons, which in France is second only to Paris in commercial and +military importance, is situated at the confluence of the Rhône and the +Saône at an altitude of 540 to 1000 ft. above sea-level. The rivers, +both flowing south, are separated on the north by the hill on which lies +the populous working quarter of Croix-Rousse, then by the narrow tongue +of land ending in the Perrache Quarter. The peninsula thus formed is +over 3 m. long and from 650 to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed +lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la République, +the rue de l'Hôtel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo. Where it enters +Lyons the Saône has on its right the faubourg of Vaise and on its left +that of Serin, whence the ascent is made to the top of the hill of +Croix-Rousse. Farther on, its right bank is bordered by the scarped +heights of Fourvière, St Irénée, Ste Foy, and St Just, leaving room only +for the quays and one or two narrow streets; this is the oldest part of +the city. The river sweeps in a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft. +above it), which is occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries, and +has at its summit the famous church of Nôtre-Dame de Fourvière, the +resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually. + +On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of +Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town: the Terreaux, +containing the hotel de ville, and the chief commercial establishments; +the wealthy residential quarter, centring round the Place Bellecour, one +of the finest squares in France; and the Perrache. The Rhône and Saône +formerly met on the site of this quarter, till, in the 18th century, the +sculptor Perrache reclaimed it; on the peninsula thus formed stands the +principal railway station, the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi, +the most extensive promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here, +too, are the docks of the Saône, factories, the arsenal, gas-works and +prisons. The Rhône, less confined than the Saône, flows swiftly in a +wide channel, broken when the water is low in spring by pebbly islets. +On the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping upwards to +Croix-Rousse, and then the districts of Terreaux, Bellecour and +Perrache; on the left it has a low-lying plain, occupied by the Parc de +la Tête d'Or and the quarters of Brotteaux and Guillotière. The park, +together with its lake, comprises some 285 acres, and contains a +zoological collection, botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the +finest greenhouses in France, with unique collections of orchids, +palm-trees and _Cycadaceae_. It is defended from the Rhône by the Quai +de la Tête d'Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separates +it from the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential quarter. +Guillotière to the south consists largely of workmen's dwellings, +bordering wide, airy thoroughfares. To the east extend the manufacturing +suburbs of Villeurbanne and Montchat. The population, displaced by the +demolition of the lofty old houses and the widening of the streets on +the peninsula, migrates to the left bank of the Rhône, the extension of +the city into the plain of Dauphiné being unhindered. + +The Rhône and the Saône are bordered by fine quays and crossed by 24 +bridges--11 over the Rhône, 12 over the Saône, and 1 at the confluence. +Of these the Pont du Change over the Saône and the Pont de la +Guillotière over the Rhône have replaced medieval bridges, the latter of +the two preserving a portion of the old structure. + + + Public Buildings. + +Of the ancient buildings Nôtre-Dame de Fourvière is the most celebrated. +The name originally applied to a small chapel built in the 9th century +on the site of the old forum (_forum vetus_) from which it takes its +name. It has been often rebuilt, the chief feature being a modern +Romanesque tower surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin. In +1872 a basilica was begun at its side in token of the gratitude of the +city for having escaped occupation by the German troops. The building, +finished in 1894, consists of a nave without aisles flanked at each +exterior corner by a turret and terminating in an apse. The façade, the +lower half of which is a lofty portico supported on four granite +columns, is richly decorated on its upper half with statuary and +sculpture. Marble and mosaic have been lavishly used in the +ornamentation of the interior and of the crypt. Round the apse runs a +gallery from which, according to an old custom, a benediction is +pronounced upon the town annually on the 8th of September. From this +gallery a magnificent view of the city and the surrounding country can +be obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourvière rises the cathedral of +St Jean, one of the finest examples of early Gothic architecture in +France. Begun in the 12th century, to the end of which the transept and +choir belong, it was not finished till the 15th century, the gable and +flanking towers of the west front being completed in 1480. A triple +portal surmounted by a line of arcades and a rose window gives entrance +to the church. Two additional towers, that to the north containing one +of the largest bells in France, rise at the extremities of the transept. +The nave and choir contain fine stained glass of the 13th and 14th +centuries as well as good modern glass. The chapel of St Louis or of +Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of Flamboyant +Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand two crosses preserved +since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the union then agreed upon +between the Greek and Latin churches. Adjoining St Jean is the ancient +Manecanterie or singers' house, much mutilated and frequently restored, +but still preserving graceful Romanesque arcades along its front. St +Martin d'Ainay, on the peninsula, is the oldest church in Lyons, dating +from the beginning of the 6th century and subsequently attached to a +Benedictine abbey. It was rebuilt in the 10th and 11th centuries and +restored in modern times, and is composed of a nave with four aisles, a +transept and choir terminating in three semicircular apses ornamented +with paintings by Hippolyte Flandrin, a native of Lyons. The church is +surmounted by two towers, one in the middle of the west front, the other +at the crossing; the four columns supporting the latter are said to have +come from an altar to Augustus. A mosaic of the 12th century, a high +altar decorated with mosaic work and a beautifully carved confessional +are among the works of art in the interior. St Nizier, in the heart of +the city, was the first cathedral of Lyons; and the crypt in which St +Pothinus officiated still exists. The present church is a Gothic edifice +of the 15th century, with the exception of the porch, constructed by +Philibert Delorme, a native of Lyons, in the 16th century. The Church of +St Paul (12th and 15th centuries), situated on the right bank of the +Saône, preserves an octagonal central tower and other portions of +Romanesque architecture; that of St Bonaventure, originally a chapel of +the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the 15th and 19th centuries. With the +exception of the imposing prefecture, the vast buildings of the +faculties, which are in the Guillotière quarter, and the law court, the +colonnade of which overlooks the Saône from its right bank, the chief +civil buildings are in the vicinity of the Place des Terreaux. The east +side of this square (so called from the _terreaux_ or earth with which +the canal formerly connecting the Rhône and the Saône hereabouts was +filled) is formed by the hotel de ville (17th century), the east façade +of which, towards the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south +side of the square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the 17th +century as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the school of +fine arts, the museums of painting and sculpture, archaeology and +natural history, and the library of science, arts and industry. The +museums are second in importance only to those of Paris. The collection +of antiquities, rich in Gallo-Roman inscriptions, contains the bronze +tablets discovered in 1528, on which is engraved a portion of a speech +delivered in A.D. 48, by the emperor Claudius, advocating the admission +of citizens of Gallia Comata to the Roman senate. The "Ascension," a +masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief treasure of the art collection, in +which are works by nearly all the great masters. A special gallery +contains the works of artists of Lyons, among whom are numbered Antoine +Berjon, Meissonier, Paul Chenavard, Puvis de Chavannes. In the Rue de la +République, between the Place de la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers, +each of which contains one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the +Palais du Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern buildings +of Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the ground floor +round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys accommodate the +commercial tribunal, the council of trade arbitration, the chamber of +commerce and the _Musée historique des Tissus_, in which the history of +the weaving industry is illustrated by nearly 400,000 examples. In the +buildings of the lycée on the right bank of the Rhône are the municipal +library and a collection of globes, among them the great terrestrial +globe made at Lyons in 1701, indicating the great African lakes. + +The Hôtel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the beginning of +the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of the chief charitable +establishments in the city. The present building dates from the 18th +century; its façade, fronting the west quay of the Rhône for over 1000 +ft., was begun according to the designs of Soufflot, architect of the +Pantheon at Paris. The Hospice de la Charité and the military hospital +are on the same bank slightly farther down stream. The Hospice de +l'Antiquaille, at Fourvière, occupies the site of the palace of the +praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and Caracalla were +born. Each of these hospitals contains more than 1000 beds. Lyons has +many other benevolent institutions, and is also the centre of the +operations of the Société de la Propagation de la Foi. The chief +monuments are the equestrian statue of Louis XIV. in the Place +Bellecour, the monuments of President Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the +physicist André-Marie Ampère, and those in honour of the Republic and in +memory of the citizens of the department who fell in the war of 1870-71. +The most noteworthy fountain is that in the Place des Terreaux with the +leaden group by Bartholdi representing the rivers on their way to the +ocean. + +There are Roman remains--baths, tombs and the relics of a theatre--in +the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saône. Three ancient +aqueducts on the Fourvière level, from Montromant, Mont d'Or and Mont +Pilat, can still be traced. Magnificent remains of the latter work may +be seen at St Irénée and Chaponost. Traces also exist along the Rhône of +a subterranean canal conveying the water of the river to a _naumachia_ +(lake for mimic sea-fights). Agrippa made Lyons the starting-point of +the principal Roman roads throughout Gaul; and it remains an important +centre in the general system of communication owing to its position on +the natural highway from north to south-eastern France. The Saône above +the town and the Rhône below have large barge and steamboat traffic. The +main line of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway runs first through the +station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Saône, and thence to that of +Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next in importance, +that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux quarter, and the line +of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d'Aoste has a terminus at +Guillotière; both these lines link up with the Paris-Lyon main line. The +railway to Montbrison starts from the terminus of St Paul in Fourvière +and that to Bourg, Trevoux and the Dombes region from the station of +Croix-Rousse. A less important line to Vaugneray and Mornant has a +terminus at St Just. Besides the extensive system of street tramways, +cable tramways (_ficelles_) run to the summits of the eminences cf +Croix-Rousse, Fourvière and St Just. + + + Defence. + + Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of + France, and, like the capital, possesses a military governor. The + immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side by a + modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to this is + a group of fairly modern detached forts forming an advanced position + at the village of Bron), and on the west by a line of detached forts, + not of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the + Saône. Some older forts and a portion of the old enceinte are still + kept up in the city itself, and two of these forts, Montessuy and + Caluire, situated on the peninsula, serve with their annexes to + connect the northern extremities of the two lines above mentioned. The + main line of defence is as usual the outer fort-ring, the perimeter of + which is more than 40 m., and the mean distance from the centre of the + city 6½ m. This naturally divides into four sections. In the eastern + plain, well in advance of the enceinte, eight principal sites have + been fortified, Feyzin, Corbas, St Priest, Genas, Azieu, Meyzieux, + Decines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the lower to the + upper reaches of the Rhône. The northern (or north eastern) section, + between the Rhône and the Saône, has forts Neyron and Vancia as its + principal defences; these and their subsidiary batteries derive some + additional support from the forts Montessuy and Caluire mentioned + above. On the north-west side there is a strong group of works + disposed like a redan, of which the salient, fort Verdun and annexes, + is on the high plateau of Mont d'Or pointing northward, and the faces, + represented by forts Freta and Paillet, are lower down on the spurs of + the ridge, facing north-east and north-west respectively. The + south-western section comprises three principal groups, Bruisson, + Côte-Lorette and Montcorin-Champvillard, the last-named crossing its + fire over the Lower Rhône with Fort Feyzin. Lastly a connecting + battery was built near Chapoly in 1895 to close the gap between the + north-western and south-western sections and to command the westward + approaches by the valley of Charbonnieres. + + Lyons is the headquarters of the XIV. army-corps, the seat of an + archbishop who holds the title of primate of the Gauls and also that + of archbishop of Vienne, and of a prefect, a court of appeal, a court + of assizes, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and of two + boards of trade arbitration (_conseils de prud'hommes_). It is the + centre of an _academie_ (educational division) and has a university + with faculties of law, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy. + There are also Catholic faculties (_facultés libres_) of law, + theology, science and letters, three _lycées_, training collèges for + teachers and numerous minor educational establishments. There are + besides many special schools at Lyons, the more important being the + school of fine arts which was founded in the 18th century to train + competent designers for the textile manufactures, but has also done + much for painting and sculpture; an army medical school, schools of + drawing, agriculture, music, commerce (_école supérieure de + commerce_), weaving, tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and + the écoles La Martiniere for free instruction in science and art as + applied to industry. The veterinary school, instituted in 1761, was + the first of its kind in Europe; its laboratory for the study of + comparative physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the _Académie + des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts_ (founded in 1700), Lyons + possesses societies of agriculture, natural history, geography, + horticulture, &c. + + + Industry and trade. + + Its trade in silk and silk goods has formed the basis of the + prosperity of Lyons for several centuries. Derived from Italy, this + industry rapidly developed, thanks to the monopoly granted to the city + in 1450 by Charles VII. and to the patronage of Francis I., Henry II. + and Henry IV. From time to time new kinds of fabrics were + invented--silk stuffs woofed with wool or with gold and silver + threads, shawls, watered silks, poplins, velvets, satinades, moires, + &c. In the beginning of the 19th century J. M. Jacquard introduced his + famous loom by which a single workman was enabled to produce elaborate + fabrics as easily as the plainest web, and by changing the "cartoons" + to make the most different textures on the same looms. In the 17th + century the silk manufacture employed at Lyons, 9000 to 12,000 looms. + After the revocation of the edict of Nantes the number sank to 3000 or + 4000; but after the Reign of Terror was past it rose again about 1801 + to 12,000. Towards the middle of the 19th century the weaving branch + of the industry began to desert Lyons for the surrounding districts. + The city remains the business centre for the trade and carries on + dyeing, printing and other accessory processes. Lyons disputes with + Milan the position of the leading silk market of Europe. In 1905 the + special office (_la Condition des soies_) which determines the weight + of the silk examined over 4700 tons of silk. France furnished barely + one-tenth of this quantity, two-thirds came from China and Japan, the + rest from Italy and the Levant. The traders of Lyons re-export + seven-twelfths of these silks, the industries of the town employing + the remainder. An almost equal quantity of cotton, wool and waste-silk + threads is mixed with the silk. A few thousand hand-looms are still + worked in the town, more especially producing the richest materials, + 50,000 or 55,000 in the surrounding districts, and some 33,000 machine + looms in the suburbs and neighbouring departments. Allied industries + such as dyeing, finishing and printing, employ 12,000 workers. + Altogether 300,000 workpeople depend upon the silk industry. In 1905 + the total value of the manufacture was £15,710,000, the chief items + being pure silk textures (plain) £3,336,000; textures of silk mixed + with other materials £3,180,000; silk and foulards £1,152,000; muslins + £3,800,000, this product having increased from £100,000 in 1894. + Speaking roughly the raw material represents half the value, and the + value of the labour the remaining half. About 30% of the silk goods of + Lyons finds a market in France. Great Britain imported them to the + value of over £6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over + £1,600,000, notwithstanding the heavy duty. The dyeing industry and + the manufacture of chemicals have both developed considerably to meet + the requirements of the silk trade. Large quantities of mineral and + vegetable colouring matters are produced and there is besides a large + output of glue, gelatine, superphosphates and phosphorus, all made + from bones and hides, of picric, tartaric, sulphuric and hydrochloric + acids, sulphates of iron and copper, and pharmaceutical and other + chemical products. + + Lyons does a large trade in metals, iron, steel and copper, and + utilizes them in the manufacture of iron buildings, framework, + bridges, machinery, railway material, scales, metal cables, pins and + needles, copper-founding and the making of clocks and bronzes. Gold + and silver-working is of importance, especially for embroidery and + articles used in religious ceremonies. Other industries are those of + printing, the manufacture of glass goods, of tobacco (by the state), + the preparation of hides and skins (occupying 20,000 workmen), those + connected with the miller's trade, the manufacture of various forms of + dried flour-paste (macaroni, vermicelli, &c.), brewing, hat-making, + the manufacture of chocolate, and the pork-butcher's industry. Apart + from the dealings in silk and silk goods, trade is in cloth, coal and + charcoal, metals and metal goods, wine and spirits, cheese and + chestnuts. Four miles south-west of Lyons is Oullins (pop. 9859) which + has the important works of the Paris-Lyon railway. + + Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Credit + Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of £200,000,000 annually + in Lyons alone; also of coal and metallurgical companies and gas + companies, the former extending their operations as far as Russia, the + latter lighting numerous towns in France and foreign countries. + +_History._--The earliest Gallic occupants of the territory at the +confluence of the Rhône and the Saône were the Segusians. In 59 B.C. +some Greek refugees from the banks of the Hérault, having obtained +permission of the natives to establish themselves beside the +Croix-Rousse, called their new town by the Gallic name Lugudunum (q.v.) +or Lugdunum; and in 43 B.C. Lucius Munatius Plancus brought a Roman +colony to Fourvières from Vienne. This settlement soon acquired +importance, and was made by Agrippa the starting-point of four great +roads. Augustus, besides building aqueducts, temples and a theatre, gave +it a senate and made it the seat of an annual assembly of deputies from +the sixty cities of Gallia Comata. At the same time the place became the +Gallic centre for the worship of Rome and the emperor. Under the +emperors the colony of Forum Vetus and the municipium of Lugdunum were +united, receiving the _jus senatus_. The town was burnt in A.D. 59 and +afterwards rebuilt in a much finer style with money given by Nero; it +was also adorned by Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus. The martyrdom of +Pothinus and Blandina occurred under Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 177), and +some years later a still more savage persecution of the Christians took +place under Septimius Severus, in which Irenaeus, according to some +authors, perished. + +After having been ravaged by the barbarians and abandoned by the empire, +Lyons in 478 became capital of the kingdom of the Burgundians. It +afterwards fell into the hands of the Franks, and suffered severely from +the Saracens, but revived under Charlemagne, and after the death of +Charles the Bald became part of the kingdom of Provence. From 1032 it +was a fief of the emperor of Germany. Subsequently the authority over +the town was a subject of dispute between the archbishops of Lyons and +the counts of Forez; but the supremacy of the French kings was +established under Philip the Fair in 1312. The citizens were constituted +into a commune ruled by freely elected consuls (1320). In the 13th +century two ecclesiastical councils were held at Lyons--one in 1245, +presided over by Innocent IV., at which the emperor Frederick II. was +deposed; the second, the oecumenical, under the presidency of Gregory +X., in 1274, at which five hundred bishops met. Pope Clement V. was +crowned here in 1305, and his successor, John XXII., elected in 1316. +The Protestants obtained possession of the place in 1562; their acts of +violence were fiercely avenged in 1572 after the St Bartholomew +massacre. Under Henry III. Lyons sided with the League; but it +pronounced in favour of Henry IV. The executions of Henri d'Effiat, +marquis of Cinq-Mars, and of François de Thou, who had plotted to +overthrow Richelieu, took place on the Place des Terreaux in 1642. In +1793 the Royalists and Girondists, powerful in the city, rose against +the Convention, but were compelled to yield to the army of the republic +under General Kellermann after enduring a siege of seven weeks (October +10). Terrible chastisement ensued: the name of Lyons was changed to that +of Ville-affranchie; the demolition of its buildings was set about on a +wholesale scale; and vast numbers of the proscribed, whom the scaffold +had spared, were butchered with grape shot. The town resumed its old +name after the fall of Robespierre, and the terrorists in their turn +were drowned in large numbers in the Rhône. Napoleon rebuilt the Place +Bellecour, reopened the churches, and made the bridge of Tilsit over the +Saône between Bellecour and the cathedral. In 1814 and 1815 Lyons was +occupied by the Austrians. In 1831, 1834, 1849, 1870 and 1871 it was the +scene of violent industrial or political disturbances. In 1840 and 1856 +disastrous floods laid waste portions of the city. International +exhibitions were held here in 1872 and 1894, the latter occasion being +marked by the assassination of President Carnot. + + See S. Charléty, _Histoire de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart, + _L'Ouvrier en soie. Monographie du tisseur lyonnais_ (Lyon, 1899); A. + Vachet, _A travers les rues de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1902); A. Steyert, + _Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des provinces de Lyonnais Forez, + Beaujolais_ (3 vols., Lyon, 1895-1899). + + + + +LYONS, COUNCILS OF. The first Council of Lyons (the thirteenth general +council) met at the summons of Pope Innocent IV. in June and July of +1245, to deliberate on the conflict between Church and emperor, on the +assistance to be granted to the Holy Land and the Eastern empire, on +measures of protection against the Tatars, and on the suppression of +heresy. Among the tasks of the council mentioned in the writs of +convocation, the most important, in the eyes of the pope, was that it +should lend him effectual aid in his labours to overthrow the emperor +Frederick II.; and, with this object in view, he had described the synod +as a general council. Since its numbers were not far in excess of 150 +bishops and archbishops, and the great majority of these came from +France, Italy and Spain; while the schismatic Greeks and the other +countries--especially Germany, whose interests were so deeply +involved--were but weakly represented; the ambassador of Frederick, +Thaddaeus of Suessa, contested its oecumenicity in the assembly itself. +The condemnation of the emperor was a foregone conclusion. The articles +of indictment described him as the "prince of tyranny, the destroyer of +ecclesiastical dogma, the annihilator of the faith, the master of +cruelty," and so forth; while the grossest calumnies were treated as +approved facts. The objections of the ambassador, that the accused had +not been regularly cited, that the pope was plaintiff and judge in one, +and that therefore the whole process was anomalous, achieved as little +success as his appeal to the future pontiff and to a truly oecumenical +council. The representatives of the kings of England and France were +equally unfortunate in their claim for a prorogation of the decision. On +the 17th of July the verdict was pronounced by Innocent IV., +excommunicating Frederick and dethroning him on the grounds of perjury, +sacrilege, heresy and felony. All oaths of fealty sworn to him were +pronounced null and void, and the German princes were commanded to +proceed with the election of a new sovereign. In addition the council +enacted decrees against the growing irregularities in the Church, and +passed resolutions designed to support the Crusaders and revive the +struggle for the Holy Land. + + See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom, xxiii.; Huillard-Breholles, + _Historia diplomatica Frederici II_., 6 tom. (Paris, 1852-1861); + Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, ed. 2, vol. v. (1886), pp. 1105-1126; + Fr. W. Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friederich der Zweite_ (4 vols., + Göttingen, 1859-1865); H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, + ed. 3, vol. ix. (1901), p. 122 sqq., s.v. "Innocenz IV."; A. Folz, + _Kaiser Friedrich II. u. Papst Innocenz IV_. (Strassburg, 1905). + +The second Council of Lyons (the fourteenth general council) met from +the 7th of May to the 17th of July 1274, under the presidency of Pope +Gregory X., and was designed to resolve three problems: to terminate the +Greek schism, to decree a new Crusade, and to counteract the moral +corruption among clerics and laity. The council entered on its third +task at a very late period, with the result that the requisite time for +an adequate deliberation was not available. Nevertheless, on the 1st of +November, Gregory was enabled to publish thirty-one constitutions, which +may be taken to represent the fruits of the synod and its labours. The +most important of the enactments passed is that regulating the papal +election. It prescribed that the new election conducted by the college +of cardinals should be held in conclave (q.v.), and its duration +abridged by progressive simplification of the cardinal's diet. The +motive for this decision, which has maintained its ground in +ecclesiastical law, was given by the circumstances which followed the +death of Clement IV. (1268). The pope felt a peculiar interest in the +Holy Land, from which he was recalled by his elevation to the pontifical +throne. He succeeded in bringing influential interests to work in the +cause; but his scheme of a great enterprise backed by the whole force of +the West came to nothing, for the day of the Crusades was past. His +projected Crusade was interwoven with his endeavours to end the schism; +and the political straits of the emperor Michael Palaeologus in +Constantinople came to the aid of these aspirations. To ensure his +safety against the attacks of King Charles of Sicily, who had pledged +himself to assist the ex-emperor Baldwin in his reconquest of the Latin +empire, Michael was required to own the supremacy of the pope in the +spiritual domain; while Gregory, in return, would restrain the Sicilian +monarch from his bellicose policy with regard to the Eastern empire. +The ambassadors of the emperor appeared at the council with letters +acknowledging the Roman pontiff and the confession of faith previously +dispatched from the eternal city, and submitted similarly-worded +declarations from the heads of the Byzantine Church. One member of the +embassy, the Logothete Georgius Acropolites, was authorized by the +emperor to take an oath in his name, renouncing the schism. In short, +the subjection of the East to the Roman see was completed in the most +binding forms, and the long-desired union seemed at last assured. +Gregory himself did not live to discover its illusory character. The +Council of Lyons was, moreover, of importance for the German dynastic +struggle: for Gregory took the first public step in favour of Count +Rudolph of Habsburg, the king-elect, by receiving his deputy and denying +an audience to the delegate of the rival claimant, King Alphonso of +Castile. + + See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom. xxiv.; Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. vi. ed. 2 (1890), p. 119 sqq. Also C. + Mirbt, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. f. protestantische Theologie_, + vol. vii. (1899), p. 122, s.v. "Gregor X." (C. M.) + + + + +LYRA ("The Harp"), in astronomy, a constellation in the northern +hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 10 stars in this constellation; Tycho +Brahe 11 and Hevelius 17. [alpha] _Lyrae_ or Vega, is the second +brightest star in the northern hemisphere, and notable for the whiteness +of its light, which is about 100 times that of the sun. The name "vega" +is a remnant of an Arabic phrase meaning "falling eagle," "Altair," or +[alpha] _Aquilae_, is the similar remnant of "flying eagle." [epsilon] +_Lyrae_ is a multiple star, separated by the naked eye or by a small +telescope into two stars; these are each resolved into two stars by a +3" telescope, while a more powerful instrument (4") reveals three +smaller stars between the two pairs, [beta] _Lyrae_ and _R. Lyrae_ are +short period variables. There is the famous ring or annular nebula, _M. +57 Lyrae_, in the middle of which is a very faint star, which is readily +revealed by photography; and also the meteoric swarm named the _Lyrids_, +which appear in April and have their radiant in this constellation (see +METEOR). + + + + +LYRE (Gr. [Greek: lyra]), an ancient stringed musical instrument. The +recitations of the Greeks were accompanied by it. Yet the lyre was not +of Greek origin; no root in the language has been discovered for [Greek: +lyra], although the special names bestowed upon varieties of the +instrument are Hellenic. We have to seek in Asia the birthplace of the +genus, and to infer its introduction into Greece through Thrace or +Lydia. The historic heroes and improvers of the lyre were of the Aeolian +or Ionian colonies, or the adjacent coast bordering on the Lydian +empire, while the mythic masters, Orpheus, Musaeus and Thamyris, were +Thracians. Notwithstanding the Hermes tradition of the invention of the +lyre in Egypt, the Egyptians seem to have adopted it from Assyria or +Babylonia. + +To define the lyre, it is necessary clearly to separate it from the +allied harp and guitar. In its primal form the lyre differs from the +harp, of which the earliest, simplest notion is found in the bow and +bowstring. While the guitar (and lute) can be traced back to the typical +"nefer" of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, the fretted finger-board of +which, permitting the production of different notes by the shortening of +the string, is as different in conception from the lyre and harp as the +flute with holes to shorten the column of air is from the syrinx or +Pandean pipes. The frame of a lyre consists of a hollow body or +sound-chest ([Greek: echeion]). From this sound-chest are raised two +arms ([Greek: pecheis]), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both +outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a crossbar or +yoke ([Greek: zygon, zygoma], or, from its having once been a reed, +[Greek: kalamos]). Another crossbar ([Greek: malas, hypolyrion]), fixed +on the sound-chest, forms the bridge which transmits the vibrations of +the strings. The deepest note was the farthest from the player; but, as +the strings did not differ much in length, more weight may have been +gained for the deeper notes by thicker strings, as in the violin and +similar modern instruments, or they were turned with slacker tension. +The strings were of gut ([Greek: chorde], whence chord). They were +stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the +bridge. There were two ways of tuning: one was to fasten the strings to +pegs which might be turned ([Greek: kollaboi, kollopes]); the other was +to change the place of the string upon the crossbar; probably both +expedients were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether [Greek: +he chordotonos] meant the tuning key or the part of the instrument where +the pegs were inserted. The extensions of the arms above the yoke were +known as [Greek: kerata], horns. + +The number of strings varied at different epochs, and possibly in +different localities--four, seven and ten having been favourite numbers. +They were used without a finger-board, no Greek description or +representation having ever been met with that can be construed as +referring to one. Nor was a bow possible, the flat sound-board being an +insuperable impediment. The plectrum, however ([Greek: plektron]), was +in constant use. It was held in the right hand to set the upper strings +in vibration ([Greek: krekein, krouein to plektro]); at other times it +hung from the lyre by a ribbon. The fingers of the left hand touched the +lower strings ([Greek: psallein]). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Chelys or Lyre from a vase in the British +Museum, where also are fragments of such an instrument, the back of +which is of shell.] + +[Illustration: Gerhard, _Auserl. griech. Vasenbilder._ + +FIG. 2.--Tortoise-shell Lyre from a Greek vase in Munich.] + +With Greek authors the lyre has several distinct names; but we are +unable to connect these with anything like certainty to the varieties of +the instrument. Chelys ([Greek: chelys], "tortoise") may mean the +smallest lyre, which, borne by one arm or supported by the knees, +offered in the sound-chest a decided resemblance to that familiar +animal. That there was a difference between lyre and cithara ([Greek: +kithara]) is certain, Plato and other writers separating them. Hermes +and Apollo had an altar at Olympia in common because the former had +invented the lyre and the latter the cithara. The lyre and chelys on the +one hand, and the cithara and phorminx on the other, were similar or +nearly identical. Apollo is said to have carried a golden phorminx. + (A. J. H.) + +There are three lines of evidence that establish the difference between +the lyre and cithara: (1) There are certain vase paintings in which the +name [Greek: lyra] accompanies the drawing of the instrument, as, for +instance, in fig. 2 where the tortoise-shell lyre is obviously +represented.[1] (2) In all legends accounting for the invention of the +lyre, the shell or body of the tortoise is invariably mentioned as +forming the back of the instrument, whereas the tortoise has never been +connected with the cithara. (3) The lyre is emphatically distinguished +as the most suitable instrument for the musical training of young men +and maidens and as the instrument of the amateur, whereas the cithara +was the instrument of _citharoedus_ or _citharista_, professional +performers at the Pythian Games, at ceremonies and festivals, the former +using his instrument to accompany epic recitations and odes, the latter +for purely instrumental music. The costume worn by citharoedus and +citharista was exceedingly rich and quite distinct from any other.[2] + +We find the lyre represented among scenes of domestic life, in lessons, +receptions, at banquets and in mythological scenes; it is found in the +hands of women no less than men, and the costume of the performer is +invariably that of an ordinary citizen. Lyres were of many sizes and +varied in outline according to period and nationality. + +We therefore possess irrefutable evidence of identification in both +cases, all of which tallies exactly. Examination of the construction of +the instruments thus identified reveals the fact that both possessed +characteristics which have persisted throughout the middle ages to the +present day in various instruments evolved from these two archetypes. +The principal feature of both lyre and cithara was the peculiar method +of construction adopted in the sound-chest, which may be said to have +been almost independent of the outline. In the lyre the sound-chest +consisted of a vaulted back, in imitation of the tortoise, over which +was directly glued a flat sound-board of wood or parchment. In the +cithara (q.v.) the sound-chest was shallower, and the back and front +were invariably connected by sides or ribs. These two methods of +constructing the sound-chests of stringed instruments were typical, and +to one or the other may be referred every stringed instrument with a +neck which can be traced during the middle ages in miniatures, early +printed books, on monuments and other works of art. (K. S.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Egyptian Cithara now at Berlin.] + + Passing by the story of the discovery of the lyre from a vibrating + tortoise-shell by Hermes, we will glance at the real lyres of Egypt + and Semitic Asia. The Egyptian lyre is unmistakably Semitic. The + oldest representation that has been discovered is in one of the tombs + of Beni Hassan, the date of the painting being in the XIIth Dynasty, + that is, shortly before the invasion of "the shepherd kings" (the + Hyksos). In this painting, which both Rosellini and Lepsius have + reproduced, an undoubted Semite carries a seven or eight-stringed + lyre, or rather cithara in transition, similar to the _rotta_ of the + middle ages. The instrument has a four-cornered body and an irregular + four-cornered frame above it, and the player carries it horizontally + from his breast, just as a modern Nubian would his kissar. He plays as + he walks, using both hands, a plectrum being in the right. Practical + knowledge of these ancient instruments may be gained through two + remarkable specimens preserved in the museums of Berlin (fig. 3) and + Leiden (see CITHARA). During the rule of the Hyksos the lyre became + naturalized in Egypt, and in the 18th dynasty it is frequently + depicted, and with finer grace of form. In the 19th and 20th dynasties + the lyre is sometimes still more slender, or is quite unsymmetrical + and very strong, the horns surmounted by heads of animals as in the + Berlin one, which has horses' heads at those extremities. Prokesch + copied one in the ruins of Wadi Halfa, splendid in blue and gold, with + a serpent wound round it. The Egyptians always strung their lyres + fan-shaped, like the modern Nubian kissar. Their paintings show three + to eight or nine strings, but the painters' accuracy may not be + unimpeachable; the Berlin instrument had fifteen. The three-stringed + lyre typified the three seasons of the Egyptian year--the water, the + green and the harvest; the seven, the planetary system from the moon + to Saturn. The Greeks had the same notion of the harmony of the + spheres. + + There is no evidence as to what the stringing of the Greek lyre was in + the heroic age. Plutarch says that Olympus and Terpander used but + three strings to accompany their recitation. As the four strings led + to seven and eight by doubling the tetrachord, so the trichord is + connected with the hexachord or six-stringed lyre depicted on so many + archaic Greek vases. We cannot insist on the accuracy of this + representation, the vase painters being little mindful of the complete + expression of details; yet we may suppose their tendency would be + rather to imitate than to invent a number. It was their constant + practice to represent the strings as being damped by the fingers of + the left hand of the player, after having been struck by the plectrum + which he held in the right hand. Before the Greek civilization had + assumed its historic form, there was likely to be great freedom and + independence of different localities in the matter of lyre stringing, + which is corroborated by the antique use of the chromatic (half-tone) + and enharmonic (quarter-tone) tunings, pointing to an early + exuberance, and perhaps also to an Asiatic bias towards refinements of + intonation, from which came the [Greek: chroai], the hues of tuning, + old Greek modifications of tetrachords entirely disused in the classic + period. The common scale of Olympus remained, a double trichord which + had served as the scaffolding for the enharmonic varieties. + + [Illustration: musical notes.] + + We may regard the Olympus scale, however, as consisting of two + tetrachords, eliding one interval in each, for the tetrachord, or + series of four notes, was very early adopted as the fundamental + principle of Greek music, and its origin in the lyre itself appears + sure. The basis of the tetrachord is the employment of the thumb and + first three fingers of the left hand to twang as many strings, the + little finger not being used on account of natural weakness. As a + succession of three whole tones would form the disagreeable and + untunable interval of a tritonus, two whole tones and a half-tone were + tuned, fixing the tetrachord in the consonant interval of the perfect + fourth. This succession of four notes being in the grasp of the hand + was called [Greek: syllabe], just as in language a group of letters + incapable of further reduction is called syllable. In the combination + of two syllables or tetrachords the modern diatonic scales resemble + the Greek so-called disjunct scale, but the Greeks knew nothing of our + categorical distinctions of major and minor. We might call the octave + Greek scale minor, according to our descending minor form, were not + the keynote in the middle the thumb note of the deeper tetrachord. The + upper tetrachord, whether starting from the keynote (conjunct) or from + the note above (disjunct), was of exactly the same form as the lower, + the position of the semitones being identical. The semitone was a + limma ([Greek: leimma]), rather less than the semitone of our modern + equal temperament, the Greeks tuning both the whole tones in the + tetrachord by the same ratio of 8:9, which made the major third a + dissonance, or rather would have done so had they combined them in + what we call harmony. In melodious sequence the Greek tetrachord is + decidedly more agreeable to the ear than the corresponding series of + our equal temperament. And although our scales are derived from + combined tetrachords, in any system of tuning that we employ, be it + just, mean-tone, or equal, they are less logical than the conjunct or + disjunct systems accepted by the Greeks. But modern harmony is not + compatible with them, and could not have arisen on the Greek melodic + lines. + + The conjunct scale of seven notes + + [Illustration: musical notes.] + + attributed to Terpander, was long the norm for stringing and tuning + the lyre. When the disjunct scale + + [Illustration: musical notes.] + + the octave scale attributed to Pythagoras, was admitted, to preserve + the time-honoured seven strings one note had to be omitted; it was + therefore customary to omit the C, which in Greek practice was a + dissonance. The Greek names for the strings of seven and eight + stringed lyres, the first note being highest in pitch and nearest the + player, were as follows: _Nete_, _Paranete_, _Paramese_; _Mese_, + _Lichanos_, _Parhypate_, _Hypate_; or _Nete_, _Paranete_, _Trite_, + _Paramese_; _Mese_, _Lichanos_, _Parhypate_, _Hypate_--the last four + from Mese to Hypate being the finger tetrachord, the others touched + with the plectrum. The highest string in pitch was called the last, + [Greek: neate]; the lowest in pitch was called the highest, [Greek: + hypate], because it was, in theory at least, the longest string. The + keynote and thumb string was [Greek: mese], middle; the next lower was + [Greek: lichanos], the first finger or lick-finger string; [Greek: + trite], the third, being in the plectrum division, was also known as + [Greek: oxeia], sharp, perhaps from the dissonant quality to which we + have referred as the cause of its omission. The plectrum and finger + tetrachords together were [Greek: diapason], through all; in the + disjunct scale, an octave. + + In transcribing the Greek notes into our notation, the absolute pitch + cannot be represented; the relative positions of the semitones are + alone determined. We have already quoted the scale of Pythagoras, the + Dorian or true Greek succession:-- + + [Illustration: musical notes.] + + Shifting the semitone one degree upwards in each tetrachord, we have + the Phrygian + + [Illustration: musical notes.] + + Another degree gives the Lydian + + [Illustration: musical notes.] + + which would be our major scale of E were not the keynote A. The names + imply an Asiatic origin. We need not here pursue further the + much-debated question of Greek scales and their derivation; it will + suffice to remark that the outside notes of the tetrachords were fixed + in their tuning as perfect fourths--the inner strings being, as + stated, in diatonic sequence, or when chromatic two half-tones were + tuned, when enharmonic two quarter-tones, leaving respectively the + wide intervals of a minor and major third, and both impure, to + complete the tetrachord. (A. J. H.) + + See the article by Theodore Reinach in Daremberg and Saglio, + _Antiguites grecques et romaines_; Wilhelm Johnsen, _Die Lyra, ein + Beitrag zur griechischen Kunstgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1876); Hortense + Panum, "Harfe und Lyra in Nord Europa," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Sbd. vii. + 1, pp. 1-40 (Leipzig, 1905); A. J. Hipkins, "Dorian and Phrygian, + reconsidered from a non-harmonic point of view," in _Intern. Mus. + Ges._ (Leipzig, 1903), iv. 3. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Ed. Gerhard, _Auserlesene griech. Vasenbilder_, part iii. + (Berlin, 1847), pl. 236 and p. 157. + + [2] See Aristotle, _Polit_. v. 6. 5. + + + + +LYRE-BIRD, the name by which one of the most remarkable birds Of +Australia is commonly known, the _Menura superba_ or _M. +novae-hollandiae_ of ornithologists. It was first observed in 1798 in +New South Wales, and though called by its finders a "pheasant"--from its +long tail--the more learned of the colony seem to have regarded it as a +bird-of-Paradise.[1] A specimen having reached England in 1799, it was +described by General Davies as forming a new genus of birds, in the +Linnean Society's _Transactions_ (vi. p. 207, pl. xxii.), no attempt, +however, being made to fix its systematic place. In 1802 L. P. Vieillot +figured and described it in a supplement to his _Oiseaux Dorés_ as a +bird-of-Paradise (ii. pp. 30 seq., pls. 14-16), from drawings by +Sydenham Edwards, sent him by Parkinson, the manager of the Leverian +Museum. The first to describe any portion of its anatomy was T. C. +Eyton, who in 1841 (_Ann. Nat. History_, vii. pp. 49-53) perceived that +it was a Passerine bird and that it presented some points of affinity to +the South American genus _Pteroptochus_. In 1867 Huxley stated that he +was disposed to divide his very natural assemblage the _Coracomorphae_ +(essentially identical with Eyton's _Insessores_) into two groups, "one +containing _Menura_, and the other all the other genera which have yet +been examined" (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1867, p. 472)--a still further step +in advance.[2] In 1875 A. Newton put forth the opinion in his article on +birds, in the 9th edition of this _Encyclopaedia_, that _Menura_ had an +ally in another Australian form, _Atrichia_ (see SCRUB-BIRD), which he +had found to present peculiarities hitherto unsuspected, and he regarded +them as standing by themselves, though each constituting a distinct +family. This opinion was partially adopted in the following year by A. +H. Garrod, who (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1876, p. 518) formally placed +these two genera together in his group of Abnormal Acromyodian _Oscines_ +under the name of _Menurinae_; ornithologists now generally recognize at +once the alliance and distinctness of the families Menuridae and +Atrichiidae, and place them together to form the group _Suboscines_ of +the Diacromyodian _Passeres_. + +Since the appearance in 1865 of J. Gould's _Handbook to the Birds of +Australia_, little important information has been published concerning +the habits of this form, and the account therein given must be drawn +upon for what here follows. Of all birds, says that author, the _Menura_ +is the most shy and hard to procure. He has been among the rocky and +thick "brushes"--its usual haunts--hearing its loud and liquid +call-notes for days together without getting sight of one. Those who +wish to see it must advance only while it is singing or scratching up +the earth and leaves; and to watch its actions they must keep perfectly +still. The best way of procuring an example seems to be by hunting it +with dogs, when it will spring upon a branch to the height of 10 ft. and +afford an easy shot ere it has time to ascend farther or escape as it +does by leaps. Natives are said to hunt it by fixing on their heads the +erected tail of a cock-bird, which alone is allowed to be seen above the +brushwood. The greater part of its time is said to be passed upon the +ground, and seldom are more than a pair to be found in company. One of +the habits of the cock is to form small round hillocks, which he +constantly visits during the day, mounting upon them and displaying his +tail by erecting it over his head, drooping his wings, scratching and +pecking at the soil, and uttering various cries--some his own natural +notes, others an imitation of those of other animals. The tail, his most +characteristic feature, only attains perfection in the bird's third or +fourth year, and then not until the month of June, remaining until +October, when the feathers are shed to be renewed the following season. +The food consists of insects, especially beetles and myriapods, as well +as snails. The nest is placed near to or on the ground, at the base of +a rock or foot of a tree, and is closely woven of fine but strong roots +or other fibres, and lined with feathers, around all which is heaped a +mass, in shape of an oven, of sticks, grass, moss and leaves, so as to +project over and shelter the interior structure, while an opening in the +side affords entrance and exit. Only one egg is laid, and this of rather +large size in proportion to the bird, of a purplish-grey colour, +suffused and blotched with dark purplish-brown. + +Incubation is believed to begin in July or August, and the young is +hatched about a month later. It is at first covered with dark down, and +appears to remain for some weeks in the nest. It is greatly to be hoped +that so remarkable a form as the lyre-bird, the nearly sole survivor +apparently of a very ancient race of beings, will not be allowed to +become extinct--its almost certain fate so far as can be judged--without +many more observations of its manners being made. Several examples of +_Menura_ have been brought alive to Europe, and some have long survived +in captivity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Three species of _Menura_ have been indicated--the old _M. superba_, the +lyre-bird proper, which inhabits New South Wales, the southern part of +Queensland, and perhaps some parts of Victoria; _M. victoriae_, +separated from the former by Gould (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1862, p. 23), +and said to take its place near Melbourne; and _M. alberti_, first +described by C. L. Bonaparte (_Consp. Avium_, i. 215) on Gould's +authority, and, though discovered on the Richmond river in New South +Wales, having apparently a more northern range than the other two. All +those have the apparent bulk of a hen pheasant, but are really much +smaller, and their general plumage is of a sooty brown, relieved by +rufous on the chin, throat, some of the wing-feathers and the +tail-coverts. The wings, consisting of twenty-one remiges, are rather +short and rounded; the legs[3] and feet very strong, with long, nearly +straight claws. In the immature and female the tail is somewhat long, +though affording no very remarkable character, except the possession of +sixteen rectrices; but in the fully-plumaged male of _M. superba_ and +_M. victoriae_ it is developed in the extraordinary fashion that gives +the bird its common English name. The two exterior feathers (fig. 1, a, +b) have the outer web very narrow, the inner very broad, and they curve +at first outwards, then somewhat inwards, and near the tip outwards +again, bending round forwards so as to present a lyre-like form. But +this is not all; their broad inner web, which is of a lively chestnut +colour, is apparently notched at regular intervals by spaces that, +according to the angle at which they are viewed, seem either black or +transparent; and this effect is, on examination, found to be due to the +barbs at those spaces being destitute of barbules. The middle pair of +feathers (fig. 2, a, b) is nearly as abnormal. These have no outer web, +and the inner web very narrow; near their base they cross each other, +and then diverge, bending round forwards near their tip. The remaining +twelve feathers (fig. 3) except near the base are very thinly furnished +with barbs, about ¼ in. apart, and those they possess, on their greater +part, though long and flowing, bear no barbules, and hence have a +hair-like appearance. The shafts of all are exceedingly strong. In the +male of _M. alberti_ the tail is not only not lyriform, but the exterior +rectrices are shorter than the rest. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Collins, _Account of New South Wales_, ii. 87-92 (London, 1802). + + [2] Owing to the imperfection of the specimen at his disposal, + Huxley's brief description of the bones of the head in _Menura_ is + not absolutely correct. A full description of them, with elaborate + figures, is given by Parker in the same Society's _Transactions_ (ix. + 306-309, pl. lvi. figs. 1-5). + + [3] The metatarsals are very remarkable in form, as already noticed + by Eyton (_loc. cit._), and their tendons strongly ossified. + + + + +LYRICAL POETRY, a general term for all poetry which is, or can be +supposed to be, susceptible of being sung to the accompaniment of a +musical instrument. In the earliest times it may be said that all poetry +was of its essence lyrical. The primeval oracles were chanted in verse, +and the Orphic and Bacchic Mysteries, which were celebrated at Eleusis +and elsewhere, combined, it is certain, metre with music. Homer and +Hesiod are each of them represented with a lyre, yet if any poetry can +be described as non-lyrical, it is surely the archaic hexameter of the +_Iliad_ and the _Erga_. These poems were styled epic, in direct +contradistinction to the lyric of Pindar and Bacchylides. But inexactly, +since it is plain that they were recited, with a plain accompaniment on +a stringed instrument. However, the distinction between epical and +lyrical, between [Greek: ta epe], what was said, and [Greek: ta mele], +what was sung, is accepted, and neither Homer nor Hesiod is among the +lyrists. This distinction, however, is often without a difference, as +for example, in the case of the so-called _Hymns_ of Homer, epical in +form but wholly lyrical in character. Hegel, who has gone minutely into +this question in his _Esthetik_, contends that when poetry is objective +it is epical, and when it is subjective it is lyrical. This is to ignore +the metrical form of the poem, and to deal with its character only. It +would constrain us to regard Wordsworth's _Excursion_ as a lyric, and +Tennyson's _Revenge_ (where the subject is treated exactly as one of the +Homeridae would have treated an Ionian myth) as an epic. This is +impossible, and recalls us to the importance of taking the form into +consideration. But, with this warning, the definition of Hegel is +valuable. It is, as he insists, the personal thought, or passion, or +inspiration, which gives its character to lyrical poetry. + +The lyric has the function of revealing, in terms of pure art, the +secrets of the inner life, its hopes, its fantastic joys, its sorrows, +its delirium. It is easier to exclude the dramatic species from lyric +than to banish the epic. There are large sections of drama which it is +inconceivable should be set to music, or sung, or even given in +recitative. The tragedies of Racine, for example, are composed of the +purest poetry, but they are essentially non-lyrical, although lyrical +portions are here and there attached to them. The intensity of feeling +and the melody of verse in _Othello_ does not make that work an example +of lyrical poetry, and this is even more acutely true of _Le +Misanthrope_, which is, nevertheless, a poem. The tendency of modern +drama is to divide itself further and further from lyric, but in early +ages the two kinds were indissoluble. Tragedy was goat-song, and the +earliest specimens of it were mainly composed of choruses. As Prof. G. +G. Murray says, in the _Suppliants_ of Aeschylus, the characters "are +singing for two-thirds of the play," accompanied by tumultuous music. +This primitive feature has gradually been worn away; the chorus grew +less and less prominent, and disappeared; the very verse-ornament of +drama tends to vanish, and we have plays essentially so poetical as +those of Ibsen and Maeterlinck written from end to end in bare prose. + +To return again to Greece, there was an early distinction, soon +accentuated, between the poetry chanted by a choir of singers, and the +song which expressed the sentiments of a single poet. The latter, the +[Greek: melos] or song proper, had reached a height of technical +perfection in "the Isles of Greece, where burning Sappho loved and +sung," as early as the 7th century B.C. That poetess, and her +contemporary Alcaeus, divide the laurels of the pure Greek song of +Dorian inspiration. By their side, and later, flourished the great poets +who set words to music for choirs, Alcman, Arion, Stesichorus, Simonides +and Ibycus, who lead us at the close of the 5th century to Bacchylides +and Pindar, in whom the magnificent tradition of the dithyrambic odes +reached its highest splendour of development. The practice of Pindar and +Sappho, we may say, has directed the course of lyrical poetry ever +since, and will, unquestionably, continue to do so. They discovered how, +with the maximum of art, to pour forth strains of personal magic and +music, whether in a public or a private way. The ecstasy, the uplifted +magnificence, of lyrical poetry could go no higher than it did in the +unmatched harmonies of these old Greek poets, but it could fill a much +wider field and be expressed with vastly greater variety. It did so in +their own age. The gnomic verses of Theognis were certainly sung; so +were the satires of Archilochus and the romantic reveries of Mimnermus. + +At the Renaissance, when the traditions of ancient life were taken up +eagerly, and hastily comprehended, it was thought proper to divide +poetry into a diversity of classes. The earliest English critic who +enters into a discussion of the laws of prosody, William Webbe, lays it +down, in 1586, that in verse "the most usual kinds are four, the heroic, +elegiac, iambic and lyric." Similar confusion of terms was common among +the critics of the 15th and 16th centuries, and led to considerable +error. It is plain that a border ballad is heroic, and may yet be +lyrical; here the word "heroic" stands for "epic." It is plain that +whether a poem is lyrical or not had nothing to do with the question +whether it is composed in an iambic measure. Finally, it is undoubted +that the early Greek "elegies" were sung to an accompaniment on the +flute, whether they were warlike, like those of Tyrtaeus, or +philosophical and amatory like those of Theognis. But (see ELEGY) the +present significance of "elegy," and this has been the case ever since +late classical times, is funereal; in modern parlance an elegy is a +dirge. Whether the great Alexandrian dirges, like those of Bion and of +Moschus, on which our elegiacal tradition is founded, were actually sung +to an accompaniment or not may be doubted; they seem too long, too +elaborate, and too ornate for that. But, at any rate, they were composed +on the convention that they would be sung, and it is conceivable that +music might have been wedded to the most complex of these Alexandrian +elegies. Accordingly, although _Lycidas_ and _Adonais_ are not +habitually "set to music," there is no reason why they should not be so +set, and their rounded and limited although extensive form links them +with the song, not with the epic. There are many odes of Swinburne's for +which it would be more difficult to write music than for his _Ave atque +Vale_. In fact, in spite of its solemn and lugubrious regularity, the +formal elegy or dirge is no more nor less than an ode, and is therefore +entirely lyrical. + +More difficulty is met with in the case of the sonnet, for although no +piece of verse, when it is inspired by subjective passion, fits more +closely with Hegel's definition of what lyrical poetry should be, yet +the rhythmical complication of the sonnet, and its rigorous uniformity, +seem particularly ill-fitted to interpretation on a lyre. When F. M. +degli Azzi put the book of Genesis (1700) into sonnets, and Isaac de +Benserade the _Metamorphoses_ of Ovid (1676) into rondeaux, these +eccentric and laborious versifiers produced what was epical rather than +lyrical poetry, if poetry it was at all. But the sonnet as Shakespeare, +Wordsworth and even Petrarch used it was a cry from the heart, a +subjective confession, and although there is perhaps no evidence that a +sonnet was ever set to music with success, yet there is no reason why +that might not be done without destroying its sonnet-character. + +Jouffroy was perhaps the first aesthetician to see quite clearly that +lyrical poetry is, really, nothing more than another name for poetry +itself, that it includes all the personal and enthusiastic part of what +lives and breathes in the art of verse, so that the divisions of +pedantic criticism are of no real avail to us in its consideration. We +recognize a narrative or epical poetry; we recognize drama; in both of +these, when the individual inspiration is strong, there is much that +trembles on the verge of the lyrical. But outside what is pure epic and +pure drama, all, or almost all, is lyrical. We say almost all, because +the difficulty arises of knowing where to place descriptive and +didactic poetry. The _Seasons_ of Thomson, for instance, a poem of high +merit and lasting importance in the history of literature--where is that +to be placed? What is to be said of the _Essay on Man_? In primitive +times, the former would have been classed under epic, the second would +have been composed in the supple iambic trimeter which so closely +resembled daily speech, and would not have been sharply distinguished +from prose. Perhaps this classification would still serve, were it not +for the element of versification, which makes a sharp line of +demarcation between poetic art and prose. This complexity of form, +rhythmical and stanzaic, takes much of the place which was taken in +antiquity by such music as Terpander is supposed to have supplied. In a +perfect lyric by a modern writer the instrument is the metrical form, to +which the words have to adapt themselves. There is perhaps no writer who +has ever lived in whose work this phenomenon may be more fruitfully +studied than it may be in the songs and lyrics of Shelley. The temper of +such pieces as "Arethusa" and "The Cloud" is indicated by a form hardly +more ambitious than a guitar; Hellas is full of passages which suggest +the harp; in his songs Shelley touches the lute or viol de gamba, while +in the great odes to the "West Wind" and to "Liberty" we listen to a +verse-form which reminds us by its volume of the organ itself. On the +whole subject of the nature of lyric poetry no commentary can be more +useful to the student than an examination of the lyrics of Shelley in +relation to those of the songwriters of ancient Greece. + + See Hegel, _Die Phänomenologie des Geistes_ (1807); T. S. Jouffroy, + _Cours d'esthétique_ (1843); W. Christ, _Metrik der Griechen und + Römer_, 2te. Aufl. (1879). (E. G.) + + + + +LYSANDER (Gr. [Greek: Lysandros]), son of Aristocritus, Spartan admiral +and diplomatist. Aelian (_Var. Hist._ xii. 43) and Phylarchus (_ap._ +Athen. vi. 271 e) say that he was a _mothax_, i.e. the son of a helot +mother (see HELOTS), but this tradition is at least doubtful; according +to Plutarch he was a Heraclid, though not of either royal family. We do +not know how he rose to eminence: he first appears as admiral of the +Spartan navy in 407 B.C. The story of his influence with Cyrus the +Younger, his naval victory off Notium, his quarrel with his successor +Callicratidas in 406, his appointment as [Greek: epistoleus] in 405, his +decisive victory at Aegospotami, and his share in the siege and +capitulation of Athens belong to the history of the Peloponnesian War +(q.v.). By 404 he was the most powerful man in the Greek world and set +about completing the task of building up a Spartan empire in which he +should be supreme in fact if not in name. Everywhere democracies were +replaced by oligarchies directed by bodies of ten men (decarchies, +[Greek: dekarchiai]) under the control of Spartan governors (harmosts, +[Greek: harmostai]). But Lysander's boundless influence and ambition, +and the superhuman honours paid him, roused the jealousy of the kings +and the ephors, and, on being accused by the Persian satrap Pharnabazus, +he was recalled to Sparta. Soon afterwards he was sent to Athens with an +army to aid the oligarchs, but Pausanias, one of the kings, followed him +and brought about a restoration of democracy. On the death of Agis II., +Lysander secured the succession of Agesilaus (q.v.), whom he hoped to +find amenable to his influence. But in this he was disappointed. Though +chosen to accompany the king to Asia as one of his thirty advisers +([Greek: symbouloi]), he was kept inactive and his influence was broken +by studied affronts, and finally he was sent at his own request as envoy +to the Hellespont. He soon returned to Sparta to mature plans for +overthrowing the hereditary kingship and substituting an elective +monarchy open to all Heraclids, or even, according to another version, +to all Spartiates. But his alleged attempts to bribe the oracles were +fruitless, and his schemes were cut short by the outbreak of war with +Thebes in 395. Lysander invaded Boeotia from the west, receiving the +submission of Orchomenus and sacking Lebadea, but the enemy intercepted +his despatch to Pausanias, who had meanwhile entered Boeotia from the +south, containing plans for a joint attack upon Haliartus. The town was +at once strongly garrisoned, and when Lysander marched against it he was +defeated and slain. He was buried in the territory of Panopeus, the +nearest Phocian city. An able commander and an adroit diplomatist, +Lysander was fired by the ambition to make Sparta supreme in Greece and +himself in Sparta. To this end he shrank from no treachery or cruelty; +yet, like Agesilaus, he was totally free from the characteristic Spartan +vice of avarice, and died, as he had lived, a poor man. + + See the biographies by Plutarch and Nepos; Xen. _Hellenica_, i. 5-iii. + 5; Diod. Sic. xiii. 70 sqq., 104 sqq., xiv. 3, 10, 13, 81; Lysias xii. + 60 sqq.; Justin v. 5-7; Polyaenus i. 45, vii. 19; Pausanias iii., ix. + 32, 5-10, x. 9, 7-11; C. A. Gehlert, _Vita Lysandri_ (Bautzen, 1874); + W. Vischer, _Alkibiades und Lysandros_ (Basel, 1845); O. H. J. + Nitzsch, _De Lysandro_ (Bonn, 1847); and the Greek histories in + general. (M. N. T.) + + + + +LYSANIAS, tetrarch of Abilene (see ABILA), according to Luke iii. 1, in +the time of John the Baptist. The only Lysanias mentioned in profane +history as exercising authority in this district was executed in 36 B.C. +by M. Antonius (Mark Antony). This Lysanias was the son of Ptolemy +Mennaeus, the ruler of an independent state, of which Abilene formed +only a small portion. According to Josephus (_Ant._ xix. 5, 1) the +emperor Claudius in A.D. 42 confirmed Agrippa I. in the possession of +"Abila of Lysanias" already bestowed upon him by Caligula, elsewhere +described as "Abila, which had formed the tetrarchy of Lysanias." It is +argued that this cannot refer to the Lysanias executed by M. Antonius, +since his paternal inheritance, even allowing for some curtailment by +Pompey, must have been of far greater extent. It is therefore assumed by +some authorities that the Lysanias in Luke (A.D. 28-29) is a younger +Lysanias, tetrarch of Abilene only, one of the districts into which the +original kingdom was split up after the death of Lysanias I. This +younger Lysanias may have been a son of the latter, and identical with, +or the father of, the Claudian Lysanias. On the other hand, Josephus +knows nothing of a younger Lysanias, and it is suggested by others that +he really does refer to Lysanias I. The explanation given by M. Krenkel +(_Josephus und Lucas_, Leipzig, 1894, p. 97) is that Josephus does not +mean to imply that Abila was the only possession of Lysanias, and that +he calls it the tetrarchy or kingdom of Lysanias because it was the last +remnant of the domain of Lysanias which remained under direct Roman +administration until the time of Agrippa. The expression was borrowed +from Josephus by Luke, who wrongly imagined that Lysanias I. had ruled +almost up to the time of the bestowal of his tetrarchy upon Agrippa, and +therefore to the days of John the Baptist. Two inscriptions are adduced +as evidence for the existence of a younger Lysanias--Bockh, _C.I.G._ +4521 and 4523. The former is inconclusive, and in the latter the reading +[Greek: Ans[aniou]] is entirely conjectural; the name might equally well +be Lysimachus or Lysias. + + See E. Schürer, _Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes_ (3rd ed., 1901), i. + p. 712; and (especially on the inscriptional evidence) E. Renan, + "Mémoire sur la dynastie des Lysanias d'Abilene" in _Mémoires de + l'institut imperial de France_ (xxvi., 1870); also P. W. Schmiedel in + the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, s.v. + + + + +LYSIAS, Attic orator, was born, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus +and the author of the life ascribed to Plutarch, in 459 B.C. This date +was evidently obtained by reckoning back from the foundation of Thurii +(444 B.C.), since there was a tradition that Lysias had gone thither at +the age of fifteen. Modern critics would place his birth later,--between +444 and 436 B.C.,--because, in Plato's _Republic_, of which the scene is +laid about 430 B.C., Cephalus, the father of Lysias, is among the +_dramatis personae_, and the emigration of Lysias to Thurii was said to +have followed his father's death. The latter statement, however, rests +only on the Plutarchic life; nor can Plato's dialogue be safely urged as +a minutely accurate authority. The higher date assigned by the ancient +writers agrees better with the tradition that Lysias reached, or passed, +the age of eighty.[1] Cephalus, his father, was a native of Syracuse, +and on the invitation of Pericles had settled at Athens. The opening +scene of Plato's _Republic_ is laid at the house of his eldest son, +Polemarchus, in Peiraeus. The tone of the picture warrants the inference +that the Sicilian family were well known to Plato, and that their +houses must often have been hospitable to such gatherings. + +At Thurii, the colony newly planted on the Tarentine Gulf (see +PERICLES), the boy may have seen Herodotus, now a man in middle life, +and a friendship may have grown up between them. There, too, Lysias is +said to have commenced his studies in rhetoric--doubtless under a master +of the Sicilian school--possibly, as tradition said, under Tisias, the +pupil of Corax, whose name is associated with the first attempt to +formulate rhetoric as an art. In 413 B.C. the Athenian armament in +Sicily was annihilated. The desire to link famous names is illustrated +by the ancient ascription to Lysias of a rhetorical exercise purporting +to be a speech in which the captive general Nicias appealed for mercy to +the Sicilians. The terrible blow to Athens quickened the energies of an +anti-Athenian faction at Thurii. Lysias and his elder brother +Polemarchus, with three hundred other persons, were "accused of +Atticizing." They were driven from Thurii and settled at Athens (412 +B.C.). + +Lysias and Polemarchus were rich men, having inherited property from +their father; and Lysias claims that, though merely resident aliens, +they discharged public services with a liberality which shamed many of +those who enjoyed the franchise (_In Eratosth._ 20). The fact that they +owned house property shows that they were classed as [Greek: isoteleis], +i.e. foreigners who paid only the same tax as citizens, being exempt +from the special tax ([Greek: metoikion]) on resident aliens. +Polemarchus occupied a house in Athens itself, Lysias another in the +Peiraeus, near which was their shield manufactory, employing a hundred +and twenty skilled slaves. In 404 the Thirty Tyrants were established at +Athens under the protection of a Spartan garrison. One of their earliest +measures was an attack upon the resident aliens, who were represented as +disaffected to the new government. Lysias and Polemarchus were on a list +of ten singled out to be the first victims. Polemarchus was arrested, +and compelled to drink hemlock. Lysias had a narrow escape, with the +help of a large bribe. He slipped by a back-door out of the house in +which he was a prisoner, and took boat to Megara. It appears that he had +rendered valuable services to the exiles during the reign of the +tyrants, and in 403 Thrasybulus proposed that these services should be +recognized by the bestowal of the citizenship. The Boule, however, had +not yet been reconstituted, and hence the measure could not be +introduced to the ecclesia by the requisite "preliminary resolution" +([Greek: probouleuma]). On this ground it was successfully opposed. + +During his later years Lysias--now probably a comparatively poor man +owing to the rapacity of the tyrants and his own generosity to the +Athenian exiles--appears as a hardworking member of a new +profession--that of writing speeches to be delivered in the law-courts. +The thirty-four extant are but a small fraction. From 403 to about 380 +B.C. his industry must have been incessant. The notices of his personal +life in these years are scanty. In 403 he came forward as the accuser of +Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty Tyrants. This was his only direct +contact with Athenian politics. The story that he wrote a defence for +Socrates, which the latter declined to use, probably arose from a +confusion. Several years after the death of Socrates the sophist +Polycrates composed a declamation against him, to which Lysias replied. +A more authentic tradition represents Lysias as having spoken his own +_Olympiacus_ at the Olympic festival of 388 B.C., to which Dionysius I. +of Syracuse had sent a magnificent embassy. Tents embroidered with gold +were pitched within the sacred enclosure; and the wealth of Dionysius +was vividly shown by the number of chariots which he had entered. Lysias +lifted up his voice to denounce Dionysius as, next to Artaxerxes, the +worst enemy of Hellas, and to impress upon the assembled Greeks that one +of their foremost duties was to deliver Sicily from a hateful +oppression. The latest work of Lysias which we can date (a fragment of a +speech _For Pherenicus_) belongs to 381 or 380 B.C. He probably died in +or soon after 380 B.C. + +Lysias was a man of kindly and genial nature, warm in friendship, loyal +to country, with a keen perception of character. and a fine though +strictly controlled sense of humour. The literary tact which is so +remarkable in the extant speeches is that of a singularly flexible +intelligence, always obedient to an instinct of gracefulness. He owes +his distinctive place to the power of concealing his art. It was +obviously desirable that a speech written for delivery by a client +should be suitable to his age, station and circumstances. Lysias was the +first to make this adaptation really artistic. His skill can be best +appreciated if we turn from the easy flow of his graceful language to +the majestic emphasis of Antiphon, or to the self-revealing art of +Isaeus. Translated into terms of ancient criticism, he became the model +of the "plain style" ([Greek: iochnos charakter, iochne, lite, apheles +lexis]: _genus tenue_ or _subtile_). Greek and then Roman critics +distinguished three styles of rhetorical composition--the "grand" (or +"elaborate"), the "plain" and the "middle," the "plain" being nearest to +the language of daily life. Greek rhetoric began in the "grand" style; +then Lysias set an exquisite pattern of the "plain"; and Demosthenes +might be considered as having effected an almost ideal compromise. + +The vocabulary of Lysias is pure and simple. Most of the rhetorical +"figures" are sparingly used--except such as consist in the parallelism +or opposition of clauses. The taste of the day--not yet emancipated from +the influence of the Sicilian rhetoric--probably demanded a large use of +antithesis. Lysias excels in vivid description; he has also a happy +knack of marking the speaker's character by light touches. The structure +of his sentences varies a good deal according to the dignity of the +subject. He has equal command over the "periodic" style ([Greek: +katestrammene lexis]) and the non-periodic or "continuous" ([Greek: +eiromene, dialelumene]). His disposition of his subject-matter is always +simple. The speech has usually four parts--introduction ([Greek: +prooimion]), narrative of facts ([Greek: diegesis]), proofs ([Greek: +pisteis]), which may be either external, as from witnesses, or internal, +derived from argument on the facts, and, lastly, conclusion ([Greek: +epilogos]). It is in the introduction and the narrative that Lysias is +seen at his best. In his greatest extant speech--that _Against +Eratosthenes_--and also in the fragmentary _Olympiacus_, he has pathos +and fire; but these were not characteristic qualities of his work. In +Cicero's judgment (_De Orat._ iii. 7, 28) Demosthenes was peculiarly +distinguished by force (_vis_), Aeschines by resonance (_sonitus_), +Hypereides by acuteness (_acumen_), Isocrates by sweetness (_suavitas_); +the distinction which he assigns to Lysias is _subtilitas_, an Attic +refinement--which, as he elsewhere says (_Brutus_, 16, 64) is often +joined to an admirable vigour (_lacerti_). Nor was it oratory alone to +which Lysias rendered service; his work had an important effect on all +subsequent Greek prose, by showing how perfect elegance could be joined +to plainness. Here, in his artistic use of familiar idiom, he might +fairly be called the Euripides of Attic prose. And his style has an +additional charm for modern readers, because it is employed in +describing scenes from the everyday life of Athens.[2] + + Thirty-four speeches (three fragmentary) have come down under the name + of Lysias; one hundred and twenty-seven more, now lost, are known from + smaller fragments or from titles. In the Augustan age four hundred and + twenty-five works bore his name, of which more than two hundred were + allowed as genuine by the critics. Our thirty-four works may be + classified as follows:-- + + A. EPIDEICTIC.--1. _Olympiacus_, xxxiii. 388 B.C.; 2. _Epitaphius_, + ii. (purporting to have been spoken during the Corinthian War; + certainly spurious), perhaps composed about 380-340 B.C. ("soon after + 387," Blass). + + B. DELIBERATIVE.--Plea for the Constitution, xxxiv., 403 B.C. + + C. FORENSIC, IN PUBLIC CAUSES.--I. _Relating to Offences directly + against the State ([Greek: graphai demosion adikematon]); such as + treason, malversation in office, embezzlement of public moneys._ 1. + For Polystratus, xx., 407 B.C.; 2. Defence on a Charge of Taking + Bribes, xxi., 402 B.C.; 3. Against Ergocles, xxviii., 389 B.C.; 4. + Against Epicrates, xxvii., 389 B.C.; 5. Against Nicomachus, xxx., 399 + B.C.; 6. Against the Corndealers, xxii., 386 B.C. (?) II. _Cause + relating to Unconstitutional Procedure_ ([Greek: graphe paranomon]). + On the Property of the Brother of Nicias, xviii., 395 B.C. III. + _Causes relating to Claims for Money withheld from the State ([Greek: + apographai])_. 1. For the Soldier, ix. (probably not by Lysias, but by + an imitator, writing for a real cause), 394 B.C. (?); 2. On the + Property of Aristophanes, xix., 387 B.C.; 3. Against Philocrates, + xxix., 389 B.C. IV. _Causes relating to a Scrutiny ([Greek: + dokimasia]); especially the Scrutiny, by the Senate, of Officials + Designate._ 1. Against Evandrus, xxvi., 382 B.C.; 2. For Mantitheus, + xvi., 392 B.C.; 3. Against Philon, xxxi., between 404 and 395 B.C.; 4. + Defence on a Charge of Seeking to Abolish the Democracy, xxv., 401 + B.C.; 5. For the Invalid, xxiv., 402 B.C. (?) V. _Causes relating to + Military Offences ([Greek: graphai lipotaxiou, astrateias])._ 1. + Against Alcibiades, I. and II. (xiv., xv.), 395 B.C. VI. _Causes + relating to Murder or Intent to Murder_ ([Greek: graphai phonou, + traumatos ek pronoias]). 1. Against Eratosthenes, xii., 403 B.C.; 2. + Against Agoratus, xiii., 399 B.C.; 3. On the Murder of Eratosthenes, + i. (date uncertain); 4. Against Simon, iii., 393 B.C.; 5. On Wounding + with Intent, iv. (date uncertain). VII. _Causes relating to Impiety_ + ([Greek: graphai asebeias]). 1. Against Andocides, vi. (certainly + spurious, but perhaps contemporary); 2. For Callias, v. (date + uncertain); 3. On the Sacred Olive, vii., not before 395 B.C. + + D. FORENSIC, IN PRIVATE CAUSES.--I. _Action for Libel_ ([Greek: dike + kakegorias]). Against Theomnestus, x., 384-383 B.C. (the so-called + second speech, xi., is merely an epitome of the first). II. _Action by + a Ward against a Guardian_ ([Greek: dike epitropes]). Against + Diogeiton, xxxii., 400 B.C. III. _Trial of a Claim to Property_ + ([Greek: diadikasia]). On the property of Eraton, xvii., 397 B.C. IV. + _Answer to a Special Plea ([Greek: pros paragraphen])._ Against + Pancleon, xxiii. (date uncertain). + + E. MISCELLANEOUS.--1. To his Companions, a Complaint of Slanders, + viii. (certainly spurious); 2. The [Greek: erotikos] in Plato's + _Phaedrus_, pp. 230 E-234. This has generally been regarded as Plato's + own work; but the certainty of this conclusion will be doubted by + those who observe (1) the elaborate preparations made in the dialogue + for a recital of the [Greek: erotikos] which shall be _verbally + exact_, and (2) the closeness of the criticism made upon it. If the + satirist were merely analysing his own composition, such criticism + would have little point. Lysias is the earliest writer who is known to + have composed [Greek: erotikoi]; it is as representing both rhetoric + and a false [Greek: eros] that he is the object of attack in the + _Phaedrus_. + + F. FRAGMENTS.--Three hundred and fifty-five of these are collected by + Sauppe, _Oratores Attici_, ii. 170-216. Two hundred and fifty-two of + them represent one hundred and twenty-seven speeches of known title; + and of six the fragments are comparatively large. Of these, the + fragmentary speech _For Pherenicus_ belongs to 381 or 380 B.C., and is + thus the latest known work of Lysias.[3] + + In literary and historical interest, the first place among the extant + speeches of Lysias belongs to that _Against Eratosthenes_ (403 B.C.), + one of the Thirty Tyrants, whom Lysias arraigns as the murderer of his + brother Polemarchus. The speech is an eloquent and vivid picture of + the reign of terror which the Thirty established at Athens; the + concluding appeal, to both parties among the citizens, is specially + powerful. Next in importance is the speech _Against Agoratus_ (399 + B.C.), one of our chief authorities for the internal history of Athens + during the months which immediately followed the defeat at + Aegospotami. The _Olympiacus_ (388 B.C.) is a brilliant fragment, + expressing the spirit of the festival at Olympia, and exhorting Greeks + to unite against their common foes. The _Plea for the Constitution_ + (403 B.C.) is interesting for the manner in which it argues that the + wellbeing of Athens--now stripped of empire--is bound up with the + maintenance of democratic principles. The speech _For Mantitheus_ (392 + B.C.) is a graceful and animated portrait of a young Athenian [Greek: + hippeus], making a spirited defence of his honour against the charge + of disloyalty. The defence _For the Invalid_ is a humorous + character-sketch. The speech _Against Pancleon_ illustrates the + intimate relations between Athens and Plataea, while it gives us some + picturesque glimpses of Athenian town life. The defence of the person + who had been charged with destroying a _moria_, or sacred olive, + places us amidst the country life of Attica. And the speech _Against + Theomnestus_ deserves attention for its curious evidence of the way in + which the ordinary vocabulary of Athens had changed between 600 and + 400 B.C. + + All MSS. of Lysias yet collated have been derived, as H. Sauppe first + showed, from the Codex Palatinus X. (Heidelberg). The next most + valuable MS. is the Laurentianus C (15th century), which I. Bekker + chiefly followed. Speaking generally, we may say that these two MSS. + are the only two which carry much weight where the text is seriously + corrupt. In _Oratt._ i.-ix. Bekker occasionally consulted eleven other + MSS., most of which contain only the above nine speeches: viz., + Marciani F, G, I, K (Venice); Laurentiani D, E (Florence); Vaticani M, + N; Parisini U, V; Urbinas O. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editio princeps, Aldus (Venice, 1513); by I. Bekker + (1823) and W. S. Dobson (1828) in _Oratores Attici_; C. Scheibe (1852) + and T. Thalheim (1901, Teubner series, with bibliography); C. G. Cobet + (4th ed., by J. J. Hartman, 1905); with variorum notes, by J. J. + Reiske (1772). Editions of select speeches by J. H. Bremi (1845); R. + Rauchenstein (1848, revised by C. Fuhr, 1880-1881); H. Frohberger + (1866-1871); H. van Herwerden (1863); A. Weidner (1888); E. S. + Shuckburgh (1882); A. Westermann and W. Binder (1887-1890); G. P. + Bristol (1892), M. H. Morgan (1895), C. D. Adams (1905), all three + published in America. There is a special lexicon to Lysias by D. H. + Holmes (Bonn, 1895). See also Jebb's _Attic Orators_ (1893) and + _Selections from the Attic Orators_ (2nd ed., 1888) and F. Blass, + _Die Attische Beredsamkeit_ (2nd ed., 1887-1898); W. L. Devries, + _Ethopoiia. A rhetorical study of the types of character in the + orations of Lysias_ (Baltimore, 1892). (R. C. J.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] [W. Christ, _Gesch. der griech. Litt._, gives the date of birth + as about 450.] + + [2] See further Jebb, _The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus_, i. + 142-316. + + [3] [Some remains of the speech against Theozotides have been found + in the Hibeh papyri; see W. H. D. Rouse's _The Year's Work in + Classical Studies_ (1907)]. + + + + +LYSIMACHUS (c. 355-281 B.C.), Macedonian general, son of Agathocles, was +a citizen of Pella in Macedonia. During Alexander's Persian campaigns he +was one of his immediate bodyguard and distinguished himself in India. +After Alexander's death he was appointed to the government of Thrace and +the Chersonese. For a long time he was chiefly occupied with fighting +against the Odrysian king Seuthes. In 315 he joined Cassander, Ptolemy +and Seleucus against Antigonus, who, however, diverted his attention by +stirring up Thracian and Scythian tribes against him. In 309, he founded +Lysimachia in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the +Chersonese with the mainland. He followed the example of Antigonus in +taking the title of king. In 302 when the second alliance between +Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus was made, Lysimachus, reinforced by +troops from Cassander, entered Asia Minor, where he met with little +resistance. On the approach of Antigonus he retired into winter quarters +near Heraclea, marrying its widowed queen Amastris, a Persian princess. +Seleucus joined him in 301, and at the battle of Ipsus Antigonus was +slain. His dominions were divided among the victors, Lysimachus +receiving the greater part of Asia Minor. Feeling that Seleucus was +becoming dangerously great, he now allied himself with Ptolemy, marrying +his daughter Arsinoë. Amastris, who had divorced herself from him, +returned to Heraclea. When Antigonus's son Demetrius renewed hostilities +(297), during his absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia +Minor, but in 294 concluded a peace whereby Demetrius was recognized as +ruler of Macedonia. He tried to carry his power beyond the Danube, but +was defeated and taken prisoner by the Getae, who, however, set him free +on amicable terms. Demetrius subsequently threatened Thrace, but had to +retire in consequence of a rising in Boeotia, and an attack from Pyrrhus +of Epirus. In 288 Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in turn invaded Macedonia, and +drove Demetrius out of the country. Pyrrhus was at first allowed to +remain in possession of Macedonia with the title of king, but in 285 he +was expelled by Lysimachus. Domestic troubles embittered the last years +of Lysimachus's life. Amastris had been murdered by her two sons; +Lysimachus treacherously put them to death. On his return Arsinoë asked +the gift of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised +to free the city. In 284 Arsinoë, desirous of gaining the succession for +her sons in preference to Agathocles (the eldest son of Lysimachus), +intrigued against him with the help of her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus; +they accused him of conspiring with Seleucus to seize the throne, and he +was put to death. This atrocious deed of Lysimachus aroused great +indignation. Many of the cities of Asia revolted, and his most trusted +friends deserted him. The widow of Agathocles fled to Seleucus, who at +once invaded the territory of Lysimachus in Asia. Lysimachus crossed the +Hellespont, and in 281 a decisive battle took place at the plain of +Corus (Corupedion) in Lydia. Lysimachus was killed; after some days his +body, watched by a faithful dog, was found on the field, and given up to +his son Alexander, by whom it was interred at Lysimachia. + + See Arrian, _Anab._ v. 13, vi. 28; Justin xv. 3, 4, xvii. 1; Quintus + Curtius v. 3, x. 30; Diod. Sic. xviii. 3; Polybius v. 67; Plutarch, + _Demetrius_, 31. 52, _Pyrrhus_, 12; Appian, _Syriaca_, 62; Thirlwall, + _History of Greece_, vol. viii. (1847); J. P. Mahaffy, _Story of + Alexander's Empire_; Droysen, _Hellenismus_ (2nd ed., 1877); A. Holm, + _Griechische Geschichte_, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, _Gesch. d. + griech. u. maked. Staaten_, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899); J. Beloch, + _Griech. Gesch._ vol. iii. (1904); Hünerwadel, _Forschungen zur Gesch. + des Konigs Lysimachus_ (1900); Possenti, _Il Re Lisimaco di Tracia_ + (1901); Ghione, _Note sul regno di Lisimaco (Atti d. real. Accad. di + Torino_, xxxix.); and MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. (E. R. B.) + + + + +LYSIPPUS, Greek sculptor, was head of the school of Argos and Sicyon in +the time of Philip and Alexander of Macedon. His works are said to have +numbered 1500, some of them colossal. Some accounts make him the +continuer of the school of Polyclitus; some represent him as +self-taught. The matter in which he especially innovated was the +proportions of the male human body; he made the head smaller than his +predecessors, the body more slender and hard, so as to give the +impression of greater height. He also took great pains with hair and +other details. Pliny (_N.H._ 34, 61) and other writers mention many of +his statues. Among the gods he seems to have produced new and striking +types of Zeus (probably of the Otricoli class), of Poseidon (compare the +Poseidon of the Lateran, standing with raised foot), of the Sun-god and +others; many of these were colossal figures in bronze. Among heroes he +was specially attracted by the mighty physique of Hercules. The Hercules +Farnese of Naples, though signed by Glycon of Athens, and a later and +exaggerated transcript, owes something, including the motive of rest +after labour, to Lysippus. Lysippus made many statues of Alexander the +Great, and so satisfied his patron, no doubt by idealizing him, that he +became the court sculptor of the king, from whom and from whose generals +he received many commissions. The extant portraits of Alexander vary +greatly, and it is impossible to determine which among them go back to +Lysippus. The remarkable head from Alexandria (Plate II. fig. 56, in +GREEK ART) has as good a claim as any. + +As head of the great athletic school of Peloponnese Lysippus naturally +sculptured many athletes; a figure by him of a man scraping himself with +a strigil was a great favourite of the Romans in the time of Tiberius +(Pliny, _N.H._ 34, 61); and this has been usually regarded as the +original copied in the Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (GREEK ART, Plate VI. +fig. 79). If so, the copyist has modernized his copy, for some features +of the Apoxyomenus belong to the Hellenistic age. With more certainty we +may see a copy of an athlete by Lysippus in the statue of Agias found at +Delphi (GREEK ART, Plate V. fig. 74), which is proved by inscriptions to +be a replica in marble of a bronze statue set up by Lysippus in +Thessaly. And when the Agias and the Apoxyomenus are set side by side +their differences are so striking that it is difficult to attribute them +to the same author, though they may belong to the same school. (P. G.) + + + + +LYSIS OF TARENTUM (d. c. 390 B.C.), Greek philosopher. His life is +obscure, but it is generally accepted, that in the persecution of the +Pythagoreans at Crotona and Metapontum he escaped and went to Thebes, +where he came under the influence of Philolaus. The friend and companion +of Pythagoras, he has been credited with many of the works usually +attributed to Pythagoras himself. Diogenes Laertius viii. 6 gives him +three, and Mullach even assigns to him the _Golden Verses_. But it is +generally held that these verses are a collection of lines by many +authors rather than the work of one man. + + + + +LYSISTRATUS, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C., brother of +Lysippus of Sicyon. We are told by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ 35, 153) that he +followed a strongly realistic line, being the first sculptor to take +impressions of human faces in plaster. + + + + +LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS (1793-1847), Anglican divine and hymn-writer, was +born near Kelso on the 1st of June 1793, and was educated at Enniskillen +school and at Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders in 1815, and for +some time held a curacy near Wexford. Owing to infirm health he came to +England, and after several changes settled, in 1823, in the parish of +Brixham. In 1844 his health finally gave way; and he died at Nice on the +20th of November 1847. + + Lyte's first work was _Tales in Verse illustrative of Several of the + Petitions in the Lord's Prayer_ (1826), which was written at Lymington + and was commended by Wilson in the _Noctes Ambrosianae_. He next + published (1833) a volume of _Poems, chiefly Religious_, and in 1834 a + little collection of psalms and hymns entitled _The Spirit of the + Psalms_. After his death, a volume of _Remains_ with a memoir was + published, and the poems contained in this, with those in _Poems, + chiefly Religious_, were afterwards issued in one volume (1868). His + best known hymns are "Abide with me! fast falls the eventide"; "Jesus, + I my cross have taken"; "Praise, my soul, the King of Heaven"; and + "Pleasant are Thy courts above." + + + + +LYTHAM, an urban district and watering-place in the Blackpool +parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the north shore of the +estuary of the Ribble, 13½ m. W. of Preston by a joint line of the +London & North Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) +7185. It has a pier, a pleasant promenade and drive along the shore, +and other appointments of a seaside resort, but it is less wholly +devoted to holiday visitors than Blackpool, which lies 8 m. N.W. A +Benedictine cell was founded here at the close of the 12th century by +the lord of the manor, Richard Fitz-Roger. + + + + +LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON, 1ST BARON (1709-1773), English statesman +and man of letters, born at Hagley, Worcestershire, was a descendant of +the great jurist Sir Thomas Littleton (q.v.). He was the eldest son of +Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 4th bart. (d. 1751), who at the revolution of 1688 +and during the following reign was one of the ablest Whig debaters of +the House of Commons.[1] Lyttelton was educated at Eton and Oxford, and +in 1728 set out on the grand tour, spending considerable periods at +Paris and Rome. On his return to England he sat in parliament for +Okehampton, Devonshire, beginning public life in the same year with +Pitt. From 1744 to 1754 he held the office of a lord commissioner of the +treasury. In 1755 he succeeded Legge as chancellor of the exchequer, but +in 1756 he quitted office, being raised to the peerage as Baron +Lyttelton, of Frankley, in the county of Worcester. In the political +crisis of 1765, before the formation of the Rockingham administration, +it was suggested that he might be placed at the head of the treasury, +but he declined to take part in any such scheme. The closing years of +his life were devoted chiefly to literary pursuits. He died on the 22nd +of August 1773. + + Lyttelton's earliest publication (1735), _Letters from a Persian in + England to his Friend at Ispahan_, appeared anonymously. Much greater + celebrity was achieved by his _Observations on the Conversion and + Apostleship of St Paul_, also anonymous, published in 1747. It takes + the form of a letter to Gilbert West, and is designed to show that St + Paul's conversion is of itself a sufficient demonstration of the + divine character of Christianity. Dr Johnson regarded the work as one + "to which infidelity has never been able to fabricate a specious + answer." Lord Lyttelton's _Dialogues of the Dead_, a creditable + performance, though hardly rivalling either Lucian or Landor, appeared + in 1760. His _History of Henry II._ (1767-1771), the fruit of twenty + years' labour, is not now cited as an authority, but is painstaking + and fair. Lyttelton was also a writer of verse; his _Monody_ on his + wife's death has been praised by Gray for its elegiac tenderness, and + his _Prologue_ to the _Coriolanus_ of his friend Thomson shows genuine + feeling. He was also the author of the well-known stanza in the + _Castle of Indolence_, in which the poet himself is described. A + complete collection of the _Works_ of Lord Lyttelton was published by + his nephew, G. E. Ayscough in 1774. + +His son THOMAS (1744-1779), who succeeded as 2nd baron, played some part +in the political life of his time, but his loose and prodigal habits +were notorious, and he is known, in distinction to his father "the good +lord," as the wicked Lord Lyttelton. He left no lawful issue, and the +barony became extinct; but it was revived in 1794 in the person of his +uncle WILLIAM HENRY, 1st baron of the new creation (1724-1808), who was +governor of S. Carolina and later of Jamaica, and ambassador to +Portugal. The new barony went after him to his two sons. The 3rd baron +(1782-1837) was succeeded by his son GEORGE WILLIAM LYTTELTON, 4th baron +(1817-1876), who was a fine scholar, and brother-in-law of W. E. +Gladstone, having married Miss Mary Glynne. He did important work in +educational and poor law reform. He had eight sons, of whom the eldest, +CHARLES GEORGE (b. 1842), became 5th baron, and in 1889 succeeded, by +the death of the 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos, to the viscounty of +Cobham, in which title the barony of Lyttelton is now merged. Other +distinguished sons were Arthur Temple Lyttelton (d. 1903), warden of +Selwyn College, Cambridge, and bishop-suffragan of Southampton; Edward +Lyttelton (b. 1855), headmaster of Haileybury (1890-1905) and then of +Eton; and Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857), secretary of state for the +colonies (1903-1906). It was a family of well-known cricketers, Alfred +being in his day the best wicket-keeper in England as well as a fine +tennis player. + + For the 1st baron see Sir R. Phillimore's _Memoirs and Correspondence + of Lord Lyttelton_, 1734-1773 (2 vols., 1845). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Sir Thomas (or Thomas de) Littleton, the jurist, had three sons, + William, Richard and Thomas. From the first, William, was descended + Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 1st bart. of Frankley (1596-1650), whose sons + were Sir Henry, 2nd bart. (d. 1693), and Sir Charles, 3rd bart. + (1629-1716), governor of Jamaica. The latter's son was Sir Thomas, + 4th bart., above mentioned, who was also the father of Charles + Lyttelton (1714-1768), bishop of Carlisle, and president of the + Society of Antiquaries. The male descendants of the second, Richard, + died out with Sir Edward Littleton, bart., of Pillaton, + Staffordshire, in 1812, but the latter's grandnephew, Edward John + Walhouse (1791-1863) of Hatherton, took the estates by will and also + the name of Littleton, and was created 1st Baron Hatherton in 1835; + he was chief secretary for Ireland (1833-1834). From Thomas, the + third son, was descended, in one line, Edward, Lord Littleton, of + Munslow (1589-1645), recorder of London, chief justice of the common + pleas, and eventually lord keeper; and in another line, the baronets + of Stoke St Milborough, Shropshire, of whom the best known and last + was Sir Thomas Littleton, 3rd bart. (1647-1710), speaker of the House + of Commons (1698-1700), and treasurer of the navy. + + + + +LYTTELTON, a borough of New Zealand, the port of Christchurch (q.v.) on +the E. coast of South Island, on an inlet on the north-western side of +Banks Peninsula. Pop. (1906) 3941. It is surrounded by abrupt hills +rising to 1600 ft., through which a railway communicates with +Christchurch (7 m. N.W.) by a tunnel 1¾ m. long. Great breakwaters +protect the harbour, which has an area of 110 acres, with a low-tide +depth of 20 to 27 ft. There is a graving dock accessible for vessels of +6000 tons. The produce of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury +is exported, frozen or preserved. Lyttelton, formerly called Port Cooper +and Port Victoria, was the original settlement in this district (1850). + + + + +LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON, BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST BARON +(1803-1873), English novelist and politician, the youngest son of +General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, Norfolk, +was born in London on the 25th of May 1803. He had two brothers, William +(1790-1877) and Henry (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Dalling (q.v.). +Bulwer's father died when the boy was four years old. His mother, +Elizabeth Barbara, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth, +Hertfordshire, after her husband's death settled in London. Bulwer, who +was delicate and neurotic, gave evidence of precocious talent and was +sent to various boarding schools, where he was always discontented, +until in the establishment of a Mr Wallington at Ealing he found in his +master a sympathetic and admiring listener. Mr Wallington induced him to +publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature volume entitled _Ishmael and +other Poems_. About this time Bulwer fell in love, and became extremely +morbid under enforced separation from the young lady, who was induced by +her father to marry another man. She died about the time that Bulwer +went to Cambridge, and he declared that her loss affected all his +after-life. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, but removed +shortly afterwards to Trinity Hall, and in 1825 won the Chancellor's +medal for English verse with a poem on "Sculpture." In the following +year he took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small +volume of poems, _Weeds and Wild Flowers_, in which the influence of +Byron was easily traceable. In 1827 he published _O'Neill, or the +Rebel_, a romance, in heroic couplets, of patriotic struggle in Ireland, +and in 1831 a metrical satire, _The Siamese Twins_. These juvenilia he +afterwards ignored. + +Meanwhile he had begun to take his place in society, being already known +as a dandy of considerable pretensions, who had acted as second in a +duel and experienced the fashionable round of flirtation and intrigue. +He purchased a commission in the army, only to sell it again without +undergoing any service, and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his +mother's wishes, Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802-1882), an Irish beauty, +niece and adopted daughter of General Sir John Doyle. She was a +brilliant but passionate girl, and upon his marriage with her, Bulwer's +mother withdrew the allowance she had hitherto made him. He had £200 a +year from his father, and less than £100 a year with his wife, and found +it necessary to set to work in earnest. In the year of his marriage he +published _Falkland_, a novel which was only a moderate success, but in +1828 he attracted general attention with _Pelham_, a novel for which he +had gathered material during a visit to Paris in 1825. This story, with +its intimate study of the dandyism of the age, was immediately popular, +and gossip was busy in identifying the characters of the romance with +the leading men of the time. In the same year he published _The +Disowned_, following it up with _Devereux_ (1829), _Paul Clifford_ +(1830), _Eugène Aram_ (1832) and _Godolphin_ (1833). All these novels +were designed with a didactic purpose, somewhat upon the German model. +To embody the leading features of a period, to show how a criminal may +be reformed by the development of his own character, to explain the +secrets of failure and success in life, these were the avowed objects of +his art, and there were not wanting critics ready to call in question +his sincerity and his morality. Magazine controversy followed, in which +Bulwer was induced to take a part, and about the same time he began to +make a mark in politics. He became a follower of Bentham, and in 1831 +was elected member for St Ives in Huntingdon. During this period of +feverish activity his relations with his wife grew less and less +satisfactory. At first she had cause to complain that he neglected her +in the pursuit of literary reputation; later on his disregard became +rather active than passive. After a series of distressing differences +they decided to live apart, and were legally separated in 1836. Three +years later his wife published a novel called _Cheveley, or the Man of +Honour_, in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured, and in June 1858, +when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for +Hertfordshire, she appeared at the hustings and indignantly denounced +him. She was consequently placed under restraint as insane, but +liberated a few weeks later. For years she continued her attacks upon +her husband's character, and outlived him by nine years, dying at Upper +Sydenham in March 1882. There is little doubt that her passionate +imagination gravely exaggerated the tale of her wrongs, though Bulwer +was certainly no model for husbands. It was a case of two undisciplined +natures in domestic bondage, and the consequences of their union were as +inevitable as they were unfortunate. + +Bulwer, meanwhile, was full of activity, both literary and political. +After representing St Ives, he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat +in parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the +Reform Bill, and took the leading part in securing the reduction, after +vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties. His pamphlet, +issued when the Whigs were dismissed from office in 1834, and entitled +"A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis," was immensely +influential, and Lord Melbourne offered him a lordship of the admiralty, +which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author. +At this time, indeed, his pen was indefatigable. _Godolphin_ was +followed by _The Pilgrims of the Rhine_ (1834), a graceful fantasy, too +German in sentiment to be quite successful in England, and then in _The +Last Days of Pompeii_ (1834) and Rienzi (1835) he reached the height of +his popularity. He took great pains with these stories, and despite +their lurid colouring and mannered over-emphasis, they undoubtedly +indicate the highwater mark of his talent. Their reception was +enthusiastic, and _Ernest Maltravers_ (1837) and _Alice, or the +Mysteries_ (1838) were hardly less successful. At the same time he had +been plunging into journalism. In 1831 he undertook the editorship of +the _New Monthly_, which, however, he resigned in the following year, +but in 1841, the year in which he published _Night and Morning_, he +started the _Monthly Chronicle_, a semi-scientific magazine, for which +he wrote _Zicci_, an unfinished first draft afterwards expanded into +_Zanoni_ (1842). As though this multifarious fecundity were not +sufficient, he had also been busy in the field of dramatic literature. +In 1838 he produced _The Lady of Lyons_, a play which Macready made a +great success at Covent Garden: in 1839 _Richelieu_ and _The Sea +Captain_, and in 1840 _Money_. All, except _The Sea Captain_, were +successful, and this solitary failure he revived in 1869 under the title +of _The Rightful Heir_. Of the others it may be said that, though they +abound in examples of strained sentiment and false taste, they have +nevertheless a certain theatrical _flair_, which has enabled them to +survive a whole library of stage literature of greater sincerity and +truer feeling. _The Lady of Lyons_ and _Money_ have long held the stage, +and to the last-named, at least, some of the most talented of modern +comedians have given new life and probability. + +In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was created a +baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate in 1843 added Lytton +to his surname, under the terms of his mother's will. From 1841 to 1852 +he had no seat in parliament, and spent much of his time in continental +travel. His literary activity waned somewhat, but was still remarkably +alert for a man who had already done so much. In 1843 he issued _The +Last of the Barons_, which many critics have considered the most +historically sound and generally effective of all his romances; in 1847 +_Lucretia, or the Children of the Night_, and in 1848 _Harold, the last +of the Saxon Kings_. In the intervals between these heavier productions +he had thrown off a volume of poems in 1842, another of translations +from Schiller in 1844, and a satire called _The New Timon_ in 1846, in +which Tennyson, who had just received a Civil List pension, was bitterly +lampooned as "school miss Alfred," with other unedifying amenities; +Tennyson retorted with some verses in which he addressed Bulwer-Lytton +as "you band-box." These poetic excursions were followed by his most +ambitious work in metre, a romantic epic entitled _King Arthur_, of +which he expected much, and he was greatly disappointed by its apathetic +reception. Having experienced some rather acid criticism, questioning +the morality of his novels, he next essayed a form of fiction which he +was determined should leave no loophole to suspicion, and in _The +Caxtons_ (1849), published at first anonymously, gave further proof of +his versatility and resource. _My Novel_ (1853) and _What will he do +with it?_ were designed to prolong the same strain. + +In 1852 he entered the political field anew, and in the conservative +interest. He had differed from the policy of Lord John Russell over the +corn laws, and now separated finally from the liberals. He stood for +Hertfordshire and was elected, holding the seat till 1866, when he was +raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton of Knebworth. His eloquence gave +him the ear of the House of Commons, and he often spoke with influence +and authority. In 1858 he was appointed secretary for the colonies. In +the House of Lords he was comparatively inactive. His last novels were +_A Strange Story_ (1862), a mystical romance with spiritualistic +tendencies; _The Coming Race_ (1871), _The Parisians_ (1873)--both +unacknowledged at the time of his death; and _Kenelm Chillingly_, which +was in course of publication in _Blackwood's Magazine_ when Lytton died +at Torquay on the 18th of January 1873. The last three of his stories +were classed by his son, the 2nd Lord Lytton, as a trilogy, animated by +a common purpose, to exhibit the influence of modern ideas upon +character and conduct. + +Bulwer-Lytton's attitude towards life was theatrical, the language of +his sentiments was artificial and over-decorated, and the tone of his +work was often so flamboyant as to give an impression of false taste and +judgment. Nevertheless, he built up each of his stories upon a +deliberate and careful framework: he was assiduous according to his +lights in historical research; and conscientious in the details of +workmanship. As the fashion of his day has become obsolete the immediate +appeal of his work has diminished. It will always, however, retain its +interest, not only for the merits of certain individual novels, but as a +mirror of the prevailing intellectual movement of the first half of the +19th century. + + See T. H. S. Escott, _Edward Bulwer, 1st Baron Lytton of Knebworth_ + (1910). (A. Wa.) + + + + +LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST EARL OF (1831-1891), English +diplomatist and poet, was the only son of the 1st Baron Lytton. He was +born in Hertford Street, Mayfair, on the 8th of November 1831. Robert +Lytton and his sister were brought up as children principally by a Miss +Green. In 1840 the boy was sent to a school at Twickenham, in 1842 to +another at Brighton, and in 1845 to Harrow. From his earliest childhood +Lytton read voraciously and wrote copiously, quickly developing a +genuine and intense love of literature and a remarkable facility of +expression. In 1849 he left Harrow and studied for a year at Bonn with +an English tutor, and on his return with another tutor in England. In +1850 he entered the diplomatic service as unpaid _attaché_ to his uncle, +Sir Henry Bulwer, who was then minister at Washington. His advance in +the diplomatic service was continuous, his successive appointments +being: as second secretary--1852, Florence; 1854, Paris; 1857, The +Hague; 1859, Vienna; as first secretary or secretary of legation--1863, +Copenhagen; 1864, Athens; 1865, Lisbon; 1868, Madrid; 1868, Vienna; +1873, Paris; as minister--1875, Lisbon. In 1887 he was appointed to +succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris, and held that office until +his death in 1891. This rapid promotion from one European court to +another indicates the esteem in which Lytton was held by successive +foreign secretaries. In 1864, immediately before taking up his +appointment at Athens, he married Edith, daughter of Edward Villiers, +brother of the earl of Clarendon, and in 1873, upon the death of his +father, he succeeded to the peerage and the estate of Knebworth in +Hertfordshire. + +Early in 1875 Lord Lytton declined an offer of appointment as governor +of Madras, and in November of that year he was nominated +governor-general of India by Disraeli. The moment was critical in the +history of India. In Central Asia the advance of Russia had continued so +steadily and so rapidly that Shere Ali, the amir of Afghanistan, had +determined to seek safety as the vassal of the tsar. Lytton went out to +India with express instructions from the British government to recover +the friendship of the amir if possible, and if not so to arrange matters +on the north-west frontier as to be able to be indifferent to his +hostility. For eighteen months Lytton and his council made every effort +to conciliate the friendship of the amir, but when a Russian agent was +established at Kabul, while the mission of Sir Neville Chamberlain was +forcibly denied entrance into the amir's dominions, no choice was left +between acknowledging the right of a subsidized ally of Great Britain to +place himself within Russian control and depriving him of the office +which he owed to British patronage and assistance. The inevitable war +began in November 1878, and by the close of that year the forces +prepared by Lytton for that purpose had achieved their task with +extraordinary accuracy and economy. Shere Ali fled from Kabul, and +shortly afterwards died, and once more it fell to the Indian government +to make provision for the future of Afghanistan. By the treaty of +Gandamak in May 1879 Yakub Khan, a son of Shere Ali, was recognized as +amir, the main conditions agreed upon being that the districts of Kuram, +Pishin and Sibi should be "assigned" to British administration, and the +Khyber and other passes be under British control; that there should be a +permanent British Resident at Kabul, and that the amir should be +subsidized in an amount to be afterwards determined upon. The endeavour +of the Indian government was to leave the internal administration of +Afghanistan as little affected as possible, but considerable risk was +run in trusting so much, and especially the safety of a British envoy, +to the power and the goodwill of Yakub Khan. Sir Louis Cavagnari, the +British envoy entered Kabul at the end of July, and was, with his staff, +massacred in the rising which took place on the 3rd of September. The +war of 1879-80 immediately began, with the occupation of Kandahar by +Stewart and the advance upon Kabul by Roberts, and the military +operations which followed were not concluded when Lytton resigned his +office in April 1880. + +A complete account of Lytton's viceroyalty, and a lucid exposition of +the principles of his government and the main outlines of his policy, +may be found in _Lord Lytton's Indian Administration_, by his daughter, +Lady Betty Balfour (London, 1899). The frontier policy which he adopted, +after the method of a friendly and united Afghanistan under Yakub Khan +had been tried and had failed, was that the Afghan kingdom should be +destroyed. The province of Kandahar was to be occupied by Great Britain, +and administered by a vassal chief, Shere Ali Khan, who was appointed +"Wali" with a solemn guarantee of British support (unconditionally +withdrawn by the government succeeding Lytton's). The other points of +the Indian frontier were to be made as secure as possible, and the +provinces of Kabul and Herat were to be left absolutely to their own +devices. In consequence of what had been said of Lytton by the leaders +of the parliamentary opposition in England, it was impossible for him to +retain his office under a government formed by them, and he accordingly +resigned at the same time as the Beaconsfield ministry. This part of his +policy was thereupon revoked. Abdur Rahman, proving himself the +strongest of the claimants to the throne left vacant by Yakub Khan's +deposition, became amir as the subsidized ally of the Indian government. + +The two most considerable events of Lytton's viceroyalty, besides the +Afghan wars, were the assumption by Queen Victoria of the title of +empress of India on the 1st of January 1877, and the famine which +prevailed in various parts of India in 1876-78. He satisfied himself +that periodical famines must be expected in Indian history, and that +constant preparation during years of comparative prosperity was the only +condition whereby their destructiveness could be modified. Accordingly +he obtained the appointment of the famine commission of 1878, to +inquire, upon lines laid down by him, into available means of +mitigation. Their report, made in 1880, is the foundation of the later +system of irrigation, development of communications, and "famine +insurance." The equalization and reduction of the salt duty were +effected, and the abolition of the cotton duty commenced, during +Lytton's term of office, and the system of Indian finance profoundly +modified by decentralization and the regulation of provincial +responsibility, in all which matters Lytton enthusiastically supported +Sir John Strachey, the financial member of his council. + +Upon Lytton's resignation in 1880 an earldom was conferred upon him in +recognition of his services as viceroy. He lived at Knebworth until +1887, in which year he was appointed to succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador +at Paris. He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1891, of a clot of +blood in the heart, when apparently recovering from a serious illness. +He was succeeded by his son (b. 1876) as 2nd earl. + +Lytton is probably better known as a poet--under the pen-name of "Owen +Meredith"--than as a statesman. The list of his published works is as +follows: _Clytemnestra, and other Poems_, 1855; _The Wanderer_, 1858; +_Lucile_, 1860; _Serbski Pesme, or National Songs of Servia_, 1861, +_Tannhäuser_ (in collaboration with Mr Julian Fane), 1861; _Chronicles +and Characters_, 1867; _Orval, or The Fool of Time_, 1868; _Fables in +Song_ (2 vols.), 1874; _Glenaveril, or The Metamorphoses_, 1885; _After +Paradise, or the Legends of Exile, and other Poems_, 1887; _Marah_, +1892; _King Poppy_, 1892. The two last-mentioned volumes were published +posthumously. A few previously unpublished pieces are included in a +volume of _Selections_ published, with an introduction by Lady Betty +Balfour, in 1894. His metrical style was easy and copious, but not +precise. It often gives the impression of having been produced with +facility, because the flow of his thought carried him along, and of not +having undergone prolonged or minute polish. It was frequently +suggestive of the work of other poets, especially in his earlier +productions. The friend who wrote the inscription for the monument to be +erected to him at St Paul's described him as "a poet of many styles, +each the expression of his habitual thoughts." _Lucile_, a novel in +verse, presents a romantic style and considerable wit; and _Glenaveril_, +which also contains many passages of great beauty and much poetic +thought, has much of the same narrative character. Besides his volumes +of poetry, Lytton published in 1883 two volumes of a biography of his +father. The second of these contains the beginning of the elder Lytton's +unfinished novel, _Greville_, and his life is brought down only to the +year 1832, when he was twenty-six years of age, so that the completion +of the book upon the same scale would have required at least four more +volumes. The executrix of Lytton's mother chose to consider that the +publication was injurious to that lady's memory, and issued a volume +purporting to contain Bulwer-Lytton's letters to his wife. This Lytton +suppressed by injunction, thereby procuring a fresh exposition of the +law that the copyright in letters remains in the writer or his +representatives, though the property in them belongs to the recipient. +Lytton's appointment to the Parisian embassy caused the biography of his +father to be finally laid aside. + + The _Personal and Literary Letters of Robert, 1st Earl of Lytton_, + have been edited by Lady Betty Balfour (1906). (H. S*.) + + + + +M The thirteenth letter of the Phoenician and Greek alphabets, the +twelfth of the Latin, and the thirteenth of the languages of western +Europe. Written originally from right to left, it took the form [symbol] +which survives in its earliest representations in Greek. The greater +length of the first limb of _m_ is characteristic of the earliest forms. +From this form, written from left to right, the Latin abbreviation M' +for the praenomen Manius is supposed to have developed, the apostrophe +representing the fifth stroke of the original letter. In the early Greek +alphabets the four-stroke M with legs of equal length represents not _m_ +but _s_; _m_ when written with four strokes is [symbol]. The five-stroke +forms, however, are confined practically to Crete, Melos and Cumae; from +the last named the Romans received it along with the rest of their +alphabet. The Phoenician name of the symbol was _mem_, the Greek name +[Greek: mu] is formed on the analogy of the name for _n_. M represents +the bilabial nasal sound, which was generally voiced. It is commonly a +stable sound, but many languages, e.g. Greek, Germanic and Celtic, +change it when final into -_n_, its dental correlative. It appears more +frequently as an initial sound in Greek and Latin than in the other +languages of the same stock, because in these _s_ before _m_ (as also +before _l_ and _n_) disappeared at the beginning of words. The sounds +_m_ and _b_ are closely related, the only difference being that, in +pronouncing _m_, the nasal passage is not closed, thus allowing the +sound to be prolonged, while _b_ is an instantaneous or explosive sound. +In various languages _b_ is inserted between m and a following +consonant, as in the Gr. [Greek: mesembria] "mid-day," or the English +"number," Fr. _nombre_ from Lat. _numerus_. The sound _m_ can in +unaccented syllables form a syllable by itself without an audible vowel, +e.g. the English word _fathom_ comes from an Anglo-Saxon _fathm_, where +the _m_ was so used. (For more details as to this phonetic principle, +which has important results in the history of language, see under N.) + (P. Gi.) + + + + +MAAS, JOSEPH (1847-1886), English tenor singer, was born at Dartford, +and became a chorister in Rochester Cathedral. He went to study singing +in Milan in 1869; in February 1871 he made his first success by taking +Sims Reeves's place at a concert in London. In 1878 he became principal +tenor in Carl Rosa's company, his beautiful voice and finished style +more than compensating for his poor acting. He died in London on the +16th of January 1886. + + + + +MAASIN, a town on the S.W. coast of the island of Leyte, Philippine +Islands, at the mouth of the Maasin River. Pop. (1903), 21,638. Maasin +is an important port for hemp and copra. The well-built town occupies a +narrow coastal plain. The river valleys in the vicinity produce cotton, +pepper, tobacco, rice, Indian corn and fruit. Native cloths and pottery +are manufactured. Maasin is the only place on the west coast of Leyte +where a court of justice is held. The language is Visayan. + + + + +MAASSLUIS, a river port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on +the New Waterway, 10 m. by rail W. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1903), 8011. It +rose into importance as a fishing harbour towards the end of the 16th +century, and its prosperity rapidly increased after the opening of the +New Waterway (the Maas ship canal) from Rotterdam to the sea. The fort +erected here in 1572 by Philip of Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, was +captured by the Spanish in 1573. + + + + +MAASTRICHT, or MAESTRICHT, a frontier town and the capital of the +province of Limburg, Holland, on the left bank of the Maas at the influx +of the river Geer, 19 m. by rail N.N.E. of Liége in Belgium. Pop. +(1904), 36,146. A small portion of the town, known as Wyk, lies on the +right bank. A stone bridge connecting the two replaced a wooden +structure as early as 1280, and was rebuilt in 1683. Formerly a strong +fortress, Maastricht is still a considerable garrison town, but its +ramparts were dismantled in 1871-1878. The town-hall, built by Pieter +Post and completed in 1683, contains some interesting pictures and +tapestry. The old town-hall (Oud Stadhuis), a Gothic building of the +15th century, is now used as a museum of antiquities. The church of St +Servatius is said to have been founded by Bishop Monulphus in the 6th +century, thus being the oldest church in Holland; according to one +account it was rebuilt and enlarged as early as the time of Charlemagne. +The crypt with the tomb of the patron saint dates from the original +building. The varied character of its late Romanesque and later Gothic +architecture bears evidence of the frequency with which the church has +been restored and altered. Over the porch is the fine emperor's hall, +and the church has a marble statue of Charlemagne. The church of Our +Lady, a late Romanesque building, has two ancient crypts and a +13th-century choir of exceptional beauty, but the nave suffered severely +from a restoration in 1764. The present Gothic building of St Martin (in +Wyk) was erected in 1859; the original church is said by tradition to +have occupied the site of an old heathen temple. The Protestant St +Janskerk, a Gothic building of the 13th and 15th centuries, with a fine +tower, was formerly the baptistery of the cathedral. The various +hospitals, the poor-house, the orphanage and most of the other +charitable foundations are Roman Catholic institutions. Maastricht +contains the provincial archives, a library and geological collections. +Though mainly indebted for its commercial prosperity to its position on +the river, the town did not begin to reap the full advantages of its +situation till the opening of the railways between 1853 and 1865. At +first a trade was carried on in wine, colonial wares, alcoholic liquors +and salt; there are now manufactures of earthenware, glass and crystal, +arms, paper, woollens, tools, lead, copper and zinc work, as well as +breweries, and tobacco and cigar factories, and a trade in corn and +butter. + +A short distance south of Maastricht are the great sandstone quarries of +Pietersberg, which were worked from the time of the Romans to near the +end of the 19th century; the result is one of the most extraordinary +subterranean labyrinths in the world, estimated to cover an area 15 m. +by 9 m. In the time of the Spanish wars these underground passages +served to hide the peasants and their cattle. + +Maastricht was originally the _trajectus superior_ (upper ford) of the +Romans, and was the seat of a bishop from 382 to 721. Having formed part +of the Frankish realm, it was ruled after 1204 jointly by the dukes of +Brabant and the prince-bishops of Liége. In 1579 it was besieged by the +Spaniards under the duke of Parma, being captured and plundered after a +heroic resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and 1794. + + + + +MABILLON, JOHN (1632-1707), Benedictine monk of the Congregation of St +Maur (see MAURISTS), was the son of a peasant near Reims. In 1653 he +became a monk in the abbey of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at +St Germain-des-Prés in Paris, the great literary workshop of the +Maurists, where he lived and worked for twenty years, at first under +d'Achery, with whom he edited the nine folio volumes of Acta of the +Benedictine Saints. In Mabillon's Prefaces (reprinted separately) these +lives were for the first time made to illustrate the ecclesiastical and +civil history of the early middle ages. Mabillon's masterpiece was the +_De re diplomatica_ (1681; and a supplement, 1704) in which were first +laid down the principles for determining the authenticity and date of +medieval charters and manuscripts. It practically created the science of +Latin palaeography, and is still the standard work on the subject. In +1685-1686 Mabillon visited the libraries of Italy, to purchase MSS. and +books for the King's Library. On his return to Paris he was called upon +to defend against de Rancé, the abbot of La Trappe, the legitimacy for +monks of the kind of studies to which the Maurists devoted themselves: +this called forth Mabillon's _Traité des études monastiques_ and his +_Réflexions sur la réponse de M. l'abbé de la_ _Trappe_ (1691-1692), +works embodying the ideas and programme of the Maurists for +ecclesiastical studies. Mabillon produced in all some twenty folio +volumes and as many of lesser size, nearly all works of monumental +erudition (the chief are named in the article MAURISTS). A very +competent judge declared that, "he knew well the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th and +11th centuries, but nothing earlier or later." Mabillon never allowed +his studies to interfere with his life as a monk; he was noted for his +regular attendance at the choral recitation of the office and the other +duties of the monastic life, and for his deep personal religion, as well +as for a special charm of character. He died on the 26th of December +1707, in the midst of the production of the colossal Benedictine Annals. + + The chief authority for his life is the _Abrégé de la vie de D. J. M._ + (also in Latin), by his disciple and friend Ruinart (1709). See also, + for a full summary of his works, Tassin, _Hist. littéraire de la + congr. de St Maur_ (1770), pp. 205-269. Of modern biographies the best + are those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Bäumer (1892)--the former + to be especially recommended. A brief sketch by E. C. Butler may be + found in the _Downside Review_ (1893). (E. C. B.) + + + + +MABINOGION (plural of Welsh _mabinogi_, from _mabinog_, a bard's +apprentice), the title given to the collection of eleven Welsh prose +tales (from the Red Book of Hergest) published (1838) by Lady Charlotte +Guest, but applied in the Red Book to four only. (See CELT: _Welsh +Literature_.) + + + + +MABUSE, JAN (d. 1532), the name adopted (from his birthplace, Maubeuge) +by the Flemish painter JENNI GOSART, or JENNYN VAN HENNEGOUWE +(Hainault), as he called himself when he matriculated in the gild of St +Luke, at Antwerp, in 1503. We know nothing of his early life, but his +works tell us that he stood in his first period under the influence of +artists to whom plastic models were familiar; and this leads to the +belief that he spent his youth on the French border rather than on the +banks of the Scheldt. Without the subtlety or power of Van der Weyden, +he had this much in common with the great master of Tournai and +Brussels, that his compositions were usually framed in architectural +backgrounds. But whilst Mabuse thus early betrays his dependence on the +masters of the French frontier, he also confesses admiration for the +great painters who first gave lustre to Antwerp; and in the large +altar-pieces of Castle Howard and Scawby he combines in a quaint and not +unskilful medley the sentiment of Memling, the bright and decided +contrasts of pigment peculiar to coloured reliefs, the cornered and +packed drapery familiar to Van der Weyden, and the bold but Socratic +cast of face remarkable in the works of Quentin Matsys. At Scawby he +illustrates the legend of the count of Toulouse, who parted with his +worldly goods to assume the frock of a hermit. At Castle Howard he +represents the Adoration of the Kings, and throws together some thirty +figures on an architectural background, varied in detail, massive in +shape and fanciful in ornament. He surprises us by pompous costume and +flaring contrasts of tone. His figures, like pieces on a chess-board, +are often rigid and conventional. The landscape which shows through the +colonnades is adorned with towers and steeples in the minute fashion of +Van der Weyden. After a residence of a few years at Antwerp, Mabuse took +service with Philip, bastard of Philip the Good, at that time lord of +Somerdyk and admiral of Zeeland. One of his pictures had already become +celebrated--a Descent from the Cross (50 figures), on the high altar of +the monastery of St Michael of Tongerloo. Philip of Burgundy ordered +Mabuse to execute a replica for the church of Middelburg; and the value +which was then set on the picture is apparent from the fact that Dürer +came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to see it. In 1568 the altar-piece +perished by fire. In 1508 Mabuse accompanied Philip of Burgundy on his +Italian mission; and by this accident an important revolution was +effected in the art of the Netherlands. Mabuse appears to have chiefly +studied in Italy the cold and polished works of the Leonardesques. He +not only brought home a new style, but he also introduced the fashion of +travelling to Italy; and from that time till the age of Rubens and Van +Dyck it was considered proper that all Flemish painters should visit the +peninsula. The Flemings grafted Italian mannerisms on their own stock; +and the cross turned out so unfortunately that for a century Flemish +art lost all trace of originality. + +In the summer of 1509 Philip returned to the Netherlands, and, retiring +to his seat of Suytburg in Zeeland, surrendered himself to the pleasures +of planning decorations for his castle and ordering pictures of Mabuse +and Jacob of Barbari. Being in constant communication with the court of +Margaret of Austria at Malines, he gave the artists in his employ fair +chances of promotion. Barbari was made court painter to the regent, +whilst Mabuse received less important commissions. Records prove that +Mabuse painted a portrait of Leonora of Portugal, and other small +pieces, for Charles V. in 1516. But his only signed pictures of this +period are the Neptune and Amphitrite of 1516 at Berlin, and the +Madonna, with a portrait of Jean Carondelet of 1517, at the Louvre, in +both of which we clearly discern that Vasari only spoke by hearsay of +the progress made by Mabuse in "the true method of producing pictures +full of nude figures and poesies." It is difficult to find anything more +coarse or misshapen than the Amphitrite, unless we except the grotesque +and ungainly drayman who figures for Neptune. In later forms of the same +subject--the Adam and Eve at Hampton Court, or its feebler replica at +Berlin--we observe more nudity, combined with realism of the commonest +type. Happily, Mabuse was capable of higher efforts. His St Luke +painting the portrait of the Virgin in Sanct Veit at Prague, a variety +of the same subject in the Belvedere at Vienna, the Madonna of the +Baring collection in London, or the numerous repetitions of Christ and +the scoffers (Ghent and Antwerp), all prove that travel had left many of +Mabuse's fundamental peculiarities unaltered. His figures still retain +the character of stone; his architecture is as rich and varied, his +tones are as strong as ever. But bright contrasts of gaudy tints are +replaced by soberer greys; and a cold haze, the _sfumato_ of the +Milanese, pervades the surfaces. It is but seldom that these features +fail to obtrude. When they least show, the master displays a brilliant +palette combined with smooth surface and incisive outlines. In this form +the Madonnas of Munich and Vienna (1527), the likeness of a girl +weighing gold pieces (Berlin), and the portraits of the children of the +king of Denmark at Hampton Court, are fair specimens of his skill. As +early as 1523, when Christian II. of Denmark came to Belgium, he asked +Mabuse to paint the likenesses of his dwarfs. In 1528 he requested the +artist to furnish to Jean de Hare the design for his queen Isabella's +tomb in the abbey of St Pierre near Ghent. It was no doubt at this time +that Mabuse completed the portraits of John, Dorothy and Christine, +children of Christian II., which came into the collection of Henry VIII. +No doubt, also, these portraits are identical with those of three +children at Hampton Court, which were long known and often copied as +likenesses of Prince Arthur, Prince Henry and Princess Margaret of +England. One of the copies at Wilton, inscribed with the forged name of +"Hans Holbein, ye father," and the false date of 1495, has often been +cited as a proof that Mabuse came to England in the reign of Henry VII.; +but the statement rests on no foundation whatever. At the period when +these portraits were executed Mabuse lived at Middelburg. But he dwelt +at intervals elsewhere. When Philip of Burgundy became bishop of +Utrecht, and settled at Duerstede, near Wyck, in 1517, he was +accompanied by Mabuse, who helped to decorate the new palace of his +master. At Philip's death, in 1524, Mabuse designed and erected his tomb +in the church of Wyck. He finally retired to Middelburg, where he took +service with Philip's brother, Adolph, lord of Veeren. Van Mander's +biography accuses Mabuse of habitual drunkenness; yet it describes the +splendid appearance of the artist as, dressed in gold brocade, he +accompanied Lucas of Leyden on a pleasure trip to Ghent, Malines and +Antwerp in 1527. The works of Mabuse are those of a hardworking and +patient artist; the number of his still extant pictures practically +demonstrates that he was not a debauchee. The marriage of his daughter +with the painter Henry Van der Heyden of Louvain proves that he had a +home, and did not live habitually in taverns, as Van Mander suggests. +His death at Antwerp, on the 1st of October 1532, is recorded in the +portrait engraved by Jerome Cock. (J. A. C.) + + + + +MACABEBE, a town of the province of Pampanga, island of Luzon, +Philippine Islands, on the Pampanga Grande river, about 10 m. above its +mouth and about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), after the annexation +of San Miguel, 21,481. The language is Pampango. Many of the male +inhabitants serve in the U.S. Army as scouts. Macabebe's principal +industries are the cultivation of rice and sugar cane, the distilling of +nipa alcohol, and the weaving of hemp and cotton fabrics. + + + + +MACABRE, a term applied to a certain type of artistic or literary +composition, characterized by a grim and ghastly humour, with an +insistence on the details and trappings of death. Such a quality, +deliberately adopted, is hardly to be found in ancient Greek and Latin +writers, though there are traces of it in Apuleius and the author of the +_Satyricon_. The outstanding instances in English literature are John +Webster and Cyril Tourneur, with E. A. Poe and R. L. Stevenson. The word +has gained its significance from its use in French, _la danse macabre_, +for that allegorical representation, in painting, sculpture and +tapestry, of the ever-present and universal power of death, known in +English as the "Dance of Death," and in German as _Totentanz_. The +typical form which the allegory takes is that of a series of pictures, +sculptured or painted, in which Death appears, either as a dancing +skeleton or as a shrunken corpse wrapped in grave-clothes to persons +representing every age and condition of life, and leads them all in a +dance to the grave. Of the numerous examples painted or sculptured on +the walls of cloisters or churchyards through medieval Europe few remain +except in woodcuts and engravings. Thus the famous series at Basel, +originally at the Klingenthal, a nunnery in Little Basel, dated from the +beginning of the 14th century. In the middle of the 15th century this +was moved to the churchyard of the Predigerkloster at Basel, and was +restored, probably by Hans Kluber, in 1568; the fall of the wall in 1805 +reduced it to fragments, and only drawings of it remain. A Dance of +Death in its simplest form still survives in the Marienkirche at Lubeck +in a 15th-century painting on the walls of a chapel. Here there are +twenty-four figures in couples, between each is a dancing Death linking +the groups by outstretched hands, the whole ring being led by a Death +playing on a pipe. At Dresden there is a sculptured life-size series in +the old Neustädter Kirchhoff, removed here from the palace of Duke +George in 1701 after a fire. At Rouen in the _aitre_ (atrium) or +cloister of St Maclou there also remains a sculptured _danse macabre_. +There was a celebrated fresco of the subject in the cloister of Old St +Paul's in London, and another in the now destroyed Hungerford Chapel at +Salisbury, of which a single woodcut, "Death and the Gallant," alone +remains. Of the many engraved reproductions, the most celebrated is the +series drawn by Holbein. Here the long ring of connected dancing couples +is necessarily abandoned, and the Dance of Death becomes rather a series +of _imagines mortis_. + +Concerning the origin of this allegory in painting and sculpture there +has been much dispute. It certainly seems to be as early as the 14th +century, and has often been attributed to the overpowering consciousness +of the presence of death due to the Black Death and the miseries of the +Hundred Years' War. It has also been attributed to a form of the +Morality, a dramatic dialogue between Death and his victims in every +station of life, ending in a dance off the stage (see Du Cange, +_Gloss._, s.v. "Machabaeorum chora"). The origin of the peculiar form +the allegory has taken has also been found, somewhat needlessly and +remotely, in the dancing skeletons on late Roman sarcophagi and mural +paintings at Cumae or Pompeii, and a false connexion has been traced +with the "Triumph of Death," attributed to Orcagna, in the Campo Santo +at Pisa. + +The etymology of the word _macabre_ is itself most obscure. According to +Gaston Paris (_Romania_, xxiv., 131; 1895) it first occurs in the form +_macabre_ in Jean le Févre's _Respit de la mort_ (1376), "Je lis de +Macabré la danse," and he takes this accented form to be the true one, +and traces it in the name of the first painter of the subject. The more +usual explanation is based on the Latin name, _Machabaeorum chora_. The +seven tortured brothers, with their mother and Eleazar (2 Macc. vi., +vii.) were prominent figures on this hypothesis in the supposed +dramatic dialogues. Other connexions have been suggested, as for example +with St Macarius, or Macaire, the hermit, who, according to Vasari, is +to be identified with the figure pointing to the decaying corpses in the +Pisan "Triumph of Death," or with an Arabic word _magbarah_, "cemetery." + + See Peignot, _Recherches sur les danses des morts_ (1826); Douce, + _Dissertation on the Dance of Death_ (1833); Massmann, _Litteratur der + Totentänze_ (1840); J. Charlier de Gerson, _La Danse macabre des Stes + Innocents de Paris_ (1874); Seelmann, _Die Totentänze des + Mittelalters_ (1893). + + + + +McADAM, JOHN LOUDON (1756-1836), Scottish inventor, who gave his name to +the system of road-making known as "macadamizing," was born at Ayr, +Scotland, on the 21st of September 1756, being descended on his father's +side from the clan of the McGregors. While at school he constructed a +model road-section. In 1770 he went to New York, entering the +counting-house of a merchant uncle. He returned to Scotland with a +considerable fortune in 1783, and purchased an estate at Sauhrie, +Ayrshire. Among other public offices he held that of road trustee. The +highways of Great Britain were at this time in a very bad condition, and +McAdam at once began to consider how to effect reforms. At his own +expense he began at Sauhrie, despite much opposition, a series of +experiments in road-making. In 1798 he removed to Falmouth, where he had +received a government appointment, and continued his experiments there. +His general conclusion was that roads should be constructed of broken +stone (see ROADS). In 1815, having been appointed surveyor-general of +the Bristol roads, he was able to put his theories into practice. In +1819 he published a _Practical Essay on the Scientific Repair and +Preservation of Roads_, followed, in 1820, by the _Present State of +Road-making_. As the result of a parliamentary inquiry in 1823 into the +whole question of road-making, his views were adopted by the public +authorities, and in 1827 he was appointed general surveyor of roads. In +pursuing his investigations he had travelled over thirty thousand miles +of road and expended over £5000. Parliament recouped him for his +expenses and gave him a handsome gratuity, but he declined a proffered +knighthood. He died at Moffat, Dumfriesshire, on the 26th of November +1836. + + + + +MACAIRE, a French _chanson de geste_. _Macaire_ (12th century) and _La +reine Sibille_ (14th century) are two versions of the story of the false +accusation brought against the queen of Charlemagne, called Blanchefleur +in _Macaire_ and Sibille in the later poem. _Macaire_ is only preserved +in the Franco-Venetian _geste_ of Charlemagne (Bibl. St Mark MS. fr. +xiii.). _La Reine Sibille_ only exists in fragments, but the tale is +given in the chronicle of Alberic Trium Fontium and in a prose version. +_Macaire_ is the product of the fusion of two legends: that of the +unjustly repudiated wife and that of the dog who detects the murderer of +his master. For the former motive see GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT. The second +is found in Plutarch, _Script. moral._, ed. Didot ii. (1186), where a +dog, like Aubri's hound, stayed three days without food by the body of +its master, and subsequently attacked the murderers, thus leading to +their discovery. The duel between Macaire and the dog is paralleled by +an interpolation by Giraldus Cambrensis in a MS. of the _Hexameron_ of +Saint Ambrose. Aubri's hound received the name of the "dog of +Montargis," because a representation of the story was painted on a +chimney-piece in the château of Montargis in the 15th century. The tale +was early divorced from Carolingian tradition, and Jean de la Taille, in +his _Discours notable des duels_ (Paris, 1607), places the incident +under Charles V. + + See _Macaire_ (Paris, 1866), ed. Guessard in the series of _Anc. + poètes de la France_; P. Paris in _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. + xxiii. (1873); L. Gautier, _Épopées françaises_, vol. iii. (2nd ed., + 1880); G. Paris, _Hist. poet. de Charlemagne_ (1865); M. J. G. Isola, + _Storie nerbonesi_, vol. i. (Bologna, 1877); F. Wolf, _Über die beiden + ... Volksbücher von der K. Sibille u. Huon de Bordeaux_ (Vienna, 1857) + and _Über die neuesten Leistungen der Franzosen_ (Vienna, 1833). _The + Dog of Montargis_; or, _The Forest of Bondy_, imitated from the play + of G. de Pixerecourt, was played at Covent Garden (Sept. 30, 1814). + + "Robert Macaire" was the name given to the modern villain in the + _Auberge des Adrets_ (1823), a melodrama in which Frédérick Lemaître + made his reputation. The type was sensibly modified in _Robert + Macaire_ (1834), a sequel written by Lemaître in collaboration with + Benjamin Antier, and well-known on the English stage as _Macaire_. R. + L. Stevenson and W. E. Henley used the same type in their play + _Macaire_. + + + + +McALESTER, a city and the county-seat of Pittsburg county, Oklahoma, +about 110 m. E.S.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 3479; (1907) 8144 (1681 +negroes and 105 Indians); (1910) 12,954. McAlester is served by the +Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways +and is an important railway junction; it is connected with the +neighbouring mining district by an electric line. There are undeveloped +iron deposits and rich coal-mines in the surrounding country, and +coke-making is the principal manufacturing industry of the city. There +is a fine Scottish Rite Masons' consistory and temple in McAlester. The +city owns its waterworks. The vicinity was first settled in 1885. The +city of South McAlester was incorporated in 1899, and in 1906 it annexed +the town of McAlester and adopted its name. + + + + +MACALPINE (or MACCABEUS), JOHN (d. 1557), Protestant theologian, was +born in Scotland about the beginning of the 16th century, and graduated +at some Scottish university. From 1532 to 1534 he was prior of the +Dominican convent of Perth; but having in the latter year been summoned +with Alexander Ales (q.v.) and others to answer for heresy before the +bishop of Ross, he fled to England, where he was granted letters of +denization on the 7th of April 1537, and married Agnes Macheson, a +fellow-exile for religion; her sister Elizabeth became the wife of Miles +Coverdale. The reaction of 1539 made England a doubtful refuge, and on +the 25th of November 1540 Macalpine matriculated at the university of +Wittenberg. He had already graduated B.A. at Cologne, and in 1542 +proceeded to his doctorate at Wittenberg. In that year, being now known +as Maccabeus, he accepted Christian III.'s offer of the chair of +theology at the university of Copenhagen, which had been endowed out of +the spoils of the Church. Melanchthon spoke well of Macalpine, and with +Peter Plade (Palladius), who had also studied at Wittenberg, Macalpine +took a prominent part in building up the Lutheran Church of Denmark. A +joint exposure by Plade and Macalpine of Osiander's errors was published +in 1552 and reprinted at Leipzig and Copenhagen in 1768; and Macalpine +was one of the four translators of Luther's German Bible into Danish. He +also encouraged Sir David Lindsay, who visited him in 1548, to publish +his _Monarchie_, and persuaded Christian III. to intercede with Queen +Mary Tudor on behalf of Coverdale and invite him to Denmark. Macalpine +died at Copenhagen on the 6th of December 1557. + + See _Dict. Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited; _Corpus + reformatorum_, iii. (1066), iv. 771, 793; Foerstemann, _Album + academiae vitebergensis_ (1841), p. 186, and _Liber decanorum_ (1838), + p. 32; Rockwell, _Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp_ (1904), pp. + 114-116; _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (1537), i. 1103 (12); + (1542), pp. 46,218. (A. F. P.) + + + + +MACAO (A-Ma-ngao, "Harbour of the goddess A-Ma"; Port. _Macau_), a +Portuguese settlement on the coast of China, in 22° N., 132° E. Pop. +(1896), Chinese, 74,568; Portuguese, 3898; other nationalities, +161--total, 78,627. It consists of a tongue of land 2½ m. in length and +less than 1 m. in breadth, running S.S.W. from the island of Hiang Shang +(Port. _Ançam_) on the western side of the estuary of the Canton River. +Bold and rocky hills about 300 ft. high occupy both extremities of the +peninsula, the picturesque city, with its flat-roofed houses painted +blue, green and red, lying in the undulating ground between. The forts +are effective additions to the general view, but do not add much to the +strength of the place. Along the east side of the peninsula runs the +Praya Grande, or Great Quay, the chief promenade in Macao, on which +stand the governor's palace, the administrative offices, the consulates +and the leading commercial establishments. The church of St Paul +(1594-1602), the seat of the Jesuit college in the 17th century, was +destroyed by fire in 1835. The Hospital da Misericordia (1569) was +rebuilt in 1640. The Camoens grotto, where the exiled poet found leisure +to celebrate the achievements of his ungrateful country, lies in a +secluded spot to the north of the town, which has been partly left in +its native wildness strewn with huge granite boulders and partly +transformed into a fine botanical garden. During the south-west (summer) +monsoon great quantities (67 in.) of rain fall, especially in July and +August. The mean temperature is 74.3° F.; in July, the hottest month, +the temperature is 84.2°; in February, the coldest, it is 59 deg. On the +whole the climate is moist. Hurricanes are frequent. Of the Portuguese +inhabitants more than three-fourths are natives of Macao--a race very +inferior in point of physique to their European ancestors. Macao is +connected with Hong-Kong by a daily steamer. Being open to the +south-west sea breezes, it is a favourite place of resort from the +oppressive heat of Hong-Kong. It is ruled by a governor, and, along with +Timor (East Indies), constitutes a bishopric, to which belong also the +Portuguese Christians in Malacca and Singapore. Though most of the land +is under garden cultivation, the mass of the people is dependent more or +less directly on mercantile pursuits; for, while the exclusive policy +both of Chinese and Portuguese which prevented Macao becoming a free +port till 1845-1846 allowed what was once the great emporium of European +commerce in eastern Asia to be outstripped by its younger and more +liberal rivals, the local, though not the foreign, trade of the place is +still of very considerable extent. Since the middle of the 19th century, +indeed, much of it has run in the most questionable channels; the +nefarious coolie traffic gradually increased in extent and in cruelty +from about 1848 till it was prohibited in 1874, and much of the actual +trade is more or less of the nature of smuggling. The commodities +otherwise mostly dealt in are opium, tea, rice, oil, raw cotton, fish +and silk. The total value of exports and imports was in 1876-1877 +upwards of £1,536,000. In 1880 it had increased to £2,259,250, and in +1898 to £3,771,615. Commercial intercourse is most intimate with +Hong-Kong, Canton, Batavia and Goa. The preparation and packing of tea +is the principal industry in the town. In fishing a large number of +boats and men are employed. + +In 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to erect factories on the +peninsula, and in 1573 the Chinese built across the isthmus the wall +which still cuts off the barbarian from the rest of the island. Jesuit +missionaries established themselves on the spot; and in 1580 Gregory +XIII. constituted a bishopric of Macao. A senate was organized in 1583, +and in 1628 Jeronimo de Silveira became first royal governor of Macao. +Still the Portuguese remained largely under the control of the Chinese, +who had never surrendered their territorial rights and maintained their +authority by means of mandarins--these insisting that even European +criminals should be placed in their hands. Ferreira do Amaral, the +Portuguese governor, put an end to this state of things in 1849, and +left the Chinese officials no more authority in the peninsula than the +representatives of other foreign nations; and, though his antagonists +procured his assassination (Aug. 22), his successors succeeded in +carrying out his policy. + +Although Macao is de facto a colonial possession of Portugal, the +Chinese government persistently refused to recognize the claim of the +Portuguese to territorial rights, alleging that they were merely lessees +or tenants at will, and until 1849 the Portuguese paid to the Chinese an +annual rent of £71 per annum. This diplomatic difficulty prevented the +conclusion of a commercial treaty between China and Portugal for a long +time, but an arrangement for a treaty was come to in 1887 on the +following basis: (1) China confirmed perpetual occupation and government +of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal; (2) Portugal engaged never to +alienate Macao and its dependencies without the consent of China; (3) +Portugal engaged to co-operate in opium revenue work at Macao in the +same way as Great Britain at Hong-Kong. The formal treaty was signed in +the same year, and arrangements were made whereby the Chinese imperial +customs were able to collect duties on vessels trading with Macao in the +same way as they had already arranged for their collection at the +British colony of Hong-Kong. For a short time in 1802, and again in +1808, Macao was occupied by the English as a precaution against seizure +by the French. + + + + +MACAQUE, a name of French origin denoting the monkeys of the mainly +Asiatic genus _Macacus_, of which one species, the Barbary ape, inhabits +North Africa and the rock of Gibraltar. Displaying great variability in +the length of the tail, which is reduced to a mere tubercle in the +Barbary ape, alone representing the subgenus _Inuus_, macaques are +heavily-built monkeys, with longer muzzles than their compatriots the +langurs (see PRIMATES), and large naked callosities on the buttocks. +They range all over India and Ceylon, thence northward to Tibet, and +eastwards to China, Japan, Formosa, Borneo, Sumatra and Java; while by +some naturalists the black ape of Celebes (_Cynopithecus niger_) is +included in the same genus. Mention of some of the more important +species, typifying distinct sub-generic groups, is made in the article +PRIMATES. Like most other monkeys, macaques go about in large troops, +each headed by an old male. They feed on seeds, fruits, insects, +lizards, &c.; and while some of the species are largely terrestrial, the +Barbary ape is wholly so. Docile and easily tamed when young, old males +of many of the species become exceedingly morose and savage in +captivity. (R. L.*) + + + + +MACARONI (from dialectic Ital. _maccare_, to bruise or crush), a +preparation of a glutinous wheat originally peculiar to Italy, where it +is an article of food of national importance. The same substance in +different forms is also known as _vermicelli_, _pasta_ or Italian +pastes, _spaghetti_, _taglioni_, _fanti_, &c. These substances are +prepared from the hard, semi-translucent varieties of wheat which are +largely cultivated in the south of Europe, Algeria and other warm +regions, and distinguished by the Italians as _grano duro_ or _grano da +semolino_. These wheats are much richer in gluten and other nitrogenous +compounds than the soft or tender wheats of more northern regions, and +their preparations are more easily preserved. The various preparations +are met with as fine thin threads (vermicelli), thin sticks and pipes +(spaghetti, macaroni), small lozenges, stars, disks, ellipses, &c. +(pastes). These various forms are prepared in a uniform manner from a +granular product of hard wheat, which, under the name of semolina or +middlings, is a commercial article. The semolina is thoroughly mixed +with boiling water and incorporated in a kneading machine, such as is +used in bakeries, into a stiff paste or dough. It is then further +kneaded by passing frequently between rollers or under edge runners, +till a homogeneous mass has been produced which is placed in a strong +steam-jacketed cylinder, the lower end of which is closed with a thick +disk pierced with openings corresponding with the diameter or section of +the article to be made. Into this cylinder an accurately fitting plunger +or piston is introduced and subjected to very great pressure, which +causes the stiff dough to squeeze out through the openings in the disk +in continuous threads, sticks or pipes, as the case may be. Vermicelli +is cut off in short bundles and laid on trays to dry, while macaroni is +dried by hanging it in longer lengths over wooden rods in stoves or +heated apartments through which currents of air are driven. It is only +genuine macaroni, rich in gluten, which can be dried in this manner; +spurious fabrications will not bear their own weight, and must, +therefore, be laid out flat to be dried. In making pastes the cylinder +is closed with a disk pierced with holes having the sectional form of +the pastes, and a set of knives revolving close against the external +surface of the disk cut off the paste in thin sections as it exudes from +each opening. True macaroni can be distinguished by observing the +flattened mark of the rod over which it has been dried within the bend +of the tubes; it has a soft yellowish colour, is rough in texture, +elastic and hard, and breaks with a smooth glassy fracture. In boiling +it swells up to double its original size without becoming pasty or +adhesive. It can be kept any length of time without alteration or +deterioration; and it is on that account, in many circumstances, a most +convenient as well as a highly nutritious and healthful article of food. + + + + +MACARONICS, a species of burlesque poetry, in which words from a modern +vernacular, with Latin endings, are introduced into Latin verse, so as +to produce a ridiculous effect. Sometimes Greek is used instead of +Latin. Tisi degli Odassi issued a _Carmen macaronicum de Patavinis_ in +1490. The real founder of the practice, however, was Teofilo Folengo +(1491-1544), whose mock-heroic _Liber Macaronices_ appeared in 1517. +Folengo (q.v.) was a Benedictine monk, who escaped from his monastery +and wandered through Italy, living a dissolute life, and supporting +himself by his absurd verses, which he described as an attempt to +produce in literature something like macaroni, a gross, rude and rustic +mixture of flour, cheese and butter. He wrote under the pseudonym of +Merlinus Coccaius, and his poem is an elaborate burlesque epic, in +twenty-five books, or _macaronea_; it is an extraordinary medley of +chivalrous feats, ridiculous and squalid adventures, and satirical +allegory. Its effect upon the mind of Rabelais was so extraordinary that +no examination of _Pantagruel_ can be complete without a reference to it +(cf. _Gargantua_, i. 19). It was immediately imitated in Italy by a +number of minor poets; and in France a writer whose real name was +Antoine de la Sable, but who called himself Antonius de Arena (d. 1544), +published at Avignon in 1573 a _Meygra entrepriza_, which was a +burlesque account of Charles V.'s disastrous campaign in Provence. +Folengo in Italy and Arena in France are considered as the macaronic +classics. In the 17th century, Joannes Caecilius Frey (1580-1631) +published a _Recitus veritabilis_, on a skirmish between the +vine-growers of Rueil and the bowmen of Paris. Great popularity was +achieved later still by an anonymous macaronic, entitled _Funestissimus +trepassus Micheli Morini_, who died by falling off the branch of an +elm-tree:-- + + De branche in brancham degringolat, et faciens pouf + Ex ormo cadit, et clunes obvertit Olympo. + +Molière employed macaronic verse in the ceremonial scene with the +doctors in _Le Malade imaginaire_. Works in macaronic prose are rarer. +An _Anti-Clopinus_ by Antony Hotman may be mentioned and the amusing +_Epistolae obscurorum virorum_ (1515). Macaronic prose was not unknown +as an artifice of serious oratory, and abounds (e.g.) in the sermons of +Michel Menot (1440-1518), who says of the prodigal son, _Emit sibi +pulcheras caligas d'écarlate, bien tirées_. + +The use of true macaronics has never been frequent in Great Britain, +where the only prominent example of it is the _Polemo-Middinia_ ascribed +to William Drummond of Hawthornden. This short epic was probably +composed early in the 17th century, but was not published until 1684. +The _Polemo-Middinia_ follows the example set by Arena, and describes +with burlesque solemnity a quarrel between two villages on the Firth of +Forth. Drummond shows great ingenuity in the tacking on of Latin +terminations to his Lowland Scots vernacular:-- + + Lifeguardamque sibi saevas vocat improba lassas, + Maggaeam, magis doctam milkare cowaeas, + Et doctam sweepare flooras, et sternere beddas, + Quaeque novit spinnare, et longas ducere threedas. + +There is a certain macaronic character about many poems of Skelton and +Dunbar, as well as the famous _Barnabae itinerarium_ (1638) of Richard +Brathwait (1588-1673), but these cannot be considered legitimate +specimens of the type as laid down by Folengo. + + See Ch. Nodier, _Du Langage factice appelé macaronique_ (1834); + Genthe, _Histoire de la poesie macaronique_ (1831). (E. G.) + + + + +MACARSCA (Serbo-Croatian, _Makarska_), the chief town of an +administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria; situated opposite to the +island of Brazza, about 32 m. S.E. of Spalato. Pop. (1900), of town +1805; of commune, 11,016, chiefly Serbo-Croatian. Macarsca is a port of +call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and has a brisk trade in wine, +grain and fruit. Under the name of _Mocrum_, Macarsca was a thriving +Roman city, and a bishopric until 639, when it was destroyed by the +Avars. In the 10th century it is mentioned by Constantine +Porphyrogenitus as a city of the pagan Narentines. Its bishopric was +revived in 1320, but the bishops resided at Almissa. In 1481 the city +was purchased from the duke of Herzegovina by Venice; in 1499 it was +conquered by the Turks; and in 1646, after a successful revolt, it again +welcomed the sovereignty of Venice. The see of Macarsca was merged in +that of Spalato in 1830. + + + + +MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY, EARL (1737-1806), was descended from an old +Scottish family, the Macartneys of Auchinleck, who had settled in 1649 +at Lissanoure, Antrim, Ireland, where he was born on the 14th of May +1737. After graduating at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1759, he became a +student of the Temple, London. Through Stephen Fox, elder brother of C. +J. Fox, he was taken up by Lord Holland. Appointed envoy extraordinary +to Russia in 1764, he succeeded in negotiating an alliance between +England and that country. After occupying a seat in the English +parliament, he was in 1769 returned for Antrim in the Irish parliament, +in order to discharge the duties of chief secretary for Ireland. On +resigning this office he was knighted. In 1775 he became governor of the +Caribbee Islands (being created an Irish baron in 1776), and in 1780 +governor of Madras, but he declined the governor-generalship of India, +and returned to England in 1786. After being created Earl Macartney in +the Irish peerage (1792), he was appointed the first envoy of Britain to +China. On his return from a confidential mission to Italy (1795) he was +raised to the English peerage as a baron in 1796, and in the end of the +same year was appointed governor of the newly acquired territory of the +Cape of Good Hope, where he remained till ill health compelled him to +resign in November 1798. He died at Chiswick, Middlesex, on the 31st of +May 1806, the title becoming extinct, and his property, after the death +of his widow (daughter of the 3rd earl of Bute), going to his niece, +whose son took the name. + + An account of Macartney's embassy to China, by Sir George Staunton, + was published in 1797, and has been frequently reprinted. The _Life + and Writings of Lord Macartney_, by Sir John Barrow, appeared in 1807. + See Mrs Helen Macartney Robbins's biography, _The First English + Ambassador to China_ (1908), based on previously unpublished materials + in possession of the family. + + + + +MACASSAR (MAKASSAR, MANGKASAR), the capital of a district of the same +name in the island of Celebes, Dutch East Indies, and the chief town of +the Dutch government of Celebes. Pop. 17,925 (940 Europeans, 2618 +Chinese, 168 Arabs). It stands on the west coast of the southern +peninsula of the island, near the southern extremity of the Macassar +Strait, which separates Celebes from Borneo. Macassar consists of the +Dutch town and port, known as Vlaardingen, and the Malay town which lies +inland. Macassar's trade amounts to about £1,250,000 annually, and +consists mainly of coffee, trepang, copra, gums, spices and valuable +timber. + + For the Macassar people and for the Strait, see CELEBES. "Macassar + oil" is a trade name, not geographical: see ANTIMACASSAR. + + + + +MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON (1800-1859), English +historian, essayist and politician, was born at Rothley Temple, +Leicestershire, on the 25th of October 1800. His father, Zachary +Macaulay (1768-1838), had been governor of Sierra Leone, and was in 1800 +secretary to the chartered company which had founded that colony; an +ardent philanthropist, he did much to secure the abolition of the slave +trade, and he edited the abolitionist organ, the _Christian Observer_, +for many years. Happy in his home, the son at a very early age gave +proof of a determined bent towards literature. Before he was eight years +of age he had written a _Compendium of Universal History_, which gave a +tolerably connected view of the leading events from the creation to +1800, and a romance in the style of Scott, in three cantos, called _The +Battle of Cheviot_. A little later he composed a long poem on the +history of Olaus Magnus, and a vast pile of blank verse entitled +_Fingal, a Poem in Twelve Books_. After being at a private school, in +October 1818 young Macaulay went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he +afterwards became a fellow. He gained in 1824 a college prize for an +essay on the character of William III. He also won a prize for Latin +declamation and a Craven scholarship, and wrote the prize poems of 1819 +and 1821. + +In 1826 Macaulay was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit. +But he soon gave up even the pretence of reading law, and spent many +more hours under the gallery of the house of commons than in the court. +His first attempt at a public speech, made at an anti-slavery meeting in +1824, was described by the _Edinburgh Review_ as "a display of eloquence +of rare and matured excellence." His first considerable appearance in +print was in No. 1 of Knight's _Quarterly Magazine_, a periodical which +enjoyed a short but brilliant existence, and which was largely supported +by Eton and Cambridge. In August 1825 began Macaulay's connexion with +the periodical which was to prove the field of his literary reputation. +The _Edinburgh Review_ was at this time at the height of its power, not +only as an organ of the growing opinion which, leant towards reform, but +as a literary tribunal from which there was no appeal. His essay on +Milton (Aug. 1825), so crude that the author afterwards said that "it +contained scarcely a paragraph such as his matured judgment approved," +created for him at once a literary reputation which suffered no +diminution to the last, a reputation which he established and confirmed, +but which it would have been hardly possible to make more conspicuous. +The publisher John Murray declared that it would be worth the copyright +of _Childe Harold_ to have Macaulay on the staff of the _Quarterly +Review_, and Robert Hall, the orator, writhing with pain, and well-nigh +worn out with disease, was discovered lying on the floor employed in +learning by aid of grammar and dictionary enough Italian to enable him +to verify the parallel between Milton and Dante. + +This sudden blaze of popularity, kindled by a single essay, is partly to +be explained by the dearth of literary criticism in England at that +epoch. For, though a higher note had already been sounded by Hazlitt and +Coleridge, it had not yet taken hold of the public mind, which was still +satisfied with the feeble appreciations of the _Retrospective Review_, +or the dashing and damnatory improvisation of Wilson in _Blackwood_ or +Jeffrey in the _Edinburgh_. Still, allowance being made for the +barbarous partisanship of the established critical tribunals of the +period, it seems surprising that a social success so signal should have +been the consequence of a single article. The explanation is that the +writer of the article on Milton was, unlike most authors, also a +brilliant conversationalist. There has never been a period when an +amusing talker has not been in great demand at London tables; but when +Macaulay made his debut witty conversation was studied and cultivated as +it has ceased to be in the more busy age which has succeeded. At the +university Macaulay had been recognized as pre-eminent for inexhaustible +talk and genial companionship among a circle of such brilliant young men +as Charles Austin, Romilly, Praed and Villiers. He now displayed these +gifts on a wider theatre. Launched on the best that London had to give +in the way of society, Macaulay accepted and enjoyed with all the zest +of youth and a vigorous nature the opportunities opened for him. He was +courted and admired by the most distinguished personages of the day. He +was admitted at Holland House, where Lady Holland listened to him with +deference, and scolded him with a circumspection which was in itself a +compliment. Samuel Rogers spoke of him with friendliness and to him with +affection. He was treated with almost fatherly kindness by +"Conversation" Sharp. + +Thus distinguished, and justifiably conscious of his great powers, +Macaulay began to aspire to a political career. But the shadow of +pecuniary trouble early began to fall upon his path. When he went to +college his father believed himself to be worth £100,000. But commercial +disaster overtook the house of Babington & Macaulay, and the son now saw +himself compelled to work for his livelihood. His Trinity fellowship of +£300 a year became of great consequence to him, but it expired in 1831; +he could make at most £200 a year by writing; and a commissionership of +bankruptcy, which was given him by Lord Lyndhurst in 1828, and which +brought him in about £400 a year, was swept away, without compensation, +by the ministry which came into power in 1830. Macaulay was reduced to +such straits that he had to sell his Cambridge gold medal. + +In February 1830 the doors of the House of Commons were opened to him +through what was then called a "pocket borough." Lord Lansdowne, who had +been struck by two articles on James Mill and the Utilitarians, which +appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ in 1829, offered the author the seat +at Calne. The offer was accompanied by the express assurance that the +patron had no wish to interfere with Macaulay's freedom of voting. He +thus entered parliament at one of the most exciting moments of English +domestic history, when the compact phalanx of reactionary administration +which for nearly fifty years had commanded a crushing majority in the +Commons was on the point of being broken by the growing strength of the +party of reform. Macaulay made his maiden speech on the 5th of April +1830, on the second reading of the Bill for the Removal of Jewish +Disabilities. In July the king died and parliament was dissolved; the +revolution took place in Paris. Macaulay, who was again returned for +Calne, visited Paris, eagerly enjoying a first taste of foreign travel. +On the 1st of March 1831 the Reform Bill was introduced, and on the +second night of the debate Macaulay made the first of his reform +speeches. It was, like all his speeches, a success. Sir Robert Peel said +of it that "portions were as beautiful as anything I have ever heard or +read." + +Encouraged by this first success, Macaulay now threw himself with ardour +into the life of the House of Commons, while at the same time he +continued to enjoy to the full the social opportunities which his +literary and political celebrity had placed within his reach. He dined +out almost nightly, and spent many of his Sundays at the suburban villas +of the Whig leaders, while he continued to supply the _Edinburgh Review_ +with articles. On the triumph of Earl Grey's cabinet, and the passing of +the Reform Act in June 1832, Macaulay, whose eloquence had signalized +every stage of the conflict, became one of the commissioners of the +board of control, and applied himself to the study of Indian affairs. +Giving his days to India and his nights to the House of Commons, he +could only devote a few hours to literary composition by rising at five +when the business of the house had allowed of his getting to bed in time +on the previous evening. Between September 1831 and December 1833 he +furnished the _Review_ with eight important articles, besides writing +his ballad on the Armada. + +In the first Reform Parliament, January 1833, Macaulay took his seat as +one of the two members for Leeds, which up to that date had been +unrepresented in the House of Commons. He replied to O'Connell in the +debate on the address, meeting the great agitator face to face, with +high, but not intemperate, defiance. In July he defended the Government +of India Bill in a speech of great power, and he was instrumental in +getting the bill through committee without unnecessary friction. When +the abolition of slavery came before the house as a practical question, +Macaulay had the prospect of having to surrender office or to vote for a +modified abolition, viz. twelve years' apprenticeship, which was +proposed by the ministry, but condemned by the abolitionists. He was +prepared to make the sacrifice of place rather than be unfaithful to the +cause to which his father had devoted his life. He placed his +resignation in Lord Althorp's hands, and spoke against the ministerial +proposal. But the sense of the house was so strongly expressed as +unfavourable that, finding they would be beaten if they persisted, the +ministry gave way, and reduced apprenticeship to seven years, a +compromise which the abolition party accepted; and Macaulay remained at +the board of control. + +While he was thus growing in reputation, and advancing his public +credit, the fortunes of the family were sinking, and it became evident +that his sisters would have no provision except such as their brother +might be enabled to make for them. Macaulay had but two sources of +income, both of them precarious--office and his pen. As to office, the +Whigs could not have expected at that time to retain power for a whole +generation; and, even while they did so, Macaulay's resolution that he +would always give an independent vote made it possible that he might at +any moment find himself in disagreement with his colleagues, and have to +quit his place. As to literature, he wrote to Lord Lansdowne (1833), "it +has been hitherto merely my relaxation; I have never considered it as +the means of support. I have chosen my own topics, taken my own time, +and dictated my own terms. The thought of becoming a bookseller's hack, +of spurring a jaded fancy to reluctant exertion, of filling sheets with +trash merely that sheets may be filled, of bearing from publishers and +editors what Dryden bore from Tonson and what Mackintosh bore from +Lardner, is horrible to me." Macaulay was thus prepared to accept the +offer of a seat in the supreme council of India, created by the new +India Act. The salary of the office was fixed at £10,000, out of which +he calculated to be able to save £30,000 in five years. His sister +Hannah accepted his proposal to accompany him, and in February 1834 the +brother and sister sailed for Calcutta. + +Macaulay's appointment to India occurred at the critical moment when the +government of the company was being superseded by government by the +Crown. His knowledge of India was, when he landed, but superficial. But +at this juncture there was more need of statesmanship directed by +general liberal principles than of a practical knowledge of the details +of Indian administration. Macaulay's presence in the council was of +great value; his minutes are models of good judgment and practical +sagacity. The part he took in India has been described as "the +application of sound liberal principles to a government which had till +then been jealous, close and repressive." He vindicated the liberty of +the press; he maintained the equality of Europeans and natives before +the law; and as president of the committee of public instruction he +inaugurated the system of national education. + +A clause in the India Act 1833 occasioned the appointment of a +commission to inquire into the jurisprudence of the Eastern dependency. +Macaulay was appointed president of that commission. The draft of a +penal code which he submitted became, after a revision of many years, +and by the labour of many experienced lawyers, the Indian criminal code. +Of this code Sir James Stephen said that "it reproduces in a concise and +even beautiful form the spirit of the law of England, in a compass which +by comparison with the original may be regarded as almost absurdly +small. The Indian penal code is to the English criminal law what a +manufactured article ready for use is to the materials out of which it +is made. It is to the French code pénal, and to the German code of 1871, +what a finished picture is to a sketch. It is simpler and better +expressed than Livingston's code for Louisiana; and its practical +success has been complete." + +Macaulay's enlightened views and measures drew down on him, however, the +abuse and ill-will of Anglo-Indian society. Fortunately for himself he +was enabled to maintain a tranquil indifference to political detraction +by withdrawing his thoughts into a sphere remote from the opposition and +enmity by which he was surrounded. Even amid the excitement of his early +parliamentary successes literature had balanced politics in his thoughts +and interests. Now in his exile he began to feel more strongly each year +the attraction of European letters and European history. He wrote to his +friend Ellis: "I have gone back to Greek literature with a passion +astonishing to myself. I have never felt anything like it. I was +enraptured with Italian during the six months which I gave up to it; and +I was little less pleased with Spanish. But when I went back to the +Greek I felt as if I had never known before what intellectual enjoyment +was." In thirteen months he read through, some of them twice, a large +part of the Greek and Latin classics. The fascination of these studies +produced their inevitable effect upon his view of political life. He +began to wonder what strange infatuation leads men who can do something +better to squander their intellect, their health and energy, on such +subjects as those which most statesmen are engaged in pursuing. He was +already, he says, "more than half determined to abandon politics and +give myself wholly to letters, to undertake some great historical work, +which may be at once the business and the amusement of my life, and to +leave the pleasures of pestiferous rooms, sleepless nights, and diseased +stomachs to Roebuck and to Praed." + +In 1838 Macaulay and his sister Hannah, who had married Charles +Trevelyan in 1834, returned to England. He at once entered parliament as +member for Edinburgh. In 1839 he became secretary at war, with a seat in +the cabinet in Lord Melbourne's ministry. His acceptance of office +diverted him for a time from prosecuting the plan he had already formed +of a great historical work. But in less than two years the Melbourne +ministry fell. In 1842 appeared his _Lays of Ancient Rome_, and in the +next year he collected and published his _Essays_. He returned to office +in 1846, in Lord John Russell's administration, as paymaster-general. +His duties were very light, and the contact with official life and the +obligations of parliamentary attendance were even of benefit to him +while he was engaged upon his _History_. In the sessions of 1846-1847 he +spoke only five times, and at the general election of July 1847 he lost +his seat for Edinburgh. The balance of Macaulay's faculties had now +passed to the side of literature. At an earlier date he had relished +crowds and the excitement of ever new faces; as years went forward, and +absorption in the work of composition took off the edge of his spirits, +he recoiled from publicity. He began to regard the prospect of business +as worry, and had no longer the nerve to brace himself to the social +efforts required of one who represents a large constituency. + +Macaulay retired into private life, not only without regret, but with a +sense of relief. He gradually withdrew from general society, feeling the +bore of big dinners and country-house visits, but he still enjoyed close +and constant intercourse with a circle of the most eminent men that +London then contained. At that time social breakfasts were in vogue. +Macaulay himself preferred this to any other form of entertainment. Of +these brilliant reunions nothing has been preserved beyond the names of +the men who formed them--Rogers, Hallam, Sydney Smith, Lord Carlisle, +Lord Stanhope, Nassau Senior, Charles Greville, Milman, Panizzi, G. C. +Lewis, Van de Weyer. His biographer thus describes Macaulay's appearance +and bearing in conversation: "Sitting bolt upright, his hands resting on +the arms of his chair, or folded over the handle of his walking-stick, +knitting his eyebrows if the subject was one which had to be thought out +as he went along, or brightening from the forehead downwards when a +burst of humour was coming, his massive features and honest glance +suited well with the manly sagacious sentiments which he set forth in +his sonorous voice and in his racy and intelligible language. To get at +his meaning people had never the need to think twice, and they certainly +had seldom the time." + +But, great as was his enjoyment of literary society and books, they only +formed his recreation. In these years he was working with unflagging +industry at the composition of his _History_. His composition was slow, +his corrections both of matter and style endless; he spared no pains to +ascertain the facts. He sacrificed to the prosecution of his task a +political career, House of Commons fame, the allurements of society. The +first two volumes of the _History of England_ appeared in December 1848. +The success was in every way complete beyond expectation. The sale of +edition after edition, both in England and the United States, was +enormous. + +In 1852, when his party returned to office, he refused a seat in the +cabinet, but he could not bring himself to decline the compliment of a +voluntary amende which the city of Edinburgh paid him in returning him +at the head of the poll at the general election in July of that year. He +had hardly accepted the summons to return to parliamentary life before +fatal weakness betrayed itself in deranged action of the heart; from +this time forward till his death his strength continued steadily to +sink. The process carried with it dejection of spirits as its inevitable +attendant. The thought oppressed him that the great work to which he had +devoted himself would remain a fragment. Once again, in June 1853, he +spoke in parliament, and with effect, against the exclusion of the +master of the rolls from the House of Commons, and at a later date in +defence of competition for the Indian civil service. But he was aware +that it was a grievous waste of his small stock of force, and that he +made these efforts at the cost of more valuable work. + +In November 1855 vols. iii. and iv. of the _History_ appeared and +obtained a vast circulation. Within a generation of its first appearance +upwards of 140,000 copies of the _History_ were printed and sold in the +United Kingdom alone; and in the United States the sales were on a +correspondingly large scale. The _History_ was translated into German, +Polish, Danish, Swedish, Hungarian, Russian, Bohemian, Italian, French, +Dutch and Spanish. Flattering marks of respect were heaped upon the +author by foreign academies. His pecuniary profits were (for that time) +on a scale commensurate with the reputation of the book: the cheque he +received for £20,000 has become a landmark in literary history. + +In May 1856 he quitted the Albany, in which he had passed fifteen happy +years, and went to live at Holly Lodge, Campden Hill, then, before it +was enlarged, a tiny bachelor's dwelling, but with a lawn whose unbroken +slope of verdure gave it the air of a considerable country house. In the +following year (1857) he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron +Macaulay of Rothley. "It was," says Lady Trevelyan, "one of the few +things that everybody approved; he enjoyed it himself, as he did +everything, simply and cordially." It was a novelty in English life to +see eminence which was neither that of territorial opulence nor of +political or military services recognized and rewarded by elevation to +the peerage. + +But Macaulay's health, which had begun to give way in 1852, was every +year visibly failing. In May 1858 he went to Cambridge for the purpose +of being sworn in as high steward of the borough, to which office he had +been elected on the death of Earl Fitzwilliam. When his health was given +at a public breakfast in the town-hall he was obliged to excuse himself +from speaking. In the upper house he never spoke. Absorbed in the +prosecution of his historical work, he had grown indifferent to the +party politics of his own day. Gradually he had to acquiesce in the +conviction that, though his intellectual powers remained unimpaired, his +physical energies would not carry him through the reign of Anne; and, +though he brought down the narrative to the death of William III., the +last half-volume wants the finish and completeness of the earlier +portions. The winter of 1859 told on him, and he died on the 28th of +December. On the 9th of January 1860 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, +in Poets' Corner, near the statue of Addison. + +Lord Macaulay never married. A man of warm domestic affections, he found +their satisfaction in the attachment and close sympathy of his sister +Hannah, the wife of Sir Charles Trevelyan. Her children were to him as +his own. Macaulay was a steadfast friend, and no act inconsistent with +the strictest honour and integrity was ever imputed to him. When a poor +man, and when salary was of consequence to him, he twice resigned office +rather than make compliances for which he would not have been severely +blamed. In 1847, when his seat in parliament was at stake, he would not +be persuaded to humour, to temporize, even to conciliate. He had a keen +relish for the good things of life, and desired fortune as the means of +obtaining them; but there was nothing mercenary or selfish in his +nature. When he had raised himself to opulence, he gave away with an +open hand, not seldom rashly. His very last act was to write a letter to +a poor curate enclosing a cheque for £25. The purity of his morals was +not associated with any tendency to cant. + +The lives of men of letters are often records of sorrow or suffering. +The life of Macaulay was eminently happy. Till the closing years +(1857-1859), he enjoyed life with the full zest of healthy faculty, +happy in social intercourse, happy in the solitude of his study, and +equally divided between the two. For the last fifteen years of his life +he lived for literature. His writings were remunerative to him far +beyond the ordinary measure, yet he never wrote for money. He lived in +his historical researches; his whole heart and interest were +unreservedly given to the men and the times of whom he read and wrote. +His command of literature was imperial. Beginning with a good classical +foundation, be made himself familiar with the imaginative, and then with +the historical, remains of Greece and Rome. He went on to add the +literature of his own country, of France, of Italy, of Spain. He learnt +Dutch enough for the purposes of his history. He read German, but for +the literature of the northern nations he had no taste, and of the +erudite labours of the Germans he had little knowledge and formed an +inadequate estimate. The range of his survey of human things had other +limitations more considerable still. All philosophical speculation was +alien to his mind; nor did he seem aware of the degree in which such +speculation had influenced the progress of humanity. A large--the +largest--part of ecclesiastical history lay outside his historical view. +Of art he confessed himself ignorant, and even refused a request to +furnish a critique on Swift's poetry to the _Edinburgh Review_. +Lessing's _Laocoon_, or Goethe's criticism on Hamlet, "filled" him "with +wonder and despair." + +Of the marvellous discoveries of science which were succeeding each +other day by day he took no note; his pages contain no reference to +them. It has been told already how he recoiled from the mathematical +studies of his university. These deductions made, the circuit of his +knowledge still remains very wide--as extensive perhaps as any human +brain is competent to embrace. His literary outfit was as complete as +has ever been possessed by any English writer; and, if it wants the +illumination of philosophy, it has an equivalent resource in a practical +acquaintance with affairs, with administration, with the interior of +cabinets, and the humour of popular assemblies. Nor was the knowledge +merely stored in his memory; it was always at his command. Whatever his +subject, he pours over it his stream of illustration, drawn from the +records of all ages and countries. His _Essays_ are not merely +instructive as history; they are, like Milton's blank verse, freighted +with the spoils of all the ages. As an historian Macaulay has not +escaped the charge of partisanship. He was a Whig; and in writing the +history of the rise and triumph of Whig principles in the latter half of +the 17th century he identified himself with the cause. But the charge of +partiality, as urged against Macaulay, means more than that he wrote the +history of the Whig revolution from the point of view of those who made +it. When he is describing the merits of friends and the faults of +enemies his pen knows no moderation. He has a constant tendency to +glaring colours, to strong effects, and will always be striking violent +blows. He is not merely exuberant but excessive. There is an overweening +confidence about his tone; he expresses himself in trenchant phrases, +which are like challenges to an opponent to stand up and deny them. His +propositions have no qualifications. Uninstructed readers like this +assurance, as they like a physician who has no doubt about their case. +But a sense of distrust grows upon the more circumspect reader as he +follows page after page of Macaulay's categorical affirmations about +matters which our own experience of life teaches us to be of a +contingent nature. We inevitably think of a saying attributed to Lord +Melbourne: "I wish I were as cocksure of any one thing as Macaulay is of +everything." Macaulay's was the mind of the advocate, not of the +philosopher; it was the mind of Bossuet, which admits no doubts or +reserves itself and tolerates none in others, and as such was +disqualified from that equitable balancing of evidence which is the +primary function of the historian. + +Macaulay, the historian no less than the politician, is, however, always +on the side of justice, fairness for the weak against the strong, the +oppressed against the oppressor. But though a Liberal in practical +politics, he had not the reformer's temperament. The world as it is was +good enough for him. The glories of wealth, rank, honours, literary +fame, the elements of vulgar happiness, made up his ideal of life. A +successful man himself, every personage and every cause is judged by its +success. "The brilliant Macaulay," says Emerson, "who expresses the tone +of the English governing classes of the day, explicitly teaches that +'good' means good to eat, good to wear, material commodity." Macaulay is +in accord with the average sentiment of orthodox and stereotyped +humanity on the relative values of the objects and motives of human +endeavour. And this commonplace materialism is one of the secrets of his +popularity, and one of the qualities which guarantee that that +popularity will be enduring. (M. P.) + + Macaulay's whole works were collected in 1866 by his sister, Lady + Trevelyan, in 8 vols. The first four volumes are occupied by the + _History_; the next three contain the _Essays_, and the _Lives_ which + he contributed to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. In vol. viii. are + collected his _Speeches_, the _Lays of Ancient Rome_, and some + miscellaneous pieces. The "life" by Dean Milman, printed in vol. viii. + of the edition of 1858-1862, is prefixed to the "People's Edition" (4 + vols., 1863-1864). Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. published a complete + edition, the "Albany," in 12 vols., in 1898. There are numerous + editions of the _Critical and Historical Essays_, separately and + collectively; they were edited in 1903 by F. C. Montagu. + + The _Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay_ (2 vols., 1876), by his + nephew, Sir George Otto Trevelyan, is one of the best biographies in + the English language. The life (1882) in the "English Men of Letters" + series was written by J. Cotter Morison. Far further criticism, see + Hepworth Dixon, in his _Life of Penn_ (1841); John Paget, _The New + Examen: Inquiry into Macaulay's History_ (1861) and _Paradoxes and + Puzzles_ (1874); Walter Bagehot, in the _National Review_ (Jan. 1856), + reprinted in his _Literary Studies_ (1879); James Spedding, _Evenings + with a Reviewer_ (1881), discussing his essay on Bacon; Sir L. + Stephen, _Hours in a Library_, vol. ii. (1892); Lord Morley, _Critical + Miscellanies_ (1877), vol. ii.; Lord Avebury, _Essays and Addresses_ + (1903); Thum, _Anmerkungen zu Macaulay's History of England_ + (Heilbronn, 1882). A bibliography of German criticism of Macaulay is + given in G. Körting's _Grd. der engl. Literatur_ (4th ed., Munster, + 1905). + + + + +MACAW, or, as formerly spelt, MACCAW, the name given to some fifteen or +more species of large, long-tailed birds of the parrot-family, natives +of the neotropical region, and forming a very well-known and easily +recognized genus _Ara_, and to the four species of Brazilian Hyacinthine +macaws of the genera _Anodorhynchus_ and _Cyanopsittacus_. Most of the +macaws are remarkable for their gaudy plumage, which exhibits the +brightest scarlet, yellow, blue and green in varying proportion and +often in violent contrast, while a white visage often adds a very +peculiar and expressive character.[1] With one exception the known +species of _Ara_ inhabit the mainland of America from Paraguay to +Mexico, being especially abundant in Bolivia, where no fewer than seven +of them (or nearly one half) have been found (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1879, +p. 634). The single extra-continental species, _A. tricolor,_ is one of +the most brilliantly coloured, and is peculiar to Cuba, where, according +to Gundlach (_Ornitologia Cubana_, p. 126), its numbers are rapidly +decreasing so that there is every chance of its becoming extinct.[2] + +Of the best known species of the group, the blue-and-yellow macaw, _A. +ararauna_, has an extensive range in South America from Guiana in the +east to Colombia in the west, and southwards to Paraguay. Of large size, +it is to be seen in almost every zoological garden, and it is very +frequently kept alive in private houses, for its temper is pretty good, +and it will become strongly attached to those who tend it. Its richly +coloured plumage, sufficiently indicated by its common English name, +supplies feathers eagerly sought by salmon-fishers for the making of +artificial flies. The red-and-blue macaw, _A. macao_, is even larger and +more gorgeously clothed, for, besides the colours expressed in its +ordinary appellation, yellow and green enter into its adornment. It +inhabits Central as well as South America as far as Bolivia, and is also +a common bird in captivity, though perhaps less often seen than the +foregoing. The red-and-yellow species, _A. chloroptera_, ranging from +Panama to Brazil, is smaller, or at least has a shorter tail, and is not +quite so usually met with in menageries. The red-and-green, _A. +militaris_, smaller again than the last, is not unfrequent in +confinement, and presents the colours of the name it bears. This has the +most northerly extension of habitat, occurring in Mexico and thence +southwards to Bolivia. In _A. manilata_ and _A. nobilis_ the prevailing +colour is green and blue. The Hyacinthine macaws _A. hyacinthinus_, _A. +leari_, _A. glaucus_ and _Cyanopsittacus spixi_ are almost entirely +blue. + +The macaws live well in captivity, either chained to a perch or kept in +large aviaries in which their strong flight is noticeable. The note of +these birds is harsh and screaming. The sexes are alike; the lustreless +white eggs are laid in hollow trees, usually two at a time. The birds +are gregarious but apparently monogamous. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This serves to separate the macaws from the long-tailed parakeets + of the New World (_Conurus_), to which they are very nearly allied. + + [2] There is some reason to think that Jamaica may have formerly + possessed a macaw (though no example is known to exist), and if so it + was most likely a peculiar species. Sloane (_Voyage_, ii. 297), after + describing what he calls the "great maccaw" (_A. ararauna_), which he + had seen in captivity in that island, mentions the "small maccaw" as + being very common in the woods there, and P. H. Gosse (_Birds of + Jamaica_, p. 260) gives, on the authority of Robinson, a local + naturalist of the last century, the description of a bird which + cannot be reconciled with any species now known, though it must have + evidently been allied to the Cuban _A. tricolor_. + + + + +MACBETH, king of Scotland (d. 1058), was the son of Findlaech, _mormaer_ +or hereditary ruler of Moreb (Moray and Ross), who had been murdered by +his nephews in 1020. He probably became mormaer on the death of Malcolm, +one of the murderers, in 1029, and he may have been one of the chiefs +(the Maclbaethe of the _Saxon Chronicle_) who submitted to Canute in +1031. Marianus records that in 1040 Duncan, the grandson and successor +of Malcolm king of Scotland, was slain by Macbeth. Duncan had shortly +before suffered a severe defeat at the hands of Thorfinn, the Norwegian +earl of Orkney and Caithness, and it was perhaps this event which +tempted Macbeth to seize the throne. As far as is known he had no claim +to the crown except through his wife Gruach, who appears to have been a +member of the royal family. Macbeth was apparently a generous benefactor +to the Church, and is said to have made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1050. +According to S. Berchan his reign was a time of prosperity for Scotland. +The records of the period, however, are extremely meagre, and much +obscurity prevails, especially as to his relations with the powerful +earl Thorfinn. More than one attempt was made by members of the Scottish +royal family to recover the throne; in 1045 by Crinan, the lay abbot of +Dunkeld, son-in-law of Malcolm II., and in 1054 by Duncan's son Malcolm +with the assistance of Siward the powerful earl of Northumbria, himself +a connexion of the ousted dynasty. Three years later in 1057 Malcolm and +Siward again invaded Scotland and the campaign ended with the defeat and +death of Macbeth, who was slain at Lumphanan. Macbeth is, of course, +chiefly famous as the central figure of Shakespeare's great tragedy. + + See W. F. Skene, _Chronicles of the Picts and Scots_ (1867) and + _Celtic Scotland_ (1876); Sir John Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (1904). + + + + +MACCABEES, the name (in the plural) of a distinguished Jewish family +dominant in Jerusalem in the 2nd century B.C. According to 1 Macc. ii. +4, the name Maccabaeus (Gr. [Greek: Makkabaios]-? Heb. [Hebrew: makabi]) +was originally the distinctive surname of Judas, third son of the Jewish +priest Mattathias, who struck the first blow for religious liberty +during the persecution under Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes). Subsequently, +however, it obtained a wider significance, having been applied first to +the kinsmen of Judas, then to his adherents, and ultimately to all +champions of religion in the Greek period. Thus the mother of the seven +brethren, whose martyrdom is related in 2 Macc. vi., vii., is called by +early Christian writers "the mother of the Maccabees." The name is used +still more loosely in the titles of the so-called Third, Fourth and +Fifth Books of Maccabees. It is now customary to apply it only to the +sons and descendants of Mattathias. As, however, according to Josephus +(_Ant._ xii. 6. 1), this brave priest's great-great-grandfather was +called _Hasmon_ (i.e. "rich" = magnate; cf. Ps. lxviii. 31 [32]), the +family is more correctly designated by the name of Hasmonaeans or +Asmoneans (q.v.). This name Jewish authors naturally prefer to that of +Maccabees; they also style 1 and 2 Macc. "Books of the Hasmonaeans." + +If Maccabee (_maqqabi_) is the original form of the name, the most +probable derivation is from the Aramaic _maqqaba_ (Heb. [Hebrew: +makevet], Judg. iv. 21, &c.) = "hammer." The surname "hammerer" might +have been applied to Judas either as a distinctive title pure and simple +or symbolically as in the parallel case of Edward I., "Scotorum +_malleus_." Even if _maqqaba_ does denote the ordinary workman's hammer, +and not the great smith's hammer which would more fitly symbolize the +impetuosity of Judas, this is not a fatal objection. The doubled _k_ of +the Greek form is decisive against (1) the theory that the name Maccabee +was made up of the initials of the opening words of Exod. xv. ii; (2) +the derivation from [Hebrew: machvi] = "extinguisher" (cf. Isa. xliii. +17), based by Curtiss (_The Name Machabee_, Leipzig, 1876) on the Latin +spelling Machabaeus = [Greek: Makkabaios], which Jerome probably adopted +in accordance with the usage of the times. + +The Maccabaean revolt was caused by the attempt of Antiochus IV. +(Epiphanes), king of Syria (175-164 B. C.), to force Hellenism upon +Judaea (see SELEUCID DYNASTY; HELLENISM). Ever since the campaigns of +Alexander the Great, Greek habits and ideas had been widely adopted in +Palestine. Over the higher classes especially Hellenism had cast its +spell. This called forth the organized opposition of the Hasidim (= "the +pious"), who constituted themselves champions of the Law. Joshua, who +headed the Hellenistic faction, graecized his name into Jason, contrived +to have the high-priesthood taken from his brother Onias III., and +conferred upon himself, and set up a gymnasium hard by the Temple. After +three years' tenure of office Jason was supplanted by the Benjamite +Menelaus, who disowned Judaism entirely. Antiochus punished an outburst +of strife between the rivals by plundering the Temple and slaying many +of the inhabitants (170 B. C.). Two years later Jerusalem was devastated +by his general Apollonius, and a Syrian garrison occupied the citadel +(Akra). The Jews were ordered under pain of death to substitute for +their own observances the Pagan rites prescribed for the empire +generally. In December 168 sacrifice was offered to Zeus upon an idol +altar ("the abomination of desolation," Dan. x. 27) erected over the +great altar of burnt-offering. But Antiochus had miscalculated, and by +his extreme measures unwittingly saved Judaism from its internal foes. +Many hellenizers rallied round those who were minded to die rather than +abjure their religion. The issue of an important edict ordaining the +erection of heathen altars in every township of Palestine, and the +appointment of officers to deal with recusants, brought matters to a +crisis. At Modin, Mattathias, an aged priest, not only refused to offer +the first sacrifice, but slew an apostate Jew who was about to step into +the breach. He also killed the king's commissioner and pulled down the +altar. Having thus given the signal for rebellion, he then with his five +sons took to the mountains. In view of the ruthless slaughter of a +thousand sabbatarians in the wilderness, Mattathias and his friends +decided to resist attack even on the sabbath. Many, including the +Hasidim, thereupon flocked to his standard, and set themselves to revive +Jewish rites and to uproot Paganism from the land. In 166 Mattathias +died, after charging his sons to give their lives for their ancestral +faith, and nominating Judas Maccabaeus as their leader in the holy +campaign. + +The military genius of Judas made this the most stirring chapter in +Israelitish history. In quick succession he overthrew the Syrian +generals Apollonius, Seron and Gorgias, and after the regent Lysias had +shared the same fate at his hands he restored the Temple worship (165). +These exploits dismayed his opponents and kindled the enthusiasm of his +friends. When, however, Lysias returned in force to renew the contest, +Judas had to fall back upon the Temple mount, and escaped defeat only +because the Syrian leader was obliged to hasten back to Antioch in order +to prevent a rival from seizing the regency. Under these circumstances +Lysias unexpectedly guaranteed to the Jews their religious freedom +(162). But though they had thus gained their end, the struggle did not +cease; it merely assumed a new phase. The Hasidim indeed were satisfied, +and declined to fight longer, but the Maccabees determined not to desist +until their nation was politically as well as religiously free. In 161 +Judas defeated Nicanor at Adasa, but within a few weeks thereafter, in a +heroic struggle against superior numbers under Bacchides at Elasa, he +was himself cut off. Even this, however, did not prove fatal to the +cause which Judas had espoused. If in his brother Jonathan it did not +possess so brilliant a soldier, it had in him an astute diplomatist who +knew how to exploit the internal troubles of Syria. In the contest +between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas for the throne, Jonathan +supported the latter, who in 153 nominated him high priest, and +conferred on him the order of "King's Friend," besides other honours. +After the accession of Demetrius II. (145) Jonathan contrived to win his +favour, and helped him to crush a rebellion in Antioch on condition that +the Syrian garrisons should be withdrawn from Judaea. When, however, +Demetrius failed to keep his word, Jonathan transferred his allegiance +to Antiochus VI., whom Tryphon had crowned as king. After subjugating +the territory between Jerusalem and Damascus, he routed the generals of +Demetrius on the plain of Hazor. But as the Maccabees had now in the +name of the Syrians cleared the Syrians out of Palestine, Tryphon's +jealousy was aroused, and he resolved to be rid of Jonathan, who, with +all his cunning, walked into a trap at Ptolemais, was made prisoner and +ultimately slain (143). The leadership now devolved upon Simon, the last +survivor of the sons of Mattathias. He soon got the better of Tryphon, +who vainly tried to reach Jerusalem. Allying himself to Demetrius, Simon +succeeded in negotiating a treaty whereby the political independence of +Judaea was at length secured. The garrison in the Akra having been +starved into submission, Simon triumphantly entered that fortress in May +142. In the following year he was by popular decree invested with +absolute powers, being appointed leader, high priest and ethnarch. As +these offices were declared hereditary in his family, he became the +founder of the Hasmonaean dynasty. The first year of his reign (Seleucid +year 170 = 143-142 B.C.) was made the beginning of a new era, and the +issue of a Jewish coinage betokened the independence of his sovereignty. +Under Simon's administration the country enjoyed signal prosperity. Its +internal resources were assiduously developed; trade, agriculture, civic +justice and religion were fostered; while at no epoch in its post-exilic +history did Israel enjoy an equal measure of social happiness (I Macc. +xiv. 4 seq.). Simon's beneficent activities came, however, to a sudden +and tragic end. In 135 he and two of his sons were murdered by Ptolemy, +his son-in-law, who had an eye to the supreme power. But Simon's third +son, John Hyrcanus, warned in time, succeeded in asserting his rights as +hereditary head of the state. All the sons of Mattathias had now died +for the sake of "The Law"; and the result of their work, so valorously +prosecuted for over thirty years, was a new-born enthusiasm in Israel +for the ancestral faith. The Maccabaean struggle thus gave fresh life to +the Jewish nation. + +After the death of Antiochus VII. Sidetes in 128 left him a free hand, +Hyrcanus (135-105) soon carved out for himself a large and prosperous +kingdom, which, however, was rent by internal discord owing to the +antagonism developed between the rival parties of the Pharisees and +Sadducees. Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son Aristobulus, whose reign of +but one year was followed by that of his brother, the warlike Alexander +Jannaeus (104-78). The new king's Sadducean proclivities rendered him +odious to the populace, which rose in revolt, but only to bring upon +itself a savage revenge. The accession of his widow Salome Alexandra +(78-69) witnessed a complete reversal of the policy pursued by Jannaeus, +for she chose to rule in accordance with the ideals of the Pharisees. +Her elder son, Hyrcanus II., a pliable weakling, was appointed high +priest; her younger son, the energetic Aristobulus, who chafed at his +exclusion from office, seized some twenty strongholds and with an army +bore down upon Jerusalem. At this crisis Alexandra died, and Hyrcanus +agreed to retire in favour of his masterful brother. A new and +disturbing element now entered into Jewish politics in the person of the +Idumaean Antipater, who for selfish ends deliberately made mischief +between the brothers. An appeal to M. Aemilius Scaurus, who in 65 came +into Syria as the legate of Pompey, led to the interference of the +Romans, the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey, and the vassalage of the Jews +(q.v.). Hyrcanus II. was appointed high priest and ethnarch, without the +title of king (63). Repeated but fruitless attempts were made by the +Hasmonaeans and their patriotic supporters to throw off the Roman yoke. +In 47 Antipater, who curried favour with Rome, was made procurator of +Judaea, and his sons Phasael and Herod governors of Jerusalem and +Galilee respectively. Six years later the Idumaean brothers were +appointed tetrarchs of Judaea. At length, in 40, the Parthians set up as +king Antigonus, sole surviving son of Aristobulus. Thereupon Phasael +committed suicide in prison, but Herod effected his escape and with the +help of the Romans seated himself on the throne of Judaea (37 B.C.). +Through the execution of Antigonus by M. Antonius (Mark Antony) the same +year the Hasmonaean dynasty became extinct. + + LITERATURE.--1 and 2 Macc. and Josephus are the main sources for the + Maccabaean history. For references in classical authors see E. + Schürer, _Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes_ (1901, p 106 seq.). Besides + the numerous modern histories of Israel (e.g. those by Dérenbourg, + Ewald, Stanley, Stade, Renan, Schürer, Kent, Wellhausen, Guthe), see + also Madden, _Coins of the Jews_ (1881), H. Weiss's _Judas Makkabaeus_ + (1897), and the articles in the _Ency. Bib._, Hastings's _Dict. + Bible_, the _Jewish Encyclopedia_. Among more popular sketches are + Moss's _From Malachi to Matthew_ (1893); Streanes' _The Age of the + Maccabees_ (1898); Morrison's _The Jews under Roman Rule_ ("Story of + the Nations" series); W. Fairweather's _From the Exile to the Advent_ + (1901); E. R. Bevan's _Jerusalem under the High Priests_ (1904); F. + Henderson's _The Age of the Maccabees_ (1907); also, articles JEWS; + SELEUCID DYNASTY. (W. F.*) + + + + +MACCABEES, BOOKS OF, the name given to several Apocryphal books of the +Old Testament. The Vulgate contains two books of Maccabees which were +declared canonical by the council of Trent (1546) and found a place +among the Apocrypha of the English Bible. Three other books of this name +are extant. Book iii. is included in the Septuagint but not in the +Vulgate. Book iv. is embraced in the Alexandrian, Sinaitic, and other +MSS. of the Septuagint, as well as in some MSS. of Josephus. A "Fifth" +book is contained in the Ambrosian Peshitta, but it seems to be merely a +Syriac reproduction of the sixth book of Josephus's history of the +_Jewish War_. None of the books of Maccabees are contained in the +Vatican (B); all of them are found in a Syriac recension. + +_1 Maccabees_ was originally written in Hebrew, but is preserved only in +a Greek translation. Origen gives a transliteration of "its Semitic +title,"[1] and Jerome says distinctly: "The First Book of Maccabees I +found in Hebrew." The frequent Hebraisms which mark the Greek +translation, as well as the fact that some obscure passages in the Greek +text are best accounted for as mistranslations from the Hebrew, afford +internal evidence of the truth of this testimony. There are good reasons +for regarding the book as a unity, although some scholars (Destinon, +followed by Wellhausen) consider the concluding chapters (xiii.-xvi.) a +later addition unknown to Josephus, who, however, seems to have already +used the Greek. It probably dates from about the beginning of the first +century B.C.[2] + +As it supplies a detailed and accurate record of the forty years from +the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death of Simon (175-135 +B.C.), without doubt the most stirring chapter in Jewish history, the +book is one of the most precious historical sources we possess. In its +careful chronology, based upon the Seleucid era, in the minuteness of +its geographical knowledge, in the frankness with which it records +defeat as well as victory, on the restraint with which it speaks of the +enemies of the Jews, in its command of details, it bears on its face the +stamp of genuineness. Not that it is wholly free from error or +exaggeration, but its mistakes are due merely to defective knowledge of +the outside world, and its overstatements, virtually confined to the +matter of numbers, proceed from a patriotic desire to magnify Jewish +victories. While the author presumably had some written sources at his +disposal,[3] his narrative is probably for the most part founded upon +personal knowledge and recollection of the events recorded, and upon +such first-hand information as, living in the second generation after, +he would still be in a position to obtain. His sole aim is honestly to +relate what he knew of the glorious struggles of his nation. + +Although written in the style of the historical books of the old +Testament, the work is characterized by a religious reticence which +avoids even the use of the divine name, and by the virtual absence of +the Messianic hope. The observance of the law is strongly urged, and the +cessation of prophecy deplored (iv. 46; xiv. 41). There is no allusion +either to the immortality of the soul or to the resurrection of the +dead. The rewards to which the dying Mattathias points his sons are all +for this life. Many scholars are of opinion that the unknown author was +a Sadducee,[4] but all that can be said with certainty is that he was a +Palestinian Jew devotedly attached to the national cause. + + Until the council of Trent 1 Maccabees had only "ecclesiastical" rank, + and although not accepted as canonical by the Protestant churches, it + has always been held in high estimation. Luther says "it closely + resembles the rest of the books of Holy Scripture, and would not be + unworthy to be enumerated with them." + +_2 Maccabees_, the epitome of a larger work in five books by one Jason +of Cyrene, deals with the same history as its predecessor, except that +it begins at a point one year earlier (176 B.C.), and stops short at the +death of Nicanor (161 B.C.), thus covering a period of only fifteen +years. First of all[5] the writer describes the futile attempt of +Heliodorus to rob the Temple, and the malicious intrigues of the +Benjamite Simon against the worthy high priest Onias III. (iii. i-iv. +6). As throwing light upon the situation prior to the Maccabaean revolt +this section of the book is of especial value. Chapters iv. 7-vii. 42 +contain a more detailed narrative of the events recorded in 1 Macc. i. +10-64. The remainder of the book runs parallel to 1 Macc, iii.-vii. + +Originally written in excellent Greek, from a pronouncedly Pharisaic +standpoint, it was possibly directed against the Hasmonaean dynasty. It +shows no sympathy with the priestly class. Both in trustworthiness and +in style it is inferior to 1 Macc. Besides being highly coloured, the +narrative does not observe strict chronological sequence. Instead of the +sober annalistic style of the earlier historian we have a work marked by +hyperbole, inflated rhetoric and homiletic reflection. Bitter invective +is heaped upon the national enemies, and strong predilection is shown +for the marvellous. The fullness and inaccuracy of detail which are a +feature of the book suggest that Jason's information was derived from +the recollections of eye-witnesses orally communicated. In spite of its +obvious defects, however, it forms a useful supplement to the first +book. + +The writer's interests are religious rather than historical. In 1 Macc, +there is a keen sense of the part to be played by the Jews themselves, +of the necessity of employing their own skill and valour; here they are +made to rely rather upon divine intervention. Fantastic apparitions of +angelic and supernatural beings, gorgeously arrayed and mostly upon +horseback, are frequently introduced. In general, the views reflected in +the book are those of the Pharisees. The ungodly will be punished +mercilessly, and in exact correspondence to their sins.[6] The +chastisements of erring Jews are of short duration, and intended to +recall them to duty. If the faithful suffer martyrdom, it is in order to +serve as an example to others, and they shall be compensated by being +raised up "unto an eternal renewal of life." The eschatology of 2 Macc. +is singularly advanced, for it combines the doctrine of a resurrection +with that of immortality. It is worthy of note that the Roman Church +finds support in this book for its teaching with reference to prayers +for the dead and purgatory (xii. 43 seq.). An allusion to Jeremiah as +"he who prayeth much for the people and the holy city" (xv. 14) it +likewise appeals to as favouring its views respecting the intercession +of the saints. + +Neither of Jason's work, nor of the epitomizer's, can the precise date +be determined. The changed relations with Rome (viii. 10, 36) prove, +however, that the latter was written later than 1 Macc.; and it is +equally clear that it was composed before the destruction of Jerusalem, +A.D. 70. + + The account given of the martyrs in chs. vi. and vii. led to frequent + allusions to this book in early patristic literature. Only Augustine, + however, was minded to give it the canonical rank to which it has been + raised by the Roman Church. Luther judged of it as unfavourably as he + judged of 1 Macc, favourably, and even "wished it had never existed." + +_3 Maccabees_, although purporting to be an historical narrative, is +really an animated, if somewhat vapid, piece of fiction written in Greek +somewhere between 100 B.C. and A.D. 70,[7] and apparently preserved only +in part.[8] It has no connexion with the Hasmonaeans, but is a story of +the deliverance experienced by the Egyptian Jews from impending +martyrdom at the hand of Ptolemy IV. Philopator, who reigned in the +century previous to the Maccabaean rising (222-205 B.C.). The title is +of later origin, and rendered possible only by the generalization of the +name Maccabee so as to embrace all who suffered for the ancestral faith. +Josephus refers the legend on which it is based to the time of Ptolemy +VII. Physcon (146-117 B.C.). Some scholars (Ewald, Reuss, Hausrath) +think that what the story really points to is the persecution under +Caligula, but in that case Ptolemy would naturally have been represented +as claiming divine honours. No other source informs us of a visit to +Jerusalem, or of a persecution of the Jews, on the part of Philopator. +Possibly, however, the story may be founded on some historical situation +regarding which we have no definite knowledge. The purpose of the writer +was evidently to cheer his Egyptian brethren during some persecution at +Alexandria. Although the book was favourably regarded in the Syrian, it +was apparently unknown to the Latin Church. Among the Jews it was +virtually ignored. + + Briefly, the tale is as follows:--After the battle of Raphia[9] (217 + B.C.), Ptolemy IV. Philopator insisted on entering the sanctuary at + Jerusalem, but was struck down by the Almighty in answer to the + prayers of the horrified Jews. On his return to Egypt he revenged + himself by curtailing the religious liberty of the Alexandrian Jews, + and by depriving of their civic rights all who refused to worship + Bacchus. Exasperated by their loyalty to their religion, the king + ordered all the Jews in Egypt to be imprisoned in the hippodrome of + Alexandria. Clerks were told off to prepare a list of the prisoners' + names, but after forty days constant toil they had exhausted their + writing materials without finishing their task. Ptolemy further + commanded that 500 elephants should be intoxicated and let loose upon + the occupants of the race-course. Only an accident prevented the + carrying out of this design; the king had slept until it was past the + time for his principal meal. On the following day, in virtue of a + divinely induced forgetfulness, Ptolemy recollected nothing but the + loyalty of the Jews to his throne. The same evening, nevertheless, he + repeated his order for their destruction. Accordingly, on the morning + of the third day, when the king attended to see his commands + executed, things had reached a crisis. The Jews prayed to the Lord for + mercy, and two angels appeared from heaven, to the confusion of the + royal troops, who were trampled down by the elephants. Ptolemy now + vented his wrath upon his counsellors, liberated the Jews, and feasted + them for seven days. They determined that these should be kept as + festal days henceforth in commemoration of their deliverance. The + provincial governors were enjoined to take the Jews under their + protection, and leave was given to the latter to slay those of their + kinsmen who had deserted the faith. They further celebrated their + deliverance at Ptolemais, where they built a synagogue, and they + reached their various abodes to find themselves not only reinstated in + their possessions, but raised in the esteem of the Egyptians. + +_4 Maccabees_ differs essentially from the other books of this name. +While it does not itself aim at being a history, it makes striking use +of Jewish history for purposes of edification. It bears, moreover, a +distinctly philosophical character, and takes the form of a "tractate" +or discourse, addressed to Jews only,[10] upon "the supremacy of pious +reason over the passions." [11] The material is well arranged and +systematically handled. In the prologue (i. 1-12) the writer explains +the aim and scope of his work. Then follows the first main division (i. +13-iii. 18), in which he treats philosophically the proposition that +reason is the mistress of the passions, inquiring what is meant by +"reason" and what by "passion," as well as how many kinds of passion +there are, and whether reason rules them all. The conclusion reached is +that with the exception of forgetfulness and ignorance all the +affections are under the lordship of reason, or at all events of _pious_ +reason. To follow the dictates of pious reason in opposition to natural +inclination is to have learned the secret of victory over the passions. +In the second part of the book (iii. 19-xviii. 5) the writer goes on to +prove his thesis from Jewish history, dwelling in particular upon the +noble stand made against the tyranny of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes by the +priest Eleazar, the seven brothers and their mother--all of whom chose +torture and death rather than apostatize from the faith. Finally he +appeals to his readers to emulate these acts of piety (xvii. 7-xviii. +24). In his gruesome descriptions of physical sufferings the author +offends against good taste even more than the writer of 2 Macc., while +both contrast very unfavourably in this respect with the sober reserve +of the gospel narratives. + +The book is written in a cultured, if somewhat rhetorical, Greek style, +and is unmistakably coloured by the Stoic philosophy. The four cardinal +virtues are represented as forms of wisdom, which again is inseparable +from the Mosaic law. That the writer owes no slavish adherence to any +philosophical system is plain from his independent treatment of the +affections. Although influenced by Hellenism, he is a loyal Jew, +earnestly desirous that all who profess the same faith should adhere to +it in spite of either Greek allurements or barbaric persecution. It is +not to reason as such, but only to pious reason (i.e. to reason +enlightened and controlled by the divine law), that he attributes +lordship over the passions. While in his zeal for legalism he virtually +adopts the standpoint of Pharisaism, he is at one with Jewish Hellenism +in substituting belief in the soul's immortality for the doctrine of a +bodily resurrection. + +The name of the author is unknown. He was, however, clearly a +Hellenistic Jew, probably resident in Alexandria or Asia Minor. In the +early Church the work was commonly ascribed to Josephus and incorporated +with his writings. But apart from the fact that it is found also in +several MSS. of the Septuagint, the language and style of the book are +incompatible with his authorship. So also is the circumstance that 2 +Macc., which forms the basis of 4 Macc., was unknown to Josephus. +Moreover, several unhistorical statements (such as, e.g. that Seleucus +was succeeded by his _son_ Antiochus Epiphanes, iv. 15) militate +against the view that Josephus was the author. The date of composition +cannot be definitely fixed. It is, however, safe to say that the book +must have been written later than 2 Macc., and (in view of the +acceptance it met with in the Christian Church) prior to the destruction +of Jerusalem. Most likely it is a product of the Herodian period. + +_5 Maccabees._ Writing in 1566 Sixtus Senensis mentions having seen at +Lyons a manuscript of a so-called "Fifth Book of Maccabees" in the +library of Santas Pagninus, which was soon afterwards destroyed by fire. +It began with the words: "After the murder of Simon, John his son became +high priest in his stead." Sixtus conjectures that it may have been a +Greek translation of the "chronicles" of John Hyrcanus, alluded to in 1 +Macc., xvi. 24. He acknowledges that it is a history of Hyrcanus +practically on the lines of Josephus, but concludes from its Hebraistic +style that it was not from that writer's pen. The probability, however, +is that it was "simply a reproduction of Josephus, the style being +changed perhaps for a purpose" (Schürer). + +The Arabic "Book of Maccabees" contained in the Paris and London +Polyglotts, and purporting to be a history of the Jews from the affair +of Heliodorus (186 B.C.) to the close of Herod's reign, is historically +worthless, being nothing but a compilation from 1 and 2 Macc. and +Josephus. In the one chapter (xii.) where the writer ventures to detach +himself from these works he commits glaring historical blunders. The +book was written in somewhat Hebraistic Greek subsequent to A.D. 70. In +Cotton's English translation of _The Five Books of Maccabees_ it is this +book that is reckoned the "Fifth." + + The best modern editions of the Greek text of the four books of + Maccabees are those of O. F. Fritzsche (1871) and H. B. Swete + (Cambridge Septuagint, vol. iii., 1894). C. J. Ball's _The Variorum + Apocrypha_ will be found specially useful by those who cannot + conveniently consult the Greek. The best modern commentary is that of + C. L. W. Grimm (1853-1857). C. F. Keil's commentary on 1 and 2 Macc. + is very largely indebted to Grimm. More recently there have appeared + commentaries by E. C. Bissell on 1, 2 and 3 Macc. in Lange-Schaff's + commentary, 1880--the whole Apocrypha being embraced in one volume, + and much of the material being transferred from Grimm; G. Rawlinson on + 1 and 2 Macc. in the _Speaker's Commentary_ 1888 (containing much + useful matter, but marred by too frequent inaccuracy); O. Zöckler, on + 1, 2 and 3 Macc., 1891 (slight and unsatisfactory); W. Fairweather and + J. S. Black on 1 Macc. in the _Cambridge Bible for Schools_ (1897); E. + Kautzsch on 1 and 3 Macc., A. Kamphausen on 2 Macc. and A. Deissmann + on 4 Macc. in _Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des Alt. Test._, 1898 (a most + serviceable work for the student of apocryphal literature). Brief but + useful introductions to all the four books of Maccabees are given in + E. Schürer's _Geschichte des Judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu + Christi_ (3rd ed., 1898-1901; Eng. tr. of earlier edition, 1886-1890). + (W. F.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] [Greek: Sarbeth Sabanaiel] (Sarbeth Sabanaiel). No satisfactory + explanation of this title has yet been given from the Hebrew (see the + commentaries). The book may, however, have been known to Origen only + in an Aramaic translation, in which case, according to the happy + conjecture of Dalman (_Gramm._ 6) the two words may have represented + the Aramaic [Hebrew: sefer beit Hashmonai] ("book of the Hasmonaean + house"). + + [2] If the book is a unity, ch. xvi. 23 implies that it was written + after the death of Hyrcanus which occurred in 105 B.C. On the other + hand the friendly references to Rome in ch. viii. show that it must + have been written before the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 B.C. + + [3] Cf. ix. 22, xi. 37, xiv. 18, 27. + + [4] See especially Geiger, _Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel_, + 206 seq. + + [5] Prefixed to the book are two spurious letters from Palestinian + Jews (i., ii. 18), having no real connexion with it, or even with one + another, further than that they both urge Egyptian Jews to observe + the Feast of the Dedication. Between these and the main narrative is + inserted the writer's own preface, in which he explains the source + and aim of his work (ii. 19-32). + + [6] iv. 38. 42; v. 9 seq.; ix. 5-18. + + [7] The date of composition can be only approximately determined. As + the writer is acquainted with the Greek additions to Daniel (vi. 6), + the first century B.C. forms the superior limit; and as the book + found favour in the Eastern Church, the first century A.D. forms the + inferior limit. + + [8] Apart from its abrupt commencement, the references in i. 2 to + "the plot" as something already specified, and in ii. 25 to the + king's "before-mentioned" companions, of whom, however, nothing is + said in the previous section of the book, point to the loss of at + least an introductory chapter. + + [9] The statements with reference to the war between Antiochus the + Great and Ptolemy Philopator are in general agreement with those of + the classical historians, and to this extent the tale may be said to + have an historical setting. By Grimm (_Einl._ § 3), the observance of + the two yearly festivals (vi. 26; vii. 19), and the existence of the + synagogue at Ptolemais when the book was written, are viewed as the + witness of tradition to the fact of some great deliverance. Fritzsche + has well pointed out, however (art. "Makkabäer" in Schenkel's + _Bibel-Lexicon_) that in the hands of Jewish writers of the period + nearly every event of consequence has a festival attached to it. + + [10] Even if with Freudenthal we regard the work as a homily actually + delivered to a Jewish congregation--and there are difficulties in the + way of this theory, particularly the absence of a Biblical text--it + was clearly intended for publication. It is essentially a book in the + form of a discourse, whether it was ever orally delivered or not. So + Deissmann in Kautzsch, _Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des A. T._ ii. 151. + + [11] Hence the title sometimes given to it: [Greek: autokratoros + logismou] ("On the supremacy of reason"). It is also styled [Greek: + Makkabaion d', Makkabaikon, eis tous Makkabaious]. + + + + +MacCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE (1817-1882), Irish poet, was born in Dublin on +the 26th of May 1817, and educated there and at Maynooth. His earlier +verses appeared in _The Dublin Satirist_, and in 1843 he became a +regular contributor of political verse to the recently founded _Nation_. +He also took an active part in the Irish political associations. In 1846 +he edited _The Poets and Dramatists of Ireland_ and the _Book of Irish +Ballads_. His collected _Ballads, Poems and Lyrics_ (1850), including +translations from nearly all the modern languages, took immensely with +his countrymen on account of their patriotic ring. This was followed by +_The Bellfounder_ (1857), _Under-glimpses_ and other poems (1857) and +_The Early Life of Shelley_ (1871). In 1853 he began a number of +translations from the Spanish of Calderon's dramas, which won for him a +medal from the Royal Spanish Academy. He had already been granted a +civil list pension for his literary services. He died in Ireland on the +7th of April 1882. + + + + +M'CARTHY, JUSTIN (1830- ), Irish politician, historian and novelist, +was born in Cork on the 22nd of November 1830, and was educated at a +school in that town. He began his career as a journalist, at the age of +eighteen, in Cork. From 1853 to 1859 he was in Liverpool, on the staff +of the _Northern Daily Times_, during which period he married (in March +1855) Miss Charlotte Allman. In 1860 he removed to London, as +parliamentary reporter to the _Morning Star_, of which he became editor +in 1864. He gave up his post in 1868, and, after a lecturing tour in the +United States, joined the staff of the _Daily News_ as leader-writer in +1870. In this capacity he became one of the most useful and respected +upholders of the Liberal politics of the time. He lectured again in +America in 1870-1871, and again in 1886-1887. He represented Co. +Longford in Parliament as a Liberal and Home Ruler from 1879 to 1885; +North Longford, 1885-1886; Londonderry, 1886-1892; and North Longford +from 1892 to 1900. He was chairman of the Anti-Parnellites from the fall +of C. S. Parnell in 1890 until January 1896; but his Nationalism was of +a temperate and orderly kind, and though his personal distinction +singled him out for the chairmanship during the party dissensions of +this period, he was in no active sense the political leader. His real +bent was towards literature. His earliest publications were novels, some +of which, such as _A Fair Saxon_ (1873), _Dear Lady Disdain_ (1875), +_Miss Misanthrope_ (1878), _Donna Quixote_ (1879), attained considerable +popularity. His most important work is his _History of Our Own Times_ +(vols. i.-iv., 1879-1880; vol. v., 1897), which treats of the period +between Queen Victoria's accession and her diamond jubilee. Easily and +delightfully written, and on the whole eminently sane and moderate, +these volumes form a brilliant piece of narrative from a Liberal +standpoint. He also began a _History of the Four Georges_ (1884-1901), +of which the latter half was written by his son, Justin Huntly M'Carthy +(b. 1860), himself the author of various clever novels, plays, poetical +pieces and short histories. Justin M'Carthy, amongst other works, wrote +biographies of Sir Robert Peel (1891), Pope Leo XIII. (1896) and W. E. +Gladstone (1898); _Modern England_ (1898); _The Reign of Queen Anne_ +(1902) and _Reminiscences_ (2 vols., 1899). + + + + +McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY (1813-1843), Scottish divine, was born at +Edinburgh on the 21st of May 1813, was educated at the University and at +the Divinity Hall of his native city, and held pastorates at Larbert, +near Falkirk, and Dundee. A mission of inquiry among the Jews throughout +Europe and in Palestine, and a religious revival at his church in +Dundee, made him feel that he was being called to evangelistic rather +than to pastoral work, but before he could carry out his plans he died, +on the 25th of March 1843. McCheyne, though wielding remarkable +influence in his lifetime, was still more powerful afterwards, through +his _Memoirs and Remains_, edited by Andrew Bonar, which ran into far +over a hundred English editions. Some of his hymns, e.g. "When this +passing world is done," are well known. + + See his _Life_, by J. C. Smith (1910). + + + + +McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON (1826-1885), American soldier, was born in +Philadelphia on the 3rd of December 1826. After passing two years +(1840-1842) in the university of Pennsylvania, he entered the United +States military academy, from which he graduated with high honours in +July 1846. Sent as a lieutenant of engineers to the Mexican War, he took +part in the battles under General Scott, and by his gallantry won the +brevets of first-lieutenant at Contreras-Churubusco and captain at +Chapultepec; he was afterwards detailed as assistant-instructor at West +Point, and employed in explorations in the South-West and in Oregon. +Promoted in 1855 captain of cavalry, he served on a military commission +sent to Europe to study European armies and especially the war in the +Crimea. On his return he furnished an able and interesting report, +republished (1861) under the title of _Armies of Europe_. In 1856 he +designed a saddle, which was afterwards well known as the McClellan. +Resigning his commission in 1857, McClellan became successively chief +engineer and vice-president of the Illinois Central railroad +(1857-1860), general superintendent of the Mississippi & Ohio railroad, +and, a little later, president of the eastern branch of the same, with +his residence in Cincinnati. When the Civil War broke out he was, in +April 1861, made major-general of three months' militia by the governor +of Ohio; but General Scott's favour at Washington promoted him rapidly +(May 14) to the rank of major-general, U.S.A., in command of the +department of the Ohio. Pursuant to orders, on the 26th of May, +McClellan sent a small force across the Ohio river to Philippi, +dispersed the Confederates there early in June, and immensely aided the +Union cause in that region by rapid and brilliant military successes, +gained in the short space of eight days. These operations, though +comparatively trivial as the Civil War developed, brought great results, +in permanently dividing old Virginia by the creation of the state of +West Virginia, and in presenting the first sharp, short and wholly +successful campaign of the war. + +Soon after the first Bull Run disaster he was summoned to Washington, +and the Union hailed him as chieftain and preserver. Only thirty-four +years old, and with military fame and promotion premature and quite in +excess of positive experience, he reached the capital late in July and +assumed command there. At first all was deference and compliance with +his wishes. In November Scott retired that the young general might +control the operations of the whole Union army. McClellan proved himself +extraordinarily able as an organizer and trainer of soldiers. During the +autumn, winter and spring he created the famous Army of the Potomac, +which in victory and defeat retained to the end the impress of +McClellan's work. But he soon showed petulance towards the civil +authorities, from whom he came to differ concerning the political ends +in view; and he now found severe critics, who doubted his capacity for +directing an offensive war; but the government yielded to his plans for +an oblique, instead of a direct, movement upon Richmond and the opposing +army. At the moment of starting he was relieved as general-in-chief. By +the 5th of April a great army was safely transported to Fortress Monroe, +and other troops were sent later, though a large force was (much against +his will) retained to cover Washington. McClellan laid slow siege to +Yorktown, not breaking the thin line first opposed to him, but giving +Johnston full time to reinforce and then evacuate the position. +McClellan followed up the Confederate rearguard and approached Richmond, +using White House on the Pamunkey as a base of supplies; this entailed a +division of his forces on either bank of the Chickahominy. At Fair Oaks +(Seven Pines) was fought on the 31st of May a bloody battle, ending the +following day in a Confederate repulse. Johnston being severely wounded, +Lee came to command on the Southern side. After a pause in the +operations McClellan felt himself ready to attack at the moment when +Lee, leaving a bare handful of men in the Richmond lines, despatched +two-thirds of his entire force to the north of the Chickahominy to +strike McClellan's isolated right wing. McClellan himself made little +progress, and the troops beyond the Chickahominy were defeated after a +strenuous defence; whereupon McClellan planned, and during the +celebrated Seven Days' Battle triumphantly executed, a change of base to +the James river. But the result was strategically a failure, and General +Halleck, who was now general-in-chief, ordered the army to reinforce +General Pope in central Virginia. The order was obeyed reluctantly. + +Pope's disastrous defeats brought McClellan a new opportunity to +retrieve his fame. Again in command of the Army of the Potomac, he was +sent with all available forces to oppose Lee, who had crossed the +Potomac into Maryland early in September. McClellan advanced slowly and +carefully, reorganizing his army as he went. The battle of South +Mountain placed him in a position to attack Lee, and a few days later +was fought the great battle of Antietam, in which Lee was worsted. But +the Confederates safely recrossed the Potomac, and McClellan showed his +former faults in a tardy pursuit. On the eve of an aggressive movement, +which he was at last about to make, he was superseded by Burnside (Nov. +7). McClellan was never again ordered to active command, and the +political elements opposed to the general policy of Lincoln's +administration chose him as presidential candidate in 1864, on a +platform which denounced the war as a failure and proposed negotiating +with the South for peace. McClellan, while accepting his candidacy, +repudiated the platform, like a soldier and patriot. At the polls on the +8th of November Lincoln was triumphantly re-elected president. McClellan +had previously resigned his commission in the army, and soon afterwards +went to Europe, where he remained until 1868. Upon his return he took up +his residence in New York City, where (1868-1869) he was engaged in +superintending the construction of an experimental floating battery. In +1870-1872 he was engineer-in-chief of the city's department of docks. +With Orange, N.J., as his next principal residence, he became governor +of New Jersey (1878-1881). During his term he effected great reforms in +the administration of the state and in the militia. He was offered, but +declined, a second nomination. During his last years he made several +tours of Europe, visited the East, and wrote much for the magazines. He +also prepared monographs upon the Civil War, defending his own action. +He died suddenly of heart-disease on the 29th of October 1885 at Orange. + +McClellan was a clear and able writer and effective speaker; and his +_Own Story_, edited by a friend and published soon after his death, +discloses an honourable character, sensitive to reproach, and +conscientious, even morbidly so, in his patriotism. He carried himself +well in civil life and was of irreproachable private conduct. During the +Civil War, however, he was promoted too early and rapidly for his own +good, and the strong personal magnetism he inspired while so young +developed qualities injurious to a full measure of success and +usefulness, despite his great opportunities. The reasons for his final +displacement in 1862 were both civil and military, and the president had +been forbearing with him. As a soldier he possessed to an extraordinary +degree the enthusiastic affection of his men. With the army that he had +created the mere rumour of his presence was often a spur to the greatest +exertions. That he was slow, and perhaps too tender-hearted, in handling +armed masses for action may be admitted, and though admirable for +defensive war and a safe strategist, he showed himself unfitted to take +the highly essential initiative, both because of temperament and his +habitual exaggeration of obstacles and opposing numbers. But he met and +checked the armies of the Confederacy when they were at their best and +strongest, and his work laid the foundations of ultimate success. + +His son, GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN (b. 1865), graduated in 1886 at +Princeton (from which he received the degree of LL.D. in 1905), and +became a newspaper reporter and editor in New York City. He identified +himself with the Tammany Hall organization, and in 1889-1892 was +treasurer of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge under the city government. +In 1892 he was admitted to the bar, and was elected to the board of +aldermen, of which he was president in 1893 and 1894. In 1895-1903 he +was a Democratic representative in Congress; in 1903 he was elected +mayor of New York City on the Tammany ticket, defeating mayor Seth Low, +the "Fusion" candidate; and in 1905 he was re-elected for a four-year +term, defeating William M. Ivins (Republican) and William R. Hearst +(Independence League). He published _The Oligarchy of Venice_ (1904). + + Besides the report mentioned above, General McClellan wrote a _Bayonet + Exercise_ (1852); _Report on Pacific Railroad Surveys_ (1854); _Report + on the Organization, &c., of the Army of the Potomac_ (1864), a + government publication which he himself republished with the addition + of a memoir of the West Virginian campaign. He also wrote a series of + articles on the Russo-Turkish War for _The North American Review_. See + memoir prefaced to _McClellan's Own Story_, and Michie, _General + McClellan_ ("Great Commanders" series). + + + + +McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER (1812-1900), American soldier and lawyer, was +born in Breckinridge county, Kentucky, on the 30th of May 1812. He was +admitted to the bar in Shawneetown, Illinois, in 1832; in the same year +served as a volunteer in the Black Hawk War, and in 1835 founded the +_Shawneetown Democrat_, which he thereafter edited. As a Democrat he +served in 1836 and in 1840-1843 in the Illinois House of +Representatives, and in 1843-1851 and in 1859-1861 was a representative +in Congress, where in his first term he vigorously opposed the Wilmot +proviso, but in his second term was a strong Unionist and introduced the +resolution of the 15th of July 1861, pledging money and men to the +national government. He resigned from congress, raised in Illinois the +"McClernand Brigade," and was commissioned (May 17, 1861) +brigadier-general of volunteers. He was second in command at the battle +of Belmont (Missouri) in November 1861, and commanded the right wing at +Fort Donelson. On the 21st of March he became a major-general of +volunteers. At Shiloh he commanded a division, which was practically a +reserve to Sherman's. In October 1861 Stanton, secretary of war, +ordered him north to raise troops for the expedition against Vicksburg; +and early in January 1864, at Milliken's Bend, McClernand, who had been +placed in command of one of the four corps of Grant's army, superseded +Sherman as the leader of the force that was to move down the +Mississippi. On the 11th of January he took Arkansas Post. On the 17th, +Grant, after receiving the opinion of Admiral Foote and General Sherman +that McClernand was unfit, united a part of his own troops with those of +McClernand and assumed command in person, and three days later ordered +McClernand back to Milliken's Bend. During the rest of this Vicksburg +campaign there was much friction between McClernand and his colleagues; +he undoubtedly intrigued for the removal of Grant; it was Grant's +opinion that at Champion's Hill (May 16) he was dilatory; and because a +congratulatory order to his corps was published in the press (contrary +to an order of the department and another of Grant) he was relieved of +his command on the 18th of June, and was replaced by General E. O. C. +Ord. President Lincoln, who saw the importance of conciliating a leader +of the Illinois War-Democrats, restored him to his command in 1864, but +McClernand resigned in November of that year. He was district judge of +the Sangamon (Illinois) District in 1870-1873, and was president of the +National Democratic Convention in 1876. He died in Springfield, +Illinois, on the 20th of September 1900. + +His son, EDWARD JOHN MCCLERNAND (b. 1848), graduated at the U.S. +Military Academy in 1870. He served on the frontier against the Indians, +notably in the capture of Chief Joseph in October 1877, became +lieutenant-colonel and assistant adjutant-general of volunteers in 1898, +and served in Cuba in 1898-99. He was then ordered to the Philippines, +where he commanded various districts, and from April 1900 to May 1901, +when he was mustered out of the volunteer service, was acting military +governor. + + + + +MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1618-1694), eldest son +of Sir Charles Gerard, was a member of an old Lancashire family, his +great-grandfather having been Sir Gilbert Gerard (d. 1593) of Ince, in +that county, one of the most distinguished judges in the reign of +Elizabeth. His mother was Penelope Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire. +Charles Gerard was educated abroad, and in the Low Countries learnt +soldiering, in which he showed himself proficient when on the outbreak +of the Civil War in England he raised a troop of horse for the king's +service. Gerard commanded a brigade with distinction at Edgehill, and +gained further honours at the first battle of Newbury and at Newark in +1644, for which service he was appointed to the chief command in South +Wales. Here his operations in 1644 and 1645 were completely successful +in reducing the Parliamentarians to subjection; but the severity with +which he ravaged the country made him personally so unpopular that when, +after the defeat at Naseby in June 1645, the king endeavoured to raise +fresh forces in Wales, he was compelled to remove Gerard from the local +command. Gerard was, however, retained in command of the king's guard +during Charles's march from Wales to Oxford, and thence to Hereford and +Chester in August 1645; and having been severely wounded at Rowton Heath +on the 23rd of September, he reached Newark with Charles on the 4th of +October. On the 8th of November 1645 he was created Baron Gerard of +Brandon in the county of Suffolk; but about the same time he appears to +have forfeited Charles's favour by having attached himself to the party +of Prince Rupert, with whom after the surrender of Oxford Gerard +probably went abroad. He remained on the Continent throughout the whole +period of the Commonwealth, sometimes in personal attendance on Charles +II., at others serving in the wars under Turenne, and constantly engaged +in plots and intrigues. For one of these, an alleged design on the life +of Cromwell, his cousin Colonel John Gerard was executed in the Tower in +July 1654. At the Restoration Gerard rode at the head of the king's +life-guards in his triumphal entry into London; his forfeited estates +were restored, and he received lucrative offices and pensions. In 1668 +he retired from the command of the king's guard to make room for the +duke of Monmouth, receiving, according to Pepys, the sum of £12,000 as +solatium. On the 23rd of July 1679 Gerard was created earl of +Macclesfield and Viscount Brandon. A few months later he entered into +relations with Monmouth, and co-operated with Shaftesbury in protesting +against the rejection of the Exclusion Bill. In September 1685, a +proclamation having been issued for his arrest, Macclesfield escaped +abroad, and was outlawed. He returned with William of Orange in 1688, +and commanded his body-guard in the march from Devonshire to London. By +William he was made a privy councillor, and lord lieutenant of Wales and +three western counties. Macclesfield died on the 7th of January 1694. By +his French wife he left two sons and two daughters. + +His eldest son CHARLES, 2nd earl of Macclesfield (c. 1659-1701), was +born in France and was naturalized in England by act of parliament in +1677. Like his father he was concerned in the intrigues of the duke of +Monmouth; in 1685 he was sentenced to death for being a party to the Rye +House plot, but was pardoned by the king. In 1689 he was elected member +of parliament for Lancashire, which he represented till 1694, when he +succeeded to his father's peerage. Having become a major-general in the +same year, Macclesfield saw some service abroad; and in 1701 he was +selected first commissioner for the investiture of the elector of +Hanover (afterwards King George I.) with the order of the Garter, on +which occasion he also was charged to present a copy of the Act of +Settlement to the dowager electress Sophia. He died on the 5th of +November 1701, leaving no legitimate children. + +In March 1698 Macclesfield was divorced from his wife Anna, daughter of +Sir Richard Mason of Sutton, by act of parliament, the first occasion on +which a divorce was so granted without a previous decree of an +ecclesiastical court. The countess was the mother of two children, who +were known by the name of Savage, and whose reputed father was Richard +Savage, 4th Earl Rivers (d. 1712). The poet Richard Savage (q.v.) +claimed that he was the younger of these children. The divorced countess +married Colonel Henry Brett about the year 1700, and died at the age of +eighty-five in 1753. Her daughter Anna Margaretta Brett was a mistress +of George I. The 2nd earl of Macclesfield was succeeded by his brother +Fitton Gerard, 3rd earl (c. 1665-1702), on whose death without heirs +the title became extinct in December 1702. + +In 1721 the title of earl of Macclesfield was revived in favour of +THOMAS PARKER (c. 1666-1732). The son of Thomas Parker, an attorney at +Leek, young Parker was a student at Trinity College, Cambridge, and +became a barrister in 1691. In 1705 he was elected member of parliament +for Derby, and having gained some reputation in his profession, he took +a leading part in the proceedings against Sacheverell in 1710. In the +same year he was appointed lord chief justice of the queen's bench, but +he refused to become lord chancellor in the following year; however he +accepted this office in 1718, two years after he had been made Baron +Parker of Macclesfield by George I., who held him in high esteem. In +1721 he was created Viscount Parker and earl of Macclesfield, but when +serious charges of corruption were brought against him he resigned his +position as lord chancellor in 1725. In the same year Macclesfield was +impeached, and although he made a very able defence he was found guilty +by the House of Lords. His sentence was a fine of £30,000 and +imprisonment until this was paid. He was confined in the Tower of London +for six weeks, and after his release he took no further part in public +affairs. The earl, who built a grammar school at Leek, died in London on +the 28th of April 1732. + +Macclesfield's only son, GEORGE, (c. 1697-1764) 2nd earl of Macclesfield +of this line, was celebrated as an astronomer. As Viscount Parker he was +member of parliament for Wallingford from 1722 to 1727, but his +interests were not in politics. In 1722 he became a fellow of the Royal +Society, and he spent most of his time in astronomical observations at +his Oxfordshire seat, Shirburn Castle, which had been bought by his +father in 1716; here he built an observatory and a chemical laboratory. +The earl was very prominent in effecting the change from the old to the +new style of dates, which came into operation in 1752. His action in +this matter, however, was somewhat unpopular, as the opinion was fairly +general that he had robbed the people of eleven days. From 1752 until +his death on the 17th of March 1764 Macclesfield was president of the +Royal Society, and he made some observations on the great earthquake of +1755. His successor was his son Thomas (1723-1795), from whom the +present earl is descended. + + For the earls of the Gerard family see Lord Clarendon, _History of the + Rebellion_, ed. by W. D. Macray; E. B. G. Warburton, _Memoirs of + Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers_ (3 vols., 1849); _State Papers of + John Thurloe_ (7 vols., 1742); J. R. Phillips, _Memoirs of the Civil + War in Wales and the Marches, 1642-49_ (2 vols., 1874); and the duke + of Manchester, _Court and Society from Elizabeth to Anne_ (2 vols., + 1864). For Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, see Lord Campbell, _Lives of + the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal_ (1845-1869). + + + + +MACCLESFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in the Macclesfield +parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 166 m. N.W. by N. of +London, on the London & North-Western, North Staffordshire and Great +Central railways. Pop. (1901), 34,624. It lies on and above the small +river Bollin, the valley of which is flanked by high ground to east and +west, the eastern hills rising sharply to heights above 1000 ft. The +bleak upland country retains its ancient name of Macclesfield Forest. +The church of St Michael, standing high, was founded by Eleanor, queen +of Edward I., in 1278, and in 1740 was partly rebuilt and greatly +enlarged. The lofty steeple by which its massive tower was formerly +surmounted was battered down by the Parliamentary forces during the +Civil War. Connected with the Church there are two chapels, one of +which, Rivers Chapel, belonged to a college of secular priests founded +in 1501 by Thomas Savage, afterwards archbishop of York. Both the church +and chapels contain several ancient monuments. The free grammar school, +originally founded in 1502 by Sir John Percival, was refounded in 1552 +by Edward VI., and a commercial school was erected in 1840 out of its +funds. The county lunatic asylum is situated here. The town-hall is a +handsome modern building with a Grecian frontage on two sides. +Originally the trade of Macclesfield was principally in twist and silk +buttons, but this has developed into the manufacture of all kinds of +silk. Besides this staple trade, there are various textile manufactures +and extensive breweries; while stone and slate quarries, as well as +coal-mines, are worked in the neighbourhood. Recreation grounds include +Victoria Park and Peel Park, in which are preserved the old market cross +and stocks. Water communication is provided by the Macclesfield canal. +The borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 3214 +acres. The populous suburb of SUTTON, extending S.S.E. of the town, is +partly included in the borough. + +Previous to the Conquest, Macclesfield (Makesfeld, Mackerfeld, +Macclesfeld, Meulefeld, Maxfield) was held by Edwin, earl of Mercia, and +at the time of the Domesday Survey it formed a part of the lands of the +earl of Chester. The entry speaks of seven hedged enclosures, and there +is evidence of fortification in the 13th century, to which the names +Jordangate, Chestergate and Wallgate still bear witness. In the 15th +century Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, had a fortified manor-house +here, traces of which remain. There is a tradition, supported by a +reference on a plea roll, that Randle, earl of Chester (1181-1232) made +Macclesfield a free borough, but the earliest charter extant is that +granted by Edward, prince of Wales and earl of Chester, in 1261, +constituting Macclesfield a free borough with a merchant gild, and +according certain privileges in the royal forest of Macclesfield to the +burgesses. This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in 1334, by Richard +II. in 1389, by Edward IV. in 1466 and by Elizabeth in 1564. In 1595 +Elizabeth issued a new charter to the town, confirmed by James I. in +1605 and Charles II. in 1666, laying down a formal borough constitution +under a mayor, 2 aldermen, 24 capital burgesses and a high steward. In +1684 Charles II. issued a new charter, under which the borough was +governed until the Municipal Reform Act 1835. The earliest mention of a +market is in a grant by James I. to Charles, prince of Wales and earl of +Chester, in 1617. In the charter of 1666 a market is included among the +privileges confirmed to the borough as those which had been granted in +1605, or by any previous kings and queens of England. The charter of +Elizabeth in 1595 granted an annual fair in June, and this was +supplemented by Charles II. in 1684 by a grant of fairs in April and +September. Except during the three winter months fairs are now held +monthly, the chief being "Barnaby" in June, when the town keeps a week's +holiday. Macclesfield borough sent two members to parliament in 1832 for +the first time. In 1880 it was disfranchised for bribery, and in 1885 +the borough was merged in the county division of Macclesfield. The +manufacture of silk-covered buttons began in the 16th century, and +flourished until the early 18th. The first silk mill was erected about +1755, and silk manufacture on a large scale was introduced about 1790. +The manufacture of cotton began in Macclesfield about 1785. + + See J. Corry, _History of Macclesfield_ (1817). + + + + +M'CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD (1819-1907), British naval officer and +Arctic explorer, was born at Dundalk, Ireland, on the 8th of July 1819, +of a family of Scottish origin. In 1831 he entered the royal navy, +joining the "Samarang" frigate, Captain Charles Paget. In 1843 he passed +his examination for lieutenancy and joined the "Gorgon" steamship, +Captain Charles Hotham, which was driven ashore at Montevideo and +salved, a feat of seamanship on the part of her captain and officers +which attracted much attention. Hitherto, and until 1847, M'Clintock's +service was almost wholly on the American coasts, but in 1848 he joined +the Arctic expedition under Sir James Ross in search of Sir John +Franklin's ships, as second lieutenant of the "Enterprise." In the +second search expedition (1850) he was first lieutenant of the +"Assistance," and in the third (1854) he commanded the "Intrepid." On +all these expeditions M'Clintock carried out brilliant sleigh journeys, +and gained recognition as one of the highest authorities on Arctic +travel. The direction which the search should follow had at last been +learnt from the Eskimo, and M'Clintock accepted the command of the +expedition on board the "Fox," fitted out by Lady Franklin in 1857, +which succeeded in its object in 1859 (see FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN). For this +expedition M'Clintock had obtained leave of absence, but the time +occupied was afterwards counted in his service. He was knighted and +received many other honours on his return. Active service now occupied +him in various tasks, including the important one of sounding in the +north Atlantic, in connexion with a scheme for a north Atlantic cable +route, until 1868. In that year he became naval aide-de-camp to Queen +Victoria. In 1865 he had been elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He +unsuccessfully contested a seat in parliament for the borough of +Drogheda, where he made the acquaintance of Annette Elizabeth, daughter +of R. F. Dunlop of Monasterboice; he married her in 1870. He became +vice-admiral in 1877, and commander-in-chief on the West Indian and +North American station in 1879. In 1882 he was elected an Elder Brother +of Trinity House, and served actively in that capacity. In 1891 he was +created K.C.B. He was one of the principal advisers in the preparations +for the Antarctic voyage of the "Discovery" under Captain Scott. His +book, _The Voyage of the "Fox" in the Arctic Seas_, was first published +in 1859, and passed through several editions. He died on the 17th of +November 1907. + + See Sir C. R. Markham, _Life of Admiral Sir Leopold M'Clintock_ + (1909). + + + + +McCLINTOCK, JOHN (1814-1870), American Methodist Episcopal theologian +and educationalist, was born in Philadelphia on the 27th of October +1814. He graduated at the university of Pennsylvania in 1835, and was +assistant professor of mathematics (1836-1837), professor of mathematics +(1837-1840), and professor of Latin and Greek (1840-1848) in Dickinson +College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He opposed the Mexican War and slavery, +and in 1847 was arrested on the charge of instigating a riot, which +resulted in the rescue of several fugitive slaves; his trial, in which +he was acquitted, attracted wide attention. In 1848-1856 he edited _The +Methodist Quarterly Review_ (after 1885 _The Methodist Review_); from +1857 to 1860 he was pastor of St Paul's (Methodist Episcopal) Church, +New York City; and in 1860-1864 he had charge of the American chapel in +Paris, and there and in London did much to turn public opinion in favour +of the Northern States. In 1865-1866 he was chairman of the central +committee for the celebration of the centenary of American Methodism. He +retired from the regular ministry in 1865, but preached in New +Brunswick, New Jersey, until the spring of 1867, and in that year, at +the wish of its founder, Daniel Drew, became president of the newly +established Drew theological seminary at Madison, New Jersey, where he +died on the 4th of March 1870. A great preacher, orator and teacher, and +a remarkably versatile scholar, McClintock by his editorial and +educational work probably did more than any other man to raise the +intellectual tone of American Methodism, and, particularly, of the +American Methodist clergy. He introduced to his denomination the +scholarly methods of the new German theology of the day--not alone by +his translation with Charles E. Blumenthal of Neander's _Life of Christ_ +(1847), and of Bungener's _History of the Council of Trent_ (1855), but +by his great project, McClintock and Strong's _Cyclopaedia of Biblical, +Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature_ (10 vols., 1867-1881; +Supplement, 2 vols., 1885-1887), in the editing of which he was +associated with Dr James Strong (1822-1894), professor of exegetical +theology in the Drew Theological Seminary from 1868 to 1893, and the +sole editor of the last six volumes of the _Cyclopaedia_ and of the +supplement. With George Richard Crooks (1822-1897), his colleague at +Dickinson College and in 1880-1897 professor of historical theology at +Drew Seminary, McClintock edited several elementary textbooks in Latin +and Greek (of which some were republished in Spanish), based on the +pedagogical principle of "imitation and constant repetition." Among +McClintock's other publications are: _Sketches of Eminent Methodist +Ministers_ (1863); an edition of Richard Watson's _Theological +Institutes_ (1851); and _The Life and Letters of Rev. Stephen Olin_ +(1854). + + See G. R. Crooks, _Life and Letters of the Rev. Dr John McClintock_ + (New York, 1876). + + + + +McCLOSKEY, JOHN (1810-1885), American cardinal, was born in Brooklyn, +New York, on the 20th of March 1810. He graduated at Mt St Mary's +College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, in 1827, studied theology there, was +ordained a priest in 1834, and in 1837, after two years in the college +of the Propaganda at Rome, became rector of St Joseph's, New York City, +a charge to which he returned in 1842 after one year's presidency of St +John's College (afterwards Fordham University), Fordham, New York, then +just opened. In 1844 he was consecrated bishop of Axieren _in partibus_, +and was made coadjutor to Bishop Hughes of New York with the right of +succession; in 1847 he became bishop of the newly created see of Albany; +and in 1864 he succeeded to the archdiocese of New York, then including +New York, New Jersey, and New England. In April 1875 he was invested as +a cardinal, with the title of Sancta Maria supra Minervam, being the +first American citizen to receive this dignity. He attended the conclave +of 1878, but was too late to vote for the new pope. In May 1879 he +dedicated St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City, whose corner-stone +had been laid by Archbishop Hughes in 1858. Archbishop Corrigan became +his coadjutor in 1880 because of the failure of McCloskey's always +delicate health. The fiftieth anniversary of his ordination to the +priesthood was celebrated in 1884. He died in New York City on the 10th +of October 1885. He was a scholar, a preacher, and a man of affairs, +temperamentally quiet and dignified; and his administration differed +radically from that of Archbishop Hughes; he was conciliatory rather +than polemic and controversial, and not only built up the Roman Catholic +Church materially, but greatly changed the tone of public opinion in his +diocese toward the Church. + + + + +M'CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER (1807-1873), English Arctic +explorer, born at Wexford, in Ireland, on the 28th of January 1807, was +the posthumous son of one of Abercrombie's captains and spent his +childhood under the care of his godfather, General Le Mesurier, governor +of Alderney, by whom he was educated for the army. He entered the navy, +however, in 1824, and twelve years later gained his first experience of +Arctic exploration as mate of the "Terror" in the expedition (1836-1837) +commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) George Back. On his return he +obtained his commission as lieutenant, and from 1838 to 1839 served on +the Canadian lakes, being subsequently attached to the North American +and West Indian naval stations, where he remained till 1846. Two years +later he joined the Franklin search expedition (1848-1849) under Sir J. +C. Ross as first lieutenant of the "Enterprise," and on the return of +this expedition was given the command of the "Investigator" in the new +search expedition (1850-1854) which was sent out by way of Bering Strait +to co-operate with another from the north-west. In the course of this +voyage he achieved the distinction of completing (1830) the work +connected with the discovery of a North-West Passage (see Polar +Regions). On his return to England, M'Clure was awarded gold medals by +the English and French geographical societies, was knighted and promoted +to post-rank, his commission being dated back four years in recognition +of his special services. From 1856 to 1861 he served in Eastern waters, +commanding the division of the naval brigade before Canton in 1858, for +which he received a C.B. in the following year. His latter years were +spent in a quiet country life; he attained the rank of rear-admiral in +1867, and of vice-admiral in 1873. + + See Admiral Sherard Osborn, _The Discovery of a North-West Passage_ + (1856). + + + + +MacCOLL, MALCOLM (c. 1838-1907), British clergyman and publicist, was +the son of a Scottish farmer. He was educated at Trinity College, +Glenalmond, for the Scotch Episcopal ministry, and after further study +at the university of Naples was ordained in 1859, and entered on a +succession of curacies in the Church of England, in London and at +Addington, Bucks. He quickly became known as a political and +ecclesiastical controversialist, wielding an active pen in support of W. +E. Gladstone, who rewarded him with the living of St George's, Botolph +Lane, in 1871, and with a canonry of Ripon in 1884. The living was +practically a sinecure, and he devoted himself to political +pamphleteering and newspaper correspondence, the result of extensive +European travel, a wide acquaintance with the leading personages of the +day, strong views on ecclesiastical subjects from a high-church +standpoint, and particularly on the politics of the Eastern Question and +Mahommedanism. He took a leading part in ventilating the Bulgarian and +Armenian "atrocities," and his combative personality was constantly to +the fore in support of the campaigns of Gladstonian Liberalism. He died +in London on the 5th of April 1907. + + + + +McCOMBIE, WILLIAM (1805-1880), Scottish agriculturist, was born at +Tillyfour, Aberdeenshire, where he founded the herd of black-polled +cattle with which his name is associated. He was the first tenant farmer +to represent a Scottish constituency, and was returned to parliament, +unopposed, as Liberal member for the western division of Aberdeen in +1868. He died unmarried in February 1880. His work _Cattle and +Cattle-breeders_ (1867) passed into a fourth edition in 1886. + + + + +McCOOK, ALEXANDER McDOWELL (1831-1903), American soldier, was born in +Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 22nd of April 1831. He graduated at the +U. S. military academy in 1852, served against the Apaches and Utes in +New Mexico in 1853-57, was assistant instructor of infantry tactics at +the military academy in 1858-1861, and in April 1861 became colonel of +the 1st Ohio Volunteers. He served in the first battle of Bull Run; +commanded a brigade in Kentucky in the winter of 1861, a division in +Tennessee and Mississippi early in 1862, and the 1st Corps in Kentucky +in October of the same year; was in command of Nashville in November and +December of that year; and was then engaged in Tennessee until after the +battle of Chickamauga, after which he saw no active service at the front +during the Civil War. He was promoted to be brigadier-general of +volunteers in September 1861, and to be major-general of volunteers in +July 1862, earned the brevet of lieutenant-colonel in the regular army +at the capture of Nashville, Tennessee, that of colonel at Shiloh, and +that of brigadier-general at Perryville, and in March 1865 was breveted +major-general for his services during the war. In February-May 1865 he +commanded the district of Eastern Arkansas. He resigned from the +volunteer service in October 1865, was commissioned lieutenant-colonel +of the 26th Infantry in March 1867, served in Texas, mostly in garrison +duty, until 1874, and in 1886-1890 (except for brief terms of absence) +commanded Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and the infantry and cavalry school +there. He became a brigadier-general in 1890, and a major-general in +1894; retired in 1895; and in 1898-1899 served on a commission to +investigate the United States department of war as administered during +the war with Spain. + +His father, DANIEL MCCOOK (1798-1863), killed at Buffington's Island +during General John H. Morgan's raid in Ohio, and seven of his eight +brothers (three of whom were killed in battle) all served in the Civil +War; this family and that of John McCook (1806-1865), Daniel's brother, +a physician, who served as a volunteer surgeon in the Civil War, are +known as the "fighting McCooks"--four of John's sons served in the Union +army and one in the Union navy. + +JOHN JAMES MCCOOK (b. 1845), the youngest brother of Alexander McDowell +McCook, served in the West and afterwards in the army of the Potomac, +was wounded at Shady Grove, Virginia, in 1864, and in 1865 was breveted +lieutenant-colonel of volunteers; he graduated at Kenyon College in +1866, subsequently practised law in New York City, where he became head +of the firm Alexander & Green; was a prominent member of the +Presbyterian Church, and was a member of the prosecuting committee in +the Briggs heresy trial in 1892-1893. + +His cousin, ANSON GEORGE MCCOOK (b. 1835), a son of John, was admitted +to the Ohio bar in 1861, served throughout the Civil War in the Union +Army, and was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers; he was a +Republican representative in Congress from New York in 1877-1883; and in +1884-1893 was secretary of the United States Senate. + +Another son of John McCook, EDWARD MOODY MCCOOK (1833-1909), was an +efficient cavalry officer in the Union army, was breveted +brigadier-general in the regular army and major-general of volunteers in +1865, was United States minister to Hawaii in 1866-1869, and was +governor of Colorado Territory in 1869-1873, and in 1874-1875. + +His brother, HENRY CHRISTOPHER MCCOOK (b. 1837), was first lieutenant +and afterwards chaplain of the 41st Illinois, was long pastor of the +Tabernacle Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, and was president of the +American Presbyterian Historical Society, but is best known for his +popular and excellent works on entomology, which include: _The +Mound-making Ants of the Alleghanies_ (1877); _The Natural History of +the Agricultural Ants of Texas_ (1879); _Tenants of an Old Farm_ (1884); +_American Spiders and their Spinning-work_ (3 vols., 1889-1893), +_Nature's Craftsmen_ (1907) and _Ant Communities_ (1909). + +Another brother, JOHN JAMES MCCOOK (b. 1843), a cousin of the lawyer of +the same name, was a 2nd lieutenant of volunteers in the Union army in +1861; graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, in 1863, and +at the Berkeley divinity school in 1866; entered the Protestant +Episcopal ministry in 1867, and in 1869 became rector of St John's, East +Hartford, Connecticut; became professor of modern languages in Trinity +College, Hartford, in 1883; in 1895-1897 was president of the board of +directors of the Connecticut reformatory; and wrote on prison reform and +kindred topics. + + + + +MacCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1836-1901), Irish surgeon, was born at +Belfast on the 17th of January 1836, being the son of Dr Henry +MacCormac. He studied medicine and surgery at Belfast, Dublin and Paris, +and graduated in arts, medicine and surgery at the Queen's University of +Ireland, in which he afterwards became an examiner in surgery. He began +practice in Belfast, where he became surgeon to the General Hospital, +but left it for London on his marriage in 1861 to Miss Katherine M. +Charters. In the Franco-German War of 1870 he was surgeon-in-chief to +the Anglo-American Ambulance, and was present at Sedan; and he also +went through the Turco-Servian War of 1876. He became in this way an +authority on gun-shot wounds, and besides being highly successful as a +surgeon was very popular in society, his magnificent physique and Irish +temperament making him a notable and attractive personality. In 1881 he +was appointed assistant-surgeon at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and for +twenty years continued his work there as surgeon, lecturer and +consulting surgeon. In 1881 he acted as honorary secretary-general of +the International Medical Congress in London, and was knighted for his +services. In 1883 he was elected member of the council of the College of +Surgeons, and in 1887 a member of the court of examiners; in 1893 he +delivered the Bradshaw lecture, and in 1896 was elected president, being +re-elected to this office in 1897, 1898, 1899, and 1900 (the centenary +year of the college), an unprecedented record. In 1897 he was created a +baronet, and appointed surgeon-in-ordinary to the prince of Wales. In +1899 he was Hunterian Orator. In the same year he volunteered to go out +to South Africa as consulting surgeon to the forces, and from November +1899 to April 1900 he saw much active service both in Cape Colony and +Natal, his assistance being cordially acknowledged on his return. In +1901 he was appointed honorary serjeant-surgeon to the king. But during +1898 he had suffered from a prolonged illness, and he had perhaps put +too much strain on his strength, for on the 4th of December 1901 he died +somewhat suddenly at Bath. Besides treatises on _Surgical Operations_ +and _Antiseptic Surgery_, and numerous contributions to the medical +journals, MacCormac was the author of _Work under the Red Cross_ and of +an interesting volume commemorating the centenary of the Royal College +of Surgeons in 1900. The latter contains biographical notices of all the +masters and presidents up to that date. + + + + +McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL (1809-1884), American inventor of grain-harvesting +machinery, was born at Walnut Grove, in what is now Roane county, W. +Va., U.S.A., on the 15th of February 1809. His father was a farmer who +had invented numerous labour-saving devices for farmwork, but after +repeated efforts had failed in his attempts to construct a successful +grain-cutting machine. In 1831, Cyrus, then twenty-two years old, took +up the problem, and after careful study constructed a machine which was +successfully employed in the late harvest of 1831 and patented in 1834. +The McCormick reaper after further improvements proved a complete +success; and in 1847 the inventor removed to Chicago, where he +established large works for manufacturing his agricultural machines. +William H. Seward has said of McCormick's invention, that owing to it +"the line of civilization moves westward thirty miles each year." +Numerous prizes and medals were awarded for his reaper, and he was +elected a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, "as +having done more for the cause of agriculture than any other living +man." He died in Chicago on the 13th of May 1884. + + See Herbert N. Casson, _Cyrus Hall McCormick: his Life and Work_ + (Chicago, 1909). + + + + +McCOSH, JAMES (1811-1894), Scottish philosophical writer, was born of a +Covenanting family in Ayrshire, on the 1st of April 1811. He studied at +Glasgow and Edinburgh, receiving at the latter university his M.A., at +the suggestion of Sir William Hamilton, for an essay on the Stoic +philosophy. He became a minister of the Established Church of Scotland, +first at Arbroath and then at Brechin, and took part in the Free Church +movement of 1843. In 1852 he was appointed professor of logic and +metaphysics in Queen's College, Belfast; and in 1868 was chosen +president and professor of philosophy of the college of New Jersey, at +Princeton. He resigned the presidency in 1888, but continued as lecturer +on philosophy till his death on the 16th of November 1894. He was most +successful in college administration, a good lecturer and an effective +preacher. His general philosophical attitude and method were +Hamiltonian; he insisted on severing religious and philosophical data +from merely physical, and though he added little to original thought, he +clearly restated and vigorously used the conclusions of others. In his +controversial writings he often failed to understand the real +significance of the views which he attacked, and much of his criticism +is superficial. + + His chief works are: _Method of Divine Government, Physical and Moral_ + (Edinburgh, 1850, 5th ed., 1856, and frequently republished in New + York); _The Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation_ (Edinburgh, + 1855; new editions, New York, 1867-1880); _Intuitions of the Mind + inductively investigated_ (London and New York, 1860; 3rd rev. ed., + 1872); _An Examination of Mr J. S. Mill's Philosophy_ (London and New + York, 1866; enlarged 1871, several eds.); _Philosophical Papers_ + containing (1) "Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Logic," (2) "Reply to + Mr Mill's third edition," and (3) "Present State of Moral Philosophy + in Britain;" _Religious Aspects of Evolution_ (New York, 1888, 2nd + ed., 1890). For a complete list of his writings see J. H. Dulles, + _McCosh Bibliography_ (Princeton, 1895). + + + + +McCOY, SIR FREDERICK (1823-1899), British palaeontologist, the son of Dr +Simon McCoy, was born in Dublin in 1823, and was educated in that city +for the medical profession. His interests, however, became early centred +in natural history, and especially in geology, and at the age of +eighteen he published a _Catalogue of Organic Remains_ compiled from +specimens exhibited in the Rotunda at Dublin (1841). He assisted Sir R. +J. Griffith (q.v.) by studying the fossils of the carboniferous and +silurian rocks of Ireland, and they prepared a joint _Synopsis of the +Silurian Fossils of Ireland_ (1846). In 1846 Sedgwick secured his +services, and for at least four years he devoted himself to the +determination and arrangement of the fossils in the Woodwardian Museum +at Cambridge. Sedgwick wrote of him as "an excellent naturalist, an +incomparable and most philosophical palaeontologist, and one of the +steadiest and quickest workmen that ever undertook the arrangement of a +museum" (_Life and Letters of Sedgwick_, ii. 194). Together they +prepared the important and now classic work entitled _A Synopsis of the +Classification of the British Palaeozoic Rocks, with a Systematic +Description of the British Palaeozoic Fossils in the Geological Museum +of the University of Cambridge_ (1855). Meanwhile McCoy in 1850 had been +appointed professor of geology in Queen's College, Belfast, and in 1854 +he accepted the newly founded professorship of natural science in the +university of Melbourne. There he lectured for upwards of thirty years; +he established the National Museum of Natural History and Geology in +Melbourne, of which he was director; and becoming associated with the +geological survey of Victoria as palaeontologist, he issued a series of +decades entitled _Prodromus of the Palaeontology of Victoria_. He also +issued the _Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria_. To local societies he +contributed many papers, and he continued his active scientific work for +fifty-eight years--his last contribution, "Note on a new Australian +Pterygotus," being printed in the _Geological Magazine_ for May 1899. He +was elected F.R.S. in 1880, and was one of the first to receive the Hon. +D.Sc. from the university of Cambridge. In 1886 he was made C.M.G., and +in 1891 K.C.M.G. He died in Melbourne on the 16th of May 1899. + + Obituary (with bibliography) in _Geol. Mag._ 1899, p. 283. + + + + +M'CRIE, THOMAS (1772-1835), Scottish historian and divine, was born at +Duns in Berwickshire in November 1772. He studied in Edinburgh +University, and in 1796 he was ordained minister of the Second Associate +Congregation, Edinburgh. In 1806, however, with some others M'Crie +seceded from the "general associate synod," and formed the +"constitutional associate presbytery," afterwards merged in the +"original seceders." He was consequently deposed by the associate synod, +and his congregation withdrew with him and built another place of +worship in which he officiated until his death. M'Crie devoted himself +to investigations into the history, constitution and polity of the +churches of the Reformation; and the first-fruits of his study were +given to the public in November 1811 as _The Life of John Knox, +containing Illustrations of the History of the Reformation in Scotland_, +which procured for the author the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh +University, an honour conferred then for the first time upon a Scottish +dissenting minister. This work, of great learning and value, exercised +an important influence on public opinion at the time. At the +solicitation of his friend Andrew Thomson, M'Crie became a contributor +to _The Edinburgh Christian Instructor_, and in 1817 he subjected some +of Sir W. Scott's works to a criticism which took the form of a +vindication of the Covenanters. Preserving the continuity of his +historical studies, he followed up his first work with _The Life of +Andrew Melville_ (1819). In 1827 he published a _History of the Progress +and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy_, and in 1829 a _History of +the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain_. + +His latest literary undertaking was a life of John Calvin. Only three +chapters were completed when the writer died on the 5th of August 1835, +leaving four sons and one daughter. + + See Thomas M'Crie (1797-1875), _Life of T. M'Crie_ (1840), and Hugh + Miller, _My Schools and Schoolmasters_ (1869). + + + + +MACCULLAGH, JAMES (1809-1847), Irish mathematician and physicist, was +born in 1809, near Strabane, Ireland. After a brilliant career at +Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected fellow in 1832. From 1832 to +1843 he held the chair of mathematics; and during his tenure of this +post he improved in a most marked manner the position of his university +as a mathematical centre. In 1843 he was transferred to the chair of +natural philosophy. Overwork, mainly on subjects beyond the natural +range of his powers, induced mental disease; and he died by his own hand +in October 1847. + + His _Works_ were published in 1880. Their distinguishing feature is + the geometry--which has rarely been applied either to pure space + problems or to known physical questions such as the rotation of a + rigid solid or the properties of Fresnel's wave-surface with such + singular elegance; in this respect his work takes rank with that of + Louis Poinsot. One specially remarkable geometrical discovery of + MacCullagh's is that of the "modular generation of surfaces of the + second degree"; and a noteworthy contribution to physical optics is + his "theorem of the polar plane." But his methods, which, in less + known subjects, were almost entirely tentative, were altogether + inadequate to the solution of the more profound physical problems to + which his attention was mainly devoted, such as the theory of double + refraction, &c. See G. G. Stokes's "Report on Double Refraction" (_B. + A. Report_, 1862). + + + + +MACCULLOCH, HORATIO (1805-1867), Scottish landscape painter, was born in +Glasgow. He studied for a year under John Knox, a Glasgow landscapist of +some repute, was then engaged at Cumnock, painting the ornamental lids +of snuff-boxes, and afterwards employed in Edinburgh by Lizars, the +engraver, to colour the illustrations in Selby's _British Birds_ and +similar works. Meanwhile he was working unweariedly from nature, greatly +influenced in his early practice by the watercolours of H. W. Williams. +Returning to Glasgow in some four or five years, he was employed on +several large pictures for the decoration of a public hall in St +George's Place, and he did a little as a theatrical scene-painter. About +this time he was greatly impressed with a picture by Thomson of +Duddingston. Gradually MacCulloch asserted his individuality, and formed +his own style on a close study of nature; his works form an interesting +link between the old world of Scottish landscape and the new. In 1829 +MacCulloch first figured in the Royal Scottish Academy's exhibition, and +year by year, till his death on the 24th of June 1867, he was a regular +exhibitor. In 1838 he was elected a member of the Scottish Academy. The +subjects of his numerous landscapes were taken almost exclusively from +Scottish scenery. + + Several works by MacCulloch were engraved by William Miller and + William Forrest, and a volume of photographs from his landscapes, with + an excellent biographical notice of the artist by Alexander Fraser, + R.S.A., was published in Edinburgh in 1872. + + + + +McCULLOCH, HUGH (1808-1895), American financier, was born at Kennebunk, +Maine, on the 7th of December 1808. He was educated at Bowdoin College, +studied law in Boston, and in 1833 began practice at Fort Wayne, +Indiana. He was cashier and manager of the Fort Wayne branch of the old +state bank of Indiana from 1835 to 1857, and president of the new state +bank from 1857 to 1863. Notwithstanding his opposition to the National +Banking Act of 1862, he was selected by Secretary Chase as comptroller +of the currency in 1863 to put the new system into operation. His work +was so successful that he was appointed secretary of the treasury by +President Lincoln in 1865, and was continued in office by President +Johnson until the close of his administration in 1869. In his first +annual report, issued on the 4th of December 1865, he strongly urged the +retirement of the legal tenders or greenbacks as a preliminary to the +resumption of specie payments. In accordance with this suggestion an act +was passed, on the 12th of March 1866, authorizing the retirement of not +more than $10,000,000 in six months and not more than $4,000,000 per +month thereafter, but it met with strong opposition and was repealed on +the 4th of February 1868, after only $48,000,000 had been retired. He +was much disappointed by the decision of the United States Supreme Court +upholding the constitutionality of the legal tenders (12 Wallace 457). +Soon after the close of his term of office McCulloch went to England, +and spent six years (1870-1876) as a member of the banking firm of Jay +Cooke, McCulloch & Co. From October 1884 until the close of President +Arthur's term of office in March 1885 he was again secretary of the +treasury. He died at his home near Washington, D.C., on the 24th of May +1895. + + The chief authority for the life of McCulloch is his own book, _Men + and Measures of Half a Century_ (New York, 1888). + + + + +M'CULLOCH, SIR JAMES (1819-1893), Australian statesman, was born in +Glasgow. He entered the house of Dennistoun Brothers, became a partner, +and went to Melbourne to open a branch. In 1854, shortly after his +arrival in Victoria, he was appointed a nominee member of the +Legislative Council, and in the first Legislative Assembly under the new +constitution was returned for the electorate of the Wimmera. In 1857 he +was appointed minister of trade and customs in the second ministry of +Haines, which lasted till 1858, and subsequently he became treasurer in +the Nicholson administration, which held office from October 1859 to +November 1860. In June 1862 the third O'Shanassy ministry was defeated +by a combination between a section of its supporters led by M'Culloch +and the opposition proper under Heales, and M'Culloch became premier and +chief secretary. Hitherto he had been regarded as a supporter of the +landed, squatting and importing interests, but the coalition ministry +introduced a number of measures which at the time were regarded by the +propertied classes in the colony as revolutionary. In addition to +passing a Land Bill, which extended the principle of free selection and +deferred payments, the ministry announced their intention of reducing +the duties on the export of gold and the import duties upon tea and +sugar, and of supplying the deficiency by the imposition of duties +ranging from 5 to 10% upon a number of articles which entered into +competition with the local industries, thus introducing protection. The +mercantile community took alarm at the proposal, and at the general +election of 1864 the ministerial policy was warmly opposed. But a +majority was returned in its favour, and a new tariff was carried +through the popular branch of the legislature. There was no probability +of its being assented to by the Council, which, under the constitution, +had the power of rejecting, although it could not amend, any money Bill. +The government therefore decided upon tacking the tariff to the +Appropriation Bill, and compelling the Council either to agree to the +new fiscal proposals or to refuse to pay the public creditors and the +civil servants. The Council accepted the challenge, and rejected the +Appropriation Bill. But M'Culloch and his colleagues would not give way. +They continued to collect the new duties under the authority of the +Assembly, and took advantage of a clause in the Audit Act which directed +the governor to sign the necessary warrants for the payment of any sum +awarded by verdicts in the supreme court in favour of persons who had +sued the government. M'Culloch borrowed £40,000 from the London +Chartered Bank, of which he was a director, to meet pressing payments, +and the bank at his instigation sued the government for the amount of +the advance. The attorney-general at once accepted judgment, and the +governor, who had placed himself unreservedly in the hands of his +ministers, signed the necessary warrant, and the Treasury repaid to the +bank the amount of its advance, plus interest and costs. In the next +session the tariff was again sent up to the Council, which promptly +rejected it, whereupon the ministry dissolved the assembly and appealed +to the country. The result of the general election was to increase +M'Culloch's majority, and the tariff was again sent to the Council, only +to be again rejected. M'Culloch resigned, but no member of the +opposition was willing to form a ministry, and he resumed office. +Eventually a conference between the two houses was held, and the Council +passed the tariff, after a few modifications in it had been agreed to by +the Assembly. Just at the moment that peace was restored, the governor, +Sir Charles Darling, was recalled by the home government, on the ground +that he had displayed partisanship by assisting M'Culloch's government +and their majority in the Assembly to coerce the Council. In order to +show their gratitude to the dismissed governor, the Assembly decided to +grant a sum of £20,000 to Lady Darling. The home government intimated +that Sir Charles Darling must retire from the Colonial service if this +gift were accepted by his wife, but M'Culloch included the money in the +annual Appropriation Bill, with the result that it was rejected by the +Council. The new governor, Viscount Canterbury, was less complaisant +than his predecessor, but after an unsuccessful attempt to obtain other +advisers, he agreed to recommend the Council to pass the Appropriation +Bill with the £20,000 grant included. The Upper House declined to adopt +this course, and again rejected the Bill. A long and bitter struggle +between the two Chambers ended in another general election in 1868, +which still further increased the ministerial majority; but Lord +Canterbury, in obedience to instructions from the colonial office, +declined to do anything to facilitate the passage of the Darling grant. +M'Culloch resigned, and after protracted negotiations Sir Charles Sladen +formed from the minority in the Assembly a ministry which only lasted +two months. The deadlock seemed likely to become more stringent than +ever, when a communication was received from Sir Charles Darling, that +neither he nor his wife could receive anything like a donation from the +people of Victoria. The attempt to pass the grant was therefore +abandoned, and in July 1868 M'Culloch resumed office with different +colleagues, but resigned in the following year, when he was knighted. He +formed a third ministry in 1870. During this third administration he +passed a measure through both Houses which secured a life annuity of +£1000 per annum to Lady Darling. Additional taxation being necessary, +Sir James M'Culloch was urged by his protectionist supporters to +increase the import duties, but he refused, and proposed to provide for +the deficit by levying a tax upon town, suburban and country property. +This proposal was defeated in the Assembly; Sir James resigned in June +1871, and was appointed agent-general for Victoria in London. He held +that appointment till 1873, was created K.C.M.G. in 1874, returned to +the colony the same year, and in 1875 formed his fourth and last +ministry, which kept power till May 1877, when his party was defeated at +the general election. During his eighteen months of office he had to +encounter a persistent opposition from Berry and his followers, who +systematically obstructed the business of the Assembly, on the ground +that the acting-governor, Sir William Stawell, had improperly refused a +dissolution. Sir James M'Culloch, to counteract this obstruction, +invented the closure, which was afterwards introduced with some +modifications into the house of commons. After his defeat in 1877 Sir +James retired from public life and returned to England, where he died on +the 30th of January 1893 at Ewell, Surrey. He was twice married--first, +in 1841, to Susan, daughter of the Rev. James Renwick, of Muirton, +Scotland; secondly, in 1867, to Margaret, daughter of William Inglis, of +Walflat, Dumbartonshire. He left the house of Dennistoun Brothers in +1862, and founded a new firm at Melbourne in conjunction with Leishman, +Inglis & Co. of London, under the title of M'Culloch, Sellars & Co. He +held several important commercial positions, and was president of the +Melbourne Chamber of Commerce. (G. C. L.) + + + + +MACCULLOCH, JOHN (1773-1835), Scottish geologist, descended from the +Maccullochs of Nether Ardwell in Galloway, was born in Guernsey, on the +6th of October 1773, his mother being a native of that island. Having +displayed remarkable powers as a boy, he was sent to study medicine in +the university of Edinburgh, where he qualified as M.D. in 1793, and +then entered the army as assistant surgeon. Attaching himself to the +artillery, he became chemist to the board of ordnance (1803). He still +continued, however, to practise for a time as a physician, and during +the years 1807-1811 he resided at Blackheath. In 1811 he communicated +his first papers to the Geological Society. They were devoted to an +elucidation of the geological structure of Guernsey, of the Channel +Islands, and of Heligoland. The evidence they afforded of his capacity, +and the fact that he already had received a scientific appointment, +probably led to his being selected in the same year to make some +geological and mineralogical investigations in Scotland. He was asked to +report upon stones adapted for use in powder-mills, upon the suitability +of the chief Scottish mountains for a repetition of the pendulum +experiments previously conducted by Maskelyne and Playfair at +Schiehallion, and on the deviations of the plumb-line along the meridian +of the Trigonometrical Survey. In the course of the explorations +necessary for the purposes of these reports he made extensive +observations on the geology and mineralogy of Scotland. He formed also a +collection of the mineral productions and rocks of that country, which +he presented to the Geological Society in 1814. In that year he was +appointed geologist to the Trigonometrical Survey; and in 1816-1817 he +was president of the Geological Society. Comparatively little had been +done in the investigation of Scottish geology, and finding the field so +full of promise, he devoted himself to its cultivation with great +ardour. One of his most important labours was the examination of the +whole range of islands along the west of Scotland, at that time not +easily visited, and presenting many obstacles to a scientific explorer. +The results of this survey appeared (1819) in the form of his +_Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, including the Isle of +Man_ (2 vols. 8vo, with an atlas of plates in 4to), which forms one of +the classical treatises on British geology. He was elected F.R.S. in +1820. He continued to write papers, chiefly on the rocks and minerals of +Scotland, and had at last gathered so large an amount of information +that the government was prevailed upon in the year 1826 to employ him in +the preparation of a geological map of Scotland. From that date up to +the time of his death he returned each summer to Scotland and traversed +every district of the kingdom, inserting the geological features upon +Arrowsmith's map, the only one then available for his purpose. He +completed the field-work in 1832, and in 1834 his map and memoir were +ready for publication, but these were not issued until 1836, the year +after he died. Among his other works the following may be mentioned: _A +Geological Classification of Rocks with Descriptive Synopses of the +Species and Varieties, comprising the Elements of Practical Geology_ +(1821); _The Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland_, in a series of +letters to Sir Walter Scott (4 vols. 1824); _A System of Geology, with a +Theory of the Earth and an Examination of its Connexion with the Sacred +Records_ (2 vols. 1831). During a visit to Cornwall he was killed by +being dragged along in the wheel of his carriage, on the 21st of August +1835. + + In penning an obituary notice, C. Lyell in 1836 (_Proc. Geol. Soc._ + ii. 357) acknowledged "with gratitude" that he had "received more + instruction from Macculloch's labours in geology than from those of + any living writer." + + + + +M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSAY (1789-1864), British economist and statistician, +was born on the 1st of March 1789 at Whithorn in Wigtownshire. His +family belonged to the class of "statesmen," or small landed +proprietors. He was for some time employed at Edinburgh as a clerk in +the office of a writer to the signet. But, the _Scotsman_ newspaper +having been established at the beginning of 1817, M'Culloch sent a +contribution to the fourth number, the merit of which was at once +recognized; he soon became connected with the management of the paper, +and during 1818 and 1819 acted as editor. Most of his articles related +to questions of political economy, and he delivered lectures in +Edinburgh on that science. He now also began to write on subjects of the +same class in the _Edinburgh Review_, his first contribution being an +article on Ricardo's _Principles of Political Economy_ in 1818. Within +the next few years he gave both public lectures and private instruction +in London on political economy. In 1823 he was chosen to fill the +lectureship established by subscription in honour of the memory of +Ricardo. A movement was set on foot in 1825 by Jeffrey and others to +induce the government to found in the university of Edinburgh a chair of +political economy, separate from that of moral philosophy, the intention +being to obtain the appointment for M'Culloch. This project fell to the +ground; but in 1828 he was made professor of political economy in London +University. He then fixed his residence permanently in London, where he +continued his literary work, being now one of the regular writers in the +_Edinburgh Review_. In 1838 he was appointed comptroller of the +stationery office; the duties of this position, which he held till his +death, he discharged with conscientious fidelity, and introduced +important reforms in the management of the department. Sir Robert Peel, +in recognition of the services he had rendered to political science, +conferred on him a literary pension of £200 per annum. He was elected a +foreign associate of the Institute of France (_Académie des sciences +morales et politiques_). He died in London, after a short illness, on +the 11th of November 1864, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. To his +personal character and social qualities very favourable testimony was +borne by those who knew him best. In general politics he always remained +a Whig pure and simple; though he was in intimate relations with James +Mill and his circle, he never shared the Radical opinions of that group. + + M'Culloch cannot be regarded as an original thinker on political + economy. He did not contribute any new ideas to that science, or + introduce any noteworthy correction of the views, either as to method + or doctrine, generally accepted by the dominant school of his day. But + the work he did must be pronounced, in relation to the wants of his + time, a very valuable one. His name will probably be less permanently + associated with anything he has written on economic science, strictly + so called, than with his great statistical and other compilations. His + _Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation_ (1832) and his + _Statistical Account of the British Empire_ (1837) remain imposing + monuments of his extensive and varied knowledge and his indefatigable + industry. Another useful work of reference, also the fruit of wide + erudition and much labour, is his _Literature of Political Economy_ + (1845). Though weak on the side of the foreign literature of the + science, it is very valuable as a critical and biographical guide to + British writers. + + + + +McCULLOUGH, JOHN EDWARD (1837-1885), American actor, was born in +Coleraine, Ireland, on the 2nd of November 1837. He went to America at +the age of sixteen, and made his first appearance on the stage at the +Arch Street Theatre, Philadelphia, in 1857. In support of Edwin Forrest +and Edwin Booth he played second roles in Shakespearian and other +tragedies, and Forrest left him by will all his prompt books. Virginius +was his greatest success, although even in this part and as Othello he +was coldly received in England (1881). In 1884 he broke down physically +and mentally, and he died in an asylum at Philadelphia on the 8th of +November 1885. + + + + +MACCUNN, HAMISH (1868- ), Scottish musical composer, was born at +Greenock, the son of a shipowner, and was educated at the Royal College +of Music. His first success was with the overture _Land of the Mountain +and Flood_ in 1887 at the Crystal Palace, and this was followed by other +compositions, with a characteristic Scottish colouring. From 1888 to +1894 he was a professor at the Royal College of Music, and this latter +year saw both his marriage to a daughter of John Pettie, R.A., and the +production of his opera _Jeanie Deans_ at Edinburgh. He was for some +years conductor to the Carl Rosa Opera company, and subsequently to +other companies. His opera _Diarmid_ was produced at Covent Garden in +1897, and his other music includes cantatas, overtures, part-songs, +instrumental pieces, and songs, all markedly Scottish in type. + + + + +MACDONALD, FLORA (1722-1790), Jacobite heroine, was the daughter of +Ranald Macdonald of Milton in the island of South Uist in the Hebrides, +and his wife Marion the daughter of Angus Macdonald, minister of South +Uist. Her father died when she was a child, and her mother was abducted +and married by Hugh Macdonald of Armadale. She was brought up under the +care of the chief of her clan, Macdonald of Clanranald, and was partly +educated in Edinburgh. In June 1746 she was living in Benbecula in the +Hebrides when Prince Charles Edward (q.v.) took refuge there after the +battle of Culloden. The prince's companion, Captain O'Neill, sought her +help. The island was held for the government by the local militia, but +the secret sympathies of the Macdonalds were with the Jacobite cause. +After some hesitation Flora promised to help. At a later period she told +the duke of Cumberland, son of George III. and commander-in-chief in +Scotland, that she acted from charity and would have helped him also if +he had been defeated and in distress, a statement which need not be +accepted as quite literally true. The commander of the militia in the +island, a Macdonald, who was probably admitted into the secret, gave her +a pass to the mainland for herself, a manservant, an Irish spinning +maid, Betty Burke, and a boat's crew of six men. The prince was +disguised as Betty Burke. After a first repulse at Waternish, the party +landed at Portree. The prince was hidden in a cave while Flora Macdonald +found help for him in the neighbourhood, and was finally able to escape. +He had left Benbecula on the 27th of June. The talk of the boatmen +brought suspicion on Flora Macdonald, and she was arrested and brought +to London. After a short imprisonment in the Tower, she was allowed to +live outside of it, under the guard of a "messenger" or gaoler. When the +Act of Indemnity was passed in 1747 she was left at liberty. Her courage +and loyalty had gained her general sympathy, which was increased by her +good manners and gentle character. Dr Johnson, who saw her in 1773, +describes her as "a woman of soft features, gentle manners and elegant +presence." In 1750 she married Allen Macdonald of Kingsburgh, and in +1773 they emigrated to America. In the War of Independence he served the +British government and was taken prisoner. In 1779 his wife returned +home in a merchant ship which was attacked by a privateer. She refused +to leave the deck during the action, and was wounded in the arm. She +died on the 5th of March 1790. There is a statue to her memory in +Inverness. Flora Macdonald had a large family of sons, who mostly +entered the army or navy, and two daughters. + + See A. C. Ewald, _Life and Times of Prince Charles Edward_ (1886). The + so-called _Autobiography_ of Flora Macdonald, published by her + grand-daughter F. F. Walde (1870) is of small value. + + + + +MACDONALD, GEORGE (1824-1905), Scottish novelist and poet, was born at +Huntly, Aberdeenshire. His father, a farmer, was one of the Macdonalds +of Glencoe, and a direct descendant of one of the families that suffered +in the massacre. Macdonald's youth was passed in his native town, under +the immediate influence of the Congregational Church, and in an +atmosphere strongly impregnated with Calvinism. He took his degree at +Aberdeen University, and migrated thence to London, studying at Highbury +College for the Congregational ministry. In 1850 he was appointed pastor +of Trinity Congregational Church, Arundel, and, after resigning his cure +there, was engaged in ministerial work in Manchester. His health, +however, was unequal to the strain, and after a short sojourn in Algiers +he settled in London and adopted the profession of literature. In 1856 +he published his first book, _Within and Without_, a dramatic poem; +following it in 1857 with a volume of _Poems_, and in 1858 by the +delightful "faerie romance" _Phantastes_. His first conspicuous success +was achieved in 1862 with _David Elginbrod_, the forerunner of a number +of popular novels, which include _Alec Forbes of Howglen_ (1865), +_Annals of a Quiet Neighbourhood_ (1866), _Robert Falconer_ (1868), +_Malcolm_ (1875), _The Marquis of Lossie_ (1877), and _Donal Grant_ +(1883). He was for a time editor of _Good Words for the Young_, and +lectured successfully in America in 1872-1873. He wrote admirable +stories for the young, and published some volumes of sermons. In 1877 he +was given a civil list pension. He died on the 18th of September 1905. + +Both as preacher and as lecturer on literary topics George Macdonald's +sincerity and moral enthusiasm exercised great influence upon +thoughtful minds. His verse is homely and direct, and marked by +religious fervour and simplicity. As a portrayer of Scottish +peasant-life in fiction he was the precursor of a large school, which +has benefited by his example and surpassed its original leader in +popularity. The religious tone of his novels is relieved by tolerance +and a broad spirit of humour, and the simpler emotions of humble life +are sympathetically treated. + + + + +MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD (1852-1903), British soldier, was born +of humble parentage at Muir of Allan-Grange, Ross-shire, Scotland, in +1852. As a boy he was employed in a draper's shop at Dingwall, but in +1870 he enlisted in the 92nd (Gordon) Highlanders. He rose rapidly +through the non-commissioned ranks, and had already been a +colour-sergeant for some years when, in the Afghan War of 1879, he +distinguished himself in the presence of the enemy so much as to be +promoted to commissioned rank, his advancement being equally acceptable +to his brother officers and popular with the rank and file. As a +subaltern he served in the first Boer War of 1880-81, and at Majuba, +where he was made prisoner, his bravery was so conspicuous that General +Joubert gave him back his sword. In 1885 he served under Sir Evelyn Wood +in the reorganization of the Egyptian army, and he took part in the Nile +Expedition of that year. In 1888 he became a regimental captain in the +British service, but continued to serve in the Egyptian army, being +particularly occupied with the training of the Sudanese battalions. In +1889 he received the D.S.O. for his conduct at Toski and in 1891, after +the action at Tokar, he was promoted substantive major. In 1896 he +commanded a brigade of the Egyptian army in the Dongola Expedition, and +during the following campaigns he distinguished himself in every +engagement, above all in the final battle of Omdurman (1898) at the +crisis of which Macdonald's Sudanese brigade, manoeuvring as a unit with +the coolness and precision of the parade ground, repulsed the most +determined attack of the Mahdists. After this great service Macdonald's +name became famous in England and Scotland, the popular sobriquet of +"Fighting Mac" testifying the interest aroused in the public mind by his +career and his soldierly personality. He was promoted colonel in the +army and appointed an aide-de-camp to the queen, and in 1899 he was +promoted major-general and appointed to a command in India. In December +1899 he was called to South Africa to command the Highland Brigade, +which had just suffered very heavily and had lost its commander, +Major-General A. G. Wauchope, in the battle of Magersfontein. He +commanded the brigade throughout Lord Roberts's Paardeberg, Bloemfontein +and Pretoria operations, and in 1901 he was made a K.C.B. In 1902 he was +appointed to command the troops in Ceylon, but early in the following +year (March 25, 1903) he committed suicide in Paris. A memorial to this +brilliant soldier, in the form of a tower 100 ft. high, was erected at +Dingwall and completed in 1907. + + + + +MACDONALD, JACQUES ÉTIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE (1765-1840), duke of Taranto +and marshal of France, was born at Sedan on the 17th of November 1765. +His father came of an old Jacobite family, which had followed James II. +to France, and was a near relative of the celebrated Flora Macdonald. In +1785 Macdonald joined the legion raised to support the revolutionary +party in Holland against the Prussians, and after it was disbanded he +received a commission in the regiment of Dillon. On the breaking out of +the Revolution, the regiment of Dillon remained eminently loyal, with +the exception of Macdonald, who was in love with Mlle Jacob, whose +father was enthusiastic for the doctrines of the Revolution. Directly +after his marriage he was appointed aide-de-camp to General Dumouriez. +He distinguished himself at Jemmapes, and was promoted colonel in 1793. +He refused to desert to the Austrians with Dumouriez, and as a reward +was made general of brigade, and appointed to command the leading +brigade in Pichegru's invasion of Holland. His knowledge of the country +proved most useful, and he was instrumental in the capture of the Dutch +fleet by French hussars. In 1797, having been made general of division, +he served first in the army of the Rhine and then in that of Italy. When +he reached Italy, the peace of Campo Formio had been signed, and +Bonaparte had returned to France; but, under the direction of Berthier, +Macdonald first occupied Rome, of which he was made governor, and then +in conjunction with Championnet he defeated General Mack, and +revolutionized the kingdom of Naples under the title of the +Parthenopaean Republic. When Suvarov invaded northern Italy, and was +winning back the conquests of Bonaparte, Macdonald collected all the +troops in the peninsula and moved northwards. With but 30,000 men he +attacked, at the Trebbia, Suvarov with 50,000, and after three days' +fighting, during which he held the Russians at bay, and gave time for +Moreau to come up, he retired in good order to Genoa. After this gallant +behaviour he was made governor of Versailles, and acquiesced, if he did +not co-operate, in the events of the 18th Brumaire. In 1800 he received +the command of the army in Switzerland which was to maintain the +communications between the armies of Germany and of Italy. He carried +out his orders to the letter, and at last, in the winter of 1800-1, he +was ordered to march over the Splügen Pass. This achievement is fully +described by Mathieu Dumas, who was chief of his staff, and is at least +as noteworthy as Bonaparte's famous passage of the St Bernard before +Marengo, though followed by no such successful battle. On his return to +Paris Macdonald married the widow of General Joubert, and was appointed +French plenipotentiary in Denmark. Returning in 1805 he associated +himself with Moreau and incurred the dislike of Napoleon, who did not +include him in his first creation of marshals. Till 1809 he remained +without employment, but in that year Napoleon gave him the command of a +corps and the duties of military adviser to the young prince Eugène +Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. He led the army from Italy till its +junction with Napoleon, and at Wagram commanded the celebrated column of +attack which broke the Austrian centre and won the victory. Napoleon +made him marshal of France on the field of battle, and presently created +him duke of Taranto. In 1810 he served in Spain, and in 1812 he +commanded the left wing of the grand army for the invasion of Russia. In +1813, after sharing in the battles of Lützen and Bautzen, he was ordered +to invade Silesia, where Blücher defeated him with great loss at the +Katzbach (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). After the terrible battle of +Leipzig he was ordered with Prince Poniatowski to cover the evacuation +of Leipzig; after the blowing up of the bridge, he managed to swim the +Elster, while Poniatowski was drowned. During the defensive campaign of +1814 Macdonald again distinguished himself; he was one of the marshals +sent by Napoleon to take his abdication in favour of his son to Paris. +When all were deserting their old master, Macdonald remained faithful to +him. He was directed by Napoleon to give in his adherence to the new +regime, and was presented by him with the sabre of Murad Bey for his +fidelity. At the Restoration he was made a peer of France and knight +grand cross of the order of St Louis; he remained faithful to the new +order of things during the Hundred Days. In 1815 he became chancellor of +the Legion of Honour (a post he held till 1831), in 1816 major-general +of the royal bodyguard, and he took a great part in the discussions in +the House of Peers, voting consistently as a moderate Liberal. In 1823 +he married Mlle de Bourgony, by whom he had a son, Alexander, who +succeeded on his death in 1840 as duke of Taranto. From 1830 his life +was spent in retirement at his country place Courcelles-le-Roi (Seine et +Oise), where he died on the 7th of September 1840. + +Macdonald had none of that military genius which distinguished Davout, +Masséna and Lannes, nor of that military science conspicuous in Marmont +and St Cyr, but nevertheless his campaign in Switzerland gives him a +rank far superior to such mere generals of division as Oudinot and +Dupont. This capacity for independent command made Napoleon, in spite of +his defeats at the Trebbia and the Katzbach, trust him with large +commands till the end of his career. As a man, his character cannot be +spoken of too highly; no stain of cruelty or faithlessness rests on him. + + Macdonald was especially fortunate in the accounts of his military + exploits, Mathieu Dumas and Ségur having been on his staff in + Switzerland. See Dumas, _Événements militaires_; and Ségur's rare + tract, _Lettre sur la campagne du Général Macdonald dans les Grisons + en 1800 et 1801_ (1802), and _Éloge_ (1842). His memoirs were + published in 1892 (Eng. trans., _Recollections of Marshal Macdonald_), + but are brief and wanting in balance. + + + + +MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER (1815-1891), first premier of the dominion +of Canada, was born in Glasgow on the 11th of January 1815, the third +child of Hugh Macdonald (d. 1841), a native of Sutherlandshire. The +family emigrated to Canada in 1820, settling first at Kingston, Ontario. +At the age of fifteen Macdonald entered a law office; he was called to +the bar in 1836, and began practice in Kingston, with immediate success. +Macdonald entered upon his active career at a critical period in the +history of Canada, and the circumstances of the time were calculated to +stimulate political thought. It was the year before the rebellion of +1837; the condition of the whole country was very unsettled; and it +seemed well-nigh impossible to reconcile differences arising from racial +and political antagonisms. During the rebellion young Macdonald +volunteered for active service, but his military career never went +farther than drilling and marching. The mission of Lord Durham; the +publication of his famous report; the union of the two Canadas; the +administrations of Lord Sydenham, Sir Charles Bagot, and Sir Charles +Metcalfe, filled the years immediately succeeding 1837 with intense +political interest, and in their results have profoundly influenced the +constitution of the British Empire. + +Macdonald made his first acquaintance with public business as an +alderman of Kingston. In 1844 Sir Charles Metcalfe, in his contest with +the Reform party led by Baldwin and Lafontaine, appealed to the +electors, and Macdonald was elected to the provincial assembly as +Conservative member for Kingston. A sentence in his first address to the +electors strikes the dominant note of his public career: "I therefore +need scarcely state my firm belief that the prosperity of Canada depends +upon its permanent connexion with the mother country, and that I shall +resist to the utmost any attempt (from whatever quarter it may come) +which may tend to weaken that union." He took his seat on the 28th of +November as a supporter of the Draper government. During the first three +or four years he spoke little, but devoted himself with assiduity to +mastering parliamentary forms and the business of the house. His +capacity soon attracted attention, and in 1847 he was made +receiver-general with a seat in the executive council, an office soon +exchanged for the more important one of commissioner of Crown-lands. +Although the government of which he thus became a member held office for +only ten months, being placed in a hopeless minority on making an appeal +to the country, Macdonald from this time forward took a position of +constantly increasing weight in his party. + +One of the first acts of the Reform government which succeeded that of +which Macdonald was a member was to pass the Rebellion Losses Bill, made +famous in colonial history by the fact that it brought to a crucial test +the principle of responsible government. The assent of Lord Elgin to the +bill provoked in Montreal a riot which ended in the burning of the +houses of parliament, and so great was the indignation of the hitherto +ultra-loyal Conservative party that many of its most prominent members +signed a document favouring annexation to the United States; Macdonald +on the other hand took steps, in conjunction with others, to form a +British-American league, having for its object the confederation of all +the provinces, the strengthening of the connexion with the mother +country, and the adoption of a national commercial policy. He remained +in opposition from 1848 till 1854, holding together under difficult +circumstances an unpopular party with which he was not entirely in +sympathy. The two great political issues of the time were the +secularization of the clergy reserves in Ontario, and the abolition of +seigniorial tenure in Quebec. Both of these reforms Macdonald long +opposed, but when successive elections had proved that they were +supported by public opinion, he brought about a coalition of +Conservatives and moderate reformers for the purpose of carrying them. + +Out of this coalition was gradually developed the Liberal-conservative +party, of which until his death Macdonald continued to be the most +considerable figure, and which for more than forty years largely moulded +the history of Canada. From 1854 to 1857 he was attorney-general of +Upper Canada, and then, on the retirement of Colonel Taché, he became +prime minister. This first coalition had now accomplished its temporary +purpose, but so closely were parties divided at this period, that the +defeat and reinstatement of governments followed each other in rapid +succession. + +The experiment of applying responsible government on party lines to the +two Canadian provinces at last seemed to have come to a deadlock. Two +general elections and the defeat of four ministries within three years +had done nothing to solve the difficulties of the situation. At this +critical period a proposal was made for a coalition of parties in order +to carry out a broad scheme of British-American confederation. The +immediate proposal is said to have come from George Brown; the large +political idea had long been advocated by Macdonald and Alexander Galt +in Upper Canada--by Joseph Howe and others in the maritime provinces. +The close of the American Civil War, the Fenian raids across the +American border, and the dangers incident to the international +situation, gave a decisive impulse to the movement. Macdonald, at the +head of a representative delegation from Ontario and Quebec, met the +public men of the maritime provinces in conference at Charlottetown in +1864, and the outline of confederation then agreed upon was filled out +in detail at a conference held at Quebec soon afterwards. The actual +framing of the British North America Act, into which the resolutions of +these two conferences were consolidated, was carried out at the +Westminster Palace Hôtel in London, during December 1866 and January +1867, by delegates from all the provinces working in co-operation with +the law officers of the Crown, under the presidency of Lord Carnarvon, +then secretary of state for the colonies. Macdonald took the leading +part in all these discussions, and he thus naturally became the first +premier of the Dominion. He was made a K.C.B. in recognition of his +services to the empire. + +The difficulties of organizing the new Dominion, the questions arising +from diverse claims and the various conditions of the country, called +for infinite tact and resource on the part of the premier. Federal +rights were to be safeguarded against the provincial governments, always +jealous of their privileges. The people of Nova Scotia in particular, +dissatisfied with the way in which their province had been drawn into +the Union, maintained a fierce opposition to the Ottawa government, +until their leader, Joseph Howe, fearing an armed rising, came to an +agreement with Macdonald and accepted a seat in his cabinet. The +establishment of a supreme court also occupied the attention of Sir +John, who had a strong sense of the necessity of maintaining the purity +and dignity of the judicial office. The act creating this court was +finally passed during the administration of Alexander Mackenzie. The +pledge made at confederation with regard to the building of the +Intercolonial railway to connect the maritime provinces with those of +the St Lawrence was fulfilled. The North-West Territories were secured +as a part of confederated Canada by the purchase of the rights of the +Hudson's Bay Company, and the establishment of Manitoba as a province in +1870. Canada's interests were protected during the negotiations which +ended in the treaty of Washington in 1871, and in which Sir John took a +leading part as one of the British delegates. In this year British +Columbia entered the confederation, one of the provisions of union being +that a transcontinental railroad should be built within ten years. This +was declared by the opposition to be impossible. It was possible only to +a leader of indomitable will. Charges of bribery against the government +in connexion with the contract for the building of this line led to the +resignation of the cabinet in 1874, and for four years Sir John was in +opposition. But he was by no means inactive. During the summer of 1876 +he travelled through Ontario addressing the people on the subject of a +commercial system looking to the protection of native industries. This +was the celebrated "National Policy," which had been in his thoughts as +long ago as the formation of the British-American League in 1850. The +government of Alexander Mackenzie refused to consider a protection +policy, and determined to adhere to Free Trade, with a tariff for +revenue only. On these strongly defined issues the two parties appealed +to the people in 1878. The Liberal party was almost swept away, and Sir +John, on his return to power, put his policy into effect with a +thoroughness that commanded the admiration even of his opponents, who, +after long resistance, adopted it on their accession to office in 1896. +He also undertook the immediate construction of the Canadian Pacific +railway, which had been postponed by the former government. The line was +begun late in 1880, and finished in November 1885--an achievement which +Sir John ranked among his greatest triumphs. "The faith of Sir John," +says one of his biographers, "did more to build the road than the money +of Mount-Stephen." + +During the remaining years of his life his efforts at administration +were directed mainly towards the organization and development of the +great North-West. From 1878 until his death in 1891 Sir John retained +his position as premier of Canada, and his history is practically that +of Canada (q.v.). For forty-six years of a stormy political life he +remained true to the cardinal policy that he had announced to the +electors of Kingston in 1844. "A British subject I was born; a British +subject I will die," says his last political manifesto to the people of +the Dominion. At his advanced age the anxiety and excitement of the +contested election of 1891 proved too great. On the 29th of May he +suffered a stroke of paralysis, which caused his death eight days later +(June 6). + +The career of Sir John Macdonald must be considered in connexion with +the political history of Canada and the conditions of its government +during the latter half of the 19th century. Trained in a school where +the principles of responsible government were still in an embryonic +state, where the adroit management of coalitions and cabals was +essential to the life of a political party, and where plots and +counterplots were looked upon as a regular part of the political game, +he acquired a dexterity and skill in managing men that finally gave him +an almost autocratic power among his political followers. But great +personal qualities supplemented his political dexterity and sagacity. A +strong will enabled him to overcome the passionate temper which marked +his youth, and later in his career a habit of intemperance, which he at +first shared with many public men of his time. He was a man of strong +ambitions, but these were curbed by a shrewd foresight, which led him +for a long time to submit to the nominal leadership of other and smaller +men. Politics he made his business, and to this he devoted all his +energies. He had the gift of living for the work in hand without feeling +the distraction of other interests. He had a singular faculty for +reading the minds and the motives of men, and to this insight he perhaps +owed the power of adaptability (called by his opponents shiftiness) +which characterized his whole career. To this power the successful +guidance of the Dominion through its critical formative period must be +ascribed. Few political leaders have ever had such a number of +antagonistic elements to reconcile as presented themselves in the first +Canadian parliament after confederation. The man who could manage to +rule a congeries of jealous factions, including Irish Catholics and +Orangemen, French and English anti-federationists and agitators for +independence, Conservatives and Reformers, careful economists and +prodigal expansionists, was manifestly a man of unusual power, superior +to small prejudices, and without strong bias towards any creed or +section. Such a man Macdonald proved himself to be. His personality +stands out at this period as the central power in which each faction +chiefly reposed trust, and under which it could join hands with the +others in the service of the state. His singleness of purpose, personal +independence and indomitable energy enabled him to achieve triumphs +that to others seemed impossible. His methods cannot always be defended, +and were explained by himself only on grounds of necessity and the +character of the electorate with which he had to deal. After the +"Pacific scandal" of 1874 the leader of the opposite party declared that +"John A." (as he was generally called) "has fallen, never to rise +again." Yet he not only cleared his own character from the charges laid +against him, but succeeded four years later in achieving his most signal +party triumph. His natural urbanity allowed him to rule without seeming +to rule. When baffled in minor objects he gave way with a good-natured +flexibility which brought upon him at times charges of inconsistency. +Yet Canada has seen statesmen of more contracted view insist on such +small points, fall, and drag down their party with them. He lived at a +time when the exigencies of state seemed to require the peculiar talents +which he possessed. Entering politics at the dreariest and least +profitable stage in Canadian history, he took the foremost part in the +movement which made of Canada a nation; he guided that nation through +the nebulous stages of its existence, and left it united, strong and +vigorous, a monument to his patriotic and far-sighted statesmanship. His +statue adorns the squares of the principal Canadian towns. In the crypt +of St Paul's Cathedral a memorial has rightly been placed to him as a +statesman, not merely of Canada, but of the empire. In unveiling that +memorial Lord Rosebery fitly epitomized the meaning of his life and work +when he said: "We recognize only this, that Sir John Macdonald had +grasped the central idea that the British Empire is the greatest secular +agency for good now known to mankind; that that was the secret of his +success; and that he determined to die under it, and strove that Canada +should live under it." Macdonald became a member of the Imperial Privy +Council in 1879, and in 1884 he received the Grand Cross of the Bath. +His first wife was his cousin, Miss Isabella Clark, who died in 1858, +leaving one surviving son, the Hon. Hugh John Macdonald, at one time +premier of the province of Manitoba. By his second marriage, to Miss +Bernard in 1867, Macdonald left an only daughter. On his death in 1891 +his widow was created Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe. + + The authorized and fullest biography of Sir John A. Macdonald is one + written by his private secretary, Joseph Pope. Others have been + written by his nephew, Colonel J. Pennington Macpherson, and by J. E. + Collins. A bright and amusing anecdotal life has been compiled by E. + D. Biggar. A condensed biography by G. R. Parkin forms one of the + "Makers of Canada" series (Toronto, 1907; new ed., 1909). + (G. R. P.) + + + + +MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD (1812-1872), Canadian statesman, was born at +St Raphael, Glengarry county, Ontario, on the 12th of December 1812. He +was admitted to the bar in 1840, and settled in Cornwall. In the same +year he married Miss Waggaman, the daughter of an American senator from +Louisiana. In 1841 he was elected to the Canadian parliament for +Glengarry, which seat he held for sixteen years. In 1842 he joined the +Reformers in the cry for constitutional government, and from 1852 to +1854 was Speaker of the house. He was always uncertain in his party +allegiance, and often attacked George Brown, the Liberal leader. Indeed, +he well described himself as "the Ishmael of parliament." In 1862 he was +called on by Lord Monck, the governor-general, to form a ministry, which +by manifold shifts held office till February 1864. In the debates on +federation he opposed the measure, but on its passage was in 1867 +entrusted by the Conservatives with the task of organizing the +provincial government of Ontario. He ruled the province with economy and +efficiency, but was defeated in December 1871 by the Liberals, resigned +the premiership, and died on the 1st of June 1872. + + + + +MACDONALD, LAWRENCE (1799-1878), British sculptor, was born at +Findo-Gask, Perthshire, Scotland. In early life he served as a mason's +apprentice. Having shown an aptitude for stone carving, he became an art +student at the Trustees' Academy, Edinburgh. By the help of friends he +was enabled to visit Rome, where together with other artists he helped +to found the British Academy of Arts. He returned to Edinburgh in 1826. +In 1829 he was elected a member of the Scottish Academy. From 1832 until +his death his home was in Rome. Among his ideal works may be mentioned +"Ulysses and his Dog Argos," "Andromeda chained to the Rock," +"Eurydice," "Hyacinth," a "Siren," and a "Bacchante." + + + + +MACDONELL, JAMES (1841-1879), British journalist, was born at Dyce, +Aberdeenshire. In 1858, after his father's death, he became clerk in a +merchant's office. He began writing in the _Aberdeen Free Press_; in +1862 he was appointed to the staff of the _Daily Review_ at Edinburgh, +and at twenty-two he became editor of the _Northern Daily Express_. In +1865 he went to London to accept a position on the staff of the _Daily +Telegraph_, which he retained until 1875, being special correspondent in +France in 1870 and 1871. In 1873 he became a leader-writer on _The +Times_. He died in London on the 2nd of March 1879. His posthumous +_France since the First Empire_, though incomplete, gave a clever and +accurate account of the French politics of his time. + + + + +MACDONNELL (or MACDONELL), ALESTAIR (i.e. Alexander) RUADH (c. +1725-1761), chief of Glengarry, a Scottish Jacobite who has been +identified by Andrew Lang as the secret agent "Pickle," who acted as a +spy on Prince Charles Edward after 1750. The family were a branch of the +clan Macdonald, but spelt their name Macdonnell or Macdonell. His father +was John, 12th chief of Glengarry, a violent and brutal man, who is said +to have starved his first wife, Alestair's mother, to death on an island +in the Hebrides. Alestair ran away to France while a mere boy in 1738, +and there entered the Royal Scots, a regiment in the French service. In +1743 he commanded a company in it, and in 1744 was sent to Scotland as a +Jacobite agent. In January 1745 he was sent back with messages, and was +in France when Prince Charles Edward landed in Scotland. Late in 1745 he +was captured at sea while bringing a picquet of the Royal Scots to help +the prince. He remained a prisoner in the Tower for twenty-two months, +and when released went abroad. In 1744 his father had made a transfer to +him of the family estates, which were ruined. Alestair, who still +affected to be a Jacobite, lived for a time in great poverty. In 1749 he +was in London, and there is good reason to believe that he then offered +his services as a spy to the British government, with which he +communicated under the name of Pickle. His information enabled British +ministers to keep a close watch on the prince and on the Jacobite +conspiracies. Though he was denounced by a Mrs Cameron, whose husband he +betrayed to death in 1752, he never lost the confidence of the Jacobite +leaders. On the death of his father, in 1754, he succeeded to the +estates, and proved himself a greedy landlord. He died on the 23rd of +December 1761. + + See Andrew Lang, _Pickle the Spy_ (1897) and _The Companions of + Pickle_ (1898). + + + + +MACDONNELL, SORLEY BOY (c. 1505-1590), Scoto-Irish chieftain, son of +Alexander Macdonnell, lord of Islay and Kintyre (Cantire), was born at +Ballycastle, Co. Antrim. From an ancestor who about a hundred years +earlier had married Margaret Bisset, heiress of the district on the +Antrim coast known as the Glynns (or Glens), he inherited a claim to the +lordship of that territory; and he was one of the most powerful of the +Scottish settlers in Ulster whom the English government in the 16th +century found difficulty in bringing into subjection. Many attempts were +made to drive them out of Ireland, in one of which, about 1550, Sorley +Boy Macdonnell was taken prisoner and conveyed to Dublin Castle, where, +however, his confinement was brief. The chief rivals of the Macdonnells +were the Mac Quillins who dominated the northern portion of Antrim, +known as the Route, and whose stronghold was Dunluce Castle, near the +mouth of the Bush. Sorley Boy Macdonnell took an active part in the +tribal warfare between his own clan and the Mac Quillins; and in 1558, +when the latter had been to a great extent overcome, his elder brother +James committed to him the lordship of the Route, his hold on which he +made good by decisively defeating the Mac Quillins in Glenshesk. Sorley +Boy was now too powerful and turbulent to be neglected by Queen +Elizabeth and her ministers, who were also being troubled by his great +contemporary, Shane O'Neill; and the history of Ulster for the next +twenty years consists for the most part of alternating conflict and +alliance between Macdonnells and O'Neills, and attempts on the part of +the English government to subdue them both. With this object Elizabeth +aimed at fomenting the rivalry between the two clans; and she came to +terms sometimes with the one and sometimes with the other. Sorley Boy's +wife was an illegitimate half-sister of Shane O'Neill; but this did not +deter him from leaguing himself with the government against the +O'Neills, if by so doing he could obtain a formal recognition of his +title to the lands of which he was in actual possession. In 1562 Shane +O'Neill paid his celebrated visit to London, where he obtained +recognition by Elizabeth of his claims as head of the O'Neills; and on +his return to Ireland he attacked the Macdonnells, ostensibly in the +English interest. He defeated Sorley Boy near Coleraine in the summer of +1564; in 1565 he invaded the Glynns, and at Ballycastle won a decisive +victory, in which James Macdonnell and Sorley Boy were taken prisoners. +James soon afterwards died, but Sorley Boy remained O'Neill's captive +till 1567, when Shane was murdered by the Macdonnells at Cushendun (see +O'NEILL). Sorley Boy then went to Scotland to enlist support, and he +spent the next few years in striving to frustrate the schemes of Sir +Thomas Smith, and later of the earl of Essex, for colonizing Ulster with +English settlers. Sorley Boy was willing to come to terms with the +government provided his claims to his lands were allowed, but Essex +determined to reduce him to unconditional submission. John Norris was +ordered to proceed by sea from Carrickfergus to Rathlin Island, where +Sorley Boy's children and valuables, together with the families of his +principal retainers, had been lodged for safety; and while the chieftain +was himself at Ballycastle, within sight of the island, the women and +children were massacred by the English. Sorley Boy retaliated by a +successful raid on Carrickfergus and by re-establishing his power in the +Glynns and the Route, which the Mac Quillins made ineffectual attempts +to recover. Macdonnell's position was still further strengthened by an +alliance with Turlough Luineach O'Neill, and by a formidable immigration +of followers from the Scottish islands. In 1584 Sir John Perrot +determined to make a further effort to subdue the turbulent chieftain. +After another expedition to Scotland seeking help, Sorley Boy landed at +Cushendun in January 1585, and his followers regained possession of +Dunluce Castle. In these circumstances Sir John Perrot opened +negotiations with Sorley Boy, who in the summer of 1586 repaired to +Dublin and made submission to Elizabeth's representative. He obtained a +grant to himself and his heirs of all the Route country between the +rivers Bann and Bush, with certain other lands to the east, and was made +constable of Dunluce Castle, For the rest of his life Sorley Boy gave no +trouble to the English government. He died in 1590, and was buried in +Bonamairgy Abbey, at Ballycastle. He is said to have married when over +eighty years of age, as his second wife, a daughter of Turlough Luineach +O'Neill, a kinswoman of his first wife; and two of his five daughters +married members of the O'Neill family. Sorley Boy had several sons by +his first marriage, one of whom, Randal, was created earl of Antrim +(q.v.), and was ancestor of the present holder of that title. + + See G. Hill, _An Historical Account of the Macdonnells of Antrim_ + (London, 1873); Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_ (3 vols., + London, 1885-1890); _Calendar of State Papers: Carew MSS._ i., ii., (6 + vols., 1867-1873); Donald Gregory, _History of the Western Highlands + and Isles of Scotland_ 1493-1625 (London, 1881); Sir J. T. Gilbert, + _History of the Viceroys of Ireland_ (Dublin, 1865). (R. J. M.) + + + + +MACDONOUGH, THOMAS (1786-1825), American sailor, was born in the state +of Delaware, his father being an officer of the Continental Army, and +entered the United States navy in 1800. During his long service as a +lieutenant he took part in the bombardment of Tripoli, and on a +subsequent occasion showed great firmness in resisting the seizure of a +seaman as an alleged deserter from the British navy, his ship at the +time lying under the guns of Gibraltar. When war with England broke out, +in 1812, he was ordered to cruise in the lakes between Canada and the +United States, with his headquarters on lake Champlain. He was +instrumental in saving New York and Vermont from invasion by his +brilliant victory of lake Champlain gained, on the 11th of September +1814, with a flotilla of 14 vessels carrying 86 guns, over Captain +George Downie's 16 vessels and 92 guns. For this important achievement +New York and Vermont granted him estates, whilst Congress gave him a +gold medal. + + + + +MacDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER (1861-1908), American musical composer, was +born in New York City on the 18th of December 1861. His father, an +Irishman of Belfast, had emigrated to America shortly before the boy's +birth. He had a varied education in music, first under Spanish-American +teachers, and then in Europe, at Paris (Debussy being a fellow pupil), +Stuttgart, Wiesbaden and Weimar, where he was chiefly influenced by +Joachim, Raff and Liszt. From 1879 to 1887 he lived in Germany, teaching +and studying, and also appearing as solo pianist at important concerts. +In 1884 he married Marian Nevins, of New York. In 1888 he returned to +America, and settled in Boston till in 1896 he was made professor of +music at Columbia University, New York. He resigned this post in 1904, +and in 1905 overwork and insomnia resulted in a complete cerebral +collapse. He died on the 24th of January 1908. MacDowell's work gives +him perhaps the highest place among American composers. Deeply +influenced by modern French models and by German romanticism, full of +poetry and "atmosphere," and founded on the "programme," idea of +composition, it is essentially creative in the spirit of a searcher +after delicate truths of artistic expression. His employment of touches +of American folk-song, suggested by Indian themes, is characteristic. +This is notably the case with his orchestral _Indian Suite_ (1896) and +_Woodland Sketches_ for the piano. His first concerto, in A minor, for +piano and orchestra, and first pianoforte suite, were performed at +Weimar in 1882. His works include orchestral suites and "poems," songs, +choruses, and various pieces for pianoforte, his own instrument; they +are numbered from _op._ 9 to _op._ 62, his first eight numbered works +being destroyed by him. + + See Lawrence Gilman, _Edward MacDowell_ (1906). + + + + +McDOWELL, IRVIN (1818-1885), American soldier, was born in Columbus, +Ohio, on the 15th of October 1818. He was educated in France, and +graduated at the U. S. military academy in 1838. From 1841 to 1845 he +was instructor, and later adjutant, at West Point. He won the brevet of +captain in the Mexican War, at the battle of Buena Vista, and served as +adjutant-general, chiefly at Washington, until 1861, being promoted +major in 1856. In 1858-1859 he visited Europe. Whilst occupied in +mustering volunteers at the capital, he was made brigadier-general in +May 1861, and placed in command during the premature Virginian campaign +of July, which ended in the defeat at Bull Run. Under McClellan he +became a corps commander and major-general of volunteers (March 1862). +When the Peninsular campaign began McDowell's corps was detained against +McClellan's wishes, sent away to join in the fruitless chase of +"Stonewall" Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, and eventually came under +the command of General Pope, taking part in the disastrous campaign of +Second Bull Run. Involved in Pope's disgrace, McDowell was relieved of +duty in the field (Sept. 1862), and served on the Pacific coast 1864-68. +He became, on Meade's death in November 1872, major-general of regulars +(a rank which he already held by brevet), and commanded successively the +department of the east, the division of the south, and the division of +the Pacific until his retirement in 1882. The latter years of his life +were spent in California, and he died at San Francisco on the 4th of May +1885. As a commander he was uniformly unfortunate. Undoubtedly he was a +faithful, unselfish and energetic soldier, in patriotic sympathy with +the administration, and capable of great achievements. It was his +misfortune to be associated with the first great disaster to the Union +cause, to play the part of D'Erlon at Quatre-Bras between the armies of +Banks and McClellan, and finally to be involved in the catastrophe of +Pope's campaign. That he was perhaps too ready to accept great risks at +the instance of his superiors is the only just criticism to which his +military character was open. + + + + +MACDUFF, a police burgh and seaport of Banffshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1001), 3431. It lies on the right bank of the mouth of the Deveron, 1 +m. E. of Banff and 50¼ m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of +Scotland railway. The site was originally occupied by the fishing +village of Doune, but after its purchase by the 1st earl of Fife, about +1732, the name was altered to Macduff by the 2nd earl, who also procured +for it in 1783 a royal charter constituting it a burgh. In honour of the +occasion he rebuilt the market cross, in front of the parish church. The +harbour, safer and more accessible than that of Banff, was constructed +by the duke of Fife, and transferred to the burgh in 1808. The +inhabitants are chiefly employed in the herring fishery, but there is +some boat-building, besides rope-and-sail making, manure works, +saw-mills and oilcake mills. A stone bridge across the Deveron +communicates with Banff. Good bathing facilities, a bracing climate and +a mineral well attract numerous visitors to Macduff every summer. The +burgh unites with Banff, Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie, Kintore and Peterhead +(the Elgin burghs) in returning one member to parliament. + + + + +McDUFFIE, GEORGE (1788-1851), American political leader, was born in +Columbia county, Georgia. He Was admitted to the bar in 1814, and served +in the South Carolina General Assembly in 1818-1821, and in the national +House of Representatives in 1821-1834. In 1821 he published a pamphlet +in which strict construction and states' rights were strongly denounced; +yet in 1832 there were few more uncompromising nullificationists. The +change seems to have been gradual, and to have been determined in part +by the influence of John C. Calhoun. When, after 1824, the old +Democratic-Republican party split into factions, he followed Andrew +Jackson and Martin Van Buren in opposing the Panama Congress and the +policy of making Federal appropriations for internal improvements. He +did not hesitate, however, to differ from Jackson on the two chief +issues of his administration: the Bank and nullification. In 1832 he was +a prominent member of the South Carolina Nullification Convention, and +drafted its address to the people of the United States. He served as +governor in 1834-1836, during which time he helped to reorganize South +Carolina College. From January 1843 until January 1846 he was a member +of the United States Senate. The leading Democratic measures of those +years all received his hearty support. McDuffie, like Calhoun, became an +eloquent champion of state sovereignty; but while Calhoun emphasized +state action as the only means of redressing a grievance, McDuffie paid +more attention to the grievance itself. Influenced in large measure by +Thomas Cooper, he made it his special work to convince the people of the +South that the downfall of protection was essential to their material +progress. His argument that it is the producer who really pays the duty +of imports has been called the economic basis of nullification. He died +at Cherry Hill, Sumter district, South Carolina, on the 11th of March +1851. + + + + +MACE (Fr. _masse_, O. Fr. _mace_, connected with Lat. _mateola_, a +mallet), originally a weapon of offence, made of iron, steel or latten, +capable of breaking through the strongest armour.[1] The earliest +_ceremonial_ maces, as they afterwards became, though at first intended +to protect the king's person, were those borne by the serjeants-at-arms, +a royal body-guard established in France by Philip II., and in England +probably by Richard I. By the 14th century a tendency towards a more +decorative serjeant's mace, encased with precious metals, is noticeable. +The history of the civic mace (carried by the serjeants-at-mace) begins +about the middle of the 13th century, though no examples of that period +are in existence to-day. Ornamented civic maces were considered an +infringement of one of the privileges of the king's serjeants, who, +according to the Commons' petition in 1344, were alone deemed worthy of +having maces enriched with costly metals. This privilege was, however, +granted to the serjeants of London, and later to those of York (in +1396), Norwich (in 1403/4) and Chester (in 1506). Maces covered with +silver are known to have been used at Exeter in 1387/8; two were bought +at Norwich in 1435, and others for Launceston in 1467/8. Several other +cities and towns had silver maces in the next century, and in the 16th +they were almost universally used. Early in the 15th century the flanged +end of the mace, i.e. the head of the war mace, was borne uppermost, and +the small button with the royal arms in the base. By the beginning of +the Tudor period, however, these blade-like flanges, originally made for +offence, degenerated into mere ornaments, while the greater importance +of the end with the royal arms (afterwards enriched with a cresting) +resulted in the reversal of the position. The custom of carrying the +flanged end upward did not die out at once: a few maces were made to +carry both ways, such as the beautiful pair of Winchcombe silver maces, +dating from the end of the 15th century. The Guildford mace is one of +the finest of the fifteen specimens of the 15th century. The flanged +ends of the maces of this period were often beautifully pierced and +decorated. These flanges gradually became smaller, and later (in the +16th and early 17th centuries) developed into pretty projecting +scroll-brackets and other ornaments, which remained in vogue till about +1640. The next development in the embellishment of the shaft was the +reappearance of these small scroll-brackets on the top, immediately +under the head of the mace. They disappear altogether from the foot in +the last half of the 17th century, and are found only under the heads, +or, in rarer instances, on a knob on the shaft. The silver mace-heads +were mostly plain, with a cresting of leaves or flowers in the 15th and +16th centuries. In the reign of James I. they began to be engraved and +decorated with heraldic devices, &c. As the custom of having serjeants' +maces ceased (about 1650), the large maces, borne before the mayor or +bailiffs, came into general use. Thomas Maundy was the chief maker of +maces during the Commonwealth. He made the mace for the House of Commons +in 1649, which is the one at present in use there, though without the +original head with the non-regal symbols, the latter having been +replaced by one with regal symbols at the Restoration. There are two +maces in the House of Lords, the earliest dating from the reign of +William III. The dates of the eight large and massive silver-gilt maces +of the serjeants-at-arms, kept in the jewel-house at the Tower of +London, are as follows: two of Charles II., two of James II., three of +William and Mary, and one of Queen Anne (the cypher of George I. was +subsequently added to the latter). All the foregoing are of the type +which was almost universally adopted, with slight differences, at the +Restoration. The civic maces of the 18th century follow this type, with +some modifications in shape and ornamentation. The historic English +silver maces of the 18th century include the one of 1753 at Norfolk, +Virginia, and that of 1756 of the state of South Carolina, both in the +United States of America; two, made in 1753 and 1787, at Jamaica; that +of 1791 belonging to the colony of Grenada, and the Speaker's mace at +Barbados, dating from 1812; and the silver mace of the old Irish House +of Commons, 1765-1766, now in the possession of Lord Massereene and +Ferrard. + +[Illustration: From Jewitt and Hope's _Corporation Plate and Insignia_ +(1895), by permission of Bemrose & Co. + +FIG. 1.--Group of War Maces of the 15th and 16th centuries.] + +[Illustration: From Jewitt and Hope's _Corporation Plate and Insignia_ +(1895), by permission of Bemrose & Co. + +FIG. 2.--Mace of the House of Commons.] + +Among other maces, more correctly described as staves, in use at the +present time, are those carried before ecclesiastical dignitaries and +clergy in cathedrals and parish churches and the maces of the +universities. At Oxford there are three of the second half of the 16th +century and six of 1723-1724, while at Cambridge there are three of 1626 +and one of 1628, but altered at the Commonwealth and again at the +Restoration. The silver mace with crystal globe of the lord high +treasurer of Scotland, at Holyrood Palace, was made about 1690 by +Francis Garthorne. The remarkable mace or sceptre of the lord mayor of +London is of crystal and gold and set with pearls; the head dates from +the 15th century, while the mounts of the shaft are early medieval. A +mace of an unusual form is that of the Tower ward of London, which has a +head resembling the White Tower in the Tower of London, and which was +made in the reign of Charles II. The beautiful mace of the Cork gilds, +made by Robert Goble of Cork in 1696 for the associated gilds, of which +he had been master, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, where there is +also a large silver mace of the middle of the 18th century, with the +arms of Pope Benedict XIV., which is said to have been used at the +coronation of Napoleon as king of Italy at Milan in 1805. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Jewitt and Hope, _Corporation Plate and Insignia of + Office_, &c. (2 vols., 1895); J. R. Garstin, _Irish State and Civic + Maces_, &c. (1898); J. Paton, _Scottish History and Life_ (1902); J. + H. Buck, _Old Plate_ (1903), pp. 124-140; Cripps, _Old English Plate_ + (9th ed., 1906), pp. 394-404; E. Alfred Jones, _Old Plate at the Tower + of London_ (1908); ed., "Some Historic Silver Maces," _Burlington + Magazine_ (Dec. 1908). (E. A. J.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The mace was carried in battle by medieval bishops (Odo of Bayeux + is represented on the Bayeux tapestry as wielding one) instead of the + sword, so as to conform to the canonical rule which forbade priests + to shed blood.--[ED.] + + + + +MACEDO, JOSÉ AGOSTINHO DE (1761-1831), Portuguese poet and prose writer, +was born at Beja of plebeian family, and studied Latin and rhetoric with +the Oratorians in Lisbon. He became professed as an Augustinian in 1778, +but owing to his turbulent character he spent a great part of his time +in prison, and was constantly being transferred from one convent to +another, finally giving up the monastic habit to live licentiously in +the capital. In 1792 he was unfrocked, but by the aid of powerful +friends he obtained a papal brief which secularized him and permitted +him to retain his ecclesiastical status. Taking to journalism and +preaching he now made for himself a substantial living and a unique +position. In a short time he was recognized as the leading pulpit orator +of the day, and in 1802 he became one of the royal preachers. Macedo was +the first to introduce from abroad and to cultivate didactic and +descriptive poetry, the best example of which is his notable +transcendental poem _Meditation_ (1813). His colossal egotism made him +attempt to supersede Camoens as Portugal's greatest poet, and in 1814 he +produced _Oriente_, an insipid epic notwithstanding its correct and +vigorous verse, dealing with the same subject as the _Lusiads_--Gama's +discovery of the sea route to India. This amended paraphrase met with a +cold reception, whereupon Macedo published his _Censura dos Lusiadas_, +containing a minute examination and virulent indictment of Camoens. +Macedo founded and wrote for a large number of journals, and the tone +and temper of these and his political pamphlets induced his leading +biographer to name him the "chief libeller" of Portugal, though at the +time his jocular and satirical style gained him popular favour. An +extreme adherent of absolutism, he expended all his brilliant powers of +invective against the Constitutionalists, and advocated a general +massacre of the opponents of the Miguelite regime. Notwithstanding his +priestly office and old age, he continued his aggressive journalistic +campaign, until his own party, feeling that he was damaging the cause by +his excesses, threatened him with proceedings, which caused him in 1829 +to resign the post of censor of books for the Ordinary, to which he had +been appointed in 1824. Though his ingratitude was proverbial, and his +moral character of the worst, when he died in 1831 he left behind him +many friends, a host of admirers, and a great but ephemeral literary +reputation. His ambition to rank as the king of letters led to his +famous conflict with Bocage (q.v.), whose poem _Pena de Talião_ was +perhaps the hardest blow Macedo ever received. His malignity reached its +height in a satirical poem in six cantos, _Os Burros_ (1812-1814), in +which he pilloried by name men and women of all grades of society, +living and dead, with the utmost licence of expression. His translation +of the _Odes_ of Horace, and his dramatic attempts, are only of value as +evidence of the extraordinary versatility of the man, but his treatise, +if his it be, _A Demonstration of the Existence of God_, at least proves +his possession of very high mental powers. As a poet, his odes on +Wellington and the emperor Alexander show true inspiration, and the +poems of the same nature in his _Lyra anacreontica_, addressed to his +mistress, have considerable merit. + + See _Memorias para la vida intima de José Agostinho de Macedo_ (ed. + Th. Braga, 1899); _Cartas e opusculos_ (1900); _Censuras á diversas + obras_ (1901). (E. Pr.) + + + + +MACEDONIA, the name generally given to that portion of European Turkey +which is bounded on the N. by the Kara-Dagh mountain range and the +frontier of Bulgaria, on the E. by the river Mesta, on the S. by the +Aegean Sea and the frontier of Greece, and on the W. by an ill-defined +line coinciding with the mountain chains of Shar (ancient _Scardus_) +Grammus and Pindus. The Macedonia of antiquity was originally confined +to the inland region west of the Axius, between that river and the +Scardus range, and did not include the northern portion, known as +Paeonia, or the coast-land, which, with the eastern districts, was +inhabited by Thracian tribes; the people of the country were not +Hellenic. In modern Macedonia are included the viláyet of Salonica +(Turk. _Selanik_), the eastern and greater portion of the viláyet of +Monastir (sanjaks of Monastir, Servia [Turk. _Selfijé_], and part of +that of Kortcha), and the south-eastern portion of the viláyet of +Kossovo (sanjak of Usküb). The greater part of Macedonia is inhabited by +a Slavonic population, mainly Bulgarian in its characteristics; the +coast-line and the southern districts west of the Gulf of Salonica by +Greeks, while Turkish, Vlach and Albanian settlements exist +sporadically, or in groups, in many parts of the country. + + _Geographical Features._--The coast-line is broken by the remarkable + peninsula of Chalcidice, with its three promontories of Athos (ancient + _Acte_), Longus (_Sithonia_) and Cassandra (_Pallene_). The country is + divided into two almost equal portions by the river Vardar (_Axius_), + the valley of which has always constituted the principal route from + Central Europe to the Aegean. Rising in the Shar mountains near + Gostivar (Bulgarian _Kostovo_), the Vardar, flowing to the N.E., + drains the rich elevated plain of Tetovo (Turk. _Kalkandelen_) and, + turning to the S.E. at the foot of Mt Liubotrn, traverses the town and + plain of Usküb, leaving to the left the high plateau of Ovchepolye + ("the sheep-plain"); then flowing through the town of Veles, it + receives on its right, near the ruins of the ancient Stobi, the waters + of its principal tributary, the Tcherna (_Erigon_), which drains the + basin of Monastir and the mountainous region of Morichovo, and after + passing through the picturesque gorge of Demir-Kapu (the Iron Gate) + finds its way to the Gulf of Salonica through the alluvial tract known + as the Campania, extending to the west of that town. The other + important rivers are the Struma (_Strymon_) and Mesta (_Nestus_) to + the east, running almost parallel to the Vardar, and the Bistritza in + the south, all falling into the Aegean. (The Black Drin, issuing from + Lake Ochrida and flowing N.W. to the Adriatic, is for the greater part + of its course an Albanian river.) The Struma, which rises in Mt + Vitosha in Bulgaria, runs through a narrow defile till, within a short + distance of the sea, it expands into Lake Tachino, and falls into the + Aegean near the site of the ancient Amphipolis. The Mesta, rising in + the Rhodope range, drains the valley of Razlog and forms a delta at + its entrance into the Aegean opposite the island of Thasos. The + Bistritza, which has its source in the eastern slope of Mt Grammus, + receives early in its course the outflow from Lake Castoria on the + left; it flows to the S.E. towards the frontier of Greece, where its + course is arrested by the Cambunian mountains; then turning sharply to + the N.E., and passing through the districts of Serfije and Verria, it + reaches the Campania and enters the Gulf of Salonica at a point a few + miles to the S.W. of the mouth of the Vardar. The valleys of most of + the rivers and their tributaries broaden here and there into fertile + upland basins, which were formerly lakes. Of these the extensive + plateau of Monastir, the ancient plain of Pelagonia, about 1500 ft. + above the sea, is the most remarkable; the basins of Tetovo, Usküb, + Kotchané, Strumnitza, Nevrokop, Melnik, Serres and Drama furnish other + examples. The principal lakes are Ochrida (_Lychnitis_) on the + confines of Albania; Prespa, separated from Ochrida by the Galinitza + mountains, and supposed to be connected with it by a subterranean + channel; Castoria, to the S.E. of Prespa; Ostrovo, midway between + Prespa and the Vardar; Tachino (_Cercinitis_) on the lower course of + the Struma; Beshik (_Bolbe_), separating the Chalcidian peninsula from + the mainland, and Doiran (probably _Prasias_), beneath the southern + declivity of the Belasitza mountains; the smaller lakes of Amatovo and + Yenije are in the alluvial plain on either side of the lower Vardar. + Lake Ochrida (q.v.) finds egress into the Black Drin (_Drilon_) at + Struga, where there are productive fisheries. The lacustrine + habitations of the Paeonians on Lake Prasias described by Herodotus + (v. 16) find a modern counterpart in the huts of the fishing + population on Lake Doiran. The surface of the country is generally + mountainous; the various mountain-groups present little uniformity in + their geographical contour. The great chain of Rhodope, continued to + the N.W. by the Rilska and Osogovska Planina, forms a natural boundary + on the north; the principal summit, Musalla (9031 ft.), is just over + the Bulgarian frontier. The adjoining Dospat range culminates in + Belmeken (8562 ft.), also just over the Bulgarian frontier. Between + the upper courses of the Mesta and Struma is the Perim Dagh or Pirin + Planina (_Orbelos_) with Elin (8794 ft.), continued to the south by + the Bozo Dagh (6081 ft.); still further south, overlooking the bay of + Kavala, are the Bunar Dagh and Mt Pangaeus, famous in antiquity for + its gold and silver mines. Between the Struma and the Vardar are the + Belasitza, Krusha and other ranges. West of the Vardar is the lofty + Shar chain (_Scardus_) overlooking the plain of Tetovo and terminating + at its eastern extremity in the pyramidal Liubotrn (according to some + authorities, 10,007 ft., and consequently the highest mountain in the + Peninsula; according to others 8989, 8856, or 8200 ft.). The Shar + range, with the Kara Dagh to the east, forms the natural boundary of + Macedonia on the N.W.; this is prolonged on the west by the + Yaina-Bistra and Yablanitza mountains with several summits exceeding + 7000 ft. in height, the Odonishta Planina overlooking Lake Ochrida on + the west, the Morova Planina, the Grammus range, and Pindus with + Smolika (8546 ft.). The series of heights is broken by the valleys of + the Black Drin and Devol, which flow to the Adriatic. Between the + Vardar and the plain of Monastir the Nija range culminates in + Kaimakchalan (8255 ft.); south-west of Monastir is Mt Peristeri (7720 + ft.) overlooking Lake Prespa on the east; on the west is the Galinitza + range separating it from Lake Ochrida. Between Lake Ostrovo and the + lower Bistritza are the Bermius and Kitarion ranges with Doxa (5240 + ft.) and Turla (about 3280 ft.). South of the Bistritza are the + Cambunian mountains forming the boundary of Thessaly and terminating + to the east in the imposing mass of Etymbos, or Olympus (9794 ft.). + Lastly, Mt Athos, at the extremity of the peninsula of that name, + reaches the height of 6350 ft. The general aspect of the country is + bare and desolate, especially in the neighbourhood of the principal + routes; the trees have been destroyed, and large tracts of land remain + uncultivated. Magnificent forests, however, still clothe the slopes of + Rhodope, Pirin and Pindus. The well-wooded and cultivated districts of + Grevena and Castoria, which are mainly inhabited by a Vlach + population, are remarkably beautiful, and the scenery around Lakes + Ochrida and Prespa is exceedingly picturesque. For the principal + geological formations see BALKAN PENINSULA. + + The climate is severe; the spring is often rainy, and the melted snows + from the encircling mountains produce inundations in the plains. The + natural products are in general similar to those of southern Bulgaria + and Servia--the fig, olive and orange, however, appear on the shores + of the Aegean and in the sheltered valleys of the southern region. The + best tobacco in Europe is grown in the Drama and Kavala districts; + rice and cotton are cultivated in the southern plains. + + _Population._--The population of Macedonia may perhaps be estimated at + 2,200,000. About 1,300,000 are Christians of various churches and + nationalities; more than 800,000 are Mahommedans, and about 75,000 are + Jews. Of the Christians, the great majority profess the Eastern + Orthodox faith, owning allegiance either to the Greek patriarchate or + the Bulgarian exarchate. Among the Orthodox Christians are reckoned + some 4000 Turks. The small Catholic minority is composed chiefly of + Uniate Bulgarians (about 3600), occupying the districts of Kukush and + Doiran; there are also some 2000 Bulgarian Protestants, principally + inhabiting the valley of Razlog. The Mahommedan population is mainly + composed of Turks (about 500,000). In addition to these there are some + 130,000 Bulgars, 120,000 Albanians, 35,000 gipsies and 14,000 Greeks, + together with a smaller number of Vlachs, Jews and Circassians, who + profess the creed of Islam. The untrustworthy Turkish statistics take + religion, not nationality, as the basis of classification. All Moslems + are included in the _millet_, or nation, of Islam. The Rum, or Roman + (i.e. Greek) _millet_ comprises all those who acknowledge the + authority of the Oecumenical patriarch, and consequently includes, in + addition to the Greeks, the Servians, the Vlachs, and a certain number + of Bulgarians; the Bulgar _millet_ comprises the Bulgarians who accept + the rule of the exarchate; the other _millets_ are the _Katolik_ + (Catholics), _Ermeni_ (Gregorian Armenians), _Musevi_ (Jews) and + _Prodesdan_ (Protestants). The population of Macedonia, at all times + scanty, has undoubtedly diminished in recent years. There has been a + continual outflow of the Christian population in the direction of + Bulgaria, Servia and Greece, and a corresponding emigration of the + Turkish peasantry to Asia Minor. Many of the smaller villages are + being abandoned by their inhabitants, who migrate for safety to the + more considerable towns--usually situated at some point where a + mountain pass descends to the outskirts of the plains. In the + agricultural districts the Christian peasants, or _rayas_, are either + small proprietors or cultivate holdings on the estates of Turkish + landowners. The upland districts are thinly inhabited by a nomad + pastoral population. + + _Towns._--The principal towns are Salonica (pop. in 1910, about + 130,000), Monastir (60,000), each the capital of a viláyet, and Usküb + (32,000), capital of the viláyet of Kossovo. In the Salonica viláyet + are Serres (28,000), pleasantly situated in a fertile valley near Lake + Tachino; Nevrokop (6200), Mehomia (5000), and Bansko (6500), in the + valley of the Upper Mesta; Drama (9000), at the foot of the Bozo Dagh, + with its port Kavala (9500); Djumaia (6440), Melnik (4300) and Demir + Hissar (5840) in the valley of the Struma, with Strumnitza (10,160) + and Petrich (7100) in the valley of its tributary, the Strumnitza; + Veles (Turk. _Koprülü_) on the Vardar (19,700); Doiran (6780) and + Kukush (7750); and, to the west of the Vardar, Verria (Slav. _Ber_, + anc. _Beroea_, Turk. _Karaferia_, 10,500), Yenijé-Vardar (9599) and + Vodena (anc. _Edessa_, q.v., 11,000). In the portion of the Kossovo + viláyet included in Macedonia are Kalkandelen (Slav. _Tetovo_, + 19,200), Kumanovo (14,500) and Shtip (Turk. _Istib_, 21,000). In the + Monastir viláyet are Prilep (24,000) at the northern end of the + Pelagonian plain, Krushevo (9350), mainly inhabited by Vlachs, Resen + (4450) north of Lake Prespa, Florina (Slav. _Lerin_, 9824); Ochrida + (14,860), with a picturesque fortress of Tsar Samuel, and Struga + (4570), both on the north shore of Lake Ochrida; Dibra (Slav. _Debr_) + on the confines of Albania (15,500), Castoria (Slav. _Kostur_), on the + lake of that name (6190), and Kozhané (6100). (Dibra, Kavala, + Monastir, Ochrida, Salonica, Serres, Usküb and Vodena are described in + separate articles.) + + + The Turks. + +_Races._--Macedonia is the principal theatre of the struggle of +nationalities in Eastern Europe. All the races which dispute the +reversion of the Turkish possessions in Europe are represented within +its borders. The Macedonian probably may therefore be described as the +quintessence of the Near Eastern Question. The Turks, the ruling race, +form less than a quarter of the entire population, and their numbers are +steadily declining. The first Turkish immigration from Asia Minor took +place under the Byzantine emperors before the conquest of the country. +The first purely Turkish town, Yenijé-Vardar, was founded on the ruins +of Vardar in 1362. After the capture of Salonica (1430), a strong +Turkish population was settled in the city, and similar colonies were +founded in Monastir, Ochrida, Serres, Drama and other important places. +In many of these towns half or more of the population is still Turkish. +A series of military colonies were subsequently established at various +points of strategic importance along the principal lines of +communication. Before 1360 large numbers of nomad shepherds, or Yuruks, +from the district of Konia, in Asia Minor, had settled in the country; +their descendants are still known as Konariotes. Further immigration +from this region took place from time to time up to the middle of the +18th century. After the establishment of the feudal system in 1397 many +of the Seljuk noble families came over from Asia Minor; their +descendants may be recognized among the beys or Moslem landowners in +southern Macedonia. At the beginning of the 18th century the Turkish +population was very considerable, but since that time it has +continuously decreased. A low birth-rate, the exhaustion of the male +population by military service, and great mortality from epidemics, +against which Moslem fatalism takes no precautions, have brought about a +decline which has latterly been hastened by emigration. On the other +hand, there has been a considerable Moslem immigration from Bosnia, +Servia, Bulgaria and Greece, but the newcomers, _mohajirs_, do not form +a permanent colonizing element. The Turkish rural population is found in +three principal groups: the most easterly extends from the Mesta to +Drama, Pravishta and Orfano, reaching the sea-coast on either side of +Kavala, which is partly Turkish, partly Greek. The second, or central, +group begins on the sea-coast, a little west of the mouth of the +Strymon, where a Greek population intervenes, and extends to the +north-west along the Kara-Dagh and Belasitza ranges in the direction of +Strumnitza, Veles, Shtip and Radovisht. The third, or southern, group is +centred around Kaïlar, an entirely Turkish town, and extends from Lake +Ostrovo to Selfijé (Servia). The second and third groups are mainly +composed of Konariot shepherds. Besides these fairly compact settlements +there are numerous isolated Turkish colonies in various parts of the +country. The Turkish rural population is quiet, sober and orderly, +presenting some of the best characteristics of the race. The urban +population, on the other hand, has become much demoralized, while the +official classes, under the rule of Abdul Hamid II. and his +predecessors, were corrupt and avaricious, and seemed to have parted +with all scruple in their dealings with the Christian peasantry. The +Turks, though still numerically and politically strong, fall behind the +other nationalities in point of intellectual culture, and the contrast +is daily becoming more marked owing to the educational activity of the +Christians. + + + The Greeks and Vlachs. + +The Greek and Vlach populations are not always easily distinguished, as +a considerable proportion of the Vlachs have been hellenized. Both show +a remarkable aptitude for commerce; the Greeks have maintained their +language and religion, and the Vlachs their religion, with greater +tenacity than any of the other races. From the date of the Ottoman +conquest until comparatively recent times, the Greeks occupied an +exceptional position in Macedonia, as elsewhere in the Turkish Empire, +owing to the privileges conferred on the patriarchate of Constantinople, +and the influence subsequently acquired by the great Phanariot families. +All the Christian population belonged to the Greek _millet_ and called +itself Greek; the bishops and higher clergy were exclusively Greek; +Greek was the language of the upper classes, of commerce, literature and +religion, and Greek alone was taught in the schools. The supremacy of +the patriarchate was consummated by the suppression of the autocephalous +Slavonic churches of Ipek in 1766 and Ochrida in 1767. In the latter +half of the 18th century Greek ascendancy in Macedonia was at its +zenith; its decline began with the War of Independence, the +establishment of the Hellenic kingdom, and the extinction of the +Phanariot power in Constantinople. The patriarchate, nevertheless, +maintained its exclusive jurisdiction over all the Orthodox population +till 1870, when the Bulgarian exarchate was established, and the Greek +clergy continued to labour with undiminished zeal for the spread of +Hellenism. Notwithstanding their venality and intolerance, their merits +as the only diffusers of culture and enlightenment in the past should +not be overlooked. The process of hellenization made greater progress in +the towns than in the rural districts of the interior, where the +non-Hellenic populations preserved their languages, which alone saved +the several nationalities from extinction. The typical Greek, with his +superior education, his love of politics and commerce, and his distaste +for laborious occupations, has always been a dweller in cities. In +Salonica, Serres, Kavala, Castoria, and other towns in southern +Macedonia the Hellenic element is strong; in the northern towns it is +insignificant, except at Melnik, which is almost exclusively Greek. The +Greek rural population extends from the Thessalian frontier to Castoria +and Verria (_Beroea_); it occupies the whole Chalcidian peninsula and +both banks of the lower Strymon from Serres to the sea, and from Nigrita +on the west to Pravishta on the east; there are also numerous Greek +villages in the Kavala district. The Mahommedan Greeks, known as +Valachides, occupy a considerable tract in the upper Bistritza valley +near Grevena and Liapsista. The purely Greek population of Macedonia may +possibly be estimated at a quarter of a million. The Vlachs, or Rumans, +who call themselves _Aromuni_ or _Aromâni_ (i.e. Romans), are also known +as _Kutzovlachs_ and _Tzintzars_: the last two appellations are, in +fact, nicknames, "Kutzovlach" meaning "lame Vlach," while "Tzintzar" +denotes their inability to pronounce the Rumanian _cinci_ (five). The +Vlachs are styled by some writers "Macedo-Rumans," in contradistinction +to the "Daco-Rumans," who inhabit the country north of the Danube. They +are, in all probability, the descendants of the Thracian branch of the +aboriginal Thraco-Illyrian population of the Balkan Peninsula, the +Illyrians being represented by the Albanians. This early native +population, which was apparently hellenized to some extent under the +Macedonian empire, seems to have been latinized in the period succeeding +the Roman conquest, and probably received a considerable infusion of +Italian blood. The Vlachs are for the most part either highland +shepherds or wandering owners of horses and mules. Their settlements are +scattered all over the mountains of Macedonia: some of these consist of +permanent dwellings, others of huts occupied only in the summer. The +compactest groups are found in the Pindus and Agrapha mountains +(extending into Albania and Thessaly), in the neighbourhood of Monastir, +Grevena and Castoria, and in the district of Meglen. The Vlachs who +settle in the lowland districts are excellent husbandmen. The urban +population is considerable; the Vlachs of Salonica, Monastir, Serres and +other large towns are, for the most part, descended from refugees from +Moschopolis, once the principal centre of Macedonian commerce. The towns +of Metzovo, on the confines of Albania, and Klisura, in the Bistritza +valley, are almost exclusively Vlach. The urban and most of the rural +Vlachs are bilingual, speaking Greek as well as Rumanian; a great number +of the former have been completely hellenized, partly in consequence of +mixed marriages, and many of the wealthiest commercial families of Vlach +origin are now devoted to the Greek cause. The Vlachs of Macedonia +possibly number 90,000, of whom only some 3000 are Mahommedans. The +Macedonian dialect of the Rumanian language differs mainly from that +spoken north of the Danube in its vocabulary and certain phonetic +peculiarities; it contains a number of Greek words which are often +replaced in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin synonyms. + + + The Albanians, Circassians, &c. + +The Albanians, called by the Turks and Slavs _Arnauts_, by the Greeks +[Greek: Apbanitai], and by themselves _Shkyipetar_, have always been the +scourge of western Macedonia. After the first Turkish invasion of +Albania many of the chiefs or beys adopted Mahommedanism, but the +conversion of the great bulk of the people took place in the 16th and +17th centuries. Professing the creed of the dominant power and entitled +to bear arms, the Albanians were enabled to push forward their limits at +the expense of the defenceless population around them, and their +encroachments have continued to the present day. They have not only +advanced themselves, but have driven to the eastward numbers of their +Christian compatriots and a great portion of the once-prosperous Vlach +population of Albania. Albanian revolts and disturbances have been +frequent along the western confines of Macedonia, especially in the +neighbourhood of Dibra: the Slavonic peasants have been the principal +sufferers from these troubles, while the Porte, in pursuance of the +"Islamic policy" adopted by the sultan Abdul Hamid II., dealt tenderly +with the recalcitrant believers. In southern Macedonia the Albanians of +the Tosk race extend over the upper Bistritza valley as far west as +Castoria, and reach the southern and western shores of Lakes Prespa and +Ochrida: they are also numerous in the neighbourhood of Monastir. In +northern Macedonia the Albanians are of the Gheg stock: they have +advanced in large numbers over the districts of Dibra, Kalkandelen and +Usküb, driving the Slavonic population before them. The total number of +Albanians in Macedonia may be estimated at about 120,000, of whom some +10,000 are Christians (chiefly orthodox Tosks). The Circassians, who +occupy some villages in the neighbourhood of Serres, now scarcely number +3000: their predatory instincts may be compared with those of the +Albanians. The Jews had colonies in Macedonia in the time of St Paul, +but no trace remains of these early settlements. The Jews now found in +the country descend from refugees who fled from Spain during the +persecutions at the end of the 15th century: they speak a dialect of +Spanish, which they write with Hebrew characters. They form a +flourishing community at Salonica, which numbers more than half the +population: their colonies at Monastir, Serres and other towns are poor. +A small proportion of the Jews, known as _Deunmé_ by the Turks, have +embraced Mahommedanism. + + + The Slavonic Population. + +With the exception of the southern and western districts already +specified, the principal towns, and certain isolated tracts, the whole +of Macedonia is inhabited by a race or races speaking a Slavonic +dialect. If language is adopted as a test, the great bulk of the rural +population must be described as Slavonic. The Slavs first crossed the +Danube at the beginning of the 3rd century, but their great immigration +took place in the 6th and 7th centuries. They overran the entire +peninsula, driving the Greeks to the shores of the Aegean, the Albanians +into the Mirdite country, and the latinized population of Macedonia into +the highland districts, such as Pindus, Agrapha and Olympus. The Slavs, +a primitive agricultural and pastoral people, were often unsuccessful in +their attacks on the fortified towns, which remained centres of +Hellenism. In the outlying parts of the peninsula they were absorbed, or +eventually driven back, by the original populations, but in the central +region they probably assimilated a considerable proportion of the +latinized races. The western portions of the peninsula were occupied by +Serb and Slovene tribes: the Slavs of the eastern and central portions +were conquered at the end of the 7th century by the Bulgarians, a +Ugro-Finnish horde, who established a despotic political organization, +but being less numerous than the subjected race were eventually absorbed +by it. The Mongolian physical type, which prevails in the districts +between the Balkans and the Danube, is also found in central Macedonia, +and may be recognized as far west as Ochrida and Dibra. In general, +however, the Macedonian Slavs differ somewhat both in appearance and +character from their neighbours beyond the Bulgarian and Servian +frontiers: the peculiar type which they present is probably due to a +considerable admixture of Vlach, Hellenic, Albanian and Turkish blood, +and to the influence of the surrounding races. Almost all independent +authorities, however, agree that the bulk of the Slavonic population of +Macedonia is Bulgarian. The principal indication is furnished by the +language, which, though resembling Servian in some respects (e.g. the +case-endings, which are occasionally retained), presents most of the +characteristic features of Bulgarian (see BULGARIA: _Language_). Among +these may be mentioned the suffix-article, the nasal vowels (retained in +the neighbourhood of Salonica and Castoria, but modified elsewhere as in +Bulgarian), the retention of l (e.g. _vulk_ "wolf," _bel_ "white"; +Servian _vuk_, _beo_), and the loss of the infinitive. There are at +least four Slavonic dialects in Macedonia, but the suffix-article, +though varying in form, is a constant feature in all. The Slavs of +western Macedonia are of a lively, enterprising character, and share the +commercial aptitude of the Vlachs: those of the eastern and southern +regions are a quiet, sober, hardworking agricultural race, more +obviously homogeneous with the population of Bulgaria. In upper +Macedonia large family communities, resembling the Servian and Bulgarian +_zadruga_, are commonly found: they sometimes number over 50 members. +The whole Slavonic population of Macedonia may be estimated at about +1,150,000, of whom about 1,000,000 are Christians of the Orthodox faith. +The majority of these own allegiance to the Bulgarian exarchate, but a +certain minority still remains faithful to the Greek patriarchate. The +Moslem Bulgarians form a considerable element: they are found +principally in the valley of the upper Mesta and the Rhodope district, +where they are known as _Pomaks_ or "helpers," i.e. auxiliaries to the +Turkish army. + +_The Racial Propaganda._--The embittered struggle of the rival +nationalities in Macedonia dates from the middle of the 19th century. +Until that period the Greeks, owing to their superior culture and their +privileged position, exercised an exclusive influence over the whole +population professing the Orthodox faith. All Macedonia was either +Moslem or Orthodox Christian, without distinction of nationalities, the +Catholic or Protestant _millets_ being inconsiderable. The first +opposition to Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy came from the Bulgarians. +The Bulgarian literary revival, which took place in the earlier part of +the 19th century, was the precursor of the ecclesiastical and national +movement which resulted in the establishment of the exarchate in 1870 +(see BULGARIA). In the course of the struggle some of the Bulgarian +leaders entered into negotiations with Rome; a Bulgarian Uniate church +was recognized by the Porte, and the pope nominated a bishop, who, +however, was mysteriously deported to Russia a few days after his +consecration (1861). The first exarch, who was elected in 1871, was +excommunicated with all his followers by the patriarch, and a +considerable number of Bulgarians in Macedonia--the so-called +"Bulgarophone Greeks"--fearing the reproach of schism, or influenced by +other considerations, refrained from acknowledging the new spiritual +power. Many of the recently converted uniates, on the other hand, +offered their allegiance to the exarch. The firman of the 28th of +February 1870 specified a number of districts within the present +boundaries of Bulgaria and Servia, as well as in Macedonia, to which +Bulgarian bishops might be appointed; other districts might be subjected +to the exarchate should two-thirds of the inhabitants so desire. In +virtue of the latter provision the districts of Veles, Ochrida and Usküb +declared for the exarchate, but the Turkish government refrained from +sanctioning the nomination of Bulgarian bishops to these dioceses. It +was not till 1891 that the Porte, at the instance of Stamboloff, the +Bulgarian prime minister, whose demands were supported by the Triple +Alliance and Great Britain, issued the _berat_, or exequatur, for +Bulgarian bishops at Ochrida and Usküb; the sees of Veles and Nevrokop +received Bulgarian prelates in 1894, and those of Monastir, Strumnitza +and Dibra in 1898. The Bulgarian position was further strengthened in +the latter year by the establishment of "commercial agents" representing +the principality at Salonica, Usküb, Monastir and Serres. During this +period (1891-1898) the Bulgarian propaganda, entirely controlled by the +spiritual power and conducted within the bounds of legality, made rapid +and surprising progress. Subsequently the interference of the Macedonian +committee at Sofia, in which the advocates of physical force +predominated, and the rivalry of factions did much to injure the +movement; the hostility of the Porte was provoked and the sympathy of +the powers alienated by a series of assassinations and other crimes. +According to the official figures, the Bulgarian schools, which in 1893 +were 554, with 30,267 pupils and 853 teachers, in 1900 numbered 785 +(including 5 gymnasia and 58 secondary schools), with 39,892 pupils and +1250 teachers. A great number of the schools were closed by the Turkish +authorities after the insurrection of 1903 and many had not been +reopened in 1909; the teachers were imprisoned or had fled into exile. + +The Rumanian movement comes next to the Bulgarian in order of time. The +Vlachs had shown greater susceptibility to Greek influence than any of +the other non-Hellenic populations of Macedonia, and, though efforts to +create a Rumanian propaganda were made as early as 1855, it was not till +after the union of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1861 +that any indications of a national sentiment appeared amongst them. In +1886 the principal apostle of the Rumanian cause, a priest named Apostol +Margaritis, founded a gymnasium at Monastir, and the movement, +countenanced by the Porte, supported by the French Catholic missions, +and to some extent encouraged by Austria, has made no inconsiderable +progress since that time. There are now about forty Rumanian schools in +Macedonia, including two gymnasia, and large sums are devoted to their +maintenance by the ministry of education at Bucharest, which also +provides qualified teachers. The Rumanian and Servian movements are at a +disadvantage compared with the Bulgarian, owing to their want of a +separate ecclesiastical organization, the orthodox Vlachs and Serbs in +Turkey owning allegiance to the Greek patriarchate. The governments of +Bucharest and Belgrade therefore endeavoured to obtain the recognition +of Vlach and Servian _millets_, demanding respectively the establishment +of a Rumanian bishopric at Monastir and the restoration of the +patriarchate of Ipek with the appointment of a Servian metropolitan at +Usküb. The Vlach _millet_ was recognized by the Porte by iradé on the +23rd of May 1905, but the aims of the Servians, whose active +interference in Macedonia is of comparatively recent date, have not been +realized. Previously to 1878 the hopes of the Servians were centred on +Bosnia, Herzegovina and the viláyet of Kossovo; but when the Berlin +Treaty assigned Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria, the national +aspirations were directed to Macedonia, the Slavonic population of which +was declared to be Servian. The strained relations existing between +Russia and Bulgaria from 1886 to 1895 were to the advantage of the +Servian propaganda, which after 1890 made remarkable progress. Great +expenditure has been incurred by the Servian government in the opening +and maintenance of schools. At the beginning of 1899 there were stated +to be 178 Servian schools in the viláyets of Usküb, Salonica and +Monastir (including fifteen gymnasia), with 321 teachers and 7200 +pupils. + +The Albanian movement is still in an inceptive stage; owing to the +persistent prohibition of Albanian schools by the Turks, a literary +propaganda, the usual precursor of a national revival, was rendered +impossible till the outbreak of the Young Turk revolution in July 1908. +After that date numerous schools were founded and an Albanian committee, +meeting in November 1908, fixed the national alphabet and decided on the +adoption of the Latin character. The educational movement is most +conspicuous among the Tosks, or southern Albanians. Notwithstanding the +encroachments of their rivals, the impoverishment of the patriarchate, +and the injury inflicted on their cause by the Greco-Turkish War of +1897, the Greeks still maintain a large number of schools; according to +statistics prepared at Athens there were in 1901, 927 Greek schools in +the viláyets of Salonica and Monastir (including five gymnasia), with +1397 teachers and 57,607 pupils. The great educational activity +displayed by the proselytizing movements in Macedonia, while tending to +the artificial creation of parties, daily widens the contrast between +the progressive Christian and the backward Moslem populations. + + _Antiquities._--Macedonia, like the neighbouring Balkan countries, + still awaited exploration at the beginning of the 20th century, and + little had been learned of the earlier development of civilization in + these regions. The ancient indigenous population has left many traces + of its presence in the tumuli which occur on the plains, and more + especially along the valley of the Vardar. The unquiet state of the + country went far to prevent any systematic investigation of these + remains; excavations, however, were made by Körte and Franke at + Niausta and near Salonica (see Kretschner, _Einleitung in die + Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, pp. 176, 421), and fragments of + primitive pottery, with peculiar characteristics, were found by + Perdrizet at Tchepelje, on the left bank of Lake Tachino. The oldest + archaeological monuments of Macedonia are its coins, for which the + mines of Crenides (the later Philippi), at the foot of Mt Pangaeus, of + Chalcidice, of the island of Thasos, and of the mountains between Lake + Prasias and the ancient Macedonian kingdom (Herod. v. 17), furnished + abundance of metal. From the reign of Alexander I., in the epoch of + the Persian wars (502-479 B.C.), the Macedonian dynasty issued silver + coins of a purely Greek style. The Thracian communities around Mt + Pangaeus also produced a variety of coins, especially at the beginning + of the 5th century. The great octodrachms of this period were perhaps + struck for the purpose of paying tribute to the Persians when the + country between the Strymon and the Nestos was in their possession; + most of the specimens have been found in Asia Minor. These large + pieces present many characteristics of the Ionian style; it is evident + that the Thracians derived the arts of minting and engraving from the + neighbouring Thasos, itself a colony from the Ionian Paros. The + monarchs of Pella were enthusiastic admirers of Hellenic culture, and + their court was doubtless frequented by Greek sculptors as well as men + of letters, such as Herodotus and Euripides. At Pella has been found a + funerary _stele_ of the late 5th or early 4th century representing a + Macedonian _hetaerus_--a beautiful specimen of the best Greek art, now + preserved in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople. To the + Hellenic period belong the vaulted tombs under tumuli discovered at + Pella, Pydna, Palatitza, and other places; the dead were laid in + marble couches ornamented with sculptures, like those of the so-called + sarcophagus of Alexander at Constantinople. These tombs doubtless + received the remains of the Macedonian nobles and _hetaeri_: in one of + them a fresco representing a conflict between a horseman and a warrior + on foot has been brought to light by Kinch. Similarly constructed + places of sepulture have been found at Eretria and elsewhere in + Greece. At Palatitza the ruins of a remarkable structure, perhaps a + palace, have been laid bare by Heuzey and Daumet. Unlike Greece, where + each independent city had its acropolis, Macedonia offers few remnants + of ancient fortification; most of the country towns appear to have + been nothing more than open market-centres. The most interesting ruins + in the country are those of the Roman and Byzantine epochs, especially + those at Salonica (q.v.). The Byzantine fortifications and aqueduct of + Kavala are also remarkable. At Verria (_Beroea_) may be seen some + Christian remains, at Melnik a palace of the age of the Comneni, at + Serres a fortress built by the Servian tsar Stephen Dushan + (1336-1356). The remains at Filibejik (_Philippi_) are principally of + the Roman and Byzantine periods; the numerous _ex voto_ rock-tablets + of the acropolis are especially interesting. The Roman inscriptions + found in Macedonia are mainly funerary, but include several ephebic + lists. The funerary tablets afford convincing proof of the persistence + of the Thracian element, notwithstanding hellenization and + latinization; many of them, for instance, represent the well-known + Thracian horseman hunting the wild boar. The monastic communities on + the promontory of Athos (q.v.), with their treasures of Byzantine art + and their rich collections of manuscripts, are of the highest + antiquarian interest. + +_History._--For the history of ancient Macedonia see MACEDONIAN +EMPIRE.[1] After its subjugation by the Romans the country was divided +into four districts separated by rigid political and social limitations. +Before long it was constituted a province, which in the time of Augustus +was assigned to the senate. Thenceforward it followed the fortunes of +the Roman empire, and, after the partition of that dominion, of its +eastern branch. Its Thraco-Illyrian inhabitants had already been largely +latinized when Constantine the Great made Byzantium the imperial +residence in A.D. 330; they called themselves Romans and spoke Latin. +Towards the close of the 4th century the country was devastated by the +Goths and Avars, whose incursions possessed no lasting significance. It +was otherwise with the great Slavonic immigration, which took place at +intervals from the 3rd to the 7th century. An important ethnographic +change was brought about, and the greater part of Macedonia was +colonized by the invaders (see BALKAN PENINSULA). + + + Byzantine and Bulgarian Domination. + +The Slavs were in their turn conquered by the Bulgarians (see BULGARIA: +_History_) whose chief Krum (802-815) included central Macedonia in his +dominions. The Byzantines retained the southern regions and Salonica, +which temporarily fell into the hands of the Saracens in 904. With the +exception of the maritime districts, the whole of Macedonia formed a +portion of the empire of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon (893-927); the +Bulgarian power declined after his death, but was revived in western +Macedonia under the Shishman dynasty at Ochrida; Tsar Samuel (976-1014), +the third ruler of that family, included in his dominions Usküb, Veles, +Vodena and Melnik. After his defeat by the emperor Basil II. in 1014 +Greek domination was established for a century and a half. The Byzantine +emperors endeavoured to confirm their positions by Asiatic colonization; +Turkish immigrants, afterwards known as Vardariotes, the first of their +race who appeared in Macedonia, were settled in the neighbourhood of +Salonica in the 9th century; colonies of Uzes, Petchenegs and Kumans +were introduced at various periods from the 11th to the 13th century. +While Greeks and Bulgarians disputed the mastery of Macedonia the +Vlachs, in the 10th century, established an independent state in the +Pindus region, which, afterwards known as Great Walachia, continued to +exist till the beginning of the 14th century. In 1185 southern Macedonia +was exposed to a raid of the Normans under William of Sicily, who +captured Salonica and massacred its inhabitants. After the taking of +Constantinople in 1204 by the Franks of the fourth crusade, the Latin +empire of Romania was formed and the feudal kingdom of Thessalonica was +bestowed on Boniface, marquis of Montferrat; this was overthrown in 1222 +by Theodore, despot of Epirus, a descendant of the imperial house of the +Comneni, who styled himself emperor of Thessalonica and for some years +ruled over all Macedonia. He was defeated and captured by the Bulgarians +in 1230 and the remnant of his possessions, to which his son John +succeeded, was absorbed in the empire of Nicaea in 1234. Bulgarian rule +was now once more established in Macedonia under the powerful monarch +Ivan Asen II. (1218-1241) whose dynasty, of Vlach origin, had been +founded at Trnovo in 1186 after a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars +against the Greeks. A period of decadence followed the extinction of the +Asen dynasty in 1257; the Bulgarian power was overthrown by the Servians +at Velbuzhd (1330), and Macedonia was included in the realm of the great +Servian tsar Dushan (1331-1355) who fixed his capital at Usküb. Dushan's +empire fell to pieces after his death, and the anarchy which followed +prepared the way for the advance of the Turks, to whom not only +contending factions at Constantinople but Servian and Bulgarian princes +alike made overtures. + + + Turkish Rule. + +Macedonia and Thrace were soon desolated by Turkish raids; when it was +too late the Slavonic states combined against the invaders, but their +forces, under the Servian tsar Lazar, were routed at Kossovo in 1389 by +the sultan Murad I. Salonica and Larissa were captured in 1395 by +Murad's son Bayezid, whose victory over Sigismund of Hungary at +Nicopolis in 1396 sealed the fate of the peninsula. The towns in the +Struma valley were yielded to the Turks by John VII. Palaeologus in +1424; Salonica was taken for the last time in 1428 by Murad II. and its +inhabitants were massacred. Large tracts of land were distributed among +the Ottoman chiefs; a system of feudal tenure was developed by Mahommed +II. (1451-1481), each fief furnishing a certain number of armed +warriors. The Christian peasant owners remained on the lands assigned to +the Moslem feudal lords, to whom they paid a tithe. The condition of the +subject population was deplorable from the first, and became worse +during the period of anarchy which coincided with the decadence of the +central power in the 17th and 18th centuries; in the latter half of the +17th century efforts to improve it were made by the grand viziers +Mehemet and Mustafa of the eminent house of Koprülü. The country was +policed by the janissaries (q.v.). Numbers of the peasant proprietors +were ultimately reduced to serfdom, working as labourers on the farms or +_tchifliks_ of the Moslem beys. Towards the end of the 18th century many +of the local governors became practically independent; western Macedonia +fell under the sway of Ali Pasha of Iannina; at Serres Ismail Bey +maintained an army of 10,000 men and exercised a beneficent despotism. +For more than two centuries Albanian incursions, often resulting in +permanent settlements, added to the troubles of the Christian +population. The reforms embodied in the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhané (1839) +and in the Hatt-i-humayun (1856), in both of which the perfect equality +of races and religions was proclaimed, remained a dead letter; the first +"Law of the Vilayets" (1864), reforming the local administration, +brought no relief, while depriving the Christian communities of certain +rights which they had hitherto possessed. + + + European Intervention. + + Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin. + +In 1876 a conference of the powers at Constantinople proposed the +reorganization of the Bulgarian provinces of Turkey in two viláyets +under Christian governors-general aided by popular assemblies. The +"western" viláyet, of which Sofia was to be the capital, included +northern, central and western Macedonia, extending south as far as +Castoria. The _projet de règlement_ elaborated by the conference was +rejected by the Turkish parliament convoked under the constitution +proclaimed on the 23rd of December 1876; the constitution, which was +little more than a device for eluding European intervention, was shortly +afterwards suspended. Under the treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878) +the whole of Macedonia, except Salonica and the Chalcidic peninsula, was +included in the newly formed principality of Bulgaria; this arrangement +was reversed by the Treaty of Berlin (July 13) which left Macedonia +under Turkish administration but provided (Art. xxiii.) for the +introduction of reforms analogous to those of the Cretan Organic Statute +of 1868. These reforms were to be drawn up by special commissions, on +which the native element should be largely represented, and the opinion +of the European commission for eastern Rumelia was to be taken before +their promulgation. The Porte, however, prepared a project of its own, +and the commission, taking this as a basis, drew up the elaborate "Law +of the Vilayets" (Aug. 23, 1880). The law never received the sultan's +sanction, and European diplomacy proved unequal to the task of securing +its adoption. + + + The Macedonian Question. + +The Berlin Treaty, by its artificial division of the Bulgarian race, +created the difficult and perplexing "Macedonian Question." The +population handed back to Turkish rule never acquiesced in its fate; its +discontent was aggravated by the deplorable misgovernment which +characterized the reign of Abdul Hamid II., and its efforts to assert +itself, stimulated by the sympathy of the enfranchised portion of the +race, provoked rival movements on the part of the other Christian +nationalities, each receiving encouragement and material aid from the +adjacent and kindred states. Some insignificant risings took place in +Macedonia after the signature of the Berlin Treaty, but in the interval +between 1878 and 1893 the population remained comparatively tranquil, +awaiting the fulfilment of the promised reforms. + + + Bulgarian Conspiracies. + +In 1893, however, a number of secret revolutionary societies +(_druzhestva_) were set on foot in Macedonia, and in 1894 similar bodies +were organized as legal corporations in Bulgaria. The fall of Stamboloff +in that year and the reconciliation of Bulgaria with Russia encouraged +the revolutionaries in the mistaken belief that Russia would take steps +to revive the provisions of the San Stefano treaty. In 1895 the "Supreme +Macedo-Adrianopolitan Committee" (_Vrkhoven Makedoni-Odrinski Komitet_) +was formed at Sofia and forthwith despatched armed bands into northern +Macedonia; the town of Melnik was occupied for a short time by the +revolutionaries under Boris Sarafoff, but the enterprise ended in +failure. Dispirited by this result, the "Vrkhovists," as the +revolutionaries in Bulgaria were generally styled, refrained from any +serious effort for the next five years; the movement was paralysed by +dissensions among the chiefs, and rival parties were formed under +Sarafoff and General Tzoncheff. Meanwhile the "Centralist" or local +Macedonian societies were welded by two remarkable men, Damian Grueff +and Gotzé Delcheff, into a formidable power known as the "Internal +Organization," founded in 1893, which maintained its own police, held +its own tribunals, assessed and collected contributions, and otherwise +exercised an _imperium in imperio_ throughout the country, which was +divided into rayons or districts, and subdivided into departments and +communes, each with its special staff of functionaries. The Internal +Organization, as a rule, avoided co-operation with the revolutionaries +in Bulgaria; it aimed at the attainment of Macedonian autonomy, and at +first endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to enlist the sympathies of the +Greeks and Servians for the programme of "Macedonia for the +Macedonians." + + + Greek Action. + +The principle of autonomy was suspected at Athens and Belgrade as +calculated to ensure Bulgarian predominance and to delay or preclude the +ultimate partition of the country. At Athens, especially, the progress +of the Bulgarian movement was viewed with much alarm; it was feared that +Macedonia would be lost to Hellenism, and in 1896 the _Ethniké Hetaerea_ +(see GREECE and CRETE) sent numerous bands into the southern districts +of the country. The Hetaerea aimed at bringing about a war between +Greece and Turkey, and the outbreak of trouble in Crete enabled it to +accomplish its purpose. During the Greco-Turkish War (q.v.) Macedonia +remained quiet, Bulgaria and Servia refraining from interference under +pressure from Austria, Russia and the other great powers. The reverses +of the Greeks were to the advantage of the Bulgarian movement, which +continued to gain strength, but after the discovery of a hidden dépôt of +arms at Vinitza in 1897 the Turkish authorities changed their attitude +towards the Bulgarian element; extreme and often barbarous methods of +repression were adopted, and arms were distributed among the Moslem +population. The capture of an American missionary, Miss Stone, by a +Bulgarian band under Sandansky in the autumn of 1901 proved a windfall +to the revolutionaries, who expended her ransom of LT16,000 in the +purchase of arms and ammunition. + + + Troubles in 1902: Intervention of the Powers. + +In 1902 the Servians, after a prolonged conflict with the Greeks, +succeeded with Russian aid in obtaining the nomination of Mgr. +Firmilian, a Servian, to the archbishopric of Usküb. Contemporaneously +with a series of Russo-Bulgarian celebrations in the Shipka pass in +September of that year, an effort was made to provoke a rising in the +Monastir district by Colonel Yankoff, the lieutenant of General +Tzoncheff; in November a number of bands entered the Razlog district +under the general's personal direction. These movements, which were not +supported by the Internal Organization, ended in failure, and merciless +repression followed. The state of the country now became such as to +necessitate the intervention of the powers, and the Austrian and Russian +governments, which had acted in concert since April 1897, drew up an +elaborate scheme of reforms. The Porte, as usual, endeavoured to +forestall foreign interference by producing a project of its own, which +was promulgated in November 1902, and Hilmi Pasha was appointed +Inspector General of the Rumelian viláyets and charged with its +application. The two powers, however, persevered in their intention and +on the 21st of February 1903 presented to the Porte an identic +memorandum proposing a series of reforms in the administration, police +and finance, including the employment of "foreign specialists" for the +reorganization of the gendarmerie. + + + Bulgarian Insurrection in 1903. + +At the same time the Bulgarian government, under pressure from Russia, +arrested the revolutionary leaders in the principality, suppressed the +committees, and confiscated their funds. The Internal Organization, +however, was beyond reach, and preparations for an insurrection went +rapidly forward. In March a serious Albanian revolt complicated the +situation. At the end of April a number of dynamite outrages took place +at Salonica; public opinion in Europe turned against the revolutionaries +and the Turks seized the opportunity to wreak a terrible vengeance on +the Bulgarian population. On the 2nd of August, the feast of St Elias, a +general insurrection broke out in the Monastir viláyet, followed by +sporadic revolts in other districts. The insurgents achieved some +temporary successes and occupied the towns of Krushevo, Klisura and +Neveska, but by the end of September their resistance was overcome; more +than 100 villages were burned by the troops and bashi-bazouks, 8400 +houses were destroyed and 60,000 peasants remained homeless in the +mountains at the approach of winter. + + + The "Mürzsteg Programme." + +The Austrian and Russian governments then drew up a further series of +reforms known as the "Mürzsteg programme" (Oct. 9, 1903) to which the +Porte assented in principle, though many difficulties were raised over +details. Two officials, an Austrian and a Russian, styled "civil agents" +and charged with the supervision of the local authorities in the +application of reforms, were placed by the side of the inspector-general +while the reorganization of the gendarmerie was entrusted to a foreign +general in the Turkish service aided by a certain number of officers +from the armies of the great powers. The latter task was entrusted to +the Italian General de Giorgis (April 1904), the country being divided +into sections under the supervision of the officers of each power. The +reforms proved a failure, mainly owing to the tacit opposition of the +Turkish authorities, the insufficient powers attributed to the European +officials, the racial feuds and the deplorable financial situation. In +1905 the powers agreed on the establishment of a financial commission on +which the representatives of Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy +would sit as colleagues of the civil agents. The Porte offered an +obstinate resistance to the project and only yielded (Dec. 5) when the +fleets of the powers appeared near the Dardanelles. Some improvement was +now effected in the financial administration, but the general state of +the country continued to grow worse; large funds were collected abroad +by the committees at Athens, which despatched numerous bands largely +composed of Cretans into the southern districts, the Servians displayed +renewed activity in the north, while the Bulgarians offered a dogged +resistance to all their foes. + + + The "Reval Programme." + +The Austro-Russian _entente_ came to an end in the beginning of 1908 +owing to the Austrian project of connecting the Bosnian and Macedonian +railway systems, and Great Britain and Russia now took the foremost +place in the demand for reforms. After a meeting between King Edward +VII. and the emperor Nicholas II. at Reval in the early summer of 1908 +an Anglo-Russian scheme, known as the "Reval programme," was announced; +the project aimed at more effective European supervision and dealt +especially with the administration of justice. Its appearance was almost +immediately followed by the military revolt of the Young Turk or +constitutional party, which began in the Monastir district under two +junior officers, Enver Bey and Niazi Bey, in July. The restoration of +the constitution of 1876 was proclaimed (July 24,1908), and the powers, +anticipating the spontaneous adoption of reforms on the part of +regenerated Turkey, decided to suspend the Reval programme and to +withdraw their military officers from Macedonia. + + See Lejean, _Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Europe_ (Gotha, 1861); Hahn, + _Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik_ (Vienna, 1868); Yastreboff, _Obichai + i pesni turetskikh Serbov_ (St Petersburg, 1886); "Ofeicoff" + (Shopoff), _La Macédoine au point de vue ethnographique, historique et + philologique_ (Philippopolis, 1888); Gopchevitch, _Makedonien und + Alt-Serbien_ (Vienna, 1889); Verkovitch, + _Topografichesko-ethnographicheskii ocherk Makedonii_ (St Petersburg, + 1889); Burada, _Cercetari despre scoalele Romanesci din Turcia_ + (Bucharest, 1890); Tomaschek, _Die heutigen Bewohner Macedoniens_ + (Sonderabdruck aus den Verhandlungen des IX. D. Geographen-Tages in + Wien, 1891) (Berlin, 1891); _Die alten Thraker_ (Vienna, 1893); + Bérard, _La Turquie et l'Hellénisme contemporain_, (Paris, 1893); _La + Macédoine_ (Paris, 1900); Shopoff, _Iz zhivota i polozhenieto na + Bulgarite v vilayetite_ (Philippopolis, 1894); Weigand, _Die Aromunen_ + (Leipzig, 1895); _Die nationalen Bestrebungen der Balkanvolker_ + (Leipzig, 1898); Nikolaides, _La Macédoine_ (Berlin, 1899); + "Odysseus," _Turkey in Europe_ (London, 1900); Kunchoff, _Makedonia: + etnografia i statistika_ (Sofia, 1900); _La Macédoine et la Vilayet + d'Andrinople_ (Sofia, 1904), anonymous; L. Villari, _The Balkan + Question_ (London, 1905); H. N. Brailsford, _Macedonia: its Races and + their Future_ (London, 1906); J. Cviji['c], _Grundlinien der + Geographie und Geologie von Mazedonien und Altserbien_ (Gotha, 1908). + For the antiquities, see Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_ + (London, 1864); Heuzey and Daumet, _Mission archéologique en + Macédoine_ (Paris, 1865); Duchesne and Bayet, _Mémoire sur une mission + en Macédoine et au Mont Athos_ (Paris, 1876); Barclay V. Head, + _Catalogue of Greek Coins_; Macedonia (London, 1879); Kinch, _L'Arc de + triomphe de Salonique_ (Paris, 1890); _Beretnung om en archaeologisk + Reise i Makedonien_ (Copenhagen, 1893); Mommsen, Suppl. to vol. iii. + _Corpus inscript., latinarum_ (Berlin, 1893); Perdrizet, Articles on + Macedonian archaeology and epigraphy in _Bulletin de correspondance + hellenique_, since 1894. (J. D. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Also Alexander, Perdiccas, Philip, &c. + + + + +MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, the name generally given to the empire founded by +Alexander the Great of Macedon in the countries now represented by +Greece and European Turkey, Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, Persia and +eastwards as far as northern India.[1] The present article contains a +general account of the empire in its various aspects. It falls naturally +into two main divisions:--I. The reign of Alexander. II. The period of +his successors, the "Diadochi" and their dynasties. + + + 1. Greeks and Persians. + +I. _The Reign of Alexander._--At the beginning of the 4th century B.C. +two types of political association confronted each other in the lands of +the Eastern Mediterranean,--the Persian monarchy with its huge +agglomeration of subject peoples, and the Greek city-state. Each had a +different principle of strength. The Persian monarchy was strong in its +size, in the mere amount of men and treasure it could dispose of under a +single hand; the Greek state was strong in its _morale_, in the energy +and discipline of its soldiery. But the smallness of the single +city-states and their unwillingness to combine prevented this +superiority in quality from telling destructively upon the bulk of the +Persian empire. The future belonged to any power that could combine the +advantages of both systems, could make a state larger than the Greek +_polis_, and animated by a spirit equal to that of the Greek soldier. +This was achieved by the kings of Macedonia. The work, begun by his +predecessors, of consolidating the kingdom internally and making its +army a fighting-machine of high power was completed by the genius of +Philip II. (359-336 B.C.), who at the same time by war and diplomacy +brought the Greek states of the Balkan peninsula generally to recognize +his single predominance. At the synod of Corinth (338) Philip was +solemnly declared the captain-general ([Greek: strategos autokrator]) of +the Hellenes against the Great King. The attack on Persia was delayed by +the assassination of Philip in 336, and it needed some fighting before +the young Alexander had made his position secure in Macedonia and +Greece. The recognition as captain-general he had obtained at another +synod in Corinth, by an imposing military demonstration in Greece +immediately upon his accession. Then came the invasion of the Persian +empire by Alexander in 334 at the head of an army composed both of +Macedonians and contingents from the allied Greek states. Before this +force the Persian monarchy went down, and when Alexander died eleven +years later (323) a Macedonian empire which covered all the territory of +the old Persian empire, and even more, was a realized fact. + + + 2. Extent of the Empire. + + The empire outside of Macedonia itself consisted of 22 provinces. _In + Europe_, (1) Thrace; _in Asia Minor_, (2) Phrygia on the Hellespont, + (3) Lydia, (4) Caria, (5) Lycia and Pamphylia, (6) Great Phrygia, (7) + Paphlagonia and Cappadocia; _between the Taurus and Iran_, (8) + Cilicia, (9) Syria, (10) Mesopotamia, (11) Babylonia, (12) Susiana; + _in Africa_, (13) Egypt; _in Iran_, (14) Persis, (15) Media, (16) + Parthia and Hyrcania, (17) Bactria and Sogdiana, (18) Areia and + Drangiana, (19) Carmania, (20) Arachosia and Gedrosia; lastly _the + Indian provinces_, (21) the Paropanisidae (the Kabul valley), and (22) + the province assigned to Pithon, the son of Agenor, upon the Indus (J. + Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ III. [ii.], p. 236 seq.; for the Indian + provinces cf. B. Niese, _Gesch. der griech. und maked. Staaten_, I. p. + 500 seq.). Hardly provinces proper, but rather client principalities, + were the two native kingdoms to which Alexander had left the conquered + land beyond the Indus--the kingdoms of Taxiles and Porus. + + + 3. System of Government. + +The conquered empire presented Alexander with a system of government +ready-made, which it was natural for the new masters to take over. For +the Asiatic provinces and Egypt, the old Persian name of _satrapy_ (see +SATRAP) was still retained, but the governor seems to have been styled +officially in Greek _strategos_, although the term _satrap_ certainly +continued current in common parlance. The governors appointed by +Alexander were, in the west of the empire, exclusively Macedonians; in +the east, members of the Old Persian nobility were still among the +satraps at Alexander's death, Atropates in Media, Phrataphernes in +Parthia and Hyrcania, and Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes in the +Paropanisidae. Alexander had at first trusted Persian grandees more +freely in this capacity; in Babylonia, Bactria, Carmania, Susiana he had +set Persian governors, till the ingrained Oriental tradition of +misgovernment so declared itself that to the three latter provinces +certainly Macedonians had been appointed before his death. Otherwise the +only eastern satrapy whose governor was not a Macedonian, was Areia, +under Stasanor, a Cypriote Greek. In the case of certain provinces, +possibly in the empire generally, Alexander established a double +control. The financial administration was entrusted to separate +officials; we hear of such in Lydia (Arr. i. 17, 7), Babylonia (id. iii. +16, 4), and notably in Egypt (id. iii. 5, 4). Higher financial +controllers seem to have been over groups of provinces (Philoxenus over +Asia Minor, Arr. i. 17, 7; see Beloch, _Gr. Gesch._ III. [i] p. 14), and +Harpalus over the whole finances of the empire, with his seat in +Babylon. Again the garrisons in the chief cities, such as Sardis, +Babylon, Memphis Pelusium and Susa, were under commands distinct from +those of the provinces. The old Greek cities of the motherland were not +formally subjects of the empire, but sovereign states, which assembled +at Corinth as members of a great alliance, in which the Macedonian king +was included as a member and held the office of captain-general. The +Greek cities of Asia Minor stood to him in a similar relation, though +not included in the Corinthian alliance, but in federations of their own +(Kaerst, _Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalt._ i. 261 seq.). Their territory +was not part of the king's country (_Inscr. in the Brit. Mus._ No. 400). +Of course, in fact, the power of the king was so vastly superior that +the Greek cities were in reality subject to his dictation, even in so +intimate a matter as the readmission of their exiles, and might be +obliged to receive his garrisons. Within the empire itself, the various +communities were allowed, subject to the interference of the king or his +officials, to manage their own affairs. Alexander is said to have +granted the Lydians to be "free" and "to use the laws of the ancient +Lydians," whatever exactly these expressions may mean (Arr. i. 17, 4). +So too in Egypt, the native monarchs were left as the local authorities +(Arr. iii. 5, 4). Especially to the gods of the conquered people +Alexander showed respect. In Egypt and in Babylon he appeared as the +restorer of the native religions to honour after the unsympathetic rule +of the Persians. The temple of Marduk in Babylon which had fallen began +to rise again at his command. It is possible that he offered sacrifice +to Yahweh in Jerusalem. In Persia, the native aristocracy retained their +power, and the Macedonian governor adopted Persian dress and manners +(Diod. xix. 48, 5; Arr. vi. 30). A new factor introduced by Alexander +was the foundation of Greek cities at all critical points of intercourse +in the conquered lands. These, no doubt, possessed municipal autonomy +with the ordinary organization of the Greek state; to what extent they +were formally and regularly controlled by the provincial authorities we +do not know; Pithon, the satrap of the Indian province is specially +described as sent "in colonias in Indis conditas" (Just. xiii. 4, 21). +The empire included large tracts of mountain or desert, inhabited by +tribes, which the Persian government had never subdued. The subjugation +of such districts could only be by a system of effective military +occupation and would be a work of time; but Alexander made a beginning +by punitive expeditions, as occasion offered, calculated to reduce the +free tribes to temporary quiet; we hear of such expeditions in the case +of the Pisidians, the tribes of the Lebanon, the Uxii (in Khuzistan), +the Tapyri (in the Elburz), the hill-peoples of Bajaor and Swat, the +Cossaei (in Kurdistan); an expedition against the Arabs was in +preparation when Alexander died. + + See A. Köhler, _Reichsverwaltung u. Politik Alexanders des Grossen in + Klio_, v. 303 seq. (1905). + + + 4. Court. + +Alexander, who set out as king of the Macedonians and captain-general of +the Hellenes, assumed after the death of Darius the character of the +Oriental great king. He adopted the Persian garb (Plutarch, _de fort. +Al._ i. 8) including a head-dress, the _diadema_, which was suggested by +that of the Achaemenian king (_Just._ xii. 3, 8). We hear also of a +sceptre as part of his insignia (_Diod._ xviii. 27, 1). The pomps and +ceremonies which were traditional in the East were to be continued. To +the Greeks and Macedonians such a regime was abhorrent, and the +opposition roused by Alexander's attempt to introduce among them the +practice of _proskynesis_ (prostration before the royal presence), was +bitter and effectual. The title of _chiliarch_, by which the Greeks had +described the great king's chief minister, in accordance with the +Persian title which described him as "commander of a thousand," i.e. of +the royal body-guard, was conferred by Alexander upon his friend +Hephaestion. The Greek Chares held the position of chief usher ([Greek: +eisangeleus]). Another Greek, Eumenes of Cardia, was chief secretary +([Greek: archigrammateus]). The figure of the eunuch, so long +characteristic of the Oriental court, was as prominent as ever (e.g. +Bagoas, Plut. _Alex._ 67, &c.; cf. Arr. vii. 24). + +Alexander, however, who impressed his contemporaries by his sexual +continence, kept no harem of the old sort. The number of his wives did +not go beyond two, and the second, the daughter of Darius, he did not +take till a year before his death. In closest contact with the king's +person were the seven, or latterly eight, body-guards, [Greek: +somatophylakes], Macedonians of high rank, including Ptolemy and +Lysimachus, the future kings of Egypt, and Thrace (Arr. vi. 28, 4). The +institution, which the Macedonian court before Alexander had borrowed +from Persia, of a corps of pages composed of the young sons of the +nobility ([Greek: paides basileioi] or [Greek: basilikoi]) continued to +hold an important place in the system of the court and in Alexander's +campaigns (see Arr. iv. 13, 1; Curt. viii. 6, 6; Suid. [Greek: basileioi +paides]; cf. the [Greek: paides] of Eumenes, Diod. xix. 28, 3). + + See Spiecker, _Der Hof und die Hofordnung Alex. d. Grossen_ (1904). + + + 5. Army. + + The army of Alexander was an instrument which he inherited from his + father Philip. Its core was composed of the Macedonian peasantry who + served on foot in heavy armour ("the Foot-companions" [Greek: + pezetairoi]). They formed the phalanx, and were divided into 6 + brigades ([Greek: taxeis]), probably on the territorial system. Their + distinctive arm was the great Macedonian pike (_sarissa_), some 14 ft. + long, of further reach than the ordinary Greek spear. They were + normally drawn up in more open order than the heavy Greek phalanx, and + possessed thereby a mobility and elasticity in which the latter was + fatally deficient. Reckoning 1,500 to each brigade, we got a total for + the phalanx of 9,000 men. Of higher rank than the _pezetaeri_ were the + royal foot-guards ([Greek: basilikoi hypaspistai]), some 3,000 in + number, more lightly armed, and distinguished (at any rate at the time + of Alexander's death) by silver shields. Of these 1,000 constituted + the royal corps ([Greek: to agema to basilikou]). The Macedonian + cavalry was recruited from a higher grade of society than the + infantry, the _petite noblesse_ of the nation. They bore by old custom + the name of the king's Companions ([Greek: hetairoi]), and were + distributed into 8 territorial squadrons ([Greek: ilai]) of probably + some 250 men each, making a normal total of 2,000. In the cavalry also + the most privileged squadron bore the name of the _agema_. The ruder + peoples which were neighbors to the Macedonians (Paeonians, Agrianes, + Thracians) furnished contingents of light cavalry and javelineers + ([Greek: akontistai]). From the Thessalians the Macedonian king, as + overlord, drew some thousand excellent troopers. The rest of + Alexander's army was composed of Greeks, not formally his subjects. + These served partly as mercenaries, partly in contingents contributed + by the states in virtue of their alliance. According to Diodorus + (xvii. 17, 3) at the time of Alexander's passage into Asia, the + mercenaries numbered 5,000, and the troops of the alliance 7,000 foot + and 600 horse. All these numbers take no account of the troops left + behind in Macedonia, 12,000 foot and 1,500 horse, according to + Diodorus. When Alexander was lord of Asia, innovations followed in the + army. Already in 330 at Persepolis, the command went forth that 30,000 + young Asiatics were to be trained as Macedonian soldiers (the + _epigoni_, Arr. vii., 6, 1). Contingents of the fine Bactrian cavalry + followed Alexander into India. Persian nobles were admitted into the + _agema_ of the Macedonian cavalry. A far more radical remodelling of + the army was undertaken at Babylon in 323, by which the old phalanx + system was to be given up for one in which the unit was to be composed + of Macedonians with pikes and Asiatics with missile arms in + combination--a change calculated to be momentous both from a military + point of view in the coming wars, and from a political, in the close + fusion of Europeans and Asiatics. The death of Alexander interrupted + the scheme, and his successors reverted to the older system. In the + wars of Alexander the phalanx was never the most active arm; Alexander + delivered his telling attacks with his cavalry, whereas the + slow-moving phalanx held rather the position of a reserve, and was + brought up to complete a victory when the cavalry charges had already + taken effect. Apart from the pitched battles, the warfare of Alexander + was largely hill-fighting, in which the _hypaspistae_ took the + principal part, and the contingents of light-armed hillmen from the + Balkan region did excellent service. + + For Alexander's army and tactics, beside the regular histories + (Droysen, Niese, Beloch, Kaerst), see D. G. Hogarth, _Journal of + Philol._, xvii. 1 seq. (corrected at some points in his _Philip and + Alexander_). + + + 6. Fusion of Greeks and Asiatics. + +The modifications in the army system were closely connected with +Alexander's general policy, in which the fusion of Greeks and Asiatics +held so prominent a place. He had himself, as we have seen, assumed to +some extent the guise of a Persian king. The Macedonian Peucestas +received special marks of his favour for adopting the Persian dress. The +most striking declaration of his ideals was the marriage feast at Susa +in 324, when a large number of the Macedonian nobles were induced to +marry Persian princesses, and the rank and file were encouraged by +special rewards to take Eastern wives. We are told that among the +schemes registered in the state papers and disclosed after Alexander's +death was one for transplanting large bodies of Asiatics into Europe and +Europeans into Asia, for blending the peoples of the empire by +intermarriage into a single whole (Diod. xviii. 4, 4). How far did +Alexander intend that in such a fusion Hellenic culture should retain +its pre-eminence? How far could it have done so, had the scheme been +realized? It is not impossible that the question may yet be raised again +whether the Eurasian after all is the heir of the ages. + + + 7. Divine Honours. + +High above all the medley of kindreds and tongues, untrammelled by +national traditions, for he had outgrown the compass of any one nation, +invested with the glory of achievements in which the old bounds of the +possible seemed to fall away, stood in 324 the man Alexander. Was he a +man? The question was explicitly suggested by the report that the +Egyptian priest in the Oasis had hailed him in the god's name as the son +of Ammon. The Egyptians had, of course, ascribed deity by old custom to +their kings, and were ready enough to add Alexander to the list. The +Persians, on the other hand, had a different conception of the godhead, +and we have no proof that from them Alexander either required or +received divine honours. From the Greeks he certainly received such +honours; the ambassadors from the Greek states came in 323 with the +character of _theori_, as if approaching a deity (Arr. vii. 23, 2). It +has been supposed that in offering such worship the Greeks showed the +effect of "Oriental" influence, but indeed we have not to look outside +the Greek circle of ideas to explain it. As early as Aeschylus (_Supp._ +991) the proffering of divine honours was a form of expression for +intense feelings of reverence or gratitude towards men which naturally +suggested itself--as a figure of speech in Aeschylus, but the figure had +been translated into action before Alexander not in the well-known case +of Lysander only (cf. the case of Dion, Plut. _Dio_, 29). Among the +educated Greeks rationalistic views of the old mythology had become so +current that they could assimilate Alexander to Dionysus without +supposing him to be supernatural, and to this temper the divine honours +were a mere form, an elaborate sort of flattery. Did Alexander merely +receive such honours? Or did he claim them himself? It would seem that +he did. Many of the assertions as to his action in this line do not +stand the light of criticism (see Hogarth, _Eng. Hist. Rev._ ii., 1887, +p. 317 seq.; Niese, _Historische Zeitschrift_, lxxix., 1897, p. 1, +seq.); even the explicit Statement in Arrian as to Alexander and the +Arabians is given as a mere report; but we have well-authenticated +utterances of Attic orators when the question of the cult of Alexander +came up for debate, which seem to prove that an intimation of the king's +pleasure had been conveyed to Athens. + + + 8. Intercourse and Discovery. + +A new life entered the lands conquered by Alexander. Human intercourse +was increased and quickened to a degree not before known. Commercial +enterprise now found open roads between the Aegean and India; the new +Greek cities made stations in what had been for the earlier Greek +traders unknown lands; an immense quantity of precious metal had been +put into circulation which the Persian kings had kept locked up in their +treasuries (cf. Athen, vi. 231 e). At the same time Alexander himself +made it a principal concern to win fresh geographical knowledge, to +open new ways. The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates +was intended to link India by a waterway with the Mediterranean lands. +So too Heraclides was sent to explore the Caspian; the survey, and +possible circumnavigation, of the Arabian coasts was the last enterprise +which occupied Alexander. The improvement of waterways in the interior +of the empire was not neglected, the Babylonian canal system was +repaired, the obstructions in the Tigris removed. A canal was attempted +across the Mimas promontory (Plin. _N.H._ v. 116). The reports of the +[Greek: Bematistai], Baeton and Diognetus, who accompanied the march of +Alexander's army, gave an exacter knowledge of the geographical +conformation of the empire, and were accessible for later investigators +(Susemihl, _Gesch. d. griech. Litt._, I. p. 544). Greek natural science +was enriched with a mass of new material from the observations of the +philosophers who went with Alexander through the strange lands (H. +Bretzl, _Botanische Forschungen d. Alexanderzuges_, 1903); whilst on the +other hand attempts were made to acclimatize the plants of the +motherland in the foreign soil (Theophr., _Hist. Plant._ iv. 4, 1). + + + 9. Coinage. + + The accession of Alexander brought about a change in the monetary + system of the kingdom. Philip's bimetallic system, which had attempted + artificially to fix the value of silver in spite of the great + depreciation of gold consequent upon the working of the Pangaean + mines, was abandoned. Alexander's gold coinage, indeed (possibly not + struck till after the invasion of Asia), follows in weight that of + Philip's staters; but he seems at once to have adopted for his silver + coins (of a smaller denomination than the tetradrachm) the + Euboic-Attic standard, instead of the Phoenician, which had been + Philip's. With the conquest of Asia, Alexander conceived the plan of + issuing a uniform coinage for the empire. Gold had fallen still + further from the diffusion of the Persian treasure, and Alexander + struck in both metals on the Attic standard, leaving their relation to + adjust itself by the state of the market. This imperial coinage was + designed to break down the monetary predominance of Athens (Beloch, + _Gr. Gesch._ iii. i, 42). None of the coins with Alexander's own image + can be shown to have been issued during his reign; the traditional + gods of the Greeks still admitted no living man to share their + prerogative in this sphere. Athena and Nike alone figured upon + Alexander's gold; Heracles and Zeus upon his silver. + + See L. Müller, _Numismatique d'Alexandre le Grand_ (1855); also + NUMISMATICS: § I. "Greek Coins, Macedonian." + + + 1. History of the "Successors." + +II. _After Alexander._--The external fortunes of the Macedonian Empire +after Alexander's death must be briefly traced before its inner +developments be touched upon.[2] There was, at first, when Alexander +suddenly died in 323, no overt disruption of the empire. The dispute +between the Macedonian infantry and the cavalry (i.e. the commonalty and +the nobles) was as to the person who should be chosen to be the king, +although it is true that either candidate, the half-witted son of Philip +II., Philip Arrhidaeus, or the posthumous son of Alexander by Roxana, +opened the prospect of a long regency exercised by one or more of the +Macedonian lords. The compromise, by which both the candidates should be +kings together, was, of course, succeeded by a struggle for power among +those who wished to rule in their name. The resettlement of dignities +made in Babylon in 323, while it left the eastern commands practically +undisturbed as well as that of Antipater in Europe, placed Perdiccas +(whether as regent or as chiliarch) in possession of the kings' persons, +and this was a position which the other Macedonian lords could not +suffer. Hence the first intestine war among the Macedonians, in which +Antipater, Antigonus, the satrap of Phrygia, and Ptolemy, the satrap of +Egypt, were allied against Perdiccas, who was ultimately murdered in 321 +on the Egyptian frontier (see PERDICCAS [4], EUMENES). A second +settlement, made at Triparadisus in Syria in 321, constituted Antipater +regent and increased the power of Antigonus in Asia. When Antipater +died, in 319, a second war broke out, the wrecks of the party of +Perdiccas, led by Eumenes, combining with Polyperchon, the new regent, +and later on (318) with the eastern satraps who were in arms against +Pithon, the satrap of Media. Cassander, the son of Antipater, +disappointed of the regency, had joined the party of Antigonus. In 316 +Antigonus had defeated and killed Eumenes and made himself supreme from +the Aegean to Iran, and Cassander had ousted Polyperchon from +Macedonia. But now a third war began, the old associates of Antigonus, +alarmed by his overgrown power, combining against him--Cassander, +Ptolemy, Lysimachus, the governor of Thrace, and Seleucus, who had fled +before Antigonus from his satrapy of Babylonia. From 315 to 301 the war +of Antigonus against these four went on, with one short truce in 311. +Antigonus never succeeded in reaching Macedonia, although his son +Demetrius won Athens and Megara in 307 and again (304-302) wrested +almost all Greece from Cassander; nor did Antigonus succeed in expelling +Ptolemy from Egypt, although he led an army to its frontier in 306; and +after the battle of Gaza in 312, in which Ptolemy and Seleucus defeated +Demetrius, he had to see Seleucus not only recover Babylonia but bring +all the eastern provinces under his authority as far as India. Meanwhile +the struggle changed its character in an important respect. King Philip +had been murdered by Olympias in 317; the young Alexander by Cassander +in 310; Heracles, the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, by +Polyperchon in 309. Thus the old royal house became extinct in the male +line, and in 306 Antigonus assumed the title of king. His four +adversaries answered this challenge by immediately doing the same. Even +in appearance the empire was no longer a unity. In 301 the coalition +triumphed over Antigonus in the battle of Ipsus (in Phrygia) and he +himself was slain. Of the four kings who now divided the Macedonian +Empire amongst them, two were not destined to found durable dynasties, +while the house of Antigonus, represented by Demetrius, was after all to +do so. The house of Antipater came to an end in the male line in 294, +when Demetrius killed the son of Cassander and established himself on +the throne of Macedonia. He was however expelled by Lysimachus and +Pyrrhus in 288; and in 285 Lysimachus took possession of all the +European part of the Macedonian Empire. Except indeed for Egypt and +Palestine under Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus now divided the empire +between them, with the Taurus in Asia Minor for their frontier. These +two survivors of the forty years' conflict soon entered upon the +crowning fight, and in 281 Lysimachus fell in the battle of Corupedion +(in Lydia), leaving Seleucus virtually master of the empire. Seleucus' +assassination by Ptolemy Ceraunus in the same year brought back +confusion. + +Ptolemy Ceraunus (the son of the first Ptolemy, and half-brother of the +reigning king of Egypt) seized the Macedonian throne, whilst Antiochus, +the son of Seleucus, succeeded in holding together the Asiatic dominions +of his father. The confusion was aggravated by the incursion of the +Gauls into the Balkan Peninsula in 279; Ptolemy Ceraunus perished, and a +period of complete anarchy succeeded in Macedonia. In 276 Antigonus +Gonatas, the son of Demetrius, after inflicting a crushing defeat on the +Gauls near Lysimachia, at last won Macedonia definitively for his house. +Three solid kingdoms had thus emerged from all the fighting since +Alexander's death: the kingdom of the Antigonids in the original land of +the race, the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the +Seleucids, extending from the Aegean to India. For the next 100 years +these are the three great powers of the eastern Mediterranean. But +already parts of the empire of Alexander had passed from Macedonian rule +altogether. In Asia Minor, Philetaerus a Greek of Tios (Tieium) in +Paphlagonia, had established himself in a position of practical +independence at Pergamum, and his nephew, Attalus, was the father of the +line of kings who reigned in Pergamum till 133--antagonistic to the +Seleucid house, till in 189 they took over the Seleucid possessions west +of the Taurus. In Bithynia a native dynasty assumed the style of kings +in 297. In Cappadocia two Persian houses, relics of the old aristocracy +of Achaemenian days had carved out principalities, one of which became +the kingdom of Pontus and the other the kingdom of Cappadocia (in the +narrower sense); the former regarding Mithradates (281-266) as its +founder, the latter being the creation of the second Ariarathes +(?302-?281). Armenia, never effectively conquered by the Macedonians, +was left in the hands of native princes, tributary only when the +Seleucid court was strong enough to compel. In India, Seleucus had in +302 ceded large districts on the west of the Indus to Chandragupta, who +had arisen to found a native empire which annexed the Macedonian +provinces in the Panjab. + +Whilst the Antigonid kingdom remained practically whole till the Roman +conquest ended it in 168 B.C., and the house of Ptolemy ruled in Egypt +till the death of Cleopatra in 30 B.C., the Seleucid Empire perished by +a slow process of disruption. The eastern provinces of Iran went in 240 +or thereabouts, when the Greek Diodotus made himself an independent king +in Bactria (q.v.) and Sogdiana, and Tiridates, brother of Arsaces, a +"Scythian" chieftain, conquered Parthia (so Arrian, but see PARTHIA). +Armenia was finally lost in 190, when Artaxias founded a new native +dynasty there. Native princes probably ruled in Persis before 166, +though the district was at least nominally subject to Antiochus IV. +Epiphanes till his death in 164 (see PERSIS). In southern Syria, which +had been won by the house of Seleucus from the house of Ptolemy in 198, +the independent Jewish principality was set up in 143. About the same +time Media was totally relinquished to the Parthians. Babylonia was +Parthian from 129. Before 88 the Parthians had conquered Mesopotamia. +Commagene was independent under a king, Mithradates Callinicus, in the +earlier part of the last century B.C. Syria itself in the last days of +the Seleucid dynasty is seen to be breaking up into petty +principalities, Greek or native. From 83 to 69 is the transient episode +of Armenian conquest, and in 64 the last shadow of Seleucid rule +vanished, when Syria was made a Roman province by Pompey. From this time +Rome formally entered upon the heritage of Alexander as far as the +Euphrates, but many of the dynasties which had arisen in the days of +Macedonian supremacy were allowed to go on for a time as client states. +One of them, the royal house of Commagene, not deposed by the Romans +till A.D. 72, had Seleucid blood in its veins through the marriage of a +Seleucid princess with Mithradates Callinicus, and regarded itself as +being a continuation of the Seleucid dynasty. Its kings bore the name of +Antiochus, and were as proud of their Macedonian, as of their Persian, +descent (see the Inscription of Nimrud Dagh, Michel, No. 735). + + + 2. Constitution of the Macedonian Kingdom. + +The Macedonians of Alexander were not mistaken in seeing an essential +transformation of their national monarchy when Alexander adopted the +guise of an Oriental great king. Transplanted into this foreign soil, +the monarchy became an absolute despotism, unchecked by a proud +territorial nobility and a hardy peasantry on familiar terms with their +king. The principle which Seleucus is reported to have enunciated, that +the king's command was the supreme law (App. _Syr._ 61), was literally +the principle of the new Hellenistic monarchies in the East. But the +rights belonging to the Macedonian army as Alexander inherited it did +not altogether disappear. Like the old Roman people, the Macedonian +people under arms had acted especially in the transference of the royal +authority, conferring or confirming the right of the new chief, and in +cases of the capital trials of Macedonians. In the latter respect the +army came regularly into function under Alexander, and in the wars which +followed his death (Diod. xviii. 4, 3; 36, 7; 37, 2, 39, 2; xix. 61, 3), +and in Macedonia; although the power of life and death came _de facto_ +into the hands of the Antigonid king, the old right of the army to act +as judge was not legally abrogated, and friction was sometimes caused by +its assertion (Polyb. v. 27, 5). The right of the army to confer the +royal power was still symbolized in the popular acclamation required on +the accession of a new king, and at Alexandria in troubled times we hear +of "the people" making its will effective in filling the throne, +although it is here hard to distinguish mob-rule from the exercise of a +legitimate function. Thus the people put Euergetes II. on the throne +when Philometor was captured (Polyb. xxix. 23, 4); the people compelled +Cleopatra III. to choose Soter II. as her associate (Just. xxxiv. 3, 2). +In Syria, the usurper Tryphon bases his right upon an election by the +"people" (Just. xxxvi. 1, 7) or "the army" (Jos. _Ant._ xiii. § 219). +Where it is a case of delegating some part of the supreme authority, as +when Seleucus I. made his son Antiochus king for the eastern provinces, +we find the army convoked to ratify the appointment (App. _Syr._ 61). So +too the people is spoken of as appointing the guardians of a king +during his minority (Just. xxxiv. 3, 6). Nor was the power of the army a +fiction. The Hellenistic monarchies rested, as all government in the +last resort must, upon the loyalty of those who wielded the brute force +of the state, and however unlimited the powers of the king might be in +theory, he could not alienate the goodwill of the army with impunity. +The right of primogeniture in succession was recognized as a general +principle; a woman, however, might succeed only so long as there were no +male agnates. Illegitimate children had no rights of succession. In +disturbed times, of course, right yielded to might or to practical +necessities. + +The practice by which the king associated a son with himself, as +secondary king, dates from the very beginning of the kingdoms of the +Successors; Antigonus on assuming the diadem in 306 caused Demetrius +also to bear the title of king. Some ten years later Seleucus appointed +Antiochus as king for the eastern provinces. Thenceforth the practice is +a common one. But the cases of it fall into two classes. Sometimes the +subordinate or joint kingship implies real functions. In the Seleucid +kingdom the territorial expanse of the realm made the creation of a +distinct subordinate government for part of it a measure of practical +convenience. Sometimes the joint-king is merely titular, an infant of +tender years, as for instance Antiochus Eupator, the son of Antiochus +Epiphanes, or Ptolemy Eupator, the son of Ptolemy Philometor. The object +here is to secure the succession in the event of the supreme king's +dying whilst his heir is an infant. The king's government was carried on +by officials appointed by him and responsible to him alone. Government +at the same time, as an Oriental despotism understands it, often has +little in view but the gathering in of the tribute and compulsion of the +subjects to personal service in the army or in royal works, and if +satisfied in these respects will leave much independence to the local +authorities. In the loosely-knit Seleucid realm it is plain that a great +deal more independence was left to the various communities,--cities or +native tribes,--than in Egypt, where the conditions made a bureaucratic +system so easy to carry through. In their outlying possessions the +Ptolemies may have suffered as much local independence as the Seleucids; +the internal government of Jerusalem, for instance, was left to the high +priests. In so far as the older Greek cities fell within their sphere of +power, the successors of Alexander were forced to the same ambiguous +policy as Alexander had been, between recognizing the cities' unabated +claim to sovereign independence and the necessity of attaching them +securely. In Asia Minor, the "enslavement" and liberation of cities +alternated with the circumstances of the hour, while the kings all +through professed themselves the champions of Hellenic freedom, and were +ready on occasion to display munificence toward the city temples or in +public works, such as might reconcile republicans to a position of +dependence. Antiochus III. went so far as to write on one occasion to +the subject Greek cities that if any royal mandate clashed with the +civic laws it was to be disregarded (Plut. _Imp. et duc. apophth._). But +it was the old cry of the "autonomy of the Hellenes," raised by Smyrna +and Lampsacus, which ultimately brought Antiochus III. into collision +with Rome. How anxious the Pergamene kings, with their ardent Hellenism, +were to avoid offence is shown by the elaborate forms by which, in their +own capital, they sought to give their real control the appearance of +popular freedom (Cardinali, Regno di _Pergamo_, p. 281 seq.). A similar +problem confronted the Antigonid dynasty in the cities of Greece itself, +for to maintain a predominant influence in Greece was a ground-principle +of their policy. Demetrius had presented himself in 307 as the +liberator, and driven the Macedonian garrison from the Peiraeus; but his +own garrisons held Athens thirteen years later, when he was king of +Macedonia, and the Antigonid dynasty clung to the points of vantage in +Greece, especially Chalcis and Corinth, till their garrisons were +finally expelled by the Romans in the name of Hellenic liberty. + + + 3. Commerce. + +The new movement of commerce initiated by the conquest of Alexander +continued under his successors, though the break-up of the Macedonian +Empire in Asia in the 3rd century and the distractions of the Seleucid +court must have withheld many advantages from the Greek merchants which +a strong central government might have afforded them. It was along the +great trade-routes between India and the West that the main stream of +riches flowed then as in later centuries. One of these routes was by sea +to south-west Arabia (Yemen), and thence up the Red Sea to Alexandria. +This was the route controlled and developed by the Ptolemaïc kings. +Between Yemen and India the traffic till Roman times was mainly in the +hands of Arabians or Indians; between Alexandria and Yemen it was +carried by Greeks (Strabo ii. 118). The west coast of the Red Sea was +dotted with commercial stations of royal foundation from Arsinoë north +of Suez to Arsinoë in the south near the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. From +Berenice on the Red Sea a land-route struck across to the Nile at +Coptos; this route the kings furnished with watering stations. That +there might also be a waterway between Alexandria and the Red Sea, they +cut a canal between the Delta and the northern Arsinoë. It was +Alexandria into which this stream of traffic poured and made it the +commercial metropolis of the world. We hear of direct diplomatic +intercourse between the courts of Alexandria and Pataliputra, i.e. Patna +(Plin. vi. § 58). An alternative route went from the Indian ports to the +Persian Gulf, and thence found the Mediterranean by caravan across +Arabia from the country of Gerrha to Gaza; and to control it was no +doubt a motive in the long struggle of the Ptolemaïc and Seleucid houses +for Palestine, as well as in the attempt of Antiochus III. to subjugate +the Gerrhaeans. Or from the Persian Gulf wares might be taken up the +Euphrates and carried across to Antioch; this route lay altogether in +the Seleucid sphere. With Iran Antioch was connected most directly by +the road which crossed the Euphrates at the Zeugma and went through +Edessa and Antioch-Nisibis to the Tigris. The trade from India which +went down the Oxus and then to the Caspian does not seem to have been +considerable (Tarn, _Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xxi. 10 seq.). From Antioch +to the Aegean the land high-road went across Asia Minor by the Cilician +Gates and the Phrygian Apamea. + + + 4. Finance. + +Of the financial organization of the Macedonian kingdoms we know +practically nothing, except in the case of Egypt. Here the papyri and +ostraca have put a large material at our disposal, but the circumstances +in Egypt[3] were too peculiar for us to generalize upon these data as to +the Seleucid and Antigonid realms. That the Seleucid kings drew in a +principal part of their revenues from tribute levied upon the various +native races, distributed in their village communities as tillers of the +soil goes without saying.[4] In districts left in the hands of native +chiefs these chiefs would themselves exploit their villages and pay the +Seleucid court and tribute. To exact tribute from Greek cities was +invidious, but both Antigonid and Seleucid kings often did so +(Antigonid, Diog. Laërt. II., 140; Plut. _Dem._ 27; Seleucid, Michel, +No. 37; Polyb. xxi. 43, 2). Sometimes, no doubt, this tribute was +demanded under a fairer name, as the contribution of any ally ([Greek: +syntaxis], not [Greek: phoros]), like the [Greek: Galatika] levied by +Antiochus I. (Michel, No. 37; cf. Polyb. xxii. 27, 2). The royal +domains, again, and royal monopolies, such as salt-mines, were a source +of revenue.[5] As to indirect taxes, like customs and harbour dues, +while their existence is a matter of course (cf. Polyb. v. 89, 8), their +scale, nature and amount is quite unknown to us. Whatever the financial +system of the Antigonid and Seleucid kingdoms may have been, it is +clear that they were far from enjoying the affluence of the Ptolemaïc. +During the first Seleucid reigns indeed the revenues of Asia may have +filled its treasuries (see Just. xvii. 2, 13), but Antiochus III. +already at his accession found them depleted (Polyb. v. 50, 1), and from +his reign financial embarrassment, coupled with extravagant expenditure, +was here the usual condition of things. Perseus, the last of the +Antigonid house, amassed a substantial treasure for the expenses of the +supreme struggle with Rome (Polyb. xviii. 35, 4; Liv. xlv, 40), but it +was by means of almost miserly economies. + +Special officials were naturally attached to the service of the +finances. Over the whole department in the Seleucid realm there presided +a single chief ([Greek: ho epi ton prosodon], App. _Syr_. 45). How far +the financial administration was removed from the competence of the +provincial governors, as it seems to have been in Alexander's system, we +cannot say. Seleucus at any rate, as satrap of Babylonia, controlled the +finances of the province (Diod. xix. 55, 3), and so, in the Ptolemaïc +system, did the governor of Cyprus (Polyb. xxvii. 13). The fact that +provincial officials [Greek: epi ton prosodon] (in Eriza, _Bull. corr. +hell._ xv. 556) are found does not prove anything, since it leaves open +the question of their being subordinate to the governor. + + + 5. Coinage. + +With the exception of Ptolemaïc Egypt, the Macedonian kingdoms followed +in their coinage that of Alexander. Money was for a long while largely +struck with Alexander's own image and superscription; the gold and +silver coined in the names of Antigonid and Seleucid kings and by the +minor principalities of Asia, kept to the Attic standard which Alexander +had established. Only in Egypt Ptolemy I. adopted, at first the Rhodian, +and afterwards the Phoenician, standard, and on this latter standard the +Ptolemaïc money was struck during the subsequent centuries. Money was +also struck in their own name by the cities in the several dynasties' +spheres of power, but in most cases only bronze or small silver for +local use. Corinth, however, was allowed to go on striking staters under +Antigonus Gonatas; Ephesus, Cos and the greater cities of Phoenicia +retained their right of coinage under Seleucid or Ptolemaïc supremacy. + + + 6. The Court. + +In language and manners the courts of Alexander's successors were Greek. +Even the Macedonian dialect, which it was considered proper for the +kings to use on occasion, was often forgotten (Plut. _Ant._ 27). The +Oriental features which Alexander had introduced were not copied. There +was no _proskynesis_ (or certainly not in the case of Greeks and +Macedonians), and the king did not wear an Oriental dress. The symbol of +royalty, it is true, the _diadem_, was suggested by the head-band of the +old Persian kings (Just. xii. 3, 8); but, whereas, that had been an +imposing erection, the Hellenistic diadem was a simple riband. The +king's state dress was the same in principle as that worn by the +Macedonian or Thessalian horsemen, as the uniform of his own cavalry +officers. Its features were the broad-brimmed hat (_kausia_), the cloak +(_chlamys_) and the high-laced boots (_krepides_) (Plut. _Ant._ 54; +Frontinus, iii. 2, 11). These, in the case of the king, would be of +richer material, colour and adornment. The diadem could be worn round +the kausia; the chlamys offered scope for gorgeous embroidery; and the +boots might be crimson felt (see the description of Demetrius' chlamys +and boots, Plut. _Dem_. 41). There were other traces in the Hellenistic +courts of the old Macedonian tradition besides in dress. One was the +honour given to prowess in the chase (Polyb. xxii. 3, 8; Diod. xxxiv. +34). Another was the fashion for the king to hold wassail with his +courtiers, in which he unbent to an extent scandalous to the Greeks, +dancing or indulging in routs and practical jokes.[6] + +The prominent part taken by the women of the royal house was a +Macedonian characteristic. The history of these kingdoms furnishes a +long list of queens and princesses who were ambitious and masterful +politicians, of which the great Cleopatra is the last and the most +famous. The kings after Alexander, with the exception of Demetrius +Poliorcetes and Pyrrhus, are not found to have more than one legitimate +wife at a time, although they show unstinted freedom in divorce and the +number of their mistresses. The custom of marriages between brothers and +sisters, agreeable to old Persian as to old Egyptian ethics, was +instituted in Egypt by the second Ptolemy when he married his full +sister Arsinoë Philadelphus. It was henceforth common, though not +invariable, among the Ptolemies. At the Seleucid court there seems to be +an instance of it in 195, when the heir-apparent, Antiochus, married his +sister Laodice. The style of "sister" was given in both courts to the +queen, even when she was not the king's sister in reality (Strack, +_Dynastie_, Nos. 38, 40, 43; _Archiv. f. Papyr_, i. 205). The "Friends" +of the king are often mentioned. It is usual for him to confer with a +council ([Greek: synedrion]) of his "Friends" before important +decisions, administrative, military or judicial (e.g. Polyb. v. 16, 5; +22, 8). They form a definite body about the king's person ([Greek: +philon syntagma], Polyb. xxxi. 3, 7); cf. [Greek: hoi philoi] in +contrast with [Greek: hai dynameis], id. v. 50, 9), admission into which +depends upon his favour alone, and is accorded, not only to his +subjects, but to aliens, such as the Greek refugee politicians (e.g. +Hegesianax, Athen. iv. 155b; Hannibal and the Aetolian Thoas take part +in the councils of Antiochus III. A similar body, with a title +corresponding to [Greek: philoi], is found in ancient Egypt (Erman, +_Ancient Egypt_, Eng. trans., p. 72) and in Persia (Spiegel. _Eran. +Alt._ iii. 626); but some such support is so obviously required by the +necessities of a despot's position that we need not suppose it derived +from any particular precedent. The Friends (at any rate under the later +Seleucid and Ptolemaïc reigns) were distinguished by a special dress and +badge of gold analogous to the stars and crosses of modern orders. The +dress was of crimson ([Greek: porphyra]); this and the badges were the +king's gift, and except by royal grant neither crimson nor gold might, +apparently, be worn at court (1 Macc. 10, 20; 62; 89; 11, 58; Athen. v. +211b). The order of Friends was organized in a hierarchy of ranks, which +were multiplied as time went on. In Egypt we find them classified as +[Greek: syngeneis, homotimoi tois syngenesin, archisomatophylakes, +protoi philoi, philoi] (in the narrower sense), [Greek: diadochoi]. For +the Seleucid kingdom [Greek: syngeneis, protoi philoi] and [Greek: +philoi] are mentioned. These classes do not appear in Egypt before the +2nd century; Strack conjectures that they were created in imitation of +the Seleucid court. We have no direct evidence as to the institutions of +the Seleucid court in the 3rd century. Certain [Greek: somatophylakes] +of Antiochus I. are mentioned, but we do not know whether the name was +not then used in its natural sense (Strack, _Rhein. Mus._ LV., 1900, p. +161 seq.; Wilamowitz, _Archiv f. Pap._ I., p. 225; Beloch, _Gr. Gesch._ +iii (i), p. 391). As to Macedonia, whatever may have been the +constitution of the court, it is implied that it offered in its +externals a sober plainness in comparison with the vain display and +ceremonious frivolities of Antioch and Alexandria (Polyb. xvi, 22, 5; +Plut. _Cleom._ 31; _Arat_, 15). The position of a Friend did not carry +with it necessarily any functions; it was in itself purely honorary. The +ministers and high officials were, on the other hand, regularly invested +with one or other of the ranks specified. The chief of these ministers +is denoted [Greek: ho epi ton pragmaton], and he corresponds to the +_vizier_ of the later East. All departments of government are under his +supervision, and he regularly holds the highest rank of a kinsman. When +the king is a minor, he acts as guardian or regent ([Greek: epitropos]). +Over different departments of state we find a state secretary ([Greek: +epistolographos] or [Greek: hypomnematographos]: Seleucid, Polyb. xxxi, +3, 16; Ptolemaïc, Strack, _Inschriften_ 103) and a minister of finance +([Greek: ho epi ton prosodon] in the Seleucid kingdom; App. _Syr._ 45; +[Greek: dioiketes] in Egypt, Lumbroso, _Econ. Pol._ p. 339). Under each +of these great heads of departments was a host of lower officials, +those, for instance, who held to the province a relation analogous to +that of the head of the department of the realm. Such a provincial +authority is described as [Greek: epi ton prosodon] in the inscription +of Eriza (_Bull. corr. hell._ xv. 556). Beside the officials concerned +with the work of government we have those of the royal household: (1) +the chief-physician, [Greek: archiatros] (for the Seleucid see App. +_Syr._ 59; Polyb. v. 56, 1; Michel, No. 1158; for the Pontic, _Bull. +corr. hell._ vii. 354 seq.); (2) the chief-huntsman, [Greek: +archikunegos] (Dittenb. _Orient. Graec._ 99); (3) the maître-d'hotel +[Greek: archedeatros] (Dittenb. _Orient. Graec._ 169) (4) the lord of +the queen's bedchamber, [Greek: ho epi tou koitonos tês Basilissês] +(Dittenb. _Orient. Graec._ 256). As in the older Oriental courts, the +high positions were often filled by eunuchs (e.g. Craterus, in last +mentioned inscription). + +It was customary, as in Persia and in old Macedonia, for the great men +of the realm to send their children to court to be brought up with the +children of the royal house. Those who had been so brought up with the +king were styled his [Greek: syntrophoi] (for the Seleucid, Polyb. v. +82, 8 and xxxi. 21, 2; _Bull. corr. hell._ i. 285; 2 Macc. ix. 29; for +the Ptolemaïc [Greek: syntrophoi paidiskai] of the queen, Polyb. xv. 33, +11; for the Pontic, _Bull. corr. hell._ vii. 355; for the Pergamene. +Polyb. xxxii. 27, 10, &c.; for the Herodian, Acts 13). It is perfectly +gratuitous to suppose with Deissmann that "the fundamental meaning had +given place to the general meaning of intimate friend." With this custom +we may perhaps bring into connexion the office of [Greek: tropheus] +(Polyb. xxxi. 20, 3; Michel, No. 1158). As under Alexander, so under his +successors, we find a corps of [Greek: Basilikoi paides]. They appear as +a corps, 600 strong, in a triumphal procession at Antioch (Polyb. xxxi. +3, 17; cf. v. 82, 13; Antigonid, Livy, xlv. 6; cf. Curtius, viii. 6, 6). + + + 7. Hellenic Culture. + +All the Hellenistic courts felt it a great part of prestige to be filled +with the light of Hellenic culture. A distinguished philosopher or man +of letters would find them bidding for his presence, and most of the +great names are associated with one or other of the contemporary kings. +Antigonus Gonatas, bluff soldier-spirit that he was, heard the Stoic +philosophers gladly, and, though he failed to induce Zeno to come to +Macedonia, persuaded Zeno's disciple, Persaeus of Citium, to enter his +service. Nor was it philosophers only who made his court illustrious, +but poets like Aratus. The Ptolemaïc court, with the museum attached to +it, is so prominent in the literary and scientific history of the age +that it is unnecessary to give a list of the philosophers, the men of +letters and science, who at one time or other ate at King Ptolemy's +table. One may notice that the first Ptolemy himself made a contribution +of some value to historical literature in his account of Alexander's +campaigns; the fourth Ptolemy not only instituted a cult of Homer but +himself published tragedies; and even Ptolemy Euergetes II. issued a +book of memoirs. The Pergamene court was in no degree behind the +Ptolemaïc in its literary and artistic zeal. The notable school of +sculpture connected with it is treated elsewhere (see GREEK ART); to its +literary school we probably owe in great part the preservation of the +masterpieces of Attic prose (Susemihl I., p. 4), and two of its kings +(Eumenes I. and Attalus III.) were themselves authors. The Seleucid +court did not rival either of the last named in brilliance of culture; +and yet some names of distinction were associated with it. Under +Antiochus I. Aratus carried out a recension of the _Odyssey_, and +Berossus composed a Babylonian history in Greek; under Antiochus III. +Euphorion was made keeper of the library at Antioch. Antiochus IV., of +course, the enthusiastic Hellenist, filled Antioch with Greek artists +and gave a royal welcome to Athenian philosophers. Even in the +degenerate days of the dynasty, Antiochus Grypus, who had been brought +up at Athens, aspired to shine as a poet. The values recognized in the +great Hellenistic courts and the Greek world generally imposed their +authority upon the dynasties of barbarian origin. The Cappadocian court +admitted the full stream of Hellenistic culture under Ariarathes V. +(Diod. xxxi. 19, 8). One of the kings called Nicomedes in Bithynia +offered immense sums to acquire the Aphrodite of Praxiteles from the +Cnidians (Plin. _N.H._ xxxvi. 21), and to a king Nicomedes the +geographical poem of the Pseudo-Scymnus is dedicated. Even Iranian kings +in the last century B.C. found pleasure in composing, or listening to, +Greek tragedies, and Herod the Great kept Greek men of letters beside +him and had spasmodic ambitions to make his mark as an orator or author +(Nicol. Dam. frag. 4; _F.H.G._ III. p. 350). + + + 8. Divine Honours. + +The offering of divine honours to the king, which we saw begin under +Alexander, became stereotyped in the institutions of the succeeding +Hellenistic kingdoms. Alexander himself was after his death the object +of various local cults, like that which centred in the shrine near +Erythrae (Strabo, xiv. 644). His successors in the first years after his +death recognized him officially as a divinity, except Antipater (Suïdas, +s.v. [Greek: Antipatros]), and coins began to be issued with his image. +At Alexandria the state cult of him seems to have been instituted by the +second Ptolemy, when his body was laid in the _Sema_ (Otto, _Priester u. +Tempel_, i. 139 seq.). The successors themselves received divine +honours. Such worship might be the spontaneous homage of a particular +Greek community, like that offered to Antigonus by Scepsis in 311 +(_Journ. of Hell. Stud._ xix. 335 seq.), the Antigonus and Demetrius by +Athens in 307, to Ptolemy I. by the Rhodians in 304, or by Cassandrea to +Cassander, as the city's founder (Ditt. 2nd ed. 178); or it might be +organized and maintained by royal authority. The first proved instance +of a cult of the latter kind is that instituted at Alexandria by the +second Ptolemy for his father soon after the latter's death in 283/2, in +which, some time after, 279/8, he associated his mother Berenice also, +the two being worshipped together as [Greek: theoi soteres] (Theoc. +xvii. 121 seq.). Antiochus I. followed the Ptolemaïc precedent by +instituting at Seleucia-in-Pieria a cult for his father as Seleucus Zeus +Nicator. So far we can point to no instance of a cult of the living +sovereign (though the cities might institute such locally) being +established by the court for the realm. This step was taken in Egypt +after the death of Arsinoë Philadelphus (271) when she and her +still-living brother-husband, Ptolemy II., began to be worshipped +together as [Greek: theoi adelphoi]. After this the cult of the reigning +king and queen was regularly maintained in Greek Egypt, side by side +with that of the dead Ptolemies. Under Antiochus II. (261-246) a +document shows us a cult of the reigning king in full working for the +Seleucid realm, with a high priest in each province, appointed by the +king himself; the document declares that the Queen Laodice is now to be +associated with the king. The official surname of Antiochus II., Theos, +suggests that he himself had here been the innovator. Thenceforward, in +the Hellenistic kingdoms of the East the worship of the living sovereign +became the rule, although it appears to have been regarded as given in +anticipation of an apotheosis which did not become actual till death. In +the Pergamene kingdom at any rate, though the living king was worshipped +with sacrifice, the title [Greek: theos] was only given to those who +were dead (Cardinali, _Regno di Pergamo_, p. 153). The Antigonid +dynasty, simpler and saner in its manners, had no official cult of this +sort. The divine honours offered on occasion by the Greek cities were +the independent acts of the cities. + + See Plut. _Arat._ 45; _Cleom._ 16; Kornemann, "Zur Gesch. d. antiken + Herrscherkulte" in _Beiträge z. alt. Gesch._ i. 51 sqq.; Otto, + _Priester u. Tempel_, pp. 138 seq. + + + 9. Surnames. + + There does not seem any clear proof that the surnames which the + Hellenistic kings in Asia and Egypt bore were necessarily connected + with the cult, even if they were used to describe the various kings in + religious ceremonies. Some had doubtless a religious colour, _Theos, + Epiphanes, Soter_; others a dynastic, _Phitopator, Philometor, + Philadelphus_. Under what circumstances, and by whose selection, the + surname was attached to a king, is obscure. It is noteworthy that + while modern books commonly speak of the surnames as _assumed_, the + explanations given by our ancient authorities almost invariably + suppose them to be given as marks of homage or gratitude (_English + Historical Review_, xvi. 629 (1901). The official surnames must not, + of course, be confused with the popular nicknames which were naturally + not recognized by the court, e.g. _Ceraunus_ ("Thunder"), _Hierax_ + ("Hawk"), _Physcon_ ("Pot-belly"), _Lathyrus_ ("Chick-pea"). + + + 10. Armies. + + The armies of Alexander's successors were still in the main principles + of their organization similar to the army with which Alexander had + conquered Asia. During the years immediately after Alexander the very + Macedonians who had fought under Alexander were ranged against each + other under the banners of the several chiefs. The most noted corps + of veterans, Argyraspides (i.e. the royal Hypaspistae) played a great + part in the first wars of the successors, and covered themselves with + infamy by their betrayal of Eumenes. As the soldiers of Alexander died + off, fresh levies of home-born Macedonians could be raised only by the + chief who held the motherland. The other chiefs had to supply + themselves with Macedonians from the numerous colonies planted before + the break-up of the empire in Asia or Egypt, and from such Macedonians + they continued for the next two centuries to form their phalanx. The + breed--at least if the statement which Livy puts into the mouth of a + Roman general can be relied on--degenerated greatly under Asiatic and + Egyptian skies (Liv. xxxviii. 17, 10); but still old names like that + of _pezetaeri_ attached to the phalangites (Plut. _Tib._ 17), and they + still wielded the national _sarissa_. The latter weapon in the + interval between Alexander and the time of Polybius had been increased + to a length of 21 ft. (Polyb. xviii. 12), a proportion inconsistent + with any degree of mobility; once more indeed the phalanx of the 2nd + century seems to have become a body effective by sheer weight only and + disordered by unevenness of ground. The Antigonid kings were never + able from Macedonian levies to put in the field a phalanx of more than + 20,000 at the utmost (Liv. xlii. 51); Antigonus Doson takes with him + to Greece (in 222) one of 10,000 only. The phalanx of Antiochus III. + at Raphia numbered 20,000, and Ptolemy Philopator was able at the same + time to form one of 25,000 men (Polyb. v. 4). As these phalangites are + distinguished both from the Greek mercenaries and the native Egyptian + levies, it looks (although such a fact would be staggering) as if more + Macedonians could be raised for military service in Egypt than in + Macedonia itself (but see Beloch, p. 353). The royal foot-guards are + still described in Macedonia in 171 as the _agema_ (Polyb. v. 25, 1; + 27, 3; Liv. xlii. 51), when they number 2000; at the Ptolemaïc court + in 217 the _agema_ had numbered 3000 (Polyb. v. 65, 2); and a similar + corps of _hypaspistae_ is indicated in the Seleucid army (Polyb. vii. + 16, 2; xvi. 18, 7). So too the old name of "Companions" was kept up in + the Seleucid kingdom for the Macedonian cavalry (see Polyb. v. 53, 4, + &c.), and divisions of rank in it are still indicated by the terms + _agema_ and royal squadron ([Greek: basilike hile], see Bevan, _House + of Seleucus_, ii. 288). The Antigonid and Seleucid courts had much + valuable material at hand for their armies in the barbarian races + under their sway. The Balkan hill-peoples of Illyrian or Thracian + stock, the hill-peoples of Asia Minor and Iran, the chivalry of Media + and Bactria, the mounted bowmen of the Caspian steppes, the + camel-riders of the Arabian desert, could all be turned to account. + Iranian troops seem to have been employed on a large scale by the + earlier Seleucids. At Raphia, Antiochus III. had 10,000 men drawn from + the provinces, armed and drilled as Macedonians, and another corps of + Iranians numbering 5000 under a native commander (Polyb. v. 79). The + experiment of arming the native Egyptians on a large scale does not + seem to have been made before the campaign of 217, when Ptolemy IV. + formed corps of the Macedonian pattern from Egyptians and Libyans (cf. + Polyb. v. 107, 2; Ptolemy I. had employed Egyptians in the army, + though chiefly as carriers, Diod. xix. 80, 4). From this time native + rebellions in Egypt are recurrent. To the troops drawn from their own + dominions the mercenaries which the kings procured from abroad were an + important supplement. These were mainly the bands of Greek + _condottieri_, and even for their home-born troops Greek officers of + renown were often engaged. The other class of mercenaries were Gauls, + and from the time of the Gallic invasion of Asia Minor in 279 Gauls or + Galatians were a regular constituent in all armies. They were a weapon + apt to be dangerous to the employer, but the terror they inspired was + such that every potentate sought to get hold of them. The elephants + which Alexander brought back from India were used in the armies of his + successors, and in 302 Seleucus procured a new supply. Thenceforward + elephants, either brought fresh from India or bred in the royal + stables at Apamea, regularly figured in the Seleucid armies. The + Ptolemies supplied themselves with this arm from the southern coasts + of the Red Sea, where they established stations for the capture and + shipping of elephants, but the African variety was held inferior to + the Indian. Scythed chariots such as had figured in the old Persian + armies were still used by the Greek masters of Asia (Seleucus I., + Diod. xx. 113, 4; Molon, Polyb. v. 53, 10; Antiochus III., Liv. + xxxvii. 41), at any rate till the battle of Magnesia. The Hellenistic + armies were distinguished by their external magnificence. They made a + greater display of brilliant metal and gorgeous colour than the Roman + armies, for instance. The description given by Justin of the army + which Antiochus Sidetes took to the East in 130 B.C., boot-nails and + bridles of gold, gives an idea of their standard of splendour (Just. + xxxviii. 10, 1; cf. Polyb. xxxi. 3; Plut. _Eum._ 14; id. _Aemil._ 18; + id. _Sulla_, 16). + + During the 3rd century B.C. Egypt was the greatest sea power of the + eastern Mediterranean, and maintained a large fleet (the figures in + App. _Prooem_, 10 are not trustworthy, see Beloch III. i, 364). Its + control of the Aegean was, however, contested not without success by + the Antigonids, who won the two great sea-fights of Cos (c. 256) and + Andros (227), and wrested the overlordship of the Cyclades from the + Ptolemies. Of the numbers and constitution of the Antigonid fleet we + know nothing.[7] At the Seleucid court in 222 the admiral ([Greek: + nauarchos]) appears as a person of high consideration (Polyb. v. 43, + 1); in his war with Rome Antiochus III. had 107 decked battleships on + the sea at one time. By the Peace of Apamea (188) the Seleucid navy + was abolished; Antiochus undertook to keep no more than 10 ships of + war. + + For the Hellenistic armies and fleets see A. Bauer in L. von Müller's + _Handbuch_, vol. iv.; Delbruck, _Gesch. d. Kriegskunst_ (1900). + + + 11. Treatment of Subject Peoples. + +To their native subjects the Seleucid and Ptolemaïc kings were always +foreigners. It was considered wonderful in the last Cleopatra that she +learnt to speak Egyptian (Plut. _Anton._ 27). Natives were employed, as +we have seen, in the army, and Iranians are found under the Seleucids +holding high commands, e.g. Aspasianus the Mede (Polyb. v. 79, 7), +Aribazus, governor of Cilicia (Flinders Petrie, _Papyri_, II., No. 45), +Aribazus, governor of Sardis (Polyb. vii. 17, 9), and Omanes (Michel, +No. 19, l. 104). Native cults the Hellenistic kings thought it good +policy to patronize. Antiochus I. began rebuilding the temple of Nebo at +Borsippa (_Keilinschr. Bibl._ iii. 2, 136 seq.) Antiochus III. bestowed +favours on the Temple at Jerusalem. Even if the documents in Joseph, +_Arch._ xii. SS 138 seq. are spurious, their general view of the +relation of Antiochus III. and Jerusalem is probably true. Even small +local worships, like that of the village of Baetocaece, might secure +royal patronage (_C.I.G._ No. 4474). Of course, financial straits might +drive the kings to lay hands on temple-treasures, as Antiochus III. and +Antiochus IV. did, but that was a measure of emergency. + + + 12. Significance of Macedonian Rule. + +The Macedonian kingdoms, strained by continual wars, increasingly +divided against themselves, falling often under the sway of prodigals +and debauchees, were far from realizing the Hellenic idea of sound +government as against the crude barbaric despotisms of the older East. +Yet, in spite of all corruption, ideas of the intelligent development of +the subject lands, visions of the Hellenic king, as the Greek thinkers +had come to picture him, haunted the Macedonian rulers, and perhaps +fitfully, in the intervals of war or carousal, prompted some degree of +action. Treatises "Concerning Kingship" were produced as a regular thing +by philosophers, and kings who claimed the fine flower of Hellenism, +could not but peruse them. Strabo regards the loss of the eastern +provinces to the Parthians as their passage under a government of lower +type, beyond the sphere of Hellenic [Greek: epimegeia] (Strabo xi. 509). +In the organization of the administrative machinery of these kingdoms, +the higher power of the Hellene to adapt and combine had been operative; +they were organisms of a richer, more complex type than the East had +hitherto known. It was thus that when Rome became a world-empire, it +found to some extent the forms of government ready made, and took over +from the Hellenistic monarchies a tradition which it handed on to the +later world. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the general history of the Macedonian kingdoms, see + Droysen, _Histoire de l'Hellénisme_ (the French translation by + Bouché-Leclercq, 1883-1885, represents the work in its final + revision); A. Holm, _History of Greece_, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, + _Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten_ (1893-1903); + Kaerst, _Gesch. des hellenist. Zeitalters_, vol. i. (1901). A masterly + conspectus of the general character of the Hellenistic kingdoms in + their political, economic and social character, their artistic and + intellectual culture is given by Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ iii. (i.), + 260-556; see also Kaerst, _Studien zur Entwicklung d. Monarchie_; E. + Breccia, _Il Diritto dinastico helle monarchie dei successori + d'Alessandro Magno_ (1903). Popular sketches of the history, + enlightened by special knowledge and a wide outlook, are given by J. + P. Mahaffy, _Alexander's Empire_ ("Stories of the Nations Series"); + _Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Empire_ (1905); _The Silver Age + of the Greek World_ (1906). See also HELLENISM; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID + DYNASTY. (E. R. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the events which brought this empire into being see ALEXANDER + THE GREAT. For the detailed accounts of the separate dynasties into + which it was divided after Alexander's death, see SELEUCID DYNASTY, + ANTIGONUS, PERGAMUM, &c., and for its effect on the spread of + Hellenic culture see HELLENISM. + + [2] For details see separate articles on the chief generals. + + [3] For Ptolemaïc Egypt, see PTOLEMIES and EGYPT. + + [4] A _tenth_ of the produce is suggested to have been the normal tax + by what the Romans found obtaining in the Attalid kingdom. The + references given by Beloch (_Griech. Gesch._ iii. i, p. 343) to prove + it for the Seleucid kingdom are questionable. Beloch refers (1) to + the letter of Demetrius II. to Lasthenes in which [Greek: hai dekatai + kai ta tele] are mentioned, 1 Macc. 11, 35 (Beloch, by an oversight, + refers to the paraphrase of the documents in Joseph. _Ant._ xiii. 4, + § 126 seq., in which the mention of the [Greek: dekatai] is + omitted!). The authenticity of this document is, however, very + doubtful. He refers (2) to Dittenb. 171 (1st ed.), line 101; but here + the tax seems to be, not an imperial one, but one paid to the city of + Smyrna. + + [5] The salt monopoly is mentioned in 1 Macc. 10, 29; 11, 35, a + suspected source, but supported in this detail by the analogy of + Ptolemaïc Egypt and Rome. For domains in Antigonid, Attalid and + Bithynian realms, see Cic. _De leg. agr._ ii. 19, 50. + + [6] Antiochus Epiphanes was an extreme case. For the Antigonid court + see Diog. Laërt. vii. 13; Plut. _Arat._ 17; for the Seleucid, Athen. + iv. 155b; v. 211a; for the Ptolemaïc, Diog. L. vii. 177; Athen. vi. + 246c; Plut. _Cleom._ 33; Just. xxx. 1. + + [7] For the Antigonid [Greek: nauarchos] or admiral, see Polyb. xvi. 6. + + + + +MACEDONIUS, (1) bishop of Constantinople in succession to Eusebius of +Nicomedia, was elected by the Arian bishops in 341, while the orthodox +party elected Paul, whom Eusebius had superseded. The partisans of the +two rivals involved the city in a tumultuous broil, and were not quelled +until the emperor Constantius II. banished Paul. Macedonius was +recognized as patriarch in 342. Compelled by the intervention of +Constans in 348 to resign the patriarchate in favour of his former +opponent, he was reinstalled in 350. He then took vengeance on his +opponents by a general persecution of the adherents of the Nicene +Creed. In 359, on the division of the Arian party into Acacians (or pure +Arians) and semi-Arians or Homoiousians, Macedonius adhered to the +latter, and in consequence was expelled from his see by the council of +Constantinople in 360. He now became avowed leader of the sect of +Pneumatomachi, Macedonians or Marathonians, whose distinctive tenet was +that the Holy Spirit is but a being similar to the angels, subordinate +to and in the service of the Father and the Son, the relation between +whom did not admit of a third. He did not long survive his deposition. + + See the Church Histories of Socrates and Sozomen; Art. in _Dict. Chr. + Biog._; F. Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._; H. M. Gwatkin, + _Arianism_. + +MACEDONIUS, (2) bishop of Mopsuestia, was present at the councils of +Nicaea and Philippopolis, and inclined to the reactionary party who +thought the Athanasians had gone too far. + +MACEDONIUS, (3) bishop of Constantinople (fl. 510), a strict +Chalcedonian who vainly opposed the fanaticism of the monophysite +Severus and was deposed in 513. + + + + +MACEIÓ or MACAYO, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state of +Alagôas, about 125 m. S.S.W. of Pernambuco, in lat. 9° 39´ 35´´ S., +long. 35° 44´ 36´´ W. Pop. including a large rural district and several +villages (1890), 31,498; (1908, estimate), 33,000. The city stands at +the foot of low bluffs, about a mile from the shore line. The water-side +village of Jaraguá, the port of Maceió, is practically a suburb of the +city. South of the port is the shallow entrance to the Lagôa do Norte, +of Lagôa Mundahú, a salt-water lake extending inland for some miles. +Maceió is attractively situated in the midst of large plantations of +coco-nut and _dendé_ palms, though the broad sandy beach in front and +the open sun-burned plain behind give a barren character to its +surroundings. The heat is moderated by the S.E. trade winds, and the +city is considered healthful. The public buildings are mostly +constructed of broken stone and mortar, plastered outside and covered +with red tiles, but the common dwellings are generally constructed of +_tapia_--rough trellis-work walls filled in with mud. A light tramway +connects the city and port, and a railway--the Alagôas Central--connects +the two with various interior towns. The port is formed by a stone reef +running parallel with and a half-mile from the shore line, within which +vessels of light draft find a safe anchorage, except from southerly +gales. Ocean-going steamers anchor outside the reef. The exports consist +principally of sugar, cotton, and rum (_aguardiente_). Maceió dates from +1815 when a small settlement there was created a "villa." In 1839 it +became the provincial capital and was made a city by the provincial +assembly. + + + + +McENTEE, JERVIS (1828-1891), American artist, was born at Rondout, New +York, on the 14th of July 1828, and was a pupil of Frederick E. Church. +He was made an associate of the National Academy of Design, New York, in +1860, and a full academician in 1861. In 1869 he visited Europe, +painting much in Italy. He was identified with the Hudson River School, +and excelled in pictures of autumn scenery. He died at Rondout, N.Y., on +the 27th of January 1891. + + + + +MACER, AEMILIUS, of Verona, Roman didactic poet, author of two poems, +one on birds (_Ornithogonia_), the other on the antidotes against the +poison of serpents (_Theriaca_), imitated from the Greek poet Nicander +of Colophon. According to Jerome, he died in 16 B.C. It is possible that +he wrote also a botanical work. The extant hexameter poem _De viribus_ +(or _virtutibus_) _herbarum_, ascribed to Macer, is a medieval +production by Odo Magdunensis, a French physician. Aemilius Macer must +be distinguished from the Macer called _Iliacus_ in the Ovidian +catalogue of poets, the author of an epic poem on the events preceding +the opening of the Iliad. The fact of his being addressed by Ovid in one +of the epistles _Ex Ponto_ shows that he was alive long after Aemilius +Macer. He had been identified with the son or grandson of Theophanes of +Mytilene, the intimate friend of Pompey. + + See Ovid, _Tristia_, iv. 10, 43; Quintilian, _Instit._ x. 1, 56, 87; + R. Unger, _De Macro Nicandri imitatore_ (Friedland, 1845); C. P. + Schulze in _Rheinisches Museum_ (1898), liii. p. 541; for Macer + Iliacus see Ovid, _Ex Ponto_, ii 10, 13, iv. 16, 6; _Amores_, ii. 18. + + + + +MACERATA, a city of the Marches, Italy, the chief town of the province +of Macerata and a bishop's see, 44 m. by rail S. of Ancona. Pop. (1901), +6,176 (town), 22,473 (commune). Crowning a hill 919 ft. above sea-level, +with a picturesque mass of buildings enclosed by walls and towers, +Macerata looks out over the Adriatic. The cathedral is modern, but some +of the churches and palaces are not without interest. Besides the +university, agricultural school and industrial institute, Macerata has a +communal library founded by Leo XII., containing a small but choice +collection of early pictures, and in the municipal buildings, a +collection of antiquities from Helvia Ricina. There is an enormous +amphitheatre or _sferisterio_ for _pallone_, a ball game which is very +popular in the district. The industries comprise the making of bricks, +matches, terra-cotta and chemicals. + +Macerata, as well as Recanati, was founded by the inhabitants of Ricina +after the destruction of their city by Alaric in 408. During the Lombard +period it was a flourishing town; but it was raised from comparative +insignificance by Nicholas IV. to be the seat of the governors of the +March. It was enclosed in the 13th century by a new line of walls more +than 2½ m. in circuit; and in the troubles of the next two hundred years +it had frequent occasion to learn their value. For the most part it +remained faithful to the popes, and in return it was rewarded by a +multitude of privileges. Though in 1797 the inhabitants opened their +gates to the French, two years afterwards, when the country people took +refuge within the walls, the city was taken by storm and delivered to +pillage. The bishopric of Macerata dates from the suppression of the see +of Recanati (1320). + + + + +MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER (1813-1887), English composer, was born +in London on the 2nd of March 1813, and entered the Royal Academy of +Music in 1829. A symphony by him was played at an Academy concert in +1830; for the opening of the Queen's Theatre in Tottenham Street, under +the management of his father, in 1831, he wrote an overture. His _Chevy +Chase_ overture, the orchestral work by which he is perhaps best known, +was written as early as 1836, and in a single night. On leaving the +Academy in 1836, Macfarren was for about a year a music teacher in the +Isle of Man, and wrote two unsuccessful operas. In 1837 he was appointed +a professor at the Academy, and wrote his _Romeo and Juliet_ overture. +In the following year he brought out _The Devil's Opera_, one of his +best works. In 1843 he became conductor at Covent Garden, producing the +_Antigone_ with Mendelssohn's music; his opera on _Don Quixote_ was +produced under Bunn at Drury Lane in 1846; his subsequent operas include +_Charles II._ (1849), _Robin Hood_ (1860), _She Stoops to Conquer_ +(1864), and _Helvellyn_ (1864). A gradual failure of his eyesight, which +had been defective from boyhood, resulted in total blindness in 1865, +but he overcame the difficulties by employing an amanuensis in +composition, and made hardly a break in the course of his work. He was +made principal of the Royal Academy of Music in succession to Sterndale +Bennett in February 1875, and in March of the same year professor of +music in Cambridge University. Shortly before this he had begun a series +of oratorios: _St John the Baptist_ (Bristol, 1873); _Resurrection_ +(Birmingham, 1876); _Joseph_ (Leeds, 1877); and _King David_ (Leeds, +1883). In spite of their solid workmanship, and the skill with which the +ideas are treated, it is difficult to hear or read them through without +smiling at some of the touches of quite unconscious humour often +resulting from the way in which the Biblical narratives have been, as it +were, dramatized. He delivered many lectures of great and lasting value, +and his theoretical works, such as the _Rudiments of Harmony_, and the +treatise on counterpoint, will probably be remembered longer than many +of his compositions. He was knighted in 1883, and died suddenly in +London on the 31st of October 1887. + + An excellent memoir by H. C. Banister appeared in 1891. + + + + +McGEE, THOMAS D'ARCY (1825-1868), Irish-Canadian politician and writer, +second son of James McGee, a coast-guard, was born at Carlingford, Co. +Louth, on the 13th of April 1825. He early showed a remarkable aptitude +for oratory. At the age of thirteen he delivered a speech at Wexford, +and when four years later he emigrated to America he quickly gained a +reputation as a writer and public speaker in the city of Boston. He thus +attracted the attention of O'Connell, and before he was twenty years of +age he returned to London to become parliamentary correspondent of the +_Freeman's Journal_, and shortly afterwards London correspondent of the +_Nation_, to which he also contributed a number of poems. He married in +1847 Mary Theresa Caffry, by whom he had two children. In 1846 he became +one of the moving spirits in the "Young Ireland" party, and in promoting +the objects of that organization he contributed two volumes to the +"Library of Ireland." On the failure of the movement in 1848 McGee +escaped in the disguise of a priest to the United States, where between +1848 and 1853 he established two newspapers, the _New York Nation_ and +the _American Celt_. His writings at first were exceedingly bitter and +anti-English; but as years passed he realized that a greater measure of +political freedom was possible under the British constitution than under +the American. He had now become well-known as an author, and as a +lecturer of unusual ability. In 1857 McGee, driven from the United +States by the scurrilous attacks of the extreme Irish revolutionaries, +took up his abode in Canada, and was admitted to the bar of the province +of Lower Canada in 1861. At the general election in 1858 he was returned +to parliament as the member for Montreal, and for four years he was +regarded as a powerful factor in the house. On the formation of the +Sandfield-Macdonald-Sicotte administration in 1862 he accepted the +office of president of the council. When the cabinet was reconstructed a +year later the Irish were left without representation, and McGee sought +re-election as a member of the opposite party. In 1864 he was appointed +minister of agriculture in the administration of Sir E. P. Tache, and he +served the country in that capacity until his death. He actively +supported the policy of federation and was elected a member of the first +Dominion parliament in 1867. On the 7th of April 1868, after having +delivered a notable speech in the house, he was shot by an assassin as +he was about to enter his house at Ottawa. His utterances against the +Fenian invasion are believed to have been the cause of the crime for +which P. J. Whelan was executed. McGee's loss was keenly felt by all +classes, and within a few weeks of his death parliament granted an +annuity to his widow and children. McGee had great faith in the future +of Canada as a part of the empire. Speaking at St John, N.B., in 1863, +he said: "There are before the public men of British America at this +moment but two courses: either to drift with the tide of democracy, or +to seize the golden moment and fix for ever the monarchical character of +our institutions. I invite every fellow colonist who agrees with me to +unite our efforts that we may give our province the aspect of an empire, +in order to exercise the influence abroad and at home of a state, and to +originate a history which the world will not willingly let die." Sir +Charles Gavan Duffy considered that as a poet McGee was not inferior to +Davis, and that as an orator he possessed powers rarer than those of T. +F. Meagher. + + McGee's principal works are: _A Popular History of Ireland_ (2 vols., + New York, 1862; 1 vol., London, 1869); _Irish Writers of the + Seventeenth Century_ (Dublin, 1846); _Historical Sketches of O'Connell + and his Friends_ (Boston, 1844); _Memoirs of the Life and Conquests of + Art McMurrogh, King of Leinster_ (Dublin, 1847); _Memoir of C. G. + Duffy_ (Dublin, 1849); _A History of the Irish Settlers in North + America_ (Boston, 1851); _History of the Attempts to establish the + Protestant Reformation in Ireland_ (Boston, 1853); _Life of Edward + Maginn, Coadjutor Bishop of Derry_ (New York, 1857); _Catholic History + of North America_ (Boston, 1854); _Canadian Ballads and Occasional + Pieces_ (New York, 1858); _Notes on Federal Governments Past and + Present_ (Montreal, 1865); _Speeches and Addresses, chiefly on the + Subject of the British American Union_ (London, 1865); _Poems_, edited + by Mrs M. A. Sadleir with introductory memoir (New York, 1869). See + Fennings Taylor, _The Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee_ (Montreal, 1867); J. + K. Foran, _Thomas D'Arcy McGee as an Empire Builder_ (Ottawa, 1904); + H. J. O'C. French, _A Sketch of the Life of the Hon. T. D. McGee_ + (Montreal); Appleton's _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_., iv. 116; + N. F. Dvin's _Irishman in Canada_ (1887); C. G. Duffy, _Four Years of + Irish History_ (1883); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish Biography_ + (Dublin, 1878). (A. G. D.) + + + + +McGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN (1861- ), American theologian, was born in +Sauquoit, New York, on the 4th of March 1861, the son of a Presbyterian +clergyman of Scotch descent. He graduated at Western Reserve College in +1882 and at Union theological seminary in 1885, studied in Germany +(especially under Harnack) in 1885-1887, and in Italy and France in +1888, and in that year received the degree of doctor of philosophy at +Marburg. He was instructor (1888-1890) and professor (1890-1893) of +church history at Lane theological seminary, and in 1893 became Washburn +professor of church history in Union theological seminary, succeeding Dr +Philip Schaff. His published work, except occasional critical studies in +philosophy, dealt with church history and the history of dogma. His best +known publication is a _History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age_ +(1897). This book, by its independent criticism and departures from +traditionalism, aroused the opposition of the General Assembly of the +Presbyterian Church; though the charges brought against McGiffert were +dismissed by the Presbytery of New York, to which they had been +referred, a trial for heresy seemed inevitable, and McGiffert, in 1900, +retired from the Presbyterian ministry and entered the Congregational +Church, although he retained his position in Union theological seminary. +Among his other publications are: _A Dialogue between a Christian and a +Jew_ (1888); a translation (with introduction and notes) of Eusebius's +_Church History_ (1890); and _The Apostles' Creed_ (1902), in which he +attempted to prove that the old Roman creed was formulated as a protest +against the dualism of Marcion and his denial of the reality of Jesus's +life on earth. + + + + +McGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER (c. 1730-1793), American Indian chief, was born +near the site of the present Wetumpka, in Alabama. His father was a +Scotch merchant and his mother the daughter of a French officer and an +Indian "princess." Through his father's relatives in South Carolina, +McGillivray received a good education, but at the age of seventeen, +after a short experience as a merchant in Savannah and Pensacola, he +returned to the Muscogee Indians, who elected him chief. He retained his +connexion with business life as a member of the British firm of Panton, +Forbes & Leslie of Pensacola. During the War of Independence, as a +colonel in the British army, he incited his followers to attack the +western frontiers of Georgia and the Carolinas. Georgia confiscated some +of his property, and after the peace of 1783 McGillivray remained +hostile. Though still retaining his British commission, he accepted one +from Spain, and during the remainder of his life used his influence to +prevent American settlement in the south-west. So important was he +considered that in 1790 President Washington sent an agent who induced +him to visit New York. Here he was persuaded to make peace in +consideration of a brigadier-general's commission and payment for the +property confiscated by Georgia; and with the warriors who accompanied +him he signed a formal treaty of peace and friendship on the 7th of +August. He then went back to the Indian country, and remained hostile to +the Americans until his death. He was one of the ablest Indian leaders +of America and at one time wielded great power--having 5000 to 10,000 +armed followers. In order to serve Indian interests he played off +British, Spanish and American interests against one another, but before +he died he saw that he was fighting in a losing cause, and, changing his +policy, endeavoured to provide for the training of the Muscogees in the +white man's civilization. McGillivray was polished in manners, of +cultivated intellect, was a shrewd merchant, and a successful +speculator; but he had many savage traits, being noted for his +treachery, craftiness and love of barbaric display. (W. L. F.) + + + + +MACGILLIVRAY, WILLIAM (1796-1852), Scottish naturalist, was born at +Aberdeen on the 25th of January 1796. At King's College, Aberdeen, he +graduated in 1815, and also studied medicine, but did not complete the +latter course. In 1823 he became assistant to R. Jameson, professor of +natural history in Edinburgh University; and in 1831 he was appointed +curator of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, a +post which he resigned in 1841 to become professor of natural history +and lecturer on botany in Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died at +Aberdeen on the 4th of September 1852. He possessed a wide and +comprehensive knowledge of natural science, gained no less from personal +observations in different parts of Scotland than from a study of +collections and books. His industry and extensive knowledge are amply +shown in his published works. He assisted J. J. Audubon in his classical +works on the _Birds of America_, and edited W. Withering's _British +Plants_. His larger works include biographies of A. von Humboldt, and of +zoologists from Aristotle to Linnaeus, a _History of British +Quadrupeds_, a _History of the Molluscous Animals of Aberdeen, Banff and +Kincardine_, a _Manual of British Ornithology_, and a _History of +British Birds_, in 5 vols. (1837-1852). The last work holds a high rank +from the excellent descriptions of the structure, habits and haunts of +birds, and from the use in classification of characters afforded by +their anatomical structure. His _Natural History of Deeside_, +posthumously published by command of Queen Victoria, was the result of a +sojourn in the highlands of Aberdeenshire in 1850. He made large +collections, alike for the instruction of his students and to illustrate +the zoology, botany and geology of the parts of Scotland examined by +him, especially around Aberdeen, and a number of his original +water-colour drawings are preserved in the British Museum (Natural +History). + + His eldest son, JOHN MACGILLIVRAY (1822-1867), published an account of + the voyage round the world of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake," on board of which + he was naturalist. Another son, PAUL, published an _Aberdeen Flora_ in + 1853. + + + + +MacGREGOR, JOHN ["ROB ROY"] (1825-1892), Scottish canoeist, traveller +and philanthropist, son of General Sir Duncan MacGregor, K.C.B., was +born at Gravesend on the 24th of January 1825. He combined a roving +disposition with a natural taste for mechanics and for literature. In +1839 he went to Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1844 to Trinity, +Cambridge, where he was a wrangler. He was called to the bar in 1851, +but did not pursue his profession. He travelled a great deal in Europe, +Egypt, Palestine, Russia, Algeria and America, and between 1853 and 1863 +was largely occupied with researches into the history and methods of +marine propulsion. He was the pioneer of British canoeing. In 1865 he +started on a long canoeing cruise in his "Rob Roy" canoe, and in this +way made a prolonged water tour through Europe, a record of which he +published in 1866 as _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe_. This book +made MacGregor and his canoe famous. He made similar voyages in later +years in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, the North Sea and Palestine. +Another voyage, in the English Channel and on French waters, was made in +a yawl. He published accounts of all these journeys. He did not, +however, confine his energies to travelling. He was active in charity +and philanthropic work, being one of the founders of the Shoe-black +Brigade. In 1870 and again in 1873 he was elected on the London school +board. He died at Boscombe on the 16th of July 1892. + + + + +MACH, ERNST (1838- ), Austrian physicist and psychologist, was born on +the 18th of February 1838 at Turas in Moravia, and studied at Vienna. He +was professor of mathematics at Grätz (1864-1867), of physics at Prague +(1867-1895), and of physics at Vienna (1895-1901). In 1879 and 1880 as +_Rector Magnificus_ he fought against the introduction of Czech instead +of German in the Prague University. In 1901 he was made a member of the +Austrian house of peers. In philosophy he began with a strong +predilection for the physical side of psychology, and at an early age he +came to the conclusion that all existence is sensation, and, after a +lapse into noümenalism under the influence of Fechner's _Psychophysics_, +finally adopted a universal physical phenomenalism. The Ego he considers +not an entity sharply distinguished from the Non-ego, but merely, as it +were, a medium of continuity of sensory impressions. His whole theory +appears to be vitiated by the confusion of physics and psychology. + + WORKS.--_Kompendium der Physik für Mediziner_ (Vienna, 1863); + _Einleitung in die Heimholtz'sehe Musiktheorie_ (Grätz, 1866); _Die + Gesch. u. d. Wurzel d. Satzes von d. Erhaltung d. Arbeit_ (Prague, + 1872); _Grundlinien d. Lehre v. d. Bewegungsempfindungen_ (Leipzig, + 1875); _Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung_ (Leipzig, 1883; rev. ed., + 1908; Eng. trans., T. J. McCormack, 1902); _Beiträge zur Analyse d. + Empfindungen_ (Jena, 1886), 5th ed., 1906, entitled _Die Analyse d. + Empfindungen; Leitfaden d. Physik für Studierende_ (Prague, 1881, in + collaboration); _Populärwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen_ (3rd ed., + Leipzig, 1903); _Die Prinzipien d. Wärmelehre_ (2nd ed., 1900); + _Erkenntnis und Irrtum_ (Leipzig, 1905). + + + + +MACHAERODUS, or MACHAIRODUS, the typical genus of a group of long-tusked +extinct cats, commonly known as sabre-tooths. Although best regarded as +a sub-family (_Machaerodontinae_) of the _Felidae_, they are sometimes +referred to a separate family under the name _Nimravidae_ (see +CARNIVORA). The later forms, as well as some of the earlier ones, are +more specialized as regards dentition than the modern _Felidae_, +although in several other respects they exhibit more primitive features. +The general type of dentition is feline, but in some instances more +premolars are retained, as well as a small tubercular molar behind the +lower carnassial. The characteristic feature is, however, the great +development of the upper canines, which in the more specialized types +reach far below the margin of the lower jaw, despite the development of +a flange-like expansion of the extremity of the latter for their +protection. In these extreme forms it is quite evident that the jaws +could not be used in the ordinary manner; and it seems probable that in +attacking prey the lower jaw was dropped to a vertical position, and the +huge upper tusks used as stabbing instruments. The group is believed to +be derived from a creodont allied to the Eocene _Palaeonictis_ (see +CREODONTA). + +_Nimravus_, of the American Oligocene, with two premolars and two molars +in the lower jaw, and comparatively short upper canines, seems to be the +least specialized type; next to which comes _Hoplophoneus_, another +North American Oligocene genus, in which the tubercular lower molar is +lost, and the upper canine is longer. It is noteworthy, however, that +this genus retains the third trochanter to the femur, which is lost in +_Nimravus_. _Machaerodus_, in the wider sense, includes the larger and +more typical forms. In the Pliocene of France and Italy it is +represented by _M. megantereon_, a species not larger than a leopard, +and allied forms occur in the Pliocene of Greece, Hungary, Samos, +Persia, India and China, as well as in the Middle Miocene of France and +Germany. Far larger is the Pleistocene _M. cultridens_ of the caverns of +Europe, with serrated upper tusks several inches in length. From Europe +and Asia the sabre-toothed tigers may be traced into North and thence +into South America, the home of _M. (Smilodon) neogaeus_, the largest of +the whole tribe, whose remains occur in the Brazilian caves and the silt +of the Argentine pampas. This animal was as large as a tiger, with tusks +projecting seven inches from the jaw and very complex carnassials; the +feet were very short, with only four toes to the hind-pair, and the +humerus has lost the foramen at the lower end. Very noteworthy is the +occurrence of an imperfectly known specialized type--_Eusmilus_--in the +Lower Oligocene of Europe and perhaps also North America. Unlike all +other cats, it had only two pairs of lower incisors, and the large +cheek-teeth were reduced to the carnassial and one premolar in advance +of the same. (R. L.*) + + + + +MACHALE, JOHN (1791-1881), Irish divine, was born on the 15th of March +1791 at Tuber-na-Fian, Mayo, and was educated at Maynooth, where after +graduating in 1814 he was ordained priest and appointed lecturer in +theology, succeeding to the professoriate in 1820. In 1825 he became +coadjutor bishop of Killala, and in July 1834 archbishop of Tuam and +metropolitan. He visited Rome in 1831, and was there again at the +proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin +(Dec. 1854) and in 1869-1870 at the Vatican council. Though he did not +favour the dogma of Papal Infallibility he submitted as soon as it was +defined. Machale was an intensely patriotic Irishman, who fought hard +for Catholic Emancipation, for separate Roman Catholic schools, and +against the Queen's Colleges. He translated part of the _Iliad_ (Dublin, +1861), and made an Irish version of some of Moore's melodies and of the +Pentateuch. He died at Tuam on the 7th of November 1881. + + + + +MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1701-1794), French statesman, +was a son of Louis Charles Machault d'Arnouville, lieutenant of police. +In 1721 he was counsel to the parlement of Paris, in 1728 _maître des +requêtes_, and ten years later was made president of the Great Council; +although he had opposed the court in the _Unigenitus_ dispute, he was +appointed intendant of Hainaut in 1743. From this position, through the +influence at court of his old friend René Louis, Marquis d'Argenson, he +was called to succeed Orry de Fulvy as controller-general of the +finances in December 1745. He found, on taking office, that in the four +years of the War of the Austrian Succession the economies of Cardinal +Fleury had been exhausted, and he was forced to develop the system of +borrowings which was bringing French finances to bankruptcy. He +attempted in 1749 a reform in the levying of direct taxes, which, if +carried out, would have done much to prevent the later Revolutionary +movement. He proposed to abolish the old tax of a tenth, which was +evaded by the clergy and most of the nobility, and substitute a tax of +one-twentieth which should be levied on all without exception. The cry +for exceptions, however, began at once. The clergy stood in a body by +their historical privileges, and the outcry of the nobility was too +great for the minister to make headway against. Still he managed to +retain his office until July 1754, when he exchanged the controllership +for the ministry of marine. Foreseeing the disastrous results of the +alliance with Austria, he was drawn to oppose more decidedly the schemes +of Mme de Pompadour, whose personal ill-will he had gained. Louis XV. +acquiesced in her demand for his disgrace on the 1st of February 1757. +Machault lived on his estate at Arnouville until the Revolution broke +out, when, after a period of hiding, he was apprehended in 1794 at Rouen +and brought to Paris as a suspect. He was imprisoned in the +Madelonnettes, where he succumbed in a few weeks, at the age of +ninety-three. + +His son, LOUIS CHARLES MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE (1737-1820), was bishop of +Amiens from 1774 until the Revolution. He was famous for his charity; +but proved to be a most uncompromising Conservative at the estates +general of 1789, where he voted consistently against every reform. He +emigrated in 1791, resigned his bishopric in 1801 to facilitate the +concordat, and retired to the ancestral château of Arnouville, where he +died in 1820. + + + + +MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE (c. 1300-1377), French poet and musician, was born +in the village of Machault near Réthel in Champagne. Machaut tells us +that he served for thirty years the adventurous John of Luxembourg, king +of Bohemia. He followed his master to Russia and Poland, and, though of +peaceful tastes himself, saw twenty battles and a hundred tourneys. When +John was killed at Crécy in 1346 Machaut was received at the court of +Normandy, and on the accession of John the Good to the throne of France +(1350) he received an office which enabled him to devote himself +thenceforth to music and poetry. Machaut wrote about 1348 in honour of +Charles III., king of Navarre, a long poem much admired by +contemporaries, _Le Jugement du roi de Navarre_. When Charles was thrown +into prison by his father-in-law, King John, Machaut addressed him a +_Confort d'ami_ to console him for his enforced separation from his +young wife, then aged fifteen. This was followed about 1370 by a poem of +9000 lines entitled _La Prise d'Alexandrie_, one of the last chronicles +cast in this form. Its hero was Pierre de Lusignan, king of Cyprus. +Machaut is best known for the strange book telling of the love affair of +his old age with a young and noble lady long supposed to be Agnes of +Navarre, sister of Charles the Bad; Paulin Paris in his edition of the +_Voir dit_ (_Historie vraie_) identified her as Perronne d'Armentières, +a noble lady of Champagne. In 1362, when Machaut must have been at least +sixty-two years of age, he received a rondeau from Perronne, who was +then eighteen, expressing her devotion. She no doubt wished to play +Laura to his Petrarch, and the _Voir dit_ contains the correspondence +and the poems which they exchanged. The romance, which ended with +Perronne's marriage and Machaut's desire to remain her _doux ami_, has +gleams of poetry, especially in Perronne's verses, but its subject and +its length are both deterrent to modern readers. But Machaut with +Deschamps marks a distinct transition. The _trouvères_ had been +impersonal. It is difficult to gather any details of their personal +history from their work. Machaut and Deschamps wrote of their own +affairs, and the next step in development was to be the self-analysis of +Villon. Machaut was also a musician. He composed a number of motets, +songs and ballads, also a mass supposed to have been sung at the +coronation of Charles V. This was translated into modern notation by +Perne, who read a notice on it before the Institute of France in 1817. + + Machaut's _Oeuvres choisies_ were edited by P. Tarbe (Rheims and + Paris, 1849); _La Prise d'Alexandrie_, by L. de Mas-Latrie (Geneva, + 1877); and _Le Livre du voir-dit_, by Paulin Paris (1875). See also F. + G. Fétis, _Biog. universelle des musiciens ..._ (Paris, 1862), and a + notice on the _Instruments de musique au xiv^e siècle d'après + Guillaume de Machaut_, by E. Travers (Paris, 1882). + + + + +MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ (1469-1527), Italian statesman and writer, was born +at Florence on the 3rd of May 1469. His ancestry claimed blood +relationship with the lords of Montespertoli, a fief situated between +Val di Pesa and Val d'Elsa, at no great distance from the city. +Niccolò's father, Bernardo (b. 1428), followed the profession of a +jurist. He held landed property worth something like £250 a year of our +money. His son, though not wealthy, was never wholly dependent upon +official income. + +Of Niccolò's early years and education little is known. His works show +wide reading in the Latin and Italian classics, but it is almost certain +that he had not mastered the Greek language. To the defects of +Machiavelli's education we may, in part at least, ascribe the peculiar +vigour of his style and his speculative originality. He is free from the +scholastic trifling and learned frivolity which tainted the rhetorical +culture of his century. He made the world of men and things his study, +learned to write his mother-tongue with idiomatic conciseness, and +nourished his imagination on the masterpieces of the Romans. + +The year of Charles VIII.'s invasion and of the Medici's expulsion from +Florence (1494) saw Machiavelli's first entrance into public life. He +was appointed clerk in the second chancery of the commune under his old +master, the grammarian, Marcello Virgilio Adriani. Early in 1498 Adriani +became chancellor of the republic, and Machiavelli received his vacated +office with the rank of second chancellor and secretary. This post he +retained till the year 1512. The masters he had to serve were the _dieci +di libertà e pace_, who, though subordinate to the _signoria_, exercised +a separate control over the departments of war and the interior. They +sent their own ambassadors to foreign powers, transacted business with +the cities of the Florentine domain, and controlled the military +establishment of the commonwealth. The next fourteen years of +Machiavelli's life were fully occupied in the voluminous correspondence +of his bureau, in diplomatic missions of varying importance, and in the +organization of a Florentine militia. It would be tedious to follow him +through all his embassies to petty courts of Italy, the first of which +took place in 1499, when he was sent to negotiate the continuance of a +loan to Catherine Sforza, countess of Forli and Imola. In 1500 +Machiavelli travelled into France, to deal with Louis XII. about the +affairs of Pisa. These embassies were the school in which Machiavelli +formed his political opinions, and gathered views regarding the state of +Europe and the relative strength of nations. They not only introduced +him to the subtleties of Italian diplomacy, but also extended his +observation over races very different from the Italians. He thus, in the +course of his official business, gradually acquired principles and +settled ways of thinking which he afterwards expressed in writing. + +In 1502 Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini, who bore him several +children, with whom, in spite of his own infidelities, he lived on good +terms, and who survived him twenty-six years. In the same year Piero +Soderini was chosen gonfalonier for life, in accordance with certain +changes in the constitution of the state, which were intended to bring +Florence closer to the Venetian type of government. Machiavelli became +intimately connected with Soderini, assisted him in carrying out his +policy, suggested important measures of military reform which Soderini +adopted, and finally was involved in ruin by his fall. + +The year 1502 was marked by yet another decisive incident in +Machiavelli's life. In October he was sent, much against his will, as +envoy to the camp of Cesare Borgia, duke of Valentinois. The duke was +then in Romagna, and it was Machiavelli's duty to wait upon and watch +him. He was able now to observe those intricate intrigues which +culminated in Cesare's murder of his disaffected captains. From what +remains of Machiavelli's official letters, and from his tract upon the +_Modo che tenne il duca Valentino per ammazzar Vitellozzo Vitelli_, we +are able to appreciate the actual relations which existed between the +two men, and the growth in Machiavelli's mind of a political ideal based +upon his study of the duke's character. Machiavelli conceived the +strongest admiration for Cesare's combination of audacity with +diplomatic prudence, for his adroit use of cruelty and fraud, for his +self-reliance, avoidance of half-measures, employment of native troops, +and firm administration in conquered provinces. More than once, in +letters to his friend Vettori, no less than in the pages of the +_Principe_, Machiavelli afterwards expressed his belief that Cesare +Borgia's behaviour in the conquest of provinces, the cementing of a new +state out of scattered elements, and the dealing with false friends or +doubtful allies, was worthy of all commendation and of scrupulous +imitation. As he watched Cesare Borgia at this, the most brilliant +period of his adventurous career, the man became idealized in his +reflective but imaginative mind. Round him, as a hero, he allowed his +own conceptions of the perfect prince to cluster. That Machiavelli +separated the actual Cesare Borgia, whom he afterwards saw, ruined and +contemptible, at Rome, from this radiant creature of his political +fancy, is probable. That the Cesare of history does not exactly match +the Duca Valentino of Machiavelli's writings is certain. Still the fact +remains that henceforth Machiavelli cherished the ideal image of the +statesman which he had modelled upon Cesare, and called this by the name +of Valentino. + +On his return to Florence early in January 1503, Machiavelli began to +occupy himself with a project which his recent attendance upon Cesare +Borgia had strengthened in his mind. The duties of his office obliged +him to study the conditions of military service as they then existed in +Italy. He was familiar with the disadvantages under which republics +laboured when they engaged professional captains of adventure and levied +mercenary troops. The bad faith of the condottiere Paolo Vitelli +(beheaded at Florence in 1499) had deeply impressed him. In the war with +Pisa he had observed the insubordination and untrustworthiness of +soldiers gathered from the dregs of different districts, serving under +egotistical and irresponsible commanders. His reading in Livy taught him +to admire the Roman system of employing armies raised from the body of +the citizens; and Cesare Borgia's method of gradually substituting the +troops of his own duchy for aliens and mercenaries showed him that this +plan might be adopted with success by the Italians. He was now +determined, if possible, to furnish Florence with a national militia. +The gonfalonier Soderini entered into his views. But obstacles of no +small magnitude arose. The question of money was immediately pressing. +Early in 1503 Machiavelli drew up for Soderini a speech, _Discorso sulla +provisione del danaro_, in which the duty and necessity of liberal +expenditure for the protection of the state were expounded upon +principles of sound political philosophy. Between this date and the last +month of 1506 Machiavelli laboured at his favourite scheme, working out +memorials on the subject for his office, and suggesting the outlines of +a new military organization. On the 6th of December 1506 his plan was +approved by the signoria, and a special ministry, called the nove _di +ordinanza e milizia_, was appointed. Machiavelli immediately became +their secretary. The country districts of the Florentine dominion were +now divided into departments, and levies of foot soldiers were made in +order to secure a standing militia. A commander-in-chief had to be +chosen for the new troops. Italian jealousy shrank from conferring this +important office on a Florentine, lest one member of the state should +acquire a power dangerous to the whole. The choice of Soderini and +Machiavelli fell, at this juncture, upon an extremely ineligible person, +none other than Don Micheletto, Cesare Borgia's cut-throat and assassin. +It is necessary to insist upon this point, since it serves to illustrate +a radical infirmity in Machiavelli's genius. While forming and promoting +his scheme, he was actuated by principles of political wisdom and by the +purest patriotism. But he failed to perceive that such a ruffian as +Micheletto could not inspire the troops of Florence with that devotion +to their country and that healthy moral tone which should distinguish a +patriot army. Here, as elsewhere, he revealed his insensibility to the +ethical element in human nature. + +Meanwhile Italy had been the scene of memorable events, in most of which +Machiavelli took some part. Alexander VI. had died suddenly of fever. +Julius II. had ascended the papal chair. The duke of Valentinois had +been checked in mid-career of conquest. The collapse of the Borgias +threw Central Italy into confusion; and Machiavelli had, in 1505, to +visit the Baglioni at Perugia and the Petrucci at Siena. In the +following year he accompanied Julius upon his march through Perugia into +the province of Emilia, where the fiery pope subdued in person the +rebellious cities of the Church. Upon these embassies Machiavelli +represented the Florentine dieci in quality of envoy. It was his duty to +keep the ministry informed by means of frequent despatches and reports. +All this while the war for the recovery of Pisa was slowly dragging on, +with no success or honour to the Florentines. Machiavelli had to attend +the camp and provide for levies amid his many other occupations. And yet +he found time for private literary work. In the autumn of 1504 he began +his _Decennali_, or _Annals of Italy_, a poem composed in rough terza +rima. About the same time he composed a comedy on the model of +Aristophanes, which is unfortunately lost. It seems to have been called +_Le Maschere_. Giuliano de' Ricci tells us it was marked by stringent +satire upon great ecclesiastics and statesmen, no less than by a +tendency to "ascribe all human things to natural causes or to fortune." +That phrase accurately describes the prevalent bias of its author's +mind. + +The greater part of 1506 and 1507 was spent in organizing the new +militia, corresponding on the subject, and scouring the country on +enlistment service. But at the end of the latter year European affairs +of no small moment diverted Machiavelli from these humbler duties. +Maximilian was planning a journey into Italy in order to be crowned +emperor at Rome, and was levying subsidies from the imperial burghs for +his expenses. The Florentines thought his demands excessive. Though they +already had Francesco Vettori at his court, Soderini judged it advisable +to send Machiavelli thither in December. He travelled by Geneva, all +through Switzerland, to Botzen, where he found the emperor. This journey +was an important moment in his life. It enabled him to study the Swiss +and the Germans in their homes; and the report which he wrote on his +return is among his most effective political studies. What is most +remarkable in it is his concentrated effort to realize the exact +political weight of the German nation, and to penetrate the causes of +its strength and weakness. He attempts to grasp the national character +as a whole, and thence to deduce practical conclusions. The same +qualities are noticeable in his _Ritratti delle cose di Francia_, which +he drew up after an embassy to Louis XII. at Blois in 1510. These notes +upon the French race are more scattered than the report on German +affairs. But they reveal no less acumen combined with imaginative +penetration into the very essence of national existence. + +Machiavelli returned from Germany in June 1508. The rest of that year +and a large part of 1509 were spent in the affairs of the militia and +the war of Pisa. Chiefly through his exertions the war was terminated by +the surrender of Pisa in June 1509. Meanwhile the league of Cambray had +disturbed the peace of Italy, and Florence found herself in a perilous +position between Spain and France. Soderini's government grew weaker. +The Medicean party lifted up its head. To the league of Cambray +succeeded the Holy League. The battle of Ravenna was fought, and the +French retired from Italy. The Florentines had been spectators rather +than actors in these great events. But they were now destined to feel +the full effects of them. The cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, who was +present at the battle of Ravenna, brought a Spanish army into Tuscany. +Prato was sacked in the August of 1512. Florence, in extreme terror, +deposed the gonfalonier, and opened her gates to the princes of the +house of Medici. + +The government on which Machiavelli depended had fallen, never to rise +again. The national militia in which he placed unbounded confidence had +proved inefficient to protect Florence in the hour of need. He was +surrounded by political and personal enemies, who regarded him with +jealousy as the ex-gonfalonier's right-hand man. Yet at first it appears +that he still hoped to retain his office. He showed no repugnance to a +change of masters, and began to make overtures to the Medici. The _nove +della milizia_ were, however, dissolved; and on the 7th of November 1512 +Machiavelli was deprived of his appointments. He was exiled from +Florence and confined to the dominion for one year, and on the 17th of +November was further prohibited from setting foot in the Palazzo +Pubblico. Ruin stared him in the face; and, to make matters worse, he +was implicated in the conspiracy of Pier Paolo Boscoli in February 1513. +Machiavelli had taken no share in that feeble attempt against the +Medici, but his name was found upon a memorandum dropped by Boscoli. +This was enough to ensure his imprisonment. He was racked, and only +released upon Giovanni de' Medici's election to the papacy in March +1513. When he left his dungeon he retired to a farm near San Casciano, +and faced the fact that his political career was at an end. + +Machiavelli now entered upon a period of life to which we owe the great +works that have rendered his name immortal. But it was one of prolonged +disappointment and annoyance. He had not accustomed himself to +economical living; and, when the emoluments of his office were +withdrawn, he had barely enough to support his family. The previous +years of his manhood had been spent in continual activity. Much as he +enjoyed the study of the Latin and Italian classics, literature was not +his business; nor had he looked on writing as more than an occasional +amusement. He was now driven in upon his books for the employment of a +restless temperament; and to this irksomeness of enforced leisure may be +ascribed the production of the _Principe_, the _Discorsi_, the _Arte +della guerra_, the comedies, and the _Historie fiorentine_. The +uneasiness of Machiavelli's mind in the first years of this retirement +is brought before us by his private correspondence. The letters to +Vettori paint a man of vigorous intellect and feverish activity, +dividing his time between studies and vulgar dissipations, seeking at +one time distraction in low intrigues and wanton company, at another +turning to the great minds of antiquity for solace. It is not easy to +understand the spirit in which the author of the _Principe_ sat down to +exchange obscenities with the author of the _Sommario della storia +d'Italia_. At the same time this coarseness of taste did not blunt his +intellectual sagacity. His letters on public affairs in Italy and +Europe, especially those which he meant Vettori to communicate to the +Medici at Rome, are marked by extraordinary fineness of perception, +combined, as usual in his case, with philosophical breadth. In +retirement at his villa near Percussina, a hamlet of San Casciano, +Machiavelli completed the _Principe_ before the end of 1513. This famous +book is an analysis of the methods whereby an ambitious man may rise to +sovereign power. It appears to have grown out of another scarcely less +celebrated work, upon which Machiavelli had been engaged before he took +the _Principe_ in hand, and which he did not finish until some time +afterwards. This second treatise is the _Discorsi sopra la prima deca di +Tito Livio_. + + Cast in the form of comments on the history of Livy, the _Discorsi_ + are really an inquiry into the genesis and maintenance of states. The + _Principe_ is an offshoot from the main theme of the _Discorsi_, + setting forth Machiavelli's views at large and in detail upon the + nature of principalities, the method of cementing them, and the + qualities of a successful autocrat. Being more limited in subject and + more independent as a work of literary art, this essay detaches itself + from the main body of the _Discorsi_, and has attracted far more + attention. We feel that the _Principe_ is inspired with greater + fervency, as though its author had more than a speculative aim in + view, and brought it forth to serve a special crisis. The moment of + its composition was indeed decisive. Machiavelli judged the case of + Italy so desperate that salvation could only be expected from the + intervention of a powerful despot. The unification of Italy in a state + protected by a national army was the cherished dream of his life; and + the peroration of the _Principe_ shows that he meant this treatise to + have a direct bearing on the problem. We must be careful, however, not + to fall into the error of supposing that he wrote it with the sole + object of meeting an occasional emergency. Together with the + _Discorsi_, the _Principe_ contains the speculative fruits of his + experience and observation combined with his deductions from Roman + history. The two works form one coherent body of opinion, not + systematically expressed, it is true, but based on the same + principles, involving the same conclusions, and directed to the same + philosophical end. That end is the analysis of the conception of the + state, studied under two main types, republican and monarchical. Up to + the date of Machiavelli, modern political philosophy had always + presupposed an ideal. Medieval speculation took the Church and the + Empire for granted, as divinely appointed institutions, under which + the nations of the earth must flourish for the space of man's + probation on this planet. Thinkers differed only as Guelfs and + Ghibellines, as leaning on the one side to papal, on the other to + imperial supremacy. In the revival of learning, scholarship supplanted + scholasticism, and the old ways of medieval thinking were forgotten. + But no substantial philosophy of any kind emerged from humanism; the + political lucubrations of the scholars were, like their ethical + treatises, for the most part rhetorical. Still the humanists effected + a delivery of the intellect from what had become the bondage of + obsolete ideas, and created a new medium for the speculative faculty. + Simultaneously with the revival, Italy had passed into that stage of + her existence which has been called the age of despots. The yoke of + the Empire had been shaken off. The Church had taken rank among + Italian tyrannies. The peninsula was, roughly speaking, divided into + principalities and sovereign cities, each of which claimed autocratic + jurisdiction. These separate despotisms owned no common social tie, + were founded on no common _jus_ or right, but were connected in a + network of conflicting interests and changeful diplomatic + combinations. A keen and positive political intelligence emerged in + the Italian race. The reports of Venetian and Florentine ambassadors + at this epoch contain the first germs of an attempt to study politics + from the point of view of science. + + At this moment Machiavelli intervenes. He was conscious of the change + which had come over Italy and Europe. He was aware that the old + strongholds of medieval thought must be abandoned, and that the + decaying ruins of medieval institutions furnished no basis for the + erection of solid political edifices. He felt the corruption of his + country, and sought to bring the world back to a lively sense of the + necessity for reformation. His originality consists in having extended + the positive intelligence of his century from the sphere of + contemporary politics and special interests to man at large regarded + as a political being. He founded the science of politics for the + modern world, by concentrating thought upon its fundamental + principles. He began to study men, not according to some + preconception, but as he found them--men, not in the isolation of one + century, but as a whole in history. He drew his conclusions from the + nature of mankind itself, "ascribing all things to natural causes or + to fortune." In this way he restored the right method of study, a + method which had been neglected since the days of Aristotle. He formed + a conception of the modern state, which marked the close of the middle + ages, and anticipated the next phase of European development. His + prince, abating those points which are purely Italian or strongly + tinctured with the author's personal peculiarities, prefigured the + monarchs of the 16th and 17th centuries, the monarchs whose motto was + _L'état c'est moi!_ His doctrine of a national militia foreshadowed + the system which has given strength in arms to France and Germany. His + insight into the causes of Italian decadence was complete; and the + remedies which he suggested, in the perorations of the _Principe_ and + the _Arte della guerra_, have since been applied in the unification of + Italy. Lastly, when we once have freed ourselves from the antipathy + engendered by his severance of ethics from the field of politics, when + we have once made proper allowance for his peculiar use of phrases + like _frodi onorevoli_ or _scelleratezze gloriose_, nothing is left + but admiration for his mental attitude. That is the attitude of a + patriot, who saw with open eyes the ruin of his country, who burned + above all things to save Italy and set her in her place among the + powerful nations, who held the duty of self-sacrifice in the most + absolute sense, whose very limitations and mistakes were due to an + absorbing passion for the state he dreamed might be reconstituted. It + was Machiavelli's intense preoccupation with this problem--what a + state is and how to found one in existing circumstances--which caused + the many riddles of his speculative writings. Dazzled, as it were, + with the brilliancy of his own discovery, concentrated in attention on + the one necessity for organizing a powerful coherent nation, he forgot + that men are more than political beings. He neglected religion, or + regarded it as part of the state machinery. He was by no means + indifferent to private virtue, which indeed he judged the basis of all + healthy national existence; but in the realm of politics he postponed + morals to political expediency. He held that the people, as + distinguished from the nobles and the clergy, were the pith and fibre + of nations; yet this same people had to become wax in the hands of the + politician--their commerce and their comforts, the arts which give a + dignity to life and the pleasures which make life liveable, + neglected--their very liberty subordinated to the one tyrannical + conception. To this point the segregation of politics from every other + factor which goes to constitute humanity had brought him; and this it + is which makes us feel his world a wilderness, devoid of atmosphere + and vegetation. Yet some such isolation of the subject matter of this + science was demanded at the moment of its birth, just as political + economy, when first started, had to make a rigid severance of wealth + from other units. It is only by a gradual process that social science + in its whole complexity can be evolved. We have hardly yet discovered + that political economy has unavoidable points of contact with ethics. + + From the foregoing criticism it will be perceived that all the + questions whether Machiavelli meant to corrupt or to instruct the + world, to fortify the hands of tyrants or to lead them to their ruin, + are now obsolete. He was a man of science--one who by the vigorous + study of his subject matter sought from that subject-matter itself to + deduce laws. The difficulty which remains in judging him is a + difficulty of statement, valuation, allowance. How much shall we allow + for his position in Renaissance Italy, for the corruption in the midst + of which he lived, for his own personal temperament? How shall we + state his point of departure from the middle ages, his sympathy with + prevalent classical enthusiasms, his divination of a new period? How + shall we estimate the permanent worth of his method, the residuum of + value in his maxims? + +After finishing the _Principe_, Machiavelli thought of dedicating it to +one of the Medicean princes, with the avowed hope that he might thereby +regain their favour and find public employment. He wrote to Vettori on +the subject, and Giuliano de' Medici, duke of Nemours, seemed to him the +proper person. The choice was reasonable. No sooner had Leo been made +pope than he formed schemes for the aggrandizement of his family. +Giuliano was offered and refused the duchy of Urbino. Later on, Leo +designed for him a duchy in Emilia, to be cemented out of Parma, +Piacenza, Reggio and Modena. Supported by the power of the papacy, with +the goodwill of Florence to back him, Giuliano would have found himself +in a position somewhat better than that of Cesare Borgia; and Borgia's +creation of the duchy of Romagna might have served as his model. +Machiavelli therefore was justified in feeling that here was an +opportunity for putting his cherished schemes in practice, and that a +prince with such alliances might even advance to the grand end of the +unification of Italy. Giuliano, however, died in 1506. Then Machiavelli +turned his thoughts towards Lorenzo, duke of Urbino. The choice of this +man as a possible Italian liberator reminds us of the choice of Don +Micheletto as general of the Florentine militia. To Lorenzo the +_Principe_ was dedicated, but without result. The Medici, as yet at all +events, could not employ Machiavelli, and had not in themselves the +stuff to found Italian kingdoms. + +Machiavelli, meanwhile, was reading his _Discorsi_ to a select audience +in the Rucellai gardens, fanning that republican enthusiasm which never +lay long dormant among the Florentines. Towards the year 1519 both Leo +X. and his cousin, the cardinal Giulio de' Medici, were much perplexed +about the management of the republic. It seemed necessary, if possible, +in the gradual extinction of their family to give the city at least a +semblance of self-government. They applied to several celebrated +politicians, among others to Machiavelli, for advice in the emergency. +The result was a treatise in which he deduced practical conclusions from +the past history and present temper of the city, blending these with his +favourite principles of government in general. He earnestly admonished +Leo, for his own sake and for Florence, to found a permanent and free +state system for the republic, reminding him in terms of noble eloquence +how splendid is the glory of the man who shall confer such benefits upon +a people. The year 1520 saw the composition of the _Arte della guerra_ +and the _Vita di Castruccio_. + + The first of these is a methodical treatise, setting forth + Machiavelli's views on military matters, digesting his theories + respecting the superiority of national troops, the inefficiency of + fortresses, the necessity of relying upon infantry in war, and the + comparative insignificance of artillery. It is strongly coloured with + his enthusiasm for ancient Rome; and specially upon the topic of + artillery it displays a want of insight into the actualities of modern + warfare. We may regard it as a supplement or appendix to the + _Principe_ and the _Discorsi_, since Machiavelli held it for a + fundamental axiom that states are powerless unless completely armed in + permanence. The peroration contains a noble appeal to the Italian + liberator of his dreams, and a parallel from Macedonian history, + which, read by the light of this century, sounds like a prophecy of + Piedmont. + + The _Vita di Castruccio_ was composed at Lucca, whither Machiavelli + had been sent on a mission. This so-called biography of the medieval + adventurer who raised himself by personal ability and military skill + to the tyranny of several Tuscan cities must be regarded in the light + of an historical romance. Dealing freely with the outline of + Castruccio's career, as he had previously dealt with Cesare Borgia, he + sketched his own ideal of the successful prince. Cesare Borgia had + entered into the _Principe_ as a representative figure rather than an + actual personage; so now conversely the theories of the _Principe_ + assumed the outward form and semblance of Castruccio. In each case + history is blent with speculation in nearly the same proportions. But + Castruccio, being farther from the writer's own experience, bears + weaker traits of personality. + + In the same year, 1520, Machiavelli, at the instance of the cardinal + Giulio de' Medici, received commission from the officers of the + _Studio pubblico_ to write a history of Florence. They agreed to pay + him an annual allowance of 100 florins while engaged upon the work. + The next six years were partly employed in its composition, and he + left a portion of it finished, with a dedication to Clement VII., when + he died in 1527. In the _Historie fiorentine_ Machiavelli quitted the + field of political speculation for that of history. But, having + already written the _Discorsi_ and the _Principe_, he carried with him + to this new task of historiography the habit of mind proper to + political philosophy. In his hands the history of Florence became a + text on which at fitting seasons to deliver lessons in the science he + initiated. This gives the work its special character. It is not so + much a chronicle of Florentine affairs, from the commencement of + modern history to the death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492, as a + critique of that chronicle from the point of view adopted by + Machiavelli in his former writings. Having condensed his doctrines in + the _Principe_ and the _Discorsi_, he applies their abstract + principles to the example of the Florentine republic. But the _History + of Florence_ is not a mere political pamphlet. It is the first example + in Italian literature of a national biography, the first attempt in + any literature to trace the vicissitudes of a people's life in their + logical sequence, deducing each successive phase from passions or + necessities inherent in preceding circumstances, reasoning upon them + from general principles, and inferring corollaries for the conduct of + the future. In point of form the _Florentine History_ is modelled upon + Livy. It contains speeches in the antique manner, which may be taken + partly as embodying the author's commentary upon situations of + importance, partly as expressing what he thought dramatically + appropriate to prominent personages. The style of the whole book is + nervous, vivid, free from artifice and rhetoric, obeying the writer's + thought with absolute plasticity. Machiavelli had formed for himself a + prose style, equalled by no one but by Guicciardini in his minor + works, which was far removed from the emptiness of the latinizing + humanists and the trivialities of the Italian purists. Words in his + hands have the substance, the self-evidence of things. It is an + athlete's style, all bone and sinew, nude, without superfluous flesh + or ornament. + +It would seem that from the date of Machiavelli's discourse to Leo on +the government of Florence the Medici had taken him into consideration. +Writing to Vettori in 1513, he had expressed his eager wish to "roll +stones" in their service; and this desire was now gratified. In 1521 he +was sent to Carpi to transact a petty matter with the chapter of the +Franciscans, the chief known result of the embassy being a burlesque +correspondence with Francesco Guicciardini. Four years later, in 1525, +he received a rather more important mission to Venice. But Machiavelli's +public career was virtually closed; and the interest of his biography +still centres in his literary work. We have seen that already, in 1504, +he had been engaged upon a comedy in the manner of Aristophanes, which +is now unfortunately lost. A translation of the _Andria_ and three +original comedies from his pen are extant, the precise dates of which +are uncertain, though the greatest of them was first printed at Rome in +1524. This is the _Mandragola_, which may be justly called the ripest +and most powerful play in the Italian language. + + The plot is both improbable and unpleasing. But literary criticism is + merged in admiration of the wit, the humour, the vivacity, the satire + of a piece which brings before us the old life of Florence in a + succession of brilliant scenes. If Machiavelli had any moral object + when he composed the _Mandragola_, it was to paint in glaring colours + the corruption of Italian society. It shows how a bold and plausible + adventurer, aided by the profligacy of a parasite, the avarice and + hypocrisy of a confessor, and a mother's complaisant familiarity with + vice, achieves the triumph of making a gulled husband bring his own + unwilling but too yielding wife to shame. The whole comedy is a study + of stupidity and baseness acted on by roguery. About the power with + which this picture of domestic immorality is presented there can be no + question. But the perusal of the piece obliges us to ask ourselves + whether the author's radical conception of human nature was not false. + The same suspicion is forced upon us by the _Principe_. Did not + Machiavelli leave good habit, as an essential ingredient of character, + out of account? Men are not such absolute fools as Nicia, nor such + compliant catspaws as Ligurio and Timoteo; women are not such weak + instruments as Sostrata and Lucrezia. Somewhere, in actual life, the + stress of craft and courage acting on the springs of human vice and + weakness fails, unless the hero of the comedy or tragedy, Callimaco or + Cesare, allows for the revolt of healthier instincts. Machiavelli does + not seem to have calculated the force of this recoil. He speculates a + world in which _virtu_, unscrupulous strength of character, shall deal + successfully with frailty. This, we submit, was a deep-seated error in + his theory of life, an error to which may be ascribed the numerous + stumbling-blocks and rocks of offence in his more serious writings. + + Some time after the _Mandragola_, he composed a second comedy, + entitled _Clizia_, which is even homelier and closer to the life of + Florence than its predecessor. It contains incomparable studies of the + Florentine housewife and her husband, a grave business-like citizen, + who falls into the senile folly of a base intrigue. There remains a + short piece without title, the _Commedia in prosa_, which, if it be + Machiavelli's, as internal evidence of style sufficiently argues, + might be accepted as a study for both the _Clizia_ and the + _Mandragola_. It seems written to expose the corruption of domestic + life in Florence, and especially to satirize the friars in their + familiar part of go-betweens, tame cats, confessors and adulterers. + + Of Machiavelli's minor poems, sonnets, _capitoli_ and carnival songs + there is not much to say. Powerful as a comic playwright, he was not a + poet in the proper sense of the term. The little novel of _Belfagor_ + claims a passing word, if only because of its celebrity. It is a + good-humoured satire upon marriage, the devil being forced to admit + that hell itself is preferable to his wife's company. That Machiavelli + invented it to express the irritation of his own domestic life is a + myth without foundation. The story has a medieval origin, and it was + almost simultaneously treated in Italian by Machiavelli, Straparola + and Giovanni Brevio. + +In the spring of 1526 Machiavelli was employed by Clement VII. to +inspect the fortifications of Florence. He presented a report upon the +subject, and in the summer of the same year received orders to attend +Francesco Guicciardini, the pope's commissary of war in Lombardy. +Guicciardini sent him in August to Cremona, to transact business with +the Venetian _provveditori_. Later on in the autumn we find him once +more with Guicciardini at Bologna. Thus the two great Italian historians +of the 16th century, who had been friends for several years, were +brought into relations of close intimacy. + +After another visit to Guicciardini in the spring of 1527, Machiavelli +was sent by him to Civita Vecchia. It seemed that he was destined to be +associated in the papal service with Clement's viceroy, and that a new +period of diplomatic employment was opening for him. But soon after his +return to Florence he fell ill. His son Piero said that he took medicine +on the 20th of June which disagreed with him; and on the 22nd he died, +having received the last offices of the Church. + +There is no foundation for the legend that he expired with profane +sarcasms upon his lips. Yet we need not run into the opposite extreme, +and try to fancy that Machiavelli, who had professed Paganism in his +life, proved himself a believing Christian on his death-bed. That he +left an unfavourable opinion among his fellow citizens is very decidedly +recorded by the historian Varchi. The _Principe_, it seems, had already +begun to prejudice the world against him; and we can readily believe +that Varchi sententiously observes, that "it would have been better for +him if nature had given him either a less powerful intellect or a mind +of a more genial temper." There is in truth a something crude, +unsympathetic, cynical in his mental attitude toward human nature, for +which, even after the lapse of more than three centuries, we find it +difficult to make allowance. The force of his intellect renders this +want of geniality repulsive. We cannot help objecting that one who was +so powerful could have been kindlier and sounder if he willed. We +therefore do him the injustice of mistaking his infirmity for +perversity. He was colour-blind to commonplace morality; and we are +angry with him because he merged the hues of ethics in one grey monotone +of politics. + +In person Machiavelli was of middle height, black-haired, with rather a +small head, very bright eyes and slightly aquiline nose. His thin, close +lips often broke into a smile of sarcasm. His activity was almost +feverish. When unemployed in work or study he was not averse to the +society of boon companions, gave himself readily to transient amours, +and corresponded in a tone of cynical bad taste. At the same time he +lived on terms of intimacy with worthy men. Varchi says that "in his +conversation he was pleasant, obliging to his intimates, the friend of +virtuous persons." Those who care to understand the contradictions of +which such a character was capable should study his correspondence with +Vettori. It would be unfair to charge what is repulsive in their letters +wholly on the habits of the times, for wide familiarity with the +published correspondence of similar men at the same epoch brings one +acquainted with little that is so disagreeable. (J. A. S.) + + Among the many editions of Machiavelli's works the one in 8 vols., + dated Italia, 1813, may be mentioned, and the more comprehensive ones + published by A. Parenti (Florence, 1843) and by A. Usigli (Florence, + 1857). P. Fanfani and L. Passerini began another, which promised to be + the most complete of all; but only 6 vols. were published (Florence, + 1873-1877); the work contains many new and important documents on + Machiavelli's life. The best biography is the standard work of + Pasquale Villari, _La Storia di Niccolò Machiavelli e de' suoi tempi_ + (Florence, 1877-1882; latest ed., 1895; Eng. trans. by Linda Villari, + London, 1892); in vol. ii. there is an exhaustive criticism of the + various authors who have written on Machiavelli. See also T. Mundt, + _Niccolò Machiavelli und das System der modernen Politik_ (3rd ed., + Berlin, 1867); E. Feuerlein, "_Zur Machiavelli-Frage_" in H. von + Sybel's _Histor. Zeitschrift_ (Munich, 1868); P. S. Mancini, + _Prelezioni con un saggio sul Machiavelli_; F. Nitti, _Machiavelli + nella vita e nelle opere_ (Naples, 1876); O. Tomasini, _La Vita e gli + scritti di Niccolò Machiavelli_ (Turin, 1883); L. A. Burd, _Il + Principe, by Niccolò Machiavelli_ (Oxford, 1891); Lord Morley, + _Machiavelli_ (Romanes lecture, Oxford, 1897). _The Cambridge Modern + History_, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1903), contains an essay on Machiavelli + by L. A. Burd, with a very full biography. + + + + +MACHICOLATION (from Fr. _machicoulis_), an opening between a wall and a +parapet, formed by corbelling out the latter, so that the defenders +might throw down stones, melted lead, &c., upon assailants below. + + + + +MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form _machina_ of Gr. [Greek: mechane]), +any device or apparatus for the application or modification of force to +a specific purpose. The term "simple machine" is applied to the six +so-called mechanical powers--the lever, wedge, wheel and axle, pulley, +screw, and inclined plane. For machine-tools see TOOLS. The word machine +was formerly applied to vehicles, such as stage-coaches, &c., and is +still applied to carriages in Scotland; a survival of this use is in the +term "bathing machine." Figuratively, the word is used of persons whose +actions seem to be regulated according to a rigid and unchanging system. +In politics, especially in America, machine is synonymous with party +organization. A stage device of the ancient Greek drama gave rise to the +proverbial expression, "the god from the machine," Lat. _deus ex +machina_, for the disentangling and conclusion of a plot by supernatural +interference or by some accident extraneous to the natural development +of the story. When a god had to be brought on the stage he was floated +down from above by a [Greek: geranos] (crane) or other machine ([Greek: +mechane]). Euripides has been reproached with an excessive use of the +device, but it has been pointed out (A. E. Haigh, _Tragic Drama of the +Greeks_, p. 245 seq.) that only in two plays (_Orestes_ and +_Hippolytus_) is the god brought on for the solution of the plot. In the +others the god comes to deliver a kind of epilogue, describing the +future story of the characters, or to introduce some account of a +legend, institution, &c. + + + + +MACHINE-GUN, a weapon designed to deliver a large number of bullets or +small shells, either by volleys[1] or in very quick succession, at a +high rate of fire. Formerly the mechanism of machine-guns was hand +operated, but all modern weapons are automatic in action, the gas of the +explosion or the force of recoil being utilized to lock and unlock the +breech mechanism, to load the weapon and to eject the fired cartridge +cases. The smaller types approximate to the "automatic rifle," which is +expected to replace the magazine rifle as the arm of the infantryman. +The large types, generically called "pompoms," fire a light artillery +projectile, and are considered by many artillery experts as "the gun of +the future." The medium type, which takes the ordinary rifle ammunition +but is fired from various forms of carriage, is the ordinary machine-gun +of to-day, and the present article deals mainly with this. + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH + +Machine-guns of a primitive kind are found in the early history of +gunpowder artillery, in the form of a grouping or binding of several +small-calibre guns for purposes of a volley or a rapid succession of +shots. The earliest field artillery (q.v.) was indeed chiefly designed +to serve the purpose of a modern machine-gun, i.e. for a mechanical +concentration of musketry. Infantry fire (till the development of the +Spanish arquebus, about 1520) was almost ineffective, and the +disintegration of the masses of pikes, preparatory to the decisive +cavalry charge, had to be effected by guns of one sort or another (see +also INFANTRY). Hence the "cart with gonnes," although the prototype of +the field gun of to-day was actually a primitive _mitrailleuse_. + + + Ribaudequins. + + "Organs." + +Weapons of this sort were freely employed by the Hussites, who fought in +laager formation (_Wagenburg_), but the fitting of two or more hand-guns +or small culverins to a two-wheeled carriage garnished with spikes and +scythe blades (like the ancient war-chariots) was somewhat older, for in +1382 the men of Ghent put into the field 200 "chars de canon" and in +1411 the Burgundian army is said to have had 2000 "ribaudequins" +(meaning probably the weapons, not the carts, in this case). These were +of course hardly more than carts with hand-gun men; in fact most armies +in those days moved about in a hollow square or lozenge of wagons, and +it was natural to fill the carts with the available gunners or archers. +The method of breaking the enemy's "battles" with these carts was at +first, in the ancient manner, to drive into and disorder the hostile +ranks with the scythes. But they contained at least the germ of the +modern machine-gun, for the tubes (_cannes, canons_) were connected by a +train of powder and fired in volleys. As however field artillery +improved (latter half of 15th century), and a cannon-ball could be fired +from a mobile carriage, the ribaudequin ceased to exist, its name being +transferred to heavy hand-guns used as rampart pieces. The idea of the +machine-gun reappeared however in the 16th century. The weapons were now +called "organs" (_orgues_), from the number of pipes or tubes that they +contained. At first used (defensively) in the same way as the +ribaudequins, i.e. as an effective addition to the military equipment of +a war-cart, they were developed, in the early part of the 16th century, +into a really formidable weapon for breaking the masses of the enemy, +not by scythes and spikes but by fire. Fleurange's memoirs assign the +credit of this to the famous gunner and engineer Pedro Navarro, who made +two hundred weapons of a design of his own for Louis XII. These "were +not more than two feet long, and fired fifty shots at a round," but +nevertheless "organs" were relatively rare in the armies of the 16th +century, for the field artillery, though it grew in size and lost in +mobility, had discovered the efficacy of case shot (then called +"perdreaux") against uncovered animate targets, and for work that was +not sufficiently serious for the guns heavy arquebuses were employed. +Infantry fire, too, was growing in power and importance. In 1551 a +French army contained 21 guns and 150 arquebuses _à croc_ and one _pièce +façon d'orgue_. By about 1570 it had been found that when an "organ" was +needed all that was necessary was to mount some heavy arquebuses on a +cart, and the organ, as a separate weapon, disappeared from the field, +although under the name of "mantelet" (from the shield which protected +the gunners), it was still used for the defence of breaches in siege +warfare. Diego Ufano, who wrote in the early years of the 17th century, +describes it as a weapon consisting of five or six barrels fired +simultaneously by a common lock, and mentions as a celebrated example +the "Triquetraque of Rome" which had five barrels. Another writer, +Hanzelet, describes amongst other devices a mitrailleuse of four barrels +which was fired from the back of an ass or pony. But such weapons as +these were more curious than useful. For work in the open field the +musket came more and more to the front, its bullet became at least as +formidable as that of an "organ," and when it was necessary to obtain a +concentrated fire on a narrow front arquebuses _à croc_ were mounted for +the nonce in groups of four to six. The "organ" maintained a precarious +existence, and is described by Montecucculi a century later, and one of +twelve barrels figures in the list of military Stores at Hesdin in 1689. +But its fatal defect was that it was neither powerful enough to engage +nor mobile enough to evade the hostile artillery. + +Enthusiastic inventors, of course, produced many models of machine-gun +in the strict sense of the word--i.e. a gun firing many charges, in +volleys or in rapid succession, by a mechanical arrangement of the lock. +Wilhelm Calthoff, a German employed by Louis XIII., produced arquebuses +and muskets that fired six to eight shots per round, but his invention +was a secret, and it seems to have been more of a magazine small arm +than a machine-gun (1640). In 1701 a Lorrainer, Beaufort de Mirecourt, +proposed a machine-gun which had as its purpose the augmentation of +infantry-fire power, so as to place an inferior army on an equality with +a superior. At this time inventors were so numerous and so embarrassing +that the French grand master of artillery, St Hilaire, in 1703 wrote +that he would be glad to have done with "ces sortes de gens à secrets," +some of whom demanded a grant of compensation even when their +experiments had failed. The machine-gun of the 17th and 18th centuries +in fact possessed no advantage over contemporary field artillery, and +the battalion gun in particular, which possessed the long ranging and +battering power that its rival lacked, and was moreover more efficacious +against living targets with its case-shot or grape. As compared with +infantry fire, too, it was less effective and slower than the muskets of +a well-drilled company. Rapid fire was easily arranged, but the rapid +_loading_ which would have compensated for other defects was +unobtainable in the then existing state of gun-making. + +Thus a satisfactory machine-gun was not forthcoming until breech-loading +had been, so to speak, rediscovered, that is until about 1860. At that +time the tactical conditions of armament were peculiar. As regards +artillery, the new (muzzle-loading) long-range rifle sufficed, in the +hand of determined infantry, to keep guns out of case-shot range. This +made the Napoleonic artillery attack an impossibility. At the same time +the infantry rifle was a slow loader, and the augmentation of the volume +of infantry fire attracted the attention of several inventors. The +French, with their artillery traditions, regarded the machine-gun +therefore as a method of restoring the lost superiority of the gunner, +while the Americans, equally in accordance with traditions and local +circumstances, regarded it as a musketry machine. The representative +weapons evolved by each were the _canon à balles_, more commonly called +_mitrailleuse_, and the Gatling gun. + + + The Canon a Balles, 1866-1870. + +The declared purpose of the _canon à balles_ was to replace the old +artillery case-shot attack. Shrapnel, owing to the defects of the +time-fuzes then available, had proved disappointing in the Italian War +of 1859, and the gun itself, of the existing model, was not considered +satisfactory. Napoleon III., a keen student of artillery, maintained a +private arsenal and workshop at the château of Meudon[2] and in 1866, in +the alarm following upon Königgrätz, he ordered Commandant Reffye +(1821-1880), the artillery officer he had placed in charge of it, to +produce a machine-gun. Reffye held that the work of a mitrailleuse +should only begin where that of the infantry rifle ceased. The handbook +to his gun issued to the French army in 1870 stated that it was "to +carry balls to distances that the infantry, and the artillery firing +case, could not reach." The most suitable range was given as 1500-2000 +yards against infantry in close order, 2000-2700 against artillery. As +the French shrapnel (_obus à balles_) of these days was only used to +give its peculiar case-shot effect between 550 and 1350 yards, and even +so sparingly and without much confidence in its efficacy, it is clear +that the _canon à balles_ was intended to do the field-gun's work, +except at (what were then) extreme field artillery ranges (2800 and +above), in which case the ordinary gun with common shell (time or +percussion) alone was used. + + Constructed to meet these conditions, the Reffye machine-gun in its + final form resembled outwardly an ordinary field gun, with wheeled + carriage, limber and four-horse team. The gun barrel was in reality a + casing for 25 rifle barrels disposed around a common axis (the idea of + obtaining sweeping effect by disposing the barrels slightly fan-wise + had been tried and abandoned). The barrels were held together at + intervals by wrought-iron plates. They were entirely open at the + breech, a removable false breech containing the firing mechanism (the + cartridge cases were of brass, solid-drawn, like those of the American + and unlike those of the British Gatlings). This false breech, held in + the firing position by a strong screw--resembling roughly those of + contemporary B.L. ordnance such as the Armstrong R. B. L.--consisted + of a plate with 25 holes, which allowed the points of the strikers to + pass through and reach the cartridges. The plate was turned by hand so + that one striker was admitted at a time, the metal of the plate + holding back the rest. To avoid any deflection of the bullet by the + gases at an adjoining muzzle the barrels were fired in an irregular + order. Each gun was provided with four chambers, which were loaded + with their 25 cartridges apiece by a charger, and fixed to the breech + one after the other as quickly as the manipulation of the powerful + retaining screw permitted. The rates of fire were "slow," 3 rounds or + 75 shots a minute, and "rapid," 5 rounds or 125 shots per minute. One + advantage as against artillery that was claimed for the new weapon was + rapidity of ranging. Any ordinary target, such as a hostile gun, + would, it was expected, be accurately ranged by the mitrailleuse + before it was ready to open fire for effect. The ordinary rifle bullet + was employed, but to enhance the case-shot effect a heavy bullet made + up in three parts, which broke asunder on discharge, was introduced in + 1870 in the proportion of one round in nine. The weapon was sighted to + 3000 metres (3300 yds.). The initial velocity was 1558 f.s.; and the + weight of the gun 350 kg. (6.45 cwt.), of the carriage 371 kg. (6.86 + cwt.); total behind the team, 1,485 kg. (27.1 cwt.). + + For an artillery effect, dispersion had to be combined with accuracy. + The rifle-barrels when carefully set gave a very close grouping of + shots on the target, and dispersion was obtained by traversing the gun + during the firing of a round. When this was skilfully performed a + front of 18 metres (about 20 yds.) at l,000 metres range was + thoroughly swept by the cone of bullets. + +The design and manufacture of these mitrailleuses under the personal +orders and at the expense of the emperor enabled the French authorities +to keep their new weapon most secret. Even though, after a time, +mitrailleuses were constructed by scores, and could therefore no longer +be charged to a "sundry" or "petty cash" account in the budget, secrecy +was still maintained. The pieces were taken about, muffled in +tarpaulins, by by-ways and footpaths. In 1869, two years after the +definitive adoption of the weapon, only a few artillery captains were +instructed in its mechanism; the non-commissioned officers who had to +handle the gun in war were called up for practice in July 1870, when +Major Reffye's energies were too much absorbed in turning out the +material so urgently demanded to allow him to devote himself to their +instruction. The natural consequence was that the mitrailleuses were +taken into battle by officers and men of whom nine-tenths had never seen +them fire one round of live cartridges. The purpose of this fatal +secrecy was the maintenance of prestige. No details were given, but it +was confidently announced that war would be revolutionized. One foreign +officer only, Major Fosbery, R.A. (see _R.U.S.I. Journal_, v. xiii.), +penetrated the secret, and he felt himself bound in honour to keep it to +himself, not even communicating it to the War Office. But public +attention was only too fully aroused by these mysterious prophecies. +"The mitrailleuse paid dearly for its fame." The Prussians, who had +examined mitrailleuses of the Gatling or infantry type, were well aware +that the artillery machine-gun was at the least a most formidable +opponent. They therefore ostentatiously rejected the Gatling gun, taught +their troops that the new weapons were in the nature of scientific toys, +and secretly made up their minds to turn the whole weight of their guns +on to the mitrailleuse whenever and wherever it appeared on the field, +and so to overwhelm it at once. This policy they carried into effect in +the War of 1870; and although on occasions the new weapon rendered +excellent service, in general it cruelly disappointed the over-high +hopes of its admirers. And thus, although the Gatling and similar types +of gun were employed to a slight extent by both sides in the later stage +of the war, machine-guns, as a class of armament for civilized warfare, +practically disappeared. + + As a good deal of criticism--after the event--has been levelled at the + French for their "improper use of the machine-gun as a substitute for + artillery," it is necessary to give some summary of the ideas and + rules which were inspired by the inventor or dictated by the + authorities as to its tactical employment. The first principle laid + down was that the gun should not be employed within the zone of the + infantry fight. Officers commanding batteries were explicitly warned + against infantry divisional generals who would certainly attempt to + put the batteries, by sections, amongst the infantry. The second + principle was that the mitrailleuses were to share the work of the + guns, the latter battering obstacles with common shell, and the former + being employed against troops in the open, and especially to cover and + support the infantry advance. This tendency to classify the roles of + the artillery and to tell off the batteries each in its special task + has reappeared in the French, and to a more limited extent in the + British, field artillery of to-day (the Germans alone resolutely + opposing the idea of subdivision). The mitrailleuse of 1870 was, in + fact, intended to do what the perfected Shrapnel of 1910 does, to + transfer the case-shot attack to longer ranges. But, as we have seen, + secrecy had prevented any general spread of knowledge as to the uses + to which the _canon à balles_ was to be put, and consequently, after a + few weeks of the war, we find Reffye complaining that the machine-guns + were being used by their battery commanders "in a perfectly idiotic + fashion. They are only good at a great distance and when used in + masses, and they are being employed at close quarters like a rifle." + The officers in the field, however, held that it was foolish to pit + the mitrailleuse against the gun, which had a longer range, and + exerted themselves to use it as an infantry weapon, a concentrated + company, for which, unlike the Gatlings of 1870 and the machine-guns + of to-day, it was never designed. As to which was right in the + controversy it is impossible to dogmatize and needless to argue. + + + Gatling Gun. + +Very different was the Gatling gun, the invention of Richard Jordan +Gatling (1818-1903), which came into existence and was to a slight +extent used in the field in the latter years of the American Civil +War,[3] and also to a still slighter extent by the Bavarians and the +French in the latter part of the war of 1870. This was distinctively an +infantry type weapon, a sort of revolving rifle, the ten barrels of +which were set around an axis, and fired in turn when brought into +position by the revolving mechanism. This weapon had a long reign, and +was used side by side with the latest automatic machine gun in the +Spanish-American War of 1898. The following account of the old British +service Gatling (fig. 1), as used in the Egyptian and Sudanese +campaigns, is condensed from that in the article "Gun-making," _Ency. +Brit._ 9th ed. + + A block of ten barrels is secured round an axis, which is fixed in a + frame _a a_. On turning the handle _h_ (fig. 2) the spindle _g g_ + causes the worm _f_ to act on the pinion _w_, making the axis and + barrels revolve. A drum T (figs. 1 and 4) is placed on the top at the + breech end of the barrels over a hopper, through a slot in which the + cartridges drop into the carrier (fig. 3). The construction of the + lock is shown in fig. 4. A A A A is a cam, sloping as in the drawing, + which, it must be understood, represents the circular construction + opened out and laid flat. As the barrels, carrier and locks revolve + the slope of the cam forces the locks forward and backward + alternately. At position I. the cartridge has just fallen into the + carrier, the lock and bolt are completely withdrawn. At positions II., + III., IV., the cam is forcing them forward, so that the bolt pushes + the cartridge into the barrel. At IV. the cocking cam R begins to + compress the spiral spring, releasing it at V. Position VI. shows the + cartridge just after firing; the extractor is clutching the base of + the cartridge case, which is withdrawn as the locks retreat down the + slope of the cam, till at X it falls through an aperture to the + ground. The drum consists of a number of vertical channels radiating + from the centre. The cartridges are arranged horizontally, one above + the other, in these channels, bullet ends inwards. The drum revolves + on the pivot b (fig. 3). and the cartridges fall through the aperture + B. When all the channels are emptied, a full drum is brought from the + limber, and substituted for the empty one. Each barrel fires in turn + as it comes to a certain position, so that by turning the handle + quickly an almost continuous stream of bullets can be ejected. + Experimental Gatlings were constructed which could be made to fire + nearly 1000 shots a minute, and an automatic traversing arrangement + was also fitted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Gatling Gun.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Lock of Gatling Gun.] + +As has been said, this weapon had a long reign. It was used with great +effect in the Zulu War at Ulundi and in the Sudan. But a grave +disadvantage of the English pattern was that it had to be used with the +Boxer coiled cartridge supplied for the Martini-Henry rifle, and until +this was replaced by a solid-drawn cartridge case it was impossible to +avoid frequent "jams." The modern, fully automatic, machine gun suffers +from this to a considerable extent, and it was an even more serious +defect with a hand-operated weapon, as the British troops found in their +campaigns against the Mahdists. But the Gatling had many advantages over +its newer rivals as regards simplicity and strength. Theodore Roosevelt, +who commanded sections of both types in the Spanish-American War, speaks +with enthusiasm of the old-fashioned weapon[4] while somewhat +disparaging the Colt automatic. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Nordenfeldt Machine-Gun. + + 1-10, Parts of frame; + 11, Breech plug; + 12, Striker; + 13, Extractor; + 14, Cartridge receiver; + 15-18, 23-31, Lock and trigger parts; + 19-22, Locking action; + 32-35, Loading action; + 36-39, Cartridge receiver; + 40, Cover; + 41-44, Parts of hand-lever, + 45-49, Traversing action, + 50-55, Elevating and trailing action; + 56, 57, Hopper and slide.] + +The Gardner was another type which had a certain vogue[5] and was used +by the British in savage warfare. But, next to the Gatling, the most +important of the hand-operated machine guns was the Nordenfeldt, which +was principally designed for naval use about the time when torpedo-boats +were beginning to be regarded as dangerous antagonists. + + + Nordenfeldt Gun. + + In this weapon the barrels are placed horizontally, and have no + movement. A box containing the locks, bolts, strikers and spiral + springs, one of each corresponding to each barrel, moves straight + backwards and forwards when worked by the handle of the lever on the + right. When the box is drawn back the cartridges fall from the holder + on the top into the carriers simultaneously. When the box is pushed + forward the bolts push the cartridges into the barrel, cocking-catches + compress the spiral springs, the lever releases the catches one after + the other at very minute intervals of time, and the cartridges are + fired in rapid succession. In this piece, careful aim can be taken + from a moving platform, and at the right moment the barrels can be + fired at the object almost simultaneously. + + +PRESENT DAY MACHINE-GUNS. + +Hitherto we have been dealing with weapons worked by hand-power applied +to a lever or winch-handle, the motion of this lever being translated by +suitable mechanism into those by which the cartridges are loaded, fired, +extracted and ejected--the cycle continuing as long as the lever is +worked and there are cartridges in the "hoppers" which feed the gun. In +the modern "automatic" machine-gun, moreover, the loading, firing, +extracting and ejecting are all performed automatically by the gun +itself, either by the recoil of its barrel, or by a small portion of the +gases of explosion being allowed to escape through a minute hole in the +barrel near the muzzle. The following details of the British Maxim, +Hotchkiss and Colt types are reproduced from the article "Machine-guns," +_Ency. Brit._ 10th ed. + +The idea of using the recoil, or a portion of the gases of explosion, +for the working of the breech mechanism is by no means new, the latter +system having been proposed and patented (certainly in a very crude and +probably unworkable form) by (Sir) Henry Bessemer in 1854; but whatever +might be discovered by a search in old patent and other records or in +museums, there can be no doubt that (Sir) Hiram S. Maxim was the first +to produce a finished automatic gun of practical value. His patents in +connexion with this particular class of weapon date back to 1884, and +his gun on the recoil system was, after extensive trials, adopted into +the British army in 1889 and into the navy in 1892. It is very possible +that Bessemer's idea did not bear fruit earlier because the fouling left +by the old forms of "black" or smoky powders was apt to clog the moving +parts and to choke any small port. With modern smokeless powders this +difficulty does not arise. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Maxim Gun on Wheeled Carriage (1900).] + +[Illustration: FIGS. 7 and 8.--Mechanism of Maxim Gun.] + + + Maxim Gun. + + The Maxim gun,[6] as will be seen from figs. 7 and 8, consists of two + parts, the barrel casing (a) and breech casing (d), secured firmly + together. The former (a), which is cylindrical in form, contains the + barrel (b), and the water surrounding it to keep down the very high + temperature attained by rapid fire, and the steam tube (c), which by + the action of a sliding valve allows of the escape of steam but not of + water. The barrel has asbestos packings at its front and rear bearings + in the casing, which allow of its sliding in recoil without the escape + of water. The breech casing (d) is a rectangular oblong box, and + contains the lock and firing mechanism. At its rear end it has handles + (e) by which the gun is directed, and the thumb-piece (m) by which the + trigger is actuated. Its top is closed by a lid, hinged at (i). At its + front is a recess holding the feed-block (f) through which the belt of + cartridges (g) is fed to the gun. + + Attached to the rear of the barrel (b) on either side are two side + plates (h), between which in guides O works the aggregation of parts + D, F, J, K, L, P, T and V, which constitute the lock, and (in + bearings) the crank axle E, crank E', and connecting rod I (see figs. + 7 to 11). + + The connecting rod I joins the lock and crank, being attached to the + side levers J of the former by means of the interrupted screw U; the + latter enables the lock to be detached and removed. + + The crank axle E extends through both sides of the breech casing (d), + slots (k, fig. 7), allowing it a longitudinal movement of about an + inch. To its left-hand end, outside the breech casing, is attached the + fusee chain Y of the recoil spring X (see dotted lines in fig. 7), and + to its right-hand end a bell trunk lever, B B'; the arm B, which + terminates in a knob, being turned by the crank handle, the arm B' + working against the buffer stop C. + + In figs. 8, 9 and 11 the breech is shown closed, and it will be + noticed that the crank pin I' is _above_ the straight line joining the + axis of the barrel, the striker T, and the crank axle E. As the crank + is prevented from further movement _upwards_ by the crank handle B + taking against the check-lever G (fig. 7), it is clear that the + pressure on discharge of the cartridge cannot cause the crank axle to + rotate, and so open the breech as shown in figs. 10 and 12. + + The withdrawal of the lock and opening of the breech are effected as + follows: The _total_ travel in recoil of the barrel is about one inch, + but on discharge the barrel, the side plates and lock all recoil + _together_ for about a quarter of an inch without any disturbance of + the locking as explained above, and by the time this short travel is + completed the _bullet has left the muzzle_. The arm B' of the crank + handle then engages the buffer stop C and causes the crank axle E to + rotate and the crank E' to fall and so draw back the lock from, and + open, the breech. At the same time the fusee chain Y is wound up round + the left-hand end of the crank axle E and the spring X extended. In + the meantime the knob of the buffer handle B swings over, and just as + the lock reaches its rearmost position (as in figs. 10 and 12) strikes + the flat buffer spring H, and, rebounding, assists the crank in + revolving in the reverse direction; the spring X also contracts, and, + unwinding the fusee chain, draws back the lock again and closes the + breech, a fresh cartridge having been placed in the barrel as + explained below. + + The gun is fired by means of the trigger F, which is actuated by the + projection (l) on the trigger bar (S), the latter being drawn back + when the button (m) on the push lever (n) is pressed forwards. If, + therefore, the button he kept permanently pressed, the projection (l) + will always lie in the path of the trigger F just as the lock reaches + its forward position and the breech is closed, and the gun will fire + automatically, and continue to do so as long as there are cartridges + in the belt. + + The loading, extraction and ejection of the cartridges are effected as + follows: The left-hand side-plate is extended forwards a little beyond + the breech, and communicates the reciprocating motion of the barrel to + a lever on the feed-block, which causes the cartridges in the belt to + be fed forward one by one by a "step-by-step" pawl action, the + cartridge which is next to be taken from the belt being arrested + exactly above the breech, the ejector-tube Q being below in the same + vertical plane. + + The extractor D (see figs. 9 to 12) which performs the operations of + inserting, extracting and ejecting the cartridges, travels vertically + in guides on the face of the lock. Projecting outwards from each side + of its top are horns N (figs. 9 and 10). These travel round the edges + of the cams M (fig. 8) situated on each side of the breech casing, and + in conjunction with the spring W (fig. 8), compel the top of the + extractor to take the path shown by the dotted lines and arrows in + figs. 9 to 12. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] + + The extractor (figs. 11 and 12) is recessed to take a movable plate + (u) termed a "gib," behind which is a spring (v). In the face of the + gib is a recess (w) into which the base of a cartridge can just enter. + On either side of the gib the face of the extractor has undercut + flanges, open at the top and bottom, between which the base of a + cartridge can fit the rim, being held in the undercuts (figs. 9 and + 10). + + It is clear from this arrangement that the base of the cartridge + having been introduced between the flanges at the top of the + extractor, can be pushed down, the spring (v) yielding, till arrested + at the recess (w); and, as the lower edges of this recess are slightly + sloped, further pressure will make it leave the recess (w) and slide + over the face of the gib, leave it, and take up a position in front of + the hole for the point of the striker (x), being now only prevented + from slipping out of the extractor by the extractor spring (y). If + this last be clear of the extractor stop (z) it will yield to pressure + and the cartridge will be free. This is the action in the gun except + that the cartridge is held firm and the extractor pushed against it. + + In fig. 10 the extractor holds a cartridge (r) and a fired case (q) + ready to be pushed into the empty breech and ejector-tube Q + respectively. In the latter there is already a fired case (p), which + will be driven by the fired case (q) beyond the ejector spring R. As + soon as the lock reaches the face of the breech, the cartridge (r) and + case (q) are deposited in the breech and ejector-tube respectively, + and the extractor D _rises_ under the action of the levers L and J, + slides, as already explained, by the bases of the cartridges (r) and + case (q), and then over the base of the cartridge (s) in the belt (g). + Assuming the push-lever (n) to be pressed, the gun fires immediately + this has occurred, and the bullet of the cartridge (r) is expelled. + The position is now that shown in fig. 9. The barrel now recoils and + the lock is withdrawn, taking with it the fresh cartridge (s) from the + belt and the now fired case (r). The extractor travels horizontally + for a time and then drops (as shown by the dotted line and arrows), + assuming the position shown in fig. 12, which is exactly similar to + that in fig. 10 but with different cartridges; continuing the action, + the position shown in fig. 11 is arrived at. It will thus be seen that + each cartridge makes two complete journeys with the extractor; the + first as a live cartridge from the belt to the breech, the second from + the breech to the ejector-tube, the forward journey being always on a + lower level than that of the backward one. The sections in figs. 11 + and 12 clearly show the cocking and firing mechanism and the safety + arrangement. The lock is cocked, after firing, by the arm of the + "tumbler" K, being pressed down by the side lever J as it swings down + when following the crank E'. Safety against firing before the breech + is closed is provided by the projection on the safety lever V, which + does not clear the striker T until lifted by the side lever J at the + top of its travel, that is, when the crank E' has passed the axial + line as already explained. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] + + The lock in its rearmost position is kept in place by the block Z on + the under side of the cover of the breech casing. When in this + position it is clear of the guides O on the side-plates, and if the + cover be opened it can be turned up, unscrewed by a turn through an + eighth of a circle (the screw-thread U being interrupted in four + places) and removed. To prepare the gun for firing, the crank handle + is pushed over by hand to the buffer-spring, thus withdrawing the + extractor, and held in this position; the tongue on the end of a + filled belt is then pushed through the feed-block from the left and + pulled as far as it will go from the opposite side. This places a + cartridge above the breech ready to be seized by the extractor. The + crank handle is now released and the lock flies forwards. The crank + handle is now again pushed over and let go, and the first cartridge + thus taken from the belt and placed in the breech. The gun is ready to + fire. + + To remove a partially filled belt, the crank handle must be pushed + over, thus freeing the extractor from the belt, and the latter + withdrawn after pressing a spring catch under the feed block which + releases the pawls. The gun now has _two_ live cartridges in it--both + in the extractor. Letting go the crank handle, one of them is + deposited in the ejector-tube, and again pushing over and letting go + the crank handle does the same with the second. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] + + Fig. 13 shows the feed-block and the cartridge belts. The greatest + number usually carried in a belt is 250. + + The gun is sighted to 2,500 yds. and has a folding tangent sight as + shown. Its weight varies from 50 to 60 lb., and it can fire about 450 + rounds per minute. + + [The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of Messrs. + Vickers, Sons & Maxim.] + + + Hotchkiss Gun. + + The Hotchkiss gun, figs. 14 to 16, which has been adopted by the + French army and navy and elsewhere, depends for its action on the use + of a small portion of the gases of the cartridge itself. The barrel A + is firmly attached to the receiver or frame B, the latter containing + the breech and firing mechanism. Under the barrel A, and communicating + with it by a port (c) near the muzzle is a cylinder or tube C. When + the gun is fired, and the bullet has passed the port (c), a portion of + the gases of explosion passes into the cylinder C and drives back the + piston F contained in it, a lug on the under part of the piston + compressing the spring M, the latter, when the trigger N is pulled, + driving back the piston again. The reciprocating motion of the piston + performs all the processes of loading and firing the gun, and the + action is continuous as long as the trigger is kept pressed back. + + The piston F, enlarged and suitably shaped at the rear, actuates the + breech-block H and firing pin or striker J; and, by suitable cam + grooves (f) at about the centre of its length, works the larger + feed-wheel U of the feed-box S; the smaller wheel U on the same axis + in turn imparting a step-by-step motion to the metal feed-strips, each + containing 30 cartridges, so that fresh cartridges are placed one by + one before the face of the breech block ready to be pushed into the + breech when the fired cartridge has been extracted and ejected. + + On the under surface of the piston F, in rear, is a recess or sear (f) + in which the nose of the trigger N engages, holding back the piston + when it has been driven back by the gases. As already stated, a lug on + the under surface just in rear of the cam (f) engages with the front + of the mainspring. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Maxim Gun Mechanism.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Maxim Feed-block.] + + Taking first the position shown in fig. 15 with the breech closed and + locked and the cartridge fired, it will be seen that the breech is + locked by the _upper_ cam (_f_'), on the end of the piston, F, having + caused the movable locking-dog (h) to fall and bear against the recoil + blocks Z (see fig. 14 also) on the walls of the _receiver_ or frame B. + Consequently the breech is not unlocked until the piston has moved + sufficiently to the rear for the _lower_ cam (_f_') to lift the + locking-dog (h) clear of the recoil blocks Z. As the piston F is not + actuated by the gases until the bullet has passed the port (c), and + then has to move a short distance before the locking-dog is raised, + the bullet is clear of the muzzle _before_ the breech is unlocked. + + As the piston continues to recoil it draws back the striker J and then + the breech-block H, and is then caught and retained by the engagement + of the sear (f) with the trigger N, and the position assumed is that + shown in fig. 14. + + [Illustration: FIGS. 14, 15, 16.--Hotchkiss Gun Mechanism.] + + From the head or nose-piece I of the breech-block projects the claw K + of a spring extractor which, as the cartridge is pushed home by the + breech-block, seizes it, extracting the fired case when the + breech-block is withdrawn. Ejection of the fired case is effected by + means of the ejector L (fig. 16) which catches against the base of the + case, on the opposite side to the extractor claw, and so throws it + sideways through the oblong-pointed opening in the receiver just in + rear of the breech (see fig. 14). + + The platform on the top of the feed-box through which the teeth of the + smaller feed-wheel U project, and on which the feed-strips rest, lies + _below_ the axial line of the breech-block H, so that the face or + nose-piece I of the latter only engages a _portion_ of the base of the + cartridge in the feed-strip as it pushes the cartridge into the + breech, the bullet of the cartridge being guided into the breech by + the incline at the opening of the latter. This point should be + specially noted, the object of the arrangement being to enable the + under surface of the breech-block to clear the clips which hold the + cartridges in the feed-strips. The cartridge therefore, being + extracted in the line of the axis of the block, is ejected through an + opening _above_ its plane of entry in the feed-strip. + + Returning to the position shown in fig. 16, if the trigger be pulled, + the compressed spring M reacts and drives the piston forwards, + carrying the breech-block with it, the latter in turn driving a + cartridge in front of it out of the feed-strip. When the block and + cartridge are home, _and not till then_, the piston completes its + travel, the upper cam (_f_') locking the dog (h), and the firing-pin + protrudes and fires the cartridge. Anything, therefore, which prevents + the breech-block from being home against the breech, or the + locking-dog from falling in front of the recoil blocks Z, renders + firing of the cartridge impossible. Clearly if the trigger be kept + depressed the action becomes automatic. + + A special feature of this gun is the absence of a separate spring to + actuate the firing-pin; the recoil spring M performing this function, + in addition to that of driving the piston forwards. + + The feed-strips have holes in them in which the teeth of the smaller + feed-wheel U engage. The engagement of this feed with the piston F can + be released by pulling out the feed arbor W, so that the strips can be + removed at any time. + + When the last shot in a feed-strip has been fired a stop (V) holds the + piston and block ready for a fresh feed-strip to be inserted. As the + stop V acts quite independently of the trigger, this action takes + place even if the trigger be still depressed after the last cartridge + in a strip has been fired. + + To cock the gun, when in the locked position, a cocking handle G is + provided. This has a long arm projecting to the front with a catch + which takes against the front of the lug on the under side of the + piston. To prepare the gun for action the gun is cocked, and a + feed-strip is pushed into the feed-block. + + The pressure of the gas on the piston is regulated by the regulator + screw D, by means of which the space in the cylinder C in front of the + piston F can be reduced or increased. + + A safety lock R is furnished, which is a "half round" pin which can be + turned so as to enter the semicircular slot just in front of the sear + (f), and so hold back the piston when in the cocked position. + + Radiation of the heat, generated in the barrel by rapid fire, is + facilitated by the radiator (a), which consists of rings on the barrel + close to the breech, which offer an increased surface to the air. + + The gun is sighted to 2000 yds., with the ordinary flap back-sight, + weighs about 53 lb., and can fire from 500 to 600 rounds per minute. + + [The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of the + Hotchkiss Ordnance Company.] + + + Colt Gun. + + The Colt automatic gun, which has been adopted by the American army + and navy, and was used by the British in S. Africa, depends for its + action, similarly to the Hotchkiss, on the escape of a small portion + of the gases of explosion through a port in the barrel a short + distance from the muzzle. Figs. 17 and 18 give a plan, and side + elevation with the left side plate removed, respectively. Into the + recess in the barrel (92) just below the port fits the piston (35), + capable of slight motion round the pivot (36), by which it is attached + to the gas lever (29). The latter is a bell-crank lever pivoted at + (34), its short arm being attached at (46) by a pivot to a long link + with a cross head, termed the retracting connexion (45). This link + extends from a point close to the figures (44), where the arms of the + cross head bear against the ends of two long spiral retracting + springs, (37) and (38), contained in two tubes, (39) and (40), which + are slotted for a few inches of their length to allow the cross head + to follow up and compress the springs. (Only (38) and (40) are shown, + (37) and (39) lying in the same plane of projection.) + + When the gun fires, and the bullet has passed the port, the gases + drive the piston (35) and gas lever (29) downwards, and the momentum + imparted causes them to swing back round the pivot (36), as shown by + the dotted circle. The gas lever is brought up now by the bottom plate + (91); and the retracting springs, compressed by the cross head of the + long link (45) owing to the _forward_ motion of the short arm of the + gas lever, react and drive the gas lever into its forward position + again. + + [Illustration: FIGS. 17 and 18.--Colt Automatic Gun Mechanism.] + + The rotary movement of the gas lever is converted into a reciprocating + movement of the slide (86) by means of the gas lever connexion rod + (31) pivoted at (32) to the gas lever, and at (87) to the slide. + + The slide (86) is a nearly flat bar, travelling in guides in the + receiver, extending from (14) to (87). It is slotted completely + through longitudinally for nearly the whole of its length, this slot + affording an opening through which work the cartridge extractor (82) + and carrier (21). At its rear end it engages by means of a pin (14) in + a cam slot (97) in the bottom rib of the bolt (13), and at (83) it + bears the pivot of the cartridge extractor (82). Its rear end is + enlarged below to form a cam lug (98), and on its right side are two + projections (95) and (96), which work the feed lever (66). + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Colt Gun mounted.] + + The feed wheel (61), over which passes the belt containing the + cartridges, is actuated by a pawl "step-by-step" gear by means of the + feed lever (66). + + The carrier (21) is a long trip lever pivoted at (22), and provided + with a spring dog (23) pivoted at (24). + + The bolt (13) is a cylinder with a guide rib extending from its under + surface. It is actuated by the slide by means of the pin (14) and cam + slot (97) as already stated, and is bored through to take the striker + or firing pin (18). The rear end of the latter projects slightly + beyond the rear face of the bolt, being retained in this position by + the spring (19). When this projecting end is pushed into the bolt, the + point protrudes from the front of the bolt and fires the cartridge. + The bolt, when the breech is locked, is held firm by two recoil blocks + on the receiver (not shown), as is explained later. At the front of + the bolt is an extractor (15) with a spring claw for extracting the + fired case. (This is of course quite distinct from the cartridge + extractor (82).) Ejection is effected by means of an ejector + projecting into the path of the fired case. + + The firing of the gun is performed by the cylindrical hammer (6) + hollowed out in rear to contain the mainspring (7). When pushed back + and cocked as shown in fig. 18, it is held during a _portion_ of the + operations of the mechanism by two detents working independently of + each other--the sear (10) and the nose of the trigger (8). The former + is automatically released by a trip lever (not shown) as soon as the + breech is locked, leaving the hammer held by the trigger only. This is + the position shown in fig. 18. The necessity for the two detents is + explained later. + + The hammer, when cocked, can also be permanently locked by the handle + lock (2) actuated by a thumb-piece on the outside of the receiver. The + air compressed in rear of the hammer, as the latter is driven back, + passes through the tube (99) to the breech; and a puff of air is + therefore blown through the barrel after every shot, clearing out + fouling and unconsumed powder, and assisting to an appreciable extent + to keep down the temperature of the barrel. + + Taking the position shown in fig. 18, the hammer is only held back by + the trigger nose, the sear (10) having been released as stated above. + A belt of cartridges (not shown) has been placed on the feed-wheel, + and the cartridge next to be used after the one (not shown) now in the + breech has its rim (or base with rimless cartridges) just above the + hook on the extractor (82). If now the trigger be pulled, the hammer + flies forwards, strikes the protruding end of the firing pin, and the + cartridge fires; the gases cause the gas lever to swing round and + drive back the slide. The pin (14) working in the cam groove (97) + causes the rear of the bolt to _rise_ and clear itself from the recoil + blocks (not shown) on the receiver, and then to move rearwards + horizontally, driving the hammer back until the latter is caught and + held by the sear and trigger. In the meantime the extractor (82) has + pulled a cartridge from the belt, and, assisted by two spring + cartridge guides (80 and 81), of which only (80) is shown, deposits it + on the carrier (21); the projection (95) strikes the feed-lever (66), + and moves the feed mechanism so as to prepare to revolve the + feed-wheel and place a fresh cartridge ready for the next round; and + as the slide completes its travel backwards, the cam (98) strikes the + dog (23) and slightly depresses it (the spring (25) yielding), the + carrier and cartridge on it consequently rising a little and falling + again (this latter action is incidental only to the form of the parts, + and is not a necessity). + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Hotchkiss Gun mounted.] + + The retracting springs now react and pull the slide forwards; the cam + (98) strikes the dog (23), which, as the spring arrangement is of the + "non-return" class, does not yield but is depressed, and the front of + the carrier and the cartridge on it are therefore raised sharply, and + the latter placed in the path of the bolt. The bolt being now pulled + forwards, the cartridge is driven off the carrier into the breech, and + the bolt locked by the pin (14), causing the bolt to drop in front of + the recoil blocks; the carrier is pushed down flat by the advance of + the cam lug (98), the trip releases the sear (10), and the projection + (96) pushes back the feed lever, completing the action of feeding a + fresh cartridge forward. The position shown in fig. 17 is now resumed. + + It is clear that were the trigger kept permanently pulled the gun + would fire immediately the bolt was locked and the sear (10) + depressed, and the action would become automatic. + + The object of two detents, though now probably obvious, may here be + explained. The whole action of the gun depends upon the hammer after + it is pushed back by the bolt being _held_ back until the bolt has + gone completely forwards and locked the breech. If only the trigger + detent existed, and that were kept pressed down, the hammer, after + being pushed back by the bolt, would immediately _follow up_ the + latter, and might fire the cartridge prematurely, or fail to fire it + at all; hence the use of the sear in addition to the trigger. + + To cock the lock, or work the mechanism by hand, the gas lever is + pulled round by the pin (30) provided for the purpose, and by this + means the gun is prepared for firing. A brass tongue on the end of the + belt is pushed through the opening above the feed-wheel and then + pulled from the other side of the gun as far as it will go. This + places a cartridge in front of the extractor, and if the gas lever be + now pulled right back and let go, this cartridge is placed in the + breech as already described, and the gun is ready for firing. If it be + desired to remove a belt from the feed, a button (68) is pressed and + the feed-wheel is then free to revolve backwards. + + The gun is sighted with the ordinary rifle-pattern sights, up to 2000 + yds. or more if required. It weighs about 40 lb., and can fire about + 400 rounds per minute as usually adjusted, though this rate can be + increased. There is no means of altering the gas pressure in the field + as with the Hotchkiss. + + [The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of the Colt + Arms Company.] + +Comparing the principle of employing a recoiling barrel with that of +using a portion of the gas, the advantages of the former are that the +recoil is made to do useful work instead of straining the gun and +mounting in its absorption; the latter system, however, has undoubtedly +the advantage in simplicity of mechanism (the Hotchkiss is +extraordinarily simple in construction for an automatic gun), and in the +large margin of power for working the mechanism with certainty in all +conditions of exposure to climate, dust, and dirt. While inferior in +this respect, it is nevertheless the fact that the Maxim has proved +itself in the field even in savage warfare in the roughest country to be +a very efficient and powerful weapon. + +The great difficulty which has to be met in all single-barrel machine +guns is the heating of the barrel. The 7½ pints of water in the +water-jacket of the Maxim gun are raised to boiling point by 600 rounds +of rapid fire--i.e. in about 1½ minutes--and if firing be continued, +about 1½ pints of water are evaporated for every 1000 rounds. Assuming +that the operation is continuous, the rate of waste of energy due to +heat expended on the water _alone_ is equivalent to about 20 horse-power +(294 foot tons per minute). The water-jacket acts well in keeping down +the temperature of the barrel; but apart from the complications entailed +by its use, the provision of water for this purpose is at times +exceedingly troublesome on service. In the Hotchkiss and Colt guns, +which have no water-jacket, an attempt is made to meet the heating, in +the one by the radiator, and in the other by a very heavy barrel. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Tripod mounting (Mark IV.), for British Maxim.] + +One of the most modern types of gun is the Schwarzlose, which is +manufactured at Steyr in Austria, and was adopted by the Austrian army +in 1907. This weapon is remarkable for its simplicity. There are only 10 +main working parts, and any of these can be replaced in a few seconds. +It is operated by the gases of the explosion, has a water-jacket that +allows 3000 rounds to be fired without refilling. The "life" of the +gun-barrel is stated to be 35,000 rounds without serious loss of +accuracy. The weight of the gun is 37.9 lb. It is a belt loader. + +The Italian Perino gun, adopted in 1907, is a recoil-operated weapon, +and is loaded by a metal clip. The Skoda gun, some of which type are +used in Japan and China, is loaded by a hopper feed, and is +gas-operated. The Bergmann gun is a belt loader, but the belt passes +down a "gravity feed" an arrangement which saves a number of working +parts. + +One defect common to all is that it is by no means easy to proportion +the fire to the target, as there are only two rates of fire, viz. rapid +automatic and slow single shots. To fire a single shot requires +practice, since the gun will fire some 7 shots in one _second_, and to +press the trigger and remove the finger or thumb instantly, and at the +same time be ready to traverse to a fresh target, requires considerable +skill. The result of these difficulties is that the target when struck +is often riddled with bullets when one would have sufficed. The aiming +of the gun, when rapid fire is taking place, may also be difficult even +on firmly fixed mountings, owing to vibration. The greater delicacy of +the modern machine gun has been alluded to above.[7] Nevertheless the +advantages of safety, steadiness and lightness which the automatic +weapon possesses, have ensured its victory over the older type of +weapon, and although the simple strong and well-tried Gatling still has +its advocates, every civilized army has adopted one or more of the +automatic types. + + +ORGANIZATION AND TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT[8] + +Although machine-gun tactics are still somewhat indefinite, at least +there are well-marked tendencies which have a close relation to the +general tactical scheme or doctrine adopted by each of the various +armies as suited to its own purposes and conditions. For many years +before the South African and Manchurian wars, the machine-gun had been +freely spoken of as "a diabolical weapon before which nothing could +live," but this did not contribute much to the science of handling it. +Most military powers, indeed, distrusted it--actuated perhaps by the +remembrance of the vain hopes excited by the _canon à balles_. It was +not until the second half of the war of 1904-05 that the Japanese, +taught by the effective handling of the Russian machine-guns at +Liao-Yang, introduced it into their field armies, and although Great +Britain had provided every regular battalion with a Maxim-gun section +some years before the Boer War, and a Volunteer corps, the Central +London Rangers (now 12th bn. London Regiment) had maintained a +(Nordenfeldt) gun section since 1882, instruction in the tactics of the +weapon was confined practically to the simple phrase "the machine-gun is +a weapon of opportunity." More than this, at any rate, is attempted in +the drill-books of to-day. + +One important point is that, whether the guns are used as an arm, in +numbers, or as auxiliaries, in sections, they should be free to move +without having to maintain their exact position relatively to some other +unit. It was in following the infantry firing lines of their own +battalion over the open that the British Maxims suffered most heavily in +South Africa. Another of equal importance is that the machine guns must +co-operate with other troops of their side in the closest possible way; +more, in this regard, is demanded of them than of artillery, owing to +their mobility and the relative ease of obtaining cover. A third factor, +which has been the subject of numerous experiments, is the precise value +of a machine-gun, stated in terms of infantry, i.e. how many rifles +would be required to produce the fire-effect of a machine-gun. A +fourth--and on this the teaching of military history is quite +definite--is the need of concealment and of evading the enemy's +shrapnel. These points, once the datum of efficiency of fire has been +settled, resolve themselves into two conclusions--the necessity for +combining independence and co-operation, and the desirability of +Mercury's winged feet and cap of darkness for the weapon itself. It is +on the former that opinions in Europe vary most. Some armies ensure +co-operation by making the machine-gun section an integral part of the +infantry regimental organization, but in this case the officer +commanding it must be taught and allowed to shake himself free from his +comrades and immediate superiors when necessary. Others ensure +co-operation of the machine-guns as an arm by using them, absolutely +free of infantry control, on batteries; but this brings them face to +face with the risks of showing, not one or two low-lying gun-barrels, +but a number of carriages, limbers and gun teams, within range of the +enemy's artillery. + + + Fire Effect. + + Ranging. + +French experiments are said to show that the fire-power of a machine-gun +is equal to that of 150-200 rifles at exactly known range, and to 60-80 +rifles at ranges judged by the French "instantaneous range-finder." The +German drill-book gives it as equal approximately to that of 80 rifles +on an average. The distinction of known and unknown ranges is due to the +fact that the "cone of dispersion" of a large number of bullets in +collective infantry fire is deeper than that of machine-gun fire. The +latter therefore groups its bullets much more closely about the target +if the latter is in the centre of the cone--viz. at known ranges--but if +the distance be misjudged not only the close central group of 50% of the +shots, but even the outlying rounds may fall well away from the target. +At 1500 yards range the "50 per cent. zone" with the Maxim gun is only +34 yards deep as compared with the 60 yards of a half-company of +rifles.[9] The accuracy of the gun is more marked when the breadth of +the cone of dispersion is taken into account. The "75 per cent." zone is +in the case of the machine-gun about as broad at 2000 yards as that of +collective rifle fire at 500. At the School of Musketry, South Africa, a +trial between 42 picked marksmen and a Maxim at an unknown range at +service targets resulted in 408 rounds from the rifles inflicting a loss +of 54% on the enemy's firing line represented by the targets, and 228 +rounds from the Maxim inflicting one of 64%. Another factor is rapidity +of fire. It is doubtful if infantry can keep up a rate of 12 rounds a +minute for more than two or three minutes at a time without exhaustion +and consequent wild shooting. The machine-gun, with all its limitations +in this respect, can probably, taking a period of twenty or thirty +minutes, deliver a greater volume of fire than fifty rifles, and +assuming that, by one device or another (ranging by observing the strike +of the bullets, the use of a telemeter, or the employment of "combined +sights") the 75% cone of bullets has been brought on to the target, that +fire will be more effective. The serious limiting condition is the need +of accurate ranging. If this is unsatisfactory the whole (and not, as +with infantry, a part) of the fire effect may be lost, and if the safe +expedient of "combined sights"[10] be too freely resorted to, the +consumption of ammunition may be out of all proportion. + + + Vulnerability. + +The vulnerability of machine-guns is quite as important as is their +accuracy. At a minimum, that is when painted a "service" colour, +manoeuvred with skill, and mounted on a low tripod--in several armies +even the shield has been rejected as tending to make guns more +conspicuous--the vulnerability of one gun should be that of one +skirmisher lying down. At a maximum, vulnerability is that of a small +battery of guns and wagons limbered up. + + + Mobility. + +Mobility comes next. The older patterns of hand-operated guns weighed +about 90 lb. at least, without carriage, the earlier patterns of Maxims +(such as that described in detail above) about 60 lb. But the most +modern Maxims weigh no more than 35 lb. Now, such weapons with tripods +can be easily carried to and fro by one or two men over ground that is +impracticable for wheeled carriages. Nevertheless, wheeled carriages are +often used for the ordinary transport of the gun and its equipment, +especially with the heavier models. The simplest machine-gun has a +number of accessories--tools, spare parts, &c.--that must be conveyed +with it, and at the least a pack-animal is indispensable. + +Reducing these conditions to a phrase--the fire effect that can be +reasonably expected of machine-guns is that of fifty or sixty rifles, +the space it takes up in the line can be made to equal that occupied by +two men, and it possesses by turns the speed of a mounted man and the +freedom of movement of an infantryman. + + + Machine-Guns as a Reserve of Fire. + + Machine-Guns with Cavalry. + +The use of the machine-gun (apart from savage warfare) that first +commended itself in Europe was its use as a _mobile reserve of fire_. +Now, the greatest difficulty attending the employment of a reserve of +any sort is the selection of the right moment for its intervention in +the struggle, and experience of manoeuvres of all arms in Germany, where +"machine-gun detachments" began to be formed in 1902, appears to have +been that the machine-guns always came into action too late. On the +other hand, the conditions of the cavalry _versus_ cavalry combat were +more favourable. Here there was every inducement to augment fire-power +without dismounting whole regiments for the purpose. Moreover, +vulnerability was not a fatal defect as against a battery or two of the +enemy's horse artillery, whose main task is to fire with effect into the +closed squadrons of mounted men on the verge of their charge, and above +all to avoid a meaningless duel of projectiles. The use of wheeled +carriages was therefore quite admissible (although in fact the equipment +was detachable from the carriage) and, given the rapidity and sudden +changes of cavalry fighting, both desirable and necessary. Thus, thanks +to the machine-gun, the eternal problem of increasing the fire-power of +mounted troops is at last partially solved, and the solution has +appealed strongly both to armies exceptionally strong in cavalry, as for +example the German, and to those exceptionally weak in that +arm--Denmark, for instance, having two or three light machine-guns _per +squadron_. The object of the weaker cavalry may be to cause the onset of +the stronger to dwindle away into a dismounted skirmish, and this is +most effectually brought about by a fire concentrated enough and heavy +enough to discourage mounted manoeuvres; on the other hand, the stronger +party desires to avoid dismounting a single squadron that can be kept +mounted; and this too may be effected by the machine-guns. What the +result of such a policy on both sides may be, it would be hard to +prophesy, but it is clear at any rate that, whether on the offensive or +on the defensive, skilfully handled machine-guns may enable a cavalry +commander to achieve the difficult and longed-for result--to _give the +law_ to his opponent. The principal difference between the tactics of +the stronger and those of the weaker cavalry in this matter is, that it +is generally advantageous for the former to act by batteries and for the +latter to disperse his machine guns irregularly in pairs. + + + Machine-Guns in Combined Tactics. + +It is not merely in cavalry tactics that the question of "section or +battery" arises. It deeply affects the machine-gun tactics in the battle +of all arms, and it is therefore decided in each service by the use to +which the guns are intended to be put. One powerful current of opinion +is in favour of employing them as a mobile reserve of fire. This opinion +was responsible for the creation of the German machine-gun batteries or +"detachments"; and in the drill regulations issued in 1902 for their +guidance it was stated that the proper use of machine-guns required a +comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the general situation, and that +therefore only the superior leaders could employ them to advantage. +Manoeuvre experience, as mentioned above, has caused considerable +modification in this matter, and while the large machine-gun +"detachments" are now definitely told off to the cavalry, new and +smaller units have been formed, with the title "companies" to indicate +their attachment to the infantry arm. A recent official pronouncement as +to the role of the "companies" (Amendments to _Exerzierreglement für die +Infanterie_, 1909) is to the effect that the companies are an integral +part of the infantry, that their mission is to augment directly the fire +of the infantry, and that their employment is in the hands of the +infantry regimental commander, who keeps the guns at his own disposition +or distributes them to the battalions as he sees fit. It must be +remembered that the regiment is a large unit, 3000 strong, and the idea +of a "mobile reserve of fire" is tacitly maintained, although it has +been found necessary to depart from the extreme measure of massing the +guns and holding them at the disposal of a general officer. The Japanese +regulations state that in principle the machine-gun battery fights as a +unit; that although it may be advantageously employed with the advanced +guard to assure the possession of supporting points, its true function +is to intervene with full effect in the decisive attack, its use in the +delaying action being "a serious error." In France, on the other hand, +the system of independent sections is most rigidly maintained; when in +barracks, the three sections belonging to an infantry regiment are +combined for drill, but in the field they seem to be used exclusively as +sections. They are not, however, restricted to the positions of their +own battalions; taught probably by the experiences of the British in +South Africa, they co-operate with instead of following the infantry. In +Great Britain, _Field Service Regulations_, part i., 1909, lay down that +"machine-guns are best used in pairs[11] in support of the particular +body of troops to which they belong" (i.e. battalions). "The guns of two +or more units may, if required,[12] be placed under a specially selected +officer and employed as a special reserve of fire in the hands of a +brigade commander" (corresponding to German regimental commander), but +"if an overwhelming fire on a particular point is required, it can be +obtained by concentrating the fire of dispersed pairs of guns." More +explicitly still, "the movements and fire action of these weapons should +be _regulated so as to enable them to open fire immediately a favourable +opportunity arises._" + +Contrasting the German system with the French and English, we may +observe that it is German tactics _as a whole_ that impose a method of +using machine-guns which the Germans themselves recognize as being in +many respects disadvantageous. A German force in action possesses little +depth, i.e. reserves, except on the flanks where the enveloping attack +is intended to be made. Consequently, a German commander needs a reserve +of fire in a mechanical, concentrated form more than a British or a +French commander, and, further, as regards the decisive attack on the +flanks, it is intended not merely to be sudden but even more to be +powerful and overwhelming. These considerations tend to impose both the +massing and the holding in reserve of machine-guns. The French and +British doctrine (see TACTICS) is fundamentally different. Here, whether +the guns be massed or not, there is rarely any question of using the +machine-guns as a special reserve. In the decisive attack, and +especially at the culmination of the decisive attack, when concealment +has ceased and power is everything, the machine-guns can render the +greatest services when grouped and boldly handled. Above all, they must +reach the captured crest in a few minutes, so as to crush the inevitable +offensive return of the enemy's reserves. The decisive attack, moreover, +is not a prearranged affair, as in Germany, but the culmination, "at a +selected point, of gradually increasing pressure relentlessly applied to +the enemy at all points" (_F. S. Regulations_). The holding attack, as +this "pressure" is called, is not a mere feint. It is launched and +developed as a decisive attack, though not completed as such, as it +lacks the necessary reserve strength. Here, then, the machine-gun is +best employed in enabling relatively small forces to advance--not to +assault--without undue loss, that is, in economizing rifles along the +non-decisive front.[13] + +Withal, there are certain principles, or rather details of principle, +that find general acceptance. One of these is the employment of +machine-guns with the advanced guard. In this case the value of the +weapon lies in its enabling the advanced guard both to seize favourable +ground and points of support without undue effort and to hold the +positions gained against the enemy's counter-attack. This applies, +further, to the preliminary stages of an action.[14] Another point is +that as a rule the most favourable range for the machine-gun is +"effective infantry," i.e. 600-1400 yards (which is, _mutatis mutandis_, +the principle of Reffye's mitrailleuse). Its employment at close +infantry range depends entirely on conditions of ground and +circumstances--even supposing that the handiest and most inconspicuous +type of weapon is employed. Thirdly--and this has a considerable bearing +on the other points--the machine-gun both concentrates many rifles on a +narrow front, and concentrates the bullets of many rifles on a narrow +front. The first clause implies that it can be used where there is no +room (physically or tactically) for the fifty or eighty riflemen it +represents (as, for instance, in some slight patch of cover whence the +gun can give effective cross-fire in support of the infantry attack, or +in front of an advanced post, or can watch an exposed flank), and, +further, that it can be swung round laterally on to a fresh target far +more easily than a line of excited and extended infantry can be made to +change front. The second means that the exit of a defile, an exposed +turn in a lane or on a bridge, can be beaten by closely grouped fire at +greater distances and with greater accuracy than is attainable with +riflemen. + +Further, the waste of ammunition and the strain on the weapon caused by +unnecessarily prolonged firing at the rate for which its mechanism is +set--varying between 350 and 700 rounds a minute--have caused it to be +laid down as an axiom in all armies that machine-guns shall deliver +their fire by "bursts" and only on favourable targets. + +Lastly, the reports, both of observers and combatants, are unanimous as +to the immense moral effect produced on the combatants by the +unmistakable drumming sound of the machine-guns, an effect comparable +even at certain stages of the fight to the boom of the artillery itself. + + _Equipments in Use._--Practically all nations have abandoned the + simple wheeled carriage for machine-guns, or rather have adopted the + tripod or table mounting, reserving the wheeled vehicle for the mere + transport of the equipment. Since the Russo-Japanese War the tendency + has been to sacrifice the slight protection afforded by the shield in + order to reduce visibility. The Japanese, who had unprotected field + guns and protected machine-guns in the war, found it advisable to + reverse this procedure, for reasons that can easily be guessed in the + cases of both weapons. + + _Great Britain._--The service machine-gun is the Maxim .303 in., + adjusted to a rate of 450 rounds per minute and sighted (except in a + few weapons) to 2900 yards. The original patterns weighed 60 lb., and + were mounted on wheeled carriages. In the latest pattern, however, the + weight of the gun has been reduced to 36 lb. The old Mark I. cavalry + Maxim carriage, complete with gun, ammunition, &c., weighed 13 cwt. + behind the traces, and the gun was 5 ft. above the ground. It had no + limber. The Mark III. cavalry carriage is much lower (3´ 6´´ from the + ground to the gun), and the gun carriage and limber together only + weigh 13 cwt. Of infantry carriages there were various marks, one of + which is shown in fig. 6. Now, however, all mountings for infantry are + of the tripod type, transported on wheels or on pack animals, but + entirely detachable from the travelling mounting, and in action + practically never used except on the tripod. The Mark IV. tripod + mounting, of which a sketch is given in fig. 21, weighs 48 lb. The + total weight of the fighting equipment is thus 84 lb. only--an + important consideration now that in action the gun is man-carried. The + gun can be adjusted to fire at heights varying from 2´ 6´´ to 1´ 2½´´ + only from the ground; in its lowest position, then, it is a little + lower than the head of a man firing lying. All the later infantry + machine-gun equipments are for pack transport and have no shields. + + The organization of the machine-gun arm is regimental. Each cavalry + regiment and each infantry battalion has a section of 2 guns under an + officer. + + _France._--The guns in use are the Puteaux and the Hotchkiss. The unit + is the regimental 2-gun section. Four-horsed carriages with limbers + are used with cavalry, tripods with the infantry sections. No shields. + Weight of the Hotchkiss in use, 50 lb.; of the tripod, 70 lb. The + Puteaux was lightened and improved in 1909. + + _Germany._--As already mentioned the German machine-gun units are + classed as cavalry "detachments" and infantry "companies." The + "detachment" or battery consists of 6 guns and 4 wagons, the vehicles + being of a light artillery pattern and drawn by four horses. The gun + (Maxim) weighs 61 lb., and its fighting carriage 110 lb. The + "companies" have also 6 guns and 4 wagons, but the equipment is + lighter (two-horse), and is not constructed on artillery principles, + nor are the guns fired from their carriages as are those of the + "detachments." The weight of the gun is 38 lb., and that of the + fighting carriage 75 (some accounts give 53 for the latter), the + difference between these weights and those of the mounted equipments, + affording a good illustration of the difference in the tactical + requirements of the cavalry and of the infantry types of gun. The + fighting carriage is a sort of sledge, which is provided with four + legs for fire in the highest position, but can of course be placed on + the ground; the height of the gun, therefore, can be varied from 3´ + 6´´ to 1´ 6´´. The sledges can be dragged across country or carried by + men stretcher fashion, and sometimes several sledges are coupled and + drawn by a horse. + + _Japan._--The Japanese Hotchkiss, as modified since the war with + Russia, is said to weigh 70 lb., and its tripod mounting 40. Each + regiment of infantry has a six-gun battery and each cavalry brigade + one of eight guns. Pack transport is used. + + _Russia._--Since the war eight-gun companies have been formed in the + infantry regiments, and each cavalry regiment has been provided with + two guns. The var organization is, however, unknown. Both wheel and + pack transport are employed for travelling, but the guns are fought + from tripods. Early and somewhat heavy patterns of Maxim (with shield) + are chiefly used, but a great number of very light guns of the Madsen + type have been issued. + + The _Austrian_ gun is the Schwarzlose, of which some details are given + above. Pack transport is used, one mule taking the whole equipment + with 1000 rounds. Weight of the gun 37.9 lb., of the tripod 41 lb. The + height of the tripod can be varied from 9¾ in. to 2 ft. above the + ground. It is proposed that each cavalry regiment should have four + guns, and each infantry regiment two. Switzerland adopted the Maxim in + 1902. It is used principally as a substitute for horse artillery. + _Denmark_ and other small states have adopted the Madsen or Rexer + light-type guns in relatively large numbers, especially for cavalry. + In the _United States_ the British organization was after many trials + adopted, and each infantry and cavalry regiment has a two-gun section + of Maxims, with tripod mounting and pack transport. + + See P. Azan, _Les premières mitrailleuses_ ("Revue d'Histoire de + l'Armée," July 1907); _Le Canon à balles, 1870-1871_ ("Revue d'Hist. + de l'Armée", 1909); Lieut-Colonel E. Rogers in "Journal R. United + Service Institution" of 1905; Capt. R. V. K. Applin, _Machine-gun + Tactics_ (London, 1910) and paper in "J. R. United Service Inst." + (1910); War Office Handbook to the Maxim gun (1907); Capt. Cesbron + Lavau, _Mitrailleuses de cavalerie_; Lieut. Buttin, _L'emploi des + mitrailleuses d'infanterie_; Major J. Goots, _Les Mitrailleuses_ + (Brussels, 1908); and Merkatz, _Unterrichtsbuch für die + Masch.-Gewehrabteilungen_ (Berlin, 1906); Korzen & Kühn, + _Waffenlehre_, &c. (C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The French term _mitrailleuse_, made famous by the War of 1870, + reappears in other Latin tongues (e.g. Spanish _ametralladora_). It + signifies a weapon which delivers a shower of small projectiles + (_mitraille_--grape or case shot), and has no special reference to + its mechanical (hand or automatic) action. + + [2] Meudon Chateau had long been used for military experiments. The + peasantry credited it with mysterious and terrible secrets, asserting + even that it contained a tannery of human skins, this tradition + perhaps relating to the war balloon constructed there before the + battle of Fleurus (1794). Reffye had also many non-military tasks, + such as the reproduction of a famous set of bas-reliefs, construction + of aeroplanes, and the reconstruction of triremes and balistas. + + [3] A machine-gun of the artillery or volley type, called the "Requa + battery," which had its barrels disposed fan-wise, was also used in + the Civil War. + + [4] The U.S. pattern Gatling hardly differed except in details from + the model, above described, of twenty years earlier. The drum had + been set horizontally instead of vertically and improved in details, + and a "gravity feed," a tall vertical charger, was also used. The + barrels were surrounded with a light casing. Tests made of the + improved Gatling showed that the use of only one barrel at a time + prevented overheating. On one trial 63,000 rounds were fired without + a jam, and without stopping to clean the barrels. Smokeless powder + and the modern cartridge case were of course used. + + [5] The following particulars may be given of the 2-barrelled Gardner + and 3-barrelled Nordenfeldt (land service) converted to take the .303 + cartridge: Weight, 92 and 110 lb. respectively; parapet mounting in + each case 168 lb.; rate of fire of Gardner about 250 rounds per + minute, of the Nordenfeldt about 350. A few of these guns are still + used in fortresses and coast defences. + + [6] Modern improvements in mechanical details are only slight, as may + be found by reference to the official handbooks of the gun, editions + of 1903 and 1907. + + [7] At San-de-pu 1905 the Japanese machine-guns (Hotchkiss) sustained + damage averaging, 1 extractor broken per gun, 1 jam in every 300 + rounds. It should be mentioned, however, that the machine-gun + companies were only formed shortly before the battle. + + [8] In field operations only. For siege warfare see FORTIFICATION AND + SIEGECRAFT. + + [9] For practical purposes in the field, the "effective" beaten zone, + containing 75% of the bullets, is the basis of fire direction both + for the machine-gun and the rifle. The depths of these "effective" + zones are on an average:-- + + +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ + | At | 500 yds. | 1,000 yds. | 1,500 yds. | 2,000 yds.| + +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ + | S.L.E. Rifle | 220 yds. | 120 yds. | 100 yds. | -- | + +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ + | Maxim Gun | 150 yds. | 70 yds. | 60 yds. | 50 yds. | + +--------------+----------+------------+------------+-----------+ + + [10] "Combined sights" implies firing with the sights set for two + different ranges, the usual difference being 50 yds. With grouped + machine guns, "progressive fire" with elevations increasing by 25 + yds. is used. This artificially disperses the fire, and therefore + lessens the chance of losing the target through ranging errors. One + ingenious inventor has produced a two-barrelled automatic, in which + the barrels are permanently set to give combined elevations. The + British memorandum of August 1909 seems to regard the facility of + employing combined sights as the principal advantage of the battery + over the section. + + [11] The use of single guns facilitates concealment, but this is + outweighed by the objection that when a jam or other breakdown occurs + the fire ceases altogether. The use of guns in pairs not only + obviates this, but admits of each gun in turn ceasing fire to + economize ammunition, to cool down, &c. This is the old artillery + principle--"one gun is no gun." + + [12] In the instructions issued in August 1909 one of the principal + advantages of grouped sections is stated to be the neutralization of + ranging errors at ranges over 1000 yards. At a less range, it is laid + down, grouped guns form too visible a target, unless the ground is + very favourable. + + [13] The British instructions of August 1909 direct the grouping of + guns in the _decisive_ attack (if circumstances and ground favour + this course) and their use by sections "if the brigade is deployed on + a wide front," i.e. on the _non-decisive_ front; further, that it is + often advisable to disperse the sections of the leading battalions + and to group those of units in reserve. In any case, while the 2, 4 + or 8 guns must be ready to act independently as a special "arm," + their normal work is to give the closest support to the neighbouring + infantry (battalion in the holding, brigade in the decisive, attack). + + [14] In Germany, however, the tendency is not to make holding attacks + but to keep the troops out of harm's way (i.e. too far away for the + enemy to counter-attack) until they can strike effectively. + + + + +MACÍAS [_O NAMORODO_] (_fl._ 1360-1390), Galician _trovador_, held some +position in the household of Enrique de Villena. He is represented by +five poems in the _Cancianero de Baena_, and is the reputed author of +sixteen others. Macías lives by virtue of the romantic legends which +have accumulated round his name. The most popular version of his story +is related by Hernán Nuñez. According to this tradition, Macías was +enamoured of a great lady, was imprisoned at Arjonilla, and was murdered +by the jealous husband while singing the lady's praises. There may be +some basis of fact for this narrative, which became a favourite subject +with contemporary Spanish poets and later writers. Macías is mentioned +in Rocaberti's _Gloria de amor_ as the Castillan equivalent of +Cabestanh; he afforded a theme to Lope de Vega in _Porfiar hasta morir_; +in the 19th century, at the outset of the romantic movement in Spain, he +inspired Larra (q.v.) in the play _Macías_ and in the historical novel +entitled _El doncel de Don Enrique el doliente_. + + See H. A. Rennert, _Macías, o namorado; a Galician trobador_ + (Philadelphia, 1900); Théodore J. de Puymaigre, _Les vieux auteurs + castillans_ (1889-1890), i. 54-74; _Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano_ + (New York and London, 1902), ed. H. R. Lang; Christian F. Bellermann, + _Die alten Liederbücher der Portugiesen_ (Berlin, 1840). + + + + +MACINTOSH, CHARLES (1766-1843), Scottish chemist and inventor of +waterproof fabrics, was born on the 29th of December 1766 at Glasgow, +where he was first employed as a clerk. He devoted all his spare time to +science, particularly chemistry, and before he was twenty resigned his +clerkship to take up the manufacture of chemicals. In this he was highly +successful, inventing various new processes. His experiments with one of +the by-products of tar, naphtha, led to his invention of waterproof +fabrics, the essence of his patent being the cementing of two +thicknesses of india-rubber together, the india-rubber being made +soluble by the action of the naphtha. For his various chemical +discoveries he was, in 1823, elected F.R.S. He died on the 25th of July +1843. + + See George Macintosh, _Memoir of C. Macintosh_ (1847). + + + + +MACKAY, CHARLES (1814-1889), Scottish writer, was born at Perth, on the +27th of March 1814, and educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, and +in Brussels. In 1830, being then private secretary to a Belgian +ironmaster, he began writing verses and articles for local newspapers. +Returning to London, he devoted himself to literary and journalistic +work, and was attached to the _Morning Chronicle_ (1835-1844). He +published _Memoirs of Extraordinary Public Delusions_ (1841), and +gradually made himself known as an industrious and prolific journalist. +In 1844 he was made editor of the Glasgow _Argus_. His literary +reputation was made by the publication in 1846 of a volume of verses. +_Voices from the Crowd_, some of which were set to music by Henry +Russell and became very popular. In 1848 Mackay returned to London and +worked for the _Illustrated London News_, of which he became editor in +1852. In it he published a number of songs, set to music by Sir Henry +Bishop and Henry Russell, and in 1855 they were collected in a volume; +they included the popular "Cheer, Boys! Cheer!" After his severance from +the _Illustrated London News_, in 1859, Mackay started two unsuccessful +periodicals, and acted as special correspondent for _The Times_ in +America during the Civil War. He edited _A Thousand and One Gems of +English Poetry_ (1867). Mackay died in London on the 24th of December +1889. Marie Corelli (q.v.) was his adopted daughter. His son, Eric +Mackay (1851-1899), was known as a writer of verse, particularly by his +_Love Letters of a Violinist_ (1886). + + + + +MACKAY, HUGH (c. 1640-1692), Scottish general, was the son of Hugh +Mackay of Scourie, Sutherlandshire, and was born there about 1640. He +entered Douglas's (Dumbarton's) regiment of the English army (now the +Royal Scots) in 1660, accompanied it to France when it was lent by +Charles II. to Louis XIV., and though succeeding, through the death of +his two elder brothers, to his father's estates, continued to serve +abroad. In 1669 he was in the Venetian service at Candia, and in 1672 he +was back with his old regiment, Dumbarton's, in the French army, taking +part under Turenne in the invasion of Holland. In 1673 he married Clara +de Bie of Bommel in Gelderland. Through her influence he became, as +Burnet says, "the most pious man that I ever knew in a military way," +and, convinced that he was fighting in an unjust cause, resigned his +commission to take a captaincy in a Scottish regiment in the Dutch +service. He had risen to the rank of major-general in 1685, when the +Scots brigade was called to England to assist in the suppression of the +Monmouth rebellion. Returning to Holland, Mackay was one of those +officers who elected to stay with their men when James II., having again +demanded the services of the Scots brigade, and having been met with a +refusal, was permitted to invite the officers individually into his +service. As major-general commanding the brigade, and also as a privy +councillor of Scotland, Mackay was an important and influential person, +and James chose to attribute the decision of most of the officers to +Mackay's instigation. Soon after this event the Prince of Orange started +on his expedition to England, Mackay's division leading the invading +corps, and in January 1688-89 Mackay was appointed major-general +commanding in chief in Scotland. In this capacity he was called upon to +deal with the formidable insurrection headed by Graham of Claverhouse, +Viscount Dundee. In the battle of Killiecrankie Mackay was severely +defeated, but Dundee was killed, and the English commander, displaying +unexpected energy, subdued the Highlands in one summer. In 1690 he +founded Fort William at Inverlochy, in 1691 he distinguished himself in +the brilliant victory of Aughrim, and in 1692, with the rank of +lieutenant-general, he commanded the British division of the allied army +in Flanders. At the great battle of Steinkirk Mackay's division bore the +brunt of the day unsupported and the general himself was killed. + +Mackay was the inventor of the ring bayonet which soon came into general +use, the idea of this being suggested to him by the failure of the +plug-bayonet to stop the rush of the Highlanders at Killiecrankie. Many +of his despatches and papers were published by the Bannatyne Club in +1883. + + See _Life_ by John Mackay of Rockville (1836); and J. W. Fortescue, + _History of the British Army_, vol. i. + + + + +MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM (1831-1902), American capitalist, was born in +Dublin, Ireland, on the 28th of November 1831. His parents brought him +in 1840 to New York City, where he worked in a ship-yard. In 1851 he +went to California and worked in placer gold-mines in Sierra county. In +1852 he went to Virginia City, Nevada, and there, after losing all he +had made in California, he formed with James G. Fair, James C. Flood and +William S. O'Brien the firm which in 1873 discovered the great Bonanza +vein, more than 1200 ft. deep, in the Comstock lode (yielding in March +of that year as much as $632 per ton, and in 1877 nearly $19,000,000 +altogether); and this firm established the Bank of Nevada in San +Francisco. In 1884, with James Gordon Bennett, Mackay formed the +Commercial Cable Company--largely to fight Jay Gould and the Western +Union Telegraph Company--laid two transatlantic cables, and forced the +toll-rate for transatlantic messages down to twenty-five cents a word. +In connexion with the Commercial Cable Company he formed the Postal +Telegraph Company. Mackay died on the 20th of July 1902 in London. He +gave generously, especially to the charities of the Roman Catholic +Church, and endowed the Roman Catholic orphan asylum in Virginia City, +Nevada. In June 1908 a school of mines was presented to the University +of Nevada, as a memorial to him, by his widow and his son, Clarence H. +Mackay. + + + + +MACKAY, a seaport of Carlisle county, Queensland, Australia, on the +Pioneer river, 625 m. direct N.N.W. Pop. (1901), 4091. The harbour is +not good. Sugar, tobacco and coffee thrive in the district. There are +several important sugar mills, one of which, the largest in Queensland, +is capable of an annual output of 8000 tons. Rum is distilled, and there +are a brewery and a factory for tinning butter for export. Workable coal +is found in the district. This is the port of the Mt Orange and Mt +Gotthart copper mines, and the Mt Britten and Eungella gold-fields. It +is a calling-station for the Queensland royal mail steamers. The town is +named after Captain John Mackay, who discovered the harbour in 1860. + + + + +McKEESPORT, a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the +confluence of the Monongahela and Youghiogheny rivers (both of which are +navigable), 14 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 20,741; (1900), +34,227, of whom 9349 were foreign-born and 748 were negroes; (1910 +census) 42,694. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pittsburg & +Lake Erie and the Pennsylvania railways. The city has a Carnegie +library, a general hospital, and two business schools. Bituminous coal +and natural gas abound in the vicinity, and iron, steel, and tin and +terne plate are extensively manufactured in the city, the tin-plate +plant being one of the most important in the United States. The total +value of the city's factory products was $36,058,447 in 1900 and +$23,054,412 in 1905. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. +The first white settler was David McKee, who established a ferry here in +1769. In 1795 his son John laid out the town, which was named in his +honour, but its growth was very slow until after the discovery of coal +in 1830. McKeesport was incorporated as a borough in 1842 and chartered +as a city in 1890. + + + + +McKEES ROCKS, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on +the Ohio river, about 3 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 1687; (1900) +6352 (1264 foreign-born); (1910) 14,702. McKees Rocks is served by the +Pittsburg & Lake Erie and the Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youghiogheny +railways, the latter a short line extending (13 m.) to Beechmont. +Bituminous coal and natural gas are found in the vicinity, and the +borough ships coal and lumber, and has various important manufactures. +There is an ancient Indian mound here. The first settlement was made in +1830, and the borough incorporated in 1892. + + + + +MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER (1835-1904), English Nonconformist divine, was born +at Truro in Cornwall, on the 14th of January 1835, the son of Patrick +Mackennal, a Scot, who had settled in Cornwall. In 1848 the family +removed to London, and at sixteen he went to Glasgow University. In 1854 +he entered Hackney College to prepare for the Congregational ministry, +and in 1857 he graduated B.A. at London University. After holding +pastorates at Burton-on-Trent (1856-1861), Surbiton (1862-1870), +Leicester (1870-1876), he finally accepted the pastorate of the +Congregational Church at Bowdon, Cheshire, in 1877, in which he remained +till his death. In 1886 he was chairman of the Congregational Union, +which he represented in 1889 at the triannual national council of the +American Congregational churches. The first international council of +Congregationalists held in London in 1891 was partly cause, partly +consequence, of his visit, and Mackennal acted as secretary. In 1892 he +became definitely associated in the public mind with a movement for free +church federation which grew out of a series of meetings held to discuss +the question of home reunion. When the Lambeth articles put forward as a +basis of union were discussed, it was evident that all the free churches +were agreed in accepting the three articles dealing with the Bible, the +Creed and the Sacraments as a basis of discussion, and were also agreed +in rejecting the fourth article, which put the historic episcopate on +the same level as the other three. Omitting the Anglicans, the +representatives of the remaining churches resolved to develop Christian +fellowship by united action and worship wherever possible. Out of this +grew the Free Church Federation, which secures a measure of co-operation +between the Protestant Evangelical churches throughout England. +Mackennal's public action brought him into association with many +well-known political and religious leaders. He was a lifelong advocate +of international peace, and made a remarkable declaration as to the +Christian standard of national action when the Free Church Federation +met at Leeds during the South African War in 1900. + +Besides a volume of sermons under the title _Christ's Healing Touch_, +Mackennal published _The Biblical Scheme of Nature and of Man, The +Christian Testimony, the Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia, The +Kingdom of the Lord Jesus_ and _The Eternal God and the Human Sonship_. +These are contributions to exegetical study or to theological and +progressive religious thought, and have elements of permanent value. He +also made some useful contributions to religious history. In 1893 he +published the _Story of the English Separatists_, and later the _Homes +and Haunts of the Pilgrim Fathers_; he also wrote the life of Dr J. A. +Macfadyen of Manchester. In 1901 he delivered a series of lectures at +Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut, U.S.A., published under the +title _The Evolution of Congregationalism_. He died at Highgate on the +23rd of June 1904. + + See D. Macfadyen, _Life and Letters of Alexander Mackennal_ (1905). + (D. Mn.) + + + + +MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820), Canadian explorer, was probably +a native of Inverness, Emigrating to North America at an early age, he +was for several years engaged in the fur trade at Fort Chippewyan, at +the head of Lake Athabasca, and it was here that his schemes of travel +were formed. His first journey, made in 1789, was from Fort Chippewyan +along the Great Slave Lake, and down the river which now bears his name +to the Arctic Ocean; and his second, made in 1792 and 1793, from Fort +Chippewyan across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast near Cape +Menzies. He wrote an account of these journeys, _Voyages on the River St +Lawrence and through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and +Pacific Oceans_ (London, 1801), which is of considerable interest from +the information it contains about the native tribes. It is prefaced by +an historical dissertation on the Canadian fur trade. Amassing +considerable wealth, Mackenzie was knighted in 1802, and later settled +in Scotland. He died at Mulnain, near Dunkeld, on the 11th of March +1820. + + + + +MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892), Canadian statesman, was born in +Perthshire, Scotland, on the 28th of January, 1822. His father was a +builder, and young Mackenzie emigrated to Canada in 1842, and worked in +Ontario as a stone-mason, setting up for himself later as a builder and +contractor at Sarnia with his brother. In 1852 his interest in questions +of reform led to his becoming the editor of the _Lambton Shield_, a +local Liberal paper. This brought him to the front, and in 1861 he +became a member of the Canadian parliament, where he at once made his +mark and was closely connected with the liberal leader, George Brown. He +was elected for Lambton to the first Dominion house of commons in 1867, +and soon became the leader of the liberal opposition; from 1871 to 1872 +he also sat in the Ontario provincial assembly, and held the position of +provincial treasurer. In 1873 the attack on Sir John Macdonald's +ministry with regard to the Pacific Railway charter resulted in its +defeat, and Mackenzie formed a new government, taking the portfolio of +public works and becoming the first liberal premier of Canada. He +remained in power till 1878, when industrial depression enabled +Macdonald to return to office on a protectionist programme. In 1875 +Mackenzie paid a visit to Great Britain, and was received at Windsor by +Queen Victoria; he was offered a knighthood, but declined it. After his +defeat he suffered from failing health, gradually resulting in almost +total paralysis, but though in 1880 he resigned the leadership of the +opposition, he retained a seat in parliament till his death at Toronto +on the 17th of April 1892. While perhaps too cautious to be the ideal +leader of a young and vigorous community, his grasp of detail, +indefatigable industry, and unbending integrity won him the respect even +of his political opponents. + + His _Life and Times_ by William Buckingham and the Hon. George W. Ross + (Toronto, 1892) contains documents of much interest. See also George + Stewart, _Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin_ + (Toronto, 1878). + + + + +MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847- ), British composer, son of +an eminent Edinburgh violinist and conductor, was born on the 22nd of +August 1847. On the advice of a member of Gung'l's band who had taken up +his residence in Edinburgh, Mackenzie was sent for his musical education +to Sondershausen, where he entered the conservatorium under Ulrich and +Stein, remaining there from 1857 to 1861, when he entered the ducal +orchestra as a violinist. At this time he made Liszt's acquaintance. On +his return home he won the King's Scholarship at the Royal Academy of +Music, and remained the usual three years in the institution, after +which he established himself as a teacher of the piano, &c., in +Edinburgh. He appeared in public as a violinist, taking part in +Chappell's quartette concerts, and starting a set of classical concerts. +He was appointed precentor of St George's Church in 1870, and conductor +of the Scottish vocal music association in 1873, at the same time +getting through a prodigious amount of teaching. He kept in touch with +his old friends by playing in the orchestra of the Birmingham Festivals +from 1864 to 1873. The most important compositions of this period of +Mackenzie's life were the Quartette in E flat for piano and strings. Op. +11, and an overture, _Cervantes_, which owed its first performance to +the encouragement and help of von Bülow. On the advice of this great +pianist, he gave up his Edinburgh appointments, which had quite worn him +out, and settled in Florence in order to compose. The cantatas _The +Bride_ (Worcester, 1881) and _Jason_ (Bristol, 1882) belong to this +time, as well as his first opera. This was commissioned for the Carl +Rosa Company, and was written to a version of Merimée's _Colomba_ +prepared by Franz Hueffer. It was produced with great success in 1883, +and was the first of a too short series of modern English operas; +Mackenzie's second opera, _The Troubadour_, was produced by the same +company in 1886; and his third dramatic work was _His Majesty_, an +excellent comic opera (Savoy Theatre, 1897). In 1884 his _Rose of +Sharon_ was given with very great success at the Norwich Festival; in +1885 he was appointed conductor of Novello's oratorio concerts; _The +Story of Sayid_ came out at the Leeds Festival of 1886; and in 1888 he +succeeded Macfarren as principal of the Royal Academy of Music. _The +Dream of Jubal_ was produced at Liverpool in 1889, and in London very +soon afterwards. A fine setting of the hymn "Veni, Creator Spiritus" was +given at Birmingham in 1891, and the oratorio _Bethlehem_ in 1894. From +1892 to 1899 he conducted the Philharmonic Concerts, and was knighted in +1894. Besides the works mentioned he has written incidental music to +plays, as, for instance, to _Ravenswood_, _The Little Minister_, and +_Coriolanus_; concertos and other works for violin and orchestra, much +orchestral music, and many songs and violin pieces. The romantic side of +music appeals to Mackenzie far more strongly than any other, and the +cases in which he has conformed to the classical conventions are of the +rarest. In the orchestral ballad, _La Belle Dame sans Merci_, he touches +the note of weird pathos, and in the nautical overture _Britannia_ his +sense of humour stands revealed. In the two "Scottish Rhapsodies" for +orchestra, in the music to _The Little Minister_, and in a beautiful +fantasia for pianoforte and orchestra on Scottish themes, he has seized +the essential, not the accidental features of his native music. + + + + +MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691), of Rosehaugh, Scottish lawyer, was +the grandson of Kenneth, first Lord Mackenzie of Kintail, and the nephew +of Colin and George, first and second earls of Seaforth; his mother was +a daughter of Andrew Bruce, principal of St Leonard's College, St +Andrews. He was born at Dundee in 1636, educated at the grammar school +there and at Aberdeen, and afterwards at St Andrews, graduating at +sixteen. He then engaged for three years in the study of the civil law +at Bourges; on his return to Scotland he was called to the bar in 1659, +and before the Restoration had risen into considerable practice. +Immediately after the Restoration he was appointed a "justice-depute," +and it is recorded that he and his colleagues in that office were +ordained by the parliament in 1661 "to repair, once in the week at +least, to Musselburgh and Dalkeith, and to try and judge such persons as +are there or thereabouts delate of witchcraft." In the same year he +acted as counsel for the marquis of Argyll; soon afterwards he was +knighted, and he represented the county of Ross during the four sessions +of the parliament which was called in 1669. He succeeded Sir John Nisbet +as king's advocate in August 1677, and in the discharge of this office +became implicated in all the worst acts of the Scottish administration +of Charles II., earning for himself an unenviable distinction as "the +bloody Mackenzie." His refusal to concur in the measures for dispensing +with the penal laws against Catholics led to his removal from office in +1686, but he was reinstated in February 1688. At the Revolution, being a +member of convention, he was one of the minority of five in the division +on the forfeiture of the crown. King William was urged to declare him +incapacitated for holding any public office, but refused to accede to +the proposal. When the death of Dundee (July 1689) had finally destroyed +the hopes of his party in Scotland, Mackenzie betook himself to Oxford, +where, admitted a student by a grace passed in 1690, he was allowed to +spend the rest of his days in the enjoyment of the ample fortune he had +acquired, and in the prosecution of his literary labours. One of his +last acts before leaving Edinburgh had been to pronounce (March 15, +1689), as dean of the faculty of advocates, the inaugural oration at the +foundation of the Advocates' library. He died at Westminster on the 8th +of May 1691, and was buried in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh. + + While still a young man Sir George Mackenzie appears to have aspired + to eminence in the domain of pure literature, his earliest publication + having been _Aretina, or a Serious Romance_ (anon., 1661); it was + followed, also anonymously, by _Religio Stoici, a Short Discourse upon + Several Divine and Moral Subjects_ (1663); _A Moral Essay, preferring + Solitude to Public Employment_ (1665); and one or two other + disquisitions of a similar nature. His most important legal works are + entitled _A Discourse upon the Laws and Customs of Scotland in Matters + Criminal_ (1674); _Observations upon the Laws and Customs of Nations + as to Precedency, with the Science of Heraldry_ (1680); _Institutions + of the Law of Scotland_ (1684); and _Observations upon the Acts of + Parliament_ (1686); of these the last-named is the most important, the + _Institutions_ being completely overshadowed by the similar work of + his great contemporary Stair. In his _Jus Regium: or the Just and + Solid Foundations of Monarchy in general, and more especially of the + Monarchy of Scotland, maintained_ (1684), Mackenzie appears as an + uncompromising advocate of the highest doctrines of prerogative. His + _Vindication of the Government of Scotland during the reign of Charles + II._ (1691) is valuable as a piece of contemporary history. The + collected _Works_ were published at Edinburgh (2 vols. fol.) in + 1716-1722; and _Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland from the + Restoration of King Charles II._, from previously unpublished MSS., in + 1821. + + See A. Lang, _Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh_ (1909). + + + + +MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831), Scottish novelist and miscellaneous +writer, was born at Edinburgh in August 1745. His father, Joshua +Mackenzie, was a distinguished physician, and his mother, Margaret Rose, +belonged to an old Nairnshire family. Mackenzie was educated at the high +school and the university of Edinburgh, and was then articled to George +Inglis of Redhall, who was attorney for the crown in the management of +exchequer business. In 1765 he was sent to London to prosecute his legal +studies, and on his return to Edinburgh became partner with Inglis, whom +he afterwards succeeded as attorney for the crown. His first and most +famous work, _The Man of Feeling_, was published anonymously in 1771, +and met with instant success. The "Man of Feeling" is a weak creature, +dominated by a futile benevolence, who goes up to London and falls into +the hands of people who exploit his innocence. The sentimental key in +which the book is written shows the author's acquaintance with Sterne +and Richardson, but he had neither the humour of Sterne nor the subtle +insight into character of Richardson. One Eccles of Bath claimed the +authorship of this book, bringing in support of his pretensions a MS. +with many ingenious erasures. Mackenzie's name was then officially +announced, but Eccles appears to have induced some people to believe in +him. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel, _The Man of the World_, +the hero of which was as consistently bad as the "Man of Feeling" had +been "constantly obedient to his moral sense," as Sir Walter Scott says. +_Julia de Roubigné_ (1777), a story in letters, was preferred to his +other novels by "Christopher North," who had a high opinion of Mackenzie +(see _Noctes Ambrosianae_, vol. i. p. 155, ed. 1866). The first of his +dramatic pieces, _The Prince of Tunis_, was produced in Edinburgh in +1773 with a certain measure of success. The others were failures. At +Edinburgh Mackenzie belonged to a literary club, at the meetings of +which papers in the manner of the _Spectator_ were read. This led to the +establishment of a weekly periodical called the _Mirror_ (January 23, +1779-May 27, 1780), of which Mackenzie was editor and chief contributor. +It was followed in 1785 by a similar paper, the _Lounger_, which ran for +nearly two years and had the distinction of containing one of the +earliest tributes to the genius of Robert Burns. Mackenzie was an ardent +Tory, and wrote many tracts intended to counteract the doctrines of the +French Revolution. Most of these remained anonymous, but he acknowledged +his _Review of the Principal Proceedings of the Parliament of 1784_, a +defence of the policy of William Pitt, written at the desire of Henry +Dundas. He was rewarded (1804) by the office of comptroller of the taxes +for Scotland. In 1776 Mackenzie married Penuel, daughter of Sir Ludovick +Grant of Grant. He was, in his later years, a notable figure in +Edinburgh society. He was nicknamed the "man of feeling," but he was in +reality a hard-headed man of affairs with a kindly heart. Some of his +literary reminiscences were embodied in his _Account of the Life and +Writings of John Home, Esq._ (1822). He also wrote a _Life of Doctor +Blacklock_, prefixed to the 1793 edition of the poet's works. He died on +the 14th of January 1831. + + In 1807 _The Works of Henry Mackenzie_ were published surreptitiously, + and he then himself superintended the publication of his _Works_ (8 + vols., 1808). There is an admiring but discriminating criticism of his + work in the _Prefatory Memoir_ prefixed by Sir Walter Scott to an + edition of his novels in Ballantyne's _Novelist's Library_ (vol. v., + 1823). + + + + +McKENZIE, SIR JOHN (1838-1901). New Zealand statesman, was born at +Ard-Ross, Scotland, in 1838, the son of a crofter. He emigrated to +Otago, New Zealand, in 1860. Beginning as a shepherd, he rose to be farm +manager at Puketapu near Palmerston South, and then to be a farmer in a +substantial way in Shag Valley. In 1865 he was clerk to the local road +board and school committee; in 1871 he entered the provincial council of +Otago; and on the 11th of December 1881 was elected member of the House +of Representatives, in which he sat till 1900. He was also for some +years a member of the education board and of the land board of Otago, +and always showed interest in the national elementary school system. In +the House of Representatives he soon made good his footing, becoming +almost at once a recognized spokesman for the smaller sort of rural +settlers and a person of influence in the lobbies. He acted as +government whip for the coalition ministry of Sir Robert Stout and Sir +Julius Vogel, 1884-1887, and, while still a private member, scored his +first success as a land reformer by carrying the "McKenzie clause" in a +land act limiting the area which a state tenant might thenceforth obtain +on lease. He was still, however, comparatively unknown outside his own +province when, in January 1891, his party took office and he aided John +Ballance in forming a ministry, in which he himself held the portfolio +of lands, immigration and agriculture. From the first he made his hand +felt in every matter connected with land settlement and the +administration of the vast public estate. Generally his aim was to break +up and subdivide the great freehold and leasehold properties which in +his time covered four-sevenths of the occupied land of the colony. In +his Land Act of 1892 he consolidated, abolished or amended, fifty land +acts and ordinances dealing with crown lands, and thereafter amended his +own act four times. Though owning to a preference for state tenancy over +freehold, he never stopped the selling of crown land, and was satisfied +to give would-be settlers the option of choosing freehold or leasehold +under tempting terms as their form of tenure. As a compromise he +introduced the lease in perpetuity or holding for 999 years at a quit +rent fixed at 4%; theoretical objections have since led to its +abolition, but for fifteen years much genuine settlement took place +under its conditions. Broadly, however, McKenzie's exceptional success +as lands minister was due rather to unflinching determination to +stimulate the occupation of the soil by working farmers than to the +solution of the problems of agrarian controversy. His best-known +experiment was in land repurchase. A voluntary law (1892) was displaced +by a compulsory act (1894), under which between £5,000,000 and +£6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in buying and subdividing estates for +closer settlements, with excellent results. McKenzie also founded and +expanded an efficient department of agriculture, in the functions of +which inspection, grading, teaching and example are successfully +combined. It has aided the development of dairying, fruit-growing, +poultry-farming, bee-keeping and flax-milling, and done not a little to +keep up the standard of New Zealand products. After 1897 McKenzie had to +hold on in the face of failing health. An operation in London in 1899 +only postponed the end. He died at his farm on the 6th of August 1901, +soon after being called to the legislative council, and receiving a +knighthood. + + + + +MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892), British physician, son of Stephen +Mackenzie, surgeon (d. 1851), was born at Leytonstone, Essex, on the 7th +of July 1837. After going through the course at the London Hospital, and +becoming M.R.C.S. in 1858, he studied abroad at Paris, Vienna and Pesth; +and at Pesth he learnt the use of the newly-invented laryngoscope under +J. N. Czermak. Returning to London in 1862, he worked at the London +Hospital, and took his degree in medicine. In 1863 he won the Jacksonian +prize at the Royal College of Surgeons for an essay on the "Pathology of +the Larynx," and he then devoted himself to becoming a specialist in +diseases of the throat. In 1863 the Throat Hospital in King Street, +Golden Square, was founded, largely owing to his initiative, and by his +work there and at the London Hospital (where he was one of the +physicians from 1866 to 1873) Morell Mackenzie rapidly became recognized +throughout Europe as a leading authority, and acquired an extensive +practice. So great was his reputation that in May 1887, when the crown +prince of Germany (afterwards the emperor Frederick III.) was attacked +by the affection of the throat of which he ultimately died, Morell +Mackenzie was specially summoned to attend him. The German physicians +who had attended the prince since the beginning of March (Karl Gerhardt, +and subsequently Tobold, E. von Bergmann, and others) had diagnosed his +ailment on the 18th of May as cancer of the throat; but Morell Mackenzie +insisted (basing his opinion on a microscopical examination by R. +Virchow of a portion of the tissue) that the disease was not +demonstrably cancerous, that an operation for the extirpation of the +larynx (planned for the 21st of May) was unjustifiable, and that the +growth might well be a benign one and therefore curable by other +treatment. The question was one not only of personal but of political +importance, since it was doubted whether any one suffering from an +incapacitating disease like cancer could, according to the family law of +the Hohenzollerns, occupy the German throne; and there was talk of a +renunciation of the succession by the crown prince. It was freely +hinted, moreover, that some of the doctors themselves were influenced by +political considerations. At any rate, Morell Mackenzie's opinion was +followed: the crown prince went to England, under his treatment, and was +present at the Jubilee celebrations in June. Morell Mackenzie was +knighted in September 1887 for his services, and decorated with the +Grand Cross of the Hohenzollern Order. In November, however, the German +doctors were again called into consultation, and it was ultimately +admitted that the disease really was cancer; though Mackenzie, with very +questionable judgment, more than hinted that it had become malignant +since his first examination, in consequence of the irritating effect of +the treatment by the German doctors. The crown prince (see FREDERICK +III.) became emperor on the 9th of March 1888, and died on the 15th of +June. During all this period a violent quarrel raged between Sir Morell +Mackenzie and the German medical world. The German doctors published an +account of the illness, to which Mackenzie replied by a work entitled +_The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble_ (1888), the publication of +which caused him to be censured by the Royal College of Surgeons. After +this sensational episode in his career, the remainder of Sir Morell +Mackenzie's life was uneventful, and he died somewhat suddenly in +London, on the 3rd of February 1892. He published several books on +laryngoscopy and diseases of the throat. + + + + +MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861), Canadian politician, was born near +Dundee, Scotland, on the 12th of March 1795. His father died before he +was a month old, and the family were left in poverty. After some six +years' work in a shop at Alyth, in April 1820 he emigrated with his +mother to Canada. There he became a general merchant, first at York, +then at Dundas, and later at Queenston. The discontented condition of +Upper Canada drew him into politics, and on the 18th of May 1824 he +published at Queenston the first number of the _Colonial Advocate_, in +which the ruling oligarchy was attacked with great asperity. Most of the +changes which he advocated were wise and have since been adopted; but +the violence of Mackenzie's attacks roused great anger among the social +and political set at York (Toronto), which was headed by John Beverley +Robinson. In November 1824 Mackenzie removed to Toronto, but he had +little capital; his paper appeared irregularly, and was on the point of +suspending publication when his office was attacked and his type thrown +into the bay by a number of the supporters of his opponents. In an +action against the chief rioters he was awarded £625 and costs, was thus +enabled to set up a much larger and more efficient plant, and the +_Colonial Advocate_ ran till the 4th of November 1834. + +In 1828 he was elected member of parliament for York, but was expelled +on the technical ground that he had published in his newspaper the +proceedings of the house without authorization. Five times he was +expelled and five times re-elected by his constituents, till at last the +government refused to issue a writ, and for three years York was without +one of its representatives. In May 1832 he visited England, where he was +well received by the colonial office. Largely as the result of his +representations, many important reforms were ordered by Lord Goderich, +afterwards earl of Ripon, the colonial secretary. While in England, he +published _Sketches of Canada and the United States_, in which, with +some exaggeration, many of the Canadian grievances were exposed. On his +return in March 1834 he was elected mayor of Toronto. During his year of +office, the heroism with which he worked hand in hand with his old +enemy, Bishop Strachan, in fighting an attack of cholera, did not +prevent him from winning much unpopularity by his officiousness, and in +1835 he was not re-elected either as mayor or alderman. In October 1834 +he was elected member of parliament for York, and took his seat in +January 1835, the Reformers being now in the majority. A committee on +grievances was appointed, as chairman of which Mackenzie presented the +admirable _Seventh Report on Grievances_, largely written by himself, in +which the case for the Reformers was presented with force and +moderation, and the adoption of responsible government advocated as the +remedy. + +In the general election of June 1836 the Tory party won a complete +victory, Mackenzie and almost all the prominent Reformers being defeated +at the polls. This totally unexpected defeat greatly embittered him. On +the 4th of July 1836, the anniversary of the adoption of the American +Declaration of Independence, he began the publication of the +_Constitution_, which openly advocated a republican form of government. +Later in the year he was appointed "agent and corresponding secretary" +of the extreme wing of the Reform party, and more and more openly, in +his speeches throughout the province, advocated armed revolt. He was +also in correspondence with Papineau and the other leaders of the +Reformers in Lower Canada, who were already planning a rising. Early in +December 1837 Mackenzie gathered a mob of his followers, to the number +of several hundred, at Gallows Hill, some miles to the north of Toronto, +with the intention of seizing the lieutenant-governor and setting up a +provisional government. Misunderstandings among the leaders led to the +total failure of the revolt, and Mackenzie was forced to fly to the +United States with a price on his head. In the town of Buffalo he +collected a disorderly rabble, who seized and fortified Navy Island, in +the river between the two countries, and for some weeks troubled the +Canadian frontier. After the failure of this attempt he was put to the +most pitiful shifts to make a living. In June 1839 he was tried in the +United States for a breach of the neutrality laws, and sentenced to +eighteen months' imprisonment, of which he served over eleven. While in +gaol at Rochester he published the _Caroline Almanac_, the tone of which +may be judged from its references to "Victoria Guelph, the bloody queen +of England," and by the title given to the British cabinet of "Victoria +Melbourne's bloody divan." He returned to Canada in consequence of the +Amnesty Act 1849. A closer inspection had cured him of his love for +republican institutions. + +In 1851 he was elected to parliament for Haldimand, defeating George +Brown. He at once allied himself with the Radicals (the "Clear Grits"), +and, on the leadership of that party being assumed by Brown, became one +of his lieutenants. He was still miserably poor, but refused all offers +to accept a government position. In 1858 he resigned his seat in the +house, owing to incipient softening of the brain, of which he died on +the 29th of August 1861. + +Turbulent, ungovernable, vain, often the dupe of schemers, Mackenzie +united with much that was laughable not a little that was heroic. He +could neither be bribed, bullied, nor cajoled. Perhaps the best instance +of this is that in 1832 he refused from Lord Goderich an offer of a +position which would have given him great influence in Canada and an +income of £1,500. He was a born agitator, and as such tended to +exaggeration and misrepresentation. But the evils against which he +struggled were real and grave; the milder measures of the Constitutional +Reformers might have taken long to achieve the results which were due to +his hot-headed advocacy. + + The _Life and Times_ by his son-in-law, Charles Lindsey (Toronto, 2 + vols., 1862), is moderate and fair, though tending to smooth over his + anti-British gasconnade while in the United States. An abridgment of + this work was edited by G. G. S. Lindsey for the "Makers of Canada" + series (1909). In _The Story of the Upper Canadian Rebellion_ by J. C. + Dent (2 vols., Toronto, 1885), a bitter attack is made on him, which + drew a savage reply from another son-in-law, John King, K.C., called + _The Other Side of the Story_. The best short account of his career is + given by J. C. Dent in _The Canadian Portrait Gallery_, vol. ii. + (Toronto, 1881). (W. L. G.) + + + + +MACKENZIE, a river of the North-West Territories, Canada, discharging +the waters of the Great Slave Lake into the Arctic Ocean. It was +discovered and first navigated by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1789. It +has an average width of 1 m., an average fall of 6 in. to the mile; an +approximate discharge, at a medium stage, of 500,000 cub. ft. per +second; and a total length, including its great tributary the Peace, of +2,350 m. The latter rises, under the name of the Finlay, in the +mountains of British Columbia, and flows north-east and then south-east +in the great intermontane valley that bounds the Rocky Mountains on the +west, to its confluence with the Parsnip. From the confluence the waters +of the combined rivers, now called the Peace, flow east through the +Rocky Mountains, and then north-east to unite with the river which +discharges the waters of Lake Athabasca; thence to Great Slave Lake it +is known as Slave river. Excluding the rivers which enter these lakes, +the principal tributaries of the Peace are: Omineca, Nation, Parsnip, +Halfway, North Pine, South Pine, Smoky, Battle, and Loon rivers; those +of the Mackenzie are the Liard (650 m. long), which rises near the +sources of the Pelly, west of the Rocky Mountains, and breaks through +that range on its way to join the parent stream, Great Bear river, which +drains Great Bear Lake, Nahanni, Dahadinni, Arctic Red, and Peel rivers. +The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135° W. and 68° 50´ W., after +flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta, not yet fully surveyed. +With its continuation, Slave river, it is navigable from the Arctic +Ocean to Fort Smith, a distance of over 1,200 m., and between the latter +and the head of Lesser Slave Lake, a further distance of 625 m., there +is only one obstruction to navigation, the Grand Rapids near Fort +McMurray on the Athabasca river. The Peace is navigable from its +junction with Slave river for about 220 m. to Vermilion Falls. The +Mackenzie is navigable from about the 10th of June to the 20th of +October, and Great Slave Lake from about the 1st of July to the end of +October. All the waters and lakes of this great system are abundantly +stocked with fish, chiefly white fish and trout, the latter attaining to +remarkable size. + + + + +MACKEREL, pelagic fishes, belonging to a small family, _Scombridae_, of +which the tunny, bonito, albacore, and a few other tropical genera are +members. Although the species are fewer in number than in most other +families of fishes, they are widely spread and extremely abundant, +peopling by countless schools the oceans of the tropical and temperate +zones, and approaching the coasts only accidentally, occasionally, or +periodically. + +The mackerel proper (genus _Scomber_) are readily recognized by their +elegantly shaped, well-proportioned body, shining in iridescent colours. +Small, thin, deciduous scales equally cover nearly the entire body. +There are two dorsal fins, the anterior near the head, composed of 11-14 +feeble spines, the second near the tail with all the rays soft except +the first, and behind the second dorsal five or six finlets. The ventral +is immediately below the second dorsal, and is also followed by finlets. +The caudal fin is crescent-shaped, strengthened at the base by two short +ridges on each side. The mouth is wide, armed above and below with a row +of very small fixed teeth. + +No other fish shows finer proportions in the shape of its body. Every +"line" of its build is designed and eminently adapted for rapid +progression through the water; the muscles massed along the vertebral +column are enormously developed, especially on the back and the sides of +the tail, and impart to the body a certain rigidity which interferes +with abruptly sideward motions of the fish. Therefore mackerel generally +swim in a straightforward direction, deviating sidewards only when +compelled, and rarely turning about in the same spot. They are in almost +continuous motion, their power of endurance being equal to the rapidity +of their motions. Mackerel, like all fishes of this family, have a firm +flesh; that is, the muscles of the several segments are interlaced, and +receive a greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in other +fishes. Therefore the flesh, especially of the larger kinds, is of a red +colour; and the energy of their muscular action causes the temperature +of their blood to be several degrees higher than in other fishes. + +All fishes of the mackerel family are strictly carnivorous; they +unceasingly pursue their prey, which consists principally of other fish +and pelagic crustaceans. The fry of clupeoids, which likewise swim in +schools, are followed by the mackerel until they reach some shallow +place, which their enemies dare not enter. + +Mackerel are found in almost all tropical and temperate seas, with the +exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South America. European +mackerel are of two kinds, of which one, the common mackerel, _Scomber +scomber_, lacks, while the other possesses, an air-bladder. The +best-known species of the latter kind is _S. colias_, the "Spanish" +mackerel;[1] a third, _S. pneumatophorus_, is believed by some +ichthyologists to be identical with _S. colias_. Be this as it may, we +have strong evidence that the Mediterranean is inhabited by other +species different from _S. scomber_ and _S. colias_, and well +characterized by their dentition and coloration. Also the species from +St Helena is distinct. Of extra-Atlantic species the mackerel of the +Japanese seas are the most nearly allied to the European, those of New +Zealand and Australia, and still more those of the Indian Ocean, +differing in many conspicuous points. Two of these species occur in the +British seas: _S. scomber_, which is the most common there as well as in +other parts of the North Atlantic, crossing the ocean to America, where +it abounds; and the Spanish mackerel, _S. colias_, which is +distinguished by a somewhat different pattern of coloration, the +transverse black bands of the common mackerel being in this species +narrower, more irregular or partly broken up into spots, while the +scales of the pectoral region are larger, and the snout is longer and +more pointed. The Spanish mackerel is, as the name implies, a native of +the seas of southern Europe, but single individuals or small schools +frequently reach the shores of Great Britain and of the United Stales. + + The home of the common mackerel (to which the following remarks refer) + is the North Atlantic, from the Canary Islands to the Orkneys, and + from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the coasts of Norway to + the United States. + + Towards the spring large schools approach the coasts. Two causes have + been assigned of this migration: first, the instinct of finding a + suitable locality for propagating their species; and, secondly, the + search and pursuit of food, which in the warmer season is more + abundant in the neighbourhood of land than in the open sea. It is + probable that the latter is the chief cause. + + In the month of February, or in some years as early as the end of + January, the first large schools appear at the entrance of the English + Channel, and are met by the more adventurous of the drift-net fishers + many miles west of the Scilly Islands. These early schools, which + consist chiefly of one-year and two-year-old fishes, yield sometimes + enormous catches, whilst in other years they escape the drift-nets + altogether, passing them, for some hitherto unexplained reason, at a + greater depth than that to which the nets reach, viz. 20 ft. As the + season advances, the schools penetrate farther northwards into St + George's Channel or eastwards into the English Channel. The fishery + then assumes proportions which render it next in importance to the + herring and cod fisheries. In Plymouth alone a fleet of some two + hundred boats assembles; and on the French side of the Channel no less + capital and labour are invested in it, the vessels employed being, + though less in number, larger in size than on the English side. The + chief centre, however, of the fishery in the west of England is at + Newlyn, near Penzance, where the small local sailing boats are + outnumbered by hundreds of large boats, both sail and steam, which + come chiefly from Lowestoft for the season. Simultaneously with the + drift-net the deep-sea-seine and shore-seine are used, which towards + June almost entirely supersede the drift-net. Towards the end of May + the old fish become heavy with spawn and are in the highest condition + for the table; and the latter half of June or beginning of July may be + regarded as the time at which the greater part of mackerel spawn. + Considerable numbers of mackerel are taken off Norfolk and Suffolk in + May and June, and also in September and October. There can be no doubt + that they enter the North Sea from the English Channel, and return by + the same route, but others travel round the north of Scotland and + appear in rather small numbers off the east coast of that country. On + the Norwegian coast mackerel fishing does not begin before May, whilst + on the English coasts large catches are frequently made in March. + Large cargoes are annually imported in ice from Norway to the English + market. + + After the spawning the schools break up into smaller companies which + are much scattered, and offer for two or three months employment to + the hand-line fishermen. They now begin to disappear from the coasts + and return to the open sea. Single individuals or small companies are + found, however, on the coast all the year round; they may have become + detached from the main bodies, and be seeking for the larger schools + which have long left on their return migration. + + Although, on the whole, the course and time of the annual migration of + mackerel are marked with great regularity, their appearance and + abundance at certain localities are subject to great variations. They + may pass a spot at such a depth as to evade the nets, and reappear at + the surface some days after farther eastwards; they may deviate from + their direct line of migration, and even temporarily return westwards. + In some years between 1852 and 1867 the old mackerel disappeared off + Guernsey from the surface, and were accidentally discovered feeding at + the bottom. Many were taken at 10 fathoms and deeper with the line, + and all were of exceptionally large size, several measuring 18 in. and + weighing nearly 3 lb.; these are the largest mackerel on record. + + The mackerel most esteemed as food is the common species, and + individuals from 10 to 12 in. in length are considered the best + flavoured. In more southern latitudes, however, this species seems to + deteriorate, specimens from the coast of Portugal, and from the + Mediterranean and Black Sea, being stated to be dry and resembling in + flavour the Spanish mackerel (_S. colias_), which is not esteemed for + the table. (A. C. G.; J. T. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The term "Spanish mackerel" is applied in America to _Cybium + maculatum_. + + + + +McKIM, CHARLES FOLLEN (1847-1909), American architect, was born in +Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of August 1847. His father, +James Miller McKim (1810-1874), originally a Presbyterian minister, was +a prominent abolitionist and one of the founders (1865) of the New York +_Nation_. The son studied at Harvard (1866-1867) and at Paris in the +École des Beaux-Arts (1867-1870), and in 1872 became an architect in New +York City, entering the office of H. H. Richardson; in 1877 he formed a +partnership with William Rutherford Mead (b. 1846), the firm becoming in +1879 McKim, Mead & White, when Stanford White (1853-1906) became a +partner. McKim was one of the founders of the American Academy in Rome; +received a gold medal at the Paris exposition of 1900; in 1903, for his +services in the promotion of architecture, received the King's Medal of +the Royal Institute of British Architects; and in 1907 became a National +Academician. He died at St James, Long Island, N.Y., on the 14th of +September 1909. McKim's name is especially associated with the +University Club in New York, with the Columbia University buildings, +with the additions to the White House (1906), and, more particularly, +with the Boston Public Library, for which the library of Ste Geneviève +in Paris furnished the suggestion. + + + + +MACKINAC ISLAND, a small island in the N.W. extremity of Lake Huron and +a part of Mackinac county, Michigan, and a city and summer resort of the +same name on the island. The city is on the S.E. shore, at the entrance +of the Straits of Mackinac, about 7 m. N.E. of Mackinaw City and 6 m. +E.S.E. of St Ignace. Pop. (1900), 665; (1904), 736; (1910), 714. During +the summer season, when thousands of people come here to enjoy the cool +and pure air and the island's beautiful scenery, the city is served by +the principal steamboat lines on the Great Lakes and by ferry to +Mackinaw city (pop. in 1904, 696), which is served by the Michigan +Central, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Duluth, South Shore & +Atlantic railways. The island is about 3 m. long by 2 m. wide. From the +remarkably clear water of Lake Huron its shores rise for the most part +in tall white limestone cliffs; inland there are strangely shaped rocks +and forests of cedar, pine, fir, spruce, juniper, maple, oak, birch, and +beech. Throughout the island there are numerous glens, ravines, and +caverns, some of which are rich in associations with Indian legends. The +city is an antiquated fishing and trading village with modern hotels, +club-houses, and summer villas. Fort Mackinac and its grounds are +included in a state reservation which embraces about one-half of the +island. + +The original name of the island was Michilimackinac ("place of the big +lame person" or "place of the big wounded person"); the name was +apparently derived from an Algonquian tribe, the Mishinimaki or +Mishinimakinagog, now extinct. The island was long occupied by +Chippewas, the Hurons had a village here for a short time after their +expulsion from the East by the Iroquois, and subsequently there was an +Ottawa village here. The first white settlement or station was +established by the French in 1670 (abandoned in 1701) at Point Saint +Ignace on the north side of the strait. In 1761 a fort on the south side +(built in 1712) was surrendered to the British. By the treaty of Paris +(1783) the right of the United States to this district was acknowledged; +but the fort was held by the British until 1796. In July 1812 a British +force surprised the garrison, which had not yet learned that war had +been declared. In August 1814 an American force under Colonel George +Croghan (1791-1849) attempted to recapture the island but was repulsed +with considerable loss. By the treaty of Ghent, however, the island was +restored, in July 1815, to the United States; Fort Mackinac was +maintained by the Federal government until 1895, when it was ceded to +the state. From 1820 to 1840 the village was one of the principal +stations of the American Fur Company. A Congregational mission was +established among the Chippewas on the island in 1827, but was +discontinued before 1845. The city of Mackinac Island was chartered in +1899. + + See W. C. Richards, "The Fairy Isle of Mackinac," in the _Magazine of + American History_ (July 1891); and R. G. Thwaites, "The Story of + Mackinac," in vol. 14 of the _Collections_ of the State Historical + Society of Wisconsin (Madison, 1898). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43254 *** |