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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 18:27:33 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 18:27:33 -0800 |
| commit | ba1d1ec7faaa96185d822718eea9369e05884918 (patch) | |
| tree | 2372a39e3df7606dd0f41eb89659d29d3a5443d7 /43232-h | |
| parent | 16fb4a630d30b9a02afa3b77a14f718fb8c7a751 (diff) | |
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Ridgway, a Project Gutenberg eBook. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} + +hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + +hr.tb {width: 45%;} +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em;} +hr.full {width: 95%; margin-top: 2em;} +hr.r10 {width: 10%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +hr.r20 {width: 20%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} +td.pad2 {padding:2em;} +.padlf td {padding-left: 1.5em;} +.row1 {background-color:#e0e0e0;} +.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; + font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ +.bdb {border-bottom: solid #000 1px;} +.bdb2 {border-bottom: solid #000 2px;} +.bdl {border-left: solid #000 1px;} +.bdl2 {border-left: solid #000 2px;} +.bdt {border-top: solid #000 1px;} +.bdt2 {border-top: solid #000 2px;} +.bdr {border-right: solid #000 1px;} +.bbox {border: solid #000 1px;} + +.center {text-align: center; margin:0; text-indent: 0;} +.center2 {text-align: center; margin: 1.5em 0 0 0;} +.justify {text-align: justify;} +.vtop {vertical-align: top;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} +.larger {font-size: 1.25em;} +.mlarger {font-size: 1.5em;} +.alpha {font-size: 1.5em; margin-left:-.5em;} +.vbig {font-size: 4em;} +.ovrln {text-decoration: overline;} +.undrln {text-decoration: underline;} +.dundrln {text-decoration: underline; border-bottom: solid #000 1px;} +.gesspert {letter-spacing: 0.125em;} +.ls5 {letter-spacing: .5em;} +.wsnw {white-space: nowrap;} +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.tdl0 {text-align: left; padding-left:0;} +.tdl2 {text-align: left; padding-left:2em;} +.tdr0 {text-align: right; padding-right:0;} +.tdr2 {text-align: right; padding-right:2em;} +.tdr05 {text-align: right; padding-right:0; padding-left:.5em;} +.p0 {text-indent: 0;} +.p30 {margin: 0 0 0 30%; text-align: left;} +.p35 {margin: 0 0 0 30%; padding-left:.5em; text-align: left;} +.p99 {margin-left: 3em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +.pmt2 {margin-top: 2em;} +.pmt4 {margin-top: 4em;} +.pmb1 {margin-bottom: 1em;} +.pmb2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} +.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} +.ind1 {padding-left: 2em;} +.ind2 {padding-left: 3em;} +.ind3 {padding-left: 5em;} +.x2 {font-family: monospace; font-size: 1.5em; font-weight: bold;} +.caption1,.caption2,.caption3,.caption4 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} +.caption1 {font-size:2.50em; margin-top: 1.5em;} +.caption2 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 1.0em;} +.caption2nb {font-size:2.00em; text-align: center; margin-top: 1.25em;} +.caption2nc {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.25em;} +.caption3 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1em;} +.caption4 {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 1em;} +.captionlf {float: left; clear: left; width: 48%; text-align: left; font-weight: bold;} +.captionrt {float: right; clear: right; width: 48%; text-align: right; font-weight: bold;} +.captionbm {text-align:center; font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ +.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + +.fig_left {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + +.fig_right {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} +.fig_caption {font-size: 0.8em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: center;} + +.references {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: justify;} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.trans_notes {background-color: #e6e6fa; color: black; padding:1.5em; + margin-bottom:5em;} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} +.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + +/* Poetry */ +.poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} +.poem br {display: none;} +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} +.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +sub {font-size: .65em; position: relative; top:-0.2em; right: 0.3em;} +sup {font-size: .65em; position: relative; top: 0.2em; left: 0.3em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Preparation of Illustrations for +Reports of the United States Geologi, by John L. Ridgway + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: The Preparation of Illustrations for Reports of the United States Geological Survey + With Brief Descriptions of Processes of Reproduction + +Author: John L. Ridgway + +Release Date: July 16, 2013 [EBook #43232] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Cosmas from materials scanned in and +obtained from The Internet Archive. + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 301px;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="301" height="505" alt="cover" /> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption3">DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.</p> + +<p class="caption4"><span class="smcap">John Barton Payne</span>, Secretary</p> + +<hr class="r10" /> + +<p class="caption3 smcap">United States Geological Survey</p> + +<p class="caption4"><span class="smcap">George Otis Smith</span>, Director</p> + +<hr class="r10" /> + + +<p class="caption3" style="padding-top:3em">THE</p> + +<p class="caption1">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<p class="caption4">FOR REPORTS OF THE</p> + +<p class="caption2">UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</p> + +<p class="caption3">WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF PROCESSES<br /> +OF REPRODUCTION</p> + + + +<p class="pmt4 p0 center">BY</p> + + + +<p class="pmb2 caption2">JOHN L. RIDGWAY</p> + + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 129px; padding-bottom:2em;"> +<img src="images/title_doi_logo.png" width="129" height="125" alt="U.S. Geol. Surv." /> +</div> + + +<p class="caption3">WASHINGTON</p> + +<p class="pmb4 p0 center">GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br /> +<br /> +1920</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="title box"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt2 bdr bdb2 bdl pad2">THE PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS<br /> + <br /> + FOR REPORTS OF THE<br /> + <br /> + UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY<br /> + <br /> + <br /> + BY<br /> + <br /> + <br /> + JOHN L. RIDGWAY</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</p> + + +<table width="80%" summary="ToC"> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">Page.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Part I. Preparation by Authors.</td> + <td></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Introduction</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Purpose</span> and value of illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#PURPOSE_AND_VALUE">8</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Selection</span> and approval of illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#SELECTION_AND_APPROVAL">8</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Submittal</span> of illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Kinds</span> of illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Sizes</span> of illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Subdivisions</span> of plates and figures</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Preparation</span> of copy by authors</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Character</span> of original material</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Preliminary</span> preparation of maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Material</span> available for base maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Basic</span> features of maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Standard</span> scales</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Orientation</span> of maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Projection</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Explanation</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Titles</span> of maps and other illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Symbols</span> used on maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">General</span> features</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Letter</span> symbols</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Oil</span> and gas symbols</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Symbols</span> for use on maps showing features of ground water</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Black</span>-line conventions</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Materials</span> used in preparing maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Paper</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Bristol</span> board</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Tracing</span> linen</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Inks</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Drawing</span> pens</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Pencils</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Rubber</span> erasers and cleaners</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Colored</span> pencils and crayons</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Water</span> colors</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Japanese</span> transparent water colors</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Coloring</span> geologic maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Diagrams</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Essential</span> features</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Plans</span> of mine workings</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Sections</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Lithologic</span> symbols</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Use</span> of photographs as illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Essential</span> features</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Copyrighted</span> photographs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Sources</span> of photographs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Lending</span> original photographs and drawings</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Unpublished</span> photographs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Specimens</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">General</span> requirements</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Borrowed</span> and fragile specimens</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Transmittal</span> of paleontologic specimens</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Making</span> up plates</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Reuse</span> of illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Approval</span> of finished illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Revision</span> of illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Submittal</span> of proofs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Proof</span>-reading illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">General</span> considerations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Part II. Preparation by Draftsmen.</td> + <td></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">General</span> directions</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#GENERAL_DIRECTIONS">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Instruments</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Classification</span> of material</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Preparation</span> of maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Projection</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Details</span> of base maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Transferring</span> or copying</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Tracing</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Celluloid</span> transferring</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Sketching</span> by reticulation</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">The</span> "shadowless drafting table"</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Topographic</span> features</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Relief</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Hydrography</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Cultural</span> features</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Lettering</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">General</span> directions</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Lettering</span> by type</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Abbreviations</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Names</span> of railroads</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Make</span>-up of maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Forms</span> for certain features</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Border</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Title</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Explanation</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Graphic</span> scales for maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Symbols</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Areal</span> patterns for black and white maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind3">Standard</span> colors for geologic maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind3">Reduction</span> or enlargement of maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Diagrams</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Sections</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Plans</span> and cross sections of mines</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Drawings</span> of specimens of rocks and fossils</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#METHODS_EMPLOYED">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Methods</span> used</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Brush</span> and pencil drawings</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Pen</span> drawings</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Retouching</span> photographs of specimens</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Landscape</span> drawings from poor photographs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Pen</span> drawings made over photographs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Brush</span> drawings from poor photographs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Outdoor</span> sketches</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Drawings</span> of crystals</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Retouching</span> photographs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Part III. Processes of Reproducing Illustrations.</td> + <td></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Methods</span> employed</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Photoengraving</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">General</span> features</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Zinc</span> etching</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Copper</span> etching in relief</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Half</span>-tone engraving</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Three</span>-color half-tone process</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Wax</span> engraving (the cerotype process)</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Wood</span> engraving</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Photogelatin</span> processes</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Lithography</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Original</span> process</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Photolithography</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Offset</span> printing</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind2">Chromolithography</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind2">Engraving</span> on stone and on copper</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Appendix.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Length</span> of degrees of latitude and longitude</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Metric</span> system and equivalents</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Geologic</span> eras, periods, systems, epochs, and series</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Chemical</span> elements and symbols</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Greek</span> alphabet</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Roman</span> numerals</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td><span class="ind1">Mathematical</span> signs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="ind1">Names</span> of rocks</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption2">ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + +<table style="width:80%" summary="LoI"> +<tr> + <td colspan="3"></td> + <td class="tdr">Page.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td class="vtop">Plate</td> + <td class="vtop tdr">I.</td> + <td>Methods of inserting plates and figures</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_I">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">II.</td> + <td>Symbols used on geologic maps, economic maps, + and mine plans</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_II">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">III.</td> + <td>Lithologic symbols used in structure and columnar + sections to represent different kinds of rock</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_III">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td>Symbols used on base maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_IV">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">V.</td> + <td>Reduction sheet used in lettering illustrations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_V">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">VI.</td> + <td>Half-tone prints showing effects produced by the + use of six standard screens</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_VI">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td>Details of the make-up of a geologic map</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_VII">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">VIII.</td> + <td>Patterns used to show distinctions between areas + on black and white maps</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_VIII">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">IX.</td> + <td>Diagrams and curves</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_IX">64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td class="vtop">Figure</td> + <td class="vtop tdr">1.</td> + <td>Diagrams showing principal, guide, and auxiliary + meridians, standard and special parallels and + correction lines, and system of numbering + townships, ranges, and sections</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">2.</td> + <td>Conventional lines used in preparing plans and + diagrams of mine workings to distinguish + different levels</td> + <td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">3.</td> + <td>Section and perspective view showing relations + of surface features to the different kinds of + rocks and the structure of the beds</td> + <td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">4.</td> + <td>Sections of coal beds</td> + <td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">5.</td> + <td>Diagram illustrating method of projecting a map</td> + <td class="tdr">44</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">6.</td> + <td>Methods of expressing relief by contour lines, + by hachures, by shading on stipple board, and + by a brush drawing</td> + <td class="tdr">49</td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">7.</td> + <td>Designs for bar scales</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">8.</td> + <td>Method of making a bar scale for a map of + unknown scale</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">9.</td> + <td>Map bearing six areal line patterns</td> + <td class="tdr">62</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">10.</td> + <td>Diagram showing method of marking maps for + reduction or enlargement (for record)</td> + <td class="tdr">64</td> +</tr> +<tr class="row1"> + <td></td> + <td class="vtop tdr">11.</td> + <td>Structure section showing method of determining + the succession of folds</td> + <td class="tdr">65</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption1">THE PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS FOR REPORTS OF +THE United STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.</p> + + +<p class="caption2">By John L. Ridgway.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a> +<span class="smcap">Part I. Preparation By Authors.</span></p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a> +INTRODUCTION.</p> + + +<p>There has been an obvious need in the Geological Survey of a paper +devoted wholly to illustrations. No complete paper on the character, +use, and mode of preparation of illustrations has been published by +the Survey, though brief suggestions concerning certain features of +their use have been printed in connection with other suggestions pertaining +to publications. The present paper includes matter which +it is hoped will be of service to authors in their work of making up +original drafts of illustrations and to draftsmen who are using these +originals in preparing more finished drawings, but it is not a technical +treatise on drafting.</p> + +<p>The effectiveness of illustrations does not depend entirely on good +drawings nor on good reproduction; it may be due in large part to +the inherent character of the rough material submitted. If this +material is effective or striking the finished illustrations, if well made, +will be equally effective and striking. Each step in the making of an +illustration—first the preparation of the author's original or rough +draft, next the final drawing, and last the reproduction—is closely +related to the others, and each is dependent on the others for good +results. If the material has been well handled at all three steps the +resulting illustration should be above criticism; if it has been poorly +handled at any one of the three the effectiveness of the illustration +is either impaired or ruined.</p> + +<p>A consideration of processes of reproduction is essential in the +preparation of all illustrations, and the influence or effect of the +process to be selected on the methods of preparing a drawing has +seemed to warrant the presentation of brief descriptions of the processes +usually employed by the Geological Survey. These descriptions +include statements as to the kind of copy that is suitable for +each process, the result produced by each, and the relative cost of +the processes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="PURPOSE_AND_VALUE" id="PURPOSE_AND_VALUE"></a> +PURPOSE AND VALUE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<p>An illustration in a report of the Geological Survey is not merely +a picture having a remote bearing on the subject matter of the report; +it must represent or explain something discussed or mentioned +in order to become an illustration in the true sense of the term. The +illustrations used in the Survey's reports are not employed for embellishment; +the more pictorial kinds may be in some measure decorative, +but decoration is distinctly not their primary purpose. The +illustrations used in popular literature are designed to meet a public +demand for ornament or attractiveness. Those used in scientific +publications should be made plain and direct, without attempt to +ornament or beautify. In the literature of science illustrations made +by the reproduction of photographs or of explanatory diagrams or +maps are intended simply to furnish greater illumination, and if the +illustrations display photographic reality most statements or conclusions +thus illuminated seem less open to dispute. A photograph +may thus serve the double purpose of explanation and corroboration. +The graphic expression of data and of details in a Survey report +is intended to aid the reader in comprehending the report, and this +is the prime advantage of its use, but it also enables the writer +to omit from his text numerous descriptive details. It would generally +be difficult without illustrations to present a clear picture of +the geology of a region in its exact relations, and especially to describe +adequately the form and the details of the structure of many +fossils. The tasks of both the writer and the reader of reports on +geology and kindred subjects are thus greatly facilitated by geologic +maps, sections, paleontologic drawings, and illustrations of other +kinds.</p> + +<p>The responsibility for good and effective illustrations rests largely +upon the author, who should select and plan his illustrations with +a view to their utility in aiding the reader to understand his +report.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="SELECTION_AND_APPROVAL" id="SELECTION_AND_APPROVAL"></a> +SELECTION AND APPROVAL OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<p>There is no rule limiting the number of illustrations that may be +used in a publication of the Geological Survey, but in selecting illustrations +for a report an author may easily fall into the error of over-illustration. +The number of diagrammatic drawings or of drawings +that express the author's deductions is rarely in excess of the needs +of a paper, but the number of photographs submitted is often excessive. +The number of pages in a manuscript may be a factor in +determining the proper number of illustrations, but as the need of +illustrations varies greatly from paper to paper this factor alone is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +not decisive. The tendency to overillustrate led the Director to issue +the following order<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> governing the approval of illustrations:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> From Survey Order 63, Oct. 20, 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The primary responsibility for the selection of illustrative material shall rest +upon the author and the chief of the branch transmitting the report: No one +knows the subject matter of the report better than its author, though a +sympathetic critic is usually needed to correct the personal equation that may +express itself In an excessive number of illustrations or the use of photographs +into which no one but the field man himself can read what he wishes to illustrate. +The approval by the chief of branch of the illustrations selected by the +author will be taken as vouching for those illustrations as essential and adequate, +and the scientific value of the illustrations will not be subject to review +in the section of illustrations.</p> + +<p>The chief of the section of illustrations shall decide the technical questions +relating to the preparation of these illustrations for reproduction and may +recommend the rejection of any that do not promise effective or economical +reproduction. In the consideration of such questions, especially any relating +to maps, the cooperation of the editor of geologic maps and chief engraver will +be expected.</p></div> + +<p>The judgment of an author as to the illustrative value of a photograph +is likely to be biased by his knowledge of the features that are +actually included in the view represented, not all of which may be +shown clearly in the photograph; his knowledge of all the features +enables him to see more in his picture than his readers will be able +to recognize without detailed description. Photographs in which +special or significant features are obscured by foliage or lost in hazy +distance do not make acceptable illustrations, and the use of a +picture that requires much description to make it illustrate reverses, +in a measure, the relations of text and illustrations.</p> + +<p>A photograph is not necessarily good for reproduction simply because +it shows some particular feature to be illustrated; the quality +of the print it will afford when reproduced from an engraved plate +should also be considered. Some loss of detail by reproduction must +be expected, and therefore only the clearest and most effective prints +obtainable should be submitted.</p> + +<p>If an author has difficulty in making his preliminary or "original" +drawings he may request that a draftsman be detailed to aid him. +The request should be made to the Director through the chief of +branch and properly approved. The work will then be done in the +section of illustrations as advance preparation, but finished drawings +should not be thus prepared unless the conditions are unusual. The +administrative geologist reviews all illustrations submitted and represents +the Director in matters relating to illustrations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="caption2">SUBMITTAL OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<p>All material intended for illustrations, except paleontologic specimens, +should be submitted with the manuscript of the paper to be +illustrated but in a separate package marked "Illustrations to accompany +a paper on —— by ——." The package should contain a +carbon copy of the list of illustrations that accompanies the manuscript +or, if the titles to be printed on or with the illustrations include +fuller descriptions than are given in that list, a carbon copy of +the list giving complete titles and descriptions, the original of which +should also accompany the manuscript. In the list each plate +and figure should be separately numbered consecutively in the order +in which it should appear in the report, and a figure opposite each +title should show the number of the manuscript page on which the +illustration is first mentioned or most fully discussed. Roman numerals +should be used for the plates and arabic numerals for the figures. +Each drawing or photograph should bear, in addition to the +number and title, any suggestions concerning preparation, reduction, +and method of reproduction which the author may consider especially +desirable. The list should be headed "Illustrations."</p> + +<p>Specimens other than fossils that are to be illustrated must be submitted +directly to the section of illustrations, but the author may +first obtain photographic prints of them in order to make up his plates. +The specimens should be carefully packed and any that are fragile +should be so marked.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="KINDS_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="KINDS_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>KINDS OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<p>The illustrations in reports of the Geological Survey may be classified +into five more or less distinct groups—(1) maps, (2) diagrams +(including graphs, sections, plans, figures of apparatus, and stereograms), +(3) outdoor photographs, (4) photographs and drawings of +specimens, and (5) sketches. These may be further divided into two +large groups, which may be called permanent and ephemeral. The +permanent group includes illustrations that do not lose value through +lapse of time or by natural alteration, such as detailed geologic maps, +well-prepared structure sections, views of specimens, and good photographs +or drawings of natural phenomena; the ephemeral group includes +maps showing progress, key maps, diagrams showing yearly +production, and many others that should be prepared in such a way +as to minimize cost of preparation and reproduction.</p> + +<div style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_I" id="Plate_I"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I</div> +<div class="fig_center" style="width:641px;"> +<img src="images/plate_i_a.png" width="641" height="523" style="position:relative; top:4px;" alt="" /> +<img src="images/plate_i_b.png" width="641" height="569" alt="" /><br /> +<p class="captionbm">METHODS OF INSERTING PLATES AND FIGURES.<br /> +1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, plates; 4, 8, 9, 10, figures; 11, pocket.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> + +<p>The illustrations will be finally divided into plates and figures +when they are fully prepared, but if an author desires to determine +the classification in advance of transmittal he should submit his +material to the section of illustrations, where methods, processes, and +reductions will be decided for each. In determining which shall be +plates and which shall be figures, size and method of reproduction are +the only factors to be considered; there are no other real differences. +Illustrations that require separate or special printing, such as those +reproduced by Lithography and by the photogravure, photogelatin, +and three-color processes, must be printed separately from the text as +plates and inserted in the report at the proper places; those that are +reproduced by relief processes, such as zinc and copper etching and +wax engraving, if not too large, can be printed with the text as +figures. If an illustration to be reproduced by a relief process is +marked for reduction to a size not exceeding that of the page of the +text, it can be called a figure and be printed with the text. Half +tones, though etched in relief, are rarely made text figures in Survey +reports, because to give satisfactory impressions they must be printed +on the best quality of coated paper, which is not used for the text. +By using the coarser screens shown in <a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a> +(<a href="#Plate_VI">p. 56</a>), however, a +half-tone cut may be made that can be used in the text if it is smaller +than the page.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="SIZES_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="SIZES_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>SIZES OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<p>The regular book publications of the Geological Survey are issued +in three sizes—(1) octavo (annual reports of the Director, statistical +reports on mineral resources, bulletins, and water-supply papers); +(2) quarto (professional papers and monographs); (3) folio (geologic +folios). The following table gives the measure of the text of +each size and the measure of the trimmed page, in inches:</p> + +<table summary="sizes"> +<tr> + <td style="width:20%"></td> + <td style="width:35%" colspan="5" class="center">Size of text.</td> + <td style="width:10%"> </td> + <td style="width:35%" colspan="5" class="center">Size of page.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Octavo</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td><td><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">7</td><td><sup>15</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">5</td><td><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">9</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Quarto</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">9</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">9</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">11</td><td><sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Folio</td> + <td class="tdr">13</td><td><sup>13</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">17</td><td><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">18</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">21</td><td><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Most professional papers are printed in two columns of type, each +3 inches wide, and folios are printed in three columns, each 4<sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub> inches +wide. A text figure in one of these publications can be made to fit one +or more columns, and it may run the full length of the text page.</p> + +<p>The limits of the dimensions of plates and figures, in inches, are +given in the following table. If for any reason a plate can not be +reduced to the dimensions of a page it can be folded once or more; +and if it is large and unwieldy it may be placed in a pocket on the +inside of the back cover. (See <a href="#Plate_I">Pl. I</a>.)</p> + +<table summary="Size Limits"> +<tr> + <td style="width:10%;"></td> + <td style="width:30%;" class="center" colspan="5">Single-page plate.</td> + <td style="width:30%;" class="center" colspan="5">Plate with one side fold.</td> + <td style="width:30%;" class="center" colspan="5">Text figure.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Octavo</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td><td><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">7</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td> + <td class="tdr">7</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">8</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td> + <td class="center">4 <sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">7</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Quarto</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td><td></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">9</td><td></td> + <td class="tdr">9</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">14</td><td><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></td> + <td class="center">3 or 6</td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">8</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Folio</td> + <td class="tdr">15</td><td></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">17</td><td><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td> + <td class="center" colspan="5" style="letter-spacing:0.25em">............</td> + <td>4<sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub> or 13<sup>13</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td><td>by</td><td class="tdr">17</td><td><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>For an octavo report a single-page plate with side title should be +4 inches or less in width, and a plate with bottom title should be 7 +inches or less in depth. In other words, the actual depth and width +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +of a single-page plate in a page of any size must depend on the number +of lines in its title, the inclusion of which should not extend +the matter much, if any, beyond the dimensions given in the table. +A difference of 1 inch or less in the width of a folding plate may +determine whether it must be folded once or twice, so that by consulting +this table an author may save expense in binding and promote +the reader's convenience in handling the plate.</p> + +<p>A text figure (including the title) can not extend beyond the text +measure but may be of any size or shape within that measure, as +shown on <a href="#Plate_I">Plate I</a>, figures 4, 8, 9, 10.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2">SUBDIVISIONS OF PLATES AND FIGURES.</p> + + +<p>If a plate consists of two or more parts or photographs each part +should be marked with an italic capital letter—<b>A</b>, <b>B</b>, etc.—which +should be placed directly under each. If it is made up of many parts, +in the form of plates that accompany reports on paleontology, each +part should be similarly marked with an arable numeral—1, 2, 3, etc. +If a text figure is subdivided into two or more parts, each part should +be marked with a roman capital—A, B, C, etc.; and if details of a +part are to be described each detail should be marked by an italic +lower-case letter—a, 6, c, etc.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="PREPARATION_OF_COPY_BY_AUTHORS" id="PREPARATION_OF_COPY_BY_AUTHORS"></a>PREPARATION OF COPY BY AUTHORS.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">CHARACTER OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.</p> + +<p>In the Geological Survey, as elsewhere, the "originals"—that is, +the original material submitted by authors for the illustration of +their reports—differ greatly in character and in degree of clearness. +Some are carefully prepared; others are rough, obscure in part, and +defective in detail. Drawings made from poor originals progress +slowly, because the draftsman spends much time in interpreting uncertain +features or in conference with the author concerning details. +An original should be perfectly clear in detail and meaning, so that +the draftsman can follow it without doubt. It should not consist of +parts that must be brought together to make a new drawing, because +the result of the combination of the parts will be uncertain at the +outset and may not prove satisfactory. Each original illustration +should be prepared with the idea that the draftsman who will make +the finished drawing will be unfamiliar with the subject and will need +definite instructions; all data should be plotted and each figure or +plate should be completely made up before it is submitted. More or +less roughly prepared originals are expected, but they should show no +uncertainty in details. Obscure features may be cleared up by inclosing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +the features in penciled loops connected by a line with notes +written on the margin, such as "omit this line," "turn at an angle +of 30° from true north," "add," "cut out."</p> + + +<p class="caption3">PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF MAPS.</p> + +<p>The base map that generally accompanies a report may be an +original field sheet or it may have been compiled from various sources +by an author and made to incorporate the results of his field work. +It should not be a collection of maps of different scales and standards +to be worked into a new map.</p> + +<p>The source of the data shown on every original base map should +be indicated on the map, whether it is to be used as an illustration +or as a record of field work. This information is required as a permanent +record for showing the reliability of the map, for use in comparing +data, and for giving full credit to those who are responsible +for the data. An author should see that this requirement is observed +in order that proper credit may be given and should especially see +that all cooperative agreements and organizations are properly mentioned.</p> + +<p>An original map should preferably be complete in itself. It should +not consist of several parts or sheets unless the data to be represented +are unusually complex. All elaborate or technical finish of border +lines, lettering, or like features should be left to the draftsman or the +engraver.</p> + +<p>Base maps that involve the compilation of new data should be +prepared by either the topographic branch or the division of Alaskan +mineral resources. If a base map already published is to be reused +it should be submitted to the chief topographic engineer or to the +chief of the division of Alaskan mineral resources for approval. +This procedure will insure a single standard of geographic accuracy +in maps appearing in Survey publications.</p> + +<p>A geologist who requires a base map that includes new topographic +data should address a request for its preparation to the chief geologist, +who, through the Director, will refer the request to the topographic +branch. The request must be accompanied by a full statement +regarding the proposed report and the time when it is likely to +be submitted. The preparation of such base maps by draftsmen in +the division of geology, the land-classification board, the water-resources +branch, or the section of illustrations has been discontinued +except for the minor adaptations provided for above.</p> + +<p>If a report requires the preparation of a base map that includes no +new topographic data such a map must be compiled from other authentic +maps by the division or branch in which the report originates. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +If, however, no draftsmen are available in that division or branch, an +arrangement can be made with any other branch—as the topographic +or publication branch—that may have draftsmen available, with the +understanding that the cost of the work shall be reimbursed to the +branch doing the work by the branch ordering it. For indicating +geologic and other data, however, an author may make use of an +authentic base map already published, and after it is reduced or +enlarged to appropriate scale by photography such a map may suffice +for transmittal with a manuscript.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">MATERIAL AVAILABLE FOR BASE MAPS.</p> + +<p>The maps already published by the Geological Survey<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and other +Government bureaus should always be consulted when a new base is +to be compiled. The following list includes most of the maps available:</p> + +<p>1. The Survey's regular topographic atlas sheets, published on three +scales—15-minute sheets, scale, 1:62,500; 30-minute sheets, scale, +1:125,000; 60-minute sheets, scale, 1:250,000—approximately 1 mile, +2 miles, and 4 miles to 1 inch, respectively—and its "special" maps,<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +some of which are published on other scales. All these maps can be +used as bases for detailed geologic maps, for compiling maps on +smaller scales, and for revising other maps.</p> + +<p>2. The United States part of the international map of the world, +now being published on the scale of 1:1,000,000 (approximately 16 +miles to 1 inch). Each sheet of this map represents an area measuring +6° of longitude and 4° of latitude. The published sheets of this map +may be used as bases for general maps. The sheets are drawn on the +scale of 1:500,000, and photolithographs on this scale are available +for use as bases for geologic or other maps.</p> + +<p>The adaptability of the 1:1,000,000 scale map to use as a base for +general geologic maps is shown in the geologic maps of the southern +peninsula of Michigan and of Indiana in Monograph 53 (Pls. IV and +VII), the map of Florida in Bulletin 60 (Pl. I), and the map of +Vermont in Water-Supply Paper 424 (Pl. I).</p> + +<p>3. The Survey's two-sheet wall map of the United States, 49 by 76 +inches, scale 1:2,500,000 (approximately 40 miles to 1 inch). Parts +of this map can be used as bases for general geologic or other maps +and as copy for index and other small diagrammatic maps. This map +is published both with and without contours.</p> + +<p>4. Land Office maps and township plats. These maps are now +being published on a scale of 12 miles to 1 inch; they are also photo-lithographed +on one-half that scale, or 24 miles to 1 inch. The township +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +plats are printed on a scale of one-half mile to 1 inch. The maps +are especially useful in compiling maps in which land lines (townships +and sections) are essential, and the township plats afford valuable detail +and are useful in field work and in revising other maps. Township +and section lines should appear on all land-classification maps +published by the Survey. On maps on a scale less than 1:250,000 only +the townships should be shown; on maps on scales greater than +1:250,000 the sections should be shown; on maps on a scale of +1:250,000 the sections should be shown, unless their representation +will materially impair the legibility of the map, in which case only +the townships should be shown. (See <a href="#Figure_1">fig. 1</a>.)</p> + +<p>5. Post-route maps, covering single States or groups of adjacent +States, published on sheets of different sizes and on scales determined +mainly by the size of the State. The map of Texas is published +on a scale of 12 miles to 1 inch, that of Virginia on a scale +of 7 miles to 1 inch, and that of West Virginia on a scale of 6 miles to +1 inch. Both the Land Office and the post-route maps are useful for +reference in compiling maps on smaller scales. Post-route maps are +especially useful for comparing and verifying the location of cities, +towns, and railroads.</p> + +<p>6. Coast and Geodetic Survey charts, published on scales that are +governed by the area represented and the amount of detail to be +shown. These maps should always be used in compiling and correcting +coast lines.</p> + +<p>7. Maps and charts published by the Corps of Engineers of the +Army, the Mississippi River Commission, the surveys of the Great +Lakes, and the boundary surveys. These maps are especially useful +if the scale of the map to be compiled requires considerable detail.</p> + +<p>8. The Survey's three small base maps of the United States—(<i>a</i>) +a map 18 by 28 inches, scale 110 miles to 1 inch, which is published +both with and without contours, or with relief or hypsometric shading; +(<i>b</i>) a map 11 by 16 inches, scale 190 miles to 1 inch; (<i>c</i>) a map +7<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> by 12 inches, scale 260 miles to 1 inch, designed for use as a two-page +illustration in a bulletin or a water-supply paper.</p> + +<p>9. The Century, Rand McNally & Co.'s, Cram's, Stieler's, The +Times, Johnston's Royal, and county atlases.</p> + +<p>10. State and county maps.</p> + +<p>11. Railroad surveys, which are useful in furnishing data for elevations +as well as for locations of towns and stations.</p> + +<p>12. The latest national-forest maps and proclamations. It is, +however, not necessary that national forests, bird reservations, and +national monuments be shown on a map in a report unless their +addition is specially requested by the author or by the chief of the +branch submitting the report, and they should not be shown if they +will obscure other more important data.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See "Topographic maps and folios and geologic folios published by the United States +Geological Survey" (latest edition).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 392px;"> +<a name="Figure_1" id="Figure_1"></a> +<a href="images/figure01_lrg.png"><img src="images/figure01.png" width="392" height="612" alt="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Figure 1.—Diagrams showing principal, guide, and auxiliary meridians, standard and +special parallels and correction lines, and system of numbering townships, ranges, +and sections.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Survey has published numerous maps of parts of Alaska, +as well as other maps, which are available for use or reuse in its reports. +Copies of all base maps for which copper plates have been +engraved by the Survey can be obtained on requisition, and their use +in a new report will save time as well as the cost of engraving. Other +maps will be found in the Survey library, where the latest editions +only should be consulted.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">BASIC FEATURES OF MAPS.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that "every map, whatever its scale, is a +reduction from nature and consequently must be more or less generalized."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> +The degree of generalization in the geologic and other +detail to be shown on a map usually involves a corresponding degree +of generalization in its base. Absolutely true generalization means +the same degree of omission of detail for each kind of feature. If a +base map on a scale of 1 mile to 1 inch, prepared with the usual +detail, were placed before a camera and reduced to a scale of 16 miles +to 1 inch, the lines representing the smaller tributaries of streams and +the smaller water bodies, as well as many other features, would probably +be so greatly reduced in length as to be illegible. If from this +reduced photograph a new map were prepared, from which all +features not plainly discernible were omitted, the new map should +represent what might be called true generalization. This degree of +generalization is, however, not practicable, but unessential detail +should be systematically omitted. The amount of detail which a base +map should show is limited by its scale, by the character of the country +it represents, and by the kind of data to be shown. Coordinate +features of a topographic map should be shown with equal detail. +Detail in culture may call for detail in drainage, though relief may +be greatly generalized or entirely omitted; detail in relief may like-wise +call for detail in drainage, though culture may be more generalized.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Gannett, +Henry, A manual of topographic methods: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 22, p. +107, 1893.</p></div> + +<p>If the three fundamental features of a topographic map—the culture, +the drainage, and the relief—are to be engraved or photo-lithographed +separately and printed in colors, the best results can be +obtained by drawing each feature in a separate color on one sheet unless +the work is coarse and great precision in register is not needed. The +culture should be drawn in black waterproof ink, the drainage in +Prussian blue, and the relief in burnt sienna; but care should be +taken that the colors used will photograph well. To insure a good +photograph it is usually necessary to add a little black to the blue and +brown. (See "<a href="#INKS">Inks</a>," <a href="#INKS">p. 25</a>.) The photographer will then make three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +negatives and will opaque or paint out all but one of the three features +on each negative. The cost is somewhat greater than that of reproducing +three separate drawings, but the result gives more accurate +register than if the drawings were made on separate sheets, which +are likely to change in size before they are reproduced.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">STANDARD SCALES.</p> + +<p>The standard scales of the maps used in the publications of the +Geological Survey are fractions or multiples of 1:1,000,000 (see +p. 14), except for a map that is reduced expressly to fit one or two +pages of a report or that is reduced horizontally or vertically to fit +the text as a small diagrammatic or index map. It should be remembered +that a map which may be serviceable for use in compiling +a new map, except as to scale, can be reduced or enlarged to the +scale of the new drawing by photography, by a pantograph, or by +other means. (See <a href="#Page_47">p. 47</a>.)</p> + +<p>Maps compiled by an author should be prepared on a scale of at +least 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> times and preferably twice the size of the scale used on the +published map. Maps traced on linen should be no less than twice +the size of publication. Not only is the quality of the reproduction +improved by considerable reduction, but the larger scale of the +drawing facilitates the plotting of details. It should be remembered, +however, that a linear reduction of one-half produces a map only +one-fourth the area of the original, and reduction so great may +prevent the addition of data, such as an extended note in small letters +applying to a small area on the face of a map, which would not be +legible when reduced.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">ORIENTATION OF MAPS.</p> + +<p>A map that bears no arrow indicating north is supposed to be +oriented north and south, and its title should read from west to east. +If, however, the area mapped has a general trend in one direction, +as northwest to southeast, and its squaring up by a north-south line +would leave too much blank paper, this general rule is not followed. +The border lines on such a map should conform to the general trend +of the area mapped, an arrow should show north, and the title and +scale should be placed horizontally, but the projection numbers and +town names should follow the direction of the parallels of latitude. +(See Pls. X and XII, Bull. 628; and Pls. VI, XV, and XVI, +Mon. 52.)</p> + + +<p class="caption3">PROJECTION.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See also pp. 43-45, where the method of projecting a map is more fully explained.</p></div> + +<p>The polyconic projection has been adopted by the Geological Survey +for its topographic atlas sheets and must be consistently used +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +for its other maps. If a new map is to be compiled an accurate +projection should first be constructed, and no plotting should be done +on it until the projection has been checked and found to be correct. +A projection should be checked or proved by some one other than +the person who prepared it. Next the drainage and the water areas +should be outlined; then the cultural features should be added; and +finally the relief, whether expressed by contour lines, hachures, or +shading.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See pp. 49-48 for methods of tracing and transferring.</p></div> + + +<p class="caption3">EXPLANATION.</p> + +<p>Under the heading "Explanation" should be placed all matter +needed to describe fully the details of an illustration, whether map, +diagram, or section, so that if the illustration became detached it +would be a complete self-explanatory unit.</p> + +<p>The explanation of a map may be placed inside the border lines +if there is ample room for it, or it may be placed outside. The standard +arrangement for an outside explanation for geologic maps is +shown, in the geologic folios, which should be followed in general +form. If there is space within the border lines the explanation may +be appropriately arranged therein, either in a vertical column or +horizontally, according to the size and shape of the space available. +If the sequence of formation is shown by horizontal arrangement the +younger formations are placed at the left and the older at the right. +If it is shown by a vertical arrangement the youngest formation is +placed at the top.</p> + +<p>Each original map submitted by an author should have at least +4<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches of blank margin on the right and at the bottom in which +to place the explanation, scale, title, and other matter, but the author +should make no attempt to elaborate these features nor should he +employ a draftsman to letter them carefully. Plainly written ordinary +script is quits sufficient for original maps; the final lettering, +which may consist entirely of impressions from type, will be added +after submittal of a report.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">TITLES OF MAPS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + +<p>The titles of maps should be supplied by authors but are subject +to revision in order to make them agree with established forms. +They should be written in ordinary script, not carefully lettered. +They should state concisely the kind of map, the area shown, the +special features represented, and the county, State, or Territory in +which the area is located. (See <a href="#Page_58">p. 58</a>.) Titles are reproduced directly +only on lithographs, three-color prints, photogelatin plates, and +other illustrations that are printed by contractors, not by the Government +Printing Office. The titles of illustrations that are repro +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>duced +by relief processes, such as zinc etching, half tone, and wax +engraving, are printed at the Government Printing Office from +type, and proofs are submitted to the authors for examination.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">SYMBOLS USED ON MAPS.</p> + +<p class="caption4">GENERAL FEATURES.</p> + +<p>More than 200 symbols have been used on maps to express 25 different +kinds of data, a fact indicating at once a notable lack of uniformity +and a need of standardization. It is of course impossible to +provide a characteristic symbol that can be used uniformly for each +kind of feature, and therefore the same symbol may be used on different +maps to express different things. The symbols shown in +<a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a> are those most used on geologic maps. The symbols for +dip and strike, fault lines, mine shafts, prospects, and several others +are generally well known, but on some maps it may be necessary to +modify a standard symbol to express additional distinctions. The +symbols shown, however, will cover all the ordinary requirements of +miscellaneous mapping. Though the plate shows more than one +symbol for some features the symbol most commonly used is given first +and should be preferred. The center of each symbol should mark +the location of the feature symbolized. Symbols are not always +platted with sufficient care. On small-scale maps they are difficult +to locate and unless great care is taken in platting them they are +likely to be several miles out of place. All symbols should be located +precisely where they belong.</p> + +<p>The symbol showing dip and strike should be accurately platted +by means of a protractor, so that the strike will be shown graphically, +without a number and a degree mark, and not need replatting +by a draftsman or engraver. The dip, however, should be indicated +by a number and a degree mark.</p> + +<p class="caption4">LETTER SYMBOLS.</p> + +<p>The letter symbols used on most geologic maps to indicate the +ages and names of the formations represented consist of two or more +letters—an initial capital letter for the name of the system and one +or more lower-case letters for the name of the formation or of the +material, as Qt (Quaternary—lower terrace deposits); Cpv (Carboniferous—Pottsville +formation); COk (Cambrian-Ordovician—Knox +dolomite), etc. The standard usage for this feature is shown +in the geologic folios but is subject to modification in other publications.</p> + +<p>In preparing an original geologic map a letter symbol, such as has +been just described, or a number should be put in the proper place +in the explanation, and the same symbol or number should be repeated +at one or more places on the map within the areas to which it refers. +Each area that is indicated by a color should be marked with the +proper symbol in order to make its identification sure, for light colors +especially are likely to fade and mixed colors can not be discriminated +with certainty.</p> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_II" id="Plate_II"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE II</div> + +<img src="images/plate_ii_a.png" width="633" height="610" style="position:relative; top:4px;" alt="" /> +<img src="images/plate_ii_b.png" width="633" height="529" alt="" /> + +<p class="captionbm">SYMBOLS USED ON GEOLOGIC MAPS, ECONOMIC MAPS AND MINE PLANS</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption4">OIL AND GAS SYMBOLS.</p> + +<p>A complete set of symbols for maps showing oil and gas is given +on <a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>. Referring to these symbols the chief geologist, in a +memorandum to the Director, writes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The symbols used by the Survey in its oil and gas maps have not been in +accord with those used by the oil companies, nor have they been wholly logical. +It appears that though they were submitted for recommendation they never +have been formally approved.</p> + +<p>Herewith I submit a code prepared by the geologists of the oil and gas +section. They conform largely to commercial use and embrace its best features +as well as the best and most logical features of our previous usage, the departures +from which are, after all, of minor consequence.</p> + +<p>The symbols here submitted [see <a href="#Plate_II">PI. II</a>] with recommendation for approval +are founded on a building-up system, so that the history and the results of drilling +at any location can be recorded by slight additions to symbol and without +erasure. Thus maps may be revised without scratching.</p> + +<p>In drawing these symbols the draftsman should make the rays of the gas +well distinct and in adding the vertical bar or line showing that a hole is +dry or abandoned should make it long enough to be distinct. It would be preferable +to draw this bar obliquely, but an oblique position would coincide with +some of the patterns on certain maps, and it should therefore be placed vertically. +The vertical line indicates the failure or abandonment of the well, +the symbol for which Is thus scratched off or canceled by the line drawn through +it. The symbols agree so far with commercial usage that oil men will have +little need to consult the explanation.</p> +</div> + +<p class="caption4">SYMBOLS FOR USE ON MAPS SHOWING FEATURES OF GROUND WATER.</p> + +<p>The symbols used on maps relating to ground water represent the +features named below, each of which has been shown in publications +already issued.</p> + +<table style="width:35em;" summary="Map Symbols"> +<tr> + <td>Area of absorption or outcrop.<br /> + Depth to water table.<br /> + Contours of water table.<br /> + Fluctuation of water table.<br /> + Depth to water-bearing formation.<br /> + Structure contours of water-bearing<br /> + formation.<br /> + Area of artesian flow.<br /> + Head of artesian water.</td> + <td class="vtop">Area that discharges ground water.<br /> + Quality of ground water.<br /> + Area irrigated with ground water.<br /> + Nonflowing well.<br /> + Flowing well.<br /> + Unsuccessful or dry well.<br /> + Well with pumping plant.<br /> + Spring.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The lack of uniformity in the symbols commonly employed to represent +these features is due to differences in the number of color +on the maps and differences in the scale. Standard colors for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +larger features, such as those for areas of artesian flow, areas of absorption, +and curves showing depths to water table or to water-bearing +formations, can not be fixed, because of considerations of economy in +printing. For example, if light green is the standard color to be used +for delineating areas irrigated by ground water and no green is used +on other parts of the map its use would represent an additional or +special printing, whereas a tint of blue, brown, or purple, if any of +these colors is used for other features on the map, might be used +also for this feature without additional printing. Therefore the +general use of any particular color for a water feature seems to +be impracticable; but this fact should not preclude the adoption of +color standards for use subject to the requirements of economy in publication.</p> + +<p>The ordinary symbols for wells are the open circle and the solid +circle, or dot. Only in the secondary or specific well symbols does +there appear to be lack of uniformity, the choice of secondary symbols +being governed either by personal preference or by the requirements +for specific distinction.</p> + +<p>All symbols should, if possible, suggest the things they represent. +Wells are circular and hence the open circle is most used and most +appropriate for nonflowing wells. To indicate a flowing well the +circle is made solid, denoting that the well is full of water. For an +unsuccessful well the most suggestive symbol would be an open circle +with a line drawn through it to denote cancellation. It has been +suggested that if water features, including wells, are to be printed in +blue, unsuccessful wells, or dry holes, be printed in black. A large +circle drawn around the symbol for a flowing or nonflowing well will +appropriately denote a pumping plant at the well.</p> + +<p>The accepted symbol for a spring is a dot with a waved tail representing +the direction of flow, if known. This symbol can not be +modified without destroying its prime characteristics, but it may be +accompanied by a letter indicating the kind of spring. An open +circle with a tail might be used on large-scale maps, but it would be +out of scale on other maps, whereas the black or blue dot and tail will +fit maps of any scale.</p> + +<p>The following colors and symbols can most appropriately be used +to represent ground-water features. The well and spring symbols +can be varied by adding letters if they are necessary to express other +data than those indicated in the list below.</p> + +<p class="caption3"><i>General ground-water features.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Area of absorption or outcrop: Flat color used on the map to show the geologic +system in which the absorbing formation occurs.</p> + +<p>Areas showing depths to water table: Shades of purple and gray; if possible +the shades showing the areas of least depth should be darkest and the shades +should grade from those to lighter tints.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Contours of water table, or contours on water-bearing formations: Gray or +purple curves or lines.</p> + +<p>Areas of artesian flow: Blue flat tint, or fine ruling in blue. Depth to water-bearing +formations: Gradation of a single color or of two related colors from +dark for shallow depths to light for greater depths.</p> + +<p>Nonflowing artesian areas (pumped wells): Green flat tint, or fine ruling in +green. Depth to water-bearing formations shown by gradation of tint if +possible from dark for shallow depths to light for greater depths.</p> + +<p>Head of artesian water: Blue curves or lines.</p> + +<p>Areas that discharge ground water: Blue flat tint, or fine ruling in blue.</p> + +<p>Areas irrigated with ground water: Green flat tint, or fine ruling in green.</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig_left" style="width: 31px; padding-left: 10%"> +<img src="images/page23.png" width="31" height="159" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p class="p0"><br /> +Well, character not indicated.<br /> +Well, nonflowing.<br /> +Well, flowing.<br /> +Well, unsuccessful or dry.<br /> +Well, nonflowing, with pumping plant.<br /> +Well, flowing, with pumping plant.<br /> +Springs.<br /> +Spring, thermal.<br /> +Spring, mineral.<br /> +</p> + +<p style="clear:both">The standard color scheme should be used if no conditions preclude +its use, but if other colors can be used with greater economy without +sacrificing clearness the use of the standard colors should be +waived.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">BLACK-LINE CONVENTIONS.</p> + +<p>A complete set of the black-line patterns used to distinguish areas +on a map is given in <a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a> (<a href="#Page_60">p. 60</a>), and their application to +a finished drawing is shown in <a href="#Figure_9">figure 9</a> (<a href="#Page_62">p. 62</a>). These patterns, +however, should preferably not be used by the author in his preliminary +work on an illustration. For this purpose water colors or +colored crayons are preferable, and the distinctions between areas +may be emphasized by letter symbols.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">MATERIALS USED IN PREPARING MAPS.</p> + +<p class="caption4">PAPER.</p> + +<p>For large and important maps which may at some time be extended +to cover a greater area or which may be made to fit maps +already prepared or published the paper used should be mounted on +muslin to reduce to a minimum the shrinking or stretching caused by +atmospheric changes. Pure white paper produces a better negative +than a cream or yellowish paper and will retain its color longer, but +all papers become more yellow with age and exposure to light.</p> + +<p>The following brands of paper are used in the Survey in the +preparation of maps:</p> + +<p>"Normal" K. & E., unmounted. Has an excellent surface and +comes in flat sheets, 19 by 24, 22 by 30, and 27 by 40 inches.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> + +<p>"Paragon" K. & E., mounted on muslin. In 10-yard rolls 72 +inches wide. Used in the Survey for large office drawings and maps +of large scale.</p> + +<p>"Anvil" K. & E., mounted on muslin. In 10-yard rolls 42, 62, +and 72 inches wide. Used in the Survey for large drawings.</p> + +<p>"Whatman's hot pressed," unmounted or mounted on muslin. In +sheets ranging in size from 13 by 17 to 31 by 53 inches. An excellent +paper for maps. The muslin-backed paper is recommended for use +in preparing large detailed maps and base maps that are to be +retained as permanent records. The muslin provides a durable and +flexible backing that permits the map to be rolled, and paper thus +mounted is particularly serviceable for a map which may be subjected +to considerable revision and to which must be added finally +a title, explanation, and other marginal matter.</p> + +<p>"Ross's relief hand-stipple drawing paper." A stiff enameled or +chalk-coated paper whose surface has been compressed into minute +points that stand in slight relief so that a shade made on it with +pencil or crayon is broken up into dots and can be reproduced by +photo-engraving. For use in making shaded drawings, drawings +showing relief by light and shade, etc. Similar paper is prepared +for parallel-line and other pattern effects. In sheets ranging in size +from 11 by 14 to 22 by 28 inches. (See <a href="#Page_51">p. 51</a> for method of using.)</p> + +<p>Profile and cross-section paper. In sheets of convenient sizes or +in rolls. Bears lines printed in blue, green, red, or orange, in many +kinds of rulings, which may be selected by reference to catalogues. +Profile and cross-section paper printed in orange is recommended for +preliminary drawings; blue is recommended for drawings that are +made in pencil and submitted for inking in.</p> + +<p class="caption4">BRISTOL BOARD.</p> + +<p>For the smaller maps, such as key maps and maps less than 18 by 24 +inches, and for small drawings made for direct reproduction, Reynolds's +bristol board is recommended on account of its pure-white color +and its hardness, which permits erasures to be made without affecting +redrawing over the corrected area. It is obtained in 2-ply, 3-ply, +and 4-ply sheets. The 2-ply and 3-ply are especially useful in making +delicate brush and pencil drawings and pen and ink drawings. +The sizes used in the Survey are 16<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> by 20<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub>, 18<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> by 22<sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub>, and +21<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> by 28<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> inches.</p> + +<p class="caption4">TRACING LINEN.</p> + +<p>Tracing cloth or linen is especially useful for large work that will +require considerable reduction. (See <a href="#Page_18">p. 18</a>.) Its advantages are that +a tracing that has been carefully made on it over any kind of copy for +direct reproduction by a photo-engraving process can be used for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +making a paper negative for contact printing or blue printing. On +the other hand, it is susceptible to atmospheric changes that affect +scale, and the lines traced on it are not reproduced as sharply as those +made on paper. It can be obtained in rolls 30 to 54 inches wide.</p> + +<p>Erasures should be made on tracing linen with a hard rubber +eraser, not with a sand rubber or a steel eraser.</p> + +<p class="caption4"><a name="INKS" id="INKS"></a>INKS.</p> + +<p>The best drawing inks are in liquid form, ready for use. They +should be waterproof and equal to the grade known as Higgins's +waterproof ink. When a suitable waterproof blue ink can not be +obtained, a good blue for features of drainage can be made by dissolving +a half pan of Winsor & Newton's prussian blue in water. No +good waterproof burnt sienna ink seems to be obtainable, but a good +substitute can be made by dissolving Winsor & Newton's water color +of that name.</p> + +<p>Ink lines should be drawn in full strength of color—lines that +should be black must not appear grayish, for example—and pens +should be kept clean. The same pen should not be used for applying +two inks, as the mixture thus produced is likely to thicken or coagulate +on the pen. A little black should be added to colored inks that are +used in making drawings to be reproduced in colors in order to +strengthen the lines for photographic reproduction.</p> + +<p class="caption4">DRAWING PENS.</p> + +<p>The pens made by Keuffel & Esser, especially their No. 3202, and +Gillott's Nos. 291, 290, 170, and 303 give complete satisfaction. The +Gillott numbers are given in the order of fineness of the points. No. +291 being the finest. The best cleaner for a drawing pen is a piece +of chamois skin.</p> + +<p class="caption4">PENCILS.</p> + +<p>Pencils used for drawing should have leads of a quality equal to +those of the Koh-i-noor brand, in which the grades of hardness are +indicated by 3B, 2B, B, HB, F, H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H, +and 9H; the softest grade is 3B and the hardest 9H. The grades most +generally used are B, HB, F, 4H, and 6H.</p> + +<p class="caption4">RUBBER ERASERS AND CLEANERS.</p> + +<p>Two kinds of rubber erasers are usually employed in making +erasures on drawings—a hard, dense rubber like the "Ruby," and a +soft, pliable rubber like the "Venus" or "H" (Hardtmuth). The +soft rubber is also useful for cleaning large surfaces. Art gum is +also recommended for this purpose and has the advantage of not +disturbing the surface of the paper.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption4">COLORED PENCILS AND CRAYONS.</p> + +<p>Colored pencils and crayons are useful only for coloring preliminary +maps. They are not recommended for use on maps that +are to be kept for reference or to be submitted for reproduction, because +the colors rub off, but they can be used on photographic prints of +base maps or on transparent oversheets, for which the unglazed side +of tracing cloth is well suited. When they are so used register marks +should be added at numerous points on the map and the oversheet, including +the four comers, the color boundaries should be drawn or +traced, and finally the colors should be added. Two or more colors +should not be used on any one area to modify a tone, but each area +should be colored with a separate crayon. Patterns or designs should +not be used except to strengthen contrasts, and for that purpose a +pattern may be drawn with a black pencil over a color.</p> + +<p class="caption4">WATER COLORS.</p> + +<p>By dilution to half strength some of the standard water colors will +yield a tint or hue that will contrast with other tints or hues produced +in the same way quits as well as undiluted or full colors will +contrast with one another. The colors named below, except chrome-yellow +and emerald-green, are among those that when diluted will +afford satisfactory contrasts among themselves and with their full +colors and are recommended for use in coloring original maps.</p> + +<table style="width:35em;" summary="Water colors"> +<tr> + <td>Mauve.<br /> + Crimson lake.<br /> + Orange-vermilion.<br /> + Burnt sienna.<br /> + Cadmium-yellow.<br /> + Chrome-yellow.<br /> + Olive-green.</td> + <td class="vtop">Hooker's green No. 2.<br /> + Emerald-green.<br /> + Payne's gray.<br /> + Lampblack.<br /> + Sepia.<br /> + Cerulean blue.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Other pigments spread better than cerulean blue and emerald-green, +but the exceptional purity of color of these two seems to warrant +their use.</p> + +<p class="caption4">JAPANESE TRANSPARENT WATER COLORS.</p> + +<p>Japanese transparent water colors, so called, are used by some +geologists. They spread evenly and are convenient for field use, but +they can not be washed out like other water colors, so that when they +are once applied to an area and a change of color becomes necessary +they must be bleached out. A good bleach is sodium hypochlorite, +which should be applied with a brush until the color disappears, and +the area dried with a blotter before recoloring. Light tints of these +colors are believed to be somewhat fugitive if exposed to strong light.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption3">COLORING GEOLOGIC MAPS.</p> + +<p>The colors used on most original maps are not pleasing, a fact that +is of no particular importance, but—and this is of importance—they +often fail to give clear distinctions; the separate areas can not always +be identified or distinguished with certainty. Again, some colors are +fugitive, and when laid on in light tints they disappear entirely or +become uncertain. Much of the difficulty in identifying and discriminating +colors on an author's original maps is due to the promiscuous +mixing of colors. Many persons can not match or discriminate mixed +or broken colors. Hence if the supply of a color produced by mixing +becomes exhausted and the attempt is made to duplicate it by a +second mixture the two will probably fail to match. It is therefore +suggested that colors in full strength and colors diluted to half +strength be used instead of mixtures of two or more pigments, so +that one color in two strengths or tones can be employed to indicate +areas that are to be distinguished. The colors listed on <a href="#Page_26">page 26</a> will +give 24 satisfactory distinctions and will thus supply all demands for +map coloring.</p> + +<p>To insure satisfactory contrasts between colored areas on a map, +unlike colors should be placed next to each other—that is, colors +should be placed together that are widely separated in the spectrum, +such as yellow and mauve, red and green, blue and orange, burnt +sienna and olive-green; not such as red and orange, blue and purple, +orange and yellow, sepia and burnt sienna.</p> + +<p>A sufficient quantity of water and color pigment to be used for one +formation area on a map should be stirred in a saucer until the desired +tint is produced before it is applied. To maintain the same tone +properly the color should be well stirred every time the brush is +filled; if it is not stirred the brush will on the next dipping take up +a lighter tint, because most pigments, especially those derived from +minerals, tend to precipitate. When the colors are applied the map +should preferably be placed in a slightly inclined position, and the +coloring should be started at the upper boundaries of an area to be +colored, the well-filled brush being pulled toward the painter and +Worked rapidly back and forth horizontally, the edges of the fresh +color being kept wet. If the edges are allowed to dry, a hard line +and a smeared or uneven effect will be produced.</p> + +<p>A strong color should generally be used for small areas unless the +map shows also large areas that must have the same color; lighter +hues should be used for large areas. Bright colors are best suited for +areas of igneous rocks, dikes, and veins, and these may be reduced in +strength for the larger areas.</p> + +<p>The Survey's color scheme (see <a href="#Page_63">p. 63</a>) need not be applied at this +stage of preparation, except in the most general way. Appropriate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +final colors can be best selected when the new map is made ready for +engraving. In the author's original maps adequate color distinctions +between areas are more important than the use of standard geologic +colors. Patterns should not be ruled in one color on an original map +to indicate distinctions between different formations of the same age +or period, because such patterns are difficult to produce by hand with +proper uniformity except by engraving.</p> + +<p>It is of vital importance that an original base map should be free +from colors and from technical symbols in order that it may be kept +clean for photographing and preserved for possible future use. Such +a map should preferably be photographed in order to obtain prints +on which to add the colors and symbols; the use of an oversheet for +this purpose is not nearly so satisfactory. When photographed a base +map should be reduced to publication scale in order to save the additional +cost of a larger negative, and this reduced map may be made +up for publication by the addition of colors and symbols, title, explanation, +etc.; but the lithographer will also need the original base map +from which to make his reproduction.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">DIAGRAMS.</p> + +<p class="caption4">ESSENTIAL FEATURES.</p> + +<p>The term "diagrams," as used here, includes such illustrations as +mine plans, profiles, sections, stereograms, and maps that are more +diagrammatic than cartographic. The first essential in the original +drawings for simple diagrams is clearness of copy. Simplicity of +subject does not warrant hasty preparation, for an original sketch +that has been carelessly drawn and is inaccurate or inconsistent in +detail may lead to serious errors. Ruled paper printed especially for +platting profiles and cross sections should be used. Curves or graphs +made by an author with pencil on blue-lined section paper may be +inked by more skillful draftsmen. An author's pencil sketches are +usually satisfactory if they indicate plainly the facts to be represented, +but they should be prepared with some care as to detail. Tables and +like matter are not generally satisfactory material from which to prepare +drawings. In drawings for diagrams that are to be printed in the +text as figures the use of large, solid black bars or of conspicuous areas +of solid black is objectionable, because the black is likely to print +gray and to appear uneven in tone. Ruled tints or cross lining give +better effects. Stereograms should be prepared by an author with +especial care, for they represent facts only as the author sees them, +and the author's view must be imparted to the draftsman graphically. +The "third dimension"—the relief—in such drawings is not easily +expressed and should be brought out clearly in the author's rough +sketches.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p>For illustrations of apparatus photographs are preferred, but +if rough sketches are submitted they should show not only correct +relations but all dimensions.</p> + +<p class="caption4">PLANS OF MINE WORKINGS.</p> + +<p>Blue prints obtained from mining companies are acceptable for +plans of mines or underground workings, but all unnecessary or +irrelevant details on such plans must be canceled and all essential features +retained, and every essential feature, especially any added data, +must be clearly interpretable. Many such blue prints are so large and +unwieldy that they must be greatly reduced by photography before +they can be redrawn. If the lines are too weak to photograph, a tracing +of the essential parts can be made and reduced to about twice +publication size. The shadowless drafting table, described on pages 47-48, +is well adapted to the work of making such tracings. Blue +prints can also be pantographed to any convenient size if the details +are not too minute or complex.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 661px;"> +<a name="Figure_2" id="Figure_2"></a> +<img src="images/figure02_lrg.png" width="661" height="356" alt="" /> +<span class="caption">Figure 2.—Conventional lines used in preparing plans and diagrams of mine workings to +distinguish different levels.</span> +</div> + +<p>The levels in plans of underground workings can be differentiated +in finished drawings by a system of conventional outlines in black, +as shown in <a href="#Figure_2">figure 2</a>, by conventional patterns or symbols within +plain outlines, or by colors. Such plans should not be printed in +colors unless the maze of workings is so complex that lines showing +the different levels would become confused or obscure if printed in +black.</p> + +<p class="caption4">SECTIONS.</p> + +<p>The standard forms of geologic sections are shown in the geologic +folios. Structure sections should be prepared with great care as to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +detail but without attempt at refinement of lines and lettering. The +author's drawing of a section along a line or zone that is not definitely +indicated by a line on an accompanying map should be so prepared +that it may be copied exactly. On the other hand, the draftsman, in +reproducing a section that represents the structure along a given line +or zone, may be able to make the outcrops coincide with the topography +and the formation boundaries shown on the map, but the +structure, or the interpretation of it to be given, should be carefully +worked out by the author. All essential facts relating to bedding, +folding, faulting, crosscutting dikes and veins, or other significant +details should be indicated with precision. No attempt need be made +to draw firm, steady lines so long as the essential facts are clearly +expressed.</p> + +<p>All sections should be drawn to scale, and both the vertical and the +horizontal scale should be given on the drawing. These scales should +be uniform if possible, or at least the vertical exaggeration should +be minimized. Too great vertical exaggeration creates distortion and +is grossly misleading. Sections should be drawn to scale on ruled +paper prepared for the use of authors. Such paper may be obtained +on requisition.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 734px;"> +<a name="Figure_3" id="Figure_3"></a> +<img src="images/figure03_lrg.png" width="734" height="189" alt="" /> +<span class="caption">Figure 3.—Section and perspective view showing relations of surface features to the +different kinds of rock and the structure of the beds.</span> +</div> + +<p>A kind of cross section which is not often used but which gives a +more pictorial and clearer conception of underground relations than +other kinds is made by adding a sketch of the topography above the +section. This sketch should be a perspective view, in which the +prominent features shown hypothetically in the section below it +will be reflected in the topography. Such a sketch might show, for +example, not only monoclinal slopes, "hogbacks" due to steeply upturned +beds, terraces, escarpments, and like features, but volcanic +necks or other extruded masses in their true relations to the underground +geology of the country. (See fig, 3.) In submitting the +draft of such an illustration the author should, if possible, submit +also a sketch or photographs of the adjacent country and indicate on +the section the point of view by notes such as "Sketch A made at +this point," "See photograph B." The sketch will be more useful +if it is prepared on a scale consistent with the details of the section. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +It may be made with a pencil and should show as well as possible +the relations of the features in the landscape to those in the section. +Some good examples of illustrations of this type can be found in +Powell's "Exploration of the Colorado River," pages 182-193. One +simpler figure of the same kind is given on the cover of the geologic +folios.</p> + +<p>In preparing original drawings representing columnar sections, or +sections in wells or ravines, the author should indicate all well-defined +or important local features of structure, such as cross-bedding, ore +bodies, or lenses. If there are no unusual features or details, the subdivisions +need be identified only by names of materials, such as "thin-bedded +limestone," or "slates with some coal," the coal beds being +shown. The sections should, however, be so plotted and subdivided by +the author that each section or group of sections will be complete in +its crude form. The compilation of various parts into one unit and +the construction of columnar sections by reference to tables alone is +an essential part of the author's original preparation.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 745px;"> +<a name="Figure_4" id="Figure_4"></a> +<img src="images/figure04_lrg.png" width="745" height="390" alt="" /> +<span class="caption">Figure 4.—Sections of coal beds. The Figure shows the publications size and the arrangement +at the sections. Each section should be drawn three-tenths or four-tenths of an +inch wide and reduced one-half. Thicknesses can be indicated by numbers, as shown +on sections 1 and 10, or by bar scale.</span> +</div> + +<p>Sections designed to show the relative thickness of beds of coal, +arranged in groups for publication either as plates or figures, should +be drawn in columns three or four tenths of an inch wide and reduced +one-half, as shown in <a href="#Figure_4">figure 4</a>. These sections, whether correlated +or not, should be drawn to some definite vertical scale and should +show the thickness of the coal beds, preferably by numbers indicating +feet and inches, the other material being symbolized and the symbols +explained graphically, as shown in <a href="#Figure_4">figure 4</a>. The vertical scale should +always be stated for the use of the draftsman. A bar scale may be +used instead of figures showing the dimensions of the individual beds.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption3">LITHOLOGIC SYMBOLS.</p> + +<p>The symbols used to indicate the various kinds of rocks illustrated +in sections and diagrams are shown in <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>. The units or elements +of these symbols may be spaced more openly in generalized +diagrammatic sections than in sections that show great detail.</p> + +<p>Symbols should be used consistently throughout a report, and in +order to make them consistent a set showing the symbol to be used +for each kind of rock to be indicated should be prepared before the +original drawings are made. Some inconsistencies may be unavoidable +on account of the small size of some areas shown and the contrast +needed between others; but the deviations from the set of +symbols adopted should be minimized.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">USE OF PHOTOGRAPHS AS ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + +<p class="caption4">ESSENTIAL FEATURES.</p> + +<p>The foundation of a good photographic print is a good negative, +and the best prints for reproduction as illustrations are those made +from negatives in which the illumination is evenly distributed and +the details are sharp—such negatives as are obtainable only by the +use of small stops and correct focusing. A good print should not +present too sharp contrasts between its dark and its light parts; if it +does, the printed reproduction will show a loss of detail in both. +Sufficiency of detail depends largely on focus, stopping down, and +timing; brilliancy is the direct result of ample illumination by sun or +artificial light, without which a photograph will be dull or "flat" +and generally unsatisfactory for reproduction. Bad weather may +prevent good field exposures, yet even in bad weather acceptable +negatives may be obtained by judicious focusing, stopping down, +and timing. If a negative is overexposed it may be full of detail, +but flat and too thin to print well. If underexposed it will show no +details in its lighter parts and the shadows will be black; and a +black shadow is nothing less than a blemish. Some detail should +appear in all shadows and in the middle tones, and some should +appear in the high lights; and a print in which these are evenly developed +and in which the illumination is distributed uniformly is +technically perfect.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately not all field photographs are good, so an author +must select from his collection those which will make the best half +tones. In making this selection he should of course consider, first, +the scientific value of the photograph, and next, its pictorial or artistic +quality, which, though of secondary importance, should nevertheless +be kept in mind. A feature worthy of illustration deserves good pictorial +expression; if it is of superior scientific interest it should not +be represented by an inferior photograph. Fortunately, a good, +accurate drawing may be made from a poor photograph, and a photographic +view that has only minor defects can be successfully retouched. +Photographs that need much retouching should generally +be larger than publication size, for the effects of retouching—brush +marks, etc.—will be softened by reduction. Photographs that need +only slight retouching need not be larger than publication size. A +photograph can rarely be satisfactorily enlarged in reproduction +unless it is sharp in detail and requires no retouching.</p> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_III" id="Plate_III"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE III.</div> + +<a href="images/plate_iii_lrg.png"><img src="images/plate_iii.png" width="597" height="346" alt="" /></a> +<p class="center smaller" style="color:#808080;">Click on image to view larger size.</p> + +<p class="captionbm">LITHOLOGIC SYMBOLS USED IN STRUCTURE AND COLUMNAR +SECTIONS TO REPRESENT DIFFERENT KINDS OF ROCK</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> + +<p>Unmounted prints are always preferable for use in making illustrations. +A group that is to form a single plate should be placed in an +envelope bearing the number of the plate and its title, and each print +of the group should bear a corresponding number, written in pencil +on its back. The envelope will protect the prints and keep them +together, and the numbers will identify them. Red ink should not be +used to mark photographs, as it is likely to penetrate the coating or +even the fiber of the paper, so that it can not be erased.</p> + +<p>If a print is of doubtful quality two copies of it should be submitted—one +glazed, the other having a dead finish or "mat" surface, +which is generally preferable if the print must be considerably +retouched. The best prints for use as illustrations are those made on +"regular" or "special" semimat velox and glossy haloid papers. The +author should indicate prints that may be grouped together according +to their relation geographically or by subject. Generally two half +tones will be combined on a page, and the list of illustrations should +be prepared accordingly.</p> + +<p>With slight trimming and reduction, three photographs measuring +3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> by 5<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches may be made up one above the other to form a full-page +octavo plate. Four photographs in which the longer dimensions +represent vertical distances may sometimes be used if they are +placed sidewise on the page, with side titles.</p> + +<p>Some photographs may be reduced to the width of a page by +trimming instead of by photographic reduction, which may involve +loss of detail. The author should clearly indicate the extent of such +trimming as they may bear without loss of essential details. The +trimming is best done during the final preparation. A line should +not be drawn across a photograph to mark such trimming, but +the position of the line or lines should be indicated either on temporary +mounts, on the backs of the prints, or by a statement, such +as "One inch may be cut off on right, one-fourth inch on left, and +one-half inch at bottom."</p> + +<p class="caption4">COPYRIGHTED PHOTOGRAPHS.</p> + +<p>Section 4965 (ch. 3, title 60) of the Revised Statutes, amended by +act of March 2, 1895 (Stat. L., vol. 28, p. 965), provides that no +copyrighted photograph may be used without the consent of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +proprietor of the copyright in writing signed in the presence of +two witnesses. A penalty of $1 is imposed for every sheet on which +such a photograph is reproduced without consents, "either printing, +printed, copied, published, imported, or exposed for sale." An +author should therefore obtain the written consent of the owner of +a copyrighted photograph to use it, and the letter giving this consent +should be submitted with the illustration.</p> + +<p class="caption4">SOURCES OF PHOTOGRAPHS.</p> + +<p>Every photograph submitted with a manuscript should bear a +memorandum giving the name of the photographer or the owner of the +negative. If the negative is in the Survey's collection that fact +should be stated, as "Neg. Keith 318." The Survey receives many +requests for copies of photographs that have been reproduced as +illustrations in its publications, and replies to these requests will be +facilitated if the Survey's number or the source of each photograph +presented for use as an illustration is stated as above on the photograph.</p> + +<p class="caption4">LENDING ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND DRAWINGS.</p> + +<p>A photograph that has been used in making a half-tone cut for a +Survey report can not be lent, but if the negative is on file a print +can be furnished at cost; and a Survey drawing that is well preserved +can be photographed and a print furnished, also at cost. Requests +for such prints should be addressed to the Director.</p> + +<p class="caption4">UNPUBLISHED PHOTOGRAPHS.</p> + +<p>The Survey can not issue a copy of an unpublished photograph +except upon the written approval or requisition of the person under +whose name the negative is filed. This requirement does not apply +to a print needed for official use, nor to a print made from an old +negative reserved under the name of any present member of the +Survey or from a negative that has been released by the person +under whose name it is filed.</p> + +<p>Authors using Survey photographs in unofficial publications are +requested to acknowledge the source of the photograph by adding to +the printed title such a statement as "Photograph by U. S. Geological +Survey (David Whits)."</p> + + +<p class="caption3">SPECIMENS.</p> + +<p class="caption4">GENERAL REQUIREMENTS.</p> + +<p>Specimens other than fossils that are to be illustrated in a report +should be photographed before they are submitted, but the requisition +for the photographs should be initialed by the chief illustrator, +who will indicate the kinds of prints needed. Duplicate photographs +of the specimens should be made up into temporary plates by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +author and submitted with his other illustrations, the specimens being +retained subject to call, if needed, when the illustrations are +finally prepared. Should a colored illustration of a specimen be +needed, however, the specimen must be submitted with the report, +and a different kind of print, preferably one made on platinum or +other special paper, will be obtained by the section of illustrations.</p> + +<p class="caption4">BORROWED AND FRAGILE SPECIMENS.</p> + +<p>In submitting specimens to be illustrated an author should call +attention to those that have been borrowed and to those that are +fragile. Borrowed specimens will receive first attention, so that they +may be returned promptly.</p> + +<p class="caption4">TRANSMITTAL OF PALEONTOLOGIC SPECIMENS.</p> + +<p>All requests for paleontologic illustrations should be addressed to +the Director. The letter of transmittal should state the title of the +paper, the form of publication desired (bulletin, professional paper, +or monograph), and the status of the manuscript, whether completed +or in preparation. If the paper is unfinished an estimate of the +number of illustrations required should be given, and the special reasons +for prompt preparation should be fully stated. A letter transmitting +a second or third lot of fossils should refer to the preceding +lot or lots if all the fossils are to be used in illustrating the same +paper.</p> + +<p>Fossils that are to be drawn should be sent directly to the section +of illustrations, but those that are to be photographed and require +unusual posing or that are extremely delicate and valuable may be +sent directly to the photographic laboratory to avoid repeated handling. +Each specimen or, if it is very small, each box or bottle containing +a specimen should be numbered, and each lot should be accompanied +by a list giving their names and numbers. Full instructions +as to size of reproduction, together with sketches showing the point +of view preferred and any special features to be displayed should also +be submitted. All specimens that show strong colors and all groups +of specimens that are not uniform in color will be coated by holding +them in the vapor of ammonium chloride unless directions to the +contrary are given by the author of the paper. As it may not be +desirable to apply this process to soft or fragile specimens or to +specimens that have been borrowed an author should indicate any +specimens that may not be so treated. Specimens whose color aids +in revealing detail are not so coated. If any features of a specimen +are unusual that fact should be stated so that the photographer and +the retoucher may perform their work according to the requirements.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption3">MAKING UP PLATES.</p> + +<p>Two or more illustrations may be combined to form one plate in +order to permit easy and close comparison as well as for economy, for +if a particular illustration is too small to make a full plate and is +not suitable for enlargement other illustrations that are closely related +to it may be put on the same plate. The size of the printed page as +given in the table on <a href="#Page_11">page 11</a> will determine the size of the plate.</p> + +<p>In making up plates composed of a number of figures the author +should endeavor to group related figures together and at the same +time to observe proper regard for artistic effect, but as figures vary in +size and shape a grouping according to relations may not be possible +in some plates. If related figures can not be kept together the larger +and darker figures should be placed in the lower part of the plate +and the smaller and lighter above. If a plate consists of one large +figure and several smaller ones the large figure should be placed below +and the smaller figures above.</p> + +<p>A number designating a figure should be placed immediately below +the figure, and a series of such numbers should preferably begin with +1 in the upper left corner and continue consecutively across and +down through the plate. This arrangement is not always possible, +however, on account of variations in the size of figures.</p> + +<p>As drawings of fossils or other specimens are prepared separately +and grouped into plates, and as most paleontologists make up their +own plates, each in his own way, there is naturally great dissimilarity +in methods and in results. Ordinary white or light-gray cardboard +should be used, and the figures that are to make up a plate should be +arranged as stated above but not securely pasted until the grouping +is satisfactory. In trimming each drawing or photograph the author +should be careful to leave room at its lower edge for the number. +Small drawings or photographs, such as paleontologists use, when +pasted on bristol board or other board faced with tough paper are +difficult or impossible to remove without injury if they have to be +remounted; figures pasted on ordinary white or gray cardboard can +be removed without difficulty. Each plate should be made up in a +size to fit the volume or in its correct proportion to a page in the +volume in which it is to be used (see table on <a href="#Page_11">p. 11</a>), and each figure +should be properly oriented—that is, all vertical lines, or the vertical +axis of each specimen, should be parallel with the sides of the plate. +When the figures are being mounted care should be taken that the +mucilage or paste does not exude under pressure and cover any part +of the drawing or photograph. The same attention should be given +to pasting on numbers. Inattention to these details may produce +results that will affect the reproduction of the plates.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> + +<p>Ordinary mucilage may be used for mounting drawings and photographs, +but photo paste gives good results and is perhaps cleaner to +handle. Dry-mounting tissue is well adapted to mounting single +illustrations but not groups of figures. Liquid rubber is sometimes +used, but it is not suitable for mounting small figures, such as drawings +and photographs of fossils. It can be used satisfactorily for +mounting temporary plates and for mounting photographs in albums +and on large cards for study or exhibition; but it has not proved to +be a permanent adhesive. Its special merit is that it does not cause +either the photograph or the mounting sheet to warp. It is applied +by spreading it evenly over the back of the photograph with the +fingers. The superfluous rubber can easily be removed from the +hands and from the cards or sheets when it is dry. Anything mounted +with liquid rubber can be easily removed.</p> + +<p>If a plate is to be made up of a small number of figures that require +different reductions, the author, instead of mounting or pasting the +separate figures on one card in the manner already indicated, may +draw a rectangle of the size of the printed plate and sketch within it +the several figures in their respective sizes and positions. These +"dummy" plates or layouts should be numbered as plates, and they +may bear captions and titles. The photographs or drawings represented +by the sketches should then be numbered to identify them with +the sketches on the dummy plate, and those that pertain to each plate +should be inclosed in an envelope attached to the dummy plate. A +plate made up in this manner will meet every requirement of the +photo-engraver or lithographer.</p> + +<p>If a paleontologist so desires, his plates can be permanently made +up after he has transmitted his material, but he should always submit +a tentative arrangement.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="REUSE_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="REUSE_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a> +REUSE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + +<p>If an author desires to use in modified form an illustration already +published, whether by the Geological Survey or by an outside publisher, +he should furnish a print or tracing of the illustration showing +the changes desired. If the illustration is not to be modified he +need only give the title of the volume in which it was used, with the +number of the page, figure, or plate, and he need not make a sketch +of the illustration or furnish a dummy; but its title should be quoted +and proper reference should be given in the list of illustrations. Due +credit should be given to the author or publisher.</p> + +<p>The original cuts of illustrations will be kept for one year after the +report for which they were made has been published, and authors of +later reports may and should reuse, whenever practicable, any such cut +that will serve as an illustration. In the author's list of illustrations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +such a cut should be referred to by its number as plate or figure and +the volume in which it was first used.</p> + +<p>An electrotype of any cut on hand will be furnished for use in publications +other than those of the Geological Survey at the cost of +making, which is 3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> to 5<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> cents a square inch of printing surface. +The minimum charge for a single electrotype ranges from 46 to 60 +cents.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="APPROVAL_OF_FINISHED_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="APPROVAL_OF_FINISHED_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a> +APPROVAL OF FINISHED ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + +<p>After the drawings for a report have been prepared they will be +submitted to the author or to the chief of his branch or division for +examination. The finished drawings will be accompanied by the +"originals," with which the author should carefully and thoroughly +compare them. After making a thorough comparison he should mark +lightly with a pencil, on the finished drawings, all necessary corrections, +or indicate his approval subject to such corrections and additions +as may be required. He should verify all type matter and other +lettering and assure himself that no mistakes have been made in +grouping the photographs into plates, especially such as have been +regrouped since they left his hands. The author's list of illustrations +will be submitted with the new drawings for this purpose.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="REVISION_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="REVISION_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a> +REVISION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + +<p>All illustrations receive editorial revision before they are sent to +the engravers. After they are drawn they are examined with reference +to their scientific features and their accuracy, and then in turn +with reference to the correctness of geologic names and geographic +names and to errors in statement and in spelling. Each illustration +thus, before it is completed, receives critical examination by persons +qualified in particular kinds of work to detect errors or omissions.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="SUBMITTAL_OF_PROOFS" id="SUBMITTAL_OF_PROOFS"></a> +SUBMITTAL OF PROOFS.</p> + +<p>The first proofs of all illustrations are submitted to an author +when he is within reach, but if he is in the field and the transmittal +of the proofs to him is likely to cause too much delay they are submitted +to the chief of the branch or division in which the report was +prepared. Second proofs of the more complicated illustrations, +particularly geologic maps, may be submitted. An author's examination +should be confined principally to the revision of the scientific +features of his illustrations, but suggestions as to general effectiveness +are always acceptable.</p> + +<p>The process to be used in engraving each illustration is stamped in +its lower left corner. In examining proofs an author should note +the following facts:</p> + +<p>1. Changes can not be made in zinc etchings except by eliminating +parts, cutting away defects, and connecting lines. If additions are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +required reengraving is generally necessary, and reengraving should +preferably be avoided.</p> + +<p>2. Changes can be made in half-tone plates only by re-etching certain +parts to make them lighter and by burnishing certain parts to +make them darker. If the proof shows a general loss of detail the +fault may lie either in the proving of the cut or in the reproduction. +If it is in the reproduction it can not be remedied without reengraving. +A slight loss of detail may be expected in all half tones, especially +in those that are smaller than the copy submitted.</p> + +<p>3. Minor changes can be made in photolithographs and chromolithographs, +but changes can not be made twice in one place without +danger of affecting the printing. It is customary to approve all +lithographic proofs subject to the corrections indicated, the printed +edition being examined and compared, but if the changes are numerous +and radical second proofs may be required. Second combined +proofs of chromolithographs are very expensive. (See <a href="#Page_89">p. 89</a>.)</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="PROOF_READING_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="PROOF_READING_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a> +PROOF READING ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<p>An author should examine the proofs of his illustrations closely +and should compare them carefully with the original drawings. +A mere cursory examination may fail to detect errors that have not +been caught by the regular proof reader. Every correction desired +should be clearly indicated with pen and ink in the body of the proof +and inclosed in a loop from which a line should be carried to a +marginal note or comment, but if the time available is short a pencil +may be used. In correcting type matter or lettering (such as that +in a geologic legend or explanation) the ordinary proof reader's +marks should be used. The author or the person examining the proofs +should initial each one at the place indicated by a rubber stamp.</p> + +<p>Proofs should be held only long enough to examine them properly +and to compare them with the original illustrations, for a time limit +is fixed in each contract for engraving, and if the author holds proofs +beyond a reasonable time he causes a delay in the fulfillment of the +contract.</p> + +<p>As the illustrations for many reports contain important data that +will be discussed in the text, proofs of illustrations can not be supplied +to any applicant without consent from the Director's office.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="GENERAL_CONSIDERATIONS" id="GENERAL_CONSIDERATIONS"></a> +GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</p> + +<p>The following requirements are essential to obtain good original +illustrations:</p> + +<p>1. The material selected should be pertinent and expressive; it +should have the qualities essential to good illustrations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. The character of the report and the size of the illustrations +should be kept clearly in mind. If the report is preliminary or +ephemeral the illustrations should be simple and inexpensive. If +the report represents the sum of knowledge on the subject treated or +the last word on some particular area the illustrations may be more +elaborate. The character of a report generally determines the form +of publication, which, in turn, determines the size of the pages and +the size of the plates and figures. Every sketch made should be +larger than publication size—preferably twice publication size—whether +it is a simple diagram or a base map.</p> + +<p>3. The kind of reproduction that is apparently needed should be +fully considered, for it should have some relation to the kind of +report. The illustrations for short-lived reports are reproduced +by the cheaper processes. Those for hurried reports are reproduced +by processes that can be worked quickly, but no process should be +considered that will not give a clear reproduction of essential details.</p> + +<p>4. Clearness of preparation of original matter is invariably essential. +An author should not expect the draftsmen or the editors to +supply missing links. Each original should be complete and should +be so made that it can be understood and followed without question. +Changes made in the finished drawings or on proof sheets are expensive +and delay publication.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="Part_II" id="Part_II"></a> +<span class="smcap">Part II. Preparation By Draftsmen.</span></p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="GENERAL_DIRECTIONS" id="GENERAL_DIRECTIONS"></a> +GENERAL DIRECTIONS.</p> + +<p>The work of preparing illustrations such as are used in the reports +of the Geological Survey is essentially that of making finished drawings +from more or less crude and imperfect material furnished by +authors to illustrate certain features or phenomena discussed in their +manuscripts. Each finished drawing must be so prepared that it can +be reproduced in multiple by one of several processes of engraving. +The author's sketches and other material are commonly called "originals"; +the finished illustrations are known by the engravers as +"copy." Though most engraver's copy consists of more or less +elaborate drawings that are to be reproduced in facsimile by "direct" +processes without the interposition of handwork, some of it +consists of more roughly prepared copy which is accurate in statement +but requires complete manual or "indirect" reproduction. +The direct processes in use are zinc etching, half-tone engraving, +photolithography, three-color half tone, photogravure, and photogelatin. +The manual or indirect processes are wax engraving, wood +engraving, engraving on copper and on stone, plain lithography, and +chromolithography. These processes are described on pages 72-90.</p> + +<p>Part I of this pamphlet contains some matter that is pertinent to +final preparation and should be consulted by draftsmen.</p> + +<p>To prepare a drawing that will be in every way suitable for reproduction +usually requires experience of a kind not acquired in many +other kinds of drafting, such as preparing engineers' or architects' +drawings, because the drawings themselves or blue prints made directly +from them are the things the engineer or the architect desires. +Drawings prepared for reproduction are generally made larger than +publication size, and it is therefore necessary to gage each line, +letter, or feature for a definite reduction. Engineers' and architects' +drawings generally do not require preparation for reproduction +by any process, but in preparing illustrations for the reports of the +Geological Survey reproduction must be fully considered at every +step, and each drawing must be made according to the requirements of +a certain selected process and gaged for a certain reduction. The +draftsman should therefore know how to plan each drawing step +by step for an engraved cut, a lithograph, a text figure, or a +plate, always with a definite result in view. He should be familiar +with processes of engraving and should know the special requirements +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +of each process, and he should be able to prepare drawings for any +specified reduction in a way to insure good, legible reproduction.</p> + +<p>The geologic draftsman should read and study such textbooks of +geology as those of Dana and Geikie and should familiarize himself +with structural geology, the geologic time divisions, and geologic +nomenclature. He should be able to prepare a simple, effective illustration +from complicated rough originals and to supply minor missing +essential parts or features. To perform his work successfully +he must possess mechanical skill and some artistic taste, as well as +good eyesight and great patience.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="INSTRUMENTS" id="INSTRUMENTS"></a> +INSTRUMENTS.</p> + +<p>The following list of draftsmen's instruments is practically complete. +Those which are considered indispensable are marked by +asterisks; the others may be used according to individual preference. +The same kind of instrument may be duplicated in different sizes +according to the variation in the demands of the work.</p> + +<table summary="Draftman's Instruments"> +<tr> + <td style="width:50%">Air brush and connections.<br /> +   Beam compass.<br /> +   Bow pen, drop spring.<br /> + *Bow pen, steel spring.<br /> +   Bow pencil, steel spring.<br /> + *Brushes, red sable.<br /> +   China saucers.<br /> + *Color box.<br /> + *Compass, pen and pencil points.<br /> +   Crayons, assorted colors.<br /> +   Curve rule, adjustable.<br /> + *Dividers, plain.<br /> + *Dividers, proportional.<br /> +   Dividers, steel spring.<br /> +   Drawing boards, several sizes.<br /> +   Eraser, glass.<br /> + *Eraser, rubber, hard.<br /> + *Eraser, rubber, soft.<br /> + *Eraser, steel.<br /> +   Erasing shield.<br /> + *French curves, xylonite.<br /> +   Microscope, low power and lenses.<br /> +   Palette knife.<br /> +   Pantograph.<br /> +   Pens, double-pointed.<br /> + *Pens, Gillott's, Nos. 170, 290, 291.<br /> +   Pens, K. & E., drawing. No. 3202.</td> + <td class="vtop" style="width:50%">Pens, Payzant's, 1 set.<br /> + *Pencils, best quality, graded + leads.<br /> + *Protractor.<br /> +   Railroad curves, pearwood, 1 set.<br /> +   Railroad pen.<br /> + *Railroad pencil.<br /> +   Reading glass.<br /> + *Reducing glass.<br /> + *Ruling pen.<br /> +   Scale, boxwood, 12 inches long,<br /> +      with divisions of millimeters<br /> +      and inches.<br /> +   Scales, boxwood, triangular.<br /> +   Section liner (parallel ruling device).<br /> +   Straightedge, steel, 24 inches.<br /> +   Straightedge, steel, 36 inches,<br /> +      with divisions for hundredths<br /> +      of an inch and millimeters.<br /> + *Straightedge, wood, 24 inches.<br /> +   Swivel or curve pen.<br /> +   Thumb tacks.<br /> +   Tracing point, steel.<br /> + *Triangle, 45°.<br /> + *Triangle, 60°.<br /> + *T square, pearwood, xylonite edge.<br /> + *Tweezers, dentist's.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + + + +<p class="caption3">CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL.</p> + + +<p>The draftsman handling the drawings and other original material +submitted by the author of a report for its illustration should first +group them, as far as possible, into kinds or classes, in order that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +he may decide how each illustration should be prepared (1) to express +most effectively the author's purpose, (2) to insure reasonable +economy in preparation and in reproduction, and (3) to meet the requirements +of the processes of reproduction selected. All similar +illustrations for one publication should be prepared in the same general +style. In a series of geologic sections, for example, the same +lithologic symbols should be used throughout for the same kinds of +rocks. The titles, explanations, and captions of the maps should also +agree with one another in general style and in details of workmanship.</p> + +<p>The draftsman should determine in advance the reduction for each +drawing or for each group of drawings, in order that he may use +the same size of letters or the same kinds of type for the lettering on +a series of drawings that require the same reduction. The reduction +should preferably be marked in fractions (as "<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> off," "<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> off" or +"reduce <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>," "reduce <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>"), and the choice of the same reduction for a +group of drawings will not only insure greater uniformity in the +drafting and in the reproduction but will permit the drawings to be +reproduced more economically, for the engraver can photograph them +in groups instead of each one separately.</p> + +<p>The draftsman should therefore note and consider (1) the special +features shown in the author's originals; (2) whether or not these +features have been plainly indicated and whether the originals are +complete; (3) the size of the printed page of the volume in which +the illustrations will appear and the reduction required for each +drawing; and (4) the process by which each drawing should be reproduced. +If an original is of doubtful or uncertain interpretation +or appears to be incomplete the draftsman should confer with the +author of the paper if he is within reach or should bring the matter +to the attention of the chief of the branch; otherwise he may waste +much time in making the drawing.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="PREPARATION_OF_MAPS" id="PREPARATION_OF_MAPS"></a> +PREPARATION OF MAPS.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">PROJECTION.</p> + +<p>The base maps furnished by authors (see pp. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a>) are prepared +in many different ways and in different degrees of refinement and of +crudity, but the work of redrawing them for reproduction involves +well-established and generally uniform principles. All maps except +those of very extensive areas should be based on a map projection +which will show with a minimum of distortion the effect of the curvature +of the earth. The polyconic projection (see <a href="#Figure_5">fig. 5</a>) is used for +most Government maps. In this projection the central meridian is a +straight vertical line, and each parallel of latitude is developed independently +of the others. The mathematical elements of map projection +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +are given in tables published by the Geological Survey<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and the +Coast and Geodetic Survey.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> <a href="#Figure_5">Figure 5</a>, however, illustrates the mechanical +or constructional features of the polyconic projection and if +used in connection with the published tables will probably be a sufficient +guide for projecting a map on any desired scale.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Gannett, S. S., Geographic tables and formulas, 4th ed.: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. +650, 1916. See also Gannett, Henry, Manual of topographic methods: U. S. Geol. Survey +Bull. 307, pp. 85-86, 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Methods and results: Tables for the projection of maps and polyconic development; +Appendix No. 6, Report for 1884; Tables for a polyconic projection of maps, based upon +Clarke's reference spheroid of 1886; 3d ed., 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 533px;"> +<a name="Figure_5" id="Figure_5"></a> +<a href="images/figure05_lrg.png"><img src="images/figure05.png" width="533" height="348" alt="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Figure 5.—Diagram illustrating method of projecting a map.</span> +</div> + +<p>In projecting a map first select a convenient measuring scale for +setting off the dimensions given in the tables, or if no scale is at +hand one may be constructed. Measuring scales are made, however, +bearing divisions for miles and kilometers and finer subdivisions of +6 to 100 parts. They include the ratios of 1:31,250, 1:31,680, 1:48,000, +1:62,500, 1:63,360, 1:125,000, 1:250,000, 1:500,000, 1:1,000,000, +and others. On a map drawn on the scale of 1 to 63,360, for example, +1 inch would represent 1 mile; on a map drawn on the scale of 1 to +1,000,000, 1 millimeter would represent 1 kilometer, and so on. It will +be seen that the use of a scale that shows in ratios, such as those just +given, the actual distance on the ground as compared with the unit +representing the same distance on the map will reduce the possibility +of error.</p> + +<p>The method of projecting a map, illustrated in the accompanying +diagram (<a href="#Figure_5">fig. 5</a>), is as follows: First draw a straight vertical line +(A) through the middle of the sheet to represent the central meridian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +of the map and a line (B) at the lower end of this line exactly at +right angles to it to represent the bottom of the map. Then set off +on the line showing the central meridian the distances between +parallels given in Table 6 on page 36 of "Geographic tables and +formulas" (Bull. 650). It should be noted that the figures in these +tables give the distance, in meters and statute miles, of 1° on a +meridian measured 30' each way from a point where the meridian is +intersected by a parallel. The exact distances between parallels as +measured on the ground are given in the Coast and Geodetic Survey +tables, or they may be computed from Table 6 of "Geographic tables +and formulas" by adding the sum of the figures given for any two +latitudes 1° apart and dividing by 2.</p> + +<p>The distance between parallels that are 2° apart, as shown in the +diagram, may be computed from Table 6 of "Geographic tables and +formulas," as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Distance"> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td>Meters.</td> + <td>Meters.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>1° of latitude on 37th parallel</td> + <td>= 100,975.1 ÷ 2 = </td> + <td class="tdr">55,487.5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>1° of latitude on 36th parallel</td> + <td class="tdr">= </td> + <td class="tdr">110,956.2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>1° of latitude on 35th parallel</td> + <td>= 110,937.6 ÷ 2 = </td> + <td class="bdb tdr">55,468.8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>True distance from 35° to 37° latitude</td> + <td class="tdr">= </td> + <td class="tdr">221,912.5</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The distances given in the diagram were obtained by adding the +figures given in the Coast and Geodetic Survey tables, which yield +the same results. Other tables in Bulletin 650 give the true distances +in inches on maps of certain standard scales.</p> + +<p>Through the points thus obtained on the central meridian draw +lines at right angles to the vertical line. Along these horizontal +lines lay off the dimensions in the column headed X, Table 6 (pp. +39-47) of "Geographic tables and formulas" as required for each +individual map—in the diagram every alternate degree. Draw vertical +lines at these points and set off the distance Y in the same table +in a similar manner, and the points so found will be the points of intersection +of the respective meridians and parallels. Figures are +given on the diagram for the thirty-fifth parallel only.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">DETAILS OF BASE MAPS.</p> + +<p>Anyone who attempts to draw a base map must, first of all, know +how each feature or part of the map should be represented. Most of +the conventional symbols for features shown on base maps are well +established and should invariably be used; for instance, a line composed +of alternate long and short dashes (not dashes and dots) represents +a county boundary, and a line or two parallel lines across which +short lines are drawn at regular intervals represents a railroad. If +he finds that two or more symbols have been widely used to represent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +the same feature the draftsman should select the one that is best +suited to the map in hand. The correct forms of the conventional +symbols or features to be used in preparing miscellaneous maps are +shown in <a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a>, but the size and weight of each line or symbol must +depend on the size and character of the map.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">TRANSFERRING OF COPYING.</p> + +<p class="caption4">TRACING.</p> + +<p>The oldest method of transferring a map or parts of a map or +other drawing to another sheet is that of copying it by means of +tracing paper. This method, though still used for simple work, has +given way to quicker and more effective methods. By one of these +methods a piece of thin, fairly smooth paper (not necessarily transparent) +is coated with graphite by rubbing over it a soft pencil. +When the graphite has been evenly distributed over it, this sheet is +laid upon the drawing paper, coated side down, the map or other subject +to be copied is laid upon the graphite-coated sheet, and the two +outer sheets—the drawing paper and the map—are securely fastened +together. By a steel tracing point or very hard pencil the lines and +other details of the matter to be copied are then firmly and carefully +traced and thus transferred to the clean drawing paper beneath.</p> + +<p>For maps that show several features in different colors sheets +rubbed with blue, orange, brown, or green pencils may be used, one +after another, for tracing each set of the features. Red should not +be used, as it is not easily erased. This method insures distinctive +lines for the separate features and prevents the confusion that might +result from the use of one color only. Exact register of the features +shown in the several colors used may be insured by fastening one +edge of the drawing to be copied to the drawing paper by mucilage +or thumb tacks. The colored sheets may then be slipped in and out +without altering the position of the lines or symbols for one set of +data with relation to those for the others.</p> + +<p>In the final preparation of a base map to be engraved and printed +in colors—for example, black, blue, and brown—tracings of the three +colors appearing on the original base should generally be transferred, +as described above, to one sheet of paper and thus worked up into +a three-colored map. It is usually unnecessary and undesirable to +draw each color on a separate sheet. The preparation of separate +drawings may facilitate reproduction, but if they are made on tracing +cloth the usual uneven shrinking or stretching of the cloth may produce +misregister in the printing; therefore it is safer to make a single +drawing, so that the photolithographer can make three negatives and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +separate the colors by painting out or "opaquing" the colors not +wanted on each negative. A map drawn on a single sheet is also +less bulky and can therefore be more conveniently handled and compared +with proof.</p> + +<p>If for any reason separate tracings for the different colors to be +used on a map are considered desirable they should be made on linen +cut from one roll and in the same direction according to the warp +and woof.</p> + +<p class="caption4">CELLULOID TRANSFERRING.</p> + +<p>In the celluloid method of transferring a map or parts of a map +to paper upon which a complete new map is to be drawn the map or +part of the map to be copied is photographed to the exact scale of +the new drawing and reproduced in graphite on thin sheets of +celluloid.</p> + +<p>The celluloid sheet is then laid face down in the correct position +on the drawing paper and firmly rubbed on the back with a steel +burnisher, which makes a perfect offset of the map on the paper. +After the parts desired are inked over the rest of the graphite print +is easily erased with an ordinary rubber.</p> + +<p>By using this method it is possible to get absolute scale and more +satisfactory results than by tracing over a photographic print line +for line or by using a pantograph.</p> + +<p>Requisitions for celluloid prints are made on the form used for +requesting photolithographic work.</p> + +<p class="caption4">SKETCHING BY RETICULATION.</p> + +<p>If the sheet bearing the design or matter to be copied may be +marred without objection it is ruled lightly into pencil squares of +equal size. Corresponding squares of the same size, larger, or +smaller, according to the size of the new drawing, are then ruled on +the drawing paper, and the work is sketched square by square. If +the original sheet may not be marred the same result can be obtained +by drawing the lines on a transparent oversheet. This method is +serviceable for enlarging or reducing simple work that includes no +great amount of detail; if great precision of detail is required the +original should be enlarged or reduced by photography or by the +pantograph.</p> + +<p class="caption4">THE "SHADOWLESS DRAFTING TABLE."</p> + +<p>One of the most useful contrivances that has been made for tracing +a drawing on the same scale is called by its manufacturers the +"shadowless drafting table." The essential features of this table are +a wooden box inclosing strong incandescent lights and bearing a +ground-glass top. A drawing placed on the ground glass can be so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +illuminated as to make its lines conspicuous and readily traceable +even through relatively thick paper. The table is particularly useful +for tracing sheets upon, which the lines are indistinct and would +not be discernible under tracing paper with reflected light. It is also +useful in preparing drawings in which certain features must register +perfectly over each other. In fact any drawing that does not require +enlarging or reducing can be traced with great facility by the use +of this drafting table, and it is particularly useful for tracing faint +lines on old and poorly preserved prints or drawings.</p> + +<p>Such a table has been installed in the section of illustrations, where +it can be used by authors and others.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES.</p> + +<p class="caption4">RELIEF.</p> + +<p>The effect of relief is expressed on a map by three methods—by +contours, by hachures, and by shading. (See <a href="#Figure_6">fig. 6</a>.) The first +method does not give pronounced pictorial expression of relief, +though it gives correct shape and exact elevation; the others are mow +pictorial, but they do not give exact elevation.</p> + +<p><i>Contours.</i>—As contoured maps are originally prepared from actual +surveys the draftsman should simply follow the copy furnished by +the topographer or such original matter as may be given to him for +redrawing. If the area mapped is large and the contours are close +together the original may be transferred by celluloid tracing (see +<a href="#Page_47">p. 47</a>), or it may be transferred by tracing with graphite-coated +paper (see <a href="#Page_46">p. 46</a>). After the contour lines have been transferred +they should be traced in ink, in lines of even thickness, except those +that represent certain fixed intervals and are to be numbered, which +should be made slightly thicker. (See <a href="#Figure_6">fig. 6, A</a>.) In drawing these +lines some draftsmen use an ordinary ruling pen, others the swivel +pen; but considerable practice is required in the use of either before +it can be controlled to follow precisely the penciled lines. Still +other draftsmen use the Shepard pen or an ordinary drawing pen. +The swivel pen, if expertly handled, produces a firm and even line.</p> + +<p>Italic numbers should be used to indicate the elevation of a contour +and should be placed in an opening in the line, never between +lines. Where the lines run close together great care should be taken +that they do not touch unless the interspaces are so narrow that they +must touch and combine. The lines should be firm and even, and if +the copy or original map shows that they are uniformly very close +together it should be enlarged before the tracing is made in order to +give more freedom in drawing; but if the enlarged map is to be +much reduced care should be taken to make the lines proportionate +to the reduction. A photo-engraving of a map on which the contour +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +lines are drawn very close together is likely to be unsatisfactory because, +though the spaces between the lines are reduced in width, the +lines themselves may show no corresponding reduction in thickness.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 379px;"> +<a name="Figure_6" id="Figure_6"></a> +<a href="images/figure06_lrg.png"><img src="images/figure06.png" width="379" height="525" alt="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Figure 6.—Methods of expressing relief: (A) by contour lines, (B) by hachures, (C) by +shading on stipple board, and (D) by a brush drawing. The four examples given represent +the same area. The drawings were made twice the size of the printed cuts.</span> +</div> + +<p>Certain contour lines are commonly accentuated on a map, generally +every fourth or fifth line—that is, for a 10-foot interval every +50-foot line, for a 20-foot interval every 100-foot line, for a 25-foot +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +interval every 100-foot line, for a 50-foot interval every 250-foot line, +and for a 100-foot interval every 500-foot line.</p> + +<p><i>Hachuring.</i>—The effect of relief can be produced satisfactorily by +hachuring but only by a draftsman who has had considerable well-directed +practice in that kind of drawing. In a hachured map the +light should seem to come from the west or northwest—that is, the +darker parts should be on the east or southeast side of an elevation +and the lighter parts on the west or northwest The highest elevation +should be represented by the darkest shade on the right and by +a corresponding high light on the left. The hachuring should begin +at the crest of a peak, range, or butte and be worked downward +toward the gentler slopes, the lines being drawn farther apart and +made thinner until the floor of the valley is reached and the effect of +shadow is lost by fewer and lighter lines. On a hachured map that +is made from a contoured map somewhat definite differences of +elevation may be indicated by the intervals between the strokes, and +abrupt changes in slope may be indicated by shorter and heavier +lines. The strokes should be disjointed, and they should trend at +right angles to the upper margin of a cliff and should radiate from +a peak. <a href="#Figure_6">Figure 6, B</a>, represents satisfactory hachuring.</p> + +<p><i>Hill shading.</i>—Relief is more easily expressed by shading than by +hachuring. (See <a href="#Figure_6">fig. 6, C, D</a>.) The draftsman can best express it +by this means after he has studied contoured maps or photographs +of the region mapped, if they are available, in order that he may +obtain an idea of the details of its topography.</p> + +<p>The special means used to produce hill shading will depend on +the character of surface of the paper on which the drawing is to be +made, the size of the map, the amount of detail and refinement of +execution desired, and the amount of reduction to be made in reproducing +the drawing. For maps on which it is desired to show +some refinement of drawing and detail, a lithographic or wax crayon +can be used on paper which has a grained surface. The draftsman +must express relief according to the information he has at hand, +whether detailed or general, and must employ methods that accord +with the purpose of the map and the mode of reproduction selected. +If a shaded relief map is to be prepared for direct reproduction by +photolithography and the shading is to be printed in a separate +color the base map should be completed first and a light photographic +or blue print obtained on which to add the relief in black +lithographic crayon, to insure perfect fitting of the relief and the +base; or the relief can be prepared on an oversheet—a semitransparent +white paper with sufficient "tooth" or grain to cut the shading +up into minute dots. The shadowless drafting table (see <a href="#Page_47">p. 47</a>) +is especially useful for this purpose. On this oversheet register +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +marks should be placed at the four comers and at several other points, +particularly at the intersection of parallels and meridians.</p> + +<p>For relief shading on small black and white maps Ross's hand-stipple +drawing paper may be used. (See <a href="#Page_24">p. 24</a>.) By rubbing a +black wax crayon or pencil over the surface of the paper the desired +effect is produced in fine dots or in stipple, which may be varied +in density of shade at the will of the draftsman. (See <a href="#Figure_6">fig. 6, C</a>.) +High lights can be produced by scraping away the chalky surface of +the paper. A lithographic or wax crayon is the best medium to use +on this stipple paper, as on the paper referred to in the preceding +paragraph, for the shading produced by it is not so easily smeared +as that produced in pastel or by a graphite pencil. The object of +using either the rough paper or Boss's stipple paper for drawings +that are to be reproduced by photo-engraving is to produce a shading +that is broken up into dots of varying sizes, which is essential in such +reproduction.</p> + +<p>Belief shading for maps can also be made with a brush in flat +washes of either india ink or lampblack. Such shading should be +made only over a blue print or an impression of some kind from the +map upon which the shading or relief is to be overprinted. If the +relief is expressed on the author's original by contours the general +shapes of the relief and the drainage lines can be traced and transferred +lightly in blue lines to form a base on which to model the +shading and at the same time to make the shading fit the streams. +Such a drawing can be photographed through a screen and reproduced +by half tone (see <a href="#Figure_6">fig. 6, D</a>) or mezzotint as a separate plate +made to overprint the map in another color.</p> + +<p class="caption4">HYDROGRAPHY.</p> + +<p><i>General directions.</i>—The drainage features of a map should be so +drawn as to suggest the natural courses of the streams. Streams +should not be drawn in straight, hard lines, as such lines are decidedly +unnatural and produce a crude effect. The course of a river +may be straight in general, but it is likely to be somewhat sinuous in +detail. If the streams shown on a preliminary map are drawn in a +clumsy or characterless fashion they should be redrawn with a +freehand effect or made slightly wavy, in order that they may +appear more natural. The gradual widening of streams from source +to mouth should also be shown in the drawing. On small-scale maps, +where the eye can at once see a stream through its full length, this +almost imperceptible widening can be expressed by a line of almost +uniform weight except for the stretch near the source, where it should +grow thinner and taper off. On maps which are to be reproduced +directly from drawings in black and white and which are to show +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +both contour lines and drainage the lines representing the streams +and other water bodies should generally be drawn freehand and +slightly heavier than the contour lines, which should be sharper and +more precise.</p> + +<p>The names of all streams or other bodies of water should be in +italic letters, those of the larger streams being lettered in capitals +and those of the smaller streams in capitals and lower-case letters. +(See "Lettering," <a href="#LETTERING">p. 53</a>.)</p> + +<p><i>Water lining.</i>—The use of water lining on black and white maps +should be limited to maps on which the water areas are not readily +distinguishable from the land areas. In rough drawings that are to +serve only as copy for engravers a flat color may be used for water +areas and its conversion into water lines specified. In base maps to +be reproduced in three colors a light-blue tint may be used in lieu +of water lining, and it can be printed either flat or in a fine ruling +transferred to the stone that is to print the drainage. The engraving +of water lines is expensive, and the flat blue color should generally be +preferred.</p> + +<p>Water lining usually consists of 30 to 45 lines on engraved or +large maps, but on small maps and sketch maps the number may +be reduced as desired. Care should be taken that the lines are as +nearly parallel as they can be made freehand and of even weight +or thickness. The first three to six lines outside the coast line should +be somewhat closer together than those farther out and should conform +closely to the coast line, but the spacing between the lines should +increase and the lines should become almost imperceptibly less conformable +to the coast line as they reach their outer limit, the last +three to six being made with the greatest care and refinement. +Water-lined maps that are to be reproduced by photographic processes +should be drawn at least twice publication size. The reduction will +bring the lines closer together, and the reproduction will show a more +refined effect than could possibly be produced by the most skillful +drawing.</p> + +<p>Good examples of water lining, such as are shown on the topographic +atlas sheets of the Survey, should be studied by draftsmen +before they undertake such work.</p> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_IV" id="Plate_IV"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE IV</div> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 643px;"> +<img src="images/plate_iv_a.png" width="643" height="567" style="position:relative; top:4px;" alt="" /> +<img src="images/plate_iv_b.png" width="643" height="567" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="captionbm">SYMBOLS USED ON BASE MAPS</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption3">CULTURAL FEATURES.</p> + +<p>The cultural features represented on a map include "the works of +man"—not only cities, towns, buildings, bridges, railroads, and other +roads, but State, county, and other boundary lines—in short, all that +part of a three-color base map which is shown in black, the engraved +plate for the black being called the culture plate. The features named +in the list below are the cultural features referred to. (See <a href="#Plate_IV">Pl. IV</a> +for corresponding symbols.)</p> + +<table style="width:80%" summary="Cultural Features"> +<tr> + <td>Aqueduct mains.<br /> + Aqueduct tunnels.<br /> + Bench marks.<br /> + Boundary Lines.<br /> + Boundary monuments.<br /> + Breakwaters.<br /> + Bridges.<br /> + Buildings.<br /> + Cable Lines.<br /> + Camps.<br /> + Canal locks.<br /> + Canals.<br /> + Cemeteries.<br /> + Churches.<br /> + Cities.<br /> + County lines.<br /> + Dams.<br /> + District lines.<br /> + Ditches.<br /> + Electric power lines.<br /> + Fences.<br /> + Ferries.<br /> + Fords.<br /> + Gas wells.<br /> + Hedges.</td> + <td class="vtop">Hospitals.<br /> + Jetties.<br /> + Land-grant lines.<br /> + Land-section Lines.<br /> + Levees.<br /> + Mains.<br /> + Mineral monuments.<br /> + Mine tunnels.<br /> + Mines.<br /> + National forests.<br /> + National parks.<br /> + Oil tanks.<br /> + Oil wells.<br /> + Open cuts.<br /> + Park boundaries.<br /> + Paths.<br /> + Pits.<br /> + Post offices.<br /> + Precinct lines.<br /> + Prospects.<br /> + Province lines.<br /> + Quarries.<br /> + Quarter-section lines.<br /> + Railroads, steam or electric.</td> + <td class="vtop">Ranches.<br /> + Reservation boundaries.<br /> + Reservoirs.<br /> + Roads.<br /> + Ruins.<br /> + Schoolhouses.<br /> + Section comers.<br /> + Section Lines.<br /> + Settlements.<br /> + Shafts.<br /> + Streets.<br /> + Telegraph Lines.<br /> + Towns.<br /> + Township comers.<br /> + Townships.<br /> + Trails.<br /> + Tramways.<br /> + Triangulation stations.<br /> + Tunnels.<br /> + Villages.<br /> + Water mains.<br /> + Water wells.<br /> + Waterworks.<br /> + Windmills.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p class="caption3"><a name="LETTERING" id="LETTERING"></a>LETTERING.</p> + +<p class="caption4">GENERAL DIRECTIONS.</p> + +<p>The cultural features are named on maps by letters of two distinct +styles—slanting gothic for public works and roman for habitations +and civil divisions. The size of the letters used should indicate in a +general way the relative importance of the feature or group to which +they are applied, but on some maps the county seats, State capitals, +and large cities may be distinguished by different symbols. The +names of civil divisions are lettered in sizes depending on their +relative grade and the size of the area or space in which the names +are to appear.</p> + +<p>The features shown on a topographic map may be broadly separated +into four groups and are lettered as follows:</p> + +<p>Civil divisions (countries, States, counties, townships, land grants, +reservations, cities, towns, villages, settlements, schools, lodges, +ranches, etc.), roman capitals or capitals and lower case.</p> + +<p>Public works (railroads, tunnels, roads, canals, ferries, bridges, +fords, dams, mains, mines, forts, trails, etc.), slanting gothic capitals +(light) or capitals and lower case.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> + +<p>Hydrographic features (oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, lakes, ponds, +rivers, creeks, brooks, springs, wells, falls, rapids, marshes, glaciers, +etc.), italic capitals or capitals and lower case.</p> + +<p>Hypsographic features (mountains, ranges, peaks, plateaus, cliffs, +buttes, canyons, valleys, peninsulas, islands, capes, etc.), upright +gothic capitals (light) or capitals and lower case.</p> + +<p>The essential principles of lettering have been described in numerous +treatises and are well understood by most draftsmen. The correct +form of each letter may be learned from such treatises, but spacing +and arrangement are best learned by observation and experience. +Good lettering will not strongly attract attention, but even slight +imperfections of form, spacing, slant, and shading will be quickly +detected and criticized. Map letterers should note that the name of +a place or the number of a symbol should be put to the right of the +symbol if possible and a little above or below it—not to the left and +directly on a line with it, as Tucson<b>o</b>, 17<b>o</b>, Dallas<b>o</b>, Carson<b>o</b>. Names +indicating large areas, if written from west to east, should curve with +the parallels, and all names should be so lettered that "if they should +fall they would fall on their feet." Every name should be distinctly +legible but not so conspicuous as to subordinate the feature it designates. +Lines should therefore not be broken in order to make the +lettering clear except where there is possible danger that the smaller +spaces may be filled up in printing. The lettering on a map should +always be so spaced that it will properly fit the area it is intended +to designate. In names consisting of two or more words the letters +should not be closely spaced if wide spaces are left between the words. +In numbers, except those used to indicate elevations on contour Lines +or elsewhere, thousands should always be set off by commas.</p> + +<p>Draftsmen often draw bad forms for commas, quotation marks, +apostrophes, and question marks. The following forms are correct: +Comma , ; quotation marks "" ; apostrophe ' ; question mark ? .</p> + +<p class="caption4">LETTERING BY TYPE.</p> + +<p>Names and short notes printed from type on paper, to be cut out +and pasted in proper positions on maps or other drawings, now furnish +a large proportion of the lettering on the Survey's illustrations. +The strips are likely to become detached by the repeated handling +of a drawing, however, unless they are securely pasted on. The best +results can be obtained by having the type printed on a special brand +of "noncurling" gummed paper, from which the lettering is cut +in squares or strips, which are dampened and applied to the proper +places on the drawing. In handling such strips a pair of dentist's +tweezers is useful. When mucilage is applied to printed strips of +ordinary paper the moisture causes the paper to warp or curl, often +so much as to affect the reproduction of the drawing. This printed +lettering is generally used, however, only for headings, titles, notes, +and other matter that stands alone; it should not be used for the +geographic names in the body of a map unless only a few names are +to appear, for the strips of paper bearing the names may obscure +parts of the map. The reproduction of this lettering by photo-engraving +or photolithography gives results superior to those obtained +from hand lettering unless each letter is made with the utmost +care, work which is considered a waste of time.</p> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_V" id="Plate_V"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE V</div> + +<a href="images/plate_v_lrg.png"><img src="images/plate_v.png" width="385" height="624" alt="" /></a> +<p class="center smaller" style="color:#808080;">Click on image to view larger size.</p> + +<p class="captionbm">REDUCTION SHEET USED IN LETTERING ILLUSTRATIONS.<br /> +<br /> +The largest size shows the letters unreduced; the other sizes show the letters +reduced as indicated in the margin.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> + +<p>Type is used also for printing lettering directly on a drawing +exactly in proper position, by a special type holder, somewhat like +a self-inking stamp.</p> + +<p>Most of the styles and sizes of type now used on maps in the Survey's +reports are shown in <a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>.</p> + +<p>If a drawing is to be reduced one-half the smallest type used +should be about 2 millimeters in height; if it is to be reduced one-third +the smallest type used should be about 1.5 millimeters in +height; and so on. No letter whose vertical height after reproduction +would be less than about 1 millimeter should be used, and the +larger lettering should bear a proper relation to the smaller. Sheets +showing the styles of type in use by the Survey, in full size and reduced +one-fourth, one-third, two-fifths, one-half, three-fifths, two-thirds, +and three-fourths, will be furnished on request. If a drawing +is to be reduced one-half, for example, the sheet that has been +reduced one-half will show the size of the lettering on the printed +plate, so that the draftsman, by referring to the sheet showing the +reduction he desires, can select type of a size that will be legible. +<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a> shows a part of this reduction sheet.</p> + +<p class="caption4">ABBREVIATIONS.</p> + +<p>The following are the correct forms for abbreviations used on +maps and other illustrations:</p> + +<table style="width:80%" summary="Abbreviations"> +<tr> + <td class="vtop"> + <table summary="Abbrev1"> + <tr> + <td>A</td> + <td>Arroyo</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>B. M</td> + <td>Bench mark</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Bdy</td> + <td>Boundary</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Br</td> + <td>Branch, bridge</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>C</td> + <td>Cape</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Can</td> + <td>Canal, canyon</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cem</td> + <td>Cemetery</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Co</td> + <td>County</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cr</td> + <td>Creek</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>E</td> + <td>East</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>El</td> + <td>Elevation</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Est</td> + <td>Estuary</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Fk</td> + <td>Fork</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ft</td> + <td>Fort, foot</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Gl</td> + <td>Gulch, glacier</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Hrb</td> + <td>Harbor</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>I</td> + <td>Island</td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> + <td class="vtop"> + <table summary="Abrev2"> + <tr> + <td>Is</td> + <td>Islands</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Jc</td> + <td>Junction</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>L</td> + <td>Lake</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Lat</td> + <td>Latitude</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ldg</td> + <td>Landing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>L. S. S</td> + <td>Life-saving station</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>L. H</td> + <td>Lighthouse</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Long</td> + <td>Longitude</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>M. P</td> + <td>Milepost</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>M. M</td> + <td>Mineral monument</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Mt</td> + <td>Mount</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Mtn</td> + <td>Mountain</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Mts</td> + <td>Mountains</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>N</td> + <td>North</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Pen</td> + <td>Peninsula</td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> + <td class="vtop"> + <table summary="Abbrev1"> + <tr> + <td>Pk</td> + <td>Peak</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>P. O</td> + <td>Post office</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Pt</td> + <td>Point</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>R</td> + <td>Range, river</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Res</td> + <td>Reservation, reservoir</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>R. H</td> + <td>Road house</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>S</td> + <td>South</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sd</td> + <td>Sound</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>S. H</td> + <td>Schoolhouse</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Sta</td> + <td>Station</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Str</td> + <td>Stream</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>T</td> + <td>Township</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Tel</td> + <td>Telegraph</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>W</td> + <td>West.</td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> + +<p>Words like mount, river, point should not be abbreviated where they +form a part of the name of a city or town, as Rocky Mount, Fall +River, West Point. Neither the word nor the abbreviation for railroad +or railway should be placed on a map; the chartered name (or +initials of the name) and the road symbol are sufficient.</p> + +<p>Names of States and Territories should be abbreviated, where +abbreviation is necessary, as follows:</p> + +<table style="width:50%" summary="States"> +<tr> + <td>Ala.</td> + <td>Ga.</td> + <td>Minn.</td> + <td>N. J.</td> + <td>Tenn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ariz.</td> + <td>Ill.</td> + <td>Miss.</td> + <td>N. Mex.</td> + <td>Tex.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ark.</td> + <td>Ind.</td> + <td>Mo.</td> + <td>N. Y.</td> + <td>Va.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Calif.</td> + <td>Kans.</td> + <td>Mont.</td> + <td>Okla.</td> + <td>Vt.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Colo.</td> + <td>Ky.</td> + <td>Nebr.</td> + <td>Oreg.</td> + <td>Wash.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Conn.</td> + <td>La.</td> + <td>Nev.</td> + <td>Pa.</td> + <td>W. Va.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>D. C.</td> + <td>Mass.</td> + <td>N. C.</td> + <td>R. I.</td> + <td>Wis.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Del.</td> + <td>Md.</td> + <td>N. Dak.</td> + <td>S. C.</td> + <td>Wyo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fla.</td> + <td>Mich.</td> + <td>N. H.</td> + <td>S. Dak.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Alaska, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Samoa, and +Utah should be written in full.</p> + +<p>The abbreviations used on the margins of maps for subdivisions +of land should be as follows (note punctuation): T. 2 N., E. 3 W. +On large-scale plats the marginal lettering should be as follows: +N. <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> NE. <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> sec. 1, T. 7 N., K 2 W.; fractional secs. 2 and 35, Tps. +7 and 8 N., R. 2 W.; NW. <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> sec. 20, T, 7 N., R. 2 W. In spelling +fractions use half and quarter, not one-half and one-quarter.</p> + +<p>The abbreviated forms of such names as North Fork and South +Fork should be N. Fork and S. Fork, not North Fk. and South Fk.</p> + +<p>Additional abbreviations used on illustrations are as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>N. for north, NE. for northeast, NNE. for north-northeast, etc. Capitalize +directions affixed to street names, as NW., SE. (1800 F St. NW.).</p> + +<p>Sec. and secs. for section and sections before a number. Capitalize only at the +beginning of a line or sentence.</p> + +<p>a. m. and p. m. for antemeridian and postmeridian, as 4.30 p. m. Lower-case +unless in line of caps.</p> + +<p>& in names of corporations or companies. On Survey miscellaneous maps +"and" is spelled out in railroad names.</p> + +<p>B. t. u. for British thermal units.</p> + +<p>bbl., bbls. for barrel, barrels.</p> + +<p>bu. for bushel or bushels.</p> + +<p>c. c. for cubic centimeter.</p> + +<p>cm. for centimeter.</p> + +<p>cwt. for hundredweight.</p> + +<p>dwt. or pwt. for pennyweight</p> + +<p>oz. for ounce or ounces.</p> + +<p>etc. (not &c.) for et cetera.</p> + +<p>ft. for foot or feet.</p> + +<p>H. m. s. for hours, minutes, and seconds. (Use capital H.)</p> + +<p>in. for inch or inches.</p> + +<p>kw. for kilowatt or kilowatts.</p> + +<p>£ s. d. for pounds, shillings, and pence.</p> + +<p>per cent (omitting period) for per centum. Spell out percentage.</p> + +<p>ser. for series.</p> + +<p>St. for Saint or street</p> + +<p>U. S. Army for United States Army, as distinguished from United States of +America (U. S. A.).</p> + +<p>yd., yds. for yard, yards.</p></div> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_VI" id="Plate_VI"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE VI</div> + +<a href="images/plate_vi_lrg.png"><img src="images/plate_vi.png" width="367" height="601" alt="" /></a> +<p class="center smaller" style="color:#808080;">Click on image to view larger size.</p> + +<p class="captionbm">HALF-TONE CUTS SHOWING EFFECT OF SEVERAL STANDARD +SCREENS IN THE REPRODUCTION OF THE SAME DETAIL.</p> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + +<p>The names of certain months may in some places be abbreviated; +those of others should invariably be spelled out. The following are +the correct forms:</p> + +<table style="width:40%" summary="Months"> +<tr> + <td>Jan.</td> + <td>Apr.</td> + <td>July</td> + <td>Oct.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Feb.</td> + <td>May</td> + <td>Aug.</td> + <td>Nov.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Mar.</td> + <td>June</td> + <td>Sept</td> + <td>Dec.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The abbreviations for number and numbers before figures are No. +and Nos. The o should never be raised, as in N<sup>o</sup>. The abbreviation +for Mac is Mc, not M<sup>c</sup>.</p> + +<p>All periods should be omitted from abbreviations used in the body +of a map unless their omission would cause misunderstanding. They +are generally unnecessary, and if used on some maps they are likely +to be mistaken for symbols representing certain features, such as +houses or flowing wells, if either is shown. Periods used on drawings +that are to be reproduced "direct" or photomechanically should +always be slightly exaggerated.</p> + +<p class="caption4">NAMES OF RAILROADS.</p> + +<p>The names of railroads may be written in full or abbreviated, in +accordance with the kind of map and the space available. On a +sketch map in black and white the initial letters are generally sufficient. +On a more detailed map, if there is room enough, the names +may be spelled out. As already stated, neither the words "railroad" +and "railway" nor the abbreviations R. R. and Ry. should be used +on a map.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">MAKE-UP OF MAPS.</p> + +<p class="caption4">FORMS FOR CERTAIN FEATURES.</p> + +<p>The proper forms for certain features of maps, such as the borders, +titles, explanations, bar scales, captions, arrows indicating true north +and magnetic declination, source, and authorship, are shown in +<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>. Note particularly the style and position of the marginal +matter.</p> + +<p class="caption4">BORDER.</p> + +<p>A finished map border is used or omitted according to the kind +of map prepared. Diagrammatic maps and maps on which no parallels +and meridians appear do not need finished borders. On a map +that shows complete areal geologic or other coloring, such as a map +in a Survey geologic folio, the border lines tend to destroy the simple +effect of the whole map. On a map that is not completely colored +and on all very large maps borders are really necessary. If borders +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +are used, however, the space between the neat line and the outer line +of the border should be only sufficient to provide proper space for +the numbers showing latitude and longitude or township and range. +A simple rule<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> for determining the width of this space is as follows: +Divide the sum of the dimensions of the map by 2 and find the +square root of the quotient, which will represent the width of the +border in sixteenths of an inch. Example: Map is 20 by 30 inches; +(20 + 30)/2 = 25; square root of 25 = 5; width of border = <sup>5</sup>/<sub>16</sub> inch.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Worked out by Martin Solem, of the U. S. Geological Survey.</p></div> + +<p>The numbers showing latitude and longitude should be in shaded +arabic numerals and those showing township and range in gothic. +The symbols for degree, minute, and second should not be crowded. +On a map that has no added border lines the numbers should be in +hair-line gothic.</p> + +<p class="caption4">TITLE.</p> + +<p>The title of a map should be in roman letters and if placed at the +lower margin should generally be arranged in two lines, unless it +is short. If it forms two or more lines the lines should be well balanced. +The first line should describe the position of the area; the +second line should state the purpose of the map, as</p> + +<p class="caption3">MAP OF BUTTE AND VICINITY, MONTANA<br /> +<span class="smaller">SHOWING LOCATION OF MINES AND PROSPECTS.</span></p> + +<p>A title placed inside the border of a map should be arranged in +a series of lines, generally beginning with "Map of" or "Geologic +map of." and the line showing the dominant part of the title should +be emphasized by larger lettering, thus:</p> + +<p class="caption3" style="line-height:1.25em;"><span class="smaller">MAP OF</span><br /> +THE VICINITY OF BUTTE<br /> +MONTANA<br /> +<span class="smaller">SHOWING LOCATION OF MINES AND PROSPECTS.</span></p> + +<p>The name of the author or compiler of a map or of the person +supplying the geologic or other data shown on it may be placed either +beneath the title or in the lower right corner, just below the border +line, and the names of the topographers or the source of the base +should be stated in the lower left corner, just below the border line. +If the title is placed inside the border all notes giving credit for +any part or features of the map may be placed beneath the title or +scale. (See <a href="#Plate_VII">PI. VII</a>.)</p> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_VII" id="Plate_VII"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE VII</div> + +<a href="images/plate_vii_lrg.png"><img src="images/plate_vii.png" width="407" height="695" alt="" /></a> +<p class="center smaller" style="color:#808080;">Click on image to view larger size.</p> + +<p class="captionbm">DETAILS OF THE MAKE-UP OF A GEOLOGIC MAP</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption4">EXPLANATION.</p> + +<p>The symbols, patterns, or colors used on a map should be given in +a series of rectangles or "boxes," accompanied by explanatory +terms in the form shown in <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, headed "Explanation." If +the explanation is small a convenient place for it on some maps +may be found within the neat lines. If no space is available there, +or if it is so large that there is not room to place it there without +obscuring other details, it may be placed either vertically along +the right margin, as shown in <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, or horizontally under the +title. A geologic explanation should preferably be arranged vertically, +as in <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, so as to show the relative age of the formations +by the positions of the boxes. This explanation should be +carefully worked out in pencil by the draftsman and approved by +the committee on geologic names before it is drawn in ink, in order +to save time in making corrections.</p> + +<p>In lettering the explanation roman letters or type should be used +for the titles under the boxes and italic of smaller size for the subtitles +or descriptive detail, which should be inclosed in parentheses. +The names of geologic periods and systems should be in gothic capitals, +the names of series or groups should be in italic lower case, and +the limit of each period, system, or group should be indicated by +braces. The general style and arrangement shown in the Survey's +geologic folios should be followed, and this and the arrangement of +other matter is shown in <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>. Care should be taken not to crowd +the explanation, and if corrections are necessary they should be so +made that each line of the matter in which they appear will be properly +spaced.</p> + +<p>The explanation for a map that is to be engraved or to be reproduced +by lithography need only be sketched in to show general style +and arrangement. The engraver or the lithographer will supply +such matter in proper form according to specifications. For direct +reproduction, however, as by photolithography or zinc etching, the +lettering must either be carefully drawn with pen or printed from +type on slips, which are pasted on the drawing.</p> + +<p class="caption4">GRAPHIC SCALES FOR MAPS.</p> + +<p>A bar scale for miles or feet should be given on every map, and if +the map is of international interest the metric scale should be given +just beneath the scale of miles or feet. The accepted designs for +these scales are shown in <a href="#Figure_7">figure 7</a>. The scale should be accompanied +W any necessary statement pertaining to the base map, such as "Contour +interval 20 feet," "Datum is mean sea level." The fractional +scale (<img src="images/scale.png" width="43" height="27" style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;" alt="1/250,000" />, +for example) should be given on all except the more +simple kinds of maps, and the date of publication should also +appear just below the scale or scales. The single-line bar scale +should be used only on small or simple maps. The length of +the bar scale must depend on the size of the map and the space +available. Those shown in <a href="#Figure_7">figure 7</a> were made over blue prints from +scales used by the Survey.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> + +<p>To make a bar scale for a map of unknown scale that shows only +a single meridian and parallel, or for a map on which no meridians +or parallels are shown, first ascertain the distance between two +points shown on the map by +reference to other authentic +maps. If, for example, the +distance between two such +points is 16.315 miles draw +a horizontal line (<i>a</i> in <a href="#Figure_8">fig. 8</a>) +representing this distance on the map, and at +its end, at right angles +to it, draw another line (<i>b</i>) +actually measuring 16.315 +units of any convenient denomination. +Draw a +straight line (c) diagonally +between the ends of lines +<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. Then set off on line +<i>b</i> any convenient number +of the units selected, say 5 +or 10, and project from the +points set off lines exactly +parallel with line <i>c</i> to line +<i>a</i>. The distance and the +number of the units thus +marked on line a will indicate the number of miles covered by that +distance on the map, as shown in <a href="#Figure_8">figure 8</a>.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 493px;"> +<a name="Figure_7" id="Figure_7"></a> +<img src="images/figure07.png" width="493" height="337" alt="" /> +<span class="caption">Figure 7.—Designs for bar scales.</span> +</div> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 286px;"> +<a name="Figure_8" id="Figure_8"></a> +<img src="images/figure08.png" width="286" height="397" alt="" /> +<span class="caption">Figure 8.—Method of making a bar scale for a +map of unknown scale.</span> +</div> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_VIII" id="Plate_VIII"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE VIII</div> + +<img src="images/plate_viii_a.png" width="639" height="601" alt="" /> +<img src="images/plate_viii_b.png" width="639" height="501" alt="" /> + +<p class="captionbm">PATTERNS USED TO SHOW DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN +AREAS ON BLACK AND WHITE MAPS<br /> +<br /> +Contrasts may be increased by varying the direction +and spacing of Lines</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption4">SYMBOLS.</p> + +<p>Symbols should be drawn with as much care as letters, though to +a critic they may not appear so bad as poor lettering unless he finds +them glaringly large or so small that he can discover or identify them +only with difficulty. The size of a symbol must depend on its importance +on the map bearing it. On a map that shows numerous +mines, for instance, the crossed hammers or the symbols for shafts +should be not only visible but conspicuous. The draftsman who is to +make such a map must know beforehand how much his drawing will +be reduced in reproduction and must make the symbols in proportion +to the reduction. The symbols shown in <a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a> +(<a href="#Plate_II">p. 20</a>) should be +used in all the Survey's illustrations where they are appropriate.</p> + +<p class="caption4">AREAL PATTERNS FOR BLACK AND WHITE MAPS.</p> + +<p>The conventional patterns used on a map to distinguish separate +areas, chiefly geologic, are shown in <a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>. The patterns shown +represent the proper combinations of lines, dots, and other forms and +should be spaced openly or closely according to the size of the area +covered, the contrast needed between areas, and the general clearness +and effect desired. If a map is to show both small and large areas +dense or closely spaced patterns should generally be used for the +smaller areas, even if they may be required for some fairly large areas +representing the same formation or condition. On the other hand, +open patterns should be used for large areas. Again, it may be necessary +to make certain areas more conspicuous than others, and this +effect can be best produced by drawing the lines closer together rather +than by making them heavier, unless the area covered is small or unless +a closely spaced similar pattern has been or will be used elsewhere +on the map. Heavy-line patterns or bars are not desirable. +The lines forming a pattern should generally be drawn at an angle of +45° to the sides of the map; they should be drawn vertically or horizontally +only in small areas or in areas not crossed by meridians or +parallels or by other lines running in the same direction. The lines +should preferably run across the long axis of an area, not parallel +to it, and the predominating trend or general direction of the areas +of one geologic formation on a map should decide the direction of +the lines for all areas of that formation on the same map, even if the +rule must be violated on some of the minor areas.</p> + +<p>An effort should always be made to produce a pattern that is +subordinate in strength to the main lines of the base map on which +it is drawn. In black and white maps, as in colored maps, unlike +patterns should be placed next to each other. If they are so placed +it may not be necessary to rule the lines on two adjacent areas in +opposite directions to produce needed distinctions. A section liner +or other ruling device should be used in drawing line patterns in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +order to produce uniformly even spacing. The application of six of +these conventional patterns to a base map is shown in <a href="#Figure_9">figure 9</a>.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 373px;"> +<a name="Figure_9" id="Figure_9"></a> +<a href="images/figure09_lrg.png"><img src="images/figure09.png" width="373" height="607" alt="" /></a> +<p class="center smaller" style="color:#808080;">Click on image to view larger size.</p> +<p class="caption">Figure 9.—Map bearing six areal line patterns.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption4">STANDARD COLORS FOR GEOLOGIC MAPS.</p> + +<p>The standard series of colors for systems of sedimentary rocks is +shown on the maps in the Survey's geologic folios but is subject to +modifications for use on maps in other Survey reports. Each system +is represented by a different color, and if there are two or more formations +in one system they are generally distinguished by using different +patterns composed of straight parallel lines in the same color. The +patterns for subaerial deposits (chiefly Quaternary) are composed of +dots or circles, or combinations of both, and may be printed in any +color, but the color most often used is yellow or ochraceous orange. +No specific colors are prescribed for igneous rocks, but if only a few +areas are shown red or pink is preferred. The colors used for igneous +rocks are generally more brilliant and purer than those used for sedimentary +rocks. For small areas they are used "solid"; for large areas +they are reduced in tone by the use of a suitable cross-line pattern or +"reticle." Metamorphic rocks are represented by short dashes irregularly +placed. These dashes may be in black or in color over a ground +tint or over an uncolored area, or they may be in white on a ground +tint or pattern. The standard colors used for the sedimentary series +covering the 12 systems recognized by the Geological Survey are: +Quaternary (<span class="x2">Q</span>), ochraceous orange; Tertiary (<span class="x2">T</span>), <i>yellow ocher</i> and +<i>isabella color</i>; Cretaceous (<span class="x2">K</span>), <i>olive-green</i> or <i>rainette-green</i>; Jurassic +(<span class="x2">J</span>), <i>blue-green</i> or <i>niagara-green</i>; Triassic (<img src="images/txt_tria.png" width="19" height="22" alt="TR" title="TR" style="position: relative; top:6px;" />), <i>light peacock-blue</i> +or <i>bluish gray-green</i>; Carboniferous (<span class="x2">C</span>), <i>blue</i> or <i>columibia-blue</i>; +Devonian (<span class="x2">D</span>), <i>gray-purple</i> or <i>heliotrope-gray</i>; Silurian (<span class="x2">S</span>), <i>purple</i> +or <i>argyle-purple</i>; Ordovician (<span class="x2">O</span>), <i>red-purple</i> or <i>rocellin-purple</i>; +Cambrian (<img src="images/txt_camb.png" width="16" height="16" alt="-C" title="-C" style="position: relative; top:4px;" />), <i>brick-red</i> or <i>etruscan red</i>; Algonkian (<span class="x2">A</span>), <i>terra cotta</i> +or <i>onion-skin pink</i>; Archean (<img src="images/txt_arch.png" width="19" height="15" alt="AR" title="AR" style="position: relative; top:4px;" />), <i>gray-brown</i> or <i>drab</i>.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Names printed in italic are from "Color standards and nomenclature," by Robert +Ridgway.</p></div> + +<p class="caption4">REDUCTION OF ENLARGEMENT OF MAPS.</p> + +<p>The following is the simplest and most accurate method of marking +the reduction or enlargement of a map to a selected scale: Measure +the distance between the extreme meridians along one of the +parallels. (See <a href="#Figure_10">fig. 10</a>.) Convert this distance into miles by multiplying +the number of degrees it covers (say 3) by the number of +miles in a degree. A degree on the forty-third parallel, for example, +is 50.669 miles,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which multiplied by 3 equals 152.007 miles. Then +draw a line on the margin of the map, outside the border, the exact +length of the 3 degrees, and just below this line draw another line +representing the same number of miles (152.007) on the scale to +which the map is to be reduced or enlarged. Then mark to reduce or +enlarge the upper line to the lower line, as shown in <a href="#Figure_10">figure 10</a>. A +long line will reduce error and give greater accuracy than a short +one, and therefore as great a distance should be set off as possible. +The number of miles represented by both lines and the fractional +scale to which it is to be reduced should be stated on the drawing, +for permanent record.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> +See U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 650, p. 37. 1916.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p></div> + +<p>Maps that will bear reduction without affecting the clearness of +the details they show may be reduced to fit the book in which they +are to appear, regardless of definite scale. The reduction for such +maps is best marked in fractions, as "<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> off," "<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> off," "<sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub> off." If +the size needed is not exactly represented by these fractions it should +be indicated in inches, as "Reduce this line to 7<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches," or "Reduce +to 4<sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub> inches in width."</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 535px;"> +<a name="Figure_10" id="Figure_10"></a> +<a href="images/figure10_lrg.png"><img src="images/figure10.png" width="535" height="193" alt="" /></a> +<p class="center smaller" style="color:#808080;">Click on image to view larger size.</p> +<p class="caption">Figure 10.—Diagram showing method of marking maps for reduction or enlargement +(for record).</p> +</div> + + +<p class="caption2">DIAGRAMS.</p> + +<p>In preparing a diagram a draftsman should endeavor to make its +parts and relations perfectly clear to the reader. He should study +the drawing or material furnished by the author until he fully understands +it and should endeavor to reproduce it simply and legibly. +Any lettering that may be needed should generally be in plain +upright or slanting gothic type (see <a href="#Plate_IX">Pl. IX</a>), or it may be in roman.</p> + +<p>A diagram should generally be drawn on bristol board or on blue-lined +section paper and should be marked for reduction to the +minimum size. It should bear no title, as the title will be set up in +type by the printer.</p> + + +<p class="caption2">SECTIONS.</p> + +<p>The sections used in geologic reports are of two widely different +kinds. One shows only the broader relations of parts; the other +shows details of structure as well as relations. One is diagrammatic; +the other is more realistic and graphic. The draftsman should prepare +all sections strictly according to the copy supplied by the author +but should use proper symbols and make a more finished drawing. +The various kinds of sections, most of them geologic, are described +on pages <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_30">30</a>, and the conventions used to express lithologic character +are shown in <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>.</p> + +<div class="center" style="width:100%; margin-top:1em;"><a name="Plate_IX" id="Plate_IX"></a> +<div class="captionlf">U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</div> +<div class="captionrt">PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE IX</div> + +<a href="images/plate_ix_lrg.png"><img src="images/plate_ix.png" width="410" height="689" alt="" /></a> + +<p class="captionbm">DIAGRAMS AND CURVES.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> + +<p>Detailed drawings of this kind, though entirely conventional, can +be so prepared as to give a satisfactory expression of nature. The +draftsman should study well-prepared sections in Geological Survey +reports and should learn the details of folding and faulting from +textbooks. He should first ascertain whether or not the vertical +scale in the original section has been unduly exaggerated, and if so +he should confer with the author with a view to reducing the exaggeration +as much as possible. He should submit to the author all +questions as to doubtful points, as well as all suggestions for improvement +in expression, before he makes any changes, and he should +make corrections only on the author's approval. A seeming inaccuracy +in an author's drawing may be a faithful representation of +natural conditions. For example, a formation that seems to be +omitted by inadvertence in drawing may really "pinch out" at a +point represented in the section. (See a on <a href="#Figure_11">fig. 11</a>.)</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 506px;"> +<a name="Figure_11" id="Figure_11"></a> +<a href="images/figure11_lrg.png"><img src="images/figure11.png" width="506" height="198" alt="" /></a> +<p class="center smaller" style="color:#808080;">Click on image to view larger size.</p> + +<p class="caption">Figure 11.—Structure section showing method of determining the secession of folds.</p> +</div> + +<p>Penciled lines corresponding to those shown by dots in <a href="#Figure_11">figure 11</a> +should be carefully added in redrawing a roughly sketched section +that shows complex folding. An original indefinite sketch that shows +complicated structure affords opportunities for error in preparing +the new drawing, and omissions may be detected by following the +formations as they would be continued above and below the section, +as shown by the dotted lines in the figure.</p> + + +<p class="caption2">PLANS AND CROSS SECTIONS OF MINES.</p> + +<p>Plans of mines, like diagrams, should not be elaborate, and their +lettering should be plain and legible, yet it should not be so conspicuous +as to obscure other details. Gothic letters should generally +be used, but some plans require different styles of lettering, especially +for geographic or other names that should be coordinate with +those on maps or other illustrations in the book. Unless there are +good reasons, however, for varying the styles of lettering, plain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +gothic capitals, or capitals and lower-case letters, either upright or +slanting, should be used. Abbreviations for the numbers of levels +should generally be given thus: 3d level, 6th level, 200-foot level, etc., +or the shorter terms may be spelled out, as third level, sixth level. +The same general scheme of lettering should be used on all plans and +cross sections that are to appear in one publication or in one series of +similar papers.</p> + +<p>The reduction of such drawings to the minimum scale consistent +with clearness is always advisable.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="DRAWINGS_OF_SPECIMENS" id="DRAWINGS_OF_SPECIMENS"></a> +DRAWINGS OF SPECIMENS OF ROCKS AND FOSSILS.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">METHODS USED.</p> + +<p>Drawings of specimens or other objects were once made with +brush and pencil or with pen and ink, by means of measurements +taken with dividers or by viewing the specimen through a camera +lucida. Each of these methods is still used, but by using the camera +lucida in sketching: the outlines and details more accurate proportions +and relations can be produced, whether the object is to be enlarged +or reduced, than by any other means except photography.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">BRUSH AND PENCIL DRAWINGS.</p> + +<p>In all drawings or photographs of specimens, except photomicrographs +of thin sections, the light should appear to come from the +upper left quarter. A disregard of the well-established rule that the +direction of illumination should be uniform throughout a series of +drawings would cause confusion or uncertainty in the interpretation +of the relief shown in them.</p> + +<p>Reynolds's three-ply and four-ply bristol board affords a satisfactory +surface for brush and pencil drawings. Its surface is smooth +and hard and, being free from coating of any kind, permits satisfactory +erasures without great injury; its color is pure whits; and it +is durable.</p> + +<p>Boss's relief hand-stipple paper is also well adapted to many kinds +of brush drawings as well as to its primary use for producing stippled +effects. Very delicate gradations of color or light and shade can be +produced on its surface with brush and lampblack or with india ink, +and high lights can be made by scraping off the chalky surface.</p> + +<p>The draftsman who is preparing brush and pencil drawings +should have first of all a knowledge of the principles of light and +shade, of reflected light, and (for drawing specimens) of shadow +perspective. He should also have delicacy of touch and ability to +see and interpret form and to reproduce the soft blending of light +and shade shown in a good photograph. He should be provided +with pencils equal in quality to the Koh-i-noor B, F, 4H, and 6H; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +the best quality of red sable brushes of the sizes of Winsor & Newton's +Nos. 3, 4, and 6; the best quality of stick india ink; a cake or pan of +lampblack; and a porcelain saucer or slab.</p> + +<p>In drawings of fossils and of some other specimens a combination +of pencil and brush work produces satisfactory results and tends to +increase speed. The gloss produced by penciling, however, is objectionable +and should be obviated by a preponderance of brush work. +Stick India ink is the best pigment to use in delicate wash drawings, +and lampblack is preferable for large work on which the softer +tones of the shading are not so important and for drawings that are to +be considerably reduced when engraved. Gouache (an opaque mixture +of Chinese white and lampblack) may also be used, but it is best +suited for large work.</p> + +<p>In making corrections on brush drawings the parts to be corrected +should be carefully washed out with a small short-cropped brush +and water and still further cleaned by using a rubber eraser over +an erasing shield or an opening cut in a piece of celluloid. Erasures +should not be made on delicate work with a knife or a sand rubber, +as either will injure the surface and affect reproduction. In measuring +a specimen with dividers the draftsman should be careful not +to injure the specimen or to puncture the paper on which he is preparing +the drawing.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">PEN DRAWINGS.</p> + +<p>A draftsman who is preparing drawings of specimens with pen +and ink should have a good assortment of pens equal to Gillott's Nos. +291, 290, and 170, liquid waterproof ink equal to that manufactured +by Higgins, good pencils, hard and soft rubber erasures, plain dividers, +and Reynolds's bristol board. A glass eraser is also useful.</p> + +<p>Good pen drawings of specimens are much more difficult to make +than brush drawings. They can be prepared only by a draftsman +who has had some artistic training and experience in pen work. Few +draftsmen can prepare pen drawings that faithfully represent both +the detail and the texture of specimens; the shading on many such +drawings confuses and destroys both detail and texture.</p> + +<p>The pencil sketch over which a pen drawing of a specimen should +be made must be prepared in much the same manner as the sketch +for a brush drawing, though the outlines need not be so delicate. +This sketch is generally made on bristol board. The pen work +should begin with the outlines and should then be carried to the details, +and finally to the shading, whether in lines or stipple. The +texture of a specimen is the best key to the proper shading. If the +specimen is decidedly granular, stippling is appropriate; if it is +smooth or polished, finely drawn parallel lines, varied in spacing and +character according to depth of shade and texture, are preferable. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +Erasures can be made with a hard-rubber eraser, other parts being +protected by a shield, or with a very sharp knife or a glass eraser, and +the parts erased can be resurfaced with an agate burnisher.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="RETOUCHING_PHOTOGRAPHS_OF_SPECIMENS" id="RETOUCHING_PHOTOGRAPHS_OF_SPECIMENS"></a>RETOUCHING PHOTOGRAPHS OF SPECIMENS.</p> + + +<p>Photographs of specimens, particularly fossils that have been +coated to destroy local color, should be printed on velox paper, in +a tone somewhat lighter than that of ordinary photographs. The details +and relief should, however, be strong enough to enable the +draftsman to see them clearly, so that by retouching them and +strengthening the shadows and high lights he can make them sufficiently +strong for reproduction. This he can do by a combination of +pencil and brush work, the pencil being used sparingly because the +gloss produced by the graphite is likely to affect reproduction. A +No. 3 Winsor & Newton's red sable brush and lampblack are preferable +for the greater part of this work, and a 4H and a 6H pencil for the +fine details and as a possible aid in producing the finer gradations +of shading. The details should be retouched or strengthened under a +reading glass to insure accuracy; the broader effects can be best produced +without the aid of a magnifier.</p> + +<p>Erasures on photographs of specimens should be made very carefully +with a hard rubber that is free from sand, and the parts not to +be disturbed should be protected with a shield. High lights may be +added by carefully scraping or rubbing the surface of the paper.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="LANDSCAPE_DRAWINGS_FROM_POOR_PHOTOGRAPHS" id="LANDSCAPE_DRAWINGS_FROM_POOR_PHOTOGRAPHS"></a>LANDSCAPE DRAWINGS FROM POOR PHOTOGRAPHS.</p> + + +<p>A poor photograph or one that has become injured and can not +be retouched for direct reproduction can be utilized by making from +it, as described below, a pen drawing or a brush or crayon drawing, +which will be almost photographically correct.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">PEN DRAWINGS MADE OVER PHOTOGRAPHS.</p> + +<p>A pen and ink drawing may be made over a blue print or a bromide +print (preferably a blue print) and the photographic image then +bleached out. The blue print should be larger than publication size +and should not be so dark that the draftsman can not see his lines. +If the negative is available a bromide enlargement can be obtained; +otherwise the picture should be rephotographed in larger size, preferably +twice publication size. The enlargement will give the draftsman +greater freedom in drawing details and will make his work appear +finer and better in the reduced illustration. If the photographic +print is of a subject requiring the use of instruments it should be +securely fastened to a drawing board, square with the board, so that +any horizontal and vertical lines in it may be ruled by the use of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +<b>T</b> square and triangle. For specimen or landscape work it need not +be fastened.</p> + +<p>For bleaching blue prints a saturated solution of oxalate of potassium +(K<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O) has been used with good results. For bleaching +bromide prints cyanide of potassium (KCN) to which a few +drops or flakes of iodine have been added should be used. Neither +kind of print should be bleached until the drawing has been completely +finished in every detail, because bleaching loosens the fibers +of the paper, so that the ink of any added lines is likely to spread. +The print should be placed in a hard-rubber pan, the bleaching solution +poured on it, and the pan rocked until the image disappears. +The print should then be carefully removed, thoroughly washed in +running water, placed between clean white blotters to dry, and +finally mounted on cardboard. For temporary, hurried work on +drawings that are not to be retained for future use the blue print may +be mounted first and bleached by pouring the bleaching fluid over the +mounted print.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">BRUSH DRAWINGS FROM POOR PHOTOGRAPHS.</p> + +<p>Brush drawings may be made directly from photographs by working +over an enlarged print with gouache, or by making a pencil +tracing and sketch of the photograph and working it up with lampblack +or india ink. The photograph should be larger than publication +size to permit greater freedom and breadth in drawing details. +The larger size will also afford a more refined and better engraving +when reduced. If lampblack or india ink is used and the subject is +small, bristol board is recommended, but if the photograph is larger +than, say, 8 by 10 inches, Whatman's hot-pressed double elephant or +similar paper, laid down with thumb tacks, will prove satisfactory.</p> + +<p>If gouache is used over a print a preliminary drawing is of course +unnecessary, but the photograph should be an unglazed print of +a size that will require considerable reduction, and the finished drawing +should be protected by an oversheet. If lampblack or india ink +and not gouache is used the photograph should be traced and a fairly +complete pencil sketch should be made before the brush is used.</p> + +<p>Plates I, IV, <i>A</i>, V, <i>B</i>, and VII, <i>B</i>, Monograph 34, were made from +gouache drawings. Plates III, <i>A</i>, VII, <i>A</i>, X, XI, XII, XIII, XX, +XXVIII, and XXX, in the same publication, were made from lampblack +or india-ink wash drawings. The originals can be examined +at any time.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="OUTDOOR_SKETCHES" id="OUTDOOR_SKETCHES"></a>OUTDOOR SKETCHES.</p> + + +<p>The art of sketching from nature is one in which few but professional +artists excel. Not many geologists are able to make sketches +from nature that are suitable for direct reproduction. An artistic +draftsman should be able to redraw the geologist's sketches, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +in their true perspective and relations, with the skill necessary to +make them satisfactory illustrations.</p> + +<p>In most crude outdoor sketches the important features are usually +shown with sufficient clearness to follow. If they are not the draftsman +should ascertain what those features are and prepare the new +drawing in such a way as to display them properly. The new drawing +should be made with pen and ink, generally for reduction to a +text figure, which is the most appropriate form for such an illustration.</p> + +<p>In all sketches of this kind the lines should be drawn in such a +way as to produce natural effects and at the same time to make good +printing plates. Good examples of pen and ink sketches of this +class can be found in Monograph 34, already referred to, and in the +Seventh Annual Report, especially Plates XXVIII and XXXVIII; +Ninth Annual Report, Plates XLIII and XLIV; Tenth Annual Report, +Plates XIV and XIX and figure 58; Eleventh Annual Report, +Plates XV, XXVII, XXXV, LII, and LIV and figures 18, 30, 31, 67, +98, and 99.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="DRAWINGS_OF_CRYSTALS" id="DRAWINGS_OF_CRYSTALS"></a>DRAWINGS OF CRYSTALS.</p> + + +<p>A crystal should generally be drawn in outline with straight lines. +The invisible rear side of a crystal, if shown, should be represented by +dashed lines. The outer boundary line of a crystal should be slightly +heavier than the inside lines, which should all be of the same weight. +Striations should be shown by straight lines; broken or uneven surfaces +by irregular lines. A twinning line, if an intersection edge, +should be solid; if not an intersection edge it should be broken into +dashes. Italic, Greek, German, and Old English letters are used to +mark crystal faces. All faces of a given form should be marked by +the same letter but may be differentiated, if necessary, by primes or +numerals, thus: m, m′, m″, m‴, m<sup><i>IV</i></sup>. "Leaders" should be short +full lines, or, if these are likely to be confusing, they should be dashes. +Numbers may be used in place of letters for specific purposes. Letters +indicating twin faces are underscored; a second twin is doubly +underscored or overscored, thus: <span class="undrln">m</span>, <span class="dundrln">m</span>, <span class="ovrln">m</span>. Twin units may be differentiated +by the use of roman numerals.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="RETOUCHING_PHOTOGRAPHS" id="RETOUCHING_PHOTOGRAPHS"></a>RETOUCHING PHOTOGRAPHS.</p> + + +<p>An author, of course, selects his photographs to illustrate some +special features; he does not always consider their fitness for reproduction. +Photographs that are blurred or out of focus, those in +which the shadows are too black or lack transparency, and those +which have local defects, such as bad skies or spots, must be worked +over to make them suitable for reproduction. In order to remedy +these defects and produce natural results the draftsman doing work +of this sort should be able to see and interpret nature properly and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +to supply natural effects in a manner corresponding with those produced +photographically. He should be sufficiently expert with the +brush and pencil and in handling an air brush to duplicate the delicate +and soft tones in the photograph, and he should know how the pigments +he uses will "take" when the subject is reproduced.</p> + +<p>The retoucher should have access to an air brush and should provide +himself with a jar of photo white or blanc d'argent and a color +box containing indian red, crimson lake, yellow ocher, lampblack, and +ultramarine—colors with which he can duplicate those shown in any +photograph. He should also have the best grade of red sable brushes, +ranging in size from No. 3 to No. 8, a stack of porcelain saucers, and +a jar of oxgall. By mixing the colors to match exactly the shades +of a photograph and using a red sable brush he can strengthen details, +"spot out" flaws, and remove imperfections, except those in +skies or other large, flat areas, for which he must use an air brush.</p> + +<p>The air brush has become a necessary adjunct to a retoucher's outfit. +Smooth, even gradations of flat tones can not be successfully +applied to photographs without it, and it is therefore indispensable, +especially for retouching skies and covering other large areas.</p> + +<p>Before retouching a photograph the draftsman should mix in a +saucer a tint that will match the color of the part that is to be retouched +and should try this tint and note its effect after it has dried +and change it, if necessary, until it matches the color exactly. If he +is to retouch a number of photographs that have the same local color +he may with advantage make up enough of the tint for the entire +lot, thoroughly mixing it and seeing that it is not too thin. In making +this tint he should use only pigments of the best grade, and if +he finds that the Chinese or other white he is using does not photograph +well, or that it does not hold its color, he should discard +it at once and use another brand. Photographs that are to be retouched +should be large enough to permit sufficient reduction to +soften the effects of retouching.</p> + +<p>In order to eliminate the lines of junction between two or more +photographs that are joined together to form a panorama some adjustment +or fitting of details by retouching is generally required +before the group is rephotographed to obtain a new print of the whole +on one piece of paper. As it is often desirable to increase the width +of such an illustration the photographer should be instructed to print +the photograph on a strip of paper that is wider than the negative, so +that, if necessary, the retouching may be carried above or below the +new print to add depth to the illustration.</p> + +<p>Panoramas may also be drawn from photographs with either pen +or brush in the manner described on pages 68-69.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a> +PART III. PROCESSES OF REPRODUCING ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="METHODS_EMPLOYED" id="METHODS_EMPLOYED"></a>METHODS EMPLOYED.</p> + + +<p>The preliminary work in producing illustrations includes the +preparation, from originals submitted by authors, of drawings and +other kinds of "copy" in such a way that the copy can be reproduced +in multiple by printing.</p> + +<p>Several processes are used for preparing plates for printing illustrations, +and each has its peculiar features of excellence. One process +may render fine details with facility but may fail in uniformity +in large editions; another may be cheap and effective on the whole +but may not reproduce fine details; and still another may give fine +color or tone effects but may be too expensive. Therefore a knowledge +of the varied uses and results and of the cost of the several +processes of reproduction and, on the other hand, of the kinds of +originals that are best suited for reproduction by any one of the +processes is essential to effectiveness and economy in planning, preparing, +and reproducing an illustration.</p> + +<p>The following condensed descriptions of processes are intended +mainly to aid in determining the kind of copy that is appropriate +for each process and the kind and quality of reproduction to be expected, +so that only the principal operations or stages in each process +are described. Wood engraving, which was used in making printing +plates for many of the illustrations in the early publications of the +Geological Survey, is described here only to compare that laborious +and "indirect" method of engraving cuts with the more modern +kinds of relief engraving. In 1892 it gave way to photo-engraving.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="PHOTO-ENGRAVING" id="PHOTO-ENGRAVING"></a>PHOTO-ENGRAVING.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">GENERAL FEATURES</p> + +<p>The term "photo-engraving" is applied to processes by which a +black and white line drawing, photograph, or like original is reproduced +in relief on a metal plate from which prints may be made on +an ordinary printing press, in distinction from processes that print +from flat or relatively flat surfaces, such as the lithographic and +photogelatin processes. The photo-engraving processes that are most +generally used are those called "zinc etching" and "half-tone engraving." +These processes depend on the discovery that gelatin or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +similar organic material, if treated with potassium or ammonium +bichromate and exposed to the action of light, is made insoluble in +water. If a metal plate coated with bichromatized gelatin or albumen +is exposed to light under a negative the parts acted upon by +light become insoluble and those not acted upon remain unchanged +and may be washed away so as to expose the metal, which is then +etched with acid in order to give relief to the unexposed parts and +make of them a printing surface.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">ZINC ETCHING.</p> + +<p>Zinc etching is adapted to the direct reproduction of a pen and +ink drawing composed of lines, dots, or solid black areas. On the +finished metal plate these lines, dots, and solid areas form the printing +surface, and the spaces between them, which have been etched +away, represent the white or blank parts of the picture. The process +is cheap and is almost universally used for reproducing small drawings +designed for text illustrations. It is also well adapted to the +reproduction of maps and diagrams measuring in print not more +than about 10 by 14 inches. One of the chief advantages of this and +of all other direct (photographic) processes of engraving is that +they reproduce a drawing in facsimile, whereas the "personal equation" +must enter into all engravings made by an indirect method—that +is, by hand—such as wood engraving, wax engraving, and engraving +on stone or copper, which make it necessary to compare +every detail of the proof with every detail of the drawing before +the engraving can be approved. The pen drawing to be reproduced, +which should preferably be considerably larger than the completed +engraving, is first photographed to the proper size or scale on an +ordinary negative film. The film is then stripped from the negative +and reversed in order that the etched plate may print the design as +in the original and that the film may be grouped with other films on +one large glass and all printed at the same time. The negative +(whether a single film or several) is then placed in a specially constructed +printing frame in contact under pressure with a sensitized +zinc plate and exposed to light.</p> + +<p>After the zinc plate has been removed from the printing frame +(in the dark room) the plate is rolled with printer's transfer ink, +which resists acid, and placed in a shallow tray containing water, in +which it is rocked for several minutes, and then taken out and rubbed +gently with cotton. The parts of the coating of the plate that were +acted on by light have become insoluble and will therefore be unaffected +by the water, but the parts of the coating not acted on by +light and therefore not hardened will be removed by the washing, +which will expose the metal and leave the parts acted on by light—the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +picture—in black lines, dots, etc. The plate is then dusted with +"topping powder," a resinous substance which adheres only to the +parts carrying the ink. The plate is then heated so that the resin +and the ink that remain fuse together and form, when cooled, a +resistant surface which will not be affected by the acid to be used +later in etching the unprotected parts of the plate.</p> + +<p>The plate is now ready for a preliminary etching in a fluid consisting +of water and a few drops of nitric acid. It is placed in a tray, +rocked gently for a short time, and then removed, washed well in +running water, drained, and dried with gentle heat. "Dragon's +blood," a resinous powder that resists the action of acid, is next +applied to the plate, in order to protect the sides of the lines and the +dots from the acid, and the plate is then heated just sufficiently to +melt the powder and units it with the ink. A small quantity of +nitric acid is now added to the etching bath, and the plate is subjected +to its first thorough biting or etching. It is then removed +from the bath, washed under a tap, carefully wiped with a damp rag, +and dried with gentle heat.</p> + +<p>The plate is thus treated three or more times until it is etched deep +enough to insure satisfactory printing, and it is then ready for +finishing, which consists of deepening the larger open spaces between +the lines with a routing machine and of cutting away with hand +gravers lines that are improperly connected or that are so close +together that they will not print separately. The routing machine +is provided with a cutting tool mounted on a revolving spindle that +projects downward into the engraved plate, which is securely +fastened. The movement of the arm that holds the cutter is universal +and can be controlled with great precision. The plate is then +"proved" that is, a proof is taken from it on paper and if the +proof is satisfactory the plate is nailed to a block of wood on which it +will be "type high" (0.918 inch), for printing.</p> + +<p>Most drawings for zinc etching are made with a pen in black +ink and consist of lines, dots, or masses of black, but drawings may +also be prepared by using some medium that will produce a fine +stipple, such as a black crayon on rough paper or Ross's stipple paper. +(See <a href="#Page_24">p. 24</a>.) The drawing should be one and one-half to two or +three times as large as the printed illustration, for it is impossible +to obtain a satisfactory reproduction of a pen and ink drawing without +some reduction. If the drawing has not been reduced the lines +appear heavier in the reproduction than in the drawing, and imperfections +thus become more noticeable; if it has been properly reduced, +imperfections are diminished and the lines and dots become thinner +and finer than those in the drawing. In making a drawing that is to +be reduced the draftsman can also space his lines farther apart and +work out his details more easily.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> + +<p>An author should carefully examine and approve the finished +drawings, which can, of course, be greatly altered, if necessary, +before they are engraved; but similar corrections can not be made on +proof sheets of zinc cuts, which should not be marked for alterations +except by eliminating parts. Minor changes can be made in such +a cut by an expert "finisher," but if the cut is small it is generally +cheaper to correct the drawing and have a new cut made.</p> + +<p>Zinc etchings cost about 10 to 25 cents a square inch, the cost being +varied according to a standard scale which is based upon the ascertained +cost of reproduction. The minimum charge for a single cut +is $2.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">COPPER ETCHING IN RELIEF.</p> + +<p>Copper etching, which produces a line cut in relief, requires the +same kind of copy that is most often marked for zinc etching and is +used to obtain deeper etching and a more permanent cut. It is said +to produce better printing plates than those etched on zinc and is +used largely for reproducing script lettering and other fine work. +As copper plates will hold up longer in printing than zinc, a cut +etched on copper may not need to be electrotyped.</p> + +<p>The chemical part of the process is practically the same as that +employed for etching half-tone plates, described under the next +heading.</p> + +<p>The cost of etching on copper is considerably greater than the cost +of etching on zinc. This process is not often used in reproducing +illustrations for publications of the Geological Survey.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">HALF-TONE ENGRAVING.</p> + +<p>The half-tone process is, in name at least, familiar to almost everyone +who has had any connection with the making of books, whether +as author, editor, illustrator, or printer. The invention of a photomechanical +process of reproducing a line drawing to make a metal +plate that could be printed along with type on an ordinary printing +press naturally led to attempts to reproduce similarly a photograph. +It was known that the intermediate shades between white and black +in a photograph—the half tones—can be reproduced on an ordinary +printing press only by breaking them up into dots or lines that will +form a good printing surface and that by their variation in size or +density will give for each shade the effect of a uniform tone. In +the half-tone process this effect is produced by photographing the +picture or object through a screen.</p> + +<p>The half-tone screen consists of two plates of glass, on each of +which lines running generally at an angle of 45° to the sides of the +plate have been engraved, cemented together so that the lines cross +at right angles. The lines, which are minute grooves filled with an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +opaque black pigment, thus appear as a series of black crossed lines +on a white ground. The screen is placed in the camera in front of +the negative. Screens are made that show from 60 lines to an inch +for the coarser newspaper illustrations to 250 lines or more to the +inch for fine book work. The screens used for magazine illustrations +generally show 120 to 150 lines. Those used for Survey publications +show 150 to 175 lines, and for reproducing delicate drawings and +photographs of fossils screens bearing 200 lines to the inch are sometimes +specified; but these finer screens require the use of highly super-coated +papers, some of them made of cheap fiber and not known to +be permanent. For a half tone that is to be printed in the text a +100-line or a 120-line screen is specified. +(See <a href="#Plate_IV">Pl. VI, p. 56.</a>)</p> + +<p>The method of etching a half-tone plate does not differ greatly +from that used in zinc etching, and there are several kinds of half-tone +plates, though most of them are etched on copper, not on zinc, +those etched on zinc being used principally for newspaper illustrations. +The half-tone screen is used also in other processes to obtain +a negative.</p> + +<p>When a half-tone negative hag been made the film is stripped from +the glass plate and reversed, as in the zinc-etching process, though +some half-tone engravers use a mirror box or prism by which the picture +is so disposed on the negative that it does not need stripping and +reversing. A perfectly flat, clean, and highly polished copper plate, +generally large enough to accommodate several such films, is then +coated with a sensitive film according to one of several formulas, all +based on the fact that gelatin or some similar body, if sensitized with +certain chromic salts, becomes hardened and insoluble in water on +exposure to light. This plate is then placed in the printing frame in +contact, under pressure, with the glass negative plate and is exposed +to light in the usual manner. The copper plate is then removed from +the frame in the dark room and made ready for etching.</p> + +<p>For etching half-tone plates on copper a saturated solution of perchloride +of iron is used instead of the solution of nitric acid used for +zinc etching. The time of etching ranges from about 5 to 15 minutes, +according to the strength of the solution. One etching is generally +sufficient, but it may be necessary to give the plate another "biting" +if it has not been etched deep enough, or to re-etch it in order to +strengthen contrasts. If, for instance, the sky in a half-tone plate +shows too dark or is uneven in tint it can be made lighter or more +even by re-etching. On the other hand, if certain features on a +plate are too light they can be darkened by burnishing—rubbing +the surface with a highly polished steel burnisher under just +sufficient pressure to flatten slightly the fine points that form the +printing surface of the plate. When the plate leaves the hands of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +the etcher it is turned over to the finisher, who with a graver removes +spots or any other imperfections that may appear on it. Sometimes +a roulette is used to lighten parts, and other tools are used for +special purposes.</p> + +<p>After a plate that shows two or more pictures has been etched and +finished it is divided by sawing them apart. Each one is then put +into a beveling machine, where its edges are trimmed and the usual +border is made, if it is desired. The separate plates are then ready +to be proved and mounted on blocks of wood which make them type +high, ready for printing.</p> + +<p>The half-tone process is used almost exclusively for reproducing +photographs and wash drawings, though it will produce a facsimile +of any kind of copy, such as impressions from type, old manuscripts, +or typewriting, but a shade composed of minute black dots will appear +over the entire print and there will be no absolutely whits +areas unless they are produced by routing the plate or cutting out +the high lights. (See <a href="#Page_74">p. 74</a>.) The reproduction of an ordinary outdoor +photograph requires very little handwork, except for re-etching, +burnishing, and cutting the borders. In the reproduction of copy +that is made up of separate parts, such as groups of photographs of +specimens that are to appear on a white ground, the half-tone +"tint"—or more properly shade—between and around the several +figures must be removed and numbers must be added. This operation +requires two negatives—one half tone and one line—and produces +what is called a "combination" plate. Therefore the difference in the +cost of making a half-tone cut from a single photograph of a landscape +and from a cut made from "copy" of the same size consisting +of a number of small photographs or drawings, to which numbers +or letters are added, is considerable (about 50 per cent greater) and +depends upon the amount of additional work involved. Routing, +when needed, must be done with extreme care lest the edges of a +figure be marred, and this work requires skill that can be gained +only by experience.</p> + +<p>Copy for the half-tone process should be as nearly perfect as possible. +Only the best photographs should be selected. Prints on +semimat velox and glossy haloid papers are regarded as the best +photographic copy for reproduction. Every part of the photograph +or drawing should be absolutely clean. If any part that should be +pure white becomes soiled or stained the defects will be reproduced. +If a photograph needs retouching it should be retouched with great +care and just sufficiently to correct defects and to bring out or +strengthen the important details. In many photographs the skies +may be "muddy" or uneven in tone, and this defect can be corrected +by the use of an air brush, the only medium that will produce an +almost even tone. As already stated, half-tone plates can be improved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +by re-etching and tooling, but tooling tends to destroy the +effects of nature and produces an artificial appearance in the print. +One who is preparing wash drawings for reproduction by the half-tone +process should remember that brush marks and other inequalities +of tone will be reproduced with as much fidelity as other details. +Such drawings should therefore be made two or three times larger +than the engraved cut in order to subdue all unnatural effects and to +soften the general tones.</p> + +<p>Line drawings are not generally suitable copy for the half-tone +process, but it is occasionally desirable to use that process instead of +zinc etching for reproducing a line drawing that has been inexpertly +prepared if the cost of redrawing would more than offset the difference +in cost between zinc etching and the more expensive half-tone +process. In reproducing a pen drawing by half tone the lines +become softened and represent the details and shading only; but the +pen drawing may be further developed by brush work. Examples +of this type of reproduction are Plates V, <i>A</i>, VI, <i>A</i>, and XV, figure +10, and other illustrations in Survey Monograph 34.</p> + +<p>Vignetting, which consists of a skillful grading off of the edges of +a picture, as well as extensive tooling or hand engraving, is often +employed for artistic effect but should be specified only for exceptional +illustrations. The plates made for the Survey are either +"square trimmed" or the ground tint is entirely omitted or routed +away; they are not usually tooled or vignetted.</p> + +<p>Half-tone cuts etched on copper cost 20 to 60 cents a square inch, +the cost being varied according to a standard scale based on the +ascertained cost of reproduction. Those that require a screen finer +than 150 lines cost 25 per cent additional. The minimum charge for +a single cut is $3.</p> + +<p>Half tones etched on zinc (100-line screen or coarser) cost 25 per +cent less than those etched on copper.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">THREE-COLOR HALF-TONE PROCESS.</p> + +<p>The three-color process is practically an adaptation of the half-tone +process to color printing based on the theory that all colors or +hues in nature can be reproduced by combinations of three colors of +the spectrum—red, blue, and yellow. The process differs from the +ordinary half-tone process particularly in the use of color filters in +making the negatives and in the character of screens and diaphragms +used. This process, like all others, is worked somewhat differently +in different establishments. In what is called the indirect method, +the one most commonly used, twelve photographic operations are +necessary to produce one illustration, or the three plates or cuts from +which one illustration is to be reproduced by printing. These twelve +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +operations produce three chromatic negatives, each representing one +color; three transparencies or positives, made from the chromatic +negatives; three half-tone negatives, made from the positives; and +finally three contact prints, made on sensitized metal plates. In +what is called the direct method the half-tone screen is placed in +front of the photographic plate so that it becomes also a half-tone +negative from which a print is made on a sensitized metal plate. +Thus the photographic operations in the direct method are reduced +to six, but the interference to the passage of light offered by the +half-tone screen and by the prism used to reverse the image on the +negative lengthens the time of exposure.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, no pigments have been found that can reproduce +in purity the colors of the spectrum, and to this fact is due the +failure of the process to reproduce exactly all the colors, tints, and +shades of an original. When a drawing in black on white paper +is photographed only the white paper affects the negative film. The +transparent parts of the developed negative thus represent the black, +and the opaque parts, which have been acted upon by light, represent +the whits. Theoretically, when a chromatic negative is made for +the yellow plate a purple-violet filter cuts out all the yellow and +allows the red and blue rays to affect the plate; when a negative is +made for the blue plate an orange filter similarly cuts out the blue and +allows the yellow and red rays to affect the plate; and when a negative +is made for the red plate a green filter cuts out the red and +permits the blue and yellow rays to affect the plate. These color +filters, which are usually made of transparent stained gelatin, are +generally placed in front of the lens. When printing plates like +those used in the half-tone process have been made from the three +negatives and the plates have been inked with yellow, blue, and red +ink, respectively, a combined impression from them will produce a +close approximation of the subject photographed. The colored inks +often used are light yellow, peacock or prussian blue, and bright, +transparent crimson.</p> + +<p>The ordinary half-tone screen, which bears lines cut at an angle of +45° to the sides of the plate, is rectangular, but the screens used +for three-color work are made circular in order that they may be +turned in the camera to make the lines intersect at other angles, the +angles being varied to avoid producing an undesirable pattern or a +moire effect. Turning the screen also prevents the exact coincidence +or superposition of the red, blue, and yellow dots, which would produce +black. In other respects the screens do not differ essentially +from those used in ordinary half-tone work.</p> + +<p>As special experience is necessary in printing three-color plates the +engraver generally delivers the printed illustrations to the purchaser +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +instead of the plates, which he furnishes for other kinds of relief +printing.</p> + +<p>The copy for this process may consist of anything in color, such as +specimens, objects, paintings, or properly colored photographs. The +process does not usually reproduce all the colors and tints of an +original with equal exactness and is not used by the Survey for work +that demands precise reproduction of color, but it is satisfactory for +reproducing most colored drawings, colored photographs of specimens, +or the specimens themselves if they show individual variations +in color. As the process is entirely photomechanical it gives more +scientific accuracy in detail than chromolithography, in which there +is much hand work, and it is much less expensive. If the colors +shown in proofs are not satisfactory they can be modified.</p> + +<p>The four-color process, in which four color plates are used, gives +a closer approximation of true color values than the three-color process, +and at a comparatively small increase of cost. The additional +color used is generally a neutral gray or black.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="WAX_ENGRAVING_THE_CEROTYPE_PROCESS" id="WAX_ENGRAVING_THE_CEROTYPE_PROCESS"></a>WAX ENGRAVING (THE CEROTYPE PROCESS).</p> + + +<p>The wax or cerotype process does not require finished drawings +and is especially suitable for making text illustrations and small +maps, although it may be used also for large work. For this process +blue prints, pencil sketches, old prints, or rough copy of any kind +may be submitted—that is, it is not necessary to furnish carefully +prepared drawings in black ink, as it would be for photo-engraving, +for the wax engraver will reproduce in proper form any illustration +in which the copy and the instructions show what is wanted, just as +an experienced draftsman will make a good drawing from the rough +original furnished by an author. Full and clear instructions should +always be given, however, as to the size of the cut wanted and what +it is to show.</p> + +<p>In this process a polished copper plate is coated with a film consisting +of beeswax, a whitening medium, and other ingredients, and +the coating, which varies in thickness according to the nature of the +copy, is sensitized as in the ordinary photographic processes. The +map or other design to be engraved is first photographed to publication +size and a contact print is made on the wax coating from the +negative. The lines and other parts of the photographed image are +then traced or cut through the wax to the copper plate with steel +tools and straightened or perfected by the engraver, but the lettering +is set in printer's type, which is pressed into the wax until it also +touches the metal plate. After the work of cutting through the wax +has been completed the larger open spaces between the lines are +"built up" by the addition of wax to give greater depth to the plate, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +so that the wax plate thus built up corresponds to an electrotype +mold. The plate is then dusted with powdered graphite and suspended +in a solution containing copper, where by electrolytic action a +copper shell is formed over its surface. When this shell is sufficiently +thick it is removed from the solution and reinforced on the back +with metal, and proofs are taken from it. If the proofs are satisfactory +the plate is blocked type-high.</p> + +<p>Wax-engraved plates may be used for printing colored maps or +diagrams, in which variations of tint are produced by various kinds +of machine rulings. The effect of some of the colors thus produced +is almost a "flat" tint, in which a pattern can be detected only by +close scrutiny. Some color work is printed from a wax base plate in +combination with half-tone color plates.</p> + +<p>The price of a wax engraving depends entirely on the size of +the cut, the amount of work involved, and the character of the original +copy, but it should not exceed very much the cost of a carefully +prepared pen drawing plus the cost of a zinc etching made from it. +Cuts engraved by the wax process, like zinc and half-tone plates, +are delivered to the purchaser. If colored work is ordered, however, +the printed sheets, not the cuts, are delivered.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2">WOOD ENGRAVING.</p> + + +<p>Wood engraving was once the universal method of producing cuts +for illustrations that were designed to be printed on an ordinary +press. It is said to be the oldest of all methods of engraving illustrations. +The engraving is made on a block of boxwood, a very dense, +hard wood of a light-yellow color. The block is cut type-high across +the grain, and the engraving surface is made perfectly smooth by +nibbing it with pumice or other stone. When a cut is to be larger +than 3 or 4 inches square the wood block is made up of pieces securely +dovetailed or joined together to prevent splitting and warping. A +woodcut is not used for printing but is electrotyped and the electrotype +is used in the press.</p> + +<p>Originally the smoothed surface of the wood block was coated with +prepared chalk or Chinese whits, and on this coating a finished drawing +was made with a brush and pencil by an illustrator. According +to more recent practice the surface of the wood is covered with a +sensitized coating, on which the drawing or design to be engraved +is photographed. The engraver then, with various kinds of gravers +and other tools, cuts out the parts of the picture that are to be +represented by white paper and leaves the lines, dots, and black areas +as a printing surface, thus translating the shades and tints of the picture +into a system of lines and dots which exactly duplicate, in effect, +the details and tones of the original design. In order to produce a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +line effect of an area in which the tone is intermediate between whits +and black the engraver must space his lines so that one-half the area +will remain as printing surface and the other half as white spaces, +and he must give character and direction to his lines, so that, if he +is skillful, he can reproduce not only the delicate tones but the +texture and details of the original picture. Many wood engravers +became noted for their artistic rendering of magazine illustrations, +of famous paintings, and of other works of art.</p> + +<p>The Survey began to abandon this method of engraving in 1884, +when the Sixth Annual Report was in press, substituting for it the +cheaper photomechanical processes, zinc etching and half-tone engraving, +and entirely abandoned its use in 1892.</p> + +<p>Many good examples of wood engraving may be found in the early +monographs and annual reports of the Geological Survey. Monograph +2 contains numerous examples.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2">PHOTOGELATIN PROCESSES.</p> + + +<p>Bichromatized gelatin is used in several photomechanical processes +of reproducing illustrations, but in the photogelatin processes the +gelatin not only receives the image by exposure to light through a +negative but becomes a printing surface on a plate from which prints +are made somewhat as in lithography. The several photogelatin +processes are much the same as the original collotype process and +are best known by the names collotype, heliotype, albertype, artotype, +and the German name lichtdruck.</p> + +<p>In working these processes a thick plate of glass, after certain preliminary +treatment, is coated with sensitized gelatin. The plate is +then placed in a drying room or oven having a temperature of 120° F., +baked until it is thoroughly dry, and allowed to cool gradually. +The subject to be reproduced is then photographed in the usual +manner, and unless a prism or mirror box has been used the negative +is stripped and reversed in order to make the print reproduce +the original in proper position. From the negative a contact print +is made on the gelatin-coated plate, the parts or molecules of gelatin +being hardened in proportion to the amount of light that affects them. +After the contact print has been made the gelatin plate is thoroughly +washed in cold water, in order to dissolve and wash out the bichromate +and stop any further action of light on the plate, and is then +thoroughly dried. Before prints are made from the gelatin-coated +plate water is flowed on it and penetrates different parts of the gelatin +according to their hardness. The darkest parts of the picture will +correspond to the hardest and densest parts of the gelatin, which will +not absorb water; the lighter parts will take up more water. The +surface water is then removed with a rubber straight edge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +and an absorbent roller and the plate is ready for inking. The ink, +being greasy, has no affinity for water, and when it is rolled over the +plate it adheres only to the dry parts of the gelatin, and in the press +is carried to the paper in all the lights and shades of the illustration. +The plate is kept moist in printing.</p> + +<p>The paper used for printing from photogelatin plates must be +free from chemicals that will affect the gelatin. A nearly pure rag +paper is generally used.</p> + +<p>The photogelatin process is well adapted to the reproduction of +paleontologic drawings, wash drawings, photographs, photomicrographs, +works of art, old manuscripts—in fact, any kind of subject +in which the reproduction of delicate lights and shades is essential. +If properly manipulated it has distinct advantages over the half-tone +process in that it can reproduce details and light and shade +without showing the effect of a screen and without the use of coated +paper. Excellent reproductions by the heliotype process are also +made in color by first printing the design in a neutral tone and superposing +appropriate transparent colors on this print, somewhat as in +chromolithography, so that the colors softly blend with the shaded +groundwork.</p> + +<p>Reproductions made by the photogelatin process are more expensive +than those made by the half-tone process, for the prints are +generally made on better paper and are printed with greater care. +They give no screen effect and are perhaps unrivaled by prints +obtained by any other process except photogravure, in which the +image is printed from a metal plate that has been sensitized, exposed +under a reversed negative, and etched.</p> + +<p>Changes can not be made on photogelatin plates except by making +over the corrected parts. All retouching must be done on the originals +or on the negatives made from then.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="LITHOGRAPHY" id="LITHOGRAPHY"></a>LITHOGRAPHY.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">ORIGINAL PROCESS.</p> + +<p>The general term "lithography" is sometimes used to indicate +not only the original process so named, said to have been invented +by Senefelder, but chromolithography, photolithography, and engraving +on stone, as well as engraving on copper as a means of supplying +matter to be transferred to and printed from a lithographic +stone.</p> + +<p>Senefelder discovered that limestone will absorb either grease or +Water, and that neither one will penetrate a part of the surface previously +affected by the other. He found that if a design is drawn +on limestone with a greasy crayon and the stone afterward properly +prepared with a solution of nitric acid and gum, greasy ink will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +adhere only to the parts that are covered with the crayon, and that +the stone will give off an impression of the design.</p> + +<p>Lithographic stone is described as a fine, compact, homogeneous +limestone, which may be either a pure carbonate of lime or dolomitic—that +is, it may contain magnesium. Although limestone is one of +the most common rocks, limestone of a quality suitable for use in +lithography is found at only a few localities.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> There are two general +classes of lithographic stone, known to the trade as "blue" or hard +stone and "yellow" or soft stone. The blue stone is adapted for +engraving and to the better grade of fine-line printing; the yellow +stone is rated as somewhat inferior.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Kubel, S. J., Lithographic stone: U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1900, pp. +869-873, 1901.</p></div> + +<p>In the original process, which may here be termed plain lithography, +two methods are employed in putting on stone the design to +be reproduced. In one the subject or picture to be reproduced is +drawn on the printing stone either with a lithographic crayon or +with a pen dipped in lithographic ink or "tusche," which is oily +or fatty, like the crayon. In the other method the drawing is made +on transfer paper and transferred to the stone. In drawing on +stone it is necessary to reverse the design, so that all lettering must +be drawn backward. In doing this the artist often uses a mirror +to aid him. If the drawing is made on transfer paper the design +and the lettering are copied as in the original—not reversed.</p> + +<p>Before a drawing is made on stone a stone of the quality suited +to the particular design in hand is selected. The stone is then +ground and polished, and if the drawing is to be made with crayon +it is "grained" according to the special requirements of the subject. +If the drawing is to be made with a pen and is to consist of "line +work" the stone is polished. The first step is to obtain on the stone +an outline or "faint" of the design. There are several ways to do +this. By one method a tracing of the design is made, a sheet of +thin paper covered with red chalk is laid face downward on the +stone, the tracing is laid face downward over it, and the design is +again traced in red-chalk lines on the stone. The method described +is simple, but there are others that are more complicated and that +are particularly applicable to the reproduction of photographs and +other illustrations. Crayon work is often used in combination with +pen and ink, stipple, and brush work. This method of drawing on +stone is used also for preparing color stones in the process of chromolithography, +in which there are many added details of manipulation. +After the drawing has been made on the stone or transferred to it +the stone is "gummed"—that is, it is covered with a solution of +gum arabic and nitric acid—and dried. The stone is then dampened +with water and carefully rolled with lithographic ink, which adheres +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +to the pen or crayon work and is repelled elsewhere. It is +then "rubbed" over with powdered rosin and talcum, which adheres +to the ink and further protects the drawing from the effects of +the etching fluid, which is next to be applied to the stone. This fluid +consists of a 10 per cent solution of gum arabic to which 2 to 7 per +cent of nitric acid has been added, the degree of acidity being +varied according to the subject and the hardness of the stone. The +fluid is applied with a brush or sponge and is left on the stone +just long enough to decompose slightly the carbonate of lime on its +surface and, after washing, to leave the design or drawing in very +slight relief. The stone is again gummed and dried, and the design +is "washed out" or brought out by removing the surface gum with +a wet sponge and applying to the stone a rag sprinkled with turpentine +and charged with printing ink. These operations wash away the +tusche and the crayon that have been decomposed by the acid and +expose the design faintly in white at first, but it gradually grows +darker as it becomes charged with printing ink from the rag. The +stone is next "rolled up" or inked. The slightly moistened surface +repels the ink and the design takes it up, so that when the stone is +run through the press the design is carried to the paper.</p> + +<p>Lithographic prints from stones prepared in this way are made +on a flat-bed press. The stone is carried forward to print and on its +return is dampened and inked, an operation slower than that of rotary +printing.</p> + +<p>Corrections and changes are made on the stone by carefully scraping +or polishing away the parts to be corrected and making the +changes with a crayon or pen, but the design can not ordinarily be +corrected twice in the same place, as the scraping or polishing removes +a part of the surface of the stone and thus lessens the pressure +at that place, and the impression there may be imperfect or may +completely fail.</p> + +<p>This form of lithography is seldom used for Survey illustrations +but was formerly much used and is well adapted to the reproduction +of drawings of fossils, particularly of remains of dinosaurs and other +types of large extinct animals. Examples may be seen in Monographs +8 and 10 and in other early reports of the Geological Survey. The +drawings for these illustrations were made directly on stone.</p> + +<p>A drawing made on one stone may be transferred in duplicate or +in any desired number to another stone, or to a properly grained +sheet of zinc and aluminum, from which impressions may be printed +on a lithographic press. Both these metals are also used for lithographic +printing on rotary presses, the zinc or aluminum plate being +bent and secured around a cylinder which rotates continuously in +one direction. As one impression is made at each revolution of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +cylinder the printing is rapid; but the best printing from a metal +plate is inferior to the best printing from a lithographic stone.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY.</p> + +<p>Photolithography, like other lithographic processes, has been improved +greatly during the last few years—not particularly in results +but in methods—by the introduction of metal plates, the rubber +blanket offset, the Ben Day films, and many mechanical and chemical +devices, so that a brief description of it will not explain the process +except in a most general way. As photolithography is a direct process +and is relatively cheap it is the one most used for reproducing +large maps and other line drawings that have been carefully prepared. +Zinc and aluminum plates are now much used in photolithography, +for a direct contact photographic print can be made on +them, they can be printed flat or bent for use on a rotary press, and +they can be stored for future use more economically than stones.</p> + +<p>There are two somewhat distinct methods of producing photolithographs. +In both the ordinary photographic methods are used, +but it is often necessary to "cut" or trace parts of the negative in +order to open up lines and other features that are not sharp or well +defined, so that the negative will print them sharp and clear. If the +copy to be reproduced shows three colors, three negatives are made, +one for each color, and the parts to be shown by each are preserved +by "opaquing" or painting out all other parts. By the older method +the negative thus perfected is placed in a printing frame in contact, +under pressure, with sensitized transfer paper and is exposed to +light. The printing frame is then carried to the dark room and the +paper is removed from the frame and its surface covered with transfer +ink. The paper is then laid face upward on water and soaked +for several minutes, after which it is placed in the same position upon +a slab of stone or metal and thoroughly washed with water. This +washing removes the ink and the sensitive film from the parts that +were unaffected by the action of light (the parts corresponding to the +white paper in the design), but the ink still adheres to the lines of +the design in the precise sharpness and clearness of the negative. +The design is now ready to be transferred to the printing stone or +zinc plate. The sheet is again slightly dampened between moist +blotters and laid face downward in its correct position on a prepared +stone or zinc plate, which is then pulled through a press under heavy +pressure. The paper is then removed from the stone or plate, to +which it has carried the design. From this point the gumming, +etching, and other operations are practically the same as those used +in ordinary lithography.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> + +<p>The bichromate-gelatin transfer process described above has been +replaced in the Survey by a more satisfactory one, which insures +absolute scale and reproduces the finest line drawings perfectly without +thickening the lines or without distortion. In this process, which +is known as the planographic process, a photographic negative of the +"copy" is placed in a vacuum printing frame in contact with a zinc +or aluminum plate that has been sensitized with a bichromate-albumen +solution and exposed in front of an arc lamp. After proper exposure +the plate is removed from the frame, inked over, and placed under +water. The parts not hardened by the action of light (the unexposed +parts) are then rubbed away with cotton, and the plate is chemically +etched, gummed over, and dried. The plate is then ready to be +printed from in a lithographic press. If a large map is to be reproduced +it is photographed in parts, and contact prints are made on +zinc plates. From these plates transfers are pulled and the parts are +assembled and laid down in proper position on a stone or an aluminum +plate, which is then prepared for printing.</p> + +<p>A drawing that is to be reproduced by photolithography should be +made on pure-white paper in lines, dots, or black masses with black +waterproof ink. It should be one and one-half to two or three times +the size of the finished print.</p> + +<p>Photolithography is particularly adapted to the reproduction of +maps, plans, and other large drawings. Within certain limitations, +lines may be changed and details may be added after proofs have +been submitted. The process is ordinarily used for reproducing +illustrations in one color (black), but it is used also for printing in +more than one color, generally over a black outline base, each color +being printed from a separate stone, as in chromolithography.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">OFFSET PRINTING.</p> + +<p>In the offset process the design is "offset" from a lithographic +plate or stone to a rubber blanket on a cylinder, from which it is +printed. By thus obtaining an impression from an elastic surface +the finest details can be printed on rough, uncoated paper, which can +not be used in other processes, which can be folded without danger +of breaking, and which is more durable than coated paper. Plates +<a href="#Plate_II">II</a>, <a href="#Plate_III">III</a>, +<a href="#Plate_IV">IV</a>, <a href="#Plate_VII">VII</a>, +and <a href="#Plate_VIII">VIII</a> in this pamphlet were printed by this +process.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">CHROMOLITHOGRAPHY.</p> + +<p>The chromolithographic process, by which illustrations are printed +in color from stone, is used in Survey publications principally for reproducing +geologic maps, but it is sometimes used for reproducing +colored drawings of specimens.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are several kinds of color printing from stones. One produces +a picture by superimposing colors that combine and overlap +without definite outlines and thus reproduce the softly blended colors +of the original. Another reproduces the original by printing colors +within definite outlines on a "base" which has been previously +printed in black. The first kind is used by the Survey for reproducing +colored drawings of specimens. The second is followed in +reproducing geologic maps.</p> + +<p>As each color must be printed from a separate stone and properly +fitted with respect to the others a tracing from the original is made +of the precise outlines of each color; or, if the design is to be reduced, +a tracing is made over a properly reduced photographic print. +This tracing can be made on specially prepared tracing paper or on a +sheet of transparent gelatin or celluloid, which is laid over the copy +and on which all the outlines and overlaps of the various colors are +scratched with a steel point. The scratches thus made on the celluloid +are filled with red chalk or like substance, and rubbed in with cotton, +and by reversing the sheet and rubbing it the chalk lines are deposited +on as many stones as are needed to produce the colors of the original +design, each stone bearing all the outlines of the design. Sometimes +all the outlines are engraved on what is called a key stone and an +impression from it is laid down on each of the color stones. The +parts on each stone that are to have one color are then inked in or +engraved, and at the same time guide marks are indicated, so that in +the composite print from the stones each color will fit its proper place. +This fitting is called "register" and is an important part of printing, +for each stone must be adjusted to a nicety while on the press in order +to make each impression fit the others exactly. The process was originally +manipulated entirely by hand, but photography has now replaced +much of the handwork and has given rise to several methods +by which the same kinds of subjects are reproduced in radically +different ways. Tints are sometimes produced by the half-tone and +other screens and by machine ruling, and printer's type is used almost +exclusively for titles and other matter that was formerly engraved or +drawn on the stone.</p> + +<p>In reproducing a geologic map the base may be engraved on stone +or on copper or it may be photo-lithographed. By either process the +map may be transferred to the printing stone. The color stones for +geologic maps are prepared by hand, but the geologic patterns, which +are printed in colors, are engraved separately on plates, from which +impressions are pulled when needed and transferred to their proper +places on the printing stones in the shapes required according to the +"key" design. The lighter, more transparent colors are generally +printed first, and often twelve or more colors and many distinctive +patterns are used to produce a geologic map. When proofs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +of such a map are pulled each stone must be taken up and carefully +adjusted on the press, so that the work of proving maps that are +printed from a considerable number of color stones is laborious and +expensive. It is therefore customary to approve first combined proofs +conditionally—that is, subject to the corrections and changes indicated +on the proofs—and to hold the lithographer responsible for any +failure to make the corrections.</p> + +<p>This process is the most expensive one used for reproducing illustrations. +Changes may be indicated on proofs, but changes can not +be made on a stone twice in the same place without danger of affecting +the printing or making it necessary to retransfer the parts affected. +All changes are expensive because a slight modification +at one point may involve corresponding changes on a number of +stones, each of which must be taken up, corrected, and proved to insure +the exact coincidence of the parts affected. It is often less expensive +to retransfer the entire job than to make extensive changes +on the original stones.</p> + + +<p class="caption3">ENGRAVING ON STONE AND ON COPPER.</p> + +<p>Engraving on stone is distinctly lithographic, but engraving on +copper is sometimes included among lithographic processes because +the work produced by it is usually printed from stone and thus becomes +lithographic. In other respects engraving on copper is not a +lithographic process. Roughly prepared maps and any rough line +copy that is accurate in statement and clear as to intent are appropriate +for both methods of engraving, but drawings that are expertly +prepared are more suitable for reproduction by photolithography. +In engraving on stone the lines of a design are scratched on the +blackened surface of a stone with a steel-pointed tool; in engraving on +copper the lines are cut with a graver on a sheet or plate of copper, +the matter to be engraved being first shown on the plate by what is +called the photo-tracing process, which was devised in the Geological +Survey. There is, however, no great or essential difference in the +printed results of the two processes, but most lithographers employ +only stone engravers.</p> + +<p>A stone on which a design is to be engraved is ground and polished +according to the kind of work to be engraved, is coated with a +thin solution of gum arable and allowed to dry, and is then washed +until the superficial gum is removed while the surface pores remain +filled. As the lines made by the engraver must be visible the stone is +blackened with a pigment composed of lampblack and gum or is +covered evenly with red chalk or Venetian red. It is then ready to +receive the design to be engraved.</p> + +<p>If the design is a map which is to show culture, streams, and surface +contours, and each of these sets of features is to be printed in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +separate color, impressions of the work to be engraved must be placed +on three stones. One method of doing this is to make a scratch +tracing of the original drawing on a sheet of transparent gelatin +or celluloid in the manner employed in chromolithography, except +that a dry pigment, generally chrome-yellow, is used to fill the +scratch lines instead of red chalk or Venetian red. From this +tracing a "faint" or imprint of all the details of the three separate +features of the map is made on each of the three stones, and the engraver +then cuts on each stone only the lines and other features, including +ample register marks, that are to be printed in one color, the +imprint made from the tracing making it possible to engrave each set +of features in its exact position relative to the other two. By another +method the matter to be engraved is photographed directly on +the stone.</p> + +<p>The engraving is done with a steel needle inserted in a small +wooden cylinder, an instrument resembling an ordinary lead pencil. +The size and shape of the needles used are varied according to the requirements +of the matter to be engraved. With this instrument the +lines and lettering are lightly scratched into the stone through the +dark coating and show as light lines. The points of some of the +needles are fine; those of others are V-shaped; and some have spoon-shaped +points, for use in thickening lines and shading letters. All +features are engraved in reverse.</p> + +<p>After the engraving is completed the stones are prepared for printing +by wiping off all the superficial color and filling the engraved +lines with a greasy ink—generally a thin printing ink—which is +rubbed into the lines with a soft rag. Impressions are then pulled +on transfer paper and transferred to three printing stones for use in +printing the three colors, the register marks enabling the pressman +to fit each color exactly in its proper place.</p> + +<p>In all lithographic processes the titles and other marginal lettering +can be and usually are transferred from type impressions to the +printing stones. It is therefore unnecessary to letter such matter +carefully on an original drawing that is made for lithographic reproduction, +for appropriate faces of type will give better printed results +than hand lettering.</p> + +<p>Corrections can not be made on a stone or copper engraving as +readily as on a drawing. If a stone engraver makes an error or if a +change is required after his engraving is finished, the parts to be +corrected must be scraped off and a new ground laid before the correction +can be made. Sometimes he will engrave the parts corrected on +another part of the original stone and transfer it to the printing +stone. Corrections are made on copper plates by "hammering up" +the plate from beneath, polishing off a new surface, and reengraving +the part to be corrected.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX.</p> + + +<p>The matter given in this appendix is much used in making geologic +maps and other illustrations. The Greek alphabet and the groups of +signs presented are given chiefly to show the correct formation of each +letter and sign.</p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="MISCELLANEOUS_TABLES" id="MISCELLANEOUS_TABLES"></a> +MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.</p> + + +<p class="p0 pmb1 center"><i>Length of 1° of longitude measured along given parallels from the Equator to +the poles.</i><br /> +<br /> +[From U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1884, Appendix 6.]<br /></p> + +<table style="width:40em" summary="Distance"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt bdb"> + <table style="width:100%" summary="col1"> + <tr> + <td class="bdt bdb">Parallel of<br />latitude.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb">Statute miles.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">0</td> + <td class="tdr2">69.172</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">1</td> + <td class="tdr2">69.162</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">2</td> + <td class="tdr2">69.130</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">3</td> + <td class="tdr2">69.078</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">4</td> + <td class="tdr2">69.005</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">5</td> + <td class="tdr2">68.911</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">6</td> + <td class="tdr2">68.795</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">7</td> + <td class="tdr2">68.660</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">8</td> + <td class="tdr2">68.504</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">9</td> + <td class="tdr2">68.326</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">10</td> + <td class="tdr2">68.129</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">11</td> + <td class="tdr2">67.910</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">12</td> + <td class="tdr2">67.670</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">13</td> + <td class="tdr2">67.410</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">14</td> + <td class="tdr2">67.131</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">15</td> + <td class="tdr2">66.830</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">16</td> + <td class="tdr2">66.510</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">17</td> + <td class="tdr2">66.169</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">18</td> + <td class="tdr2">65.808</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">19</td> + <td class="tdr2">65.427</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">20</td> + <td class="tdr2">65.026</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">21</td> + <td class="tdr2">64.606</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">22</td> + <td class="tdr2">64.166</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">23</td> + <td class="tdr2">63.706</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">24</td> + <td class="tdr2">63.228</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">25</td> + <td class="tdr2">62.729</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">26</td> + <td class="tdr2">62.212</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">27</td> + <td class="tdr2">61.676</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">28</td> + <td class="tdr2">61.122</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2">29</td> + <td class="tdr2">60.548</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bdb tdr2">30</td> + <td class="bdb tdr2">59.956</td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2 vtop"> + <table style="width:100%" summary="col2"> + <tr> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2">Parallel of<br />latitude.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb">Statute miles.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">31</td> + <td class="tdr2">59.365</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">32</td> + <td class="tdr2">58.716</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">33</td> + <td class="tdr2">58.071</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">34</td> + <td class="tdr2">67.407</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">35</td> + <td class="tdr2">66.725</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">36</td> + <td class="tdr2">66.027</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">37</td> + <td class="tdr2">65.311</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">38</td> + <td class="tdr2">64.679</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">39</td> + <td class="tdr2">63.829</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">40</td> + <td class="tdr2">53.063</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">41</td> + <td class="tdr2">62.281</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">42</td> + <td class="tdr2">51.483</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">43</td> + <td class="tdr2">60.669</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">44</td> + <td class="tdr2">49.840</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">45</td> + <td class="tdr2">48.995</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">46</td> + <td class="tdr2">48.136</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">47</td> + <td class="tdr2">47.261</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">48</td> + <td class="tdr2">46.372</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">49</td> + <td class="tdr2">45.469</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">50</td> + <td class="tdr2">44.652</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">51</td> + <td class="tdr2">43.621</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">52</td> + <td class="tdr2">42.676</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">53</td> + <td class="tdr2">41.719</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">54</td> + <td class="tdr2">40.749</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">55</td> + <td class="tdr2">39.766</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">56</td> + <td class="tdr2">38.771</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">57</td> + <td class="tdr2">37.764</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">58</td> + <td class="tdr2">36.745</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">59</td> + <td class="tdr2">35.716</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">60</td> + <td class="tdr2">34.674</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bdb bdl2"> </td> + <td class="bdb"></td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2 vtop"> + <table style="width:100%" summary="col3"> + <tr> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2">Parallel of<br />latitude.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb">Statute miles.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">61</td> + <td class="tdr2">33.623</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">62</td> + <td class="tdr2">32.560</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">63</td> + <td class="tdr2">31.488</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">64</td> + <td class="tdr2">30.406</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">65</td> + <td class="tdr2">29.315</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">66</td> + <td class="tdr2">28.215</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">67</td> + <td class="tdr2">27.106</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">68</td> + <td class="tdr2">26.988</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">69</td> + <td class="tdr2">24.862</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">70</td> + <td class="tdr2">23.729</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">71</td> + <td class="tdr2">22.589</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">72</td> + <td class="tdr2">21.441</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">73</td> + <td class="tdr2">20.287</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">74</td> + <td class="tdr2">19.127</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">75</td> + <td class="tdr2">17.960</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">76</td> + <td class="tdr2">16.788</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">77</td> + <td class="tdr2">15.611</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">78</td> + <td class="tdr2">14.428</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">79</td> + <td class="tdr2">13.242</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">80</td> + <td class="tdr2">12.051</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">81</td> + <td class="tdr2">10.857</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">82</td> + <td class="tdr2">9.659</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">83</td> + <td class="tdr2">8.458</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">84</td> + <td class="tdr2">7.256</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">85</td> + <td class="tdr2">6.049</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">86</td> + <td class="tdr2">4.842</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">87</td> + <td class="tdr2">3.632</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">88</td> + <td class="tdr2">2.422</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">89</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.211</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr2 bdl2">90</td> + <td class="tdr2">.000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bdb bdl2"> </td> + <td class="bdb"></td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="p0 center pmt2 pmb1"><i>Length of 1° of latitude measured along a meridian at given parallels.</i><br /> +<br /> +[Parallel given is in center of the degree whose length is stated.]<br /></p> + +<table style="width:25em" summary="Length of One Degree"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Parallel of<br />latitude.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Statute<br />miles.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2 center">Parallel of<br />latitude.</td> + <td class="bdt bdr bdb bdl center">Statute<br />miles.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl tdr2">0</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">68.704</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">50</td> + <td class="bdl bdr tdr2">69.115</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bdl tdr2">10</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">68.725</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">60</td> + <td class="bdl bdr tdr2">69.230</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bdl tdr2">20</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">68.786</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">70</td> + <td class="bdl bdr tdr2">69.324</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bdl tdr2">30</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">68.879</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">80</td> + <td class="bdl bdr tdr2">69.386</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">40</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">68.993</td> + <td class="bdb bdl2 tdr2">90</td> + <td class="bdb bdl bdr tdr2">69.407</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption3">Metric system and equivalents.</p> + +<p class="pmb1 center">[The units of linear measure most commonly used are millimeters (mm.), centimeters (cm.),<br /> +decimeters (dm.), meters (m.), and kilometers (km.), 1 m. = 10 dm.; 1 dm. = 10 cm.;<br /> +1 cm. = 10 mm.; 1 km. = 1,000 meters = 0.62137 mile; 1 m. = 39.37 inches = 3.280833 feet.]</p> + +<table style="width:40em" summary="Metric Equivalents"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt bdb center">Meters.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Inches.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2 center">Meters.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Feet.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2 center">Kilometers.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Miles.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">1</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">39.37</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">1</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">3.280633</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">1</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">0.62137</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">2</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">78.74</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">2</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">6.561667</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">2</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">1.24274</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">3</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">118.11</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">3</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">9.842500</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">3</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">1.86411</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">4</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">157.48</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">4</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">13.123333</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">4</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">2.48548</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">5</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">196.85</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">5</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">16.404166</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">5</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">3.10685</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">6</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">236.22</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">6</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">19.685000</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">6</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">3.72822</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">7</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">275.59</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">7</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">22.965833</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">7</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">4.34959</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">8</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">314.96</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">8</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">26.246666</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">8</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">4.97096</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdb tdr2">9</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">354.33</td> + <td class="bdb bdl2 tdr2">9</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">29.527500</td> + <td class="bdb bdl2 tdr2">9</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">5.59233</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdt bdb center">Inches.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Centimeters.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2 center">Feet.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Meters.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2 center">Miles.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl center">Kilometers.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">1</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">2.54</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">1</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">0.304801</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">1</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">1.60935</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">2</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">5.08</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">2</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">0.609601</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">2</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">3.21869</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">3</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">7.62</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">3</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">0.914402</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">3</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">4.82804</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">4</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">10.16</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">4</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">1.219202</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">4</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">6.43739</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">5</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">12.70</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">5</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">1.524003</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">5</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">8.04674</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">6</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">15.24</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">6</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">1.828804</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">6</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">9.65606</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">7</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">17.78</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">7</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">2.133604</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">7</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">11.26543</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr2">8</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">20.32</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">8</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">2.438405</td> + <td class="bdl2 tdr2">8</td> + <td class="bdl tdr2">12.87478</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdb tdr2">9</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">22.86</td> + <td class="bdb bdl2 tdr2">9</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">2.743205</td> + <td class="bdb bdl2 tdr2">9</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr2">14.48412</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pmt2 pmb2">The "vara," used in Texas, is equivalent to 33<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> inches and is computed as representing +2.78 feet.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><i>Geologic eras, periods, systems, epochs, and series.</i></p> + + +<table summary="Geological Names"> +<tr> + <td class="caption3">Era.</td> + <td class="caption3" colspan="2">Period or system.</td> + <td class="caption3" colspan="2">Epoch or series.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2">Cenozoic.</td> + <td rowspan="2"><img src="images/brace_l86.png" width="14" height="86" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Quaternary.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l40.png" width="11" height="40" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Recent.<br />Pleistocene (replaces "Glacial").</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Tertiary.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Pliocene.<br />Miocene.<br />Oligocene.<br />Eocene.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td rowspan="3">Mesozoic.</td> + <td rowspan="3"><img src="images/brace_l155.png" width="11" height="155" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Cretaceous.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l40.png" width="11" height="40" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Upper (Gulf may be used provincially).<br /> + Lower (Comanche and Shasta may be used provincially).</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Jurassic.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Upper.<br />Middle.<br />Lower.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Triassic.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Upper.<br />Middle.<br />Lower.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td rowspan="5">Paleozoic.</td> + <td rowspan="5"><img src="images/brace_l240.png" width="11" height="240" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Carboniferous.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Permian.<br />Pennsylvanian (replaces "Upper Carboniferous").<br />Mississippian (replaces "Lower Carboniferous").</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Devonian.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Upper.<br />Middle.<br />Lower.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Silurian.</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ordovician.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Upper (Cincinnatian may be used provincially).<br />Middle (Mohawkian may be used provincially).<br />Lower.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cambrian.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Saratogan (or Upper Cambrian).<br />Acadian (or Middle Cambrian).<br />Waucoban (or Lower Cambrian).</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Proterozoic.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_l40.png" width="11" height="40" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td>Algonkian.<br />Archean.</td> + <td><img src="images/brace_r40.png" width="11" height="40" alt="" title="" /></td> + <td> pre-Cambrian.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption3"><i>Chemical elements and symbols.</i></p> + +<table class="padlf" style="width:45em" summary="Elements/Symbols"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt bdb">Element.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb" style="width:7em">Symbol.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2"> </td> + <td class="bdt bdb">Element.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb" style="width:7em">Symbol.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl2"> </td> + <td class="bdt bdb">Element.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb" style="width:7em">Symbol.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Aluminum</td> + <td>Al</td> + <td class="bdb bdl2" rowspan="28"></td> + <td>Holmium</td> + <td>Ho</td> + <td class="bdb bdl2" rowspan="28"></td> + <td>Rhodium</td> + <td>Rh</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Antimony</td> + <td>Sb</td> + <td>Hydrogen</td> + <td>H</td> + <td>Rubidium</td> + <td>Rb</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Argon</td> + <td>Al</td> + <td>Indium</td> + <td>In</td> + <td>Ruthenium</td> + <td>Ru</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Arsenic</td> + <td>As</td> + <td>Iodine</td> + <td>I</td> + <td>Samarium</td> + <td>Sa</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Barium</td> + <td>Ba</td> + <td>Iridium</td> + <td>Ir</td> + <td>Scandium</td> + <td>Sc</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bismuth</td> + <td>Bi</td> + <td>Iron</td> + <td>Fe</td> + <td>Selenium</td> + <td>Se</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Boron</td> + <td>B</td> + <td>Krypton</td> + <td>Kr</td> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td>Si</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bromine</td> + <td>Br</td> + <td>Lanthanum</td> + <td>La</td> + <td>Silver</td> + <td>Ag</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cadmium</td> + <td>Cd</td> + <td>Lead</td> + <td>Pb</td> + <td>Sodium</td> + <td>Na</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cesium</td> + <td>Cs</td> + <td>Lithium</td> + <td>Li</td> + <td>Strontium</td> + <td>Sr</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Calcium</td> + <td>Ca</td> + <td>Lutecium</td> + <td>Lu</td> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td>S</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carbon</td> + <td>C</td> + <td>Magnesium</td> + <td>Mg</td> + <td>Tantalum</td> + <td>Ta</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cerium</td> + <td>Ce</td> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td>Mn</td> + <td>Tellurium</td> + <td>Te</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Chlorine</td> + <td>Cl</td> + <td>Mercury</td> + <td>Hg</td> + <td>Terbium</td> + <td>Tb</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Chromium</td> + <td>Cr</td> + <td>Molybdenum</td> + <td>Mo</td> + <td>Thallium</td> + <td>Tl</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cobalt</td> + <td>Co</td> + <td>Neodymium</td> + <td>Nd</td> + <td>Thorium</td> + <td>Th</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Columbium</td> + <td>C</td> + <td>Neon</td> + <td>Ne</td> + <td>Thulium</td> + <td>Tm</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Copper</td> + <td>Cu</td> + <td>Nickel</td> + <td>Ni</td> + <td>Tin</td> + <td>Sn</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dysprosium</td> + <td>Dy</td> + <td>Niton</td> + <td>Nt</td> + <td>Titanium</td> + <td>Ti</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Erbium</td> + <td>Er</td> + <td>Nitrogen</td> + <td>N</td> + <td>Tungsten</td> + <td>W</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Europium</td> + <td>Eu</td> + <td>Osmium</td> + <td>Os</td> + <td>Uranium</td> + <td>U</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fluorine</td> + <td>F</td> + <td>Oxygen</td> + <td>O</td> + <td>Vanadium</td> + <td>V</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gadolinium</td> + <td>Gd</td> + <td>Palladium</td> + <td>Pd</td> + <td>Xenon</td> + <td>Xe</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gallium</td> + <td>Ga</td> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td>P</td> + <td>Ytterbium</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Germanium</td> + <td>Ge</td> + <td>Platinum</td> + <td>Pt</td> + <td> (Neoytterbium)</td> + <td>Yb</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Glucinum</td> + <td>Gl</td> + <td>Potassium</td> + <td>K</td> + <td>Yttrium</td> + <td>Y</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gold</td> + <td>Au</td> + <td>Praseodymium</td> + <td>Pr</td> + <td>Zinc</td> + <td>Zn</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdb">Helium</td> + <td class="bdb">He</td> + <td class="bdb">Radium</td> + <td class="bdb">Ra</td> + <td class="bdb">Zirconium</td> + <td class="bdb">Zr</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p class="caption3"><i>Greek alphabet.</i></p> + +<table style="width: 40em; text-align:center;" summary="Greek"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl">Caps.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl">Lower-case.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl">Greek name.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl">English<br />sound.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl" rowspan="13"> </td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl">Caps.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl">Lower-case.</td> + <td class="bdt bdb bdl">Greek name.</td> + <td class="bdt bdr bdb bdl">English<br />sound.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Α</td> + <td class="bdl">α</td> + <td class="bdl">Alpha.</td> + <td class="bdl">A.</td> + <td class="bdl">Ν</td> + <td class="bdl">ν</td> + <td class="bdl">Nu.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">N.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Β</td> + <td class="bdl">β</td> + <td class="bdl">Beta.</td> + <td class="bdl">B.</td> + <td class="bdl">Ξ</td> + <td class="bdl">ξ</td> + <td class="bdl">Xi.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">X.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Γ</td> + <td class="bdl">γ</td> + <td class="bdl">Gamma.</td> + <td class="bdl">G.</td> + <td class="bdl">Ο</td> + <td class="bdl">ο</td> + <td class="bdl">Omicron.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">O short.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Δ</td> + <td class="bdl">δ</td> + <td class="bdl">Delta.</td> + <td class="bdl">D.</td> + <td class="bdl">Π</td> + <td class="bdl">π</td> + <td class="bdl">Pi.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">P.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Ε</td> + <td class="bdl">ε</td> + <td class="bdl">Epsilon.</td> + <td class="bdl">E short.</td> + <td class="bdl">Ρ</td> + <td class="bdl">ρ</td> + <td class="bdl">Rho.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">R.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Ζ</td> + <td class="bdl">ζ</td> + <td class="bdl">Zeta.</td> + <td class="bdl">Z.</td> + <td class="bdl">Σ</td> + <td class="bdl">σ</td> + <td class="bdl">Sigma.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">S.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Η</td> + <td class="bdl">η</td> + <td class="bdl">Eta.</td> + <td class="bdl">E long.</td> + <td class="bdl">Τ</td> + <td class="bdl">τ</td> + <td class="bdl">Tau.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">T.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Θ</td> + <td class="bdl">θ</td> + <td class="bdl">Theta.</td> + <td class="bdl">Th.</td> + <td class="bdl">Υ</td> + <td class="bdl">υ</td> + <td class="bdl">Upsilon.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">U.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Ι</td> + <td class="bdl">ι</td> + <td class="bdl">Iota.</td> + <td class="bdl">I.</td> + <td class="bdl">Φ</td> + <td class="bdl">φ</td> + <td class="bdl">Phi.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">F.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Κ</td> + <td class="bdl">κ</td> + <td class="bdl">Kappa.</td> + <td class="bdl">K.</td> + <td class="bdl">Χ</td> + <td class="bdl">χ</td> + <td class="bdl">Chi.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">Ch.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdl">Λ</td> + <td class="bdl">λ</td> + <td class="bdl">Lambda.</td> + <td class="bdl">L.</td> + <td class="bdl">Ψ</td> + <td class="bdl">ψ</td> + <td class="bdl">Psi.</td> + <td class="bdl bdr">Ps.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdb bdl">Μ</td> + <td class="bdb bdl">μ</td> + <td class="bdb bdl">Mu.</td> + <td class="bdb bdl">M.</td> + <td class="bdb bdl">Ω</td> + <td class="bdb bdl">ω</td> + <td class="bdb bdl">Omega.</td> + <td class="bdb bdl bdr">O long.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="caption3"><i>Roman numerals.</i></p> + +<table style="width:35em" summary="Roman Numerals"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt tdr">I</td> + <td class="bdt tdr2">1</td> + <td class="bdt bdl tdr">IX</td> + <td class="bdt tdr2">9</td> + <td class="bdt bdl tdr">LXX</td> + <td class="bdt tdr2">70</td> + <td class="bdt bdl tdr">D</td> + <td class="bdt tdr">500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">II</td> + <td class="tdr2">2</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">X</td> + <td class="tdr2">10</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">LXXX</td> + <td class="tdr2">80</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">DC</td> + <td class="tdr">600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">III</td> + <td class="tdr2">3</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">XIX</td> + <td class="tdr2">19</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">XC</td> + <td class="tdr2">90</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">DCC</td> + <td class="tdr">700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">IV</td> + <td class="tdr2">4</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">XX</td> + <td class="tdr2">20</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">C</td> + <td class="tdr2">100</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">DCCC</td> + <td class="tdr">800</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">V</td> + <td class="tdr2">5</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">XXX</td> + <td class="tdr2">30</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">CL</td> + <td class="tdr2">150</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">CM</td> + <td class="tdr">900</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">VI</td> + <td class="tdr2">6</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">XL</td> + <td class="tdr2">40</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">CC</td> + <td class="tdr2">200</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">M</td> + <td class="tdr">1000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">VII</td> + <td class="tdr2">7</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">L</td> + <td class="tdr2">50</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">CCC</td> + <td class="tdr2">300</td> + <td class="bdl tdr">MD</td> + <td class="tdr">1500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdb tdr">VIII</td> + <td class="bdb tdr2">8</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr">LX</td> + <td class="bdb tdr2">60</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr">CD</td> + <td class="bdb tdr2">400</td> + <td class="bdb bdl tdr">MCM</td> + <td class="bdb tdr">1900</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption3">Mathematical signs.</p> + +<table style="width:35em" summary="Math Symbols"> +<tr> + <td class="bdt tdl2" style="width:20%">+</td> + <td class="bdt" style="width:40%">plus.</td> + <td class="bdt bdl tdl2" style="width:10%">~</td> + <td class="bdt" style="width:30%">difference</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">-</td> + <td>minus.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">∫</td> + <td>integration.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">×</td> + <td>multiplied by.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">≎</td> + <td>equivalence.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">÷</td> + <td>divided by.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">:</td> + <td>ratio.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">=</td> + <td>equality.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">∺</td> + <td>geometrical proportion.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">±</td> + <td>plus or minus.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">–:</td> + <td>difference, excess.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">□</td> + <td>square.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">∴</td> + <td>therefore.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">▭</td> + <td>rectangle.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">∵</td> + <td>because.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">∆</td> + <td>triangle.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">∞</td> + <td>infinity.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">◯</td> + <td>circle.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">∝</td> + <td>varies as.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">∠</td> + <td>angle.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">√</td> + <td>radical.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">∟</td> + <td>right angle.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">°</td> + <td>degree.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">⫍ or ></td> + <td>greater than.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">'</td> + <td>minute.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl2">⫎ or <</td> + <td>less than.</td> + <td class="bdl tdl2">"</td> + <td>second.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="bdb tdl2">⊥</td> + <td class="bdb">perpendicular.</td> + <td class="bdb bdl"></td> + <td class="bdb"></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="caption2"><a name="NAMES_OF_ROCKS" id="NAMES_OF_ROCKS"></a>NAMES OF ROCKS.</p> + + +<p>The following list was prepared in the geologic branch for the use +of geologic draftsmen to enable them to select appropriate symbols +for rocks that may be referred to in preliminary drawings by name +only. For sedimentary rocks dots and circles, parallel lines, and +broken or dotted lines are used; for metamorphic rocks short dashes +arranged without definite patterns; and for igneous rocks patterns +composed of short dashes, triangles, rhombs, crosses, and cross lines. +All these patterns are shown in <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><i>Sedimentary material.</i></p> + +<p class="pmb2 center">[Including residual, detrital, eolian, glacial, organic, and chemically precipitated +material.]</p> + +<table style="width:40em" summary="Metamorphic rocks"> +<tr> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Agglomerate.<br /> + Alabaster.<br /> + Alluvium.<br /> + Alum shale.<br /> + Anhydrite.<br /> + Apron (alluvial).<br /> + Argillite.<br /> + Arkose.<br /> + Asphalt.<br /> + Bench gravel.<br /> + Bentonite.<br /> + Boulder clay.<br /> + Brea.<br /> + Breccia.<br /> + Brownstone.<br /> + Burrstone.<br /> + Calcarenite.<br /> + Calc sinter.<br /> + Caliche.<br /> + Catlinite.<br /> + Chalk.<br /> + Chert.<br /> + Clay.<br /> + Coal.<br /> + Conglomerate.<br /> + Coprolite.<br /> + Coquina.<br /> + Detritus.<br /> + Diatomaceous earth.<br /> + Diluvium.<br /> + Dolomite.<br /> + Drift.<br /> + Fan (alluvial).<br /> + Fanglomerate.<br /> + Flagstone.<br /> + Flint.<br /> + Freestone.<br /> + Fuller's earth.<br /> + Geyserite.<br /> + Gravel.<br /> + Graywacke.<br /> + Greensand.<br /> + Grit.<br /> + Gumbo.<br /> + Gypsum.<br /> + Hardpan.<br /> + Hematite.<br /> + Infusorial earth. + </td> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Ironstone (also igneous).<br /> + Itacolumite.<br /> + Kame.<br /> + Kaolin.<br /> + Laterite.<br /> + Lignite.<br /> + Limestone.<br /> + Limonite.<br /> + Loess.<br /> + Marble (also metamorphic).<br /> + Marl.<br /> + Metaxite.<br /> + Morainal deposit.<br /> + Mudstone.<br /> + Novaculite.<br /> + Peat.<br /> + Pelite.<br /> + Phosphate rock.<br /> + Phosphorite.<br /> + Phthanite.<br /> + Psammites.<br /> + Psephites.<br /> + Puddingstone.<br /> + Pyroclastic material.<br /> + Quartzite (also metamorphic).<br /> + Reddle.<br /> + Rock salt.<br /> + Rock stream.<br /> + Rubble.<br /> + Salt.<br /> + Sand.<br /> + Sandstone.<br /> + Selenite.<br /> + Shale.<br /> + Silt.<br /> + Slate (also metamorphic).<br /> + Soil.<br /> + Stalactite.<br /> + Stalagmite.<br /> + Talc.<br /> + Talus.<br /> + Till.<br /> + Travertine.<br /> + Tripoli.<br /> + Tufa (=chemically deposited lime).<br /> + Tuff (=igneous fragments).<br /> + Wacke.<br /> + Wash. + </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption3"><i>Metamorphic material.</i></p> + +<table style="width:40em" summary="Metamorphic rocks"> +<tr> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Adinole.<br /> + Amphibolite.<br /> + Andalusite schist (?).<br /> + Apo (rhyolite), etc.<br /> + Argillite.<br /> + Augen gneiss (also igneous).<br /> + Biotite schist.<br /> + Calc schist.<br /> + Cataclastic.<br /> + Chlorite schist + Clay slate.<br /> + Damourite schist.<br /> + Desmosite.<br /> + Dynamometamorphic rock.<br /> + Eclogite.<br /> + Epidosite.<br /> + Erlan.<br /> + Erlanfels.<br /> + Eulysite.<br /> + Fibrolite schist + Garnet rock.<br /> + Garnet schist.<br /> + Gneiss.<br /> + Granite gneiss.<br /> + Graywacke (?).<br /> + Green schists.<br /> + Greenstone (also igneous).<br /> + Greisen.<br /> + Halleflinta.<br /> + Hornblende schist + Hornfels. + </td> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Hornstone.<br /> + Itabirite.<br /> + Kinzigite.<br /> + Knotenschiefer.<br /> + Knotty schists.<br /> + Luxulianite (igneous?).<br /> + Marble.<br /> + Meta (diabase), etc.<br /> + Mica schist.<br /> + Mylonite.<br /> + Ophicalcite.<br /> + Ottrelite schist.<br /> + Phyllite.<br /> + Porcelanite.<br /> + Protogene.<br /> + Pyroschists.<br /> + Quartz.<br /> + Quartzite.<br /> + Quartz schist.<br /> + Schist.<br /> + Sericite schist, etc.<br /> + Serpentine.<br /> + Slate.<br /> + Soapstone.<br /> + Sodalite.<br /> + Spilosite.<br /> + Steatite.<br /> + Talc schist.<br /> + Topazfels.<br /> + Topaz rock.<br /> + Zobtenite. + </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="caption3"><i>Igneous material.</i></p> + +<table style="width:40em" summary="Igneous rocks"> +<tr> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Absarokite.<br /> + Abyssal.<br /> + Adamellite.<br /> + Adendiorite.<br /> + Ailsyte.<br /> + Åkerite.<br /> + Alaskite.<br /> + Albitlte.<br /> + Allivalite.<br /> + Allochetite.<br /> + Alnölte.<br /> + Alsbachite.<br /> + Ambonite.<br /> + Amherstite.<br /> + Analcitite.<br /> + Andesite.<br /> + Anorthosite.<br /> + Aphanitite.<br /> + Aplite.<br /> + Arkite.<br /> + Atatschite.<br /> + Augen gneiss (also metamorphic).<br /> + Augitite.<br /> + Avezacite.<br /> + Banakite.<br /> + Banatite.<br /> + Bandaite.<br /> + Basalt.<br /> + Basanite.<br /> + Beerbachite.<br /> + Bekinkinite.<br /> + Bombs.<br /> + Borolanite.<br /> + Bostonite.<br /> + Camptonite.<br /> + Carmeloite.<br /> + Cascadite.<br /> + Chibinite.<br /> + Ciminite.<br /> + Comendite.<br /> + Complementary rocks.<br /> + Coppaelite.<br /> + Cortlandite.<br /> + Cromaltite.<br /> + Cumberlandite.<br /> + Cuselite.<br /> + Dacite.<br /> + Dellenite.<br /> + Diabase.<br /> + Diallagite.<br /> + Dike rock.<br /> + Diorite.<br /> + Ditroite. + </td> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Dolerite.<br /> + Dunite.<br /> + Durbachite.<br /> + Effusive rock.<br /> + Ekerite.<br /> + Elvan.<br /> + Enstatite.<br /> + Eruptive rock.<br /> + Essexite.<br /> + Estrellite.<br /> + Eulysite.<br /> + Extrusive rock.<br /> + Farrisite.<br /> + Felsite.<br /> + Felsophyre.<br /> + Fergusite.<br /> + Fortunite.<br /> + Fourchite.<br /> + Foyaite.<br /> + Gabbro.<br /> + Gauteite.<br /> + Garewaite.<br /> + Glumarrite.<br /> + Gladkaite.<br /> + Granite.<br /> + Granitite.<br /> + Granitoid.<br /> + Granodiorite.<br /> + Granophyre.<br /> + Greenstone (also metamorphic).<br /> + Greisen (?).<br /> + Grorudite.<br /> + Harrisite.<br /> + Harzburgite.<br /> + Haüynophyre.<br /> + Hawaiite.<br /> + Hedrumite.<br /> + Heumite.<br /> + Holyokeite.<br /> + Hornblendite.<br /> + Hypabyssal rock.<br /> + Hyperite.<br /> + Hypersthenite.<br /> + Ijolite.<br /> + Intrusive rock.<br /> + Irruptive (=Intrusive) rock.<br /> + Isenite.<br /> + Jacupirangite.<br /> + Jumillite.<br /> + Kaiwekite.<br /> + Kedabekite.<br /> + Kentallenite.<br /> + Kenyite. + </td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption3"><i>Igneous material.</i>—Continued.</p> + +<table style="width:40em" summary="Igneous rocks"> +<tr> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Keratophyre.<br /> + Kersantite.<br /> + Kimberlite.<br /> + Kobalaite.<br /> + Krablite.<br /> + Krageröite.<br /> + Kulaite.<br /> + Kyschytymite.<br /> + Lamprophyre.<br /> + Latite.<br /> + Laugenite.<br /> + Laurdalite.<br /> + Laurvikite.<br /> + Lava.<br /> + Lestiwarite.<br /> + Leucite basalt.<br /> + Leucite tephrite.<br /> + Leucitite.<br /> + Leucocratic.<br /> + Lherzolite.<br /> + Limbergite.<br /> + Lindoite.<br /> + Liparite.<br /> + Litchfieldite.<br /> + Lithoidite.<br /> + Luciitss.<br /> + Lujaurite.<br /> + Madrupite.<br /> + Maenaite.<br /> + Magma basalt.<br /> + Malchite.<br /> + Malignite.<br /> + Mangerite.<br /> + Mariupolite.<br /> + Melaphyre.<br /> + Melilite basalt.<br /> + Mesanite.<br /> + Mica peridotite.<br /> + Minette.<br /> + Missourite.<br /> + Monchiquite.<br /> + Mondholdeite.<br /> + Monmouthite.<br /> + Monzonite.<br /> + Mugearite.<br /> + Naujaite.<br /> + Nelsonite.<br /> + Nephelinite.<br /> + Nevadite.<br /> + Nordmarkite.<br /> + Norite.<br /> + Obsidian.<br /> + Odinite.<br /> + Orbite.<br /> + Orendite.<br /> + Ornöite.<br /> + Orthophyre.<br /> + Ortlerite.<br /> + Ouachitite.<br /> + Paisanite.<br /> + Pantellerite.<br /> + Pegmatite.<br /> + Peridotite.<br /> + Perknite. + </td> + <td class="vtop" style="width:18em">Perlite.<br /> + Phanerite.<br /> + Phonolite.<br /> + Pierite.<br /> + Pitchstone.<br /> + Plagiaplite.<br /> + Plagioclastic.<br /> + Plumasite.<br /> + Plutonic rock.<br /> + Pollenite.<br /> + Porphyry.<br /> + Pulaskite.<br /> + Pumice.<br /> + Pyroxenite.<br /> + Rhombenporphyry.<br /> + Rhyolite.<br /> + Rizzonite.<br /> + Rockalite.<br /> + Santorinite.<br /> + Sanukite.<br /> + Saxonite.<br /> + Scyelite.<br /> + Shastaite.<br /> + Shonkinite.<br /> + Shoshonite.<br /> + Soda granite.<br /> + Sölvsbergite.<br /> + Sommaite.<br /> + Spessartite.<br /> + Sussexite.<br /> + Syenite.<br /> + Taimyrite.<br /> + Tawite.<br /> + Tephrite.<br /> + Teschenite.<br /> + Theralite.<br /> + Tilaite.<br /> + Tinguaite.<br /> + Tjosite.<br /> + Tonalite.<br /> + Tonsbergite.<br /> + Tordrillite.<br /> + Toscanite (?).<br /> + Trachy-andesite.<br /> + Trachyte.<br /> + Trap.<br /> + Troctolite.<br /> + Umptekite.<br /> + Unakite.<br /> + Ungaite.<br /> + Urtite.<br /> + Valbellite.<br /> + Venanzite.<br /> + Verite.<br /> + Vitrophyre.<br /> + Vogesite.<br /> + Volcanic rock.<br /> + Volhynite.<br /> + Vulsinite.<br /> + Websterite.<br /> + Wehrlite.<br /> + Windsorite.<br /> + Wyomingite.<br /> + Yamaskite. + </td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a><br /> +[98]<br /> +[99]</span></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</p> + +<p class="center">[<a href="#alpha_A">A</a>] [<a href="#alpha_B">B</a>] [<a href="#alpha_C">C</a>] [<a href="#alpha_D">D</a>] [<a href="#alpha_E">E</a>] [<a href="#alpha_F">F</a>] [<a href="#alpha_G">G</a>] [<a href="#alpha_H">H</a>] [<a href="#alpha_I">I</a>] [<a href="#alpha_J">J</a>] [<a href="#alpha_L">L</a>]<br /> +[<a href="#alpha_M">M</a>] [<a href="#alpha_N">N</a>] [<a href="#alpha_O">O</a>] [<a href="#alpha_P">P</a>] [<a href="#alpha_R">R</a>] [<a href="#alpha_S">S</a>] [<a href="#alpha_T">T</a>] [<a href="#alpha_V">V</a>] [<a href="#alpha_W">W</a>] [<a href="#alpha_Z">Z</a>]</p> + +<p class="p0" style="margin-left: 25%"> + <a name="alpha_A" id="alpha_A"></a><span class="alpha">A.</span><br /> + + Abbreviations, forms of. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> + Adhesive materials, choice. <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> + Alaska, maps of, reuse of. <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> + Albertype. <i>See</i> <a href="#Photogelatin_processes">Photogelatin processes</a>.<br /> + Apparatus, photographs of, preferred to sketches. <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> + Approval of finished drawings, features to be covered by. <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">of</span> illustrations, regulations governing. <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> + Areas, patterns used to distinguish. <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">patterns</span> used to distinguish, plate showing. <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + Army, Corps of Engineers of the, maps published by. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Artotype. <i>See</i> <a href="#Photogelatin_processes">Photogelatin processes</a>.<br /> + Atlases, published, use of. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_B" id="alpha_B"></a><span class="alpha">B.</span><br /> + + Base maps. <i>See</i> <a href="#Maps_base">Maps, base</a>.<br /> + Bleaching photographic prints, method and solutions for. <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + Border for maps, width and use of. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + Bristol board, kind Mid sizes used. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> + Brash and pencil drawings, materials and methods used in making. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + Brushes, kinds and sizes used. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>,<a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_C" id="alpha_C"></a><span class="alpha">C.</span><br /> + + Celluloid transferring, process of. <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">requisitions</span> for. <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> + Cerotype process, description and advantages of. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> + <a name="Changes" id="Changes"></a>Changes in engravings, possible kinds of. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> + Changes in original material, draftsman to consult author on. <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> + Chemical elements, names and symbols of. <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> + Chromolithography, description of. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> + Civil divisions, lettering of. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + Coal beds, indication of thickness of. <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> + Coast and Geodetic Survey charts, use of. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Collotype. <i>See</i> <a href="#Photogelatin_processes">Photogelatin processes</a>.<br /> + Coloring materials, use of. <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + Colors, standard, for geologic maps. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">use</span> of, for ground-water features. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">on</span> original geologic maps. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + Commas, form of. <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">use</span> of, in numbers. <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + Contours, drawing of. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> + Cooperation, mention of. <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> + Copper, engraving on. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">etching</span> in relief on, process and advantages of. <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> + Copying methods of. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> + Corrections. <i>See</i> <a href="#Changes">Changes</a>.<br /> + Cost of photo-engravings. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> + County maps, use of. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Crayons, wax, use of. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> + Credit for data of maps, indication of. <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> + Crystals, drawings of, making and lettering of. <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> + Cultural features, lettering of. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">list</span> of. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> + Curves, date showing. <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> + Cuts. <i>See</i> <a href="#Engravings">Engravings</a>.<br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_D" id="alpha_D"></a><span class="alpha">D.</span><br /> + + Details of a geologic map, plate showing. <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + Diagrams, drawing and lettering of. <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">features</span> of, plate showing. <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">original</span>, general requirements for. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + Director of the Survey, order by. <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> + Divisions of plates and figures, serial letters and numbers for. <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> + Drafting table, shadowless, description of. <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">shadowless</span>, use of. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> + Draftsmen, detail of, to aid author. <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">detail</span> of, to prepare base maps. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">experience</span> and reading required by. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">general</span> treatment of material by. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> + Drainage features, depiction of. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + Drawing instruments, list of. <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> + Drawing materials, kinds used. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + Drawings, authors', draftsmen may aid in making. <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">authors</span>', editorial revision of. <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">finished</span>, general requirements for. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">requests</span> for photographs of. <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + Duplicates of engravings, charges for. <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_E" id="alpha_E"></a><span class="alpha">E.</span><br /> + + Effectiveness of illustrations, elements that produce. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> + Electrotypes of engravings, charges for. <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + Elements, chemical, names and symbols of. <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> + <a name="Engraving_on_stone" id="Engraving_on_stone"></a>Engraving on stone, process of. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Lithography2">Lithography</a>.</span><br /> + <a name="Engravings" id="Engravings"></a>Engravings, changes in. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">original</span>, time of keeping. <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> + Erasers, injury to paper by. <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">kinds</span> used. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + Erasures, smoothing paper after. <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + Explanations on maps, arrangement and lettering of. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_F" id="alpha_F"></a><span class="alpha">F.</span><br /> + + Figures, differences from plates. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-<a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">divisions</span> of, serial letters for. <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">methods</span> of inserting, plate showing. <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> + Formations, geologic, use of letter symbols for. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + Fossils. <i>See</i> <a href="#Specimens">Specimens</a>.<br /> + Four-color process, advantage of. <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_G" id="alpha_G"></a><span class="alpha">G.</span><br /> + + Gas wells, symbols for. <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + Generalization, true, meaning of. <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> + Geographic tables and formulas (Bull. 650), use of. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> + Geologic periods of time, names of. <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> + Gouache, use of. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + Great Lakes surveys, maps published by. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> + Greek letters, forms, names, and English sounds of. <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> + Ground-water features, symbols representing. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_H" id="alpha_H"></a><span class="alpha">H.</span><br /> + + Hachuring, use of. <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> + Half-tone engraving, preparation of copy for. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">process</span> and advantages of. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">three</span>-color process of. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> + Half tones, changes in. <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">prints</span> of, showing effects produced by different screens. <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">requirements</span> for printing. <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + Heliotype. <i>See</i> <a href="#Photogelatin_processes">Photogelatin processes</a>.<br /> + Hill shading, use of. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> + Hydrographic features, lettering of. <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">representation</span> of. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + Hypsographic features, lettering of. <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_I" id="alpha_I"></a><span class="alpha">I.</span><br /> + + Illustrations, kinds of. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-<a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + Inks, kinds used. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">methods</span> of using. <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> + Inserting plates and figures, methods of, plate showing. <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> + Instruments, draftsmen's, list of. <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_J" id="alpha_J"></a><span class="alpha">J.</span><br /> + + Japanese transparent water colors, use of. <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_L" id="alpha_L"></a><span class="alpha">L.</span><br /> + + Land Office maps, scales and detail of. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Latitude, length of 1° of, at intervals of 10°. <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> + Lending of photographs and drawings, rules governing. <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + Letter symbols, use of, on geologic maps. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + Lettering, directions for. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">for</span> lithographing. <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">for</span> names of streams. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">on</span> diagrams. <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">on</span> drawings of crystals. <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">on</span> original maps. <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">on</span> plans and cross sections of mines. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">reduction</span> sheet used in, plate showing. <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">use</span> of type for. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + Light, direction and gradation of. <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> + Lithographs, printing and insertion of. <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + <a name="Lithography2" id="Lithography2"></a>Lithography, original process of. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Engraving_on_stone">Engraving on stone</a>.</span><br /> + Longitude, length of 1° of, at latitudes 0° to 90°. <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_M" id="alpha_M"></a><span class="alpha">M.</span><br /> + + Map of the world, millionth-scale, use of, for base maps. <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> + Maps, areal patterns for, drawing of. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">bar</span> scales for. <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em"><a name="Maps_base" id="Maps_base"></a>base</span>, conventional symbols used on. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">including</span> new data, how obtained. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">indication</span> of sources on. <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">of</span> the United States on small scales, use of. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">published</span> maps available for. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">reuse</span> of, to be approved. <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">black</span> and whits, patterns used on, plate showing. <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">borders</span> for. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">cultural</span> features on. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">enlargement</span> and reduction of. <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">explanations</span> for. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">geologic</span>, details of, plate showing. <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">printing</span> of. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">standard</span> colors for. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">hydrographic</span> features on. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">lettering</span> on. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">materials</span> used for drawing. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">orientation</span> of. <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">original</span>, margin required on. <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">original</span> base, amount of detail on. <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">must</span> be free from colors and symbols. <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">preparation</span> of. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">original</span> geologic, method of coloring. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">projection</span> for. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">reduction</span> or enlargement of, marking for. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">relief</span> on. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">standard</span> scales for. <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">symbols</span> used on. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">drawing</span> of. <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">plates</span> showing. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">titles</span> for. <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">topographic</span>, scales of. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Mathematical signs, forms and names of. <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> + Measures, linear, metric equivalents of. <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> + Measuring scales for map projection, use of. <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> + Meridians used on public-land maps, diagram showing. <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> + Metric measures, English equivalents of. <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> + Millionth-scale map, use of. <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> + Mine plans, conventional lines for. <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">features</span> of. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">symbols</span> used on, plate showing. <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + Minerals. <i>See</i> <a href="#Rocks">Rocks</a>.<br /> + Mississippi River Commission, maps published by <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_N" id="alpha_N"></a><span class="alpha">N.</span><br /> + + Names of rocks. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> + National forest maps and proclamations, use of. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_O" id="alpha_O"></a><span class="alpha">O.</span><br /> + + Offset process, description of. <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> + Oilwells, symbols for. <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + Opaquing, meaning of. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> + Orientation of maps, requirements for. <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + Original drawings, general treatment of, by draftsmen. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">preparation</span> of. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> + Outdoor sketches, redrawing of. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_P" id="alpha_P"></a><span class="alpha">P.</span><br /> + + Panoramas, construction of. <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + Paper, kinds used for drawings. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + Pastes, use of. <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> + Patterns, areal, method of drawing. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">areal</span>, plate showing. <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + Pen drawings, materials and methods used in making. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + Pencils, colored, use of. <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">drawing</span>, quality and grades of. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> + Pens, kinds of, used for drawing. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> + Photoengraving, cost of. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">general</span> features of. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> + Photoengravings, printing and insertion of. <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + <a name="Photogelatin_processes" id="Photogelatin_processes"></a>Photogelatin processes, description of. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> + Photographs, adaptation of. <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">bleaching</span> of. <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">care</span> needed in taking and handling. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">copyrighted</span>, consent for use of. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">duplicate</span> prints of, requests for. <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">mounting</span> and numbering of. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">poor</span>, mating of drawings over. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">preparation</span> of, for half-tone engraving. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">record</span> of source of. <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">selection</span> of. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">retouching</span> of. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">suitability</span> of. <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">unpublished</span>, issue and use of. <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + Photolithographs, changes in. <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + Photolithography, description of. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> + Planographic process, description of. <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> + Plans of mines, drawing and lettering of. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">symbols</span> used on, plate showing. <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + Plates, differences from figures. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-<a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">divisions</span> of, serial letters and numbers for. <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">grouping</span> small illustrations on. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">methods</span> of inserting, plate showing. <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> + Political divisions, lettering of. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + Post-route maps, scales and detail of. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Projection for maps, preparation and checking of. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> + Proofs, changes in. <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">correction</span> of. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">duplicate</span>, supplying of. <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">submittal</span> of. <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + Public-land maps, meridians, parallels, and township lines used on, diagram showing. <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> + Public works, lettering of. <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> + Punctuation marks, forms of. <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + Purpose of illustrations in Survey reports. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_R" id="alpha_R"></a><span class="alpha">R.</span><br /> + + Railroad surveys, data for maps obtainable from. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Railroads, names of, on maps. <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> + Reduction of maps, marking drawings for. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">means</span> of. <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + Reduction sheet for lettering, plate showing. <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">use</span> of. <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + Relief, methods of expressing. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> + Reproduction of illustrations, processes for. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">relation</span> of, to the drawing supplied. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> + Reticulation, sketching by. <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> + Retouching of photographs, materials and method used in. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + Reuse of illustrations, procedure for. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + <a name="Rocks" id="Rocks"></a>Rocks, igneous, names of. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">metamorphic</span>, names of. <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">sedimentary</span>, names of. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">symbols</span> used to distinguish. <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Specimens">Specimens</a>.</span><br /> + Roman numerals, numbers expressed by. <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> + Rubber, liquid, use of. <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_S" id="alpha_S"></a><span class="alpha">S.</span><br /> + + Scales, bar, forms of. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">measuring</span> for projection of maps. <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">standard</span>, of maps. <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + Scope of this manual. <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> + Screens, half-tone prints showing effects produced by. <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> + Selection of illustrations, considerations governing. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> + Sections, columnar, original drawings for. <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">columnar</span>, symbols used in, plate showing. <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">structure</span>, combination of, with views of topography. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">drawing</span> of. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">original</span> drawings for. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">symbols</span> used in, plate showing. <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">vertical</span> exaggeration of. <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> + Shading, kinds used. <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> + Signs, mathematical, forms and names of. <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> + Sises of illustrations. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>-<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> + <a name="Specimens" id="Specimens"></a>Specimens, borrowed and fragile, care of. <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">drawings</span> of, methods of making. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">paleontologic</span>, transmittal of. <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">photographs</span> of, how printed. <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + <span class="ind3em">how</span> used. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> + Springs, symbols for. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + State maps, use of. <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> + Stipple, production of. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> + Stone, engraving on. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> + Streams, drawing of. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">lettering</span> names of. <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + Submittal of illustrations. <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> + Symbols, drawing of. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">for</span> ground-water features, uniformity needed in. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">for</span> maps and mine plans, plates showing. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">uniform</span> use of. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">for</span> oil and gas wells, features of. <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">for</span> structure and columnar sections, plate showing. <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">lithologic</span>, use of. <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_T" id="alpha_T"></a><span class="alpha">T.</span><br /> + + Three-color half-tones, process of making. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> + Titles of illustrations, arrangement and place of. <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">printing</span> of. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">wording</span> and lettering of. <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> + Tooling on half-tones, effects obtained by. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + Topographic atlas sheets, scales of. <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> + Tracing, method of. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">use</span> of colors in. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> + Tracing linen, use of. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> + Transferring, celluloid, process of. <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">celluloid</span>, requisitions for. <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> + Type, lettering with. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">styles</span> and sizes of. <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_V" id="alpha_V"></a><span class="alpha">V.</span><br /> + + Value of illustrations in Survey reports. <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> + Vara, length of. <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> + Vignetting, effect obtained by. <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_W" id="alpha_W"></a><span class="alpha">W.</span><br /> + + Wall map of the United States, use of, for basemaps. <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> + Water colors, use of. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + Waterlining, use of. <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + Wax engraving, process and advantages of. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> + Wells, symbols for. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + Wood engraving, process of. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> + <br /> + + <a name="alpha_Z" id="alpha_Z"></a><span class="alpha">Z.</span><br /> + + Zinc etchings, changes in. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">drawings</span> for. <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">insertion</span> of. <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + <span class="ind2em">making</span> and advantages of. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +</p> + +<p class="center">◯</p> + + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<div class="trans_notes"> +<p class="caption2">Transcriber's Note</p> + +<p>Paragraphs split by illustrations were rejoined.</p> + +<p>In the table of Mathematical symbols, the symbol for "varies as" was +set to the unicode symbol for "proportional to" (&#8733; = ∝).</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Preparation of Illustrations for +Reports of the United States Geologi, by John L. 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