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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ceramic Art, by Jennie J. Young
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: The Ceramic Art
+ A Compendium of The History and Manufacture of Pottery and Porcelain
+
+Author: Jennie J. Young
+
+Release Date: July 15, 2013 [EBook #43221]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CERAMIC ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images available at The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CERAMIC ART
+
+
+
+
+THE CERAMIC ART
+
+A COMPENDIUM OF
+
+THE HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE
+OF
+POTTERY AND PORCELAIN
+
+BY JENNIE J. YOUNG
+
+WITH 464 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+_Argilla quidvis imitaberis uda_
+
+HORACE, EPIST., II., 2, 8
+
+[Illustration]
+
+NEW YORK
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS
+
+FRANKLIN SQUARE
+
+1878
+
+
+Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS,
+
+In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In writing the present volume, the author's object has been to answer as
+tersely and lucidly as possible the more important questions in
+connection with the history and manufacture of pottery and porcelain,
+and to bring the results of recent research to bear upon some of the
+unsolved problems of the "science of ceramics." The literature of the
+subject is formidable in dimensions. Authors have divided the field into
+sections, and have in many cases presented learned and exhaustive
+special treatises. Notwithstanding the solid learning and critical
+acumen reflected in their pages, their form and voluminous character,
+however, detracted from their value as books for familiar and speedy
+reference, and left the acquirement of a general knowledge of the
+ceramic art a matter for wide research and prolonged study on the part
+of every reader and collector. The attempt has here been made to
+condense the leading points of the subject, to arrange them after a
+simple and easily intelligible method, and thus to present in one volume
+a comprehensive history. No hesitation has been shown in drawing upon
+foreign authors. Many of the later developments of the art have also
+been touched upon, and the results of the more recent efforts of artists
+and manufacturers have been illustrated and described. In treating of
+America, the author has endeavored to convey some idea of its wealth in
+materials and of the present condition and tendencies of the industry,
+and to do justice to those who have laid the foundation of its claim to
+recognition in the world of art.
+
+The author has incurred obligations in many quarters for information and
+assistance. Mr. Samuel P. Avery, the Hon. Yoshida Kiyonari, Japanese
+Minister at Washington, General Di Cesnola, and the many private
+collectors whose cabinets are represented in the following pages, gave
+valuable aid both in obtaining illustrations and in other respects. Mr.
+Charles Edward Haviland, Mr. Theodore Haviland, and M. Bracquemond
+contributed many valuable hints upon technology and the manufacture and
+composition of different wares. The dealers of New York, Boston,
+Washington, Albany, and other cities took an active interest both in
+directing the author to collections and in furnishing specimens for
+illustration. Among American manufacturers, Mr. Thomas C. Smith, of
+Greenpoint; Mr. James Carr, of New York; Mr. Hugh C. Robertson, of
+Chelsea, Massachusetts; and Mr. J. Hart Brewer, of Trenton, are
+especially deserving of thanks for helping the author to a true insight
+into the past history, present condition, and prospects of the art in
+the United States.
+
+In regard to the engravings, while it was, of course, found necessary in
+many cases to cull from the rich accumulations of ceramic treasures in
+Europe, in order to secure the proper illustration of the work, the
+preference has invariably been given to the collections of America. Such
+a course recommended itself for obvious reasons. It was thought that it
+would, in the first place, gratify those desirous of knowing where, in
+this country, the best representatives of the art of certain countries
+are to be found; and that, in the second place, it would direct artists
+where to study the best styles of decoration. One result of the author's
+investigations in this matter has been the conviction that the American
+collector is cosmopolitan in his tastes, and that the American
+cabinet--in many instances the American tea-table--represents the amity
+of nations. The arts of all countries are found arrayed side by side in
+a profusion of which it would have been hard, a few years ago, to find a
+trace.
+
+In choosing the pieces to be engraved, a threefold aim has been kept in
+view: the elucidation of the text, the representation of the greatest
+number of different wares by characteristic examples, and the
+introduction of as many beautiful works of art as possible consistently
+with the accomplishment of the two previous objects. The requirements of
+the student of decorative art have been fully considered, and due weight
+has been given to the fact that these requirements can be met better by
+the pencil than the pen.
+
+In procuring specimens, the author has acknowledgments to express both
+to private collectors and to the curators of public institutions. Among
+the latter may be mentioned General Loring, of the Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts, and Mr. H. C. Hutchins, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in this
+city, both of whom admitted the author to a close inspection of the
+collections under their charge, and personally superintended the taking
+of sketches and photographs. Similar favors were received from the
+trustees and Dr. M'Leod, of the Corcoran Art Gallery; from Professor
+Baird and Mr. Cushing, of the Smithsonian Institution, in Washington;
+and from the officers of the United States Geological and Geographical
+Survey of the Territories. Mr. Edward Bierstadt of New York, and Mr. T.
+W. Smillie of Washington, also granted facilities and volunteered
+courtesies which proved invaluable.
+
+Casual reference is made in the following pages to the marks of
+factories and artists, but after due deliberation it was decided not to
+make them the subject of special treatment or illustration. Several good
+manuals are already in the hands of the public, and a book of marks
+should never take any other form. It is comparatively useless unless
+easily portable and handy. Then, again, marks are, and always have been,
+imitated to such an extent that they are not the most trustworthy guides
+to the parentage of specimens. Collectors who buy pieces for the sake of
+the mark they bear may be deceived; those who buy for the sake of beauty
+may occasionally be mistaken; but a cultivated taste can never be
+deluded into finding beauty in the unbeautiful. The art, and not the
+mark, should be studied; and the fact that many of the finest and most
+highly valued specimens--Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Saracenic, Greek,
+Italian, and many modern wares--have no mark gives additional point to
+the observation.
+
+If the present work should be found defective in certain points, it must
+be remembered that it could hardly be otherwise, considering its scope
+and limits. The author will be satisfied if, besides answering its
+primary purpose, it should increase the interest already awakened in the
+subject of which it treats, and lead students to appreciate and examine
+the collections at their command in this country.
+
+RIGHT
+J. J. Y.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Advantages of the Study.--The Lost Origin of the Art.--Ascribed to
+the Gods.--Legends of China, Japan, Egypt, and Greece.--Keramos.--A
+Solution suggested.--How Pottery illustrates History.--How it explains
+the Customs of the Ancients.--Its Bearings upon Religion.--Examples
+from Egypt, Greece, and China.--The Art represented in Pottery.--Its
+Permanency.--As a Combination of Form with Drawing and Color.--Greek
+Art.--Its Merits and Defects.--The Orientals, and their Attention
+to Color.--Eastern Skill.--The Aim of Palissy.--The Highest Aim of
+the Ceramic Artist.--Painting on Porcelain.--Rules to be Observed in
+Decorating.--Where Color alone is a Worthy Object.--How the Art affords
+the Best Illustration of the Useful combined with the Beautiful.--Its
+Place in the Household.....Page 19
+
+BOOK I.--NOMENCLATURE AND METHODS.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+TECHNOLOGY.
+
+Confusion in Use of Terms.--Porcelain as an Instance.--Derivation of
+Ceramic.--Pottery.--Faience.--Majolica.--Mezza-Majolica.--Composition
+of Porcelain.--Origin of Word.--Where first made.--When introduced
+into Europe.--Hard and Soft Paste.--Soft Porcelain of Venice,
+Florence, England, France.--Hard Porcelain invented at Meissen by
+Boettcher.--Vienna.--Discovery of Kaolin in France.--Biscuit.....48
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CLASSIFICATION.
+
+Tabulated View.--Brongniart's Division: Its Objections.--Classification
+adopted.--Leading Features and Advantages.--Distinctions between
+Different Bodies and Different Glazes.....54
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COMPOSITION OF WARES AND GLAZES.
+
+Hard and Soft Pottery and Porcelain.--COMPOSITION OF PORCELAIN:
+Kaolin--Its Derivation and Ingredients--Petuntse--How prepared in
+China.--The European Process.--Differences between Chinese and
+European Porcelains.--Chemical Analysis.--English Porcelain and
+its Peculiarities: Its Average Composition.--How English Clay is
+prepared.--French Artificial Porcelain.--Parian.--COMMON EARTHEN-WARE:
+Table of Ingredients of different kinds.--General Table.--GLAZES:
+Classes.--Brongniart's Classification.--Difference between Enamel
+and Glaze.--Silicious Glaze.--History.--Use of Oxides.--Egyptian
+Processes.--Metallic Lustre.--Stanniferous Enamel: Its History.....59
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MANUFACTURE AND DECORATION.
+
+Divisions of Chapter.--Japanese Method of Preparing Porcelain
+Clay.--Old Sevres Soft Porcelain.--Pug-Mill.--Blunger.--Early Italian
+Methods.--Shaping the Clay.--Moulding among the Egyptians, Greeks,
+Italians, and at the Present Day.--Moulding Porcelain.--Japanese
+Method.--European.--Throwing.--The Potter's Wheel in all
+Countries.--Baking and Firing.--Egyptian, Greek, Italian, and Japanese
+Kilns.--Those of Modern Europe and America.--Times of Firing.--Glazing
+and Painting.--Metallic-Lustre Majolica.--Japanese Methods.--Glazing
+Stone-ware.--Natural and Artificial Porcelain.....66
+
+BOOK II.--THE ORIENT.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EGYPT.
+
+The East the Cradle of Art.--The Antiquity of Egypt: Its
+Claim to Notice in every Branch of Inquiry.--The Fountains
+of Oriental and Greek Art.--The Nile Clay.--Egypt's Early
+Maturity.--Limitation of Material.--Effect of Religion upon
+Art.--Two Periods in Art History.--Ancient Religion.--Various
+Symbols.--UNGLAZED POTTERY--_Sun-dried_: Bricks.--Moulds, Stamps,
+etc.--Vessels.--_Baked Ware_: Its Early Date.--Color of Vessels and
+Bricks.--Coffins.--Cones.--Figures.--Sepulchral Vases.--Amphorae
+and other Vessels.--Decoration.--Graeco-Egyptian Pottery.--GLAZED
+WARE, miscalled Porcelain: Its Nature, and how Colored.--Wall
+Tiles.--Inlaying of Mummy Cases.--Personal Ornaments.--Images.--Beads,
+etc.--Vases.--Bowls.--Glazed Schist.--Stanniferous Enamel.....82
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA.
+
+Possible Priority to Egyptian Pottery.--Similarity
+between Assyrian and Egyptian.--The Course followed by
+both Arts.--Unbaked Bricks.--Baked Bricks.--Writing
+Tablets.--Seals.--Vases.--Terra-cottas.--Porcelain.--Glazing and
+Enamelling.--Tin.--Colored Enamels.--Babylonian Bricks.--Glazes.....97
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+JUDAEA.
+
+Art Derived from Egypt.--Never Reached any Eminence.--Preference for
+Metals.--Frequent Allusions in Scripture.--Bought Earthen-ware from
+Phoenicia and Egypt.--Home Manufacture.--Decoration.--Necessity for
+Distinguishing between Home and Foreign Wares.....103
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA.
+
+Mystery Surrounding People.--History of its Art in great measure
+Unknown.--Questions of its Existence and Originality.--How they
+Arose.--The Brahmins.--Geographical Position.--Views of Early
+Travellers.--Later Investigations.--More Ancient Pottery.--Clay
+Used.--Knowledge of Glazing: Its Application to Architecture.--Glazed
+Bricks.--Terra-cotta.--Chronological Arrangement.--Porcelain: Its
+Decoration.--Use of Gold.--Siam.....105
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CHINA.
+
+Art Different from that of Europe or America.--How it must be
+Viewed.--Religion.--Legend.--Hoang-ti the Inventor of Pottery.--The
+Leading Points of Religious System.--Personified Principles.--Lao-tseu,
+Confucius, and Buddha.--Kuan-in.--Pousa or Pou-tai.--Dragons.--Dog
+of Fo.--Ky-lin.--Sacred Horse.--Fong-hoang.--Symbols.--Meaning
+of Colors and Shapes.--POTTERY: When First
+Made.--Celadon.--Crackle.--How Made.--Porcelain Crackle.--Decorations
+on Crackle.--Household Vessels.--Stone-ware.--Licouli.--Tower of
+Nankin.--Pipe-clay.--Boccaro.--Colors and Decoration of Pottery.--Colors
+on Crackle. PORCELAIN: When Invented.--King-teh-chin.--All Classed as
+Hard, Exceptions.--Old Porcelains.--Kouan-ki.--Blue-and-white.--Persian
+Styles.--Turquoise and other Blues.--Leading Events of
+Ming Dynasty.--Egg-shell.--Tai-thsing Dynasty.--Mandarin
+Vases.--Families.--Old White.--Jade.--Purple and Violet.--Liver
+Red.--Imperial Yellow.--Chinese Ideas of Painting.--Souffle.--Grains of
+Rice.--Articulated and Reticulated Vases.--Cup of Tantalus.....109
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+COREA.
+
+Geographical Position.--Successive Conquests.--Its Independent
+Art.--Confused Opinions regarding it.--Its Porcelain.--Decoration.....154
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+JAPAN.
+
+How to Study Japanese Art: Its Origin.--Its Revived
+Independence.--Nomino-Soukoune.--Shirozayemon.--Raku.--When
+Porcelain was First Made.--Shonsui.--Form of Government.--The
+Gods.--Symbols.--"Land of Great Peace."--Foreign Relations.--General
+Features of Art.--Chinese and Japanese Porcelains.--POTTERY:
+Geographical Distribution.--Classification.--Satsuma.--Difficult
+Ware.--Saki Cups.--Imitations of Satsuma.--Kioto.--Awata.--Awadji.--Banko.
+--Kiusiu.--Karatsu.--Suma.--PORCELAIN: Leading Differences between
+Japanese and Chinese.--Sometsuki Blue.--Ware for Export.--Gosai,
+or Nishikide.--Arita, or Hizen.--Families.--Decoration.--Modern
+Hizen.--Seidji.--Kioto.--Eraku.--Kaga.--Portraiture.--Owari.--Lacquer.
+--Cloisonne.--Rose Family.--Early Styles: Indian: Dutch Designs.--General
+Characteristics of Japanese Art.....156
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+PERSIA.
+
+Persia, and its Influence.--History.--Conquests.--Religious
+Revolutions.--Zoroaster.--Mohammed.--Geographical Position.--General
+View of Influences bearing upon Art.--Decoration.--Flowers and
+Symbols.--Conventional Styles.--Whence came the Monsters Appearing upon
+Wares.--Metallic Lustre.--POTTERY: Composition.--Caution in Looking at
+Specimens.--Wall-Tiles and their Decoration.--Vases.--PORCELAIN: Had
+Persia a True Porcelain?--Classification, and the Difficulties Attending
+It.--Decoration.--Classes Formed by Prevailing Color.....189
+
+BOOK III.--EUROPE.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE FOUNTAINS OF EUROPEAN ART.
+
+Routes by which Art Travelled.--Their Point of Convergence.--Cyprus:
+Its History.--The Successive Nations Governing It.--The Strata of
+Ancient Civilization found within its Shores.--The Discoveries
+of Cesnola.--Larnaca.--Dali.--Athieno.--Curium.--Progress of
+Cypriote Pottery.--Early Greek Art: Its Connection with Assyria
+and Egypt.--Phoenician and Assyrian Art.--General Deductions.--Asia
+Minor.--Oriental Art turning in various Streams to Greece.--What
+Greece Rejected, Persia Seized upon.--Persia's Contributions
+to Ceramic Art.--History in Reference to its Art.--Effect of
+Conquest.--What Persia Taught the Arabs.--Spread of Persian Art
+by the Saracens.--Rhodes.--Damascus.--Progress of Saracenic
+Art.--The North of Africa.--Metallic Lustre and Stanniferous
+Enamel.--Hispano-Moresque.--Early Spain.--Persian Influence upon
+Europe.....198
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GREECE.
+
+General Character of Greek Ceramics.--Form and Color.--Borrowed
+from Egypt and Phoenicia.--How Original.--UNBAKED
+CLAY: Bricks and Statues.--TERRA-COTTA: Where
+Used.--Tiles.--Models.--Vessels.--Pithos.--Amphora.--Pigments
+used on Terra-cotta.--Rhyton.--GLAZED WARES: Quality of
+Glaze.--Paste.--Enumeration and Description of Vessels.--Uses
+of Vases.--Chronological Arrangement.--Methods of Making
+Vessels.--Successive Styles of Ornamentation.--Figures.--Earliest
+Style.--Archaic Style.--Human Figures.--"Old Style."--Approach to
+Best Art.--"Fine Style."--"Florid Style."--Decline.--Classification
+according to Subjects Represented on Vases.--Reliefs and Statuettes as
+Decoration.....219
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE IBERIAN PENINSULA.
+
+SPAIN: Ancient Pottery.--Valencia the Most Ancient Centre.--The
+Roman Period.--Arabs.--Valencia under the Moors.--Its
+Decline.--Malaga the Most Ancient Moorish Settlement.--The Alhambra
+Vase.--Influence of Christianity.--Majorca.--Azulejos.--Modern
+Spain.--Porcelain.--Buen Retiro.--Moncloa.--Alcora.--PORTUGAL: Vista
+Allegre.--Rato.--Caldas.....233
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ITALY.
+
+Italian Art.--Whence Derived.--Greece and Persia.--Divisions.--Ancient
+Roman and Etruscan.--Etruria and Greece.--Questions Resulting
+from Discoveries at Vulci.--Early Connection between Etruria and
+Greece.--Etruscan Art an Offshoot of Greek.--Examples.--Best of Black
+Paste.--Why Etruscan Art Declined.--Rome.--Nothing Original.--Its Debt
+to Etruria and Greece.--Decline of its Art.--Unglazed Pottery and its
+Divisions.--Glazed Pottery.--Samian Ware.--Aretine.--Terra-cotta.--After
+Rome fell.--The Renaissance.--Saracenic Influences.--Crusades.--Conquest
+of Majorca.--Tin Enamel and Metallic Lustre.--Bacini at
+Pisa.--Lead Glaze.--Majolica Made at Pesaro.--Sgraffiati.--Luca
+della Robbia.--Sketch of his Life.--His Alleged Discovery.--What
+he really Accomplished.--Where he Acquired the Secret of
+Enamel.--His Works.--Bas-Reliefs.--Paintings on the Flat.--His
+Successors.--Recapitulation of Beginnings of Italian
+Majolica.--Chaffagiolo.--Siena.--Florence.--Pisa.--Pesaro.--Castel-Durante.
+--Urbino.--Gubbio and Maestro Giorgio.--Faenza.--Forli, Rimini, and
+Ravenna.--Venice.--Ferrara.--Deruta.--Naples.--Shape and Color.--Modern
+Italy.--PORCELAIN: Florence and Earliest Artificial Porcelain.--Theory
+of Japanese Teaching.--La Doccia.--Venice, and the Question of its First
+Making European Porcelain.--Le Nove.--Capo di Monte.....240
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FRANCE.
+
+Prospect on approaching France.--Present and Past.--The
+Ancient Celts.--Under the Romans.--Middle Ages.--Poitou,
+Beauvais, and Hesdin.--Italian Influence.--A National
+Art.--Bernard Palissy, Barbizet, Pull, and Avisseau.--Henri Deux
+Ware.--Rouen.--Nevers.--Moustiers.--Marseilles.--Strasburg.--Limoges.
+--Haviland's New Process.--Examples.--Bourg-la-Reine.--Laurin.--Deck.
+--Colinot.--Creil. --Montereau.--Longwy.--Parville.--Gien.--Sarreguemines.
+--Niederviller.--Luneville.--Nancy.--St. Clement.--St. Amand.--Paris.--Sceaux.
+--PORCELAIN: Efforts to Make Porcelain.--First Artificial Porcelain.--St.
+Cloud.--Lille.--Paris.--Chantilly.--Mennecy.--Vincennes.--Sevres.--Natural,
+or Hard, Porcelain.--Discovery of Kaolin.--Various Factories.--Limoges.
+--Deck.--Regnault.--Solon.--Pate Changeante.--Pate-sur-Pate.....271
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GERMANY AND CENTRAL EUROPE.
+
+Early Pottery.--Lake Dwellers.--Early German.--Peculiar
+Shapes.--How Peasants Account for Relics.--Roman
+Epoch.--Tin Enamel.--Leipsic.--Breslau.--Nuremberg.--The
+Hirschvogels.--Villengen.--Hoechst.--Marburg.--Bavaria.--Switzerland.
+--Belgium.--Delft.--STONE-WARE: Countess
+Jacqueline.--Teylingen.--Graybeards.--Fine
+Stone-ware.--Gres de Flandre.--Creussen.--PORCELAIN:
+Boettcher.--His First Productions.--Meissen
+Porcelain.--Decoration.--Best Days of Meissen.--Its
+Decline.--Vienna.--Hoechst.--Fuerstenburg.--Hoexter.--Frankenthal.
+--Nymphenburg.--Berlin.--Holland.--Weesp.--Loosdrecht.--The
+Hague.--Switzerland.--Zuerich.--Nyon.....327
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+RUSSIA, DENMARK, AND SCANDINAVIA.
+
+Scandinavian Pottery allied to Teutonic.--Hand-shaped
+Vessels.--Primitive Kiln.--The Eighteenth Century.--St. Petersburg:
+Its Porcelain.--Moscow.--Rorstrand.--Marieberg.--Modern Swedish
+Faience.--Denmark.--Kiel.--Copenhagen.--Imitations of Greek.--Copenhagen
+Porcelain.....344
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
+
+Continuity of History.--Early British Urns.--Scottish Relics.--Irish
+Urns.--Roman Conquest.--Caistor Ware.--Anglo-Roman Ware.--Saxon
+Period.--After the Norman Conquest.--Tiles.--Dutch Potteries in
+England.--English Delft.--Stone-ware.--Sandwich.--Staffordshire
+Potteries.--Early Products.--The Tofts.--Salt Glaze.--Broadwell
+and the Elers Family.--Use of Calcined Flint.--Wedgwood.--His
+Life.--Jasper Ware.--Queen's Ware.--The Portland
+Vase.--Basaltes.--Wedgwood's Removal to Etruria.--His
+Death.--Minton & Co.--Their Imitations of the Oriental.--Pate
+Changeante.--Pate-sur-Pate.--Cloisonne Enamel on Porcelain.--Other
+Reproductions.--Their Majolica.--Their Artists.--Minton, Hollins &
+Co.--Lambeth.--Doulton Ware.--Terra-cotta and Stone-ware.--George
+Tinworth.--Fulham.--Bristol.--Leeds.--Liverpool.--Lowestoft.--Yarmouth.
+--Nottingham.--Shropshire.--Yorkshire.--PORCELAIN: Plymouth Hard
+Porcelain.--Cookworthy.--Bow.--Chelsea.--Derby.--Worcester.--Minton.
+--Pate-sur-Pate.--Spode.--Copeland.--Bristol.--Tunstall.--Caughley.
+--Nantgarrow.--Swansea.--Colebrookdale.--Pinxton.--Shelton.--Belleek.--General
+Character of Manufacture in Great Britain.....352
+
+BOOK IV.--AMERICA.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+Antiquity of American People.--Scope of Inquiry.--PERU: Its Old
+Inhabitants.--Course of Ceramic Art.--Doubts regarding Origin of
+Peruvian Civilization.--Periods.--The Incas.--Pizarro.--Geological
+Evidence of Antiquity.--Unbaked Bricks.--Pachacamac.--Its
+Graves.--Opposite Types.--Effect of Religion.--Symbols.--Forms
+of Pottery.--Water-Vessels.--Human Forms.--Leading Features of
+Decoration.--Colors Employed.--Processes.--Customs Learned from
+Pottery.--BRAZIL: Ancient Specimens.--Modern Ware.--Bricks and
+Tiles.--Talhas.--Moringues and other Water-Vessels.--Colombia.....391
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+Connection with Peru.--Nicaragua.--Ometepec.--Modern
+Potters.--Guatemala.--Ancient Cities.--Who Built
+Them.--Copan.--Quirigua.--Palenque.--Mitla.....418
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+Who were they?--Their supposed Central American Origin.--The place they
+occupy in the present History.--Recent Discoveries.--Pottery of the
+Lower Mississippi.--Deduction from Comparison with Peruvian.....425
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+INDIAN POTTERY.
+
+Successors of the Mound-builders.--Opinion of Professor Marsh.--Pueblos
+descended from the Mound-builders.--Natchez and Mandan Tribes.--Pueblos
+of Colorado, etc.--Pottery found at El Moro.--Zuni.--Further
+Discoveries.--Immense Quantities of Fragmentary Pottery.--Corrugated
+Pottery of Colorado.--Painted Pottery.--Moquis of Tegua.--Modern
+Pueblos.--Trade in Pottery.--Resemblances between Potteries of South,
+Central, and North America.--Indian Pottery from Illinois.--Louisiana,
+and how Pottery made.--New Jersey Indians.--Tennessee.--Maryland.--Other
+Indian Tribes.....429
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+UNITED STATES.
+
+The Future of America.--Obstacles in the Way of Progress.--Commercial
+Conditions Illustrated by Tariff.--Expense of Artistic Work.--Lack
+of Public Support.--American Marks.--Misrepresentation of
+American Wares.--Materials.--Early Use in England by Wedgwood,
+etc.--Cookworthy and a Virginian.--Native Use of Clay.--New
+Jersey.--Value of Clay Deposit Illustrated.--American Kaolin.--Vague
+Use of Word.--Analysis.--Opinions of American Deposits.--POTTERY:
+Dependence upon England.--Wedgwood's Fears of American
+Competition.--Norwich.--Hartford.--Stonington.--Norwalk.--Herbertsville.
+--Sayreville.--South Amboy.--Philadelphia.--Baltimore.--Jersey
+City. --Bennington.--New York City Pottery.--Trenton.--Present
+Extent of Industry. --Trenton Ivory
+Porcelain.--Terra-cotta.--Beverly.--Chelsea.--Portland.
+--Cambridge.--PORCELAIN: Philadelphia.--William Ellis
+Tucker.--Bennington. --Jersey City.--Greenpoint.--Decorating
+Establishments.--Metal and Porcelain.....442
+
+INDEX.....489
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ +-------+-------------+-------------------------+--------------------+-------+
+ | FIG. | COUNTRY OR | SUBJECT | COLLECTION | PAGE |
+ | | CHAPTER | | | |
+ +-------+-------------+-------------------------+--------------------+-------+
+ | | INTRODUCTION| | | |
+ | 1 | France | Old Sevres Pate Teudre | L. Double | 23 |
+ | 2 | Greece and | Amphorae | Di Cesnola | 25 |
+ | | Phonecia | | | |
+ | 3 | China | Bottles | | 26 |
+ | 4 | Greece | Diogenes in Pithos | | 27 |
+ | 5 | " | Prize Vase | | 28 |
+ | 6 | " | Rhyton | Trumbull-Prime | 29 |
+ | 7 | " | Kylix | | 29 |
+ | 8 | Egypt | Sepulchral Cone | Trumbull-Prime | 30 |
+ | 9 | " | Painted Ball | | 31 |
+ | 10 | " | Glazed Draughtsman | | 31 |
+ | 11 | Babylon | Enamelled Brick | Louvre | 32 |
+ | 12 | Japan | Hexagonal Vase | R.H. Pruyn | 37 |
+ | 13 | Persia | Tile | | 38 |
+ | 14 | " | Mosque of Sultaneah | | 39 |
+ | 15 | Japan | Porcelain Vase | J.F. Sutton | 40 |
+ | 16 | China | Crackle Vase | J.F. Sutton | 41 |
+ | 17 | France | Palissy Dish | Soltykoff | 43 |
+ | 18 | " | Limoges Porcelain | Mrs Charles Crocker| 46 |
+ | 19 | " | Limoges Porcelain | Thomas Scott | 47 |
+ | | TECHNOLOGY | | | |
+ | 20 | Egypt | Blue-glazed Pottery | | 48 |
+ | | MANUFACTURE | | | |
+ | 21,22 | .. | Pug-mills | | 67 |
+ | 23 | Judea | Potter at Work | | 70 |
+ | 24 | Egypt | A Pottery | | 72 |
+ | 25 | Italy | Venetian Potter | | 74 |
+ | 26-29 | .. {| Earthen-ware and |} | 77-79 |
+ | | {| Porcelain Kilns |} | |
+ | | EGYPT | | | |
+ | 30 | | Captives making Bricks | | 84 |
+ | 31 | | Scarabaeus | Way, B.M.F.A. | 86 |
+ | 32 | | Gods | Way, B.M.F.A. | 87 |
+ | 33 | | Earthen-ware | | 88 |
+ | 34 | | Pottery Cone | Trumbull-Prime | 89 |
+ | 35 | | Terra-cotta Vase | British Museum | 89 |
+ | 36 | | Polished Terra-cotta | | 91 |
+ | 37 | | Polished Terra-cotta | British Museum | 91 |
+ | 38 | | Glazed Pottery Vase | | 92 |
+ | 39 | | Scarabaei | Way, B.M.F.A. | 92 |
+ | 40 | | Pectoral Tablets | Way, B.M.F.A. | 93 |
+ | 41,42 | | Mummy Figures | Way, B.M.F.A. | 94,95 |
+ | 43 | | Fragment Tin Enamel | Trumbull-Prime | 96 |
+ | | ASSYRIA, Etc| | | |
+ | 44 | | Pottery Vases | | 97 |
+ | 45 | | Terra-cotta Venus | | 98 |
+ | 46 | | Cylinder | British Museum | 98 |
+ | 47 | | Inscribed Seal | | 98 |
+ | 48 | | Seal of Sabaco | | 98 |
+ | 49 | | Enlarged Impression | | 99 |
+ | 50 | | Back of Assyrian Seal | | 99 |
+ | 51 | | Fragment: Porcelain (?) | | 99 |
+ | 52 | | Box in Porcelain(?) | | 99 |
+ | 53 | | Enamelled Brick | Louvre | 99 |
+ | 54 | | Babylonian Brick | | 100 |
+ | 55 | | Mujellibe | | 100 |
+ | 56 | | Terra-cotta Tablet | British Museum | 101 |
+ | 57 | | Baked Clay Ram | | 102 |
+ | 58 | | Glazed Coffins | | 102 |
+ | | JUDEA | | | |
+ | 59 | | Earthen-ware Vessels | | 103 |
+ | 60 | | Lamps and Oil Vessels | | 104 |
+ | | INDIA | | | |
+ | 61 | | Porcelain Vases | | 108 |
+ | | CHINA | | | |
+ | 62 | | Porcelain Group | S.P. Avery | 109 |
+ | 63 | | Cheon-lao | | 111 |
+ | 64 | | Kuan-in S. P. Avery | | 112 |
+ | 65 | | Dog Fo | | 113 |
+ | 66 | | Vase with Ky-lin | August Belmont | 113 |
+ | 67 | | Sacred Horse | | 114 |
+ | 68 | | Fong-hoang | | 114 |
+ | 69 | | Vase with Fong-hoang | Robert Hoe, Jr | 115 |
+ | 70 | | Crackle Vase | S.P. Avery | 118 |
+ | 71 | | Nankin Tower | | 119 |
+ | 72 | | Bricks from Nankin Tower| N. Y. Metro. Museum| 119 |
+ | 73 | | Crackle Vase | J.C. Runkle | 120 |
+ | 74 | | Porcelain Lantern | S.P. Avery | 121 |
+ | 75-82 | | Honorific Marks | | 124 |
+ | 83 | | Blue-and-white Porcelain| J.C. Runkle | 125 |
+ | 84 | | Blue-and-white Porcelain| W.L. Andrews | 125 |
+ | 85 | | Lancelle Vase | W.L. Andrews | 126 |
+ | 86 | | Blue-and-white Vase | J.C. Runkle | 127 |
+ | 87 | | "Hawthorn" Vase | S.P. Avery | 128 |
+ | 88 | | "Hawthorn" Vase | J.C. Runkle | 129 |
+ | 89 | | Black "Hawthorn" | S.P. Avery | 130 |
+ | 90 | | Aster Plaque | W.L. Andrews | 131 |
+ | 91 | | Ewer, Persian Style | J.C. Runkle | 132 |
+ | 92 | | Turquoise Vase | S.P. Avery | 133 |
+ | 93 | | Kieu-long Green | J.C. Runkle | 135 |
+ | 94 | | Ming Vase | G.R. Hall, B.M.F.A.| 137 |
+ | 95 | | Ming Vase | J.C. Runkle | 138 |
+ | 96 | | Ming Vase, Green | F. Robinson | 139 |
+ | 97 | | Rose Family | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 140 |
+ | 98 | | Rose Plate | Robert Hoe, Jr | 141 |
+ | 99 | | Rose Bowl | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 142 |
+ | 100 | | Rose Egg-shell | W.L. Andrews | 143 |
+ | 101 | | White Porcelain Cup | J.C. Runkle | 145 |
+ | 102 | | Five-fingered Rosadon | G.W. Wales | 149 |
+ | 103 | | Yellow Porcelain | J.F. Sutton | 150 |
+ | 104 | | Grains of Rice | S.P. Avery | 151 |
+ | 105 | | Reticulated Vase | S.P. Avery | 152 |
+ | 106 | | Cup and Saucer | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 153 |
+ | | COREA | | | |
+ | 107 | | Earthen-ware Jar | A.A. Vantine & Co | 154 |
+ | 108 | | Porcelain Cup and Saucer| W.L. Andrews | 155 |
+ | 109 | | Porcelain Vase | | 155 |
+ | | JAPAN | | | |
+ | 110 | | Japanese Gods | | 156 |
+ | 111 | | Raku Bowl | A.A. Vantine & Co | 160 |
+ | 112 | | Kiri-mon | | 161 |
+ | 113 | | Guik-mon | | 161 |
+ | 114 | | Tycoon's Arms | | 161 |
+ | 115 | | Dragon Bowl | Corcoran Art Gall. | 162 |
+ | 116 | | Satsuma Vase | B.M.F.A. | 166 |
+ | 117 | | Satsuma Vase | August Belmont | 167 |
+ | 118 | | Satsuma Vase | R.H. Pruyn | 168 |
+ | 119 | | Satsuma Vase | J.W. Paige | 169 |
+ | 120 | | Satsuma Vase | J.F. Sutton | 170 |
+ | 121 | | Kioto Faience | A.A. Vantine & Co | 171 |
+ | 122 | | Kioto Faience | B.M.F.A. | 171 |
+ | 123 | | Kioto Faience | J.F. Sutton | 172 |
+ | 124 | | Kiusin Vase | A.A. Vantine & Co | 172 |
+ | 125 | | Karatsu Vase | J.F. Sutton | 173 |
+ | 126 | | Suma Vase | A.A. Vantine & Co | 173 |
+ | 127 | | Satsuma Vase | Robert H. Pruyn | 174 |
+ | 128 | | Porcelain Plaque | W.L. Andrews | 175 |
+ | 129 | | Old Hizen, or Imari | A.A. Vantine & Co | 177 |
+ | 130 | | Porcelain Dish | R.H. Pruyn | 177 |
+ | 131 | | Hizen Porcelain Vase | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 178 |
+ | 132 | | Japanese Porcelain Vase | H.C. Gibson | 178 |
+ | 133 | | Kaga Vase | A.A. Vantine & Co | 179 |
+ | 134 | | Owari Vase | Yoshida Kiyonari | 181 |
+ | 135 | | Lacquer Vase |Corcoran Art Gallery| 182 |
+ | 136 | | Tokio Cloisonne Enamel | J.F. Sutton | 182 |
+ | 137 | | Owari Cloisonne Enamel | J.F. Sutton | 183 |
+ | 138 | | Rose Family Vase | Robert H. Pruyn | 183 |
+ | | PERSIA | | | |
+ | 139 | | Faience Plaque | Robert Hoe, Jr | 189 |
+ |140,141| | Faience Plaques | B.M.F.A. | 192 |
+ | 142 | | Shrine of Imam Hussein | | 194 |
+ | 143 | | Porcelain Bottle | Jacquemart | 196 |
+ | 144 | | Porcelain Narghili | | 196 |
+ | | FOUNTAINS OF| | | |
+ | | EUROPEAN ART| | | |
+ | 145 | | General Di Cesnola | | 199 |
+ |146-149| | Phoenician Vases | Di Cesnola |200-202|
+ | 150 | | Assyro-Phoenician Vase | Di Cesnola | 203 |
+ | 151 | | Greek Vase | Di Cesnola | 204 |
+ |152-158| | Phoenician Pottery | Di Cesnola |205-209|
+ | 159 | | Greek Vases and Cups | Di Cesnola | 210 |
+ | 160 | | Saracen Tile | Trumbull-Prime | 213 |
+ | 161 | | Saracen Tiles | B.M.F.A. | 213 |
+ |162,163| | Rhodian Faience | |214,215|
+ | 164 | | Maghreb Urn | | 216 |
+ | | GREECE | | | |
+ | 165 | | Early Greek Aryballoi | Trumbull-Prime | 219 |
+ | 166 | | Early Greek Vases | | 220 |
+ | 167 | | Greek Vase | Louvre | 221 |
+ | 168 | | Head of Minerva | Trumbull-Prime | 222 |
+ | 169 | | Stamnos | | 223 |
+ | 170 | | Askos | | 223 |
+ | 171 | | Skyphos | | 223 |
+ | 172 | | Rhyton | | 224 |
+ |173,174| | Kraters | |224,225|
+ | 175 | | Holmos | | 225 |
+ | 176 | | Kelebe | | 225 |
+ | 177 | | Oxybaphon | | 225 |
+ |178,179| | Prochoos | | 226 |
+ | 180 | | Olpe | | 226 |
+ | 181 | | Kyathos | | 227 |
+ | 182 | | Kantharos | | 227 |
+ | 183 | | Kylix | Trumbull-Prime | 228 |
+ | 184 | | Early Greek Oinochoe | Trumbull-Prime | 228 |
+ | 185 | | Early Greek Oinochoe | T.G. Appleton, | 229 |
+ | | | | B.M.F.A. | |
+ | 186 | | Bacchic Amphora | T.G. Appleton, | 229 |
+ | | | | B.M.F.A. | |
+ | 187 | | Kalpis | T.G. Appleton, | 230 |
+ | | | | B.M.F.A. | |
+ | 188 | | Hydria | Trumbull-Prime | 231 |
+ | 189 | | Amphora | T.G. Appleton, | 231 |
+ | | | | B.M.F.A. | |
+ | | SPAIN | | | |
+ | 190 | | Hispano-Moresque Vase | South Kensington | 233 |
+ | 191 | | Hispano-Moresque Plaque | J.W. Paige | 234 |
+ | 192 | | Alhambra Vase | | 235 |
+ | 193 | | Hispano-Moresque Plaque | G.W. Wales, | 236 |
+ | | | | B.M.F.A. | |
+ | 194 | | Early Hispano-Moresque | Boston Household | 236 |
+ | | | | Art Rooms | |
+ | 195 | | Moorish Tile | | 237 |
+ | 196 | | Early Hispano-Moresque | Boston Household | 237 |
+ | | | | Art Rooms | |
+ | | ITALY | | | |
+ | 197 | | Etruscan Vase | J.J. Dixwell | 243 |
+ | 198 | | Roman Lamps | | 245 |
+ | 199 | | Samian Ware | | 245 |
+ | 200 | | Siculo-Moresque Vase | | 247 |
+ | 201 | | Siculo-Moresque Vases | Castellani | 248 |
+ | 202 | | Sgraffiato | | 249 |
+ | 203 | | Luca della Robbia | | 250 |
+ | 204 | | Robbia Medallion | Hotel Cluny | 251 |
+ | 205 | | Robbia Plaque | B.M.F.A. | 251 |
+ | 206 | | Robbia Medallion | South Kensington | 252 |
+ | 207 | | Andrea della Robbia | B.M.F.A. | 252 |
+ | | | Plaque | | |
+ | 208 | | Imitation Robbia | B.M.F.A. | 253 |
+ | 209 | | St Sebastian, by Giorgio| South Kensington | 253 |
+ | 210 | | Chaffagiolo Pitcher | South Kensington | 254 |
+ | 211 | | Siena Vase | South Kensington | 254 |
+ | 212 | | The Sforza Dish | | 256 |
+ | 213 | | Pesaro Vase |John Taylor Johnston| 257 |
+ | 214 | | Castel-Durante Dish | South Kensington | 258 |
+ | 215 | | Castel-Durante Dish | Castellani | 258 |
+ | 216 | | Plate by Xanto | Marryat | 259 |
+ | 217 | | Urbino Vase | Castellani | 260 |
+ | 218 | | Urbino Pilgrim's Bottle | South Kensington | 261 |
+ | 219 | | Gubbio Lustre | South Kensington | 261 |
+ | 220 | | Platean by Giorgio | South Kensington | 262 |
+ | 221 | | Faenza Dish | | 263 |
+ | 222 | | Deruta Dish | South Kensington | 264 |
+ | 223 | | Medicean Porcelain | Castellani | 266 |
+ | 224 | | Design on the Above | | 267 |
+ | 225 | | Nove Porcelain | | 269 |
+ | | FRANCE | | | |
+ | 226 | | Biscuit Group, Sevres | August Belmont | 271 |
+ | 227 | | Bernard Palissy | | 274 |
+ | 228 | | Palissy Dish | Rothschild | 276 |
+ | 229 | | Palissy Pitcher | Rothschild | 277 |
+ | 230 | | Barbizet Plaque | Tiffany & Co | 278 |
+ | 231 | | Palissy Cistern | | 279 |
+ | 232 | | Henri Deux Ewer | | 280 |
+ | 233 | | Henri Deux Biberon | Malcolm | 280 |
+ | 234 | | Rouen Faience | | 281 |
+ | 235 | | Rouen Faience | Trumbull-Prime | 282 |
+ |236,237| | Moustiers Dishes | |284,285|
+ | 238 | | Haviland Faience | Smithsonian Inst. | 290 |
+ | 239 | | Haviland Faience | Henry Havemeyer | 296 |
+ | 240 | | Haviland Faience | G.W. Gibson | 297 |
+ | 241 | | Haviland Faience | Whitelaw Reid | 297 |
+ | 242 | | Haviland Faience | Mrs Wm. H. Dannat | 298 |
+ | 243 | | Haviland Faience | Mrs Col T. Scott | 300 |
+ | 244 | | Haviland Faience | Clara L. Kellogg | 302 |
+ | 245 | | Bourg-la-Reine Faience | G. Collamore | 303 |
+ | 246 | | Bourg-la-Reine Faience | Tiffany & Co | 303 |
+ | 247 | | Deck Faience |Corcoran Art Gallery| 304 |
+ |248,249| | Deck Bottle and Vase | G. Collamore | 305 |
+ | 250 | | Colinot Faience | Tiffany & Co | 306 |
+ | 251 | | Colinot Faience | G. Collamore | 306 |
+ | 252 | | Colinot Faience | Tiffany & Co | 307 |
+ | 253 | | Longwy Faience | G. Collamore | 308 |
+ |254,255| | Longwy Faience | Tiffany & Co |308,309|
+ | 256 | | Parville Faience | Tiffany & Co | 309 |
+ | 257 | | Gien Faience | D. Collamore | 310 |
+ | 258 | | Sarreguemines Faience | G. Collamore | 310 |
+ | 259 | | St Cloud Porcelain | Jacquemart | 312 |
+ | 260 | | Vincennes Porcelain | Duke de Martina | 313 |
+ | 261 | | Sevres Pate Tendre | August Belmont | 314 |
+ | 262 | | Jewelled Sevres | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 315 |
+ | 263 | | Jewelled Sevres | H.C. Gibson | 315 |
+ | 264 | | Sevres Vase | Mrs C.B. Hosack | 316 |
+ | 265 | | Sevres Vase | White House | 317 |
+ | 266 | | Sevres Porcelain | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 317 |
+ | | | Candlestick | | |
+ | 267 | | Sevres Vase | White House | 318 |
+ | 268 | | Sevres Tea-set | Miss M.F. Curtis | 318 |
+ |269,270| | Washington's Sevres | | 319 |
+ | 271 | | Limoges Porcelain | S.S. Conant | 320 |
+ | 272 | | Limoges Porcelain | | 320 |
+ | 273 | | Limoges Porcelain | Mrs Col T. Scott | 321 |
+ | 274 | | Limoges Porcelain | General A.J. Myer | 321 |
+ | 275 | | Limoges Porcelain | Whitelaw Reid | 322 |
+ | 276 | | Limoges Pate Tendre | H.J. Jewitt | 322 |
+ |277-279| | Limoges Pate Tendre | |323,324|
+ |280,281| | Deck Vase and Plaque | G. Collamore | 325 |
+ | 282 | | Pate-sur-pate, by Solon | G. W. Wales, | 326 |
+ | | | | B.M.F.A. | |
+ | | GERMANY | | | |
+ | 283 | | Hut-shaped Vases | | 328 |
+ | 284 | | Hirschvogel Vase | | 330 |
+ |285,286| | Delft Faience | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn |331,332|
+ |287,288| | Graybeards | | 334 |
+ |289,290| | Fine Stone-ware | | 335 |
+ | 291 | | Boettcher Stone-ware | D. Collamore | 337 |
+ | 292 | | Meissen Porcelain | F. Robinson | 337 |
+ | 293 | | Meissen Porcelain | | 338 |
+ | 294 | | Meissen Porcelain | L. Double | 339 |
+ | 295 | | Meissen Porcelain | August Belmont | 340 |
+ | 296 | | Meissen Porcelain | J.C. Runkle | 340 |
+ | | | (Marcolini) | | |
+ | 297 | | Modern Dresden Porcelain| D. Collamore | 341 |
+ | 298 | | Berlin Porcelain | D. Collamore | 341 |
+ | 299 | | Berlin Porcelain Vase | August Belmont | 342 |
+ | | RUSSIA, | | | |
+ | | DENMARK, & | | | |
+ | | SCANDINAVIA | | | |
+ | 300 | | Russian Faience | D. Collamore | 344 |
+ |301,302| | Swedish Faience | William Astor |345,346|
+ | 303 | | Norwegian Faience | W.B. Dickerman | 347 |
+ |304-306| | Ipsen Terra-cotta | Ovington Brothers |348,349|
+ | 307 | | Wendrich Terra-cotta | T. Schmidt | 350 |
+ | 308 | | Copenhagen Porcelain | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 351 |
+ | |GREAT BRITAIN| | | |
+ | 309 | | Ancient British Vases | | 353 |
+ |310,311| | Celtic Pottery | | 354 |
+ |312,313| | Romano-British Ware | | 355 |
+ | 314 | | Saxon Pottery | | 356 |
+ | 315 | | Anglo-Norman Vases | | 356 |
+ |316-318| | Old English Tiles | Bost. Household | 357 |
+ | | | | Art Rooms | |
+ | 319 | | Posset-pot, 15th Century| Bateman | 359 |
+ | 320 | | Staffordshire Tyg | | 359 |
+ | 321 | | Elers Ware | | 360 |
+ | 322 | | Josiah Wedgwood | | 360 |
+ | 323 | | Wedgwood Cameo | | 361 |
+ | 324 | | Wedgwood Basaltes | Meyer | 362 |
+ | 325 | | Wedgwood Jasper | Barlow | 363 |
+ | 326 | | Wedgwood Earthen-ware | W.S. Ward | 363 |
+ | 327 | | Wedgwood Portland Vase | | 364 |
+ | 328 | | Wedgwood Jasper Vase | John W. Britton | 365 |
+ | 329 | | Wedgwood Earthen-ware | D. Collamore | 365 |
+ | 330 | | Wedgwood Plate | Tiffany & Co | 366 |
+ | 331 | | Wedgwood Majolica | Horace Russell | 367 |
+ | 332 | | Minton Stone-ware | D. Collamore | 368 |
+ | 333 | | Minton Plaque | Tiffany & Co | 369 |
+ | 334 | | Minton Majolica |Corcoran Art Gallery| 370 |
+ |335,336| | Doulton Ware | W.B. Dickerman | 371 |
+ | 337 | | Lambeth Faience | | 372 |
+ |338,339| | Lambeth Faience | D. Collamore | 373 |
+ | 340 | | Doulton Terra-cotta | Smithsonian Inst. | 374 |
+ | 341 | | Lambeth Faience | Dr H.G. Piffard | 375 |
+ | 342 | | Lowestoft Pottery | F. Robinson | 375 |
+ | 343 | | Plymouth Porcelain | | 377 |
+ | 344 | | Bow Porcelain | | 377 |
+ | 345 | | Chelsea Porcelain | | 378 |
+ | 346 | | Derby Porcelain | F. Robinson | 378 |
+ | 347 | | Bloor-Derby | F. Robinson | 379 |
+ | 348 | | Old Worcester Porcelain | Robert Hoe, Jr | 379 |
+ | 349 | | Worcester Porcelain | G. Collamore | 380 |
+ |350,351| | Worcester Porcelain | D. Collamore |380,381|
+ | 352 | | Minton Pate-sur-pate, | H.C. Gibson | 382 |
+ | | | Solon | | |
+ | 353 | | Jewelled Copeland | Tiffany & Co | 383 |
+ |354,355| | Copeland Parian | | 384 |
+ | 356 | | Copeland Reticulated | W.B. Dickerman | 385 |
+ | | | Ware | | |
+ | 357 | | Shelton Porcelain | D. Collamore | 388 |
+ |358-360| | Belleek Porcelain | Tiffany & Co |388,389|
+ | |SOUTH AMERICA| | | |
+ | 361 | | Tile-piece, by | | 391 |
+ | | | F.T. Vance | | |
+ |362,363| | Peruvian Pottery | |393,397|
+ | 364 | | Peruvian Water-jar | Smithsonian Inst. | 400 |
+ | 365 | | Peruvian Pottery | | 400 |
+ | 366 | | Peruvian Drinking-vessel| | 401 |
+ | 367 | | Pottery from Cuzco | | 401 |
+ | 368 | | Coiled Water-vessel | Smithsonian Inst. | 402 |
+ |369,370| | Peruvian Pottery | | 403 |
+ | 371 | | Peruvian Water-vessel | Smithsonian Inst. | 404 |
+ | 372 | | Greek Head-shaped Cup | | 404 |
+ |373-375| | Peruvian Pottery | |405,406|
+ |376-378| | Peruvian Pottery | Smithsonian Inst. |407,408|
+ |379-381| | Peruvian Pottery | |408,409|
+ | 382 | | Peruvian Black Vessel | Smithsonian Inst. | 410 |
+ | 383 | | Peruvian Painted Cup | Smithsonian Inst. | 410 |
+ |384,385| | Peruvian Pottery | | 411 |
+ |386-388| | Peruvian Pottery | Barboza |412,413|
+ | 389 | | Brazilian Basin | | 414 |
+ | 390 | | Burial Urn | | 414 |
+ |391,392| | Modern Pottery | |415,416|
+ | 393 | | Colombia Corrugated Ware| Smithsonian Inst. | 417 |
+ | | CENTRAL | | | |
+ | | AMERICA | | | |
+ | 394 | | Vase from Ometepec | Smithsonian Inst. | 418 |
+ | 395 | | Vase from Ometepec | Smithsonian Inst. | 419 |
+ | 396 | | Tripod from Ometepec | Smithsonian Inst. | 419 |
+ | 397 | | Urns from Ometepec | | 420 |
+ |398,399| | Terra-cotta Figures | |420,421|
+ | 400 | | Terra-cotta Heads | | 421 |
+ | 401 | | Guatemala Urn | | 422 |
+ | 402 | | Guatemala Cup | | 422 |
+ | | MOUND- | | | |
+ | | BUILDERS | | | |
+ | 403 | | Vases from Missouri | Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn | 425 |
+ | 404 | | Vase | B.M.F.A. | 426 |
+ | 405 | | Vase | Smithsonian Inst. | 426 |
+ | 406 | | Vase | B.M.F.A. | 427 |
+ | 407 | | Vases | | 427 |
+ | | INDIAN | | | |
+ |408-410| | Corrugated Pottery | U. S. Geol. Survey |432,433|
+ | 411 | | Pottery Handle | U. S. Geol. Survey | 433 |
+ | 412 | | Pottery Ladle | U. S. Geol. Survey | 434 |
+ | 413 | | Pottery Pipe | U. S. Geol. Survey | 434 |
+ |414-423| | Painted Pottery | U. S. Geol. Survey |434-436|
+ | 424 | | Pottery with Relief | U. S. Geol. Survey | 436 |
+ |425-428| | Modern Moqui | U. S. Geol. Survey |436,437|
+ | | UNITED | | | |
+ | | STATES | | | |
+ | 429 | | Greenpoint Porcelain | | 443 |
+ | 430 | | Jersey City Earthen-ware| | 456 |
+ | | | | | |
+ | 431 | | N. Y. City Porcelain | | 457 |
+ | 432 | | N. Y. Iron-stone China | | 458 |
+ | 433 | | N. Y. City Pottery | | 458 |
+ |434-438| | Trenton Parian | |464-467|
+ |439,440| | Chelsea Terra-cotta | | 470 |
+ |441,442| | Philadelphia Porcelain | Trumbull-Prime |471,472|
+ | 443 | | Bennington Porcelain | Trumbull-Prime | 472 |
+ | 444 | | Greenpoint Century Vase | | 474 |
+ | 445 | | "Keramos" Vase | | 475 |
+ | 446 | | Greenpoint Biscuit | | 476 |
+ | | | Porcelain | | |
+ | 447 | | "Song of the Shirt" | | 477 |
+ |448,449| | Greenpoint Porcelain | |478,479|
+ | 450 | | Greenpoint Porcelain | E. Bierstadt | 479 |
+ | 451 | | Poets' Pitcher | | 480 |
+ |452-454| | Greenpoint Porcelain | |480,481|
+ | 455 | | Greenpoint Porcelain | | 482 |
+ | 456 | | English Porcelain | D. Collamore | 482 |
+ | 457 | | Jersey City Earthen-ware| | 483 |
+ |458-460| | Bennett Faience | D. Collamore |484,485|
+ | 461 | | Plate by J.M. Falconer | | 485 |
+ | 462 | | Porcelain and Silver | Reed & Barton | 486 |
+ | 463 | | Porcelain and Silver | Reed & Barton | 486 |
+ | 464 | | Porcelain and Silver | J.W. Britton | 487 |
+ +-------+-------------+-------------------------+--------------------+-------+
+
+ [B.M.F.A. = Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts]
+
+
+
+
+THE CERAMIC ART.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+ Advantages of the Study.--The Lost Origin of the Art.--Ascribed to
+ the Gods.--Legends of China, Japan, Egypt, and Greece.--Keramos.--A
+ Solution suggested.--How Pottery illustrates History.--How it
+ explains the Customs of the Ancients.--Its Bearings upon
+ Religion.--Examples from Egypt, Greece, and China.--The Art
+ represented in Pottery.--Its Permanency.--As a Combination of Form
+ with Drawing and Color.--Greek Art.--Its Merits and Defects.--The
+ Orientals, and their Attention to Color.--Eastern Skill.--The Aim
+ of Palissy.--The Highest Aim of the Ceramic Artist.--Painting on
+ Porcelain.--Rules to be Observed in Decorating.--Where Color alone
+ is a Worthy Object.--How the Art affords the Best Illustration of
+ the Useful combined with the Beautiful.--Its Place in the
+ Household.
+
+
+The history of ceramic art carries us back to ages of which it has
+furnished us with the only records. Beginning almost with the appearance
+of man upon the globe, it brings us down through the intricate paths of
+his migrations to the time in which we live. Historically, therefore,
+the study of the art is not only replete with interest, but promises
+much benefit to the student. The forms under which it appears are so
+varied, the circuitous route it has followed leads to so many lands and
+among so many peoples, and the customs it illustrates are so distinctive
+of widely separated nationalities, that its history is co-extensive with
+that of humanity. In many cases it supplies us with information
+regarding nations whose works in pottery are their only monuments.
+
+Were we, therefore, to attempt to find its origin, we might go back as
+far as written history could guide us, and then find proofs of its
+existence in a prehistoric age. It is curious to observe that, as we
+compare the earliest productions of different countries, we discover a
+similarity between the crude ideas to which they owe their origin. It
+is equally remarkable--and the fact is worthy of notice as pointing to
+the great antiquity of the practice of working in clay--that all nations
+of whose early religious ideas we have any knowledge ascribe its
+inception to the gods. Daily habit demonstrated its utility, and
+gratitude found a cover for ignorance, in bestowing upon the heavenly
+powers the credit of inspiring man with a knowledge of the capabilities
+of the plastic clay.
+
+Reason supplies an easy solution of the problem, but one not likely to
+occur to the unreasoning man of the primitive world. "On the day," says
+Jacquemart, "when man, walking upon the clayey soil, softened by
+inundations or rain, first observed that the earth retained the prints
+of his footsteps, the plastic art was discovered; and when lighting a
+fire to warm his limbs or to cook his food, he remarked that the surface
+of the hearth changed its nature and its color, that the reddened clay
+became sonorous, impervious, and hardened in its new shape, the art was
+revealed to him of making vessels fit to contain liquids." The reason of
+the nineteenth century conflicts strangely with old-world opinions of
+what was due to beneficent deity. Of this we can easily find abundant
+illustration. Let us take, as examples, China, Japan, Egypt, and Greece.
+We will find that each reverts to the misty boundary between legend and
+history, or to the earlier age when the gods had not deserted the
+world--the horizon of mortal vision or fancy, where heaven seems to
+touch earth. It is said that nearly two thousand seven hundred years
+before the Christian era the potter's art was discovered in China by
+Kouen-ou. This was during the reign of the enlightened Emperor Hoang-ti.
+Of him it is recorded that after many labors for the good of his
+subjects, the amelioration of their condition, and the extension of
+their knowledge, he was translated to the upper sphere on the back of a
+huge and whiskered dragon.
+
+The Japanese follow a precisely similar course. Having no real
+knowledge, they call imagination to their aid, and solve an historical
+problem by the creation of a legend. Turning back to a period long
+before history begins, they affect to find the inventor of pottery in
+Oosei-tsumi, a legendary being who lived in the age of
+Oanamuchi-no-mikoto, and conferred upon him the title of "Kami,"
+distinctive of deity.
+
+The Egyptians, more reverently, gave the art directly to the gods.
+Having a pantheon, they merely singled out that one of its occupants to
+whom the honor should be ascribed. As Osiris is their Bacchus, and Thoth
+their Mercury, so to the director Num, the first creature, they ascribe
+the art of moulding clay. Like the Hebrew Jehovah, he first made the
+heavens and earth, the firmament, the sun, and the moon, and, from the
+fact of his having made the rivers and mountains, would appear also to
+have evolved order out of the Egyptian chaos. Lastly, he made man.
+Turning the clay of the Nile upon his wheel, he fashioned the last and
+greatest of created things, and having "breathed into his nostrils the
+breath of life," made man the cornerstone of the fabric of creation.
+Inspiration and monotheism apart, it would almost appear that the Jewish
+law-giver found in the hated "house of bondage" a foundation for his
+cosmogony.
+
+In how many instances did the Greeks lay the honors due to some
+forgotten mortal at the feet of a god or a semi-divine hero? To them
+Inachus, who about 1800 B.C. founded the kingdom of Argos, was not the
+leader of a band of adventurous emigrants from Egypt, but a child of the
+sea over which he came, a son of Oceanus and Tethys. It was only when
+Gelanor, the last of the race of Inachus, was deposed by Danaus, that we
+find a Greek recognition of the early connection of that country with
+Egypt. Danaus was the son of Belus, and brother of AEgyptus, jointly with
+whom he occupied the throne of Egypt. Quarrelling with his brother,
+Danaus set sail, and, arriving at Argos, rose to the throne by the means
+above indicated. These statements are only of value to our present
+purpose as showing the close connection between Greece and Egypt, and
+pointing to the conclusion that Egypt dropped the germs of that art
+which Greece cultivated to such perfection that it won the admiration of
+the world. If we turn to the origin of pottery accepted by the Greeks
+themselves, we are confused by the liveliness of their teeming
+imagination. The exercise of fancy takes the place of an undeveloped
+historical sense. When Jupiter wished to punish the rash impiety of
+Prometheus by giving him a wife, Vulcan made Pandora, the first of
+mortal women, out of clay. Prometheus is one of the strangest figures in
+Greek mythology. He laughed at the whole Pantheon, cheated the great
+Jove himself, and was yet a benefactor of mankind, after he had created
+the species; for to him also is ascribed the creation from clay of the
+first man and woman. Thus the gods and heroes were potters, and the art
+was practised by them before mortal life began. To two Corinthians, one
+Athenian, and one Cretan, the invention of the plastic art has been
+attributed; but, passing these by, let us turn, for philological
+reasons, to the legend of Keramos. The story of the adventures of
+Theseus is pretty well known. By the help of Ariadne, he killed the
+Minotaur of Crete, and escaped from the Labyrinth, and, having
+subsequently abandoned his fair assistant on the island of Naxos, she is
+said by some to have hanged herself in despair. Others, however,
+assert--and to their tale we must listen--that in the arms of Bacchus
+she found solace for her sorrows. Their son Keramos was the patron of
+potters, and to his name we owe our word "keramic" or "ceramic." When
+the Argives pointed out the tomb of Ariadne, her ashes were deposited in
+an urn in one of their temples, so that by means of the art attributed
+to the son, the mother's remains were preserved.
+
+It is thus made clear that the practice of making vessels of clay had no
+origin to which we can now turn back. The art was born in the "twilight
+of the gods," whose productions are now used in illustrating the pages
+of history. Even in these wild fancies there is a germ of truth. The
+first attempts at moulding in clay had a common origin in the
+necessities of man, and the promptings of nature to supply them. The
+material was on all hands ready for use; and why should the men of
+antiquity be held to differ from the children of after-ages, or those of
+our own time? To one the suggestion may have come from one source, to
+another it may have come from another; and unless we choose to bind
+ourselves to the narrative of the building of the great Tower of Babel,
+and the dispersal of races, we may be led to think that its origin may
+have been manifold, as its rudest attempts have certainly been
+discovered in places wide apart.
+
+On the sea-shore the child builds its house and mill, giving by the help
+of water a certain consistency to the inadhesive sand. On the roadside,
+or by the pond's rim, it shapes the oozy mud into the forms suggested to
+childhood's imitative instinct. One of the earliest and most beautiful
+of the legends relating to the youth of Christ has reference to this
+very matter. He was engaged with his playmates in making earthen birds.
+His efforts were clumsy and his art rude, and his companions jeered him,
+until the birds he had made became living things, and flew away. Let us
+by all means concede this to have been an impossible miracle, based upon
+an idle legend. Yet it proves that either in the early days of Galilee,
+or in those of the inventor of the tale, the habits of children differed
+in no degree from those of to-day. A kind of instinct would almost
+appear to lead them to model and imitate in clay; and putting primitive
+man upon the level of childhood, there is no reason for believing that
+the plastic art had not several independent origins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Old Sevres Patetendre. Fontenoy Vase,
+commemorative of the Battle of Fontenoy. Painted by Genest. (M. L.
+Double Coll.)]
+
+The manner in which pottery illustrates history brings us to one of the
+most interesting features of the study (Fig. 1). While the connoisseur
+is deep in the history of the art itself, the student prefers to view it
+in its relation to that of mankind. It suggests difficulties, confirms
+deductions, and offers hints for the solution of the problems of
+history. The memory of extinct nations is perpetuated by the clay
+records which have survived their submergence in the tide of time. In
+these we may read, as in a book, of the gods they worshipped, of their
+daily life, of their death and burial. Historians now, in fact, consult
+the relics of the potter's art with as much confidence and readiness as
+they would turn to the pages of an old-world chronicle. Migrations,
+intercourse, and conquest have all been recorded in clay. One might in
+that way define with the utmost exactness the line bounding the vast
+empire of Rome. The bricks or tiles, placed over the graves of the
+soldiers or found in their camps, show the stations of the legions and
+the extent of conquest. Wherever
+
+ "the Empress of the world
+ Of yore her eagle wings unfurled,"
+
+in England, Scotland, France, Germany, Jerusalem, or elsewhere, there
+have been found tiles or bricks stamped with the number of the legion or
+its distinctive appellation. The tragic end of Quintilius Varus is known
+to all readers of Roman history. A Roman proconsul of high birth, and
+enriched by the governorship of Syria, he was appointed to the command
+of the army confronting the hordes of Germany. Surprised by the German
+chief Hermann, or Arminius, his army was almost annihilated, and he, in
+despair, after the fashion of his time, sought death by his own hand.
+The Emperor Augustus wailed for months, "Varus, give me back my
+legions," the legions which were lying on the field, at the farthest
+point to which the armies of Rome had penetrated, and also the farthest
+in that direction, at which any specimens of Roman pottery have been
+found. From the funereal urns of the Greeks we are enabled to tell how
+far they pursued their conquests in any direction. Other nations left,
+in the lands to which their arms were carried, similar mementos of their
+presence, which, on being exhumed, after lying for centuries covered
+thickly over by the dust time is continually spreading over the past,
+are transferred to the page of history.
+
+A very forcible example of the historical value of earthen-ware is found
+almost at our very door. Irving relates, in his "Life of Washington,"
+that, not long after his birth, his father removed to Stafford County,
+near Fredericksburg. The house stood on a knoll overlooking the
+Rappahannock. This was the home of George's youth. The meadow between
+the house and the river was his play-ground. But this home, like that in
+which he was born, has disappeared; the site is only to be traced by
+fragments of _bricks_, _china_, and _earthen-ware_. Another example may
+be taken from a paragraph which appeared in the daily papers very
+recently, in which it was stated that two _amphorae_--the name given to
+the Greek two-handled, oval-bodied vases (Fig. 2) with pointed base,
+which have been found wherever Greek commerce extended--containing fifty
+thousand coins of the Emperor Gallienus and his immediate successors,
+had been discovered at Verona. Nearly all were as fresh as when coming
+from the mint. Gallienus assumed the purple A.D. 260, and reigned for
+eight years before he was assassinated at Milan. For over fifteen
+hundred years, therefore, these vases preserved their numismatic
+treasures.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Greek and Phoenician (on right) Amphorae.
+(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Chinese Bottles found in Egyptian Tombs.]
+
+Still another instance may be mentioned in which the close connection
+between history and its handmaid, pottery, is illustrated. Some time ago
+certain travellers in Egypt purchased a number of small jars (Fig. 3) of
+a kaolinic composition, which they were told had been taken from the
+tombs. They were evidently, from the style of decoration and the
+characters they bore, of Chinese manufacture; and the first conclusion
+was, that, as evidence was not wanting to show that one of them had been
+taken from a very old tomb on its being first opened, they were
+possessed of a highly venerable antiquity. Subsequent investigations,
+however, showed that they had been obtained from certain ports on the
+Red Sea, and were to be ascribed to a comparatively recent date. The
+discovery subtracted about two thousand five hundred years from their
+age. But how came these Chinese vases to find their way to the
+commercial cities of the Red Sea? Before navigators had learned that
+the great highway between Europe and the East was round the South of
+Africa, intercourse was maintained either by the overland route or
+through the Persian Gulf. This accounts for the abundance of Chinese
+porcelain found in Persia. Some of the specimens may have been left on
+the western side of the Gulf, and have thence found their way across
+Arabia to the shores of the Red Sea, whence they were obtained by the
+fraudulent venders of Lower Egypt.
+
+In this way the intercourse of nations may frequently be explained by
+the help of pottery. Not only, be it observed, may it be taken as an
+indicator of the movements or extension of the nations themselves, but
+of the manner and extent of their intercourse with the rest of the
+world.
+
+As an exponent of the customs of antiquity, its aid is of the highest
+value. We learn, for instance, that among the Greeks the usual custom
+was to mix wine in one vessel, cool it in another, draw it from the
+latter into jugs, and from them fill and replenish the beakers or cups
+of guests. We can see anywhere to-day tiny tea-sets for the amusement of
+children. The Greeks had something closely akin to them. Vases were
+given to children, as toys are given now. Some of those discovered are
+so limited in their dimensions that they could not have been used for
+any other purpose, and on others are depicted the games in which
+children engaged. Of all the uses to which an earthen jar could be put,
+certainly the most singular was that discovered by Diogenes, when he
+chose one for his habitation (Fig. 4). That such was the case there is
+strong reason for believing. This statement is one which may disconcert
+popular belief, and break off the association between the philosopher
+and a "tub;" but the authorities in favor of his home being a huge jar
+are tolerably decisive. A tub, moreover, scarcely seems to meet the
+requirements of the occasion, whereas it is easy to imagine a _pithos_
+satisfying the limited demands of Diogenes in the way of house-keeping.
+Nor was the whim of the philosopher without parallel. It is said that
+during the Peloponnesian war the Athenians lived in similar vessels. The
+_pithos_ occupied by Diogenes was cracked and patched; and these
+vessels, when unfit for other use, were, long after his day, used as
+dwellings by the poor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Diogenes in Pithos.]
+
+Vases were presented as prizes (Fig. 5) to the victors in the athletic
+games; and it is from these and other kinds deposited in sepulchres,
+that we derive the greater part of our knowledge of Greek ceramic art.
+Not only were they used--at least after the earliest days of Greece--to
+hold the ashes of the dead, but were evidently employed as tokens of
+respect or affection. Thus, the vases the deceased had most admired or
+used in life were placed in the tomb, along with others containing the
+remains of the funeral feast, and those employed in the last rites. The
+_amphora_ was devoted to all kinds of domestic uses. The _rhyton_ was a
+drinking-cup (Fig. 6). There were special vessels for oil and unguents;
+and the different kinds of wine-jars and drinking-cups present an almost
+endless variety of shapes, and, especially the latter, a most wonderful
+beauty of form. Of these, the _kylix_ affords a good example (Fig. 7).
+In this way we see that, from childhood to the grave, the customs of the
+Greeks are illustrated by their pottery. We pass by, in the mean time,
+with a mere reference the numberless mythic themes decipherable in the
+decoration of their vases.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Greek Prize Vase.]
+
+We meet with a precisely similar state of things among the Chinese. We
+can only study the pottery of that people after familiarizing ourselves
+with their religion. How otherwise can we understand the quaint figures
+and designs which meet us at every turn--the God of Longevity, Pou-tai
+the God of Contentment, their manifold dragons, the Kylin, the Dog of
+Fo, or the Fong-hoang? Colors and shapes, as well as animals, are
+employed as symbols. As the crane symbolized long life, so were certain
+colors and forms distinctive of social rank. Let us take a vase and
+study it closely, observe its proportions and decoration, and these will
+guide us to its purpose and to the rank of the individual making use of
+it. Vases and images tell of both the public and private worship of the
+Chinese, and of the manner in which it was conducted. The excess to
+which the Chinese carry the duties of hospitality and courtesy has been
+frequently commented on. It would be hard to imagine anything showing
+better the refinements of which etiquette is capable, than their manner
+of decorating their reception-rooms, so that they may be filled with the
+mildest incense of flattery to the expected guest. Should he be a
+soldier, vases stand on all sides, decorated with the warlike scenes
+best suited to his professional taste. Should he be a poet, war is
+changed to literature, and vases are chosen which recall the great names
+of the profession. After a manner similar to that in vogue among the
+Greeks, pottery and porcelain were used by the Chinese as media for the
+conveyance of compliments and good wishes, and as special marks of
+honor. They were conferred on the officer by his sovereign, and passed
+between friends at the customary times of rejoicing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Greek Rhyton. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y.
+Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+We approach Egypt, in this connection, with a certain amount of awe. We
+examine its early pottery with a sensation similar to that with which we
+view a mummy. It comprises relics of a civilization of so hoary an
+antiquity, that to study them is like peering into the secrets of the
+grave. It is, in fact, from the tombs that the treasures have been
+exhumed which enable us to trace Egyptian ceramic art. They tell of
+customs followed long before the Persian Cambyses
+
+ "O'erthrew Osiris, Orus, Apis, Isis,
+ And shook the Pyramids with fear and wonder
+ When the gigantic Memnon fell asunder."
+
+Some of the specimens date from the Third Dynasty, about four thousand
+years ago. There is now in existence a porcelain box bearing one of the
+names of Amasis II., the king whom Cambyses overthrew six hundred years
+before our era began. The earliest relics may be said to have been
+coeval with the invention of a written language.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Kylix, with Gorgon and Eyes.]
+
+A very curious custom may be allowed to arrest our attention for a
+moment. In the tombs previous to the sixth century B.C., have been found
+cones (Fig. 8), having inscriptions on their base. From these we learn
+the occupants' names and office, whether scribes, priests, or nobles.
+They served, in short, all the purposes of the inscriptions on the tombs
+of our day, or of labels for establishing the identity of the dead.
+Terra-cotta figures have also been found in some graves, bearing, like
+the cones, the name and title of the deceased. In the same connection
+may be mentioned the peculiar, and to us revolting, usage of devoting
+vases to holding the viscera of the embalmed body.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Red Earthen-ware Cone. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N.
+Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+The multitudinous domestic uses of jars cannot here be enumerated. We
+know that they were devoted to purposes which would now be considered
+somewhat at variance with the legitimate object of the manufacture of
+earthen-ware. We might almost say that all the receptacles designed in
+modern times for domestic convenience, such as baskets, boxes, and tin
+utensils, have their counterparts among the earthen fabrics of the
+Egyptians. Nor must we stop there if we observe the many other purposes
+of ornament and religion to which their ceramic wares were devoted. The
+Egyptians had an idea that the physical wants of the deceased did not
+come to an end with life, and they accordingly placed in the tombs jars
+with meat and drink for consumption after death. Of these jars, many had
+unquestionably been previously employed in the household. From such and
+other sources we learn that earthen pots were employed in cooking, as
+those of metal are with us, that certain vessels were used for holding
+water; others for the juice of the grape, for butcher-meat or poultry,
+for cosmetics, and, stranger than any, for holding the flax while it was
+being spun. Manuscripts, or papyri, have also been discovered in them;
+so that it may easily be seen how important a part pottery played in the
+every-day life of the Egyptians.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Ball of Painted Earthen-ware. Egyptian.]
+
+If we turn to their glazed ware, or porcelain, as it has been called,
+we find it much more extensively applied to decorative purposes. The
+unglazed was almost exclusively restricted to articles of a domestic
+kind. The glazed ware was employed in tiling, and inlaying coffins and
+boxes, and in the making of various vases and cups. Balls, presumably
+for the amusement of children, and other toys sometimes also made of
+pottery (Fig. 9), ear-rings, the pieces for a game akin to draughts
+(Fig. 10) or checkers, amulets, beads, necklaces, small figures of the
+gods (perforated), emblematic animals, finger-rings, and sepulchral
+figures, have all been found of this material. The extent to which such
+discoveries illustrate the customs of the Egyptians need not be enlarged
+upon.
+
+Having thus brought forward China, Greece, and Egypt as instances, it is
+hardly necessary to pursue this line of inquiry further. It may be said,
+in the broadest language, that every nation of whose ceramic productions
+we have any specimens, have in them reflected their religion and
+customs, and thus furnished most important aids to the construction of
+their national history.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Draughtsman of Glazed Pottery, from Thebes.]
+
+Literature has been enriched by figures drawn from the ceramic art. Some
+of the most effective similes of Biblical writers are thus derived. It
+is under the type of a potter that Jeremiah represents God as showing
+his absolute power over the Israelites: "Behold as the clay is in the
+potter's hand, so are ye in mine hand, O house of Israel." In a similar
+manner, St. Paul typifies the divine control over man. "Nay but, O man,
+who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to
+him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus? Hath not the potter
+power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honor and
+another unto dishonor?" It is this absolute "power over the clay" which
+led men to use it for the conveyance of their first conceptions of the
+beautiful. The pottery of all countries shows how religion stimulated
+art, by furnishing it with themes, and infusing into it a spiritual
+signification which all could understand. The pottery of the Greeks
+shows best how art may embellish religion and history, and perpetuate
+the legends belonging to neither. To the above may be added the very
+effective simile employed by Plato in characterizing Socrates: "The
+outside of the vase is scrawled over with odd shapes and writing, but
+within are precious liquors and healing medicines, and rare mixtures of
+far-gathered herbs and flowers."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Enamelled Babylonian Brick. (Louvre.)]
+
+And thus, by a short step, we reach the art represented in pottery. It
+supplies, beyond all question, the best means of observing the growth of
+intelligence and the expansion of artistic ideas. The very qualities of
+clay which led to its being used in the gratification of awakening
+necessities, led also to its being adopted for the expression of the
+first inspirations of art. When the Assyrian potter first ornamented the
+brick he had moulded (Fig. 11), the mechanical pursuit was elevated to
+the sphere of art. The same course was followed among all nations. When
+the discovery was reached, that clay could be made serviceable for
+building or for household vessels, decoration sooner or later suggested
+itself. Either forms were varied and became in themselves ornamental, or
+a superficial decoration was resorted to. The useful led to the
+beautiful, and their combination, as seen on the dinner-tables of our
+day, is the natural result of a universal process by which nations have
+advanced from rude and unskilful ignorance to art. The aboriginal
+American potter decorated his coarse vase with a few scratches made with
+a stick; his modern successor moulds his porcelain into graceful forms,
+and brings to its ornamentation a palette of bright colors, a trained
+hand, and a cultivated taste. The one is a relic of barbarism, the other
+a work of civilization, and both are the fruits of a combination to
+which all nations have been irresistibly led, viz., the useful with the
+beautiful. This course has been universally followed, and may, for that
+reason, be called natural. Man in every part of the world has given vent
+to his instinctive longing for that which, to him, represents beauty in
+the embellishment of objects in daily use. It is by the consideration of
+such facts that we learn to appreciate fully the bearing of pottery upon
+art and history. Upon this point Dr. Birch says: "By the application of
+painting to vases, the Greeks made them something more than mere
+articles of commercial value or daily use. They have become a
+reflection of the paintings of the Greek schools, and an inexhaustible
+source for illustrating the mythology, manners, customs, and literature
+of Greece. Unfortunately, very few are ornamented with historical
+subjects, yet history receives occasional illustration from them; and
+the representations of the burning of Croesus, the orgies of Anacreon,
+the wealth of Arcesilaus, the tributes of Darius, and the meeting of
+Alcaeus and Sappho, lead us to hope that future discoveries may offer
+additional examples."
+
+This passage leads directly to the consideration of the permanency of
+ceramic works as compared with those of other branches of art. The
+"reflections of the paintings of the Greek schools" have come down to us
+in all the beauty they possessed on first leaving the artist's hand. We
+may allow Mr. Ruskin to state the reverse case, and draw the conclusion.
+"It is surely," he says, "a severe lesson to us in this matter, that the
+best works of Turner could not be shown for six months without being
+destroyed--and that his most ambitious ones, for the most part, perished
+before they could be shown. I will break through my law of reticence,
+however, so far as to tell you that I have hope of one day interesting
+you greatly (with the help of the Florentine masters) in the study of
+the arts of moulding and painting porcelain; and to induce some of you
+to use your future power of patronage in encouraging the various
+branches of this art, and turning the attention of the workmen of Italy
+from the vulgar tricks of minute and perishable mosaic to the exquisite
+subtleties of form and color possible in the perfectly ductile,
+afterward unalterable clay. And one of the ultimate results of such
+craftsmanship might be the production of pictures as brilliant as
+painted glass--as delicate as the most subtle water-colors, and more
+permanent than the Pyramids." Both these writers thus refer to
+permanency as a feature of the potter's art, which lends it a special
+importance. Whatever form the art may have assumed, it is, when applied
+to pottery, practically imperishable. By his allusion to the effect of
+time and exposure upon the paintings of Turner, Mr. Ruskin invests the
+results he contemplates with a certain kind of grandeur. He has in view
+the culminating point of ceramic art, the apex to which the works of the
+artists of all time lead up step by step. What process he would adopt,
+or what forms of the art he would discard, we need not now inquire. It
+will be sufficient to take our stand at the point indicated--the
+perfection of form and decoration--and observe how the artists of the
+past have approached it, and to mark the ideas by which they have been
+influenced.
+
+The ceramic is the union of two branches of art, the architectural and
+the graphic. It combines form and proportion with drawing and color. It
+is unnecessary here to define art in the abstract; but there are certain
+general principles which may help us to estimate the works of the
+ceramic artists of all countries. Of these, the first is thus stated by
+Ruskin: "The entire vitality of art depends upon its being either full
+of truth or full of use; and however pleasant, wonderful, or impressive
+it may be in itself, it must yet be of an inferior kind, and tend to
+deeper inferiority, unless it has clearly one of these main
+objects--_either to state a true thing, or to adorn a serviceable one_.
+It must never exist alone--never for itself.... Every good piece of art
+... involves skill, and the formation of an actually beautiful thing by
+it." The "statement of a true thing" referred to in the passage quoted
+is Similitude, one of the philosopher-critic's essentials in the graphic
+arts. In the architectural arts, including pottery, he demands Skill,
+Beauty, and Use; in the graphic arts, Skill, Beauty, and Likeness. If,
+however, we keep in mind what Dr. Birch says of the vases of Greece
+being a reflection of the Greek school of painting, and also Mr.
+Ruskin's desideratum of pictures upon exquisitely moulded porcelain, we
+shall see that the essentials of the ceramic art, as a special branch,
+comprise those of both the architectural and graphic divisions--Skill,
+Beauty, Use, and Similitude. In one respect, therefore, it may be said
+to be the highest of all the arts.
+
+The rule thus laid down can be easily applied, and is capable of various
+modifications to suit the special object upon which it is brought to
+bear. Thus, a work of art may represent Skill alone. Add, to equal
+Skill, the second essential, Beauty, and the work will rank higher in
+art. Invest an object for Use with both Skill and Beauty, and it is
+raised still higher. If to these Similitude be added, the work will be
+estimated according to the degree in which it possesses the four
+essentials. It is obvious, however, that in the works of the ceramic
+artist, it is neither always possible nor desirable to aim at bringing
+the four essentials together; and this fact will receive ample
+illustration from what follows. The rule has been modified by every
+nation according to its views of art and beauty. It is better to
+recognize the good in all, than to accept one standard and exclude all
+others. Catholicity of sympathy and breadth of appreciation are as
+necessary to the collector's enjoyment as to the student-artist's
+benefit. Should the one raise an inflexible standard by which to measure
+his admiration, or the other allow only one carefully defined style to
+kindle his emulation, both will shut out the greater part of the world
+of art. Every work of art is an expression of feeling, and, to
+appreciate it, it is necessary to make as near an approach as possible
+to understanding the sentiment it embodies. The form of expression
+varies with different nations and with different men; and to catch all
+the fine and elusive shades of feeling surrounding the art of different
+times and peoples, the cultivation of a keen and sensitive perception of
+beauty is better than voluntary slavery under a despotic and arbitrary
+rule. Art is the universal language in which humanity has couched its
+ideas of beauty. The form of expression varies, but the impulse is
+everywhere fundamentally the same. We have endeavored to put in words
+rather the common aim of all, than a rule by which to measure individual
+endeavor. It does not follow that all efforts are equal. Some have
+approached the common object by one route, and others by another, and
+some have approached it nearer than others; but in no case can one be
+singled out as the only correct course, to the condemnation of all
+others. The true artist will combine the best features of all
+achievements, and so win a place nearer the goal than his predecessors.
+If we find one artist excelling in form, and another in color, he who
+combines excellence of form with beauty of color will surpass both. The
+narrowness of schools and the vagaries of fashion have been a burden
+upon art; and the less we allow ourselves to be enthralled by either,
+the greater will be our enjoyment of artistic work. The more rigid our
+rule, the more precarious is its existence. The standard of yesterday is
+to-day looked upon with a feeling akin to contempt. Methods, models,
+ideals change; and the wise man is he who can see the merits and
+shortcomings, the beauties and defects, of all.
+
+We have said that different nations have shown in different ways their
+sense of the aims and possibilities of ceramic art. The works of the
+Greeks indicate an absorbing admiration of elegance of form and
+figure-drawing. Their vases mark the second step in the progress of
+decoration. Firstly came linear ornamentation, and then light and line,
+of which all the Greek vases are examples. If, then, the Greeks in their
+best days had only reached the second step in decoration, to what must
+we ascribe the wonderful influence of their art? Certainly it is not in
+the subjects they chose to illustrate that its charm consists.
+
+Taking our stand in ancient Greece, we may glance along the whole line
+by which the art has progressed toward an approximate perfection, and at
+the same time see in what the Greeks were pre-eminent, and in what they
+were deficient. "To Greece," says one writer, "was intrusted the
+cultivation of the reason and the taste. Her gift to mankind has been
+science and art." Her highest idea was beauty. She left behind her
+canons of taste, beyond which, in their special application, we have not
+advanced, and have little hope of advancing. We are not, therefore,
+surprised when a writer on pottery reminds us that "to every eye
+familiar with works of art of the higher order, the cleverest imitations
+of nature, and the most elegant conceits of floral ornaments, whether
+exhibited in the efforts of Oriental or European potters, appear coarse
+and vulgar when contrasted with the chaste simplicity of the Greek
+forms." If we would appreciate the full truth of this, we have only to
+make comparisons in any sufficiently extensive collection. The Greeks
+took the articles of daily use, and made them representatives of their
+ideas of beauty in both form and ornamentation. In this they followed
+the examples set them ages before. In accomplishment only they were
+alone. While, therefore, we study some as mere examples of skill, or
+curiosities of design, we study the Greek forms as embodying our highest
+ideal of beauty.
+
+Let us now examine that in which they were deficient, and see how others
+have tried to remedy it.
+
+There are branches of the art which the Greeks either did not study, or
+studied without success. They give little evidence of having been able
+to appreciate color or to understand its uses. They, as Ruskin says,
+painted anything anyhow--gods black, horses red, lips and cheeks white.
+They attained to a certain unsurpassable elegance of shape, and the
+beautiful outlines of their human-figure ornamentation can at times
+hardly be sufficiently admired; but their coloring was purely
+conventional, and its application but little understood. Its changes may
+be noticed with some curiosity. At first the favorite ground was a pale
+cream-color, which, later, turned to a redder tint, and human took the
+place of animal forms. The vases in what is called the "old style," show
+black figures and ornamentation in monochrome, with the exception of
+female faces, which are white, and eyes red. The effects of perspective
+are only occasionally tried. White was used for the hair and beard of
+old men. Coming down next to the highest art of Greece, the ground is
+black, the figures red, and the ornamentation white. Specimens belonging
+to this period show advance chiefly in the drawing and expression. We
+remark further, that, besides the use of conventional colors, the Greeks
+did not care to copy nature too closely, and thus in two distinct ways
+showed their indifference or inability to introduce into their art the
+element of likeness. When Jacquemart says that "no natural object, be it
+plant, bird, or animal, is rendered in its real form, or in its intimate
+details," he gives expression to a fact which shows the distinction
+between Greek ceramic art and that in which a nearer approach is made to
+similitude by the use of correct drawing and color.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Japanese Hexagonal Vase. Deep blue ground.
+Figures in dark brown, three shades of green, and yellow. Height, 16-1/2
+in. (R. H. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Persian Tile. Arabesque Decoration.]
+
+The Orientals went to the opposite extreme. They delighted in bright and
+gorgeous decoration to an extent that, but for their many intensely
+realistic works, would lead to the belief that the production of certain
+effects in color was the highest object of their artists. Their strength
+lies in their coloring. Nowhere else can the same skill be found in the
+harmonizing of shades usually deemed discordant, and nowhere else have
+colors the same brilliancy and depth (Fig. 12). The Japanese and
+Chinese, in particular, appear to have thoroughly grasped the true place
+of color in the decoration of curving surfaces, from which the
+brilliant glaze reflects the light. The artists of Sevres, anticipating
+in a manner Ruskin's idea, embellished their vases with compositions
+similar to those on canvas. They made the mistake of thinking that the
+artist's work is independent of the surface on which it appears, whereas
+perspective is altered and sometimes destroyed by the curvature of a
+vase and the brilliancy of the enamel. The artists of the Orient, on the
+other hand, either restrict themselves to subjects which can be treated
+upon a judiciously limited part of the surface, or throw aside
+compositions entirely, and trust to floral designs, isolated figures,
+repetitious decoration without unity of design, or to beauty of colors
+alone. Everything contributed to exalt their estimation of color for its
+own sake, and to it we accordingly find that they devote the regard
+entertained by the Greeks for form. Any ulterior use of color, as for
+picture-painting on the flat surface of porcelain plaques, does not
+appear to have occupied their attention to any very great extent. It is
+in isolated figures and flowers that we can best study the marvellous
+delicacy of the Chinese or Japanese brush, and the fidelity with which
+the suggestions of nature are followed. There is little absolute
+imitation. Color is paramount, and its beauty obscures the incongruities
+of Oriental art.
+
+The Persians, like the Greeks, mingled the natural with the
+conventional. Their vases and tiles (Fig. 13) are ornamented with floral
+designs, in which, while some of the flowers can be distinguished,
+others are altered beyond recognition. Among the Mussulman Persians the
+enamels reached the highest point of gorgeous brilliancy: glowing red as
+a ground-color, dishes with bottoms covered with rich
+arabesques--everything set in tints of the most pronounced and striking
+kind. Their decorations are many-hued as the rainbow; and if at times
+they lack its softly melting shades, they appear at others as if
+suspended in the clear and liquid glaze, as soft as the tints of early
+spring. White figures on a blue or yellow ground, or _vice versa_, are
+distinctive of much of the ornamentation of Persia. The mosque at
+Sultaneah (Fig. 14) is described as having its walls entirely "cased
+with enamelled tiles of deep blue, with yellow and white scrolls and
+devices." The patterns are arabesque, occasionally mingled with animal
+and floral forms. The finest specimens of Persian tiling at the Museum
+at Sevres are in blue and white, the latter forming the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Mosque at Sultaneah. Cased, inside and out,
+with enamelled tiles.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Japanese Porcelain. Cloudy gray, flecked with
+gold; dress, rose and gold. (Sutton Coll.)]
+
+These technical secrets, known centuries ago in Persia and the far East,
+have been coveted by ceramists down to the present day. They have been
+and are the most jealously guarded possessions of artists and factories,
+and history records many instances of the extreme precautions adopted to
+prevent their spread. The Japanese, for example, although indebted to
+China and Corea for the foundation of the knowledge upon which the
+magnificent structure of their subsequent art was built, guard with the
+utmost care the borrowed secrets in their possession. In a native work
+on porcelain it is said: "The painting and decoration of vases is a
+secret that it is not permitted to reveal." Similar instances present
+themselves on every hand. The production of any unusually beautiful
+color, although really only one-half of the difficulty with which the
+ceramic artist has to contend, is universally regarded as a triumph.
+Such were the efforts upon which the potters of China expended their
+skill, and upon which the emperors of the Flowery Kingdom bestowed
+rewards. There are dynastic colors, but no dynastic style of
+ornamentation with design. The ability to apply color to an artistic
+creation was a secondary matter, and went without recognition. The
+position of the artist and the workman were thus in a measure inverted,
+if we insist that the production of color is mechanical, and its
+application artistic. If the decoration be examined, its execution in
+detail will be found to be almost perfect--birds of brilliant plumage,
+flowers of richest hue, men and women draped in Oriental splendor (Fig.
+15). In every case the colors used are those which produce the subtlest
+harmony. They gleam through the glaze like gems, or lie upon its surface
+like drops of pearl, ruby, or emerald. The drawing is precise and
+minute. A cylindrical Japanese vase, in Mr. J. T. Sutton's collection,
+is decorated with a flock of cranes. They cover the upper part of its
+surface, flying, turning, diving, in every conceivable attitude--a
+perfect whirlwind of birds. The decorator has, with astonishing skill,
+seized upon the varied attitudes most suggestive of motion, and has
+produced what might be called "a study of cranes," as far beyond the
+apprehension of a European artist as the minutiae are beyond his skill.
+Elsewhere we may see a masterpiece of manual dexterity. It is
+reticulated, or articulated; or has its paste perforated, and then
+covered with glaze; or it may be a grotesque expression of Oriental
+humor. Others are decorated with designs in color, and their aspects
+have no monotony. Should one side weary, the vase may be partially
+turned, and an entirely new effect is secured. In it, as in that
+described above, there is no repetition.
+
+In Oriental work, as a whole, we therefore find skill in manipulation,
+similitude in drawing, and beauty in color; and the greatest of these is
+color. We have seen how it was regarded by the Chinese themselves, and
+our collectors follow their lead. They value one piece for the rarity of
+its prevailing green, another for the depth of its turquoise, a third
+for the clearness of its blue and the transparency of its white, a
+fourth for the harmony of its many tints, a fifth for the skill
+displayed in its quaint form and decoration.
+
+We thus reach an interesting point where some instruction may be gained.
+On the one hand, are the Greeks pursuing beauty of form with assiduity
+and marked success; on the other, are the Orientals occupying themselves
+with mechanical skill and the beauty resulting from color. Both were
+right so far as they went. Men will admire Greek pottery so long as they
+have any sense of elegant proportion; they will admire Oriental pottery
+so long as they find any beauty in the changing colors of a kaleidoscope
+or in a gem. The aims and ideals of the two peoples were different, and
+the world has not yet seen the combination of a gracefulness of form
+equal to the Greek with the coloring of the Orient.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Nankin Porcelain. Brown bands; base, white;
+body, pale green; neck, light brown. Decoration chiefly pink, green, and
+blue; neck and body crackled. (Sutton Coll.)]
+
+In other directions, especially in Europe, it is more difficult to
+unravel the lines of art, or to specify, without numberless exceptions
+and modifications, the distinctive aims of artists or schools. The
+example of the Orientals has led some manufacturers to choose the
+production of color as their great aim. They have no intelligent
+comprehension of its higher uses, as these might be studied in Chinese
+decoration. They form an exaggerated estimate of Oriental processes, and
+seek to equal the wonderful coloring of the faience of Persia or
+Rhodes. If they fail, as is generally the case, they are in no way
+deterred from using their inferior colors as the Orientals used the
+riches of their palette. Instead of turning toward a new object within
+the compass of their lower skill, they appeal to the eye with works
+which, by suggesting comparison with the models that inspired them, are
+at once condemned. If a vase of Nankin porcelain should be placed side
+by side with a Delft copy, the force of this will at once be seen.
+
+It is comparatively easy to assign a place to Palissy. His career
+deserves study as an illustration of the movement of art between the
+conventional and the natural. As we look back upon his works, we find
+that truth to nature, in both form and color, was the guiding motive in
+the production of his most remarkable pieces. We owe the romance of his
+life to his earnestness in attempting to solve the mysteries of enamel.
+"I thought," he says, "that if I could discover the invention of making
+enamel, I should be able to make vessels of earth, and other things of
+beautiful arrangements, _because Heaven had given me to understand
+something of painting_; and thenceforth, without considering that I had
+no knowledge of argillaceous earth, I set about seeking enamel like a
+man who gropes in the dark." The story of his trials, his failures and
+successes, his poverty, honors and persecutions, compose the great
+romance in the history of ceramics. What he attained was, first, a white
+enamel; then, jasper glaze of warm tints of blue, brown, and white;
+lastly, his _Rustiques figulines_ (Fig. 17). The last was his crowning
+effort. We regard him both as the leading representative of French art
+in the sixteenth century, and as a great originator. He had made, after
+long struggle and endeavor, a great discovery in enamelling; but what we
+admire more than that is the ideal he had formed. He developed skill,
+and aimed at both beauty and likeness. Palissy was great because, having
+chosen a certain line of art, he adopted the only ideal by which he
+could possibly reach perfection, viz., absolute truth to nature, alike
+in form and color. He neither spared himself nor overlooked any detail.
+His moulds were formed from living specimens. We recognize every
+ornament--shells of the district round Paris, reptiles and plants from
+the same places, and fish from the Seine. He did not dare to improve or
+conventionalize. He preferred nature as he found her; and his wisdom was
+genius. What we wish chiefly to note is, that here was an artist who
+used the beauties of enamel for the reproduction of the natural. He not
+only moulded the clay into the forms of living things, but reproduced
+the colors of his models. No better examples can be given of Similitude.
+It hardly seems possible that his was a branch of the same art that we
+have seen in the East and in Greece. The fact of its being so merely
+shows the wide scope of ceramic art, and the infinity of the forms it
+may assume.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Palissy Dish. (Soltykoff Coll.)]
+
+Having chosen representatives of three different components of what we
+have assumed to be the highest form of art, we may now glance at the end
+in view, and see to what extent the lower forms may be worthily
+followed. Let us suppose that a piece of pottery or porcelain has been
+painted, and that the action of the fire has made the coloring
+perennial, so that we find on it a portrait or a landscape everlasting
+as the ware itself. Let us suppose, further, that the tints are natural,
+that, in short, the portrait is all that we now understand by the word,
+and that in the landscape nature is displayed as on canvas--then we
+should have a specimen of the perfect union of the potter's and
+painter's art.
+
+The lessening obstructions in the way of such a consummation may be
+referred to in brief. The colors are mineral, and change by submission
+to fire, different temperatures producing different tints, even when
+the same pigment is used. The painter, therefore, in applying the
+colors, must take into account the change to be effected by the fire in
+endeavoring to produce a certain result. He has not merely, it will be
+observed, to lay on given colors, and have them made perpetual by
+glazing and firing. He must estimate and make allowance for the
+transformations effected in the process. We are now in a position to
+realize the difficulty attending the exercise of the combined skill of
+potter and painter. As a consequence, although many great painters have
+turned their genius to the decoration of earthen-ware, others have been
+deterred from doing so by the very facts here mentioned. They are
+unwilling to submit their work to processes unattended with certainty,
+and to have their artistic individuality obliterated by the fire. It is
+clear, therefore, that if by any means doubt can be changed to
+certainty, and the finish characteristic of the individual artist be
+preserved, artists of every grade will gladly avail themselves of the
+opportunity to place their works above the reach of the defacing fingers
+of Time. The ceramic art would be revolutionized. Artists, being at
+present less able to follow nature, make a virtue of necessity, and lose
+themselves among fantasies of tint and form. We find elaborately
+decorated pieces, the great virtue of the floral ornamentation of which
+is, that it is--not true, but--new. A new leaf or a novelty in flowers
+is a valuable discovery; and the _repertoire_ of the potter is filled
+with designs in which nature has no part. If nature be brought within
+the artist's reach, it will be followed more closely; and the result
+might be the realization of Ruskin's idea--the rendition of absolute
+similitude in outline, color, and perspective.
+
+The next question arising is, in view of the restraints upon artists,
+what styles of decoration are the best? The subject is worth considering
+at length. There may be a beauty of a certain kind in the ware itself.
+As a rule, porcelain should never be overloaded with gold or any kind of
+decoration or color less beautiful than its own enamel. It demands
+lightness of ornamentation and gracefulness of design, rather than
+brilliancy of decoration. We can, when these canons are observed, find
+something to admire in capricious floral designs, even although they may
+not be floral to the naturalist. The best rule is to adapt the
+decoration to the object upon which it is laid. It would be a violation
+of good taste to demand pictures upon plates, or that a soup-tureen
+should resemble a sarcophagus. If an object be for use, let its
+usefulness be the primary consideration; if for ornament, let its beauty
+be its first; if it be meant to combine them, let the ornamentation be
+that best suited to the useful purpose.
+
+When we come to consider color alone, a distinction must again be drawn
+between articles for different purposes. Ornamentation may address
+either the eye alone or the sensibilities through the eye. Restricting
+ourselves to the former, the article will be the most ornamental which,
+apart from shape, seems most brilliant, and reflects the most light. To
+illustrate this, we might reproduce an object in different
+materials--diamond, ruby, topaz, gold, iron, lead, sand, and plaster.
+Show it, in all these materials, to a savage, an ignoramus, an artist, a
+woman, and each will select the copy in precious stone as the most
+agreeable to the eye. The plaster would be the least likely to attract,
+and the person choosing it would be at once put down as devoid of taste.
+Suppose, now, that a vase is presented to us duplicated in different
+materials, we should find the turquoise of Japan or the red of China
+more pleasing to the eye than stanniferous enamel. It would, again, be
+like choosing between ruby and plaster. In this way a rule could be
+drawn up capable of universal application, one which would surmount all
+the advancing and receding waves of changing fashion.
+
+In the shape which an object intended for ornament should assume, or in
+the style of its decoration, there is, as we have seen, no absolute
+rule. Individual taste is paramount, since ornaments are intended mainly
+to administer to the pleasure of the possessor, but one rule may be
+considered universal in regard to the decoration. If the object be a
+vase intended to brighten a house, then its ornamentation should never
+be of such an order that its greatest and best effect is perceived when
+it stands alone. What ought to be kept in view, is the extent to which
+it will increase the attractiveness of the room in which it stands. It
+is a very curious fact that the most perfect decoration demands
+isolation for the appreciation of its full effect, and that decoration
+of comparative mediocrity will frequently add more to an apartment. We
+are thus led to observe that decoration is not an end, but a way, a
+means to the beautifying of a home. Every such object in a house should
+be a note, and from combination of all the notes comes harmony. Were
+each a tune complete, however perfect, the result would be a jarring
+discord. For that reason, a vase of one perfectly simple color may
+harmonize with its surroundings as well as, or even better than, another
+showing a masterpiece of painting. Such a color must, however, be as
+near perfection as possible, like that of a precious stone. A vase of
+turquoise-blue may produce in a room the effect of diamonds in the ears
+of a woman. Taste is not likely to lead her to carry pictures in her
+ears, nor to exclude all but picture-painted porcelain from her rooms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by M.
+Bracquemond. (Mrs. Charles Crocker Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by Pallaudre.
+(Thomas Scott Coll.)]
+
+Having thus seen how ceramic productions illustrate the art ideas of all
+nations, having touched upon the influence of pottery upon art in
+general, and having glanced at its present aims and possible
+accomplishments, it will not be forgotten, after what has just been
+said, that the combination of the useful and the beautiful is the great
+charm of the ceramic art, making between them a new beauty which finds
+its best place in the household. Let us look at the usual appurtenances
+of the table. They both reflect taste and form it. A wide range is
+before us from which to choose--from the vulgarity of overloaded glaring
+colors and gilt, to the most exquisite simplicity of design and
+perfection of workmanship. Every house-keeper ought to visit an
+extensive collection, and, by comparing and contrasting one style with
+another, learn in what the true beauty of ceramic decoration consists.
+The painting and moulding of pottery and porcelain are quite as
+important as oil-painting and sculpture. As we look at the pictures and
+statues in a gallery, we read the stories they tell, feel the sentiment
+they express, study the grace they embody, or linger lovingly over the
+evidences they present of artistic skill. A plate may appear an humble
+thing to which to turn from them. But let us consider the intimate
+relations into which we are brought with its unobtrusive beauty. It is
+the daily contact that lends so comparatively lowly a matter its real
+importance, and daily contact with delicately painted and gracefully
+moulded cups, platters, and dishes cannot be without its influence upon
+taste. Or suppose the ceramic treasure be an earthen-ware jar. It
+presents us with green, its depth suggestive of a forest glade, shading
+off into blue like that of the sky. As we turn it slowly round, a leaf
+appears attached to a tiny stem, and still farther lies a flower,
+colored with the very hue of nature, and suggesting the perfume of a
+garden in summer. Art such as that is never out of place, and never
+thrown away. Or let our attention rest upon more purely ornamental
+representatives of the art. There are vases which, while offering for
+our admiration a beauty which is eternal, are yet invested with a
+chameleon-like power of change. They never allow monotony to break their
+charm. It may consist of a mere color. Take the old turquoise-blue of
+China. The eye can scarcely catch the fleeting shades, to determine
+whether the vase is blue or green. While daylight lasts, the blue is
+dominant, but when the lamps are lit in the evening, the blue gives
+place to a green of greatly increased brilliancy. The same thing may be
+observed in many flower-painted vases. They may be examined once without
+revealing a tithe of their beauty. The sky is overcast and the outside
+world gloomy, and the flowers, as sympathetic as though growing in the
+garden, look sombre and drooping. But let a ray of sunshine fall across
+the vase, and mark how the flowers are glorified. Their hues change and
+brighten, and, as if endowed with life, they smile, and lift up their
+heads in the face of the sun.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK I.--NOMENCLATURE AND METHODS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+TECHNOLOGY.
+
+ Confusion in Use of Terms.--Porcelain as an Instance.--Derivation
+ of
+ Ceramic.--Pottery.--Faience.--Majolica.--Mezza-Majolica.--Composition
+ of Porcelain.--Origin of Word.--Where first made.--When introduced
+ into Europe.--Hard and Soft Paste.--Soft Porcelain of Venice,
+ Florence, England, France.--Hard Porcelain invented at Meissen by
+ Boettcher.--Vienna.--Discovery of Kaolin in France.--Biscuit.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Blue-glazed Pottery. Egyptian.]
+
+It will be necessary as we proceed to make use of certain terms, the
+meaning of which should be defined with as much exactness as possible.
+It may be premised that considerable confusion exists in the
+nomenclature of the art. This has arisen partly from the want of
+precision in the language employed by writers, and partly from diversity
+of usage. As an illustration, the word "porcelain" may be adduced. The
+material to which the Egyptians applied a glaze, and which was very
+largely used in making ornaments and small images, has been called, and
+is constantly spoken of, as Egyptian porcelain (Fig. 20). In reality the
+substance is not porcelain, having neither the transparency nor the
+hardness of that ware, but a compound between porcelain and
+earthen-ware. The word was also used by the Italians in the sixteenth
+century, to designate their finer qualities of majolica. An equally
+incongruous application of it is made in the case of Lambeth faience,
+which is described by the manufacturers as a "kind of porcelain." Such
+words as faience, hard and soft porcelain, majolica, stone-ware, etc.,
+are in continual use by writers upon ceramic art, and a few of the more
+important will now be defined.
+
+Allusion has already been made to the derivation of the word "ceramic."
+Viewing the subject more prosaically, the name [Greek: keramos] was
+applied by the Greeks to pottery in general, and also to a large jar;
+and several derivatives were used for the designation of different
+vessels. The potter himself was called [Greek: kerameus], and the
+pot-market [Greek: kerameikos]. Although the matter has been differently
+viewed, it appears probable that the root of all the above words is
+[Greek: keras], a horn. The horn was used at a very early period as a
+drinking-cup, and a more decided air of probability is thus given to the
+above assumption, since Bacchus was the reputed parent of [Greek:
+keramos], or Ceramus. However philologists may ultimately settle this
+matter, the word "ceramic" is now employed to designate the potter's art
+and its productions.
+
+The word "pottery" is variously used. Its root is the Latin _potum_, a
+drinking-vessel. It is applied, according to general English usage, to
+all wares distinguished by their opacity from translucent porcelain. The
+French word _poterie_, on the other hand, is applied to all vessels,
+including those made of porcelain. The latter fact has led to a slight
+confusion in the use of the English word. One writer makes the assertion
+in one place, that the words "earthen-ware" and "pottery" have limited
+and distinctive meanings, the former applying only to vessels of the
+coarser qualities, the latter to the finest products of the fictile art,
+"including even porcelain." In another place, he draws a distinction
+between pottery and porcelain, and in the latter course he is followed
+by the present writer.
+
+Faience, fayence, or fayance, is a French word applied to every kind of
+glazed earthen-ware. According to the earlier French usage, the term
+included porcelain, but more lately it has been applied only to pottery.
+
+The word "majolica," as now employed, has almost the same meaning as
+faience. A more limited signification is attached to it by some. The
+writer of the article on pottery in "Appleton's Cyclopaedia" says it is
+used "to signify all faience of Italian manufacture. Lately the word has
+been used as almost, if not quite, synonymous with faience." A more
+recent writer has said, "In its now common acceptation, the word is
+applied to all kinds of decorated pottery made in Italy, or made in
+colors and styles imitating the old Italian work. But when you read a
+book on pottery written during the present century by an expert, you
+will do well to remember that the word in that book means exclusively
+Italian decorated pottery of the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and
+eighteenth centuries, in the old Italian styles. It does not include
+Italian vases made in imitation of German, French, Dutch, or English
+wares."
+
+The changing meaning of this word is a good illustration of the careless
+use of the terms employed in treating of ceramic art. Originally,
+majolica, or maiolica, had a meaning different from any of those given
+above. The name is derived from Majorca, the largest of the Balearic
+Islands, between which and Italy intercourse is known to have taken
+place in the twelfth century; and two hundred years later, the
+commercial transactions of Majorca were of a very extensive kind. The
+evidence in favor of the above derivation of the word is conclusive.
+Scaliger says distinctly that the Italian pottery derived its name of
+majolica from Majorca, where the pottery was most excellent. Ferrari
+believes that "the use of majolica, as well as the name, came from
+Majorca, which the ancient writers called Majolica." The "Dictionary
+della Crusca" adds weight to these authorities. Such being the case, it
+seems probable that the Italians derived part of their knowledge of
+making majolica from the place which gives it its name. Even admitting
+that the Saracens who settled in Sicily, and the Moors expelled from
+Spain who settled in Italy, initiated the Italians in the art, nothing
+is thereby detracted from the importance of Majorca. The fact is left
+unaffected that the intercourse with the Balearic group enabled the
+Italians to find a name for the ware they admired so much. On trying to
+imitate it, the ware called "mezza-majolica" was produced. The red clay
+was first thinly coated with white earth, upon which the colors were
+laid. After a partial firing, lead glaze was applied, and lustre
+pigments gave the ware the iridescence characteristic of real majolica.
+It was after this that tin enamel was used in place of a white slip; and
+the lustre pigments being applied as before, fine majolica was produced.
+It will thus be seen that the words "mezza-majolica" and "majolica" were
+originally applied only to wares showing the _reflet metallique_, or
+lustre. This limited use of the word was observed down to the middle of
+the sixteenth century. Piccolpasso, writing in 1548, in no case applies
+the name to the painted and glazed wares of his own production. All the
+glazed earthen-ware of Italy was thereafter called majolica; and the
+application of the word has been growing wider ever since. Mr. Fortnum
+says, "We think, with M. Jacquemart, M. Darcel, Mr. J. C. Robinson, and
+others, that the word 'maiolica' should be again restricted to lustred
+wares." Any such attempt must necessarily end in failure. The popular
+employment of a word is not to be controlled by its scientific
+application. The tendency is in the opposite direction--toward the
+establishment of a universal usage by which faience and majolica will
+become convertible terms.
+
+The different kinds of ware, such as Lucca della Robbia, Palissy,
+Doulton, and Limoges, will be found described under the countries to
+which they belong.
+
+Porcelain is composed of two ingredients, one of which--kaolin--is
+infusible, and the other--petuntse--vitrifies, and envelops the kaolin.
+It is translucid, and therein differs from pottery, which is opaque. As
+to the origin of the word, we have already seen that it was, in its
+Italian form, applied to majolica in the sixteenth century; and the word
+"pourcelaine" occurs two centuries earlier. It was used to designate
+Oriental china in the fifteenth century. Mr. J. F. Davis, in his work on
+the Chinese (1840), quotes Marsden to the effect that the word
+"porcelain," or _porcellana_, was applied by Europeans to the ware of
+China, from the resemblance of its fine polished surface to that of the
+univalve-shell so named; while the shell itself derived its appellation
+from the curved or gibbous shape of its upper surface, which was thought
+to resemble the raised back of a _porcella_, or little hog. When
+porcelain was first invented in China is not exactly known. The
+combination was discovered in the province of Honan about eighteen
+hundred years ago; but the date cannot be more specifically fixed. From
+China it was introduced into Persia, Egypt, and Barbary, at a very early
+period, and was thence imported into Europe, where, however, it was not
+generally known until 1518. The first specimens of Oriental porcelain
+known to have reached England were given by Philip of Austria to Sir
+Thomas Trenchard, of Wolverton, in 1506.
+
+To continue its history in Europe, it is necessary to observe that there
+are two kinds of porcelain--the natural, or _pate dure_, and the
+artificial, or _pate tendre_. The latter cannot stand so high a
+temperature as the former, and can be scratched with a knife, which the
+hard porcelain resists. The soft-paste was the first to be discovered in
+Europe. Chemists, struck with the beauty of the Chinese porcelain, and
+impelled by a desire to imitate, began to experiment in the sixteenth
+century; and the first success, of which substantial evidences now
+exist, was gained at Florence in 1580. It is said that a Venetian potter
+made porcelain sixty or seventy years earlier; but no specimen known to
+be his is now in existence. After that of Florence, the next discovery
+was made by Dr. Dwight, of Fulham, England, in 1671; and in 1695 the
+secret was penetrated by M. Chicanneau, at St. Cloud, France. By that
+time the Florentine porcelain and process had been forgotten, and the
+English and French ceramists pursued perfectly independent
+investigations.
+
+The problem of making a hard-paste porcelain resembling that of the
+Orient still remained unsolved. No chemistry could avail the
+experimenters so long as the materials were wanting. To the accidental
+discovery of a bed of kaolin, Europe owed its first hard porcelain. This
+important event took place about the year 1709, and the circumstances
+leading to it are full of interest.
+
+John Frederic Boettger, or Boettcher, was a chemist's assistant in Berlin,
+and having fallen under suspicion as an alchemist, he took refuge in
+Saxony, which was then under the electorate of Augustus II. The elector,
+having questioned him as to his researches in the forbidden science,
+placed him in the laboratory of a chemist who was in search of the
+philosopher's stone. While working to that end, Boettcher surprised
+himself by producing something akin to Chinese porcelain. The course of
+his experiments was turned at once from the channel in which it had run.
+The king gave him every facility for continuing his experiments and
+working out his secret. He was first established at Meissen, then at
+Koenigstein, and last at Dresden. The first results were comparatively
+rude; then came a reddish stone-ware, and afterward a dull white
+porcelain. How long his experiments might have been continued, or what
+might have been their ultimate result, cannot be estimated, had not an
+accidental discovery brought the object at which he was aiming suddenly
+within his reach. John Schnorr, a wealthy iron-founder, riding one day
+in the vicinity of Aue, near Schneeberg, Saxony, noticed that his horse
+lifted his feet with difficulty. On examination he found that the clay
+was very white and peculiarly adhesive. Schnorr, although rich, would
+gladly be richer, and avarice made him ingenious. Why not use this white
+earth in the making of hair-powder? was the question which occurred to
+him. The commodity was dear, and clay was a cheap substitute. He took a
+quantity with him, made the new hair-powder, and was successful in his
+venture. In due course, the new powder reached Boettcher, and he, in
+turn, found an original use for the white earth. Inquiring into the
+nature of the powder, he found it was earthy, and at once tried it in
+his laboratory. The powder was kaolin, and hard porcelain was
+discovered. A manufactory was established at Meissen, of which Boettcher
+was director until his death, in 1719.
+
+In 1720, the manufacture was begun at Vienna, whither the secret was
+carried by an escaped foreman from Boettcher's works at Meissen.
+
+It is very curious to note that the first manufacture of hard porcelain
+in France was due to a chance discovery almost identical with that made
+in Germany. Kaolin had been found at Alencon, but the porcelain made
+from it was not pure in color. In 1765, the wife of a surgeon found near
+St. Yrieix a peculiarly soft earth of great whiteness. Being poor,
+Madame Darnet was also economical. Unlike Schnorr, her thoughts turned
+in the direction rather of keeping down household expenses than of
+adding to her income. The earth had a soft, oily touch, and the good
+lady thought that it might answer all the purposes of soap. Her husband
+sent a sample to a chemist, and it was soon afterward decided to be
+kaolin. The manufacture of hard porcelain was begun at Sevres in 1769,
+the quarries of St. Yrieix supplying both the kaolin and petuntse. As
+illustrating the ingratitude of the world, it may be mentioned that the
+humble instrument by whose aid France reached its lofty eminence in the
+manufacture of porcelain was, for about sixty years, left unrewarded. In
+1825, Madame Darnet, spending her old age in poverty, received a pension
+from Louis XVIII.
+
+Biscuit is the technical term applied to both pottery and porcelain
+before they are enamelled or glazed. In this condition, porcelain is of
+a dead white, and is not very well suited to receive decoration in
+colors which require a glaze to bring out their full beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CLASSIFICATION.
+
+ Tabulated View.--Brongniart's Division: Its
+ Objections.--Classification adopted.--Leading Features and
+ Advantages.--Distinctions between Different Bodies and Different
+ Glazes.
+
+
+In order to avoid repetitions and explanations, and for the sake of
+lucidity, tabulated views of the different branches of ceramics are here
+presented. The first is least detailed, but gives the salient points of
+a systematic arrangement.
+
+ { Unglazed Common brick. Earthen-ware.
+ { _Soft_ { Lustrous Greek pottery.
+ POTTERY { { Glazed Some ancient and most modern faience.
+ { { Enamelled Robbia ware.
+ {
+ { _Hard_ { Stone-ware.
+ { Fire-brick.
+
+ { _Soft_ { Naturally soft English porcelain.
+ { { Artificially soft { French porcelain, _pate tendre_,
+ PORCELAIN { { such as old Sevres.
+ {
+ { { China.
+ { _Hard_ { Dresden.
+ { Sevres.
+
+The following is more full, and is to be ascribed to M. Brongniart:
+
+
+FIRST CLASS, SOFT-PASTE.
+
+ _1st Order._ Baked clay without glaze.
+
+ _2d Order._ Lustred wares with silico-alkaline glaze.
+
+ _3d Order._ Glazed pottery with plumbiferous glaze.
+
+ _4th Order._ Enamelled pottery, in the enamel of which tin is used.
+
+
+SECOND CLASS, HARD-PASTE (OPAQUE).
+
+ _5th Order._ Fine faience, uncolored paste with plumbiferous glaze.
+
+ _6th Order._ Stone-ware without glaze, or with salt or plumbiferous
+ glaze.
+
+
+THIRD CLASS, HARD-PASTE (TRANSLUCENT).
+
+ _7th Order._ Hard porcelain, paste and glaze both felspathic.
+
+ _8th Order._ English natural soft-paste porcelain--paste,
+ argillaceous kaolin, pegmatite, phosphate of lime, etc.; glaze,
+ boracic.
+
+ _9th Order._ French artificial soft-paste porcelain--paste, a frit,
+ marly alkaline; glaze, alkaline containing lead, alkali, and
+ silica.
+
+If these tables be studied carefully, it will be found that in arranging
+the nine orders, a gradual ascent is made from the humblest ware--baked
+clay left unglazed--to the finest of artificial compounds. Its only
+objection--and it is one very likely to confuse an inexperienced student
+of the art--is, that, under the head of hard-paste pottery, are classed
+the soft-paste porcelains of England and France. The question is, also,
+very likely to suggest itself, why the distinction should be drawn
+between the soft-pastes of England and France, and the one called
+natural, the other artificial. The reason is that the paste of England
+is naturally soft, while that of France is made soft by the chemical
+action of certain of its ingredients. The classification has, on the
+other hand, the advantage of being in general use. Terms are employed in
+its construction which have a peculiar but well understood significance;
+and even in its errors there is a modicum of truth. Thus, although the
+artificial porcelain of France is invariably called _pate tendre_, or
+soft porcelain, it is not improperly classed under translucent
+hard-pastes. The error is in the distinctive name rather than in the
+classification. There is, in reality, very little difference in hardness
+between the hard-paste and the soft-paste; and although the glaze of the
+latter is not so hard as the body, the appellation soft-paste has been
+adjudged a misnomer. The question then came to be whether it might not
+be better to retain the old terms, with an explanation of their
+technical meaning, than to supplant them with something new. The latter
+course has been adopted, upon the ground of obviating meaningless and
+misleading distinctions. Both simplicity and a clear understanding of
+one of the most important practical divisions of our subject point
+toward a revision of the old system of grouping. Pottery and porcelain
+differ in one essential respect, and their varieties can also be classed
+according to the leading features of their composition, manufacture, or
+appearance. These differences have been taken as the basis of the
+following classification, against which, at least, none of the
+objections to that of M. Brongniart can be brought. It has been prepared
+by a distinguished French artist of the present time, and is offered in
+the hope that it may be intelligible, although it is not claimed to be
+either perfectly exact or altogether complete.
+
+All wares are divisible into two great classes, viz., transparent
+porcelain and opaque earthen-ware.
+
+
+ PORCELAIN may be natural or artificial.
+
+ I. Natural porcelain is made from kaolinic clay. It may have--
+
+ 1. A pure felspathic glaze, such as porcelain of China, Japan,
+ Limoges, Sevres, Dresden, Berlin; or,
+
+ 2. No glaze, such as the biscuit porcelain of China or France.
+
+ II. Artificial porcelain may be made from alkaline clay, calcareous
+ clay, or felspathic clay.
+
+ 1. Alkaline clay may have an alkaline glaze, either colorless or
+ colored, or may be biscuit.
+
+ _a._ Alkaline glaze, colorless--Persia, China, St. Cloud, Limoges,
+ Sevres, Tournay.
+
+ _b._ Alkaline glaze, colored--Persia, China, Limoges, Deck.
+
+ _c._ Biscuit--Old Sevres statuettes.
+
+ 2. Calcareous clay has a colorless boracic glaze, as in the case of
+ the English china of Minton, Copeland, and Worcester.
+
+ 3. Felspathic clay is exemplified in the parian of Copeland,
+ Minton, and Worcester.
+
+ EARTHEN-WARE is of two kinds--that showing a non-vitrified
+ fracture, and that showing a vitrified fracture.
+
+ I. EARTHEN-WARE with non-vitrified fracture may have either a
+ transparent glaze or an opaque enamel.
+
+ 1. Transparent glaze may be plumbiferous or alkaline, and in either
+ case colorless or colored.
+
+ _a._ Plumbiferous.
+
+ Glaze, colorless--Faience d'Oiron or Henri Deux ware, Wedgwood,
+ Meakin, Creil, Montereau.
+
+ Glaze, colored--Palissy, Nuremberg, Minton's majolica.
+
+ _b._ Alkaline.
+
+ Glaze, colorless--Persian faience, Chinese and Japanese faience;
+ Deck, of Paris.
+
+ Glaze, colored--Haviland or Limoges faience.
+
+ 2. Opaque enamel is stanniferous, and may be either colorless or
+ colored.
+
+ Stanniferous, colorless--Della Robbia, Rouen, Moustiers, Delft,
+ Nevers.
+
+ Stanniferous, colored--Colinot, Parville, Longwy.
+
+ II. Earthen-ware with vitrified fracture may be either glazed or in
+ biscuit. Of the former, the _Gres_ of Germany, Beauvais, and
+ Doulton may be taken as examples.
+
+For convenience of reference, the same classification may be given in
+tabulated form:
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF ALL KINDS OF WARE.
+
+ {China, Japan,
+ {Glaze of { Dresden, Berlin,
+ {_Natural_ Kaolinic { felspath, { Sevres, Limoges.
+ { paste { pure
+ { {
+ { {Biscuit {Biscuit porcelain
+ { { of Limoges
+ { { and China.
+ {
+ { {Persia, China,
+TRANSLUCENT{ { St. Cloud, Tournay
+PORCELAIN. { {Alkaline {Glaze alkaline, { Sevres, Haviland.
+ { { paste { colorless
+ { { {
+ { { {Glaze alkaline,
+ colored Persia, China, Deck,
+ { { { Haviland.
+ { { {
+ { { {Biscuit Old Sevres statuettes.
+ { {
+ {_Artificial_{Calcareous Glaze boracic, color English china,
+ { paste Minton, Worcester,
+ { Copeland.
+ {
+ {Felspathic Parian Copeland, Worcester,
+ { paste Minton.
+
+
+ {Glaze, {Faience Henri II.,
+ {Plumbiferous{ colorless.{ Wedgwood, Meakin,
+ { glaze { { Creil, Montereau.
+ { {
+ { {Glaze, {Palissy, Nuremberg,
+ {_Earthen body {Transparent{ { colored {Minton's majolica.
+ { with a { glaze. {
+ { non-vitrified{ {Alkaline {Glaze, {Faience of Persia,
+ { break_ { { glaze { colorless.{ China, and
+ { { { { Japan; Deck.
+ { { {
+ { { { {Limoges faience
+ { { { { of Haviland,
+ { { {Glaze, { Bracquemond,
+ { { { colored { and Chaplet.
+ { {
+ OPAQUE { { {Delia Robbia,
+EARTHEN { {Opaque {Stanniferous {Colorless { Rovigo, Fontana,
+ BODY. { { enamel { { Rouen, Moustiers,
+ { { { Nevers, Delft,
+TERRES. { { { Ulysses de Blois,
+ { { { St. Clement.
+ { {
+ { {Colored Colinot, Parville,
+ { Longwy.
+ {
+ {_Earthen body, {Biscuit Boccaro, Bizen.
+ { with a {
+ { vitrified {
+ { break_ {Glaze Gres from Germany.
+
+Under the above arrangement, it will be observed that the distinction
+between hard and soft porcelain and pottery is done away with. The first
+is divided into natural and artificial, the kaolinic paste being the
+only one coming under the former head, and the "soft-pastes" of both
+England and France coming under the latter. The subdivisions are made
+according to the glaze employed. The division of pottery into two
+classes, according to the nature of the body as revealed by fracture, is
+the most lucid and comprehensive. The subdivisions, as in the case of
+porcelain, are made according to the enamel or glaze applied to the
+ware. It is presumed that any one can distinguish between transparent
+and opaque wares, and thus tell porcelain from pottery, and similarly,
+tell whether the fracture of a broken specimen is vitrified or
+otherwise, and thus distinguish stone-ware, or _gres_, from ordinary
+earthen-ware.
+
+In the matter of glazes, it requires a great deal of skill and long
+practice to tell one from another. All are transparent, with the
+exception of tin or stanniferous enamel. Felspathic glaze is that most
+readily recognized; but in the case of the others--the alkaline,
+plumbiferous, and boracic--they are very often only to be distinguished
+by their different effects upon the colors used in decoration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COMPOSITION OF WARES AND GLAZES.
+
+ Hard and Soft Pottery and Porcelain.--COMPOSITION OF PORCELAIN:
+ Kaolin--Its Derivation and Ingredients--Petuntse--How prepared in
+ China.--The European Process.--Differences between Chinese and
+ European Porcelains.--Chemical Analysis.--English Porcelain and its
+ Peculiarities: Its Average Composition.--How English Clay is
+ prepared.--French Artificial Porcelain.--Parian.--COMMON
+ EARTHEN-WARE.: Table of Ingredients of different kinds.--General
+ Table.--GLAZES: Classes.--Brongniart's Classification.--Difference
+ between Enamel and Glaze.--Silicious Glaze.--History.--Use of
+ Oxides.--Egyptian Processes.--Metallic Lustre.--Stanniferous
+ Enamel: Its History.
+
+
+The division of pottery and porcelain into two great classes, hard and
+soft, is based upon the difference of their composition, their hardness
+of surface, and their power of resisting the action of fire. The
+simplest test is scratching with a knife or other instrument. Hard
+porcelain and pottery resist the metal, while the soft is marked. The
+former will also stand a temperature in the kiln at which the latter
+would crumble or fuse.
+
+To understand the composition of porcelain, it is necessary to bear in
+mind that it is a compound of kaolin and petuntse, the former of which
+is infusible, and the latter fusible at a high temperature. The former
+constitutes the body of the piece, the latter gives it its translucency.
+The word "kaolin" is derived from _Kaoling_, the name of a mountain near
+King-teh-chin, one of the great centres of the manufacture in China.
+Kaolin is simply the result of the decomposition of granitic rock, and
+silica and alumina are its chief ingredients. Petuntse is pure felspar.
+The conditions in which these materials are found in China may be
+briefly stated. They are either in the form of stone or sand, from which
+the unsuitable parts are removed by the action of water. When they are
+thrown into the water, the fine particles which do not sink are
+collected and dried. The paste, before being used, is again put into
+water and strained through a sieve, so that only the finest is
+preserved, and used in making porcelain. The materials are obtained
+from different parts of the country, and blended according to their
+respective qualities, as ascertained by the most systematic
+investigation and experiment. The European process is similar, the
+kaolin being first washed clear of all argillaceous impurity, and then
+mixed with felspar and silicious sand. Of the further similarity between
+the two, MM. Ebelman and Salvetat say:
+
+1st. The kaolin and petuntse used in making paste for Chinese porcelain
+are chemically identical with the materials used in Europe. The Chinese
+kaolin is evidently disintegrated granite. Chemically, petuntse
+resembles the pegmatite of Limoges; mineralogically, it is to be classed
+with petrosilicious felspar.
+
+2d. The mechanical preparation of the pastes of China and Europe is
+based upon similar methods.
+
+3d. The Chinese paste is the more fusible of the two.
+
+4th. The Chinese glaze is also the more fusible, on account of the
+addition of lime to the petuntse, which the French use pure.
+
+It may be added that the Dresden, Sevres, and Limoges porcelains are
+baked at a higher temperature, and are harder than the Chinese.
+
+The basis of the natural pastes of Germany and France is 46.66 parts of
+silex, 40 of aluminous earth, and 13.33 alkaline earth, although the
+proportions vary, and the following may be nearer an average: Silex, 66;
+alumina, 30; potash, magnesia, and lime, 4. In the glaze the proportions
+are different, the silica largely preponderating: Silex, 73.4; alumina,
+15.7; potash, lime, and magnesia, 10.9.
+
+The following table is given by M. A. Salvetat as the result of analyses
+made at different times by himself and others:
+
+ +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+ | Pastes. |Silica.|Alumina.| Oxide |Lime.|Magnesia.|Potash.|Soda.|
+ | | | |of Iron.| | | | |
+ |--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
+ |China, 1st quality|69.00 |23.60 |1.20 |0.30 |0.02 |3.30 |2.90 |
+ |China, 2d quality |70.00 |22.20 |1.30 |0.80 |traces |3.60 |2.70 |
+ |China, 3d quality |73.80 |19.30 |2.00 |0.60 |traces |2.50 |2.30 |
+ |China, 4th quality|68.94 |21.30 |3.48 |1.14 |traces |3.42 |1.78 |
+ |Meissen |58.50 |35.10 |0.80 |0.30 |traces |5.00 |.... |
+ |Vienna |59.60 |34.20 |0.80 |1.70 |1.40 |2.00 |.... |
+ |Berlin |64.30 |29.00 |0.60 |0.30 |0.45 |3.65 |.... |
+ |Limoges |70.20 |24.00 |0.70 |0.70 |0.10 |4.30 |.... |
+ |Sevres |58.00 |34.50 |.... |4.50 |.... |3.00 |.... |
+ |Sevres (sculpture)|64.10 |30.24 |.... |2.82 |traces |2.80 |.... |
+ |Worcester |82.00 |9.10 |..... |1.30 |7.40 |.... |.... |
+ |Paris |71.20 |22.00 |0.80 |0.80 |.... |4.50 |.... |
+ +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The English artificial porcelain differs from the natural paste of China
+and the European continent chiefly in one particular. At first the
+compound used was white clay, white sand, and glass, the latter being
+employed to impart the necessary transparency. More recently bone came
+largely into use, and is now one of the distinctive ingredients of
+English paste. The phosphoric acid of that material was found to
+produce, in combination with the other materials, a clear, translucent
+body, of less strength than natural paste, but less liable to sink. The
+following may be taken as the mean composition: Bone, 47; kaolin, 34;
+felspar, 19. The kaolin is found in Cornwall, where a very large tract
+is formed chiefly of decomposed granite. The purest rock having been
+selected, it is placed on an inclined plane, upon which water can be
+turned. It is washed down into a trench, and thence into a catch-pit,
+and again into lower pits, in which successively the impure ingredients
+are retained, the water laden with the finer particles running into
+tanks, and there depositing its fine silt. The clay is partially dried,
+and cut into blocks, and in that shape reaches the potters. The manner
+in which the kaolin is prepared bears a very close resemblance to that
+adopted by the Chinese, as previously described. The glaze is composed
+of felspar, carbonate of lime, borax, and white-lead. Sometimes the
+kaolin is mixed with the bone and felspar in the proportions above
+specified, and sometimes the bone is made, in combination with silex and
+pearlash, into a frit.
+
+The artificial or soft porcelain of France, exemplified in the old china
+of Sevres, was produced by a very intricate and ingenious process. A
+frit was made of saltpetre, sea-salt, burnt alum, soda-ash, gypsum, and
+sand. This mixture, having been purified by partial vitrification, was
+ground, and mixed with chalk and marl. The glaze was as follows:
+Litharge, 38; sand, 27; calcined flint, 11; and the carbonates of soda
+and potash, 15 and 9 parts respectively.
+
+The composition called parian, in which the potters of England and
+America have executed much beautiful work, varies considerably. Analysis
+of one specimen resulted thus: Silica, 58.57; alumina, 21; oxide of
+iron, 1; lime, 0.14; magnesia, 0.5; potash, 11.40; soda, 5.08.
+
+The clay from which common earthen-ware is made is composed to a great
+extent of silica and alumina, with admixtures of iron, lime, and
+magnesia. An average combination is 60 parts silex, 30 alumina, 7 iron,
+and 2 lime. These proportions vary very widely, certain substances
+appearing in one place and not in another. In some, carbon is found; in
+others, quartz, sand, marl, or chalk, as the case may be. The work of
+classification, except in a very extended form, is thus rendered
+somewhat difficult. Possibly the following series of tables will serve
+our purpose most intelligibly.
+
+ Column headings:
+
+ S: Silica.
+ A: Alumina.
+ I: Oxide of Iron.
+ L: Lime.
+ M: Magnesia.
+ W: Water.
+ C: Carbon.
+
+ +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+
+ | Pottery. | S | A | I | L | M | W | C |
+ +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+
+ | German | 63.90 | 12.76 | 10.24 | 1.04 | 0.52 | 9.98 | 1.02 |
+ | Scandinavian | 64.02 | 10.77 | 11.23 | 2.48 | 0.05 | 9.97 | 1.00 |
+ | Old Gallic | 62.22 | 18.36 | 5.71 | 1.17 | 0.47 | 10.56 | 0.78 |
+ | Peruvian | 67.04 | 10.83 | 10.17 | 3.24 | 0.28 | 7.07 | 1.00 |
+ | Etruscan | 64.02 | 12.49 | 8.53 | 3.00 | 1.83 | 8.13 | 2.00 |
+ +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+
+
+In the following carbon does not appear, and the proportion of silica
+increases:
+
+ +-------------+---------+----------+----------+-------+-----------+--------+
+ | | | | Oxide of | | | |
+ | Pottery. | Silica. | Alumina. | Iron. | Lime. | Magnesia. | Water. |
+ +-------------+---------+----------+----------+-------+-----------+--------+
+ | Roman | 64.00 | 17.77 | 10.23 | 4.86 | .... | 2.23 |
+ | Middle Ages | 72.55 | 20.27 | 2.54 | 1.04 | .... | 3.00 |
+ | Egypt | 81.00 | 13.50 | 1.00 | 3.00 | .... | 1.90 |
+ | Egypt | 92.00 | 4.00 | .... | 2.00 | 0.60 | 0.40 |
+ | Persian | 90.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 0.80 | 0.60 |
+ | Jerusalem | 87.16 | 5.50 | .... | 3.00 | 0.78 | .... |
+ | Arabian | 89.95 | 3.87 | .... | 2.00 | 0.51 | 3.00 |
+ +-------------+---------+----------+----------+-------+-----------+--------+
+
+The Egyptian, compounded as above, is that which has been commonly known
+as Egyptian porcelain. Many of the better known wares of Europe and the
+East have a common characteristic in the calcareous nature of their
+pastes. The silica decreases and the lime increases, while carbonic acid
+appears as a new ingredient.
+
+ Column headings:
+
+ S: Silica.
+ A: Alumina.
+ M: Magnesia.
+ I: Oxide of Iron.
+ C: Carbonic Acid.
+
+ +--------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+
+ | Pottery. | S | A | M | I | C | Lime. |
+ +--------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+
+ | Lucca della Robbia | 49.65 | 15.50 | 0.17 | 3.70 | 8.58 | 22.40 |
+ | Majorca | 48.00 | 17.50 | 1.17 | 3.75 | 9.46 | 20.12 |
+ | Spain (old) | 46.04 | 18.45 | 0.87 | 3.04 | 13.96 | 17.64 |
+ | Valencia (modern) | 51.55 | 20.52 | 1.24 | 2.63 | 10.42 | 13.64 |
+ | Delft | 49.07 | 16.19 | 0.82 | 2.82 | 13.09 | 18.01 |
+ | Persian | 48.54 | 12.05 | 0.30 | 3.14 | 16.72 | 19.25 |
+ | Nevers | 56.49 | 19.22 | 0.71 | 2.12 | 6.50 | 14.96 |
+ | Rouen | 47.96 | 15.02 | 0.44 | 4.07 | 12.27 | 20.24 |
+ +--------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+
+
+Of the potteries which hold a place between the hard and soft wares are
+the Palissy and Henri Deux. The composition of the former is 67.50
+silica, 28.51 alumina, 1.52 lime, 2.05 oxide of iron, with a very slight
+admixture of alkalies. That of the latter is 59.10 silica, and 40.24
+alumina.
+
+From what has been said, it will be seen that the difference between
+earthen-ware, stone-ware, and porcelain is to be attributed to a few
+minor ingredients, to the preparation, and to the degree of heat to
+which they are subjected. The following table may be studied for the
+sake of making comparisons:
+
+ Common earthen-ware Silica, 60; alumina, 30; iron, 7; lime, 2.
+
+ Blue clay Silica, 46; alumina, 38; iron, 1; lime, 1.
+
+ Staffordshire clay Pipe-clay, 40; kaolin, 25; quartz, 20; felspar, 15.
+
+ Stone-ware { Felspar, 25; quartz or silex, 25; soda, 25;
+ plastic clay, 15; boracic acid, 10.
+
+ Porcelain Silica, 66; alumina, 30; potash, 3.4; magnesia
+ and lime, 1.1.
+
+ Porcelain glaze Silica, 73.4; alumina, 15.7; potash, 7.4;
+ magnesia and lime, 2.2.
+
+ English porcelain Kaolin, 34; bone, 47; felspar, 19; soda ash, 36.
+
+ Old Sevres soft-paste { Saltpetre, 22; sea-salt, 7.2; burnt alum, 3.6; soda
+ { ash, 3.6; gypsum, 3.6; sand, 60.
+ { This was made into a frit and mixed--75
+ { parts frit, 17 chalk, and 8 of calcareous marl.
+
+As to the glazes applied to clay or opaque ware, we have seen that they
+are broadly distinguished as translucent plumbiferous or alkaline,
+opaque stanniferous, and salt glaze. The distinction is also to be
+observed between glaze and enamel, although they are often confounded.
+Thus, according to M. Brongniart, there are three kinds of
+glaze--varnish, enamel, and couverte--all of which are vitrifiable.
+Varnish he describes as a transparent and plumbiferous material, melting
+at a lower temperature than that required for baking the paste; enamel,
+an opaque, generally stanniferous (containing tin) substance; couverte,
+a substance which melts at a temperature equal to that required for
+baking the paste. Birch, on the other hand, draws a distinction between
+glaze and enamel. In one place he speaks of "opaque glasses or enamels,"
+and again, "among the Egyptians and Assyrians, enamelling was used more
+frequently than glazing." So, also, Fortnum, who, dividing pottery into
+soft and hard, subdivides the former into unglazed, lustrous, glazed,
+and enamelled. The glazed he again divides into silicious, or
+glass-glazed, and plumbeous, or lead-glazed, both of which are
+transparent. The word "glaze" is thus more correctly applied to the
+covering, which does not alter the color of the body upon which it is
+laid, and "enamel" to that which obscures the body.
+
+Glass, or silicious glaze, is formed by fusing sand with an
+alkali--potash or soda. When to this is added the oxide of lead,
+transparent plumbiferous glaze is the result; and when to both of these
+oxide of tin is added, we have opaque stanniferous enamel. The glass and
+plumbeous glazes may be colored with a variety of other oxides, without
+losing their transparency.
+
+When or where glaze was first applied to clay is not known. Like many
+other branches of knowledge and many nations, it has its roots in the
+East, but whether we are indebted for it to India, Egypt, or Assyria,
+cannot now be decided. Upon this question Dr. Birch says:
+
+"The desire of rendering terra-cotta less porous, and of producing vases
+capable of retaining liquids, gave rise to the covering it with a
+vitreous enamel or glaze. The invention of glass has been hitherto
+generally attributed to the Phoenicians; but opaque glasses or
+enamels, as old as the eighteenth dynasty, and enamelled objects as
+early as the fourth (B.C. 3000-2000), have been found in Egypt. The
+employment of copper to produce a brilliant blue-colored enamel was very
+early both in Babylonia and Assyria, but the use of tin for a white
+enamel, as recently discovered in the enamelled bricks and vases of
+Babylonia and Assyria, anticipated by many centuries the rediscovery of
+that process in Europe in the fifteenth century, and shows the early
+application of metallic oxides. This invention apparently remained for
+many centuries a secret among the Eastern nations only, enamelled
+terra-cotta and glass forming articles of commercial export from Egypt
+and Phoenicia to every part of the Mediterranean. Among the Egyptians
+and Assyrians enamelling was used more frequently than glazing, and
+their works are consequently a kind of faience, consisting of a loose
+frit or body, to which an enamel adheres after only a slight fusion.
+After the fall of the Roman Empire the art of enamelling terra-cotta
+disappeared among the Arab and Moorish races, who had retained a
+traditional knowledge of the process. The application of a transparent
+vitreous coating, or glaze, over the entire surface, like the varnish of
+a picture, is also referable to a high antiquity, and was universally
+adopted either to enhance the beauty of single colors or to promote the
+combination of many. Innumerable fragments and remains of glazed vases,
+fabricated by the Greeks and Romans, not only prove the early use of
+glazing, but also exhibit, in the present day, many of the noblest
+efforts of the potter's art."
+
+The use of oxides is also very ancient. The Egyptians employed that of
+copper for the production of their turquoise-blue, and possibly also for
+their green, manganese for violet, iron or silver for yellows, etc. The
+same processes were known in Babylon and Assyria. To the Persians and
+Arabians the application of metallic lustres was known at a very early
+period. Plumbiferous, or lead-glaze, was employed by the Babylonians,
+and the knowledge of its composition was in all probability imported
+thence among the Greeks, and by them may have been carried into Southern
+Italy.
+
+The course of enamel is equally difficult of definition. Although used
+in Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria, it does not appear to have supplanted
+the lead-glaze; and for a long period all traces of it are lost, until
+it reappeared among the Arabs. We next meet with it as a distinctive
+characteristic of the potteries of Spain. It was also known to the
+Saracenic and Moorish potters of Sicily, and from either of these
+sources may have found its way into Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MANUFACTURE AND DECORATION.
+
+ Divisions of Chapter.--Japanese Method of Preparing Porcelain
+ Clay.--Old Sevres Soft Porcelain.--Pug-Mill.--Blunger.--Early
+ Italian Methods.--Shaping the Clay.--Moulding among the Egyptians,
+ Greeks, Italians, and at the Present Day.--Moulding
+ Porcelain.--Japanese Method.--European.--Throwing.--The Potter's
+ Wheel in all Countries.--Baking and Firing.--Egyptian, Greek,
+ Italian, and Japanese Kilns.--Those of Modern Europe and
+ America.--Times of Firing.--Glazing and Painting.--Metallic-Lustre
+ Majolica.--Japanese Methods.--Glazing Stone-ware.--Natural and
+ Artificial Porcelain.
+
+
+Having thus glanced at the different wares, and learned the composition
+of the leading kinds of paste and glaze, the attention is next attracted
+by the processes of preparing the materials, and the different methods
+of manufacture. The levigation of kaolin and making of porcelain have
+already been touched upon incidentally. The subject of the present
+chapter naturally divides itself into the following heads:
+
+ Preparation of the paste;
+ Forming the vessel to be made;
+ Baking or firing;
+ Preparation of the glaze or enamel;
+ Applying the glaze or enamel;
+ Laying on the color and painting.
+
+To what has been said about the preparation of English and Chinese
+kaolin pastes, little need be added. There is, however, a peculiarity
+about the Japanese custom not unworthy of notice. In that country the
+raw material, whether kaolin, quartz, or felspar, is reduced to a powder
+by a horizontal balancing pounder of primitive construction, and worked
+by water-power. Two long beams are joined together at one end by an
+iron-cased crossbar, and a trough is attached to the other. This frame
+is then erected near a stream, so that the water will fall into the
+trough. The weight of the water carries the trough down, and the other
+end is raised to a corresponding height. When the trough has fallen so
+far that, by reason of the slope, the water runs out and thus takes off
+the weight at that end, the iron-shod beam at the other descends, and
+falling into a stone mortar in which the raw material has been placed,
+in a very short time pulverizes it. The above is the only machine
+employed by the Japanese. After being pulverized, the paste is sifted,
+mixed with water, and decanted, and the water is finally drained off
+through matting and sand. The fine clay to be used in making porcelain
+is deposited on the mat.
+
+For the old Sevres soft porcelain, the frit was crushed, cleared of
+salts, and ground in water. The paste was then mixed with the other
+ingredients, as previously given in the table.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Vertical Pug-Mill, in use at Union Porcelain
+Works, Greenpoint.]
+
+To prepare clay for making earthen-ware or stone-ware, machines are now
+generally used. That for the coarser kind of wares, such as bricks or
+common stone-ware jars, is a pug-mill (Figs. 21 and 22). The clay,
+having been brought by water to a certain workable consistency, is put
+into the mill. This is simply a cylindrical box, with blades projecting
+from the inside, and having in the centre a shaft also armed with
+blades. By the revolving of the shaft the clay is worked into a perfect
+pulp, and in that condition issues from a hole in the lower end of the
+mill. Should any hard substance have resisted the knives, it is removed
+by hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Horizontal Pug-Mill, in use at Union Porcelain
+Works, Greenpoint.]
+
+For the finer kinds of earthen-ware, into the composition of which
+pipe-clay, kaolin, quartz, and felspar enter, the ingredients are mixed
+in a "blunger." This machine is not unlike a steam butter churn, there
+being a shaft passing from end to end, in exactly the same way, and
+armed with similar paddles. Water is added to the ingredients, and, as
+the blunger turns, these are all thoroughly mixed into a "slip," which
+is drawn off at the bottom. It is then strained and finally passed
+through a pug-mill, and is ready for use.
+
+Piccolpasso, or the Cavaliere Cipriano Piccolpasso Durantino, who wrote
+in Italy, in 1548, gives very minute information regarding the processes
+of the potters of his time and country. The clay was either washed down
+by rivers or taken from pits. In the former case it was taken from the
+river-bed when the water was low, and was placed in holes in the ground,
+either after or without being dried in the sun. The object of keeping it
+was to allow all impurities to pass off. Where there were no rivers, a
+series of pits was dug in any convenient hollow, and connected by a
+channel. The earth was washed down by the rain into these pits, and
+purified by the passage from one to another. In some cases it was found
+necessary to place the earth on sieves exposed to the rain, through
+which the finer particles were washed into receivers placed below.
+Instead of using a pug-mill, the Italian potters put the earth upon a
+table, where it was beaten with an iron instrument, and thoroughly
+kneaded and cleaned by hand.
+
+The next process is the formation or shaping of the vessel. This may be
+done either by moulding or by "throwing" upon the potter's wheel. Both
+of these methods are very ancient. The Egyptians used moulds in making
+bricks before they resorted to the use of fire for baking them. Their
+lamps, etc., also give evidence of having been moulded. The Greeks used
+modelling tools for their ornaments, and also for _pithoi_, or casks.
+Afterward moulding was resorted to, and by that means the potter made
+certain parts of the vases--the handles and feet, for example, and also
+the ornaments. The entire vessel was sometimes produced by moulding,
+such as the _rhyta_, or drinking-cups, with terminations in the form of
+animals' heads. Amphorae, cups, saucers, and vases of many shapes were
+formed by the same process.
+
+We must refer to Piccolpasso again for the manner in which the Italian
+potters moulded. Like the Greeks, they appear first to have moulded the
+parts, such as the handles, which were fixed to the body after it was
+fashioned. They then, again like the Greeks, began to imitate metal
+vessels, and thus were brought directly to the process of moulding upon
+their models, or shaped pieces ornamented in relief. The moulds were
+made of plaster of Paris, and, when ready, the clay was worked into a
+cylindrical shape, and sliced by drawing a wire across it. The thickness
+of the slice was regulated and made uniform by pieces of wood placed at
+either side of the lump of clay. A slice was then taken and pressed into
+the mould, and another for the other side into the other half of the
+mould. Any excess appearing over the edges was cut away. The feet were
+similarly moulded, and subsequently fixed to the body by means of a
+composition of clay and fine wool cuttings. In making vases or ewers,
+moulds were made for both sides, and joined at the front and back. A
+wire was used to cut off the superfluous clay, and the two pieces were
+joined together with the composition above mentioned. The handle was
+fastened on by the same means.
+
+Moulds are at the present day used in every branch of the art, from the
+lowest to the highest. Drain-pipes are made in a cylindrical mould, with
+a smaller and solid cylinder inside. The clay is pressed between the two
+concentric cylinders. In making earthen-ware, the clay is sometimes
+rolled out and spread upon a block of the desired shape. In making
+plates, the clay is spread over a round block, and moulded by a form
+pressed down from above. When plaster of Paris is used, the process is
+very like that described by Piccolpasso. The mould is in two parts, into
+each of which the clay is pressed. The two pieces are then brought
+together, and the seams joined. Or a plaster mould may be used, into
+which the paste is poured in a liquid state. The absorption of the
+liquid by the plaster soon gives the clay sufficient consistency to take
+the necessary shape. Subsequent shrinkage allows its removal from the
+mould. After a partial drying, the ware is dressed or "shaved." The
+process is a very delicate one, especially in the finer kinds of ware,
+in which a finely polished surface is necessary. The piece is placed on
+a lathe, and cut to the necessary thickness, and receives its ornamental
+lines, or has the mouldings applied. The handles are then attached, and,
+after drying, the piece is ready for the kiln.
+
+The moulding of porcelain requires very great care, on account of the
+fragility of many of the pieces. In Japan, clay moulds were exclusively
+used until within the past three years. After being thrown or moulded,
+and slightly dried, the pieces are shaped by means of sharp metal
+instruments in the same lathe on which the throwing is done. A coat of
+pure white clay is then laid on for the purpose of enhancing the beauty
+and heightening the effect of the color. This having been done, the
+piece is ready for the preliminary firing. When large pieces are made,
+the European method is to pour the necessary thickness of slip over the
+inside of the mould, against the side of which it is kept by means of
+forcing air into the interior, after covering the surface, or exhausting
+the air through the mould. When sufficiently dry to support its own
+weight, the piece is fired.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--A Potter in Palestine.]
+
+The other method of forming the wares is technically called "throwing"
+upon the potter's wheel, and is suitable for all circular vessels, or
+those with modifications of the circular shape. The process is very
+simple. A piece of clay, large or small, as required, is thrown down on
+the revolving disk, and, as it whirls round, is formed by the potter's
+hand into the requisite shape. The potter's wheel is one of the oldest
+mechanical appliances in existence. Its invention was due to the desire
+of remedying the irregularities of handiwork, and as such was a valuable
+and in every way wonderful achievement. It brought symmetry and all the
+varieties of circular form within the potter's reach. Its inventor is
+unknown. The prehistoric vases of Greece were made upon the wheel. It
+was used in Egypt at least four thousand years ago. In Assyria, and
+among the Jews, its use is attested by the frequent reference made to it
+in Scripture.
+
+It is curious to find a modern traveller, Dr. W. M. Thomson, speaking
+thus in "The Land and the Book" of the potter of Palestine. "I have been
+out on the shore again examining a native manufactory of pottery, and
+was delighted to find the whole Biblical apparatus complete, and in full
+operation. There was the potter sitting at his 'frame,' and turning the
+'wheel' with his foot (Fig. 23). He had a heap of prepared clay near
+him, and a pan of water by his side. Taking a lump in his hand, he
+placed it on the top of the wheel (which revolves horizontally) and
+smoothed it into a low cone, like the upper end of a sugar-loaf; then,
+thrusting his thumb into the top of it, he opened a hole down through
+the centre, and this he constantly widened by pressing the edges of the
+revolving cone between his hands. As it enlarged and became thinner, he
+gave it whatever shape he pleased with the utmost ease and expedition."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--An Egyptian Pottery. (From a Tomb.) _a_, _e_,
+_i_, _p_, the wheels on which the clay was put. Fig. 1 forms the inside
+and lip of the cup as it turns on the wheel _a_. _b_, _c_, _d_ are cups
+already made. Fig. 2 forms the outside of the cup, indenting it with the
+hand at the base, preparatory to its being taken off. Fig. 3 has just
+taken off the cup from the clay, _l_. Fig. 4 puts on a fresh piece of
+clay. Fig. 5 forms a round slab of clay with his two hands. Fig. 6 stirs
+and prepares the oven, _q_. At _s_ is the fire, which rises through the
+long, narrow tube or chimney of the oven, upon the top of which the cups
+are placed to bake, as in _v_. Fig. 7 hands the cup to the baker, 8.
+Fig. 9 carries away the baked cups from the oven.]
+
+The entire process of making clay vessels in Egypt has been preserved in
+a scene depicted in a tomb (Fig. 24). The clay was first trampled
+underfoot to give it evenness of consistency and make it more perfectly
+plastic. It was then prepared for working by being rolled out, and was
+then put on the wheel. The latter was either round or polygonal and
+flat. It was placed upon a stand, and was turned with one hand, while
+with the other the potter shaped the clay, and, as he worked, sat either
+upon a low stool or upon the ground. Both the hollowing and external
+shaping were done by hand. The furnaces were hollow cylinders, about six
+and a half feet high, in which the wares to be baked were placed about
+half-way up. An aperture at the bottom admitted draught sufficient to
+drive the flames out of the top of the furnace. Among the Greeks the
+wheel was also employed at a very early period, so early that its
+inventor or introducer is forgotten. One of the Grecian legends ascribes
+the honor to Daedalus, an Athenian of royal descent, and inventor of the
+wedge, axe, and other mechanical contrivances. Another legend ascribes
+it to Talos, the nephew of Daedalus, whose murder compelled the latter to
+seek safety in flight. To whatever individual or city the credit may be
+due, the wheel was used by Grecian potters from time immemorial. They
+turned it with the foot--as did the Egyptians also at one period--and it
+appears that the turning was sometimes left to an assistant. The process
+was almost identical with that described above. The clay was placed upon
+the wheel and shaped by the hand, and when the vessel was of so large a
+size as to make it necessary, one hand supported and shaped the clay
+from the inside. In this way the body of the vessel was made, and before
+the clay dried, the feet, handles, and other parts were fixed to it.
+Before the wheel was known, the vessels were hollowed out and shaped by
+the hand, and the larger vessels were subsequently made in the same way.
+
+It is said that the potter's wheel was invented in Japan, in the year
+724, by a priest named Giyoki, and the event at once raised the potter's
+art into very high estimation. In Arita, the wheel consists of a
+fly-wheel and revolving disk, the latter placed about a foot above the
+former, and connected with it by a hollow wooden prismatic axle. In the
+centre of the working disk, and between the three sides of the prism, a
+hollow piece of porcelain is inserted. The whole is then placed upon a
+pointed stick fixed firmly in the ground, in such a way that the entire
+weight is supported upon the point of the upright wood. As that point
+comes in contact with the inserted porcelain, friction is reduced to a
+minimum. Vessels of any size can be thrown in this way--from the huge
+basin three feet in diameter to the smallest work which the potter's
+hand has shaped. A driving cord is employed for turning the wheel when
+very large pieces are being made.
+
+The Italians of the sixteenth century used the wheel in the same way,
+fashioning the clay with the hands and certain tools of wood and iron
+(Fig. 25).
+
+It would thus appear that the potter's wheel improved in due course of
+time. At first it was merely a horizontal revolving disk turned by hand;
+then it consisted of a three-feet shaft with the disk on the top, and a
+driving-wheel below to be turned by the potter's foot; later still, it
+was turned by means of a foot-board, like that of a turning-lathe or
+printing-press; afterward the driving-wheel was separated from the disk
+which it turned by means of a connecting rope or band, and was worked by
+an assistant; more recently, steam has been brought in to the saving of
+labor, and in many large factories is the chief power used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Venetian Potters of the Sixteenth Century.
+Showing two kinds of potter's wheels in use among them. (From engraving
+by V. Biringuccio.)]
+
+It is almost unnecessary to add that when throwing was resorted to in
+place of moulding, the subsequent operations of shaving, polishing, and
+attaching the handles and ornaments were performed in the same manner as
+that described above.
+
+We now reach the third process, that of baking or firing. Sun-dried
+bricks have been found in nearly every part of the world. They were
+introduced into Spain by the Arabs, and in the New World have been found
+from Mexico to Peru. In Egypt they represent the earliest works of the
+potter; and from that country, Assyria, and Babylonia, relics of the
+rudest stage of the art of working in clay have reached our own time.
+The climate of Egypt was such that unbaked bricks were sufficiently
+lasting for architectural purposes, and walls, tombs, and entire
+pyramids were constructed of them. The use of sun-dried clay was
+restricted in Assyria to bricks and small figures of an apparently
+religious character. In Babylon, as in Assyria, similar bricks were used
+as foundations for buildings. Among the Greeks sun-dried clay was widely
+employed. Many of their temples and the walls of some of their fortified
+cities were constructed of bricks dried in the sun. Even statues and
+models were made of unbaked clay.
+
+The kind of furnace in use among the Egyptians at a very early period
+has already been described. No remnant of those used by the Greeks has
+been discovered, and all the information regarding them has been derived
+from representations on pottery or gems. A tolerably correct idea of the
+more ancient ones may be conveyed by describing them as tall baker's
+ovens, into which the wares were pushed and baked like loaves. There
+are several vases now in existence upon which furnaces of this kind
+are depicted. A kylix from Vulci, and now at Munich, is remarkable for
+the scene depicted on it. One of the epigrammata of Homer, entitled
+[Greek: 'O Kaminos]--"The Furnace," has been translated by Cowper. The
+explanatory preface is attributed to Herodotus.
+
+"Certain potters, while they were busied in baking their ware, seeing
+Homer at a small distance, and having heard much said of his wisdom,
+called to him, and promised him a present of their commodity--and of
+such other things as they could afford--if he would sing to them, when
+he sang as follows:
+
+ "'Pay me my price, potters! and I will sing.
+ Attend, O Pallas! and with lifted arm
+ Protect their oven: let the cups and all
+ The sacred vessels blacken well, and, baked
+ With good success, yield them both fair renown
+ And profit, whether in the market sold
+ Or streets, and let no strife ensue between us.
+ But, O ye potters! if with shameless front
+ Ye falsify your promise, then I leave
+ No mischief uninvoked to avenge the wrong.
+ Come, Syntrips, Smaragdus, Sabactes, come,
+ And Asbestus; nor let your direst dread
+ Omodamus delay! Fire seize your house!
+ May neither house nor vestibule escape!
+ May ye lament to see confusion mar
+ And mingle the whole labor of your hands!
+ And may a sound fill all your oven, such
+ As of a horse grinding his provender,
+ While all your pots and flagons bounce within.
+ Come hither also daughter of the Sun,
+ Circe, the sorceress, and with thy drugs
+ Poison themselves, and all that they have made!
+ Come also Chiron, with thy numerous troop
+ Of Centaurs, as well those who died beneath
+ The club of Hercules, as who escaped,
+ And stamp their crockery to dust! Down fall
+ Their chimney! Let them see it with their eyes,
+ And howl to see the ruin of their art,
+ While I rejoice: and if a potter stoop
+ To peep into his furnace, may the fire
+ Flash in his face and scorch it, that all men
+ Observe thenceforth equity and good faith.'"
+
+The scene on the kylix at Munich is supposed to represent Homer among
+the potters. The furnace is on the extreme right, and has a tall
+chimney. The fire is seen below. In front of it is a man who has
+apparently been placing a vase in the oven, and behind him comes another
+carrying what may be a large jar on his shoulder. The next figure is
+that of Homer, holding a staff; behind him is a vase, and a youth
+carrying another vessel toward the furnace. The next group shows the
+operation of "throwing," a boy turning the wheel while an old man shapes
+the vessel. On the left is a young man sitting and holding on his knees
+a vase to which he seems to be attaching the handle. The entire
+composition is interesting, since--assuming the old man with the crook
+to be Homer, and not the proprietor of the pottery--it illustrates a
+poem which shows how widely, even at the early age in which the poet
+lived, the various operations in making vases were understood. For our
+present purpose, however, attention is chiefly directed to the furnace.
+
+The furnaces described by Piccolpasso as in use among the Italians were
+of three kinds, one for oxidizing the tin and lead, a second for baking
+glazed ware, and a third for majolica proper, or lustred ware. In the
+first the furnace was rectangular, and was divided into two parts, one
+of which was occupied by the fire, the other by the tray for the metals.
+The latter was raised to such a height that the flames could play upon
+the metals as they passed over them to the opening at the other side.
+The baking furnace was also rectangular, and was built of brick. It was
+divided by a perforated arch into an upper and lower compartment. In the
+upper division the wares were placed. It had four openings on either
+side and nine in the roof. Under the lower chamber was the ash-pit, and
+each chamber had a door at one end. At Castel-Durante the usual
+dimensions of a furnace were six feet in height and length, and five in
+width. At Venice their dimensions were sometimes double those above
+stated. The wares were arranged according to their quality.
+Seggars--circular or oval cases of infusible fire-clay, bottomed, but
+without covers, and perforated--were used for those of fine quality. The
+seggars, which may be seen piled one above another in Fig. 28 and on the
+lower right hand of Fig. 29, were placed as in the first of these
+engravings, the bottom of the one above acting as a lid to that next
+below; and the coarser wares were arranged in rows between the piles of
+seggars. The openings having been partially closed, the fire was
+applied below, and kept up for about twelve hours, when the first
+firing was finished. The majolica furnace will be described hereafter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Common Pottery Kiln.]
+
+Among the Japanese the kilns are arranged in a peculiar manner. That in
+which the first firing is done is a small furnace, used only previous to
+the painting. The oxide of cobalt, which is more extensively employed
+than any other, is laid upon the white clay coating, and the piece is
+then glazed, usually in a compound of felspath and wood-ashes. The
+second firing then takes place. The kilns are built in terraced rows of
+from four to twenty, and rise about three feet above each other, growing
+larger in size as they extend up the hill. The ground-plan is
+trapezoidal, and the walls rise vertically for a few feet, and are then
+rounded off into an arch. The front wall, looking toward the lower end
+of the row, is pierced with holes near the ground, and others are made
+in the back wall at about three feet above the ground, so as to open
+directly upon the floor of the next kiln above. The draught in this way
+rushes through the entire row toward the chimneys behind the largest and
+uppermost kiln. The fuel is thrown directly into the kiln, and not into
+a fireplace. It is arranged along the lower side in a narrow space
+divided from the rest of the kiln by fire-clay slabs set upright. The
+fire begins in a furnace attached to the lowest kiln. The hot air rushes
+through the air-holes into the next kiln, which is thus heated before
+its own firing begins, and so on throughout the entire range, the kilns
+furthest up the line having thus to stand the highest temperature. Each
+one has the benefit of the heat of all the lower ones. The Japanese do
+not make any extensive use of seggars. To keep the pieces free from dust
+or falling particles of the vault, the inside of each kiln is glazed
+before the firing begins. The pieces are placed one above another upon
+fire-clay stands. The small kilns for the preliminary firing are in the
+potter's yard, but the kilns above described belong to the community,
+and are rented to the manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Hard Pottery Kiln.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Porcelain Kiln.]
+
+The kilns in use in America and Europe vary very much in shape. M.
+Brongniart gives representations of three--that for common pottery (Fig.
+26), that for hard pottery (Fig. 27), and that for porcelain (Fig. 28).
+Those used in England often take the shape of a low, vaulted chamber,
+with the fire at one end, the chimney at the other, and the firing
+chamber between. In the United States, the usual shape for both
+earthen-ware and stone-ware is conical, not unlike a ball-cartridge. The
+common pottery kiln is divided, by means of baked plates, into cells, in
+which the wares are placed. The length of time during which they are
+kept in the furnace varies according to the nature of the ware. It may
+be twenty-four hours or, as in the case of fine stone-ware, several
+days. For some wares, seggars are used in place of the open cells; and
+the arrangement of the seggars may be seen in the porcelain kiln. When,
+in the case of non-vitrifying earthen-ware, a combination of firing and
+glazing in one operation is not practicable, the ware is kept at a
+white-heat for about thirty-six hours; and on the kiln cooling, the
+pieces then known as "biscuit" are removed for glazing. This operation
+consists of dipping it into the glaze, composed as previously mentioned,
+ground to a powder, and mixed with water until of the right consistency.
+The second firing melts the glaze, and covers the surface with a thin,
+transparent coating. The Italian potters gradually increased the heat
+for four hours, and allowed the ware to remain at a white-heat for
+twelve hours, and then to cool. Porcelain is fired according to its
+composition. For English porcelain, the first firing lasts about fifty
+hours; the second firing, after the glaze is applied, lasts about twenty
+hours or less, at a lower temperature. Soft-paste or artificial French
+porcelain takes from eighty to a hundred hours for the first, and thirty
+for the second, firing. The greatest caution is demanded in placing the
+pieces in the seggars and in regulating the heat. The chief peculiarity
+about the making of porcelain is that the glaze fluxes with the paste,
+and forms, with it, a translucent whole.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Broome's Improved Porcelain or Parian Kiln. A,
+ash-pit; G, grate; F F, flues; B B, bags for the flames; D, door for
+filling the kiln; E, damper, or draught regulator; S S S, spy-holes for
+watching, or trials while burning.]
+
+Mr. Isaac Broome, of Trenton, has invented a new kiln, of which an
+engraving is here given (Fig. 29). An equal distribution and perfect
+regulation of the heat are the features which commend it to attention.
+
+Very little more need be said here about the preparation and
+application of the glaze, and that little can be included in what
+requires to be added about the laying on of the colors. The Italians
+worked in the following manner: The biscuit having been dipped in the
+enamel bath, was allowed to dry, and was then painted and again dried.
+The piece was then dipped in the transparent glaze, and, having been for
+a third time dried, was ready for the final firing. Piccolpasso gives
+much minute instruction regarding the preparation of the colors and
+manner of painting, which must here be omitted. What he says about
+painting majolica, or lustred ware, is, however, interesting. The parts
+to receive the metallic-lustre pigment were sketched in outline, and
+left white when the other colors were applied. After the piece was fired
+the lustre pigments were laid on, and the piece was again placed in the
+kiln. For this purpose a special kiln was necessary. It was built with a
+square fire chamber intersected by two arches, on which was placed a
+circular chamber large enough to touch the four sides of the square
+kiln, but necessarily leaving the four corners uncovered. This chamber
+was perforated in all directions, in order to admit the flames to direct
+contact with the wares. Dry willow branches were used for the first
+three hours, and then dry broom was thrown on the fire, which was kept
+up for another hour. The kiln having cooled, the pieces were removed,
+soaked in soap-and-water, washed, rubbed dry with flannel, and then
+polished with wood-ash and flannel. The object of the process is
+obvious. The flames being allowed to play directly upon the wares, the
+carbon in the smoke decomposed the salts contained in the metallic
+oxide, and the metal was left glittering and iridescent upon the
+surface.
+
+The Japanese porcelain painted under the glaze with the oxide of cobalt
+has been already described. Other qualities are painted over the glaze
+with colored enamels made from glass (or silica, litharge, and nitre)
+and white-lead. The coloring oxides are gold for carmine, copper,
+antimony, manganese, red oxide of iron, and oxide of cobalt. These are
+mixed and applied directly by the painter without any previous
+preparation, so that the colors do not show themselves until brought out
+by the fire. The method of decoration is peculiar. The design is first
+sketched in black lines, with strokes for the shades. When the enamel
+colors are opaque, they are laid on thinly; when translucent or
+resembling colored glass, so that the design appears under, they are
+laid on more thickly. Occasionally a white opaque enamel--but containing
+no admixture of tin--is first applied, and the colors are laid upon it.
+
+Stone-ware is very seldom glazed by a "dip." The usual method is to
+combine the firing and glazing. When the ware has been exposed to the
+maximum heat for the necessary time, salt is thrown into the kiln. The
+heat vaporizes the salt, and of its constituent parts one, the chlorine,
+escapes; while the other, the soda, is, on coming in contact with the
+silex in the red-hot ware, formed into a silicate of soda, a perfectly
+transparent and intensely hard glaze.
+
+In regard to the colors, the only ones now known which will bear the
+first firing--_couleurs de grand feu_--and are therefore put on before
+glazing, are blue from cobalt, browns from iron, manganese, and chromate
+of iron, green from chrome, and yellows from titanium and uranium.
+Between these and the more delicate _couleurs de moufle_, or enamel
+colors, are violets, reds, and browns from manganese, copper, and iron,
+which are designated as _couleurs au demi grand feu_. Beyond these, the
+colors used in decorating hard or natural porcelain are laid on the
+glaze, to which they adhere without incorporating themselves.
+
+The great difficulties attending the manufacture of porcelain may now be
+estimated. The piece must pass through the kiln as many times as there
+are colors requiring different temperatures. Too much heat will blot out
+the delicate colors, too little will leave them dull. Those on
+artificial or soft porcelain sink into the glaze, and thus present a
+softness and creamy delicacy never seen on any other kind of ware.
+
+The results are generally a sufficient reward for the difficulty of the
+process. This is altogether exceptional in the case of _pate tendre_. As
+its alkaline ingredients volatilize at a certain heat, the fire must be
+stopped before that temperature is reached. The glaze, also alkaline, is
+then applied in the form of dust, and not, as with hard porcelain, in
+the form of a dip. The second firing melts the glaze. If the heat be too
+strong, the alkalies will fly off; if too weak, the surface will be
+uneven. For a third time the same danger is incurred, when the firing
+for fixing the colors takes place.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK II.--THE ORIENT.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EGYPT.
+
+ The East the Cradle of Art.--The Antiquity of Egypt: Its Claim to
+ Notice in every Branch of Inquiry.--The Fountains of Oriental and
+ Greek Art.--The Nile Clay.--Egypt's Early Maturity.--Limitation of
+ Material.--Effect of Religion upon Art.--Two Periods in Art
+ History.--Ancient Religion.--Various Symbols.--UNGLAZED
+ POTTERY--_Sun-dried_: Bricks.--Moulds, Stamps,
+ etc.--Vessels.--_Baked Ware_: Its Early Date.--Color of Vessels and
+ Bricks.--Coffins.--Cones.--Figures.--Sepulchral Vases.--Amphorae and
+ other Vessels.--Decoration.--Graeco-Egyptian Pottery.--GLAZED WARE,
+ miscalled Porcelain: Its Nature, and how Colored.--Wall
+ Tiles.--Inlaying of Mummy Cases.--Personal
+ Ornaments.--Images.--Beads, etc.--Vases.--Bowls.--Glazed
+ Schist.--Stanniferous Enamel.
+
+
+To the Orient we look for the birthplace of man, and in it we also find
+the cradle of Art. How it spread eastward to China and westward to
+Egypt, we may not be able, with precise accuracy, to tell; but this we
+know, that in and between these two countries the ceramic art had been
+carried to a lofty eminence long before Europe had awakened from
+barbaric slumber. Western history was, in fact, scarcely beginning, when
+Eastern civilization was in one direction fading, and in another was
+tottering to its fall.
+
+In beginning with Egypt, the most ancient relics of primitive art pass
+first in review. To that wonderful country, long hidden under a thick
+cloud of mystery, we must, in fact, first turn, no matter what may be
+the subject demanding investigation. It had reached antiquity before the
+oldest countries of the West were born. In the ceramic art, it appears
+as the centre from which radiated the two great branches, many centuries
+afterward converging in Southern Europe. On the one hand is the
+silicious-glazed pottery, which, after moving eastward, reached Europe
+in a slightly altered form; on the other is the glazed and unglazed
+terra-cotta, which the Greeks took up and carried forward to a new and
+higher perfection. Egypt thus appears as the fountain-head of ancient
+art. The progress it made toward comparative perfection will be
+hereafter referred to. Meantime it may be pointed out, that, while
+fortunate in one respect, Egypt was unfortunate in another. The banks of
+the Nile gave a never-failing supply of pure and plastic clay, admirably
+suited to all the purposes of the potter. When the periodical
+inundations took place, they left a deposit of exceptionally pure silt
+extending from the banks of the river to the furthest margin of the
+flood. The material was thus ready to the potter's hand. The counter
+disadvantage was the absence of the materials required for the finest
+ware, or their presence in such form as scarcely to suggest their
+combination. The Egyptians appear to have carried their ceramic art to a
+full development at a very remote stage of their history, or, in other
+words, they soon arrived at the point beyond which they never passed.
+The limitation laid upon them was that of material. The result of this
+is shown by the other directions in which their art branched off. It
+seemed impossible to accomplish anything in clay to vie with the
+precious metals and stones. For purposes of ornament, therefore, clay
+was discarded. It was worked by slaves (Fig. 30), and fashioned into
+domestic vessels and bricks; and when the nearest approach to porcelain
+was made, then only do we meet with ornamental works, or those of a more
+strictly artistic character.
+
+Their religion also appears to have deadened their ambition to reach a
+higher excellence. There were two periods in their art history. In
+studying the works belonging to the first, the observer will frequently
+be impressed by the desire evinced to follow the forms offered by nature
+for imitation. Such is the most striking characteristic of what may be
+called the first school. It aimed at the reproduction of natural forms
+in the most literal manner. Afterward, when the emblematic school took
+its rise, the forms were still those of nature, with a religious or
+spiritual significance superadded. The idea is evidently fatal to art,
+that it can climb to nothing higher than the figure symbolical of a god.
+In their efforts toward the production of what was graceful and
+beautiful, the Egyptians are not, however, to be despised. Before
+foreign influences made themselves felt, the Egyptian forms were
+simple, and frequently displayed ideas of beauty which, if ruder than
+those of the Greeks, are independent. The Egyptians were necessarily
+original. They had no predecessors whose works they could copy; and in
+appealing to nature for models, they took the only course open to them.
+From their originality the Greeks borrowed and improved upon their
+models, and it is in this view of its being a starting-point for
+subsequent art that Egyptian pottery demands careful study.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Foreign Captives making Bricks in Egypt. 1, Man
+returning from carrying load; 2, 7, and 10 carry the clay, after it has
+been dug by 9, 11, 12, and 13, and throw it down at 7 and _j_, for the
+brickmakers, 8 and 16; 4 and 5 carry them away to the drying-place or
+furnace; 3 and 6 are taskmasters; 14 and 15 are carrying water from the
+tank, _h_. At _c_ and _a_ are inscriptions to the effect that the bricks
+were so made for the Temple of Amun-Ra, at Thebes.]
+
+It is indispensable, in order to understand the highest forms of the art
+in Egypt, that something should be known of its religion. In that
+strange land we find an answer--possibly the first--to the question,
+
+ "The sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the hills, and the plains--
+ Are not these, O soul, the vision of Him who reigns?"
+
+According to Bunsen, "the mythological system proceeded from 'the
+concealed god,' Ammon, to the creating god. The latter appears first of
+all as the generative power of nature in the Phallic god Khem, who is
+afterward merged into Ammon-ra. Then sprung up the idea of a creative
+power in Kneph. He forms the limbs of Osiris (the primitive soul) in
+contradistinction to Ptah, who, as the strictly demiurgic principle,
+forms the visible world. Neith is the creative principle as nature
+represented under a female form. Finally her son, Ra Helios, appears as
+the last of the series in the character of father and nourisher of
+terrestrial things. It is he whom an ancient monument represents as the
+demiurgic principle creating the mundane egg." At the head of this
+Pantheon stands Ammon, the concealed and invisible. The other figures
+are personifications of his attributes, and appear as separate and
+individual gods. In order to make the theogony intelligible to the
+people, these gods are represented by symbols. There is thus a regular
+gradation from the symbol to the divine attribute, and thence to the
+Unknown Greatest. It is the sublimity of paganism, presenting us with
+one god carrying on the infinite works of the universe by means of his
+various attributes. The symbols were chosen from nature, and are
+generally expressive, if not always dignified. Firstly, as to the
+symbols proper, the lotus and scarabaeus may be mentioned as of most
+frequent occurrence. The former, the sacred flower, is often met with in
+connection with the figures of the divinities, and symbolizes the
+beneficence of nature's revivifying powers, water and heat. The
+scarabaeus (Fig. 31) is the symbol of creation, and when represented with
+out-spread wings, of immortality. It may appear singular that a
+loathsome insect should thus have been honored, but the explanation is
+simple. It is to be found in the habits of the insect itself. Placing
+its egg in a ball, it buried the latter in the sand, where it was
+hatched by the rays of the sun, and the ball opening with the breaking
+of the egg, the young insect appeared. It was to the Egyptian a perfect
+symbol of creation, and hence of the creative god Phtha. When found with
+outstretched wings, it is an ornament of the dead, and symbolizes the
+apparent circuit of the sun setting at night to rise in the morning.
+Thus the sun of life sets in death to reappear in immortality, as the
+scarabaeus, under the influence of its divine warmth, breaks from its egg
+into insect life. The sun was the symbol of Ra, the sun-god, "the father
+and nourisher of terrestrial things." In representing the gods, the
+figures selected were to a great extent arbitrary. The Egyptians honored
+themselves by discovering that in the humblest form of nature there was
+something worthy of honor. They accordingly took the plants and animals
+of their land and wove them into their religion, by adopting a system of
+natural symbols too intricate to be here given in detail. The following
+may, however, be found useful:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Scarabaeus. Dark-blue Glazed Pottery. (Way
+Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The vulture was the symbol of divine maternity, because thought to
+conceive spontaneously; and hence Souvan, the mother of all, is
+represented with a vulture's head. This single instance furnishes a key
+to the system. The symbol is chosen which most nearly represents the
+principle, and thus becomes a part of the embodied form of the deity
+possessing the principle as his or her peculiar attribute. The dog and
+jackal were emblems of Anubis, the guardian of the tombs, and the deity
+presiding over embalmment. The scarabaeus was the emblem of the demiurgic
+god Phtha. The lion was also the emblem of Phtha and of the goddess
+Pasht. Cynocephali were emblems of Chous and Thoth.
+
+Throughout the entire system, the birds, fishes, land animals, and
+plants of Egypt, the hawk, vulture, ibis, uraei snakes, the cat, pig,
+cow, and so on, are all used as symbols. It will be sufficient now to
+glance at the converse, and note the forms under which the deities are
+represented. Ra, the sun-god, appears with the head of a hawk; Athor,
+the Egyptian Venus, with horns and ears of a cow; Anubis with head of a
+jackal; Thoth with head of an ibis; Amun-ra, a man with solar disk on
+head, and plumed; Mut, the mother goddess, crowned; Chous, sou of
+Amun-ra and Mut, with moon disk, occasionally hawk-headed; Phtha with
+scarabaeus on head, sometimes with two heads, one of which is that of a
+hawk; Pasht, Bast, and Tafne are all lion-headed goddesses; Her has a
+lion's head; Taur appears as a hippopotamus; Osiris sits enthroned with
+the cap of truth, and holds a staff and scourge; Isis, like the Roman
+Luna or Diana, appears in two forms, sitting as a terrestrial goddess,
+suckling Horus or kneeling, or sitting in her celestial character, with
+disk and horns, nursing her son Horus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Egyptian Gods. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of
+Fine Arts.)]
+
+We are now in a position to give names to the group (Fig. 32), each
+piece in which is of the blue or green glazed pottery to be noticed
+hereafter. It may be said, however, that no engraving could give an idea
+of the exquisite finish of these pieces, especially of the two in the
+middle. The lower central figure is the plumed Amun. It is
+turquoise-blue, and is one and three-quarter inches in height. The upper
+central figure is the lion-headed Pasht, surmounted by the solar disk
+and the asp. To the left is ibis-headed Thoth, a flat figure intended to
+be sewn into a mummy covering. On the right are Isis and Nepthys, with
+Horus between them. From the combination of symbols, the study of the
+mythology of the Egyptians as found illustrated on their pottery is of
+deep interest, and of great importance both to the ceramist and the
+student of the science of religion.
+
+The ceramic productions of Egypt are divisible into two great classes,
+unglazed and glazed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Earthen-ware Vessels found at Thebes.]
+
+UNGLAZED POTTERY.--This may again be divided into the unbaked, or
+sun-dried, and baked. Of these the former is unquestionably the more
+ancient, and Egypt is one of the three countries whose sun-dried pottery
+has lasted until the present time. Unbaked bricks are the oldest
+examples. Some of those discovered recall the bondage and wrongs of the
+Israelites under the "new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph." The
+command of Pharaoh will be remembered: "Ye shall no more give the people
+straw to make brick as heretofore; let them go and gather straw for
+themselves." The straw was used to bind them together. They were moulded
+generally in a rectangular shape, and were extensively used in the
+construction of pyramids of various ages. They vary in size in different
+edifices, and are marked according to their composition or destined use.
+In the former case, the marks were used merely to distinguish the
+quality; in the latter, the marks indicate either the individual's tomb
+in the construction of which they were to be employed, or the king in
+whose reign they were made for public buildings. The whole process can
+be studied in the engraving (Fig. 30). The stamp for bricks was not used
+until the fifteenth century before the Christian era.
+
+The vessels of unbaked clay which have been preserved are few in
+number, and are either religious in character, or devoted to sepulchral
+uses. The ornamentation is of the simplest kind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Red Pottery Cone. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y.
+Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Fish-shaped Vase of Red Terra-cotta. Egyptian.
+(British Museum.)]
+
+Egypt was exceptionally favored by nature for advancing in the potter's
+art. The Nile mud was abundant and plastic, and was suitable for either
+moulding or throwing. Specimens of baked earthen-ware (Fig. 33) have
+accordingly been found belonging to a very remote period. They represent
+the second step in the manufacture, which was reached nearly three
+thousand years before our era. From the tombs of that period have been
+exhumed vessels of various kinds, such as were employed by the Egyptians
+in their households; and taking these as a starting-point, the art can
+be traced to its decline under imported ideas and foreign domination.
+This ware is mostly of a dull red color, verging at times toward purple
+or yellow, according to the temperature at which it was baked. The baked
+bricks were of the same red color. They were used, apparently, for
+purposes for which the less lasting unbaked bricks were not suitable,
+but were not generally employed. Of the same material coffins, although
+rare, have also been found. Many of the objects connected with the
+Egyptian customs regarding the burial of the dead were made of this
+clay. Among these were the cones (Fig. 34), with inscriptions in
+hieroglyphics stamped on the base, and giving the name of the deceased.
+They indicate the resting-places of many civil and ecclesiastical
+functionaries--clerks or scribes, priests, chamberlains, soldiers, and
+seldom of women. They appear to have fallen into desuetude in the sixth
+century before our era. Figures have also been found in the sepulchres
+of a later period. The vases for holding the entrails of the embalmed
+dead were of the same ware, and bring up for notice a very singular
+custom. The viscera were divided into four parts, and deposited in
+separate jars having the shapes of the genii of the Egyptian Hades,
+Amset, Hapi, Tuautmutf, and Kebhsnuf. The ibis mummy pots belong to the
+same class. They were used for holding the embalmed body of the sacred
+bird, and are very frequently of a conical shape, with a slightly convex
+lid. Of domestic vases in this ware, the shapes and uses are very
+numerous. Great numbers have been found in the tombs, varying as much in
+size as in purpose. The latter may often be divined from the shape of
+the vessel: thus those for liquids are wide-mouthed for convenience in
+drawing the contents; those for bread and flesh-meats are wider and more
+shallow. Ointment pots and oil jars are also fashioned in view of their
+respective purposes.
+
+Another kind of unglazed ware is of a light gray color, and was common
+to Egypt and some of the countries of Asia. Amphorae have been found of
+this material, with long bodies ornamented with horizontal grooves. Of
+these the larger ones appear to have been intended for liquids, and the
+smaller ones, some of which are very diminutive, for solids. The bases
+of the former are pointed, while those of the latter are occasionally
+rounded. The handles are both small and large, and the necks open or
+contracted, according to their use. These are well deserving of notice
+for the sake of comparison with the amphorae of the Greeks; and for the
+same reason reference may be made to the vessels with three handles,
+which were in all probability the prototypes of the Greek _hydrai_, and
+to others with only one handle, which were also reproduced in Greece.
+The former are very frequently oval-bodied, and the position of the
+handle is arbitrary. The latter were jugs of various shapes, with
+pointed bases. The further we come down, the more distinct become the
+proofs of Egypt's having supplied models to the Grecian potters. It
+would be impossible to specify all the shapes, but reference may be made
+to those with handle arching the top from side to side, and of so small
+a size that they are thought to have been used by children as toys.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Egyptian Red-polished Terra-cotta.]
+
+The larger vessels, which answered all the purposes of a modern
+meat-safe, have no handle, and have the usual pointed base for fixing
+them upright in the floor of the cellar. They taper gradually from the
+base upward, until their greatest girth is reached, when they curve more
+suddenly inward to a short neck. From these the forms vary through the
+intermediate shapes of oval jars, bottles with long necks, and narrow
+oil vases, to wide bowls or dishes and plates. Reference was made in the
+introduction to the multitudinous purposes to which clay vessels were
+put by the Egyptians. They used their ware in many ways which to us
+appear very primitive and strange--for storing all manner of eatables
+and drinkables, for cooking and smelting. In fact, whatever one may
+think of their ideas of beauty in pottery, there can be no doubt that
+they took a very wide view of its infinite usefulness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Egyptian Red-polished Terra-cotta Bottle.
+(British Mus.)]
+
+Decoration of a simple kind is occasionally found on both domestic and
+sepulchral vessels. Colored bands were the usual ornament, and very
+rarely the entire body was painted with a ground color upon which bands
+were laid, and the whole was then varnished. It is rarely that a leaf or
+lotus flower is found. The use of varnish points to a step in advance.
+It has not yet been determined whether it is really varnish or a glaze
+applied by firing, but in either case it is found upon the finer and
+harder kinds of ware. The body color is black, brown, or red, of
+different shades (Fig. 36). To this class belong the single and double
+cruses, generally of pale red paste, but sometimes black, used
+apparently for holding oil or ointment. The best examples of polished
+ware are red. They show both ornamentation of a higher order and more
+artistic shapes than the others. The shape of one of these vases
+resembles the goddess Isis suckling Horus, in the attitude previously
+mentioned; another is in the form of a woman playing upon a stringed
+instrument (Fig. 37); a third is shaped like a fish; and many domestic
+vessels, cups, jugs, and vases are of the same material.
+
+The Graeco-Egyptian pottery forms a distinct class, differing in paste,
+color, and decoration. The outside shows varying shades of gray and
+red, and the ornamentation consists of lines and animal and floral
+forms, in colors capable of standing the kiln. At the same period was
+introduced the custom of making writing tablets of this ware.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Glazed Pottery Vase. Egyptian.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Egyptian Scarabaei used as Signets. Average, 3/4
+inch in length. Pale and dark green. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Egyptian Pectoral Tablets. (Way Coll., Boston
+Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+GLAZED WARE.--Leaving the unglazed and polished wares, there yet falls
+to be considered that with an undoubted glaze, to which belong the most
+artistic works of the Egyptian potters. This is the ware which has been
+miscalled porcelain (Fig. 38); and as the unglazed ware was never
+employed for purely ornamental purposes, so we find the glazed seldom
+used for domestic vessels. Contrary to what might be expected, specimens
+have been found as old as the Sixth Dynasty, or nearly two thousand
+years before the Christian era. The ware is not at all close in texture,
+and the silicious glaze was colored by metallic oxides, of the
+properties of which the Egyptians had an intimate knowledge. Chief among
+the colors thus produced are the blue and green, exemplified in some of
+the finest relics of Egyptian art. Their beauty is occasionally very
+remarkable, and led to their being highly valued both by the Egyptians
+and others, and to the ware itself being applied to special purposes of
+ornamentation. It is found, for example, in the form of tiles as a wall
+decoration, and as a material for inlaying. Tiles with figures in
+relief, having parts such as the hair, beard, eyes, or extremities
+inlaid with glazed ware, are among the most curious specimens
+discovered. Detached beards are not unlike spirally ribbed hose.
+Coffins, or mummy cases, are similarly inlaid. The forms the glazed
+pottery assumes, when employed for this purpose and for figures to be
+attached to other substances, are very numerous. The moulded ornaments
+and amulets of both the living and the dead were most frequently of the
+same material. These take the shape of finger and ear rings (Fig. 39),
+small images of the gods and of their symbols, and various other
+ornaments, such as bracelets, necklaces, and hairpins. The nature of
+the paste leads to the belief that these were more generally devoted to
+sepulchral purposes, with a religious significance, than to any other.
+All the minute beads, in a net-work of which the dead were often
+encased, and also the pectoral or breastplates, were of this material
+(Fig. 40). In the lower specimen, Ra is represented by the scarab. In
+the barge, on either side, are Isis and Nepthys. This tablet bears the
+inscription, "He that is worthy goes over in the barge of Ra." Of the
+upper specimen only one-half is preserved, showing the figure of Isis.
+In the hollow centre has been a scarab, probably of jasper, and in the
+borders colored stones or glass have been set. The lower border consists
+of a series of lotus flowers, and the wavy lines represent the water in
+which they grow. Above was the winged disk of the sun. Figures of the
+gods and goddesses and their emblems, and sacred animals and plants,
+which were deposited with the dead, afford some of the most exquisite
+examples of Egyptian glazed pottery. The images have either a perforated
+upright support behind, or are otherwise perforated for attachment to
+the necklaces of the mummies. The scarabaeus is very often met with on
+the breastplates. All these symbols and images were employed for the
+supposed benefit of the dead, either to save them from evil, or as a
+direct means of bringing good, and can only be understood through an
+acquaintance with mythology. Rings of various colors appear properly to
+belong to the same category of ornaments of the dead. Other sepulchral
+figures were deposited with the deceased, besides those of the
+protecting gods. These were supposed to aid the departed in his labors
+in the future state, and are invariably small representations of a
+mummied figure, partially covered with hieroglyphics. Like many of the
+other figures and objects, they are generally of the beautiful Egyptian
+blue. In the example (Fig. 41) given on the following page, the figure
+of a bird with human head, appears upon the breast. It is an emblem of
+the soul leaving or returning to the body. The more usual form is that
+seen in the central figure in the engraving (Fig. 42), with long beard,
+a pickaxe and hoe in either hand, and having a cord in the right hand
+which is crossed to the left, and allows the cord to pass over the left
+shoulder. At the end of this cord is a bag or basket, which is faintly
+discernible on the shoulder of the figure on the right. The
+hieroglyphics are passages from the Ritual, in compliance with which
+these figures were made. Balls, draughtsmen, and toys were also made of
+glazed pottery. All the figures and ornaments to which reference has
+been made were turned out of moulds, the friability of the paste not
+permitting its being thrown.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Egyptian Mummy Figure. Style, XIXth Dynasty.
+(Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+For the same reason the glazed vases are diminutive, but often very
+beautiful, and intended for purely ornamental purposes. They are of
+different shapes and sizes, generally a few inches in height, and some
+of them illustrate the peculiar ideas entertained by the Egyptians of
+personal beauty. One of their customs was that of darkening the eyes
+with a black powder, sometimes held in a small case resembling a series
+of reeds. The toilet is otherwise represented by a variety of boxes,
+jars, bottles, small vases, and oil flasks. The latter are unique, and
+sometimes elegant in shape, and supply good examples of the greenish
+glazed-ware to which reference has been made.
+
+Many of the bowls evidently used by the wealthy are of a finer and
+closer paste, and bear very characteristic ornamentation of flowers,
+fish, hieroglyphics, or of lines only. Their uses can only be
+conjectured from their shapes. The inscriptions sometimes point to their
+owners, and at others to the place of fabrication.
+
+The Egyptians also resorted to a process of glazing vases, figures,
+rings, and other articles for which pottery was usually employed, made
+of a variety of hard schists. These, however, as not being properly
+potter's ware, are here passed over.
+
+It will thus be seen that the Egyptians did not carry the art to a very
+high point. They were, however, successful in creating a foreign demand
+for the productions of their potteries. From discoveries made in Eastern
+Greece, Nineveh, and elsewhere, it would appear that the fine pottery
+ornaments of Egypt were in considerable repute in neighboring countries;
+and, as we shall hereafter see, Egypt contributed its full share to the
+furtherance of the art by supplying suggestions and models.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Egyptian Mummy Figures. Blue or Greenish-blue
+Enamelled Pottery. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+One important matter remains to be disposed of. It has long been a
+subject of doubt whether or not Egypt possessed the secret of
+stanniferous enamel. It has been already intimated that the discovery of
+the use of tin for a pottery enamel is due to either that country or
+Assyria. The honor may probably be ascribed to Egypt. In the loan
+collection of the Metropolitan Museum of New York is a fragment (Fig.
+43) of a vase exhibited in the Egyptian section, and referable to a very
+remote antiquity, covered with what is apparently tin enamel, bearing
+purple decorations. Should this be the case, then this solitary fragment
+will settle the matter, and we must believe that the Egyptians possessed
+this secret of the art four thousand years ago. In that event, the
+Assyrians probably acquired it from Egypt. The fact supplies us with the
+means of arriving at a very clear idea of the grand antiquity of that
+civilization under which a valuable art was practised, to which Europe
+was a stranger for more than three thousand five hundred years
+afterward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Fragment with White Enamel. (Trumbull-Prime
+Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+It is, as we have seen, long since the art purely its own reached its
+culmination. The Egypt of the nineteenth century in this respect
+scarcely suggests that of the Pyramids. If we were to take that country
+as it appeared at the Philadelphia Exhibition, we would hardly be
+prepared to look upon its ceramic products as those of a country in
+which the art has been practised for four thousand years. A few pieces
+exhibited were of light, slate-colored body, unglazed, and so brittle
+that dozens were broken in transit. The ornamentation was laid on the
+bare surface, and was, as a rule, bright to the verge of gaudiness. The
+greater portion of the painting was the work of an Italian artist
+resident in Cairo. Some of the red terra-cotta was more satisfactory;
+but all that can be said in favor of either kind is that it was, in its
+way, characteristically Egyptian. One specimen of pale green "porcelain"
+was sent by the Museum at Cairo. The last is mentioned because it
+represented the farthest point which the Egyptians reached on the way
+toward a true porcelain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA.
+
+ Possible Priority to Egyptian Pottery.--Similarity between Assyrian
+ and Egyptian.--The Course followed by both Arts.--Unbaked
+ Bricks.--Baked Bricks.--Writing
+ Tablets.--Seals.--Vases.--Terra-cottas.--Porcelain.--Glazing and
+ Enamelling.--Tin.--Colored Enamels.--Babylonian Bricks.--Glazes.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Pottery found in the Tombs above the Palaces of
+Nimroud.]
+
+Although we have taken Egypt as our starting-point, there may have been
+a pottery antecedent to that we have considered. Looking farther east
+for the cradle of the human race, knowledge and art may have spread east
+and west from the Euphrates, the great river of Babylon. Egypt having
+been first inhabited by settlers wandering from the province of which
+that city became the capital, who found in the Nile a river resembling,
+in many respects, that which they had left, these colonists may have
+carried with them some knowledge of the uses of clay. However this may
+be, it is beyond question that the oldest pottery of which the age is
+known is Egyptian, and that the knowledge acquired from the East was
+returned with interest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Terra-cotta Assyrian Venus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Assyrian Cylinder, inscribed with the Records
+of a King's Reign. (British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Inscribed Seal. (Assyrian.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Seal of Sabaco and Sennacherib.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Impression of Sabaco's Seal, enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Back of Assyrian Seal, showing Marks of
+Fingers.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Fragment in Porcelain (?). (Nimroud.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Box in Porcelain (?). (Nimroud.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Enamelled Brick. (Louvre.)]
+
+Assyria and Babylonia are almost necessarily considered in conjunction.
+The latter having been a province of Assyria prior to its assertion of
+independence, we anticipate, what is actually the case, a close
+similarity between the ceramic productions of the two countries. In
+tracing the history of their pottery, we not only discover many points
+of resemblance between it and that of Egypt, but advance along an
+exactly parallel line. From sun-dried bricks we pass to burnt bricks,
+thence to unglazed pottery possessed of an artistic character, thence
+again to glazed specimens and enamel. In both countries unbaked bricks
+were made use of in the construction of mound-like foundations for
+buildings. Walls, houses, and tombs were built of similar materials. In
+Assyria, bricks were sometimes faced with marble, either externally, for
+the sake of strength, or to give greater beauty to an interior. Some
+were gilded and others colored. Small figures of both baked and unbaked
+clay, and of a religious character, were also made by the Assyrians
+(Fig. 45). From the stamped and baked bricks much has been learned of
+Assyrian history and topography, the sites of cities and names of kings
+having been thus discovered or substantiated. By the same people writing
+tablets of rectangular, cylindrical, or prismatic shapes were very
+commonly made of terra-cotta (Fig. 46). They form a very curious remnant
+of ancient literature, which, thanks to the indestructibility of the
+material upon which it was written, is still open to the study of the
+historian. All kinds of records have thus been preserved--religious,
+legal, and astronomical. The Assyrians and Egyptians both used seals
+(Figs. 47, 48, 49, and 50) of baked and unbaked clay, in the same way
+that wax seals are still occasionally appended or attached to documents.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Babylonian Baked Brick, with Nebuchadnezzar's
+Name. Twelve inches square, three inches thick.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--The Mnjellibe, or Kasr. Showing brickwork.]
+
+Many of the vases discovered in the ruined cities of Assyria are clearly
+to be attributed to foreign occupants, and are therefore of
+comparatively late date. To this class belong many of the cinerary urns
+exhumed from the tombs. Ancient and really Assyrian vessels have been
+discovered of a pale brown clay (Fig. 44), unglazed, and of various
+shapes, but seldom painted. It is, however, difficult, in many cases, to
+discover the nationality of the potter or the age of the piece. Of
+terra-cotta figures of the gods, several have been found, although these
+must have existed in far greater numbers. Porcelain, or fine glazed
+pottery (Figs. 51, 52), is rarely met with, and the specimens found are
+inferior to the Egyptian. The several uses of the ware appear to have
+been the same in the two countries. For a knowledge of glazing and
+enamelling, the Assyrians were in all likelihood indebted to the
+Egyptians. Bricks subjected to these processes, and ornamented with
+flowers, leaves, and animals, were employed in decorating interiors and
+even in building walls (Fig. 53). These bricks reveal the fact that the
+Assyrians were aware of the peculiar suitableness of tin for making a
+white enamel. The other enamels employed were yellow, brown, blue, and
+green, and were produced from metals almost identical with those
+employed by the Egyptians.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Terra-cotta Tablet, from Babylon. (British
+Museum.)]
+
+Like the Assyrian and Egyptian, the Babylonian bricks, whether unbaked
+or baked, were moulded, and the latter were stamped. Hundreds of these
+(Fig. 54) bear the stamp of Nebuchadnezzar, the sites where they were
+found indicating with tolerable exactness the bounds of his kingdom. The
+extensive use of bricks by the Babylonians may be taken as
+characteristic of a people inhabiting the country where the Tower of
+Babel was built (Fig. 55). In many respects the vessels found in
+Babylonia resemble those of Assyria, so closely, in fact, that they need
+not here be separately treated. As in the latter country, the
+Babylonians used terra-cotta writing tablets. Several terra-cotta
+bas-reliefs have been discovered, of one of the more remarkable examples
+of which, now in the British Museum, we give the preceding engraving
+(Fig. 56). This tablet was found near Babylon. The dog is of the huge
+Thibet breed, and both figures have been modelled. The small size of the
+pieces would almost preclude their use as ornaments; and Dr. Birch
+ventures the conjecture that they may have been an artist's studies for
+larger works. The fine paste is the same as that used for the writing
+cylinders.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Ram in Baked Clay, from Niffer.]
+
+In regard to the earthen-ware vessels and figures, the same difficulty
+in determining their age is encountered here that was met with in
+Assyria. They have been taken from the mounds in large quantities. To
+this class belongs the ram (Fig. 57) found at Niffer, on the supposed
+site of ancient Babylon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Glazed Coffins, from Warka.]
+
+The Babylonian glazes resemble the Assyrian, and it may be particularly
+mentioned that the oxide of tin was employed in making enamel. These
+glazes are found upon both bricks and vases, and were applied
+extensively to architectural decoration. At Warka, identified with the
+ancient Ur of the Chaldees, thousands of coffins made of glazed ware
+have been exhumed, variously decorated with figures. Of these one
+specimen is given (Fig. 58).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+JUDAEA.
+
+ Art Derived from Egypt.--Never Reached any Eminence.--Preference
+ for Metals.--Frequent Allusions in Scripture.--Bought Earthen-ware
+ from Phoenicia and Egypt.--Home
+ Manufacture.--Decoration.--Necessity for Distinguishing between
+ Home and Foreign Wares.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Earthen-ware Jars and Water-pots.]
+
+We now turn westward to Judaea, in order that, before penetrating farther
+into Asia and to the extreme East, we may glance at a country showing in
+its ceramic remains unmistakable signs of Egyptian teaching, but
+exercising in its turn no recognizable influence upon the art which from
+all sides of it was diffused over Southern Europe. The art never reached
+any eminence among the Jews. They preferred the richer beauty of the
+precious metals. Potters did, no doubt, exist among them in considerable
+numbers, and were acquainted with the different processes of throwing,
+firing, and glazing; but the formation of such a guild as that of which
+Scripture speaks is not of itself a proof that the occupation was held
+in high esteem. The few relics which can be ascribed to a purely Jewish
+origin might be passed over as immaterial to observers of the progress
+of the art, were it not that everything pertaining to the land once
+called that of Promise, and now designated by all Christendom as Holy,
+possesses an interest altogether independent of its artistic merit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Terra-cotta Lamps and Oil Vessels.]
+
+For such earthen-ware vessels as they required, the Jews appear to have
+applied on the one hand to the Phoenicians, and on the other to the
+Egyptians. The manufacture among themselves was restricted to domestic
+articles. These resemble the Egyptian in both style and finish, the body
+being of a somewhat coarse paste, and the glaze of that peculiar kind
+which is hardly distinguishable from varnish or mechanical polish. A
+fragment now in the Louvre, of blue-glazed earthen-ware, resembling the
+finer ware of Egypt, and found in Judaea, further substantiates the close
+similarity between the pottery of the Jordan and that of the Nile. In
+ornamentation, however, the Israelites have some claim to originality
+and independence. Associating the lotus, papyrus, and the symbols of
+Egypt with idolatry, the Jewish potters substituted grapes, leaves, and
+pomegranates. In the description of the building of the Temple, in the
+First Book of Kings, the decoration within the oracle of "carved figures
+of cherubim and palm-trees and open flowers," was repeated on the walls
+and doors; and on the chapiters of the pillars made by Hiram of Tyre
+were long rows of pomegranates. A similar style of ornamentation was
+adopted by the potters.
+
+We have already seen that both Egyptian and Phoenician wares were
+imported into the country, and in addition to these there have been
+found at Jerusalem and elsewhere several examples of the red Roman, or
+Samian ware.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA.
+
+ Mystery Surrounding People.--History of its Art in great measure
+ Unknown.--Questions of its Existence and Originality.--How they
+ Arose.--The Brahmins.--Geographical Position.--Views of Early
+ Travellers.--Later Investigations.--More Ancient Pottery.--Clay
+ Used.--Knowledge of Glazing: Its Application to
+ Architecture.--Glazed Bricks.--Terra-cotta.--Chronological
+ Arrangement.--Porcelain: Its Decoration.--Use of Gold.--Siam.
+
+
+The antiquity claimed for the Hindoos as a people cannot, unfortunately,
+be elucidated either by the help of such chronicles as the granite
+records of Egypt, the terra-cotta tablets of Babylon, or the writings of
+China. The history of Indian art has been surrounded by a more or less
+impenetrable mystery. Two questions accordingly arise as to its ceramic
+productions: firstly, Did India possess any knowledge of the plastic
+art? secondly--that question having been answered in the
+affirmative--Was it original or borrowed? These doubts, in all
+probability, arose from the success of the Brahminical endeavors to
+invest every branch of Hindoo knowledge with a veil of secrecy, and from
+the geographical position of Hindostan. Occupying a peninsula about
+half-way on the route by sea between Eastern and Western Asia, Africa,
+and Europe, it became the recognized mart for the exchange of mercantile
+commodities. European traders found in it a convenient halting-place,
+even before they fully realized its actual commercial importance.
+Similarly, on the north, it intercepted a portion of the overland
+traffic, and ultimately became the centre toward which gravitated the
+productions of Persia and Arabia on the west, and of China and Japan on
+the east.
+
+Travellers who did not stop to examine things very closely, accordingly
+declared India a stranger to ceramic art. Recognizing its importance as
+an exchange, from the abundance of imports from abroad, they did not
+pierce the commercial conditions which hid its productiveness and
+originality. Later researches have shown not only that India was not
+dependent upon other countries, but that it had developed an exceptional
+skill in the application of porcelain to the embellishment of
+architecture. As if completely to subvert the statements of the first
+visitors to Hindostan, China, the great seat of the porcelain
+manufacture, has acknowledged its indebtedness to that country, and the
+extent to which it has imitated its styles. There is no reason for
+supposing that a country which had early shown a wonderful capacity for
+reaching the highest forms of architectural magnificence, and for
+executing work of the nicest delicacy in the precious metals and gems,
+lent to China alone its ideas of ceramic beauty. The absence of thorough
+investigation on the one hand, and the presence of a tendency to take
+refuge in secrecy in regard to both methods and results, rather than to
+court observation on the other, may, however, have had their effect in
+lessening the influence India might otherwise have exercised on the art.
+That she borrowed and adapted styles originating in both Persia and
+Japan, after her marts had been flooded with imports from these
+countries, there is every reason for believing, even when she preserved
+styles sufficiently distinctive to enable us to distinguish the foreign
+from the native work.
+
+Of the more ancient forms of pottery, specimens exist which are upward
+of two thousand years old. The clay varies from red to a gray color, and
+the ornamentation, when used, is simple and chaste. A funeral urn of
+this class has a round body without decoration, short, thick neck,
+projecting lip, and is accompanied by a lid. Another, of the same red
+clay, instead of the rounded base of the former, has a wide, flat
+bottom. A band is drawn round the widest part of the body, from which it
+curves rapidly inward to the neck, and on this upper part, between the
+greatest circumference and the neck, a simple ornament is laid. Although
+rather clumsy in appearance, this urn does not lack a certain primitive
+symmetry.
+
+Like the other ancient nations of which we have already treated, India
+was intimately acquainted with the processes of enamelling and glazing,
+and, better than that, brought a cultivated taste to bear upon their
+employment in both architecture and the decoration of pottery. Glazed
+bricks, of many colors, were used with great effect in the building of
+temples and other edifices. They are of much harder and finer material
+than the bricks of either Egypt or Babylonia. The application of colors
+and glaze to terra-cotta was productive of the most astonishing and
+beautiful effects. The specimens preserved of a monumental character
+substantiate the right of the Indian potters to a very high rank. Not
+only is the coloring of their terra-cotta friezes brilliant, but the
+floral and animal forms, introduced either for their symbolical
+significance or by way of ornament, are masterpieces of art.
+
+Arranging these products chronologically, the wares belonging to the
+second or third century before our era will take precedence. The
+buildings in which glazed bricks were used bring us down to from five
+hundred to upward of a thousand years later. After them come the
+specimens of glazed terra-cotta. Subsequently a kind of faience was made
+which has been very generally ascribed to Persia, but which may, from
+the internal evidence supplied by a comparison with purely Indian work,
+be safely attributed to India. Lastly, there is the faience of the
+present time, so intimately allied with the more ancient in both
+ornamentation and the prevailing shapes, as to be confidently pronounced
+its legitimate successor. Flowers and ornaments, incised or in relief,
+and grounds of blue, green, or yellow, are designed and mingled in the
+most artistic and effective manner.
+
+The porcelain of India has been ascribed, on the one hand, to Persia,
+and, on the other, to China or Japan, while a closer examination would
+have revealed the fact that, though having many qualities in common with
+them, it is yet radically distinct. It seems probable that in several
+processes which the Indian artist borrowed, he followed Japan, without
+allowing himself slavishly to copy. The art of India as represented in
+porcelain manifests itself in a high technical skill, in the most
+exquisite delicacy, and in a close attention to all the _minutiae_ of
+detail. Indian figure-painting owes to these three qualities its
+superiority alike over those of Persia and of the extreme East. In the
+beauty consisting of delicacy and careful precision of finish, neither
+country makes even an approach to an equality with it. This truth is
+one, however, which can only be fully understood by actual comparison. A
+similarly painstaking care and conscientious literalness of
+interpretation characterize the floral ornamentation of Indian
+porcelain. Even when we find traces of Eastern inspiration in the Hindoo
+deep-blue or green, the Indian artist asserts his superiority in working
+out details. In many cases we detect more refined perception combined
+with a greater technical skill. A deep bowl has floral decoration in
+green, blue, and red, on a white ground, the flowers being alternately
+red and blue. Another has a ground of pale green, divided into sections
+by arches of gold, immediately under the outward curving lip. Upon this
+are laid larger sections of a rich red color, and filled with flowers.
+The contrasts are strong, and the effect is magnificent. In one respect
+the Indian artists are particularly skilful, and that is in the use of
+gold. It is employed generally with reserve, and always with rich
+effect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Washington's "Indian" Porcelain Vases. Deep
+blue and gold.]
+
+A specimen of Indian porcelain (Fig. 61), of exceptional interest to
+Americans, as having once belonged to George Washington, formed part of
+the collection at Arlington House. It consists of a set of three vases,
+presented to Washington by Mr. Samuel Vaughan, of London. Their value,
+for our present purpose, is somewhat lessened by the fact that, though
+made in India, the vases were painted in London.
+
+In Siam, a style common to that country with India is prevalent, and is
+the result of imitating _cloisonne_ enamel in porcelain. The practice
+has had one result in both countries. It has led to a comparison of the
+native porcelain with native work in metal, and the originality of the
+decoration of the former has thus been substantiated and its source
+explained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Group of Chinese Porcelain. (From the Avery
+Coll.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CHINA.
+
+ Art Different from that of Europe or America.--How it must be
+ Viewed.--Religion.--Legend.--Hoang-ti the Inventor of Pottery.--The
+ Leading Points of Religious System.--Personified
+ Principles.--Lao-tsen, Confucius, and Buddha.--Kuan-in.--Pousa or
+ Pou-tai.--Dragons.--Dog of Fo.--Ky-lin.--Sacred
+ Horse.--Fong-hoang.--Symbols.--Meaning of Colors and Shapes.
+
+
+As we approach China, we must prepare ourselves for the consideration of
+its ceramic products, by once and for all giving up the attempt to judge
+them by European or American standards. Whether or not art may have
+travelled to China eastward from the cradle of the human race, it
+certainly crystallized in China into distinctive forms. This fact must
+be constantly kept in mind, if we would succeed in appreciating at its
+true value the art of the Celestial Empire. As in criticising a book, it
+is less essential to measure the difference between one's own ideas and
+those of the author, than to look at the subject from the author's
+stand-point, and to examine the result from the inside, so, in
+estimating art, it is equally essential to enter into the artist's
+views, and to study not only the ideal he means to portray or the real
+he tries to imitate, but also what he considers essential to imitation
+and portrayal, and the intelligence to which he addresses himself.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Cheou-lao, God of Longevity.]
+
+We have seen that the Egyptians honored the gods through their works.
+The Chinese present us with a religion based, like that of the Greeks,
+Scandinavians, and many other nations, upon hero-worship. We recede from
+mankind backward to the time when heroes and gods are commingled, and
+reach the horizon where humanity and divinity are one. It is claimed for
+the Chinese that they are the only possessors of a correct, or at least
+an exact, chronology, but even it does not substantiate the existence of
+the first of human creatures, who is said to have lived well-nigh a
+hundred millions of years before the Christian era. Fou-Hi was the first
+man of whom we can take cognizance, and he lived B.C. 3468. Nearly eight
+hundred years afterward, Hoang-ti invented pottery and was translated,
+and the beginning of the manufacture may reasonably be fixed at that
+date. He did many other useful things besides inventing pottery; but
+what is now to be chiefly noted is that he was raised to the Chinese
+heaven for his beneficence. Behind this simple and almost universal
+hero-worship was a religion compounded of pantheism and a peculiar kind
+of spiritualism. Chang-ti bears some resemblance to the Egyptian
+concealed god Ammon, and those who choose may find similar counterparts
+to the creative and productive principles of the Chinese theogony. These
+were called the "yang" and the "yn," and appear to be the active and
+passive principles personified in Ti and Che, the presiding powers of
+heaven and earth. In pottery, they frequently appear in connection with
+the Pa-kwa, or eight diagrams of Fo or Buddha, a series of combinations
+of three lines by which nature's changes were represented. Thus on each
+side of a square vase are the _yang_ and _yn_, with one of the diagrams
+above and one below. On another piece of porcelain the _yang_ and _yn_
+occupy the centre, round which, in a circle, the diagrams are arranged.
+With such a foundation Chinese religion is divisible into three
+component parts--that based upon the teachings of Lao-tseu, that of
+Confucius, and Buddhism. Lao-tseu and the legend of his birth are
+especially interesting to the student of Chinese ceramics. The story
+goes that, after a pregnancy of eighty-one years his mother brought him
+into the world, while she was a wanderer in the country. When born, his
+hair was as white as that of an old man, and hence his name, Lao-tseu,
+the old man-child. When he grew up, he became a recluse, and spent years
+in the study of abstract religion, out of which studies grew the
+"Tao-te-king," an exposition of his views of religion and morality. His
+followers deified him, and in course of time he was regarded as
+identical with Chang-ti. In this form the potters represent him, and
+also as the God of Longevity. He is called alternatively Lao-tseu and
+Cheou-lao. As the God of Longevity he is represented (Fig. 63) with long
+white beard and lofty, conical, bald head. His face wears a broad smile,
+and in his hand is the fruit of the fantao, a fabulous tree symbolical
+of long life, because it was said to bloom only once in three thousand
+years, and to bear fruit a thousand years afterward. As Chang-ti, the
+supreme god, he is riding or leaning upon a deer, is dressed in yellow,
+and around him are clusters of the immortalizing agaric, ling-tchy.
+
+Confucius, or Koung-tseu, who followed Lao-tseu, was a conservative
+philosopher, who led his countrymen back to old forms and ancestral
+hero-worship. He appears as the representative of Buddhism alternatively
+with Fo or Buddha, and as such holds a roll of manuscript or a sceptre
+in his hand.
+
+Kuan-in (Fig. 64) was first taken to be the Chinese Venus. She is
+represented in various attitudes--standing with downcast eyes, or
+sitting, and holding either a child or a rosary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Kuan-in. (S. P. Avery Coll.)]
+
+Pousa, or Pou-tai, the God of Contentment, is also styled the potter's
+god. How he came to be the latter, or to be a god at all, is explained
+by a good story. The emperor for the time being demanded porcelain, the
+fabrication of which was represented to him as an impossibility. This
+information only served to whet his appetite; and to gratify his
+imperial whim, the workmen were oppressed by their overseers, and driven
+by threats and blows to make all kinds of sacrifices and exertions to
+reach the unattainable. At length one of them gave up the struggle, and
+in despair threw himself into the furnace. When the contents of the kiln
+were taken out, they were found to be all that the emperor desired, and
+the rigor from which the potters had suffered was abated. The workmen
+apparently concluded that such a result was due to some property unknown
+to alchemy in the body of their comrade. Gratitude led them to respect
+his memory, and in due course he became a hero and a god. Images of him
+abound in the workshops of King-teh-chin. Full of sensuality and
+good-humor, his face wears the laugh of contentment, and his heavy,
+corpulent body is supported by the wineskin upon which he leans. Without
+resorting to the explanation to be found in the story, one can readily
+understand why such a god as Pou-tai should commend himself to the
+slavish and impoverished potter.
+
+In every collection of Chinese ware will be seen certain forms made use
+of for decorative purposes, and which have also a symbolical
+significance requiring explanation. Without going into the question of
+the origin of the wonderful dragons of the Celestials, their presence,
+in various degrees of hideousness, on vases and elsewhere, cannot fail
+to attract attention and suggest inquiry. They are many-shaped, as the
+devils which beset the good St. Anthony. There are the Long, dragon of
+heaven; the Kan, dragon of the mountain; Li, dragon of the sea, and
+many others, scaled, winged, horned, and hornless. Under the form of a
+dragon many of the immortals are represented, and it only appears in our
+mundane sphere on some great occasion, when, for instance, Hoang-ti was
+called upon to join the powers above. As emblems, the dragons require
+attention, since their significance varies with the number of their
+claws. That with five claws is seen upon the imperial standard, and is
+the emblem of the emperor and princes of the first and second class. The
+four-clawed dragon is the emblem of princes of the third and fourth
+rank. The Japanese dragon is a tripedal representative of the species.
+Chinese princes of the fifth rank and mandarins have the four-clawed
+serpent, Mang.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--The Dog of Fo.]
+
+Another figure very often seen upon Chinese vases, and now, alas! on
+some European vases also, is the Dog of Fo (Fig. 65). It frequently does
+duty as a handle, but occasionally it forms an ornament, either by
+itself or sporting with another of the species. In the latter cases its
+lion-like appearance degenerates into a hideous ugliness thoroughly
+Chinese, and illustrates the peculiar tendency of that people to bestow
+upon their fantastic monsters a massive breadth of jaw and cavernous
+oral capacity, such as we find in their dragons and in the Ky-lin next
+to be noticed. The Dog of Fo is the Buddhic guardian of temples and
+altars.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Vase, surmounted by Ky-lin. Flowers in Relief.
+(A. Belmont Coll.)]
+
+The Ky-lin (Fig. 66) is one of the most forbidding chimeras ever chosen
+as an omen of good. Its scaly body, its wide mouth fully armed with
+formidable teeth, its dragon-like head and hoofed feet, make up a
+monster as horrible in aspect as it is gentle in disposition.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--The Sacred Horse.]
+
+The Sacred Horse (Fig. 67) is preserved by the Chinese among their
+symbols, because by the marks on the skin of a horse which suddenly rose
+from the river, the philosopher Fo was inspired with his diagramic
+solution of the methods of nature.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--The Fong-hoang.]
+
+The Fong-hoang (Figs. 68 and 69), the immortal bird, harbinger of good,
+very often resembles a peacock on the wing. When represented in front,
+its arching neck is turned to one side, and the long tail feathers are
+fantastically drawn high over its body. Formerly it was the imperial
+emblem; but on the adoption of the dragon it was relegated to the
+empress, whose emblem it became.
+
+The symbols of longevity are the white stag, the axis deer, the bat, and
+the crane; of filial piety, the stork; of happy marriage, the mandarin
+duck. The months are represented as follows: January, tiger February,
+rabbit; March, dragon; April, serpent; May, horse; June, hare; July,
+ape; August, hen; September, dog; October, wild-boar; November, rat;
+December, ox.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Vase with Fong-hoang. (Robert Hoe, Jr., Coll.)]
+
+In China, almost every usage is regulated by a specific rule; and we are
+not astonished, therefore, to find that colors and shapes in porcelain
+and pottery are distinctive of the rank of the possessor, and have,
+besides, a symbolical signification. Thus one dynasty, the Tsin (A.D.
+265), took blue as its imperial color; the Soui (581-618) took green;
+the Thang (618-907) took white; the Ming, green; the Tai-thsing, yellow.
+The colors thus frequently give a clue to the age of pieces. The first
+dynasty began B.C. 2205; the twenty-first, or Ming, A.D. 1368; and the
+twenty-second, or Tai-Thsing, in 1616.
+
+Apart from the dynastic significance of colors, they enter largely into
+the complex system of Chinese symbolism. Thus the points of the compass
+and the elements are represented as follows:
+
+ Red Fire South.
+ Black Water North.
+ Green Wood East.
+ White Metal West.
+
+The earth was figured by a square, fire by a circle, water by a dragon,
+mountains by a deer.
+
+The form of a vase is also of value in determining its use. Besides the
+complimentary manner already alluded to, in which vases were employed,
+they were bestowed as rewards upon deserving public functionaries, and
+passed between friends as tokens of good wishes. They also occupied a
+prominent place in religious rites.
+
+We may now proceed to a division of Chinese wares into pottery and
+porcelain.
+
+
+POTTERY.
+
+ When First Made.--Celadon.--Crackle.--How Made.--Porcelain
+ Crackle.--Decorations on Crackle.--Household
+ Vessels.--Stone-ware.--Licouli.--Tower of
+ Nankin.--Pipe-clay.--Boccaro.--Colors and Decoration of
+ Pottery.--Colors on Crackle.
+
+
+Although we may not accept without question the statement that pottery
+was first invented either by the Emperor Hoang-ti, or during his reign
+by Kouen-ou, it may at least be taken for granted that pottery preceded
+porcelain. To define the character of the earliest ware is not
+unattended with difficulty. One fact which had a great influence upon
+Chinese art may here be referred to. So soon as pottery was invented, it
+was taken under government supervision. Subsequently, when porcelain was
+discovered, the manufacture for many years made very little progress. It
+was not until it came under imperial protection and patronage that it
+rose to its greatest height. It will be seen hereafter that in
+Continental Europe also the best works in ceramic art were, as a rule,
+produced under the fostering care of the sovereign power.
+
+The oldest Chinese pottery is very hard, opaque, closely akin to
+stone-ware, and covered with a partially translucent enamel. The latter
+called Celadon, and made by mixing the colors with the glaze, varies
+from the old, and now very rare, sea-green to a brown-gray. The term
+_celadon_ was originally restricted to the sea-green variety, but was
+ultimately applied to all wares, of whatever color, made in the same
+manner. The most ancient specimens are of the coarse body above referred
+to. Occasionally they are decorated with incisions in the paste under
+the glaze, or with studs and other reliefs, or with flowered designs
+(_celadon fleuri_), and are called by the Chinese _Tchoui_. There is
+also a celadon of a deeper green than that last referred to, which, with
+that of the gray varieties, is very often covered with an inextricable
+net-work of cracks. This is the kind known as crackle. The process which
+the Chinese succeeded in bringing to the most exact precision in regard
+to the size of the cracks is not thoroughly understood. Several theories
+have been advanced to explain it. Examination shows that the paste or
+body of the ware and the glaze differed in consistency, the one being
+more or less expansive than the other. To perform the operation
+successfully, the vessel is while hot, plunged into cold water, or
+brought suddenly into contact with cold air, when the glaze is at once
+broken up into the much admired net-work of minute fissures. From this
+it would appear that the desired effect is caused by the shrinkage of
+the glaze on being suddenly exposed to cold. Another explanation is that
+there are two layers of paste of different composition, and that the
+cracks appear in the outer one. When the piece is glazed, the cracks are
+covered over, and the surface made perfectly smooth, unless the cracks
+are very coarse and large, in which case they are perceptible to the
+touch. Through the cracks the fused paste or inner core appeared, and
+made them more distinctly visible; or, to reach the same effect, ochre,
+ink, or other coloring material was rubbed into the cracks. To produce
+them with the absolute precision to which the Chinese attained, they
+must have thoroughly studied the composition of the paste and glaze
+employed, as we frequently find different kinds of crackle on the same
+vase.
+
+Steatite was sometimes mixed with the glaze, and had the same effect as
+a sudden immersion. It would naturally follow that no such ornamentation
+could be applied to porcelain, the paste and glaze being too closely
+allied in composition. To surmount this difficulty, the glaze was
+combined with materials destructive of its close affinity with the
+kaolinic paste. A simultaneous shrinkage being thus made impossible, the
+glaze cracked. Although both Chinese and foreigners place a high value
+upon good specimens of crackle, admiration of such a style of ornament
+involves a decided perversion of taste. It is safe to say that nine
+persons out of ten would, if left to exert their own uninfluenced
+judgment, condemn a crackle vase as devoid of all pretension to
+ornament. It is when we find that the deformity is the result of design,
+that the piece is a curiosity of workmanship, and represents the
+mechanical ingenuity of the potter, that it becomes an object of
+interest and a desirable possession. Crackle-ware has been made by the
+Chinese since the Song Dynasty, which extended from A.D. 960 to 1279,
+and probably from a much earlier date. Ornamentation is sometimes laid
+above the glaze. One very old style of decoration in relief upon the
+crackle (Fig. 70) consists of medallions and bands of a brown paste, of
+which imitations, having lions' heads holding rings in the centre of the
+medallions, are abundant.
+
+Pottery is used by the Chinese in the making of household vessels and
+utensils of all kinds--as extensively, in fact, as by the Egyptians.
+They have earthen-ware reservoirs and basins, lamps, cooking-pots,
+water-filterers, teapots, and toys. Ornamental vases are also made of
+earthen-ware, and some specimens show that the Chinese lavished upon
+their comparatively humble wares--according to our ideas--ornamentation
+as beautiful and elaborate as that upon porcelain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Rice-colored Crackle, with Brown Zones. (S. P.
+Avery Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+Their stone-ware, covered with porcelain, presents us with some of their
+most wonderful works. This ware is made into jars, seats, cisterns, and
+many other utensils and objects. It is said to have been in attempting
+to make plaques of this kind that Pousa or Pou-tai met with his tragic
+end as before told. The plaques, Licou-li, or glazed tiles, are devoted
+to the embellishment of imperial and religious edifices, and by the
+brilliancy of their many colors, yellow, blue, green, red, and violet,
+produce a dazzling and gorgeous effect. The famous porcelain tower of
+Nankin (Fig. 71), or, as it is alternatively called by the Chinese,
+Tower of the Licou-li, or Poa-en-ssi, the Convent of Gratitude, was
+covered with tiles of the above description. This building has been
+repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. The original consisted of three
+stories, and was erected B.C. 833. Having been demolished, it was
+rebuilt A.D. 371-373. It was again destroyed, and again rebuilt by one
+of the Ming emperors, who, after nineteen years' work, finished it in
+1431. Once more it was demolished during the insurrection of the
+Taepings; and although travellers--including some Americans--have within
+the past twenty years been fortunate enough to secure a few fragments as
+relics (Fig. 72), nothing now remains to mark its site. It was this last
+tower which was known as the Convent of Gratitude. It consisted of nine
+stories, and was three hundred and fifty-three feet in height. It was
+covered with enamelled bricks of red, white, blue, brown, and green
+colors; but whether the previous towers were so decorated is not known,
+so that the Tower of Nankin cannot be brought forward as proving the
+architectural use of enamelled stone-ware at a very remote age.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Tower of Nankin.]
+
+A material which is neither stone-ware nor porcelain, but resembles very
+fine pipe-clay, is used in making opium pipes. The bowl is enamelled,
+and decorated with flowers or other forms, and is not unfrequently
+almost perfect as a work of art. The Chinese _boccaro_ remains one of
+the finest specimens of a _gres_ known to ceramists, and far above any
+of the stone-wares of Europe. Some specimens are as perfect in their
+beauty as jewels. The paste is sometimes brown of a reddish tinge,
+sometimes a gray faintly colored with yellow. It is made into single
+pieces and services, occasionally of fantastic design. When covered with
+colored enamels, the _boccaro_ is at once so delicate and brilliant as
+to be likened to nothing but a gem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Enamelled Bricks from the Tower of Nankin. (N.
+Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+At a very early period the Chinese attained to that wonderful mastery of
+the secrets of color which made them the envy of the artists of all
+subsequent time, and has led to the adoption of certain of their colors
+as universal standards of beauty and excellence. Combined with the
+certainty of their operations in crackle, their skill in color led to
+many remarkable effects in wares, the precise nature of which cannot be
+defined. Upon a rich golden crackle, white-and-blue figures are
+occasionally imposed (Fig. 73). In some cases the enamels used for this
+super-ornamentation are so transparent that the cracks can be seen
+through them. Possibly the most curious kind is that in which the vase
+is encircled by bands of crackle, some coarse and irregular, alternating
+with others fine and regular, and divided by stamped zones of brown
+ferruginous paste. Both Japanese and Chinese place a very high value
+upon the ancient specimens, the priority in point of time being accorded
+to the light blue. Besides the colors already mentioned, turquoise-blue,
+yellow, and a bright red are found upon crackle, to the first of which a
+special value is attached. The fine crackle, called by the French
+_truite_, is most frequently applied to vases of pale and olive-green
+not otherwise decorated. One cannot look at the exquisite coloring of
+some of the rare old pieces, without being led to the conclusion that
+the Chinese placed a value upon their ceramic productions not more than
+commensurate with the artistic skill developed among them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Crackle Vase, with Crabs in Blue. 7 in. high.
+(J. C. Rankle Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Chinese Porcelain Lantern. (S. P. Avery Coll.)]
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ When Invented.--King-teh-chin.--All Classed as Hard,
+ Exceptions.--Old Porcelains.--Kouan-ki.--Blue-and-white.--Persian
+ Styles.--Turquoise and other Blues.--Leading Events of Ming
+ Dynasty.--Egg-shell.--Tai-thsing Dynasty.--Mandarin
+ Vases.--Families.--Old White.--Jade.--Purple and Violet.--Liver
+ Red.--Imperial Yellow.--Chinese Ideas of
+ Painting.--Souffle.--Grains of Rice.--Articulated and Reticulated
+ Vases.--Cup of Tantalus.
+
+
+Porcelain having been invented in the province of Ho-nan, during the Han
+Dynasty, between the years B.C. 185 and A.D. 88, was manufactured for
+upward of fifteen hundred years before it was generally known in
+Europe. For about five or six hundred years the industry made
+comparatively little progress, but after A.D. 583 it advanced with great
+rapidity. In that year the imperial patronage was bestowed upon
+King-teh-chin, a city in the district of Fauling, and province of
+Kiang-si. There were here at one time, in 1717, three thousand furnaces.
+It is said by some recent authorities that all the kilns and potteries
+were destroyed by the Taepings, and that the entire city was reduced to
+ruins. According to the official catalogue of the Chinese department at
+the Centennial Exhibition, the city must have been rebuilt. Both the
+largest quantity and finest quality of porcelain are said still to be
+made at the imperial potteries at King-teh-chin, and out of upward of
+seventeen hundred and fifty pieces exhibited, all were from that city,
+with the exception of ten from Ningpo, Nankin, and Pekin. Some of the
+others, although painted at and sent from Canton, were manufactured at
+King-teh-chin.
+
+All Chinese porcelain has been classed as hard. The only kind about
+which any doubt has been entertained is the white, variously ornamented
+in relief. To this ought, however, to be added certain rare but superb
+specimens which come from China as well as from Persia. The process by
+which they were manufactured is not known, but it seems clear that they
+belong to the same family as the _pate tendre_ of France, that is to
+say, that their vitrification is due to an alkaline frit, and that the
+glaze is also alkaline.
+
+Of the dynastic colors the azure-blue adopted by the Tcheou, in 945, is
+the most celebrated. It was very highly valued, and after the secret of
+making it passed out of sight, which it did at a very early date, it was
+never rediscovered. It is known as Tch'ai porcelain, and in color
+resembled the "blue of the sky after rain." Under the Song Dynasty four
+very valuable kinds of porcelain were made. The first of these was the
+Jou-yao, a very fine blue, produced at Jou-tcheon, where crackle
+porcelain was also made in great perfection; the second (1107-1117) was
+the famous Kouan-yao, or porcelain for magistrates, of two shades of
+blue, with a slightly reddish tint; the third takes its name from the
+Tchang family of potters, and was pale blue and rice-colored crackle;
+the fourth, the Ting-yao, was of different colors--red, white, brown,
+and black, and was of great value. These, with the Tcheou blue, are the
+five ancient qualities held in highest estimation.
+
+There were many other kinds, too numerous to be here given in detail,
+including the "porcelain of concealed color," so called because designed
+for imperial use, and others of varying tints of violet, brown, purple,
+and blue. At King-teh-chin jade-colored porcelain was made before the
+tenth century, and a hundred years later the entire empire was
+interested in the manufacture. With a mere reference, in the mean time,
+to the blue-and-white porcelain of the Youen Dynasty, we pass to that of
+the Ming, to which some of the porcelain most highly prized by
+collectors belongs. When, in 1369, a factory was started at
+King-teh-chin to supply the imperial wants exclusively--an event not to
+be confounded with the foundation of the King-teh-chin manufactory,
+which took place during the Song Dynasty, three hundred and fifty years
+previously--the vases of blue camaieu, called Kouan-ki, or magistrate's
+vases, were made in that city. These valuable works were probably
+intended to follow as nearly as possible the more ancient Tcheou
+porcelain, which had reached so great a value that even fragments of it
+were employed like precious stones. It will be observed that the earlier
+magistrates' porcelain was made under the Song, and the explanation is
+given that the Ming Kouan-ki were so called to distinguish the porcelain
+made at the royal factory from those made for vulgar use. It may be
+added that the old turquoise blue was made from copper, and the sky-blue
+from cobalt.
+
+The blue-and-white "Nankin" is a comparatively modern ware made at
+King-teh-chin. It takes its name from the place of export. It is, in the
+strict application of the term, not older than the beginning of the
+sixteenth century, when the Chinese began to use imported cobalt; but as
+now employed, it includes all Chinese porcelain with blue-and-white
+decoration. The folly of such an unmeaning subdivision finds its reward
+in the confusion of the student. The blue-and-white is not only the
+oldest of all Chinese decoration in colors, but is found upon some of
+the most interesting and valuable works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Pearl.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Sonorous Stone.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Tablet of Honor.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Sacred Axe.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Celosia.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Treasures of Writing.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Outang.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--A Shell.]
+
+The best pieces, whether ancient or modern, are distinguished by the
+purity of the white and the clearness of the blue. To this class belong
+the Kouan-ki already referred to as having been made soon after the
+middle of the fourteenth century at King-teh-chin. These productions
+frequently bear certain honorific marks, from which their destination
+can be inferred. The leading symbols are eight in number; and when, as
+is very often the case, they have a ribbon attached, the pieces are
+designed for sacred use. Thus the pearl (Fig. 75) marks pieces destined
+for poets or literati, and is the symbol of talent. It varies slightly
+in form, being in some cases very small, with a conical top, and in
+others resembling a flattened sphere. The "sonorous stone" (Fig. 76) is
+for judges or magistrates, and was hung above their door or at the
+temple gates, to be struck by those seeking an audience. Pieces with
+this mark were, therefore, exclusively for the use of judges. The Kouei,
+or tablet of honor (Fig. 77), is the symbol of office. It was given by
+the emperor to his noble functionaries, who were required to hold it
+when discharging the duties of their office, and during an audience. The
+sacred axe (Fig. 78) is the mark of warriors. The cockscomb (Fig. 79) is
+the symbol of longevity. The "sacred things" or "treasures of writing"
+(Fig. 80) are the emblems of the learned, and consist of paper, pencil
+or brush, ink and pumice-stone. The outang (Fig. 81) is a leaf, the
+significance of which is not understood. It is frequently found on the
+bottom of pieces. The meaning of the univalve shell (Fig. 82) is also
+unknown. These marks and many others are found variously disposed upon
+blue-and-white porcelain. In the illustration (Fig. 83) the pearl, the
+sonorous stone, and the Kouei are seen in combination with others, and
+the inference is that the piece was intended for a man of letters, of
+noble rank, who also held the office of magistrate. The lace or
+lambrequin decoration round the border is exceedingly rich and fine,
+and shows at once whence the artists of Rouen borrowed their favorite
+design. In other pieces the honorific marks are introduced in the
+design, or appear upon the neck of vases, or are so disposed as to
+constitute the chief ornaments. The latter arrangement is exemplified in
+a small vase, also in Mr. Runkle's collection, where the symbols are
+suspended one above another.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Blue-and-white Plaque, with Honorific Marks.
+(J. C. Runkle Coll.)]
+
+There is in Mr. Avery's collection a Ming bowl, or cup of "the learned,"
+which closely resembles one described by Jacquemart. The rim projects
+slightly, and in panels reserved in the border are the honorific marks.
+The author is represented seated at a table, deep in meditation, in the
+very throes of composition. From his forehead issues a scroll which
+expands into the semblance of a cloud, wherein are depicted by the
+artist the scenes of the drama which the poet is composing. This method
+of representing literary travail is in our time left to the
+caricaturist; but it is, nevertheless, a vivid way of giving artistic
+form to the thoughts passing in the brain of "the learned."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Blue-and-white. Eight Chinese Celestials
+standing on Clouds. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)]
+
+The blue-and-white will amply repay the most careful and critical
+study. This is absolutely necessary if we would distinguish not only the
+art which is Chinese, but the best of the Chinese--that emanating from
+King-teh-tchin--from the works of other factories. The influence of the
+imperial factory is felt throughout the empire. Its styles and methods
+are copied and adopted, but imperial patronage, and the resources of a
+factory carried on under the highest political auspices, make the work
+of provincial imitators difficult. Then, again, the blue-and-white of
+Japan is sometimes mistaken for that of China, and it must be confessed
+that the difference is not always easily detected. Close observation,
+however, shows that the white of the Japanese differs from the Chinese,
+and that the blue is less soft. The white of Japanese pieces is purer,
+and sometimes it is what we understand by the phrase "dead white;" that
+is, it resembles chalk, and lacks clearness. As a consequence, the color
+does not derive from the glaze the softness and transparency of the
+Nankin blue, but appears to lie upon the surface in harder outline and
+with less depth. Besides the Japanese, there are qualities of blue from
+India, Persia, and other countries, which require careful examination to
+prevent their being confounded with those of China.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Blue-and-white Lancelle Vase, Ming Dynasty. (W.
+L. Andrews Coll.)]
+
+An exceptional style of decorating blue-and-white Chinese porcelain is
+that in which a light buff, varying at times to a clear brown, is
+mingled with the blue. This is seen in bands surrounding the necks of
+bottles and similarly shaped pieces, and is also occasionally mingled
+with the blue on the necks of vases.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Blue-and-white Chinese. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)]
+
+As to the forms and styles of decoration of blue-and-white porcelain,
+they are too varied to permit of classification. Some of the finest
+shapes are to be found in this class, and also some of the most unique
+and curious. Beakers, with gracefully expanding necks alternate with
+clumsy pieces without any claim to beauty of form, and these, again,
+with such elegant shapes as the Lancelle (Fig. 85). The decoration
+includes every style known to Chinese art. On the Kouan-tse are dragons
+writhing in tortuous folds among the clouds or in the water, and flowers
+profusely scattered without any attempt at orderly disposal. On others
+are historical scenes, _lang lizen_--the long young ladies of Dutch
+traders--lace or lambrequin patterns, and many other designs. The
+palm-leaf is very effectively used. In a beaker in Mr. Runkle's
+collection, the conical leaves are arranged round the body, whence they
+rise toward the top and descend toward the bottom, and thereby give
+emphasis to the shape as it expands to the lip and base. In such an
+arrangement the taste of the Chinese artist is infallible. The
+disposition of the decoration, which at first seems stiff and formal, is
+not only in harmony with the shape of the beaker, but is the only one by
+which its beauty of form could be fully brought out. When historical
+incidents are the subjects of the painting, the execution of the figures
+is admirable. It is in such pieces that we can best appreciate the
+accuracy of the artist, and his admirable control of his brush. He
+understands that a few judicious strokes may have a finer, and, by their
+suggestiveness, a fuller, effect than crowded detail and the most
+delicate shading. They show, further, that the art of decorating a vase
+with human figures consists in judgment as much as in execution. Thus,
+where the forms are distorted and the unity of the composition destroyed
+by the shape of the vase and the disposition of the figures, not only is
+the decoration unpleasing, but the artist fails in reaching the effect
+aimed at. These are faults of which the Chinese artists are seldom
+guilty, and their skill in overcoming the difficulties presented by the
+curves or angles of the object to be decorated can be better studied in
+a collection of blue-and-white than among the porcelain of any other
+family. When it is considered that only one color is employed, the
+diversity of the results is wonderful. In many cases this is effected by
+apparently varying the application of the pigment, and laying it on more
+thickly in some places than in others. We have seen this exemplified on
+a vase where the ornamentation was chiefly floral, and the flowers were
+painted so thinly as to give the effect of a distinct and paler shade of
+color. We have also seen pieces where the differences of shade were so
+regular and striking as to leave little doubt that two distinct
+qualities of blue were used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Blue-and-white Chinese, "Hawthorn" Pattern. (S.
+P. Avery Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+When the Chinese artist condescends to adopt a regular pattern, his
+attention is directed to relieving the monotony of repetition by
+diversity of detail. In the vase (Fig. 86) there are at least six
+distinct styles of edging, and a slight change in the arrangement of the
+same pattern on the body and neck gives all the variety of two distinct
+designs.
+
+A well-known but rare pattern is that called Hawthorn (Fig. 87) by
+Europeans, on the _lucus a non lucendo_ principle, since the so-called
+"hawthorn" is the blossom of certain fruit-trees better known to the
+Celestials. In this the blue is the ground-color, and in it the
+decoration, consisting of sprigs of bud and blossom, is reserved. The
+ground is varied with dark blue lines, as if to simulate crackle, and
+the sections are shaded so as to have the appearance of overlapping each
+other. The irregular lines and changing tints not only relieve the
+ground of monotony, but enrich the general effect, and give the blue
+additional depth and transparency. The illustration gives a good idea of
+the freedom with which the spray is disposed, and the good taste with
+which its arrangement is adapted to the shape of the vase. The
+decoration is generally applied to vases and pots of the shape given
+above. Further examples are in the collections of Mr. Robert Hoe, Jr.,
+and Mr. W. L. Andrews. There are also many smaller pieces, such as
+plates, narrow cylindrical beakers, and others, upon which it may be
+seen. These are represented in the collections of Mr. Francis Robinson
+and Mr. W. T. Walters. In such pieces as those last mentioned the ground
+is less broken up by lines, and in some cases the white is reserved in a
+ground of unbroken pale blue. In the second specimen (Fig. 88) the white
+blossom is used with a more sparing hand than in the others, and the eye
+more readily appreciates the wonderfully beautiful shading of the
+overlapping sections. The unevenness of surface is also more perceptible
+to the touch, and, to use a familiar illustration, resembles the
+overlapping of slates upon a roof.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Blue-and-white "Hawthorn" Vase. (J. C. Runkle
+Coll.)]
+
+Although not belonging to the same family, we may here refer to a rare
+vase (Fig. 89), which supplies us with a remarkably fine specimen of a
+kindred style of ornamentation. In this case the ground is black, and
+the "hawthorn," or plum-tree, sprays, with white flowers, are wreathed
+gracefully over its surface. The green of the leaves would lead us to
+class it with the Green family. The piece is, however, exceptional,
+since black is, as a rule, seldom introduced to any great extent in
+decoration. To what fabric or age shall we attribute it? It is possibly
+a specimen of the skill of Thang-kong, who lived between 1736 and 1795,
+and was director of the Imperial works. Thang not only reproduced some
+of the ancient colors, such as the dark-blue and red, but gave full sway
+to his own inventive genius. Among his original works are a purple, a
+black enamel, and a black enamel with white flowers, which suits the
+description of the unique specimen referred to. It is, in any event, by
+reason both of its graceful shape and decoration, deserving of
+attention.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Chinese Porcelain. White "Hawthorn" on Black.
+(S. P. Avery Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+To return to the blue-and-white, there are specimens, generally plaques,
+with flowers resembling asters, painted in blue (Fig. 90). One has some
+difficulty in bringing the formal arrangement of these flowers into
+accord with Chinese art as we find it elsewhere. The flowers are
+regularly disposed in the centre of the plaques, and repeated, in
+smaller size, in a single row round the rim. It seems more than probable
+that the style is borrowed or slightly modified, and one is strengthened
+in such a supposition by the fact that it is seldom, if ever, found upon
+pieces as pure in paste as the average Chinese porcelain. Possibly, with
+the intention of following his model more closely, the Chinese artist
+designedly resorted to an inferior body, such as might have reached
+China from Persia.
+
+There are certain pieces of blue-and-white in which both Persian forms
+and Persian styles of decoration have been followed, and these introduce
+the general subject of Persian influence as felt in China. It first
+manifested itself as far back as the Siouen-te period (1426) of the Ming
+dynasty, and is further represented by pieces belonging to the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The most easily recognized are
+those in which the Persian form is adopted, although the paste alone
+would lead one to ascribe them to China, as it is invariably finer than
+anything known to have come from Persia. There is in Mr. Runkle's
+collection a ewer decorated with flowers in light-blue, resembling that
+of Tch'ai porcelain, the famous "blue of the sky after rain." Real
+examples of this old blue must needs be rare, since the porcelain,
+variously called Tch'ai, Tcheou, and Tchi-tsong, was, like the old
+white, valued, even in fragments, as highly as jewels. A second from the
+same collection is given on the following page (Fig. 91). The panels are
+black, the flower and border decoration are in pink, green, and yellow,
+and show the variety and execution distinctive of Chinese work. There
+are many pieces of the same class in which the artist has attempted to
+follow the Persian styles more closely, but even a slight examination
+can leave little doubt of their Chinese origin. In connection with the
+blue-and-white decoration may be mentioned the vases of sea-green
+celadon, in which panels of white are reserved. On these are figures of
+men and animals, landscapes or flowers, in blue. A favorite form, and
+one well suited to this style of decoration, is a square bottle or vase,
+the sides of which enable the artist to paint the design in blue upon
+the flat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Aster Decoration. Blue-and-white. (W. L.
+Andrews Coll.)]
+
+Of the other blues which were used as ground colors, one of the most
+famous is the turquoise obtained from copper. It has all the clear depth
+of the stone from which it takes its name, a liquid transparency
+elsewhere unequalled. It appears on a great variety of pieces--gods,
+kylins, birds, dogs, and vases. The latter are very often graved in the
+paste, after designs more or less ornate. In the specimen given (Fig.
+92), which is very finely crackled, the leaves are bound together by a
+zone decorated with the Greek fret.
+
+The _lapis lazuli_ blue has a deeper tint, and is usually decorated with
+gold. It is used as a ground color, and fine specimens lead one to
+question the appropriateness of the name, as the porcelain so decorated
+has a brilliancy and depth far in advance of the comparatively dull
+stone. The color is occasionally employed in Persian decoration, and
+varies in shade.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Chinese Porcelain. Persian Style. (J. C. Runkle
+Coll.)]
+
+The mazarine blue is similarly treated, and is also effectively
+heightened by a super-ornamentation of gold of different shades. There
+are many other tints to which it is hard to give even a distinctive
+name. They illustrate the extreme partiality of the Chinese for this
+color, a partiality which has never wavered for at least sixteen
+centuries. It has been the means of giving to the world a greater number
+of beautiful works of art than would otherwise seem to be within the
+reach of the most skilful manipulation and the most prolific fancy, when
+restricted to a single color.
+
+The _souffle_ porcelain will be hereafter noticed, but in the mean time,
+to prevent misapprehension, reference may be made to the _bleu fouette_,
+a style sometimes confounded with the _souffle_. It is less deep in
+shade than the _lapis lazuli_, and has a mottled appearance. It is used
+as a ground color, in which are sections of white, and on the latter are
+brilliant designs in red, green, and gold. The effect is rich, and the
+contrast between the panel painting and the more sombre ground color is
+very striking. There are also blues splashed over with spots of red and
+lilac, and many others, such as the "transmutation" or flashed glaze,
+illustrative of the magical dexterity of the Chinese workman. What on
+first sight seems the result of an accident in the kiln, will often
+prove to be that of a carefully conducted operation and deliberate
+intention.
+
+We may now glance briefly at the various fabrics of the Ming Dynasty, in
+their chronological order.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Turquoise-blue Chinese Porcelain. _Truite_
+Crackle. (S. P. Avery Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+The establishment of an imperial factory at King-teh-chin, as above
+stated, marked the beginning of the Ming, during which (1368-1649) the
+art rose to its highest level. After the blue Kouan-ki came vases and
+vessels of various colors and styles of decoration. Between 1403 and
+1424, egg-shell porcelain, so called from its remarkable thinness, was
+first issued from King-teh-chin, and between 1465 and 1487 reached its
+greatest excellence and fineness. It was made as thin as paper, and was
+so favorably regarded by the emperors that they gave rewards to those
+making the finest pieces. Its gauzy transparent tenuity is effected by
+grinding it down after glazing. Vases, as well as cups, etc., were made
+of egg-shell, which at a later date was painted in colors. The fifteenth
+century saw the greatest triumphs of Chinese artists. From 1426 to 1435,
+the Siouen-te period, very brilliant blue, red, white, and veined
+crackle was made. Representations of crickets were a fashionable style
+of ornamentation. Afterward, between 1465 and 1487, although the colors
+deteriorated, the beauty of the ornamentation increased toward its
+artistic extreme. With the sixteenth century, we have seen that foreign
+material for ornamentation began to be introduced; and although many
+original artists continued to appear, others restricted themselves
+almost exclusively to the imitation of ancient wares. Tcheou, who lived
+between 1567 and 1619, took particular delight in puzzling collectors by
+skilful counterfeits of the most famous, rare, and valuable old wares.
+According to a story told by Julien, he imitated the ancient Ting white,
+made from three to six hundred years before his time, so closely, that
+he duped the most acute collectors. More than a century later, between
+1735 and 1795, Thang-kong, already referred to, displayed great
+imitative skill. It is, however, evident, and a matter of regret, that,
+from the beginning of the eighteenth century, the ceramic art of China
+declined. While the materials employed are still equal to the most
+ancient, the ornamentation after that date became, as a rule, manifestly
+inferior. To what extent a more intimate intercourse with foreigners and
+the more extended demands of trade resulting therefrom may have
+contributed to such a result, we need not now inquire. The greater
+rapidity of execution necessitated by increasing orders from abroad, and
+the influence of European models, had no doubt their effect. All the
+best pieces were retained for native use, and only the inferior
+qualities were exported. The estimation in which the Chinese hold the
+rarer pieces is further illustrated by the fact that specimens which
+have found their way to Europe have been sent back to China to be sold,
+because there they would realize higher prices. Many of the better kinds
+have never been seen in Europe; and when in addition to this it is
+remembered that, while skilled in production, the Chinese were equally
+clever in imitation with fraudulent intent, many other kinds are in all
+likelihood really unknown beyond the bounds of the Celestial Empire.
+
+There are, besides the works of such an artist as Thang-kong,
+exceptional pieces of the Tai-thsing Dynasty, especially those of the
+Kien-long period, during which Thang-kong lived, that are in every way
+admirable. One example of this period (Fig. 93) has a ground color of
+light green, overrun with a graceful floriated design graved in the
+paste, and having reserved panels, in which are a landscape on one side
+and a tree and bird on the other. In another the ground is a delicate
+pink, and the figures are raised. Examples might be multiplied to any
+extent, which show that, however faulty the later specimens may be,
+there is no lack of variety. The artists resorted to every style of
+decoration within the reach of their skill, and some exceedingly
+beautiful porcelain of various families will be found to belong to the
+Kien-long period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93--Kien-long Green Porcelain Vase. (J. C. Runkle
+Coll.)]
+
+The Tai-thsing Dynasty is also marked by the production of the vases
+called "Mandarin," usually, but in our opinion mistakenly, ascribed to
+Japan. The history of China at this time is for our present purpose
+valuable. So long as the two dynasties were at war, art was neglected;
+and we therefore find that, for several years prior to the establishment
+of the Tartar Dynasty, the manufactories gave out no works of note. When
+the Tai-thsings were firmly seated on the throne the art received a new
+impulse. While Khang-hi reigned (1661-1722), Thang-ing-siouen was
+director of the imperial factory, and made two yellows, a green and
+blue. He was succeeded in 1722 by Nien, who was equally successful, and
+in 1736 was associated with the artist Thang-kong before mentioned.
+After Kien-long, the fourth of the Tartar Dynasty, the art went rapidly
+downward. It will be observed from these few facts that when the decline
+of Chinese art is spoken of as beginning with the eighteenth century,
+allowance must be made for the check experienced under Kien-long
+(1736-1795). When he ascended the throne there were, according to M.
+Julien, fifty-seven manufactories of porcelain in China, of which seven
+besides that of King-teh-chin were in the province of Kiang-si. Whatever
+condition art may have been in, there was plainly no stagnation in
+production.
+
+And now as to the mandarin vases, which strictly reflect the history of
+China: the word "mandarin" is applied to all the public functionaries
+of China, and, in the decoration of porcelain, includes all the figures
+with toque and vest seen on the vases of this period. When the Tartar
+Dynasty came in, one of the first imperial acts was to issue an order
+that certain new customs should be adhered to, and old ones renounced.
+Though politic, in tending to erase even the remembrance of the
+dethroned Mings, the act was in certain particulars a cruelty to the
+conservative Chinese. It involved in their eyes degradation to the level
+of the victorious Tartar; and rather than conform to the order requiring
+the head to be shaved, many were willing that it should be cut off.
+Conformity came in time, and the pigtail was an accepted necessity.
+Changes in costume were also gradually effected. Of these the most
+marked features are the rolled-up cap or toque and the short coat. To
+distinguish the nine orders of public officers, the most minute
+regulations were issued. These affected chiefly the button on the toque,
+the squares on the front and back of the coat, and the decoration of the
+belt.
+
+The mandarin vases upon which these costumes are seen, are thick in the
+paste and frequently uneven on the surface. The hexagonal form, as well
+as the general features of the decoration, were followed and made
+familiar to Europeans by the potters of Delft. The decoration is so
+varied that the group is divided by Jacquemart into six sections. The
+chief colors are pink, lilac, green, iron red, Indian ink, gold and
+black. The painting is not executed after the usual Chinese fashion, and
+the faces in particular are finished with a minute care suggestive of an
+influence not felt before this period. What concerns us chiefly at
+present is the reason given by Jacquemart for assigning the entire group
+to Japanese workmanship. He says:
+
+"The special character of this costume marks out perfectly the group of
+porcelain upon which it is to be found. It offers, besides, the
+advantage of rendering incontestable the Japanese origin of these
+porcelains. The artists of the Celestial Empire have never represented
+mandarins in their lacquer-work, carved wood or ivories, vases, bronzes,
+hard or soft stones; no authentic _nien-hao_ piece has depicted anything
+besides the heroes of ancient times and the subjects of ancient history.
+It was left to neighboring nations, at the same time inquisitive and
+commercial, to multiply upon the vases this execrated costume, imposed
+only after a time by force."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Chinese Ming Vases. White Ground. In
+medallions, green and brown characters and figures. Darker part red and
+white, with green flowers. (Geo. R. Hall Coll., Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts.)]
+
+This appears rather a slight reason for giving the entire group to
+Japan. Let us look back to history. From the Wan-li period of the Ming
+(1619) to the final fall of the dynasty in 1647, or from the irruption
+of the Tartars in 1616 down to 1662, the Khang-hi period of the
+Tai-thsings, we know of no porcelain having been made; but in that
+period, as we have seen, the industry revived. It is then that we again
+find a director at King-teh-chin, and seventy years later Thang-kong was
+reviving the bright red and devising the gold ornamentation on black
+which we find on the mandarin vases. Jacquemart suggests "some years"
+after 1616 as the date when the Tartar costume was applied to vases. It
+is probable that it was at least from fifty to seventy years after that
+date, and that the best specimens belong to the Kien-long period, which
+began in 1736. After 1662 the imperial factory was apparently as much
+under the Emperor's control as it had been under the Mings; in which
+case he could, it is presumed, order such paintings and figures in such
+costumes as he pleased. We know, further, that in 1698 two foreign
+artists--an Italian and a Frenchman--were at the palace giving the
+Chinese several new ideas about art, especially, as we shall see, about
+perspective. This may, in part, account for the miniature appearance of
+the face paintings on the mandarin vases. There is, moreover, no
+ostensible reason for assigning to the Japanese the origination of a
+style of decoration at variance with everything else we know of the
+early traditions of their art, although they followed it afterward. We
+might rather look to India. We know, at least, that during the Kien-long
+period the Chinese incurred and acknowledged certain debts to India, and
+it is in the same country that we find the best miniature painting of
+the East. Such a supposition would also account for the unusual type
+presented by some of the mandarins with long pointed beards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Ming Vase. Historical Subject. (J. C. Runkle
+Coll.)]
+
+An apparently fanciful grouping of Chinese porcelain originated with
+Albert Jacquemart and Edmond Le Blant. They divide it into four
+families, the Archaic, the Chrysanthemo-Paeonian, the Green, and the
+Rose: Celadon, Crackle, White, Blue, Turquoise-blue, Violet, Bronze, and
+Lacquer are classed as exceptional. The Chrysanthemo-Paeonian is so
+called from the prevalence of chrysanthemums and paeonies on the ground,
+and the Green and Rose from the predominating colors. A large proportion
+of the household ornaments of China, garden vases, and table-wares
+belong to the first of these classes. Blues, red, and gold mingle with
+each other, and are relieved by green, and sometimes black. Red and blue
+grounds will be found with designs in white, green, and yellow; or a
+rich gold will be overspread with green, pale buff, and white; or the
+ground itself will be white, on which are designs in black, filled with
+gorgeous flowers. These are the works of artists whose skill and
+ingenuity are almost as limitless as their fancy. There is no law but
+the harmony demanded by a florid taste, no aim but effect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Green Family. Ming Dynasty. (F. Robinson
+Coll.)]
+
+Green was the imperial color under the Ming Dynasty (1368), and the
+greater portion of the ornamentation of this family has either a
+religious or a political significance. The bright copper-green lies
+perfectly transparent upon the pure white paste. We have already seen
+the eight immortals riding upon clouds, in a piece of blue-and-white,
+and the design is repeatedly met upon pieces of the Green family. It is
+here, in short, that we have the best opportunity of studying the
+religious system and symbols of China. Dragons are represented with
+diabolical ferocity; cranes, kylins, fong-hoangs, are intermingled with
+floral designs, in which are asters and other flowers, and insects. On
+the sacrificial cups of this family, dragons with forked tails climb the
+handles, or hang head downward from the lip, while a hideous dragon-head
+is introduced in the sides. From these grotesque and terrible figures we
+turn to the pieces of a historical character. The scenes depicted are
+chiefly taken from the early history of China, which was as prolific a
+source of ideas to the Chinese artist as classical history and legend to
+the poets of Europe. Vases of this character are also deserving of
+study, as illustrating to a farther extent than was done in the
+Introduction that aspect of the potter's art in which it appears as the
+handmaid and illuminator of history. The Chinese artist is rarely seen
+to better advantage than when painting vases of this family. With a rich
+palette comprising the prevailing green, blues of every shade, violet,
+red, yellow, gold, and black, he produces effects of the most charming
+beauty. When green is used as a ground color, as in the case of the
+Kien-long vase referred to (Fig. 93), either it covers the entire
+surface, or reserves are left for the landscape or trees. In the former
+case the fruit, flowers, and leaves lie upon the bright-green enamel. To
+the pieces in which green is mingled with yellow and blue upon a white
+ground, producing the effect of variegated marble, the Chinese give the
+name of Ouan-lou-hoang.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Chinese Plate. Rose Family. Sixteenth Century
+(?). (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+The Rose family (Fig. 97) is distinguished by the prevalence of the
+color to which it owes its name--a pale red applied over the glaze. It
+comprises what may most emphatically be called the decorative porcelain
+of China. The body is the perfection of Chinese paste, and the
+decoration partakes to the full of the vast wealth of Chinese color.
+With regard to form, this family represents the most perfect pieces in
+the art of China. With the exception of the old white and the modern
+decorated with blue, the Tho-tai-khi, "porcelain without embryo," or
+egg-shell, belongs almost exclusively to this family, which is admirably
+represented in Mr. W. L. Andrews's collection. In such pieces we fully
+apprehend the beauty of the "rose-back" decoration. The ruby color is
+laid upon the back of the edge or rim of plates and saucers, and shines
+through the thin paste with the softness of the pink lining of a shell.
+It would be impossible to specify all the methods of decorating the
+egg-shell belonging to the Rose family. We see borders of pink and
+raised white enamel, others traced as delicately as the finest lace, and
+still others with reservations filled with bouquets. The decoration
+sometimes takes the form of exquisite paintings of birds, insects, and
+flowers; and when scenes with figures are introduced, they are of a
+totally different character from the religious and historical subjects
+found in the Green family. They are drawn in part from literature, and
+in part from the home life of the people. There is in Mr. Avery's
+collection at the Metropolitan Museum, a plate having a rose border with
+raised flowers, and other objects in reserved sections. In the centre is
+a young girl surprised, as she walks the garden at night, by her lover,
+who, having thrown his shoes in advance, is mounting the wall. M.
+Jacquemart informs us that the incident is taken from the "Si-siang-ki,"
+or, History of the Pavilion of the West, a lyric drama composed by
+Wang-chi-fou about A.D. 1110. A frequent design is a home scene, in
+which a lady sits near a table attended by two children, and with one or
+two vases standing round. These glimpses of domestic life afford some
+little insight into the usages of the people, the courtesies of society,
+and the occupation and pastimes of the young. When the pieces are larger
+in size, the subjects are taken from court life, and very rarely from
+religion. When strong contrasts are resorted to--as by coloring the
+inside green and the outside rose--the effect is no less pleasing. The
+combinations are almost confusing in their multiplicity, and in the
+essential differences of their character. One piece may have flowers and
+various household articles (Fig. 99) upon a white ground, or rose may
+mingle with turquoise and maroon in the border. Nothing is too bold for
+the Chinese artist, and no effect appears to be unattainable or untried.
+He is equally at home painting on white enamel a delicate border, or
+rivalling the rich hues of a gaudy butterfly in a life-like imitation of
+the fluttering insect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Chinese Rose Family. (Robert Hoe, Jr., Coll.)]
+
+Before leaving the Rose family, let us glance at a few of the pieces
+ascribed to Japan, and which ought to be restored to China. To
+illustrate the difficulty of assigning them, with positive certainty, to
+either country, the plate given on page 143 may be referred to (Fig.
+100). Mr. Andrews considers his piece Japanese, and his opinion is
+supported by the fact that other specimens, also claimed for Japan, have
+the same subject painted in the centre. When a photograph of the piece
+was submitted to the Hon. Jushie Yoshida Kiyonari, the Japanese Minister
+at Washington, he replied: "It seems to me certain that the subject, as
+well as the style of the painting, are strictly Chinese; and this much
+I would say, if I had the piece in my possession, I could not but
+consider it as a _good Chinese specimen_."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Chinese Bowl. Rich Decoration, chiefly Yellow
+and Rose. Height, 11 in.; circumference, 5 ft. 8 in. (Mrs. John V. L.
+Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+When Jacquemart tries to find an origin for the Chinese Rose family, he
+says: "Does it issue from the accidental discovery of the red of
+Cassius? Is it contemporary with other porcelains? Does it come from a
+particular centre? We think its creation is to be attributed to the wish
+of imitating the admirable porcelain of Japan." The same writer, in
+treating of what he calls "artistic" porcelain of the Japanese Rose
+family, says: "If we required to seek the cause of these modifications
+and of the particular style of artistic porcelain, we should find it in
+a desire of rivalling the Chinese porcelain of the Rose family." In
+other words, the Japanese Rose suggested the Chinese Rose, and the
+Chinese Rose suggested the Japanese Rose--a stage at which the
+discussion becomes neither lucid nor satisfactory.
+
+The circumstances leading to the confounding of Chinese and Japanese
+porcelain arose chiefly from trade. The Japanese are said to have gone
+to King-teh-chin, even in early times, to buy porcelain. According to
+Duhalde, the Chinese repaid the compliment by loading their vessels with
+Japanese porcelain on returning from that country. This is corroborated
+by the missionaries at Pekin, who state that the people there highly
+prized the Japanese porcelain, which was, in consequence, both rare and
+dear. They even used it in preference to their own in making presents
+to the emperor and grandees. De Pere states that when the Emperor wished
+to send a present of porcelain to Peter the Great, he chose that of
+Japan, where, says the writer, the people surpass those of China in all
+the arts and industries. We know, moreover, that the Japanese import
+Chinese egg-shell for decoration, that the Chinese have borrowed the
+designs of the Japanese, and that the Japanese have borrowed those of
+China. The most skilful imitators in the world, living next door to each
+other, complimented each other's skill by mutual imitation.
+
+There are two chronological points that may help us to throw some light
+into this confusion, which writers have succeeded in making twice
+confounded.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Rose-back Egg-shell. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)]
+
+There can be no doubt that the porcelain of the Rose family was at its
+best about the end of the fifteenth century and beginning of the
+sixteenth. Jacquemart, therefore, argues that the Japanese imitations
+would date from the first half of the sixteenth century, and the
+vitreous enamelled pieces would go back, at least, to the fifteenth. He
+labors under a very serious mistake, which evidently takes its rise in
+the assumption that the ware made by the Japanese in the seventh century
+was translucent pottery, or that Kato-siro-ouye-mon, in the thirteenth
+century, had acquired the art of making porcelain. We shall handle this
+subject more in detail when treating of Japan; but meanwhile let it be
+noted that the Japanese themselves call the thirteenth century ware
+stone-ware, and that there is no reason for believing that porcelain was
+made in Japan until near the middle of the sixteenth century, or about
+the date assigned by Jacquemart to the so-called Japanese imitations of
+the Rose family of China.
+
+If this be admitted, it must be supposed that Japan began by imitating
+some of the choicest works of China, and those presenting the greatest
+difficulty to a beginner not perfectly sure of his practice. The
+necessary result of this, so far as M. Jacquemart is concerned, would be
+to transfer what he calls artistic porcelain to China. In any event, it
+is clear that all representatives of that family which can be ascribed
+to a date earlier than the latter part of the sixteenth or the beginning
+of the seventeenth century are Chinese. Many years must have elapsed
+before the Japanese could, with Shonsui's assistance, attain to such
+perfection in working a new material that their ware could be mistaken
+for that of their teachers.
+
+The difficulties of collectors are thus restricted to pieces which are
+comparatively modern. Nothing is more natural than that, when the
+manufacture was temporarily paralyzed in China by the disturbances
+attending the change from the Ming to the Tartar dynasty, for several
+years prior to 1662 the Japanese should have bestirred themselves to
+supply the demand created by the regular trade in China. It is of this
+period, and down to the beginning of the eighteenth century, that the
+missionaries write when they speak of the demand for Japanese porcelain.
+It must have been early in the eighteenth century, also, that the
+imperial present of Japanese porcelain was sent to Russia. Japanese art
+was rising as that of China declined; and so far from suggesting the
+Rose decoration to China, the Japanese Rose was merely striving to take
+its place, when the original was passing away. The Japanese found the
+Chinese patronage valuable, and therefore they tried to please their
+customers by perpetuating the styles of decoration with which they were
+familiar. Their imitative skill makes the task of distinguishing the two
+fabrics one of considerable difficulty, even with the limitations in
+point of time to which we have alluded. The distinctive characteristics
+of Japanese porcelain will be referred to in their proper place under
+Japan; but, in the mean time, it is evident that many of the supposed
+Japanese pieces, with domestic scenes, or with fan-shaped reservations
+in wide borders of geometrical patterns, and containing brilliantly
+feathered birds, are Chinese.
+
+We have now glanced at the three leading families, even while disposed
+to call in question the utility of the arrangement. A classification of
+the above kind has the one great objection, that the exceptions are so
+numerous as to leave the rule inapplicable to a vast number of the most
+interesting specimens. And, further, no perfect arrangement is
+practicable. The Chinese have always been imitators. The potters and
+artists of the thirteenth century imitated those of the tenth; those of
+the fourteenth imitated their predecessors of the thirteenth, and so on.
+Any attempt at a chronological arrangement, with any pretensions to
+absolute truth, is, for this and other reasons, out of the question. The
+classification by families, besides its necessary deficiencies, gives no
+assistance to one studying and trying to master the principles of
+Chinese art. To such an one, therefore, the only course is to take every
+specimen at its artistic worth. He may find a large proportion of
+table-ware of the Chrysanthemo-paeonian family, but he will also find
+much that is not of that family. He may find much of the Green family,
+especially under the Ming Dynasty, with a political or a religious
+significance, but he will also fail in discovering any such meaning in
+many of its representatives. He will find chrysanthemums on members of
+the Green family, and paeonies on members of the Rose. In short, the
+better plan is, as we have said, to admire what is admirable, and to be
+too curious neither about chronology nor the relationship of color.
+Otherwise, in the latter case, he will come upon incongruities. The weak
+and the beautiful will be placed side by side, as in the human family a
+dwarf may be full brother to an Adonis.
+
+From what has been said it will be inferred that the Chinese held in the
+highest admiration the beauty to be found in color alone. In producing
+it, they stand at the head of the ceramic artists of the world. The old
+white porcelain--that is, porcelain decorated with white, and not the
+undecorated ware--is by some considered the most ancient quality, and
+is most carefully preserved by the Chinese. It was decorated with
+designs either graved in the paste or painted in relief, or with figures
+inserted between two laminae of paste. In the latter case the design
+remained invisible until the cup was filled with liquid. Others required
+to be held up to the light before the design revealed itself. The best
+white porcelain was made during the Song Dynasty (960-1278). Mention is
+made of white porcelain manufactured for the Emperor during the Wei
+Dynasty (A.D. 220-264), and we have already seen that white was the
+dynastic color of the Thang Dynasty (618-907), but little or nothing is
+directly known of these fabrics. That of the Song Dynasty was the
+Ting-yao, already referred to as one of the five great qualities of
+ancient porcelain. A cup (Fig. 101) of great beauty, very thin and
+transparent, in the collection of Mr. J. C. Runkle, gives a good idea of
+the old white. Its purity and brilliancy give a fine effect to the
+decoration in relief. The latter consists of small sprays of blossoms
+delicately moulded or carved, and showing through the clear glaze the
+finest touches of the modeller or carver. This is one of the methods
+followed in decorating the Ting porcelain with flowers, which were
+either graved in the paste, applied in relief, or painted. The white of
+the Yong-lo period (1403-1424) of the Ming Dynasty was also decorated
+with engravings in the paste. Toward the beginning of the Ming Dynasty,
+about 1380, a peculiar quality of white was made upon the same principle
+as the egg-shell, _i. e._, by grinding down the paste, by which means
+the piece assumed an unctuous, shining appearance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.--White Chinese Porcelain, with Blossom in
+Relief. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)]
+
+With the white there naturally falls to be considered the porcelain
+compared by writers and by the Chinese themselves with jade, the most
+precious of stones in the eyes of the Orientals. It is likened in the
+Li-ki, or Book of Rites, to the rainbow solidified and turned into
+stone; and in another work occurs the passage, "When I meditate on that
+wise man, his thoughts appear to me like the jade." This applies to the
+discourse of Confucius. The philosopher's language is quaint and
+figurative: "It is not," he says, "because the jade is rare that it is
+valued, but because from all time the sages have compared virtue to
+jade. In their eyes the polish and brilliant hues of jade represent
+virtue and humanity. Its perfect compactness and extreme hardness
+indicate exactness of statement; its angles or corners, which are not
+incisive, however sharp they seem, are emblematic of justice; the
+pearl-like jades suspended from the hat or the girdle, as if falling,
+represent ceremony and politeness; the pure sound which it emits when
+struck, and which suddenly stops, figures music; as it is impossible for
+the ugly shades of color to obscure the handsome ones, or for the fine
+colors to cover up the poor ones, so loyalty is prefigured; the cracks
+which exist in the interior of the stone, and can be seen from the
+outside, are figurative of sincerity; its iridescent lustre, similar to
+that of the rainbow, is symbolic of the permanent; its wonderful
+substance, extracted from mountains or from rivers, represents the
+earth; when cut as knei or chon, without other embellishment, it
+indicates virtue; and the high value attached to it by the whole world,
+without exception, is figurative of truth." It is further used
+throughout Chinese literature as a simile for the highest qualities of
+virtue and purity.
+
+The stone is called _yu_ by the Chinese, and is obtained from Tai-thong,
+in the province of Chenn-si, and in larger quantities from Khotan, where
+an entire mountain is said to be composed of it. It has been held in the
+highest estimation among the Chinese from ancient times, and
+notwithstanding its extreme hardness, it is made into the most beautiful
+and curious objects, such as vases, cups, incense-burners, flasks; and
+even instruments of music.
+
+These facts will enable us to appreciate the comparison so often drawn
+between porcelain and jade. Thus, the Thang white made by Ho is said to
+have been "brilliant as jade," and a contemporary was making vases of
+artificial jade. Again, in the Song Dynasty, a red porcelain was made at
+Ting-tcheou, decorated with flowers, graved, painted, or in relief, and
+said to resemble "sculptured red jade." Coming down to the Siouen-te
+period of the Ming Dynasty (1426-1435), we again meet with cups "as
+white and brilliant as jade," with their surfaces slightly punctured.
+These appear to have been imitated in the Wan-li period (1575-1619),
+when beautiful cups of the whiteness of jade figure in the altar
+services of the Emperor. The same description will apply to the
+porcelain of both periods. The glaze is likened to "a layer of congealed
+fat," and has a pure ivory-like appearance and a soft unctuous touch,
+more nearly resembling that of French _pate tendre_ than any other
+modern ware. This feeling is heightened rather than diminished by the
+slight roughness, or rather, irregularity of the surface, such as might
+be caused by sinking minute grains in the glaze.
+
+Let us now see how far these comparisons with jade are warranted by the
+stone itself. Let it first be noted that many travellers bring from
+Canton a green and dark-green quality of chalcedony, under the
+impression that the wily merchants have given them genuine jade. There
+are also certain kinds of felspar, called nephrite, which have been
+mistakenly called jade. The genuine _yu_ varies in color from an ivory
+white to a dark green. It is very hard, very heavy, and fine in grain.
+Even after it is polished it has the appearance of wax, and the
+impression made upon the eye is confirmed by the smooth, greasy touch.
+The exceptional colors are red, black, orange, citron yellow, turquoise
+and a deeper blue. The white variety called, _par excellence_, Oriental
+jade, reflects a pure milky light nearly resembling that of the opal.
+Japan and India supply a quality of white with the faintest possible
+tinge of green. Another very beautiful variety is the "imperial jade,"
+or emerald green, which is occasionally found mixed with white, like the
+colors in agate.
+
+The value attached to jade was so great, that in China a special officer
+was appointed to take charge of the jade used in the personal decoration
+of the emperor, who wore several pieces attached to his girdle. Every
+description of jewel was made of jade, including those worn in the hair.
+
+From these facts, and those previously narrated, it is evident that to
+compare porcelain with jade is to compliment it in terms beyond which
+Chinese language cannot go. Nothing higher or more laudatory can be said
+of it, and we can thus form some idea of the extreme beauty of the
+almost opalescent white porcelain of the Siouen-te and Wan-li periods.
+The admiration of the Chinese for this stone in colors now unknown may
+possibly also have inspired them to attempt its imitation in many of the
+finest colors which claim our admiration. The passage quoted from
+Confucius further suggests that even crackle may have originated in
+trying to reproduce in pottery and porcelain the cracked variety of
+jade.
+
+Equal to the turquoise in purity is the violet obtained from the oxide
+of manganese. Two artists (father and daughter) named Chou, made very
+beautiful porcelain of this color during the Song Dynasty. Specimens are
+now very rare, their brilliancy and richness leading collectors to grasp
+with avidity at any opportunity of becoming possessors of a good
+example.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Chinese Five-fingered Rosadon. Blood color,
+shading from crimson to scarlet. Upper rim, cloudy white. (G. W. Wales
+Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The aubergine, or purple egg-plant violet, was also made under the Song,
+and is one of the celebrated productions of Kiun, in the province of
+Ho-nan. This is, however, inferior in beauty to the manganese violet.
+There is a third tint, of great softness and beauty. The violet is often
+used in conjunction with turquoise blue, as in a crackle teapot in the
+Avery collection in the shape of the peach of longevity, in which the
+body is violet, and the spout and decorating leaves, which are in
+relief, are in turquoise blue. The colors are also found intermingled in
+such groups as the Dogs of Fo sporting. Very curious effects are
+produced by shading the violet on either hand to blue and red. In pieces
+of this character the blue will be found on the base, and the color
+changes as it ascends, becoming a rich violet on the body and red on the
+top. The violet is treated in a manner precisely similar to the
+turquoise, the pieces being frequently decorated with incised designs.
+
+The shaded violet specimens alluded to remind us of others, in a rich
+liver-red, where the color becomes paler as it ascends. Thus, in the
+five-fingered rosadon (Fig. 102) the base is a deep crimson, which turns
+to scarlet on the body, and finishes on the tips of the fingers in a
+cloudy white. This color, like the aubergine violet, and a bright red
+were found upon some of the works made at Kiun in the tenth century; nor
+must we forget the pieces like "red jade" made at Ting-tcheon about the
+same period. It does not appear to have been used at King-teh-chin until
+the Yong-lo period, early in the fifteenth century. The bright red was
+reproduced by Thang-kong, the artist already mentioned, in the
+eighteenth century. It is difficult to follow the Chinese in the
+handling of colors so nearly akin, and yet differently treated, and
+producing effects so varied. The liver-red often appears as a true
+_celadon_ upon pieces closely resembling in paste the hard opaque body
+of the old sea-green. These have rarely any decoration, and resemble in
+this respect many small objects, such as narrow-necked bottles, to which
+a bright red lends a color that in vivid brilliancy and clearness
+involuntarily recalls the comparison of the Ting porcelain with red
+jade.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Chinese Yellow; Green Decoration. (Sutton
+Coll.)]
+
+Of the yellow called "Imperial," from its being the color adopted by the
+Tai-thsing Dynasty, little is known. The shades vary from a deep orange
+to a light straw color, but that called Imperial is said to be the
+citron yellow. Mr. Marryat says that he has seen genuine specimens in
+only two collections--the late Mr. Beckford's and the Japan palace at
+Dresden. He adds, that imitations have been made at Canton and exported.
+Mr. S. P. Avery, of New York, has a number of pieces of different
+tints--chrome, citron, lemon, pale and deep yellow, some of which are
+very curious in both form and decoration. The different shades are also
+well illustrated in Mr. W. T. Walters's collection.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Grains of Rice. (S. P. Avery Coll.)]
+
+The Chinese have ideas of painting peculiar to themselves. They have
+little regard for perspective, and in ancient times had none whatever.
+Even so late as the seventeenth century perspective was at direct
+variance with the rules guiding their art. We can, for example, see
+vases--particularly those of the Ming Dynasty--in which the personages
+in a scene appear to be piled directly one above another, or mount
+stairs, like upright ladders, in order to reach other personages
+evidently some distance off, but as much in the foreground of the
+picture as those nearer at hand. Coming down less than half a century
+later, there is a change. In the Kien-long vase before given the view
+recedes, and the far-off hills are partially shrouded in shadowy vapor,
+which adds to the dimness of distance. The perspective is perfect. The
+change is, no doubt, due to European intercourse. We may, therefore, in
+cases of doubt derive from this feature a hint of the age of certain
+pieces. But how account for the older usage? It is said that, when shown
+the effect of perspective, the Chinese argued against it. There is not,
+and cannot be, distance on a flat surface, they said; therefore
+perspective is contrary to nature. They did not see that their art
+should take cognizance of the delusions of vision, and represent things
+as they _appear_, not as they _are_. To explain this farther, we have
+only to look at the Chinese practice in decorating porcelain. The
+painting is regarded as a purely mechanical process, and the same piece
+may pass through seventy or eighty different hands, each artist
+contributing his specialty to the general result, and knowing little or
+nothing of the subject as a whole. Can we wonder, then, that he did not
+learn to appreciate perspective, if he painted his figures without any
+idea of their relation to each other or to the rest of the composition?
+The most remarkable feature of the case is, that in this prejudice
+against perspective, and supposed constancy to nature, the Chinese
+artists take up an attitude altogether different from that in which they
+usually appear. Everywhere they give a free rein to fancy. They are
+perfectly unconscious of anomaly, or incongruity in, for instance,
+painting a stag yellow or a horse green. They paint birds, butterflies,
+flowers, in hues which nature never wore. Their taste for that harmony
+of tints which is the perfection of surface decoration demands the
+abnormal colors, and they never hesitate about using them. Their variety
+is as wonderful as the wealth of their resources. One may turn from a
+vase, representing the exercise of the most fearless and riotous fancy,
+to another in which the details are as realistic as the lizards of
+Palissy. Or, again, a vase which looks as though it might have been cut
+out of a precious stone, with no decoration but its inimitable color,
+may stand side by side with another covered with flowers so tenderly
+treated and delicately colored, that one is inclined to pronounce the
+painstaking Celestial the prince of artists.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Chinese Reticulated Vase. (S. P. Avery Coll.,
+N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+Conceits in shape or design and victory over technical difficulties are
+his delight. The _souffle_ decoration is characteristic. The color is
+inserted in a tube having one end covered with fine gauze, and when
+blown upon the piece to be decorated, falls in minute air-bells, which
+break into little circles. Red and blue are thus applied upon a pale
+grayish-blue, and the effect is beautiful and entirely unique. When, as
+frequently happens, the bubbles do not break, the result is hardly less
+attractive, the color running into the ground and giving it the
+appearance of jasper.
+
+Another method of decorating porcelain, is that called "grains of rice
+work" (Fig. 104), and is of Persian origin. The design is cut through
+the thin paste, and on the piece being dipped in the glaze, the latter
+fills up or covers over the interstices, leaving the design distinctly
+traceable and perfectly transparent.
+
+Among the curiosities of workmanship the most notable are the
+reticulated and articulated vases and the "surprise hydraulique," or Cup
+of Tantalus. The outside of the reticulated vase (Fig. 105) is
+perforated in different patterns and covers the inner vase without
+touching it, except at the neck and possibly also the bottom. Ornaments
+are often attached to the outside of the open-work. More wonderful than
+the vases are the services of the same kind, in which the outer and
+inner parts come so closely together as to render the baking of the
+pieces extremely difficult and uncertain.
+
+The articulated, or jointed, vases represent a similar victory over the
+difficulties of workmanship. The vase is cut into two sections, which,
+although separate, cannot be taken apart.
+
+The "Cup of Tantalus" is so constructed that when raised to the lips the
+expectant drinker finds himself deluged with the contents. It is a
+Chinese practical joke, played by means of a syphon concealed in the
+interior of the vessel. Our enumeration may conclude with this specimen
+of manual dexterity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Oriental Porcelain. Brought to Albany by
+Captain Dean about 1777. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+To an American or European taking a wide view of the ceramics of the
+Chinese, while it is evident that they have produced a vast amount of
+very beautiful work, the question will no doubt present itself, whether
+they do not sometimes confound ingenuity with genius, and value the
+mechanical more highly than the artistic. That they were skilful and
+rejoiced in exercising their skill is evident; but no one can look
+without admiration upon their exquisite coloring and flower decoration.
+If one could find anywhere a _complete_ collection of Chinese pottery,
+stone-ware, and porcelain, it would be found to contain nearly
+everything admirable in ceramics, although occasionally hard to
+appreciate or understand. It would be found to illustrate the entire art
+history of a people patient, laborious, keen to observe, and swift to
+imitate, and whom, curiously enough, many of us would rather hear from
+through the china merchant or collector, than meet in more direct
+intercourse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+COREA.
+
+ Geographical Position.--Successive Conquests.--Its Independent
+ Art.--Confused Opinions regarding it.--Its Porcelain.--Decoration.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.--Old Corean Earthen-ware Five-handled Jar.
+Yellow on Green. (A. A. Vautine & Co.)]
+
+To the north-east of China, across the Yellow Sea, and adjoining the
+Chinese province of Shengking, lies the peninsula of Corea. Situated
+between China and Japan, it was alternately under the domination of its
+more powerful neighbors, and has given, in its ceramic productions,
+abundant evidences of their sway. At first its works were attributed to
+Japan, from which country they were carried to Europe. Further inquiry
+led to the discovery that Corea had an independent artistic existence,
+and that, while borrowing from either side of it, it imparted to both
+China and Japan the secrets it had mastered in the art of painting
+porcelain. The confusion regarding Corean ceramics is entirely due to
+the commercial intercourse between it and its neighbors, whose styles it
+adopted and occasionally mingled. Its wares were also sent into their
+markets. It long ago ceased to produce any kind of porcelain.
+
+Describing some specimens of Corean porcelain, Julliot, a dealer of the
+last century, speaks of "the fine grain of its beautiful white paste,
+the attractive lightness and softness of its dead red, the velvet of its
+bright-green and dark sky-blue colors." The decoration consists of
+conventional forms, either floral or animal. The peacock, pheasant, and
+dragon are met with. The colors are limited to red, black, gold, and
+pale shades of green and yellow, and the glaze is less vitreous than
+either the Japanese or Chinese. The Coreans adapted the decoration to
+the destination of the work. The pieces with Japanese ornamentation were
+intended for the markets of Japan, those with Chinese for China. On some
+of the pieces the styles are mixed, Chinese figures being accompanied by
+Japanese marks, or _vice versa_. Many of the pieces display very fine
+workmanship and simplicity of design. Finding their way to Europe in the
+cargoes of Dutch traders, they were highly valued by collectors, and for
+a long time served as models to both French and German artists. Their
+simple style and the chaste employment of a few colors rendered them
+peculiarly liable to kindle the emulation of unpracticed European
+decorators.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Corean Porcelain. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Corean Porcelain; Persian Decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: Yebis. Shiou-ro. Bis-jamon.
+
+Benten. Tossi-toku. Daikoku. Hotei.
+
+Fig. 110.--Picnic of the Household Gods of Japan.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+JAPAN.
+
+ How to Study Japanese Art: Its Origin.--Its Revived
+ Independence.--Nomino-Soukoune.--Shirozayemon.--Raku.--When
+ Porcelain was First Made.--Shonsui.--Form of Government.--The
+ Gods.--Symbols.--"Land of Great Peace."--Foreign
+ Relations.--General Features of Art.--Chinese and Japanese
+ Porcelains.
+
+
+On coming to the land of Nippon, "source of the sun," known to the
+outside world as Japan, we must still keep in mind the warning with
+which we entered China. Japanese art is of Chinese origin, but was
+modified as it developed. It adapted itself to Japanese tastes, and to
+the ideas of a people quick to imitate, but possessing a marked national
+individuality upon which to modify their imitations. When Chinese art
+began to fall under foreign influence and to renounce its own national
+characteristics, the more conservative Japanese offered a greater
+resistance to the overwhelming influx of ideas from abroad. That which
+had been the strength of Chinese artists now became their weakness.
+Foreign models gave them new subjects upon which to exercise their
+marvellous mechanical skill and imitative dexterity, and their artistic
+nationality was in a measure lost. The Japanese appeared doomed to a
+similar fate. Western aggressiveness made its impression, and Europe
+seemed to have led the extreme East captive. The death of an art
+distinctively Japanese was predicted by some, and by others it was said
+to have already taken place. These are the views of extremists. It is
+just possible that the Japanese derived a hint of what their own
+imitations were likely to be considered by the more fastidious
+Europeans, from their own opinion of European imitations of the
+decorations of China and Japan. For it must not be imagined that the
+imitation was all perpetrated on one side. It is no unusual thing for
+the frequenter of dealers' emporiums to find a European vase surmounted
+by the Dog of Fo, or decorated by birds nowhere visible except to the
+imagination of a Celestial artist. Art cannot exist in slavery. The
+European borrowed, and made himself ridiculous; the Japanese imitated,
+and with servility found degradation. From his temporary aberration it
+is to be hoped he will thoroughly rouse himself. The contact with Europe
+which led him to follow after strange gods was not without its lessons.
+In later times he has shown some capacity for studying and profiting by
+them. It is the Japanese side of Japanese art that foreigners admire,
+and not the produce of a foolish combination of the Oriental with the
+European. It is idle, in view of what may be a lasting return to native
+models, to bemoan their desertion. The Japanese have already shown a
+capacity for appreciating their neighbors' faults and their own merits
+at a proper value. Comparison is leading them to adopt a standard of
+criticism; and if they will only persist in cherishing their own good
+traditions, and in giving play to their distinctively national genius,
+it will certainly be better for their art, and probably for their
+commerce also. At the Vienna Exhibition they made the discovery that the
+imitation of the European had better be abandoned. At Philadelphia they
+gave proofs of an almost complete emancipation from foreign domination
+in ceramic art. There is, moreover, abundant reason for the
+entertainment of such a hope in the evident enlightenment pervading the
+councils of the Mikado. The following is the language of a Japanese
+writer, and it shows that the press reflects an intelligence which even
+that of America or Great Britain cannot afford to contemn: "The
+Americans and Europeans are enlightened people, and do not without cause
+call us semi-civilized. But what is the meaning of civilization? It
+surely is not limited to the possession of fine houses, fine dresses,
+and to sumptuous living. It is not confined to a flourishing state of
+its manufactures or machinery. It means an advance in knowledge and
+politics, a reverence for religion, the proper estimation of good
+character, and the observance of good customs." The press which can
+convey such truths as these is not likely to neglect the national
+evidences of civilization furnished by the arts and manufactures. If it
+will not allow its readers to look for the signs of civilization upon
+the outside of foreign institutions, it is as little likely to overlook
+the best elements at home, whether in religious reverence, good customs,
+or in art.
+
+To begin with the rise of the art in Japan, although legend would carry
+us back to the era of Oanamuchi-no-mikoto, and the inventor Oosei-tsumi,
+long before history begins, we may content ourselves with a less hoary
+antiquity. It is said that in the sixth century before Christ certain
+kinds of pottery were ordered by the Emperor Jinmu for religious
+purposes. The next five hundred years give no additional knowledge, but
+in B.C. 29 we learn that in the province of Id-soumi there lived a
+certain worker in stone and pottery called Nomino-Soukoune. The custom
+at that time was for slaves to be buried with their dead masters,
+presumably that the latter might have some one to wait upon them in the
+next world. When Nomino-Soukoune heard of the death of the Empress, he
+quickly made some images of stone or earthen-ware, and, taking them to
+the Emperor, induced him to bury them with the Empress as substitutes
+for her favorite attendants. The cruel rite was thereafter abolished,
+and the potter and sculptor, as a reward and distinction, was allowed to
+take for his surname Haji, the artist in clay. Two years later, B.C. 27,
+a Corean prince, a son of the King of Sin-sa, landed in "The Land of
+Great Peace," and settled in the province of Omi, where his followers
+founded a potters' guild. It is said that both Haji and the visitors
+from Corea made porcelain. But this is extremely improbable, as it was
+only about the same period that porcelain was invented in China, and all
+the evidence goes to show that the knowledge of making a translucent
+ware passed from China to Japan. It is, therefore, not at all likely
+that a secret jealously guarded by the Chinese should at once have
+passed to a neighboring country.
+
+After the above date the accounts open to us become slightly
+contradictory. A maker of tiles is said to have come from Corea, about
+the year 590, to Japan, to teach his business; that about sixty years
+later the experiment of tiling a temple roof was first tried, and that
+the pagoda of a temple in Yamato was built of brick. These assertions
+point to a relatively backward state of ceramic art in Japan as compared
+with China; and if tiles and bricks were still novelties in the former
+country, we are quite prepared to hear that it was only in the year 724
+that the monk or priest Giyoki introduced the potters' wheel. This same
+individual apparently figures in another account, under the name Gyoguy,
+as a Corean priest of Buddha, who spread the knowledge of making
+"porcelain." In the ninth century the number of factories had greatly
+increased; but native skill does not appear to have developed to any
+great extent, although an imperial official superintended the trade.
+Toward the earlier part of the thirteenth century, Kato Shirozayemon,
+not being content with the rude works he was turning out, called _Koutsi
+fakata_, pieces with worn orifice, undertook the journey to China, in
+the company of a priest named Fogen, to acquire, if possible, additional
+skill. In this he was successful, and on his return settled at Seto, in
+the province of Owari, now celebrated for its porcelain. Several authors
+speak of the earlier wares of Japan as porcelain; and Jacquemart says
+that Kato Shirozayemon returned with _all_ the secrets of the art. The
+question occurs, Is it likely, that, if Japan was at the beginning of
+our era acquainted to any extent with making porcelain, it would, after
+experimenting for twelve centuries, be so dependent upon Chinese
+teaching as to make Kato Shiro's journey necessary? The probability is
+the other way. More than that, even the last named traveller cannot,
+without question, be conceded to have mastered the secret of making
+porcelain. The Japanese say that he only made stone-ware. Evidence to
+the same effect is deducible from a Japanese custom. Tea was not
+introduced from China until the beginning of the thirteenth century,
+about the time of Kato Shiro's journey. In or about 1450, the Shiogun,
+or Tycoon, instituted the "Tea-parties" called _Cha-no-yu_. Toward the
+end of the sixteenth century, under Hide-yoshi, the ceremonial was
+improved. The guests drank out of a bowl of common pottery. These bowls
+were sometimes imported from Siam and other countries, and vessels of
+"raku" were made for the same purpose. This "raku" was a ware introduced
+by a Corean called Ameya, about the beginning of the sixteenth century.
+It is said that his descendants of the eleventh generation still pursue
+the trade in Kioto. Raku is nothing more than a lead-glazed earthen-ware
+(Fig. 111); and if porcelain was known even at that late date, it is
+hard to understand why the Tycoon should have honored Ameya with a gold
+seal for introducing the comparatively coarse raku. It is equally hard
+to understand why raku should have been preferred to porcelain for this
+special ceremonial. The fact that raku bowls are still used at the
+_Cha-no-yu_ is probably to be credited to the regard for a custom
+instituted by a Tycoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Raku Bowl; Green and Gold.
+
+(A. A. Vantine & Co.)]
+
+It may, further, be pointed out that the existing samples of the ware
+made by Giyoki, or Gyoguy, in the seventh or eighth century, and now in
+the temple of Todaiji, Yamato, are said to be earthen-ware. Upon the
+whole, it is most probable that the secrets acquired by Kato
+Shirozayemon did not carry him farther than the making of stone-ware,
+and that real porcelain was not made in Japan until between the years
+1530 and 1540, or about fifty years prior to the date of the discovery
+of artificial porcelain in Europe. About that time Goro-dayu Shonsui, a
+native of Ise, went to China, and, on returning from a lengthened
+investigation, settled in Hizen, and instituted the manufacture of
+porcelain. So thoroughly had he mastered the processes of China, that
+he succeeded in producing all the wares which to-day give Hizen its
+pre-eminence, viz.: Sometsuki, porcelain decorated with blue paintings
+under the glaze; crackle; celadon ware; red Akai ware; and "Nishikide"
+porcelain, decorated with vitrifiable colors upon the glaze. Japan
+incurred, however, still further debts to Corea. In 1592 a number of
+Corean porcelain makers were taken to Japan, and their descendants still
+live in Arita. About the same time the Prince of Satsuma invaded Corea,
+and took several families engaged in the porcelain industry back with
+him. To these settlers Japan is indebted for its well-known Satsuma
+ware. Through all these different channels Japan derived its knowledge
+of ceramic processes from China and Corea, and was enabled not only to
+equal, but in many respects to surpass, both its teachers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Kiri-mon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Guik-mon.]
+
+It is unnecessary for our purpose to enter fully into an examination of
+the government of Japan. The central power is the Mikado, descendant of
+the gods, political and ecclesiastical head of the government. The
+Tycoon was the executive head, but was expelled a few years ago. What is
+here to be chiefly observed is, that in the Mikado centres the loyalty
+of his people, a loyalty based upon tradition and sanctified by
+religion. The Mikado's arms are twofold, the (Fig. 112)
+Kiri-mon--official, and the (Fig. 113) Guik-mon--personal, the former
+being the flower and leaves of the _Paullownia imperialis_, the latter
+that of the chrysanthemum. The Tycoon's arms (Fig. 114) consisted of
+three mallow leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Arms of the Tycoon.]
+
+The religion of Japan, apart from its symbolism, has little appreciable
+influence upon its pottery, possibly on account of the comparatively
+late and rapid growth of the ceramic art. The original religion was
+Kamism or Shintoism, the worship of ancestors. This is the religion
+upheld by the Mikados. Upon it Buddhism was in-grafted, and supported by
+the Tycoons. The two harmonized well, thanks to Japanese toleration, but
+their combination presents many a curious puzzle. The Japanese cosmogony
+is simple. Heaven and earth were evolved out of chaos, and then the
+presence of controlling power being necessary, the gods came. At first
+there were only three, but afterward seven generations of gods and
+goddesses succeeded each other, and from the last pair of these came
+Sin-mon, the founder of Japan. The seven household gods concern us more
+in looking at Japanese ceramics. These represent the physical wants of
+the people, and correspond with the Chinese god of longevity and his
+compeers. The first, Ben-zai-ten-njo, or Benten, is the Madonna of
+Japan, the ideal matron; Quamon, queen of heaven, appears to be the
+ideal of happiness; Yebis is a jovial marine god, the food provider, and
+is generally represented with long legs, claws, drapery of marine
+origin, and riding on a dolphin. Hotei, a portly, complacent deity, is
+the very picture and god of contentment. A totally different being,
+short, thick, and almost lost in his clothes and under the burden of his
+wealth, is Daikoku, the god of riches. Shion-ro, with long beard, placid
+face, and towering cranium, is the god of longevity. He leans upon a
+staff, and is attended by either a tortoise or a stork. He is evidently
+a relative of the Chinese Cheou-lao. Tossi-toku, with staff and fawn, is
+the dispenser of knowledge. The last and least esteemed of the seven is
+the strong, armor-clad Bis-ja-mon, god of glory. Who shall say that
+there is not philosophy in a religion which thus holds up military glory
+almost to contempt, and discriminates between riches and contentment?
+Besides the gods here mentioned there is a host of demons which need not
+be enumerated, and which, with the household deities, are met with under
+the most fantastic forms and in the most ridiculous situations, for,
+according to Japanese ideas, ridicule did not necessarily involve
+impiety.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Japanese Porcelain Bowl. Diameter, 3 ft. 7 in.
+
+(Corcoran Art Gallery.)]
+
+The symbols of Japan are nearly all taken from China. The imperial
+dragon, though having only three claws, is closely allied to the four
+and five clawed dragons of China. The Ky-lin and Dog of Fo both
+reappear, and the Fong-hoang, or Foo, again presents itself with added
+elegance of form and supreme beauty of plumage. Another bird, resembling
+an eagle, deserves its title of imperial from its majesty of gait and
+expression, and seems in perfect keeping with its accompanying noble
+emblems. The sacred tortoise has a long feathery and fan-like tail, and
+appears in numberless compositions. The crane, turtle, pine, and bamboo
+are the emblems of longevity.
+
+In view of all that Japan owes to China and Corea--a great part of its
+religion, its knowledge of art processes, and its symbols, one would
+expect to find little that is original in its ceramics. There is, on the
+other hand, often visible a decided individuality and independence.
+Japan absorbed and transmuted, while apparently engrossed in copying.
+The process of assimilation, of bringing the foreign suggestion into
+subjection to native principles, took time; but even while Japan was in
+its pupilage, its national character was asserting itself. Its history
+and position show alike the favorable conditions under which its art
+grew up. After the aboriginal Ainos had been once subdued by their
+Asiatic conquerors, history substantiates the claim of Japan to the
+title of "The Land of Great Peace." It is true that revolution has of
+late years changed the form of government by the removal of the Tycoon;
+but from the beginning of the historical period, B.C. 660, to the civil
+wars which preceded the establishment of the Tycoons nearly three
+hundred years ago, there was no war of any consequence. After that
+event, and down to the return of the executive authority into the hands
+of the Mikado, there was another long peace. The Japanese, be it again
+observed, cared little for their god of glory, Bis-ja-mon. Isolation and
+freedom from the disturbing consequences of war gave the Japanese an
+opportunity of cultivating the arts of peace with a constantly
+increasing show of independence, even when the art was based upon a
+foreign foundation.
+
+In viewing their earliest ceramic productions, there is some difficulty
+in distinguishing them from those of China and Corea, and this
+difficulty is increased when we find upon their vases scenes from the
+court life of China, and a great deal of borrowed ornamentation. In
+both countries it is said that the ceramic art rose to its highest point
+in the sixteenth century, and then, we are told, declined. This date
+may, in the case of Japan, be safely advanced to the seventeenth or
+eighteenth century. Japan was even then not independent of its teachers,
+and suffered from the influences adverse to art which affected them. The
+Portuguese were the first nation to trade with Japan, and were expelled
+in 1637. The tolerant Japanese, who were willing to make room for any
+religion containing the seeds of good, could brook neither intolerance
+nor interference with their civil government. Portuguese intrigue
+accordingly led to expulsion and the massacre of forty thousand converts
+to Christianity.
+
+Specimens of "Christian" porcelain, made apparently by the Chinese for
+the persecuted of Japan, are still in existence, and may be seen in many
+American collections. After the Portuguese came the Dutch. Had the
+latter restricted themselves to trading in porcelain, it would have been
+better for Japanese art. Instead of doing so, they tried to imitate the
+native wares, and, which was far worse, commissioned the native artists
+to adopt European styles and to attempt to gratify the whims of European
+taste and fashion. We cannot wonder that art declined, but are rather
+led to be surprised that the decline was not more speedy and permanent.
+
+The points of difference between the porcelain of China and Japan may be
+briefly stated after the general features of Japanese art have been
+examined. It is to the American a peculiar art. It does not touch our
+admiration like the Greek for the truthful working out of its ideal
+forms, nor for the ideals themselves. It does not imbue us with a sense
+of the mysterious like that of Egypt. We can all admire its wonderful
+coloring and its perfection of finish; but besides these there is a
+fascination in the exuberant fancy, richness of invention, and happy
+blending of tints. The Japanese are true to nature, far more so than the
+Chinese; but they do not copy nature in every detail. In their best work
+we will often find that, with a peculiar delicacy, the artist merely
+indicates what an American or European artist would feel it incumbent
+upon him to represent. The former holds our attention by leaving it to
+the imagination to make his work complete. This will suggest what is
+actually the case--that, as a rule, form is secondary to color.
+
+Japanese porcelain and pottery differ from those of China in the
+following general respects: perspective is permissible in painting; as a
+rule, there is greater simplicity of design, and the ornamentation is
+more chaste and less profuse; and, as already noticed, nature is more
+closely followed. To explain the greater purity and refinement of
+Japanese art, there are three points to be noticed. While the Chinese
+degraded art by degrading the artists, the best and noblest Japanese
+were themselves artists. Princes are said to have engaged in
+lacquer-work. The Chinese lowered ceramic art into a merely mechanical
+pursuit, by dividing the different parts of the ornamentation among
+several workmen. Artistic conception was almost lost sight of where
+mechanical finish was thus painfully sought. The Japanese give us the
+creations of individual men, who bring their own marvellous industrial
+skill to the expression of their own ideas. The third advantage which
+they possessed was that already incidentally referred to, viz., the
+prevalence of hereditary occupations. It has been seen that descendants,
+of the eleventh generation, of Coreans who settled in Japan as workers
+in stone-ware are now engaged in the same pursuit. The transmission of
+technical knowledge was thus amply provided for.
+
+Possessing such advantages and tendencies, the Japanese surpassed the
+Chinese in several respects. That they do so to-day, the Centennial
+Exhibition, even making a due allowance for the superior organization of
+the Japanese section as a government representation, placed beyond all
+question or cavil. This truth is one to which ceramists, undeceived by
+the exaltation of China and the treatment of Japan as a mere offshoot,
+should not be strangers. In lacquer-work the Japanese have always been
+superior, and at the Exhibition one of the best specimens in the Chinese
+section was from Japan. The lacquer was so laid on that the
+ornamentation on the underlying porcelain disclosed itself, and animal
+forms in red and gold decorated the lacquer. Similar acknowledgments of
+the excellence of Japanese porcelain have been otherwise made. The
+Chinese sometimes copy Japanese decoration. Further evidence is not
+wanting, and has been referred to under China, of the rarity and high
+value of Japanese porcelain in China.
+
+In any event, the time for servile imitation has passed with all that
+was worth imitating. Instead of devoting themselves, as the Chinese
+have done for two hundred years, to vain attempts at rivalling the
+attainments of their ancestors, the Japanese have shown an inclination
+to return to their old and renounced standards as bases from which to
+reach a new originality. They are, in one word, progressive in the best
+sense. Instead of nineteenth century representations of the works of the
+seventeenth, it may reasonably be hoped that the present day will
+disclose an art at once national and its own.
+
+
+POTTERY.
+
+ Geographical Distribution.--Classification.--Satsuma.--Difficult
+ Ware.--Saki Cups.--Imitations of
+ Satsuma.--Kioto.--Awata.--Awadji.--Banko.--Kiusiu.--Karatsu.--Suma.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Satsuma Vase. Dragon in Red and Gold. Height,
+16-1/2 in. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The ceramic industry of Japan is chiefly, if not entirely, confined to
+the southern half of the empire. A line drawn from Tokio (Yeddo) to Kaga
+is its northern limit, and between that line and Satsuma, one of the two
+most southerly provinces of the island of Kiusiu, the manufacture is
+pretty evenly distributed. The great centres are Kiusiu, in which are
+Hizen and Satsuma; Kioto, round which are clustered the prominent names
+of Awadji, Hiogo, Idsumi, and Nara; Owari and Mino; Kaga, including
+Kutani, Yamashiro, and in the adjoining province of Echizen, the village
+of Ota; and, lastly, Tokio, including Yokohama. From these five centres
+come nearly all the wares which have of late years become so familiar in
+the American markets. These wares are now known exclusively by the name
+of the place of manufacture or the inventor. Whatever rule may have been
+followed in the past, it is now therefore evident, that hereafter
+Japanese pottery and porcelain must be treated after a method precisely
+similar to that followed in discussing the wares of France or of
+England, where, instead of families, we have Sevres, Limoges, Palissy,
+Worcester, Derby, and Wedgwood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Satsuma Vase. (A. Belmont Coll.)]
+
+The Japanese have an endless variety of earthen-ware made for household
+use. Of this class some pieces are left unglazed, and others have a very
+fusible plumbeous glaze, under which painted decorations are sometimes
+to be seen. Of their semi-porcellaneous, highly refractory potteries,
+the two best known in America are the Satsuma and Awata. The former
+(Fig. 116) is so called from the province of that name, in the south of
+the island of Kiusiu, where it has been made at or near Kagoshima for
+nearly three hundred years. The latter is made in one of the suburbs of
+Kioto, in Central Japan. The clay is kaolinic, and the glaze felspathic,
+but not of the purity of porcelain; and, as a consequence, they do not
+fuse to the same extent. The body and glaze not being perfectly
+homogeneous, the latter presents a fine net-work of cracks. The
+beautiful and soft buff color of the Satsuma ware is its first
+characteristic. The ornamentation generally consists of birds and
+flowers delicately outlined and colored. The chrysanthemum, the paeonia,
+pheasants, and peacocks are especially abundant. This ware is
+extensively used in the making of tea-sets, charming alike in form and
+color. So light are the pieces that it is difficult to persuade one's
+self that they are not porcelain. The shapes are quaint, and suggestive
+of flower-cups and leaves. One style of decoration may be taken as
+typical. The delicious creamy buff paste, covered with crackle glaze, is
+sprinkled with gold, after a manner in which the Japanese have no
+equals. On this rich but delicate ground are many-colored flowers,
+birds, or insects, which harmonize admirably with the shape of the cups.
+In America so much beauty could be possessed only by the rich. In Japan
+almost any one may be its owner. A feature distinctive of Japanese art
+is, that it attempts to reach every grade, high as well as low; and that
+art, being valued for its own sake, and not purely for its commercial
+value, is brought to the embellishment of the lowly object as well as of
+the intrinsically rich.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Satsuma Vase. Very Fine Crackle. Decoration:
+leaves brown, veined with gold. Height, 15 in. (R. H. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+Another product of Satsuma is called "difficult ware," from the extreme
+nicety of the operation performed in making it. In this the body is
+coarser than in that last mentioned. The ground is similarly prepared,
+and upon it are laid in relief flowers and birds of fine porcellaneous
+paste. The technical difficulties attending the production of such ware
+are obvious. By what ingenuity does the Japanese artist overcome the
+difference between decorating material and body? A precisely similar
+style of decoration is employed on many household vessels of
+earthen-ware or majolica. In these very fine effects are secured by the
+choice of a sombre ground, from which the porcelain flowers and animals
+stand out in clear and bold relief. The best Satsuma ware and crackle
+are perfect marvels of color. The decoration bears a general resemblance
+to that already described, but is finer. The cracks are scarcely
+visible, the gold is more cloud-like and fleeting, and the floral
+ornamentation is more tropically luxuriant. In the higher qualities of
+crackle, the paste and glaze differ widely in composition, in order that
+deeper and more distinct cracks may be produced; and tangled in the web
+are wreaths of green, purple, crimson, and blue flowers mingled with
+gold. A totally different style of decoration is seen on many
+cylindrical vases, and shows that the Japanese artists have a clear
+perception of the subtle harmony existing between form and ornament. In
+these, to be in sympathy with the simple shape, the designs are bolder,
+and the colors are laid on with a freer hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Satsuma Vase. Height, 7-1/2 in. (J. W. Paige
+Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The Satsuma paste varies in tint from buff to a cold and dark shade of
+brown; but the decoration of the latter is, as a rule, decidedly
+inferior. The shapes are manifold, and are generally characterized by
+simplicity and elegance. When the potter turns to intricate designs, his
+skill in manipulating the clay seems almost boundless. This feature is
+more remarkable in the older pieces than in those of more recent date,
+and is well illustrated in the vase on page 167 (Fig. 117), where a
+series of thin loose rings gives the piece an appearance altogether
+unique. The vase from Mr. Robert H. Pruyn's collection (Fig. 118) is
+presumably from the Prince's workshop, and is an excellent example of
+the refinement of Japanese taste. Full effect is given to the admirable
+workmanship displayed in the basket-work moulding, which is relieved,
+but not concealed, by the ivy decoration. A more prevalent style is
+exemplified by the vase (Fig. 119) in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
+The flowers appear to grow from the base to the neck, where a single
+flower and a few green leaves are left to finish the bouquet. The piece
+is a rare specimen both in regard to fineness of paste and the delicate
+treatment of the flower decoration. It belongs to the large class which
+is illustrative of the Japanese preference of flowers before figures,
+and of the careful fidelity with which the former are treated. They lead
+one to think that in the Japanese workshop the "Feast of Flowers" knew
+no end.
+
+A singular example of Satsuma ware--so singular both in body and
+ornamentation as almost inevitably to suggest a doubt of its coming from
+the same workshop--is the Sutton vase (Fig. 120). The decoration is in
+high relief, and stands out strongly against the brown ground. There are
+many fine examples of designs executed in relief. These assume the forms
+of turtles, fishes, frogs, lizards, and crabs, carefully modelled and
+truthfully colored. On pieces of a religious character the gods of the
+Japanese pantheon are moulded in bold relief. The same idea is
+occasionally carried out to a fuller extent by moulding the piece itself
+after a natural form. Thus we find trays shaped like leaves, cups like
+lotus leaves, teapots like melons, and one remarkable specimen in the
+form of an elephant, with a saddle brilliantly painted on grounds of red
+and gold.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Satsuma Faience. Buff and Gold; Decoration in
+Relief. (J. F. Sutton Coll.)]
+
+The religious vessels are very often elaborately decorated. Incense jars
+have figures of the gods; the turtle, symbolical of longevity; and
+medallions of flowers surrounded by borders of green, crimson, and gold;
+or we may find the gods Shiou-ro and Tossi-toku, of longevity and
+wisdom, in a landscape; or combats between gods and demons; or a mixed
+assemblage of priests and gods. When the figures of the gods are painted
+on the inside, the value of the piece may be estimated by the delicacy
+of the figure-painting. Hotei, the god of contentment, and Yebis, are
+thus figured on the inside of bowls; and sometimes there are priests and
+women; or gods and dragons may be seen on the inside and priests on the
+outside. Satsuma ware is also found in round, oval, or leaf-like
+plaques, on which are religious and other subjects.
+
+More frequently in Kaga or Kutani porcelain, but sometimes also in
+Satsuma ware, will be found what are called "Saki" cups. Saki, or Sake,
+is the chief alcoholic drink of Japan, and is made from rice. It is
+drunk hot at meals from the cups known by its name. The size of these
+pieces precludes excessive decoration, and the artist concentrates his
+efforts upon fineness of execution and finish.
+
+Satsuma ware is imitated at Kioto, Yokohama, and elsewhere; and there is
+little doubt that pieces from these and other centres make their
+appearance in America under the adopted and better known name. There are
+no safeguards against deception but the character of the dealer and the
+good taste and judgment of the collector.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.--Kioto Faience Censer. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)]
+
+The Kioto pottery is scarcely inferior to the Satsuma. In the specimen
+given below (Fig. 122) the creamy ground is covered with a kaleidoscopic
+mingling of colors--yellow and purple chrysanthemums and cloudy masses
+of gold--and in the foreground is a cock with brilliant plumage. Other
+specimens are seen in Figs. 121 and 123.
+
+Awata ware is made at Kioto, and is of more recent origin than the
+Satsuma, from which it differs chiefly in the more pronounced tint of
+its prevailing yellow color. From the latter characteristic it has been
+called "egg pottery." In the older pieces the style of decoration is
+entirely different from the Satsuma. The colors used were few in number
+and neutral in tone. More recently the artists of Kioto have resorted to
+imitations of Satsuma and porcelain decorations, and of European styles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Kioto Vase. Very Brilliant Colors. Height, 18
+in. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+Awadji, an island lying between Shikoku and Hiogo on the main-land,
+produces a ware closely allied to the Satsuma. The glaze is similar, and
+the kaolinic paste is made from ground granite found on the island. The
+body-tint is an extremely soft yellow, the cracks are usually fine, and
+the painting, outlined in black, is decided in character. From the same
+place comes a strong stone-ware, either with a glaze containing oxide of
+copper or covered with a slip. The cracks are few in number, and the
+prevailing colors are green and russet.
+
+The above names, it will be observed, are taken from the places of
+manufacture. The Banko-yaki is so called from the inventor, and is made
+in the province of Ise. The paste is a strong, tough brown clay, on the
+unglazed surface of which enamel painting is laid. Very curious
+tea-sets, wonderfully light and thin, considering the quality of the
+paste, are made of this material. They are finished by hand, and the
+marks of the potter's fingers are distinctly visible on the clay. These
+sets are favorites with the tea-drinkers of Japan. The white clay of Ise
+is also used for pieces which come in biscuit. When mingled with brown
+clay, the result is a peculiar mottled ware which has been extensively
+made within the past few years. The Banko tea-sets are sometimes moulded
+into imitations of the lotus leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Kioto Faience. Brown, Red, and Green on Buff.
+(J. F. Sutton Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Kiusiu Earthen-ware. Blue on Purple. Height,
+15 in. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)]
+
+The ware called "Kiusiu" takes its name from the island already
+mentioned, but the exact place of its manufacture is not more
+specifically stated. The illustration (Fig. 124) exemplifies a large
+division of this pottery, which has designs more or less intricate
+graved in the paste, and painted purple or plum and turquoise blue. Some
+of the finer pieces have floral and emblematic incisions, and upon the
+mingled blue and plum are chrysanthemums and vines in lacquer.
+
+Karatsu is a town in the province of Hizen, and gives its name to a buff
+ware, somewhat resembling in appearance the darker qualities of Satsuma.
+It is finely crackled, and the designs are exceedingly varied. The
+tenacity of the fine paste is exemplified in the reticulated vase (Fig.
+125), in which frequent changes in the pattern lighten, by variety, the
+sombre character of the piece. It will be observed that the inner
+surface is also decorated, and we are thus furnished with another of
+the frequently recurring evidences of inexhaustible Oriental patience.
+All the examples of this ware that we have seen are covered with very
+minute cracks like those overspreading the Satsuma. The paintings on
+tea-jars and incense-pots consist usually of flowers, insects, vines, or
+bamboos sometimes arranged in panels or medallions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--Karatsu Vase. Reticulated Buff Crackle. (J. F.
+Sutton Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Suma Earthen-ware. Blue Slate Color; Black,
+Red, and Reddish-brown Decoration. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)]
+
+It is unnecessary to do more than enumerate the wares of Suma, or Soma,
+Nara, Ota, Idsumi, and Kaga, or Kutani, some of which approach
+translucent porcelain so nearly as to be entitled to be classed with it.
+The specimen (Fig. 126) is chosen for illustration for a very simple
+reason. The body is a common coarse earthen-ware, manipulated with very
+moderate skill, and the color is in no respect remarkable. But in the
+disposal of the grape-vine decoration, and the drawing and attitude of
+the bird, there is nothing more simple and tasteful to be seen on the
+finest Hizen porcelain. In spite of the humble material, the artist
+compels our admiration. It is the same wherever we turn. Art is for all,
+the lowly as well as the rich, and embellishes every object, the humble
+as well as the most costly.
+
+There are simple vessels, teapots, and cups of clay, thin as Banko ware,
+and left unglazed, which for very oddity and perfection of workmanship
+are worthy of a place in any collection. Mr. Sutton has two pieces of
+this character. One is a teapot shaped like a partially folded leaf,
+having its sides drawn together to form the spout. The lid is like an
+elongated shell, and is thin and light as a leaf. The other is also a
+teapot, and resembles a transverse section of the trunk of a tree. In
+such cases the artist is lost sight of in the workman. The pieces have
+neither grace of form nor beauty of color, but they attract us by the
+evidences they present of human skill contending with difficulty for the
+mere satisfaction of overcoming it. They are triumphs of dexterity and
+curiosities of design, and, though rare, are thoroughly representative
+of a large section of Japanese ceramic art. In its simplest as well as
+its most beautiful forms, nature is the promptress of the Japanese
+artist (Fig. 127). We see it in such works as those last described
+equally with the gorgeous flowers and drooping vine, and in it have the
+key to the infinite variety of the art of Japan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Satsuma Vase. Decoration, Green and Red.
+Height, 13 in. (Robert H. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ Leading Differences between Japanese and Chinese.--Sometsuki
+ Blue.--Ware for Export.--Gosai, or Nishikide.--Arita, or
+ Hizen.--Families.--Decoration.--Modern
+ Hizen.--Seidji.--Kioto.--Eraku.--Kaga.--Portraiture.--Owari.
+ --Lacquer.--Cloisonne.--Rose Family.--Early Styles: Indian:
+ Dutch Designs.--General Characteristics of Japanese Art.
+
+In porcelain, even to a more marked degree than in pottery, the
+peculiarities of Japanese art are noticeable. It brings before us, in
+their greatest perfection, the careful attention to finish, the
+harmonizing of the most minute detail with the general design, the
+boundless variety of form, and the general tendency to subordinate the
+latter to ornamentation and color. The porcelain is less capable of
+resisting heat than that of the Chinese.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Japanese Porcelain Plaque. (W. L. Andrews
+Coll.)]
+
+The leading differences between the porcelains of the two countries are
+that the Japanese is of a purer white and finer quality, that its glaze
+has a bluish tint, that the Japanese forms are usually better, and that
+the extravagancies of Chinese decoration are toned down. The chief kinds
+of porcelain are the Hizen (also called Imari and Arita), the Owari,
+Kioto, Mino, and Kaga. That made at all these places, except Kaga,
+belongs chiefly to the kind called Blue Sometsuki, in which the body is
+decorated before glazing with painting in blue derived from cobalt. This
+is the leading ware for home consumption. Two of the largest and finest
+specimens that ever reached America were the immense vases and basins
+sent to the Centennial Exhibition. Reference has been made, under China,
+to the difference between the blue-and-white of Nankin and that of
+Japan, viz., that the white of the latter is purer and the blue less
+transparent. This may be accounted for in part by the inferiority of the
+cobaltiferous ore of Japan, a circumstance which has led to the
+importation of Chinese material, and in part by the preparation of the
+paste. After being thrown or moulded, dried and turned, the piece is
+covered with pure white clay, and then fired. The blue is afterward laid
+upon the clay coating, and the piece is then glazed and fired a second
+time. By the use of the _engobe_, the brilliancy of the blue is thought
+to be enhanced, and the purity of the white must certainly be
+heightened. The glaze is always felspathic, and is said to be less
+vitreous than that of China. Like the Chinese, who made a specific ware
+for the "Sea-devils"--a euphonious title under which all Europeans were
+classed--the Japanese export from Hizen the same kind of porcelain as
+that above described, but decorated with bright enamel colors on the
+glaze, and specially designed for the foreign trade. The preparation and
+application of the enamels have been described elsewhere. Paintings in
+relief are produced by first laying on the parts to be colored a white
+enamel of powdered glass and stone, and white-lead. This ware, once
+called "Gosai," and now "Nishikide," is made at Arita, and was taken to
+Nagasaki, and thence to the island of Desima, at the time when the old
+Dutch traders had their settlement there. It is, therefore, this
+porcelain that the Dutch first carried to Europe. That we may have a
+clear view of the early condition of the industry, we must bear in mind
+that it was in Hizen Shonsui put in practice the knowledge he had
+acquired in China. It may, therefore, be expected that the older
+specimens will show signs of Chinese teaching. That such is the case may
+be inferred from the grouping usually resorted to in dividing Japanese
+porcelain into Chrysanthemo-Paeonian and Rose families.
+
+The place of manufacture of many of the pieces belonging to the first of
+these families is authenticated by the peculiar Japanese symbols, such
+as the Imperial bird, the _guikmon_, the Imperial three-clawed dragon,
+the crane, bamboo, and other emblems of longevity; and also occasionally
+by the pieces being decorated with legendary subjects. One of the latter
+is decorated in part with a water-fall, and a carp leaping upward. The
+latter is a symbol borrowed from China. Mr. Griffis says of it: "The koi
+(carp) leaping the water-fall is a symbol of aspiration and ambition,
+and an augury of renown. The origin of the symbol is Chinese. In an old
+book it is said that the sturgeon of the Yellow River make an ascent of
+the stream in the third moon of each year, when those which succeed in
+passing above the rapids of the Lung Men become transformed into
+(white) dragons." The same writer relates that when Kiyomori was on his
+way to view Kumano water-fall, a carp leaped out of the river upon the
+deck of his state barge, and gave rise to much rejoicing as an
+auspicious omen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.--Old Imari Porcelain. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.--Japanese Dish. Ground, Red and Blue; Figures,
+Green and Gold. Diameter, 11 in. (Robert H. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+The paste and glaze of the older examples of Hizen are inferior to the
+Chinese, the former being thick and comparatively coarse, as we find it
+in the accompanying specimen (Fig. 129). Such are the early vases of the
+Chrysanthemo-Paeonian family. They represent, apparently, the struggles
+of workmen attempting to apply recently acquired knowledge to native
+material: a further proof that when the Dutch opened their trade with
+Japan the porcelain industry was still in its infancy. That the
+manufacture improved with great rapidity is evident from such examples
+as the dish (Fig. 130), an admirable specimen of early Gosai, or
+Nishikide. Only five colors were employed in its decoration: black for
+the outlines; red, green, gold, and blue, as we find them on Mr. Pruyn's
+dish, where the design in green and gold is laid upon a ground of red
+and blue.
+
+In modern times the porcelain of Hizen includes some of the best coming
+from Japan. To it we owe those exquisite specimens of a double art,
+trays and vessels of porcelain, decorated with flowers and birds in
+raised enamels, encased in a cover of bamboo wicker-work.
+
+The rich beauty of the coloring of Hizen porcelain is indescribable. One
+vase has birds and flowers freely disposed over its surface; another has
+reserved panels with birds and chrysanthemums in relief, and a third has
+birds and flowers on a ground of gold, and set in an open border. The
+desire to imitate objects in shape as well as color animates the
+porcelain makers of Hizen equally with the potters of Satsuma. We find
+bowls in the form of chrysanthemums, with the turtle, emblem of
+longevity, on the cover. One of these is decorated with stripes of blue,
+red, green, and yellow, and the favorite flowers and insects in enamel
+colors. The rare and very handsome example of the striped style of
+decoration here given (Fig. 131) was obtained at the Lyons sale, and is
+presumed to be Hizen. The ground is a rich, clear blue, and the cranes,
+foam of the sea, and stripes on the neck are in white relief. One is
+anxious to find the sentiment embodied in such admirable work; and it is
+possible that the piece may originally have been meant to convey a wish
+for long life--by its symbol, the crane--amidst the mutations of life,
+symbolized by the foam of the ever-changing sea.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Hizen Vase. Blue Ground; White Decoration.
+Height, 13-1/2 in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Japanese Porcelain Vase. (H. C. Gibson Coll.)]
+
+Another piece, about which nothing certain is known, is the vase (Fig.
+132) from Mr. Gibson's collection. It is a marvel of patient and skilful
+labor, and tells its story, no doubt, if the means of reading it were
+only within reach. The lattice of gold hangs as fine as gossamer over
+the figures, with sufficient transparency to leave the inside scene
+distinctly visible.
+
+To return to the modern pieces known to be Hizen, the bowls above
+mentioned are supplemented by others shaped like pomegranates, and
+profusely decorated, sometimes both inside and outside, with flowers,
+insignia, and the imperial bird, or with vines and flowers in gold and
+crimson. All family relationship is forgotten in the boundless variety
+of the designs. A charming illustration of the refined taste of the
+porcelain manufacturers of Arita was shown at the Centennial Exhibition.
+It consisted of a set of three small oviform vases of a very delicate
+blue tint, and having white dragons for handles.
+
+The ware called Seidji is the Japanese _celadon_, and is decorated after
+the style seen in China, _i. e._, with designs graved in the paste. It
+has been made in Hizen ever since Shonsui settled in that province (A.D.
+1580).
+
+Leaving Arita, in the mean time, there are several other centres
+demanding notice. The blue Sometsuki is also made in Owari and Kioto.
+With the latter is associated a distinctive ware called Eraku, from its
+inventor, in which gold decoration is laid upon a red ground. When
+Indian-ink and the colors of the Nishikide are found on Kioto porcelain,
+it resembles very closely that of Hizen. Green, blue, and gold are
+frequently mingled. As in other Japanese centres, the tendency to seek
+nature, either for suggestion or imitation, manifests itself at Kioto.
+Vases with crabs and shells, moulded and painted from nature, remind us
+of the "Palissy pottery, with raised fishes and fruit," of which Sir R.
+Alcock speaks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Kaga Ware. Decoration, Red and Gold. (A. A.
+Vantine & Co.)]
+
+Somewhat similar to Eraku is the porcelain of Kaga. One quality (Fig.
+133) of the latter has gold decorations on red or black grounds, mingled
+with flowers or birds traced either in red or black, according to the
+ground. On another quality the painting outlined in black is executed in
+enamel colors, resembling those already described as in use at Arita.
+The result is exceedingly rich. One specimen is described by Mr. Jarves
+("Art of Japan"), and is in the possession of Mr. Sutton, of New York.
+On the outside are two men holding a conversation on the bank of a
+stream. In the inside, in Chinese characters--adopted by the Japanese in
+the third century--of the minutest size, is the following explanatory
+legend: "Kutzen had already taken his leave, and was wandering by the
+side of the river, in a sorrowful and dejected manner, when he met a
+fisherman, who said, 'Why do you come here? You are the chief retainer
+of King Sa.' Then Kutzen replied, 'The men of the world are all alike,
+and as impure water, but I am pure; they are all drunk, but I am sober;
+therefore I come here.' Then the fisherman said, 'An ancient sage has
+said, that if we mix and associate with the men of the world, we shall
+become as impure as they are; if they are all drunk, we shall be drunk
+also, and drink the sediment of their drink; if they are dirty, we shall
+be dirty also, and stir up the mud.' Then Kutzen replied, 'It is an
+ancient saying, that when we dress our hair, we necessarily rub the dust
+off our cap; when we bathe in hot water, we necessarily shake the dust
+off our clothes; thus, when our hearts become pure, we shake off all
+defilement. I would rather throw myself into the river, and become food
+for the fishes, than to be defiled by thee!' Then the fisherman went
+away smiling, and, striking the gunwale of his boat, sang: 'So, when the
+waters of Soro are clean, I will wash my cap-strings; when the waters of
+Soro are dirty, I will wash my feet.'"
+
+Another cup, also in Mr. Sutton's collection, of a somewhat similar
+shape, _i. e._, narrow and high, has the inside almost entirely covered
+with these minute characters. It is well-nigh impossible to trace with
+the eye those near the bottom, and an estimate can thus be made of the
+difficulty of forming them with the brush.
+
+The decoration particularly characteristic of Kaga porcelain is the
+multiplication of portraits. Occasionally we find medallions of flowers
+set in colored borders, or fishes on the inside of both vessel and
+cover, and vines and flowers on the outside; but the style most
+intimately associated with Kaga is the marvellously minute and highly
+finished painting of a crowd of faces. We have seen whole tea-sets thus
+covered with what were said to be portraits of the poets of the Mikado's
+empire, executed with the most perfect finish upon a ground of pure
+gold. On the inside of one shallow dish there were no fewer than
+sixty-five portraits, on a ground of gold, and on the outside was a
+landscape set in flowers. A plaque of the same ware had eighty figures,
+on a gold ground, surrounding a medallion with flying birds. The
+porcelain chosen for these curious and wonderful works is generally
+thick and of inferior quality, but the effect of the red and gold
+grounds, occasionally alternated with blue, is unquestionably rich.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.--Owari Porcelain, decorated at Yeddo. (Yoshida
+Kiyonari Coll.)]
+
+At Owari, the favorite colors would appear to be deep-blue and white,
+the former being generally used as a ground, the latter for
+ornamentation. The seat of the manufacture is Seto, a village near
+Nagoya, the chief town of the province of Owari. Many of the heavy
+vessels now manufactured at Seto have no artistic quality to recommend
+them, but smaller specimens of great beauty may occasionally be met
+with. A small vase, for example, has the base of deep blue, the body of
+a paler shade, and the upper part deepening into a purplish tint. In
+some cases the white decoration is in relief.
+
+The porcelain and pottery reaching us from Yeddo (Fig. 134), or Tokio,
+is largely composed of the different provincial products. They are taken
+to that city to be decorated, and it is almost impossible in the great
+majority of cases to specify the place of manufacture.
+
+Two remarkable methods of decorating porcelain bring us to lacquer-work
+and cloisonne enamel. Lacquer is a sap or gum drawn by tapping from the
+_Rhus vernicifera_, a tree cultivated for this special purpose
+throughout the entire southern half of Japan. After settling, the
+lacquer is mixed with certain coloring and hardening powders, and
+strained. The black quality is made by exposing the viscous gum for a
+few days to the open air, and then diluting it with water which has been
+for some time mixed with iron filings. The greater part of the water is
+then allowed to evaporate, and the process having been completed, the
+lacquer is ready for use. The ornamentation consists either of
+mother-of-pearl, ivory, or metal sunk into the lacquer before it
+hardens, or of painting. A pair of tall Arita vases (Fig. 135) which
+were exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition are examples of this work.
+Cloisonne enamel on porcelain (Figs. 136 and 137) is to be regarded
+chiefly as a curiosity of workmanship, and as an example of the
+irresistible tendency discoverable in Japanese artists to cope with
+mechanical difficulty, since the very same effects are produced with
+greater ease upon a metal base. Fine metallic lines divide the surface
+into spaces or cells shaped according to the details of the design, and
+are fixed to the biscuit by means of a fusible glass. The compartments
+are then filled with vitrifiable enamels. These adhere after firing, and
+help in keeping the cells in position. The chief places of manufacture
+are Owari, Kioto, Osaka, and Tokio.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.--Lacquer on Arita Porcelain. Height, 8 ft. 8
+in. (Corcoran Art Gallery.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.--Tokio Cloisonne Enamel. (Sutton Coll.)]
+
+The system of classification which has hitherto been followed has been
+adopted mainly in view of the modern manufactures of Japan. In looking
+at its more ancient wares, the place of manufacture being, us a rule,
+unknown, the method of assortment usually adopted is that based upon
+general characteristics and marked features of resemblance.
+
+Following the Chinese parallel, there are, as we have said,
+Chrysanthemo-Paeonian and Rose families, but no Green. The symbols,
+whether consisting of flowers or animals, are the best and safest
+indications of the origin of the piece. Many of the finest specimens
+belong to the Rose family, and it may as well be stated at the outset
+that, in spite of the most careful examination, it is sometimes
+impossible to ascribe its representatives to a certain origin, and to
+discriminate between the works belonging to China and those of Japan. It
+follows, that the finer pieces are at least equal to anything China has
+produced. The Japanese used to say that human bones formed one of the
+ingredients of the paste, and a meaning can easily be found for the
+phrase in the vast amount of labor demanded by its preparation.
+Specimens of the best qualities are as plentiful in Europe as in Japan:
+perhaps they may become more so, should the revival now expected not
+fulfil the hopes entertained regarding it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.--Owari Cloisonne Enamel. (Sutton Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Japanese Vase. White, Red, Rose, and Green.
+Blossoms on Left; White Enamel Raised. Height, 6-1/2 in. (Robert H. Pruyn
+Coll.)]
+
+Jacquemart classes all the fine porcelain of Japan under the Rose
+family, to which would, therefore, belong the vase (Fig. 138) with white
+enamel decoration in relief. The subdivision of the family into vitreous
+and artistic porcelain, leads us to examine the grounds upon which it is
+made. The distinction between the two classes is based upon the styles
+of decoration. In both qualities the paste is very translucent, and the
+colors are pure and clear. The decoration of the vitreous is sparing,
+and of most careful execution, as though the artist were desirous of
+giving full effect to the natural beauty of the ware in its unadorned
+purity. Decorations of this kind gradually merge into more elaborate
+designs, in which flowers are strewn in careless grace over the
+opalescent paste, or animals are represented in gold and red. In the
+artistic porcelain the decoration partakes more of the Chinese intricacy
+and richness of color. Red, blue, green, yellow, and black mingle in
+scenes in which appear birds, figures, and flowers surrounded by deep
+and delicately shaded borders. It is inferred, from the gradually
+increasing elaboration of the designs, that the vitreous preceded the
+artistic, and that the latter, while tolerably distinct from the Chinese
+Rose, is the result of Chinese influence.
+
+By reason of his faulty chronology, M. Jacquemart's inference is open to
+question, although in the present case he appears to have reached a
+partial truth. The condition of both China and Japan, as it can be
+gleaned from history, detracts somewhat from the probability of the
+assumptions of the author mentioned. Europeans first landed in Japan in
+1542--almost contemporaneously with the earliest manufacture of
+porcelain--and, in 1549, the first missionaries followed. In about
+thirty years (1581) one hundred and fifty thousand converts had been
+made, and, in 1583, an embassy was sent to the Pope by the daimios of
+Kiusiu. This is the Japanese embassy referred to by Mr. Marryat, as
+having taken place in 1584, on which occasion statuettes of the Virgin
+and Child, made by the Chinese for the Japanese Christians, were sent to
+Europe. But foreign intrigue and sectarianism soon culminated, and, in
+1587, Hideyoshi banished all foreign missionaries. The work of
+proselytism was still carried on in private by the Jesuits, and, in
+1596, a number of missionaries and converts were crucified at Nagasaki,
+in Hizen. The history of the next forty years is a narrative of
+desperate contention between the missionaries and converts on the one
+side, and the government on the other. The drama may be said to close
+with the massacre already referred to, which took place in 1637, when
+thousands of Christians were put to the sword, and thousands more were
+drowned in the harbor of Nagasaki.
+
+Mr. Marryat says that the interference of the missionaries with the
+decoration of porcelain, by substituting scriptural subjects for the
+"ancient orthodox native patterns which had existed from time
+immemorial," is supposed to have contributed to the massacre. In
+connection with this subject the same author quotes from D'Entrecolles,
+who states that a plate with a biblical subject was brought to him, and
+that he was told this porcelain was formerly carried to Japan, but that
+none had been made for sixteen or seventeen years; that apparently the
+Christians of Japan had made use of this manufacture during the
+persecution, but that discovery led to a stoppage of the traffic, and
+that, in consequence, these works had been discontinued at
+King-tehchin. Mr. Marryat then refers to the Chinese pieces sent with
+the Japanese embassy to Europe. Assuming the statements in these
+passages to be correct, it is well to bear in mind that they refer to
+three distinct fabrics. To arrange them chronologically, the last
+mentioned is the porcelain made by China for Japan, before its own
+porcelain industry was well established, or before it had, at least,
+been fully developed. This supports the statement that porcelain was not
+made in Japan until shortly before the middle of the sixteenth century.
+Otherwise, the question will at once occur, Why, if porcelain had been
+made in Japan since the thirteenth century, should China be supplying it
+with religious figures before any steps had been taken in Japan against
+the new religion? The first of these measures, as we have seen, was the
+decree of Hideyoshi, passed in 1587. The porcelain first referred to by
+Mr. Marryat comes second in point of time, and is the porcelain assumed
+to have been made in Japan, in the beginning of the seventeenth century,
+for the Christian converts. The second is, chronologically, the last,
+and is the porcelain made in China, about 1755, for the same people,
+secretly adhering to their religion one hundred and twenty years after
+the supposed extirpation of Christianity in Japan. Pere d'Entrecolles
+was attached to the King-teh-chin mission, about 1770.
+
+While the religious troubles above detailed were keeping Japan in a
+continual ferment, China was disturbed by the incursion of the Tartars
+and the usurpation of the Tai-thsing Dynasty.
+
+In Japan we have, therefore, an undisturbed period of not more than
+fifty years (1540-1587) favorable to the development of that originality
+which, according to Jacquemart, preceded the imitations of Chinese work.
+Some singular evidence, which may be read, in one sense, to the same
+general effect, has been brought together by Mr. B. Phillips, in the
+_Art Journal_, in an article devoted to the Medicean porcelain in the
+Castellani collection. He says that two Japanese experts examined the
+specimen engraved (Fig. 223), and pronounced the decoration Japanese.
+The style they attributed to Shonsui, and said that it was in use toward
+the middle and close of the sixteenth century. A piece made by Shonsui
+bore out the statement, it having similar decorations, even to the
+flutings, which had been shaded after the same method. If the Medicean
+bowl be examined, simplicity will be found to be the most marked
+characteristic of the decoration; and it is clear that it must have been
+copied from some Japanese porcelain made not later than 1580.
+
+It may, therefore, be accepted as an incontestable fact, that there was
+an essentially Japanese style of decoration, in the sixteenth century,
+applied to the blue Sometsuki, the porcelain destined for the home
+market. This leaves the question of precedence between the vitreous and
+artistic porcelains of the Rose family practically unaffected. The
+probabilities are all against M. Jacquemart's, or any other unqualified,
+theory of chronological sequence. The natural course is to proceed from
+copying to originality. Japan had acquired the ceramic art from China.
+Was it not likely to occupy its attention first with copying the simpler
+styles of its experienced neighbor, while feeling after an equally
+simple originality, such as the Italians copied in their turn? From the
+first it may have had foreign taste to contend with, although very
+little is said of a Portuguese trade in porcelain. Then came religious
+troubles to delay the development of a national art, and, before they
+were over, the dynastic war in China, causing a suspension of production
+in that country, offered an inducement to supply a new market, and thus
+again delayed the national development. One historical fact remains to
+be added: In the "_Ambassades Memorables_," published at Amsterdam in
+1680, we find allusion made to porcelain sent from the Dutch
+trading-post at Deshima, which did not sell well, _because it had not
+flowers enough upon it_. This clearly cannot refer to the "artistic"
+porcelain of Jacquemart, with its rich borders and crowded flowers. The
+only inference from all that can be said and legitimately assumed is,
+that the Hizen porcelain of the beginning of the seventeenth century is
+that which most nearly resembles the Chinese. To that period, therefore,
+may chiefly be assigned those rich pieces of Japanese Rose which have
+been confounded with the Chinese. When, afterward, the native taste for
+simplicity was striving to reassert itself, it was again obstructed by
+the demands of Dutch trade, and the requirements of such connoisseurs as
+Wagenaar, who objected to a paucity of flowers. It follows that many
+specimens of the vitreous class must have been subsequent to the
+artistic. From the beginning of the history of Japanese porcelain
+external influences were at war with native taste, and, in determining
+the sequence of styles, the only data open to consultation are the
+events ostensibly giving rise to them--the demand creating the
+supply--and the probable condition of the skill required to meet that
+demand.
+
+The porcelain long called "Indian" belongs to the same period of
+Japanese art, and was taken home in ship-loads by the Dutch monopolists
+of the seventeenth century. The foreigners, not content with compelling,
+by the influence of trade, a bending of Japanese styles to their taste,
+supplied special designs. These were reproduced by the Japanese artists
+with the most exact and faithful precision.
+
+A story is told by Captain French, of New York, that when in China some
+years ago, he saw fit to increase his wardrobe to the extent of a new
+coat. He had some difficulty with the native artist of the shears, and
+ultimately decided to send him an old coat as a pattern. In due time the
+new garment was finished, and so closely had the pattern been followed,
+that the sleeves were adorned with a couple of patches which had been
+applied to the old coat to prolong its natural term of service to the
+end of a protracted voyage. The Japanese artists were equally
+unreasoning in their adherence to designs supplied from Holland. They
+laid them upon the porcelain in all their crudity and roughness, and
+treated imperfections as the tailor did the patches--reproduced them
+with the most serious and unwavering fidelity to their model. Contact
+with foreign nations has never had any other than a bad effect upon
+Japanese art, excepting, of course, its early intercourse with China.
+The genius of the people has been diverted from its natural channel. Art
+has been in a manner subjugated by commerce. Hence came gloomy
+forebodings and threatened ruin. Whenever it had an opportunity of
+seeking free expression it changed its character. Instead, therefore, of
+classifying Japanese porcelain according to the families above
+mentioned, a better method might be to divide it into two great groups,
+the national and the commercial. A great part of the so-called artistic
+porcelain of the Rose family will belong to the latter class. It can
+only be distinguished from the Chinese by observing the points already
+noticed: the paste, the glaze, the greater purity of the enamel colors,
+the insignia, symbols, and flowers. Even these will fail at times, as
+the Chinese, led away by the improvements effected by the Japanese in
+imitating their styles, did not hesitate to appropriate those of Japan;
+while Japan, we are told, imports Chinese egg-shell for decoration.
+
+Apart from these doubtful pieces, we can see, in both the old and modern
+porcelain of Japan, national characteristics struggling with many
+difficulties to reach artistic expression. We find technical skill
+handling the finest material, shaping it into graceful form, and
+decorating it with carefully compounded colors of the greatest beauty.
+The true history of Japanese art is the history of the art we have
+called national; all else is but the prostitution of individual genius
+to commerce. In the former we find simplicity and piety mingled with a
+humor often quaintly clothed in clay. There is abundant material for
+research, for study and close examination. The art of Japan has many
+peculiarities, and will give an observer ideas of artistic beauty and
+aesthetic taste which an American or European education would never
+suggest. In it we find, above all things, a deep love and admiration of
+nature. All this is contained in the lines of the Laureate of the
+Potter, which are charged with the very essence of Japanese art:
+
+ "All the bright flowers that fill the land,
+ Ripple of waves on rock or sand,
+ The snow on Fusiyama's cone,
+ The midnight heaven, so thickly sown
+ With constellations of bright stars,
+ The leaves that rustle, the reeds that make
+ A whisper by each stream and lake,
+ The saffron dawn, the sunset red,
+ Are painted on these lovely jars.
+ Again the skylark sings, again
+ The stork, the heron, and the crane
+ Float through the azure overhead,
+ The counterfeit and counterpart
+ Of nature reproduced in art."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+PERSIA.
+
+ Persia, and its Influence.--History.--Conquests.--Religious
+ Revolutions.--Zoroaster.--Mohammed.--Geographical
+ Position.--General View of Influences bearing upon
+ Art.--Decoration.--Flowers and Symbols.--Conventional
+ Styles.--Whence came the Monsters Appearing upon Wares.--Metallic
+ Lustre.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Persian Faience Plaque. (Robert Hoe, Jr.,
+Coll.)]
+
+It is unfortunate, considering the great importance of Persia in the
+history of ceramic art, that it should have been a debatable ground to
+travellers and ceramists. Of the extended influence of Persia upon
+neighboring countries there can be no doubt. The Arabs acquired from
+that people much of the knowledge which they subsequently brought to
+Europe, and which will be treated of more fully as Saracenic and
+Mauresque. Persia gave a language to the Mussulmans of India, and
+supplied her with at least suggestions in the plastic art. Her art, in
+fact, spread far beyond the wide bounds of that empire, which extended
+from India on the east to the Mediterranean on the west, and from the
+Black Sea and Caucasian range on the north to the Persian Gulf and
+Arabian Sea. To have an exact knowledge of the problems with which we
+have now to deal, the several great revolutions recorded in the history
+of Persia may be briefly summarized. These changes were both religious
+and political in character. Beginning with Cyrus the Great, we find the
+empire as above described, about the year B.C. 559, when Media became
+tributary to Persia, into which other kingdoms were afterward merged in
+quick succession. The empire lasted until B.C. 331, when Alexander the
+Great included Persia in his grand series of Asiatic conquests. On
+Alexander's death, when the tributaries of Macedonia were divided,
+Seleucus Nicanor obtained Persia for his share; and the Grecian dynasty
+lasted until the Parthians revolted, and met with such success that a
+Parthian dynasty was founded which lasted for nearly five hundred years.
+This brings us down to the year 229 of our era, when Artaxerxes headed a
+revolt and laid the foundation of the second Persian empire. This is
+known as the Sassanian Dynasty, which held the sovereignty until the
+incursion of the Arabs, more than four hundred years later. Persian
+independence was reasserted after the lapse of a second period of four
+hundred years, and lasted until Genghis Khan and Tamerlane successively
+brought it under Mogul domination. The succeeding wars with Afghans,
+Turks, and Russians need not here be detailed.
+
+The two great religious revolutions were occasioned by the adoption of
+the doctrines of Zoroaster and Mohammed. The first of these appears to
+have suddenly emerged from the comparative obscurity of the court of
+Bactria--a country situated upon the eastern confines of ancient
+Persia--and to have led the Persians to renounce their gross idolatry.
+The leading tenets of his creed were the existence of a supreme being,
+eternity, and the contending principles Ormuzd and Ahriman, good
+symbolized by light and evil by darkness. The never-ceasing contention
+between these two opposite principles is often represented by a bull and
+a lion in conflict. The cypress was Zoroaster's emblem. This religion
+took a deep hold upon the Persians, and the first serious shock which it
+sustained was from the religion founded by Mohammed in the wilds of
+Arabia Petraea. Of the two Mussulman sects, Schiites and Sunnites,
+created by the dissensions following upon the Prophet's death, as to the
+choice of a successor, the Persians preferred the former, and are
+believers in Ali. The Turks, on the other hand, are Sunnites, believers
+in the legitimate succession of Abubeker, Omar, and Osman. Propagandism
+by the help of the sword being the privilege and virtue of the believers
+in the Prophet, it is not astonishing that Turk and Persian should have
+met in the argument of battle.
+
+Coming next to the geographical position of Persia, it intercepted, in
+its ancient extent, all communication between East and West. The vast
+extent of territory owning its sway, stretching nearly three thousand
+miles east and west, and two thousand miles north and south, must needs
+be traversed by travellers between Europe and the extreme East. Long
+before navigators had found the ocean highway round the Cape, Persia
+received all the traffic from India, China, and Japan passing through
+the Persian Gulf to Europe.
+
+Let us now take in all that has here been stated, at one glance, and we
+shall see clearly why Persian ceramic art has been viewed with doubt.
+Overrun successively by Greeks, Parthians, Arabs, Moguls, and Turks;
+widening and contracting its boundaries as the tide of conquest ebbed
+and flowed; lending to India, and probably borrowing from it; taking
+part, at one time, in the Zoroastrian worship of fire, and, at another,
+in the Mohammedan praise of Allah; connected, through trade, with the
+far East on the one hand and with Europe on the other, Persia was
+pre-eminently a country to confuse the investigator by the mingled
+types, symbols, and ideas which it derived alike from conqueror and
+trader. One fact of peculiar interest remains to be added. When, in the
+middle of the thirteenth century, Hulaku Khan came to Persia, he brought
+among his Mogul followers a number of Chinese artisans. The Mogul
+territory touched the western boundaries of China, so that it is quite
+possible, that to the specimens of Chinese porcelain brought to Persia
+by sea may have been added a number of Chinese artists and potters
+arriving with the Moguls by land. In view of these facts it is not
+difficult to account for the prevalence in Persia of imitations of the
+Chinese, nor is it altogether incomprehensible that a question should
+have been raised whether what is called Persian porcelain is not in
+reality Chinese.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Persian Plaque. Crimson Paeony in Centre;
+Foliage and Ground in various Shades of Green. (Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts.)]
+
+Persian decoration is rich in flowers (Fig. 140), for which that people
+entertained a liking amounting almost to a passion. The tulip meant
+love. Of the other symbolical forms found on pottery, the lion and bull
+and the cypress have already been explained. The sun was the Zoroastrian
+emblem of divinity, and the royal arms consisted of the lion couchant,
+with its head turned toward the rising sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Persian Plaque. Central Section, Blue; Side
+Section, Green; Scroll-work, Brown. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The various styles of decoration may all be qualified by one
+word--conventional. Although on the earlier pieces the human figure is
+found, with the Mussulman sway it disappears, to make way for hybrid
+monsters resembling the half-human beings of mythology--compounds of
+women and birds, men with horns and tails, like the satyrs of Greece,
+and numberless other supernatural monsters illustrative of the artists'
+compromise with the Mohammedan behest forbidding the representation of
+the human form or of living beings. Even the greatly loved flowers
+suffer in both tint and form from the artists of Persia. Colors were
+used in a precisely similar spirit. Nature was sought for suggestion,
+not for imitation. The question of color was decided solely with an eye
+to effect; and if a violet horse should harmonize with its surroundings
+better than a black, gray, sorrel, or bay, the fact that in nature no
+such color is found on horses was not held to be a legitimate objection
+to its use. In Persia, therefore, we are presented with a peculiar phase
+of art. Nature, being followed neither in form nor color, nor in the
+suggestive manner of the Japanese, which finds the highest art in the
+combination of resemblance and imagination, is relegated to the position
+of a promptress, and not of a guide. In richness and harmonious blending
+of arbitrary colors, the Persian artist realized his highest dream, and
+never forgot that, no matter what natural object might enter into his
+design, the ornamentation of pottery was surface decoration, and nothing
+more.
+
+Before proceeding to the usual divisions hitherto observed, there is one
+point demanding special attention, viz., the Persian _reflet
+metallique_, or metallic lustre. The use of metallic-lustre pigments
+was, as has been already stated, known in the Balearic Islands, and gave
+the _original_ majolica its distinctive appearance. Long before that
+date the process was known to the Persians in connection with silicious
+glaze. The metallic lustre has also been found on Arabian specimens. It
+is in Persia, however, that we must, in all likelihood, look for its
+origin. The date of its invention cannot be fixed with even an
+approximation to precision. The probability is that it was never very
+extensively used, and the specimens obtained are mostly fragmentary.
+Many of these are from the ruins of Rhages, a city which stood about
+seventy miles south of the Caspian Sea. Earthquake and conquest
+successively laid this city in ruins, and each time that it was rebuilt
+its limits became more contracted. It was finally destroyed during the
+Mogul irruption under Hulaku Khan, in 1250, and it is from the ruins
+beyond the city of that era that the above mentioned fragments have been
+taken. In fixing the origin, therefore, of metallic lustre, the latest
+date would be six hundred and twenty-seven years ago, the most remote
+perhaps over two thousand. The metallic-lustre pigments were made use of
+as late as the time of Shah Abbas, who reigned from 1555 to 1628, and
+whom Jacquemart calls the "Louis XIV. of Iran."
+
+
+POTTERY.
+
+ Composition.--Caution in Looking at Specimens.--Wall-Tiles and
+ their Decoration.--Vases.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Shrine of Imam Hussein, at Kerbela. Showing
+the Use of Tiles in Persian Architecture.]
+
+Chemical experiments have shown that in one kind of Persian paste there
+is a large preponderance of silex, that when fired for a certain time
+the result is a faience, and that a continued exposure to the kiln
+reduces it to a partially translucent body resembling porcelain. Some of
+the tiles show silica ranging about ninety per cent., and the remaining
+fraction consisting of alumina and iron, lime, magnesia, and potash. By
+comparison with the porcelain standard adopted in the table (Book I.,
+Chapter iii.), it will be seen that this paste differs in the greater
+proportion of silica and in the presence of iron. It differs from
+earthen-ware, on the other hand, by its containing magnesia and potash.
+The faience of Persia must, therefore, be treated with extreme caution;
+and the authorities must be consulted with care, since what one calls
+pottery, another treats of as soft porcelain. Of that coming most nearly
+to what we understand by the word "faience"--that is, a perfectly opaque
+ware--some of the specimens are glazed, and others are covered with only
+a thin lustre or varnish. Very fine examples are found in the wall-tiles
+taken from the different mosques. The same style of ornament was
+applied to these and to vases, and its general character has already
+been designated. Arabesques and flowers--some imitations of the natural
+and others altogether conventional--are profusely spread upon both, with
+a boundless wealth of rich color. The forms assumed by the various
+vessels differ very widely from each other. Cups, open dishes with rims
+of varying breadth, and a number of water-vessels illustrate certain
+manners of the Persians. The color and ornamentation are distinctive.
+The favorite ground colors were the blues of copper and cobalt, and
+these alternate with red, and yellow tinged with red. The ornamentation
+is very often white. The Mosque of Sultaneah has already been described
+(see page 39). In others the colors are reversed, _i. e._, white is used
+for the ground and blue for the decoration. At times we see the Persian
+love of the chase triumphing over the Mohammedan prohibition of the
+employment of animal figures, by the introduction of hares or gazelles,
+generally upon grounds of light shades of green and blue. Some of the
+most remarkable plaques belong to the same period, and in both the
+earlier and later examples the coloring is exceedingly rich and
+effective. What the latter lose in simplicity they gain in brilliancy.
+Some pieces, apparently of great age, have a close resemblance to the
+celadon of China. The vases _a reflet metallique_ are either blue, or
+white with yellow ornamentation. The art of applying the lustre seems to
+have disappeared about the middle of the seventeenth century. The tiles
+of this kind date mostly from the time of the Mogul Dynasty. The larger
+plaques measure sometimes six feet by eight feet; the smaller tiles
+without inscriptions are star and cross shaped fitted together in a
+mosaic.
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ Had Persia a True Porcelain?--Classification, and the Difficulties
+ Attending It.--Decoration.--Classes Formed by Prevailing Color.
+
+Although the discussion was long maintained, whether or not Persia
+produced a true kaolinic porcelain, there seems to be no real ground for
+doubting that such was the case. That India produced porcelain we have
+already seen, and it becomes a question whether the art was not
+practised elsewhere in Central Asia. The evidence bearing upon the
+point clearly shows that Persia possessed the materials for making a
+pure kaolinic porcelain. The presence of Chinese works and styles does
+not affect the question. These may either have been the work of Persian
+artists imitating Chinese models, or of Chinese artists working in
+Persian material. The Persians call porcelain _tchini_, a name clearly
+indicating that in one of the above ways they were indebted to the
+Chinese.
+
+By reason of the qualities of the paste already noted, the
+classification of Persian porcelain is a matter of some difficulty. The
+analysis which could alone decide the class to which the specimens
+belong is in a great measure wanting. It may be inferred that two
+pieces, apparently distinct in composition, may be really identical, and
+representative merely of the successive changes effected by firing upon
+the silicious paste. The most ancient kind is not older than the
+Mussulman incursion. When subjected to a great heat it melts like glass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--Persian Porcelain Wine Bottle. Decoration in
+Blue. (Jacquemart Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Porcelain Narghili.]
+
+What is called "soft porcelain" is not, properly speaking, a distinct
+variety. It differs from the others in decoration, but not to any
+perceptible extent in composition. The paste is very translucent, and
+the glaze even. The external decoration is frequently blue or a tint of
+mixed brown and yellow, upon which appear flowers and arabesques (Fig.
+143). Cups and basins are the shapes most frequently occurring, and the
+first decorative feature is that the outside and inside are seldom
+alike. The latter may be white, with copper-lust re decoration, and the
+outside may be in either of the two colors above mentioned. A style of
+decoration very widely followed consists of a series of holes cut in the
+paste round the rim of the basin or bowl, and filled in with the glaze.
+This method was adopted at a very early period, and reappears in the
+"grains of rice" work of China. A later specimen--probably not more than
+two hundred years old--of Persian "soft" porcelain has its upper and
+lower parts in blue and white, with lustred ornamentation.
+
+Persian natural porcelain, about which writers have disputed, and called
+by the Persians _tchini_, is closely related to the Chinese. An entire
+class is characterized by its decoration of incised lines and blue
+painting under the glaze. The paste is somewhat coarse, and lacks
+cohesion. As to the antiquity of this quality, all that can be said is
+that it was produced a long time prior to the fifteenth century. Red and
+gold are seldom employed with blue, but rather characterize a distinct
+class. Green was much more indiscriminately employed, as, for example,
+with blue, brown, red, and gold. The celadons are to be distinguished
+from the Chinese, not by the color--for they show the beautiful old
+green of their Chinese counterparts--but by the design and form. All
+that remains to be added is, that, like every other people to whom the
+higher secrets of ceramic art were open, the Persians attached a very
+great value to the best works in both porcelain and pottery. The former
+is, in their literature, constantly associated with gold and other
+precious materials.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK III.--EUROPE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE FOUNTAINS OF EUROPEAN ART.
+
+ Routes by which Art Travelled.--Their Point of
+ Convergence.--Cyprus: Its History.--The Successive Nations
+ Governing It.--The Strata of Ancient Civilization found within its
+ Shores.--The Discoveries of
+ Cesnola.--Larnaca.--Dali.--Athieno.--Curium.--Progress of Cypriote
+ Pottery.--Early Greek Art: Its Connection with Assyria and
+ Egypt.--Phoenician and Assyrian Art.--General Deductions.--Asia
+ Minor.--Oriental Art turning in various Streams to Greece.--What
+ Greece Rejected, Persia Seized upon.--Persia's Contributions to
+ Ceramic Art.--History in Reference to its Art.--Effect of
+ Conquest.--What Persia Taught the Arabs.--Spread of Persian Art by
+ the Saracens.--Rhodes.--Damascus.--Progress of Saracenic Art.--The
+ North of Africa.--Metallic Lustre and Stanniferous
+ Enamel.--Hispano-Moresque.--Early Spain.--Persian Influence upon
+ Europe.
+
+
+We now approach a point in our history which stands within sight both of
+the wonders of early Greece and of the beginnings in the Middle Ages of
+the best ceramic art of Europe. From Persia, as a centre, art travelled
+north and west by many devious routes ere it touched the European
+shores. But behind the Persian is the older civilization of Babylonia
+and Assyria, to whose glories it succeeded. We are thus once more
+brought back to Egypt and Egyptian influences. After spreading to the
+east they extended northward, and in Greece are met by others transmuted
+by a passage through Assyria and Phoenicia, but springing from the
+same prolific source on the banks of the Nile. Persia, after acquiring
+from Egypt's eastern pupils her earliest knowledge, adapted the lessons
+thus derived to her own ideas, and spread it across the tracts already
+followed by others who had learned directly from her teachers. From both
+the south and east these lines of original and derivative art converged
+toward one point, the eastern shores and islands of the Mediterranean
+and Greece. To show how difficult it is to disentangle the web of
+footprints, let us glance at Cyprus, as revealed to us by the
+discoveries of General Luigi Palma di Cesnola (Fig. 145), and described
+in his work upon "Its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples." The record
+may be read by all who visit the Metropolitan Museum of New York. We
+choose Cyprus because it was virtually the meeting-place of the East
+with the West. Assyrian, Egyptian, Phoenician, and Greek influences
+contend for the mastery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--General Luigi Palma di Cesnola.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--Phoenician Vase, with Figure. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+There is no certainty as to the derivation of the first settlers. They
+may have been either Phoenicians or Cilicians, and thus only another
+branch of the great Semitic family to which the Phoenicians belonged.
+Or colonists may have arrived from Cilicia and Phoenicia at about the
+same time. There is less reason for believing that any settlers came
+from Egypt, although the first historical conquest of the island was
+effected by the Egyptians. This event took place about B.C. 1440, during
+the reign of Thothmes III. How long it remained under Egyptian control
+does not exactly appear, but it next passed into the hands of the
+Tyrians at a date prior to B.C. 1000. It was next conquered by Sargon,
+King of Assyria, and when, about B.C. 600, Apries, King of Egypt, took
+Sidon, he included Cyprus in his conquest. Amasis, the successor and
+murderer of Apries, completed the work of the latter. The Cypriotes then
+turned for deliverance to Cambyses of Persia, and Cyprus became a
+dependency of the great eastern power. Again the island was shaken by
+revolt, and the greater part of its people joined the Ionians in an
+unsuccessful attempt to throw off the Persian yoke. The Athenians and
+Lacedaemonians, after taking a portion of Cyprus (B.C. 477), abandoned
+their conquests. Then came the rebellion of Evagoras, King of Salamis,
+whose father had been dispossessed by the Persians, the result of which
+was that Evagoras recovered his own kingdom, but the island still
+remained tributary to Persia. It then fell under the control of
+Alexander of Macedon, and was held by his generals for a few years after
+his death. Ptolemy Lagus, or Soter, again brought Cyprus under Egyptian
+rule, and lastly came the arms of all-conquering Rome. We need go no
+farther. We stand in Cyprus, upon a battle-field crossed by the armies
+of every nation of antiquity with any claim to warlike renown, and find
+in it at once the theme of ancient poets and the prize of ancient
+warriors. So far we may travel in the track of war, but the history of
+art is affected less by the conquest of battle than by permanent
+occupancy and the more peaceful conquest of colonization. Thus we find
+Phoenician art leaving a deeper impress upon Cyprus than any other,
+and one to be detected even amidst the confusion of Semitic and Hellenic
+remains. This art developed, on the one hand, into something bearing a
+semblance of an independent Cypriote character, and, on the other, into
+a form more distinctively Greek. Phoenicia was the country in which
+the Assyrian and Egyptian elements of decorative art were combined, and
+being brought on the other side into contact with Greece, the history of
+Greek art is thus continued backward into a remote antiquity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Phoenician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--Phoenician Vase, from Dali, with
+Phoenician Inscription. (Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+The early Phoenician settlers located themselves chiefly on the
+southern and eastern sides of the island; the Greeks chose the north and
+west. Both were evidently actuated by the same motive, viz., to give the
+preference to the localities nearest the land from which they had come.
+The Phoenicians founded Paphos, Amathus, and Citium; the Greeks
+founded Salamis, Curium, Neo-Paphos, and several other towns. Tencer and
+Agapenor, two of the Greek heroes from the Trojan war, settled in
+Cyprus, and the island is thus introduced into Grecian legend. As time
+passed, the Greek and Phoenician elements underwent a more or less
+complete amalgamation. The Greek language became the prevailing tongue,
+and the Phoenician religion became the common creed. Aphrodite, who
+sprung from the foam of the sea, and was wafted to the shore of Cyprus,
+was the Tyrian Astarte, the Assyrian Mylitta. Her worship extended over
+the whole island, and was engaged in with all the licentious impurity of
+the Oriental original. Greece rose as Phoenicia declined, and her
+people spread beyond the limits of their ancestral settlements. One
+civilization rose upon the ruins of another, and died in its turn; and
+Cesnola found them piled one upon another in strata, to be opened up and
+read like the stony leaves of the geologist's book.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Phoenician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+That this is literally the case can be very easily shown. General di
+Cesnola began his excavations at Larnaca, on the southern shore of the
+island, or near the ancient Citium, or Kittim, a Phoenician city. Near
+this city have been found a number of terra-cotta statuettes, which
+General Cesnola ascribes to the fourth century before our era. He thinks
+they were imported from Greece. They were accompanied by others, poorly
+executed, and some figures suggestive of Phoenicia and Egypt. It was
+here that the vase, Fig. 150, was discovered. Crossing the Santa Croce
+range, he found, at Dali, on the plain of Messaria, the necropolis of
+the Phoenician city Idalium. He began his excavations among the
+Phoenician tombs, and exhumed a great quantity of pottery of several
+shapes. The vases are of light-colored clay, and are variously decorated
+with geometric patterns and concentric circles in brown color. One of
+them (Fig. 148) has a Phoenician inscription, and all the others were
+evidently Phoenician. Above the tier of tombs from which these were
+taken, a second tier was discovered, of a different epoch, and
+containing objects of a totally different character. Earthen-ware gave
+place to glass in all the shapes found in Greek pottery, the amphora,
+lekythos, krater, kylix, and others. Many were of a formation so
+evidently late that the discoverer ascribes them to the Graeco-Roman
+period. Here then, was Greek and Phoenician work reposing in
+juxtaposition. An explanation was found by returning to the Greek tomb
+which had been first opened, and under it was discovered the
+continuation of those of the Phoenicians. The Greek Idalium had grown
+upon the ruins of a Phoenician predecessor, and hidden under the ashes
+of the one Cesnola found the necropolis of the other. On prosecuting his
+researches in the latter, the type of pottery again altered, and the
+decoration of concentric rings reappeared. At Alambra, west of Dali, he
+found a number of small clay images--horsemen, warriors, chariots, a
+representation of a procession, and vases of two kinds. He made
+excavations in five burying-grounds, all apparently belonging to the
+Phoenician Idalium; and from a mound in the same district he obtained
+a collection which, from the combination of Egyptian and Assyrian forms
+and decoration, may be assumed to contain some of the most ancient
+relics of Phoenician art. Two green-glazed bowls have Egyptian
+paintings, and the vases occasionally take the form of animals and
+birds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Assyro-Phoenician Vase, from Larnaca.
+(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+Striking eastward from Dali, the explorer reached Athieno, near the
+ancient Golgoi, and there came upon a necropolis and an ancient temple
+of Venus. The most remarkable fact concerning the statuary brought from
+this locality is that the lines of nationality are so broad and well
+defined. General Cesnola then determined to push his explorations
+toward the East, and, after visiting Salamis, turned westward to Paphos,
+Neo-Paphos, and then northward to Soli and other places on the northern
+shore. Returning to the southern shore, a number of terra-cotta vases
+and figures of the Phoenician type and Egyptian green-glazed vessels
+were exhumed at Amathus. A statuette of Astarte and figures of Egyptian
+deities were found almost together. Lastly, General Cesnola visited
+Curium, a city said to have been founded by an Argive colony. There he
+found pottery of the usual mixed types, including vases, terra-cotta
+figures, and one large vase (Fig. 151), so strongly marked with Greek
+influences that he ascribes it to the earlier period of Greek art. Both
+General Cesnola and Mr. A. S. Murray think that it may have been taken
+to Curium from Greece. Its four handles, its great size, and its
+elaborate decoration make it unequalled among the vast number of
+Cypriote relics in the Metropolitan Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Greek Vase, from Curium. Height, 4 ft. 9 in.
+(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+In constructing a theory of the progression of Cypriote pottery it is
+necessary to examine closely the different styles of ornamentation. On
+some we find Assyrian symbols and characteristic styles of decoration;
+on others the figures are as evidently Egyptian. Thus the archaic vase
+from Larnaca (Fig. 150) is just such a work as might be expected from
+the Phoenician founders of Kittim while still directly under the
+domination of Assyrian ideas. The pattern between the animals is
+distinctively Assyrian. In a similar manner the vase (Fig. 146) is
+decorated with an Egyptian figure, but in the subsidiary decoration--the
+plaited pattern on the sides and the concentric circles arranged
+vertically--there is nothing indicative of Egyptian influence. We see in
+it the work of a potter who combined an Egyptian suggestion with a more
+independent form of ornament. It has already been said that, of all the
+nations of antiquity, the Phoenicians are most strongly marked by
+influences emanating from Egypt, on the one hand, and from Assyria on
+the other. To this people, therefore, we may attribute the two vases
+last referred to.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Phoenician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+It is also necessary to bear in mind that, while certain symptoms of
+independence on the part of Cypriote potters must be appreciated at
+their full value, there are no evidences of the potter's art ever having
+developed among them to any great extent. It is possible that the
+effeminate, voluptuous nature of the people prevented the attainment of
+artistic superiority. It is also possible that their skill in working
+metal may have distracted their attention from clay. In either event we
+discover no well-defined gradation from the lower to the higher, such as
+we find in Greece. Cyprus may have been still wrapped in slumber, while
+Greece was striding forward in the full vigor of its young life. It may
+have been following its ancient models, while Greece was turning from
+the old to the new and original. It is difficult, therefore, to ascribe
+with precision the Cypriote pottery to any given age. A rule by which to
+determine such questions has been laid down in this way: vases painted
+with linear designs are the most ancient; then follow those with animal
+figures; lastly come those with human forms. Cypriote pottery makes the
+application of such a rule extremely hazardous and difficult. How apply
+it to the vase with vertical rings and human form and head (Fig. 146)?
+The figure is Egyptian, and might, for that reason, carry us back to the
+conquest by Thothmes III., were it not that it represents the latest
+style of decoration according to the accepted rule, while the remainder
+of the decoration belongs to the earliest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Phoenician Pottery, from Curium. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.--Phoenician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)]
+
+The practice of ornamenting with concentric rings is an application to
+pottery of a pattern borrowed from working in metal. Cyprus was famed
+for its copper, and, from the legendary age downward, exported armor and
+weapons of bronze. It is not singular, therefore, if on some of the
+ruder relics of the potter we should find this ornament. In the curious
+circle of vases (Fig. 153) we see arranged round the base the concentric
+rings, which were in time transformed into the Greek spiral. The same
+pattern is exemplified in the specimen from Curium (Fig. 154), from
+which, and from several others in the Metropolitan Museum, it might
+almost be inferred that the vessel had been shaped to suit the favorite
+style of decoration. A cognate style, also having its origin in
+metal-working, is that represented in the vase from Dali (Fig. 148),
+sufficiently authenticated by its Phoenician inscription. It belongs
+to a very large class, which appears to extend from the earliest times
+down to the beginning of purely Greek art. It will be observed that the
+squares run both horizontally and perpendicularly, an arrangement much
+more noticeable in many other specimens. One of the earlier examples is
+seen on the bird-shaped vase in the illustration Fig. 155. In what is
+probably a much later vessel, a swan with circular body and triangular
+wings makes its appearance. This is the rude attempt at decorating with
+figures of an artist skilled only in geometrical designs. One point is
+to be particularly noted before leaving these vases, viz., that in that
+bearing the Phoenician inscription, the vertical lines or bands give
+place to horizontal bands round the upper part of the body and neck. The
+Greeks invariably make use of the horizontal band.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Phoenician Vases, found at Dali. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Phoenician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.--Phoenician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)]
+
+The approach to Greek art is marked by the introduction of several new
+features. In the vases from Curium (Figs. 149, 156, and 157), the lines
+are horizontal, the shapes improve, and the spout, consisting of a woman
+holding a pitcher, is indicative of a skill in moulding and an
+originality in designing, having little in common with the ruder forms
+from the same city. This is one of the ideas which seems never to have
+occurred to the modern potter, whose most fantastically turned and
+severely shaped spouts contrast most unfavorably with the simple yet apt
+design of his old Phoenician predecessor. The Phoenician vase with
+animal figures from Dali (Fig. 158), is the ancestor of a large class of
+early Greek pottery similarly decorated. The shape and the encircling
+horizontal bands recall early Greek work, and the animal forms point to
+an Asiatic influence transmitted in part through Phoenicia, but
+probably also through other channels, to Greece. The style is rare among
+Cypriote vases. It is carried farther in the large vase from Curium
+(Fig. 151), which is remarkable as a combination of the Cypriote
+rectilinear method of decoration, the earlier form of the Greek fret,
+the Asiatic style of animal decoration, and the culmination of the
+Cypriote rows of concentric rings found in the bands of spirals. This is
+one of the most remarkable vases in the Cesnola collection, and also one
+of the most important links between the art of Greece and those of
+Phoenicia and the East. Even admitting it to have been made in Greece,
+and thence taken to Curium, it is in perfect harmony with the
+Phoenician vase last referred to, on the one hand, and with that
+bearing the Phoenician inscription on the other.
+
+The Greek vase and cups from Dali (Fig. 159) show a new motive in the
+decoration. The spirals give place on the vase to a running scroll,
+painted with a free hand; and in the kylix on the left, the concentric
+circles become semicircles, festooned round the lip after the fashion of
+lambrequins. In the kylix on the right, the rectilinear designs and
+enclosed squares become the fret. It will be seen hereafter, when we
+come to speak of Greece, how the forms of the kylix improve.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.--Phoenician Vase, found at Dali. (Cesnola
+Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+While we cannot assign an exact age to any of these works, we can see
+how the beginnings of the art of Greece can be traced to a much more
+remote antiquity than was previously apprehended. Mingling in the heroic
+age with a people uniting in itself much of the civilization of Assyria
+and Egypt, the Greeks were acquiring the knowledge which their own
+artistic genius subsequently turned to such brilliant account. The
+highway is complete from Greece to untold antiquity. We learn,
+therefore, from the relics brought together by General Cesnola, that the
+view taken of the devious course followed by ceramic art is correct.
+Egypt gave instruction to all. In her is the spring of ancient art. The
+Phoenicians studied under her Assyrian pupils, and the two branches,
+from Phoenicia and Egypt, met in Greece, and there appeared in a new
+form, more refined, and reflecting a higher ideality and a keener
+sensitiveness to the subtlest lines of beauty. Di Cesnola has found in
+Cyprus their point of contact, and has disclosed to our eyes the
+teacher and scholar sleeping in a common grave.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.--Greek Vase and Cups, found at Dali. Cesnola
+Coll., (N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+Should it be asked if in Cyprus alone we must look for the ceramic
+remains of Phoenicia, the Land of Palms, the answer must be negative.
+It is true that few relics have come down to us from the sites of her
+domestic industries. But let us glance briefly at the history of that
+wonderful country, wonderful alike in enterprise and in science. Ptolemy
+Claudius, writing in the second century, says that Phoenicia extended
+from Egypt on the south to the Eleutherus on the north, and eastward to
+the confines of Syria; or, in other words, that to it belonged the
+entire eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Like all other eastern
+nations, it changed its boundaries as the successive waves of war swept
+over it. First came the Persians, then the Greeks, and, lastly, the
+Romans. When enjoying its independence, in an earlier age, it was the
+disseminator of the knowledge which, to a great extent, it acquired in
+Egypt. To Greece it gave its alphabet, the foundation of the literature
+which has kindled the admiration of the scholars of all times. Its
+navigators passed the Pillars of Hercules and reached the shores of
+England. Phoenician colonies were founded all along the Mediterranean,
+at Utica and Carthage on the south, and at Marseilles in Gaul. Here,
+then, was a people gathering in from every side all that the world
+could give of art and science, and spreading its knowledge with every
+keel which, from the great ports of Tyre and Sidon, furrowed the
+Mediterranean. As might be expected, therefore, the remains of its
+ceramic art and the evidences of its influence are found in Cyprus,
+Malta, Egypt, Carthage, Greece, Sicily, Rome, and Etruria.
+
+The ceramic remains found on the Phoenician coast are nearly all
+referable to her later conquerors. One specimen is singular and
+suggestive. It was found at Tyre, and is a polished cruse, with round
+body, long neck, wide lips, and a handle joining the neck and body. It
+resembles the Egyptian too closely to leave any doubt of the origin of
+its style and manufacture. After our previous experiences we are quite
+prepared to meet a mythical Phoenician worker in clay; but his
+presence does not disturb our inferences. It merely pushes back to a
+prehistoric age the date when the first of Phoenicia's debts to Egypt
+was incurred. Other examples, fragments with Phoenician inscriptions,
+give further hints of the immediate well-spring of Grecian art.
+Phoenician vases are found in Sicily. Egypt and Carthage teach the
+same lesson, and illustrate the wide-reaching enterprise of the Tyrian
+founders of Carthage.
+
+Turning northward from Phoenicia to Asia Minor, the evidences of
+ceramic skill point to identically the same conclusion. Let us take the
+older first. There, as in Cyprus, we meet with early traces of Hellenic
+art. Across the AEgean sea, on the shores of Asia Minor, Greece again
+touched the older arts of Assyria and Egypt. The coffins found in
+Mesopotamia are after the Assyrian type. From Tarsus come terra-cotta
+works ornamented with green, in a simple style, closely allied to the
+Greek. At Rhodes has been found a vase or pitcher of turquoise blue,
+ribbed perpendicularly, and crossed at intervals by horizontal bands.
+Such specimens take us back again to Egypt. In short, the history of
+Asia Minor, its existence successively under Scythians, Medes, and
+Persians, while it was receiving the surplus population of Greece from
+the west, would lead us to look for what we only found in part in
+Cyprus, namely, native styles moulded by influences from east, west, and
+south. These generalizations are offered as a substitute for a more
+connected history, for the construction of which intelligibly the
+materials are wanting. Enough has been said to show that through many
+different channels the arts of Egypt and the East set, in a long and
+steady stream, toward Europe; that there, meeting with the rising
+Hellenic civilization, they were transmuted and purified, and that from
+the Hellenizing process emerged the admirable art now called Greek.
+
+Meanwhile it is to be noted that, so far, we have made allusion to only
+one-half of the debt which Europe owes to the East. Greece rejected the
+rich coloring and fantastic forms which reached her from the centre of
+all that was most brilliant in ceramics--the land between the Tigris and
+Euphrates. These were seized with avidity by Persia, the only survivor,
+in our time, of the four great monarchies of the East. Bright colors and
+gorgeous combinations were grateful to the eye revelling in the splendor
+almost unconsciously associated with the word "Oriental." To Persia,
+therefore, we must look, not only as the great conservator of previous
+skill, but as the medium of its development into a higher form. That
+part of her inheritance from Assyria and Babylonia which concerns us
+now, was the knowledge of processes, of the deft mingling of colors, the
+production of tints, and the skilful application of enamels. We have
+seen to what purpose this knowledge was cultivated, in so far as the
+evidences found within her own borders can show. We have seen what may
+here be especially recalled, enamels and metallic lustre applied to
+pottery, with an almost bewildering brilliancy.
+
+We now approach the question of Persia's contributions to the art. Can,
+for example, none of the remains exhumed by Cesnola be claimed for
+Persia? It appears not, at least not with certainty, although certain
+plaques convey a hint of Persian workmanship. Whatever she left in
+Cyprus, if anything, is hardly to be distinguished from the older works
+of Assyria and Phoenicia. Had Persia, then, no originality, and where
+beyond her own limits must we look for its distinctive impress. Let us
+return for a moment to Persian history. We have already seen that the
+country was occasionally overrun by surrounding nations, but the fact is
+noticeable that when it could not resist, it absorbed its assailants.
+Its nationality was preserved even in conquest. A similar capacity for
+assimilation and independence is seen in its art. There can be no doubt
+of its having drawn from Assyria and Babylonia. Its most ancient
+architecture is sufficient to settle that point. But apart from that,
+and keeping in view the influence of Mohammedanism and the influx of
+Chinese wares and possibly workmen in the sixteenth century, the art of
+Persia is marked throughout its entire course by certain distinguishing
+features which invasion could not obliterate. The artistic instinct was
+strong in the people as a whole; and conquest retarded the progress of
+art only to see it rise again in all its first vigor, to be spread far
+and wide even by those who had for a time hindered its native growth. In
+this way we can trace its advance to Asia Minor and Rhodes, through
+Egypt, along the northern coast of Africa, and thence to different
+points in Southern Europe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160.--Saracen Tile. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y.
+Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.--Saracenic Tiles. Green and Dark-blue on White.
+(Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The tracks we now follow are those of Eastern art in its second and more
+modern progress toward the west. Persia was its real source. When the
+Mohammedan Arabs overran Iran, they found art the handmaid to beauty and
+luxury, to which they had been strangers. Essentially nomadic, the wild
+fanatics from Arabia had given little attention to aesthetic culture.
+They were captivated by what they found in Persia. If they modified it,
+it was only to make it conformable to the behests of their religion. We
+find, for example, a faience tile representing the sacred Temple of
+Mecca, in two shades of blue, red, black, and pale-green, and with a
+border of white and red. It is easy to imagine the caliphs of Bagdad
+calling to their assistance the men whose works they had seen, to
+complete the embellishment of their capital. The style called arabesque
+is in all probability of Persian origin. In every collection of note are
+examples of what is called Saracenic pottery. The Arabs were called
+Saracens when they came to Europe, or met the arms of the Crusaders in
+Palestine. Saracen pottery, therefore, is Persian modified by Arabian
+taste or local style. And here, to save much trouble, and avoid the
+confusion into which disputants over the wares of Damascus, Rhodes,
+Cairo, and other localities might lead us, it may be as well, once for
+all, to understand that at no place of which we have any knowledge were
+the Saracens the first to introduce a rudimentary knowledge of pottery.
+What they did was to bring with them certain distinctive styles; and
+now, when all proofs of an earlier fabric are wanting, we may safely
+take it for granted that it existed, and that the invaders and colonists
+only superimposed a superior art. This should be borne in mind, because
+it would be impossible to account for the abundant remains found on
+certain sites by attributing them all to the Saracens. One of the first
+things to which the Arabs turned their attention in each country to
+which they carried their arms, was to raise mosques for the religions
+observances attaching to their faith. The tomb of Mohammed, at Medina,
+is covered with tiles so closely resembling those of Persia as to
+suggest not only Persian inspiration, but Persian workmen. In Asia Minor
+tiles belonging to the eleventh and twelfth centuries are abundant, of a
+precisely similar character. History explains their presence there by
+telling us that the Arabian or Saracenic conquerors sent for artists
+from Persia to bring their skill to the embellishment of the new domain.
+In this we have the key to much of the ceramic art of Asia Minor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Faience Jug, from Rhodes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.--Faience Jug, from Rhodes.]
+
+As to Rhodes and the origin of its faience (Fig. 162), we are tolerably
+certain that in Persia was the source of the skill there developed.
+History and tradition point to the same conclusion. Legend says that a
+vessel bound for Venice, and having some Persian potters on board, was
+wrecked on the island, and that there a manufactory was founded (Fig.
+163). Possibly on this tradition the conjecture was based that a Persian
+colony had settled there. In any case, Rhodes was occupied by Persians
+in the seventh century, and then by the Greeks. When the crusading fever
+was at its height, the knights of St. John held the island until
+expelled by the Turks. It was probably these knights who captured a
+vessel laden with Persian pottery and artists, and compelled the latter
+to found the manufacture at Rhodes. At the Musee de Cluny are specimens
+of their work, plainly Persian, but adapted to the changed condition and
+limited appliances of the potters. The Rhodian differs little from the
+Persian. The colors are less brilliant, and the ornamentation in relief
+is like that found on vases and tiles in Asia Minor. The predominating
+colors are white and blue for grounds and red for designs. Similarly as
+to Damascus, it is beyond reasonable doubt that potteries existed there.
+Their ruins are said to have been found; and it is probable that, so far
+from importing the wares, Damascus supplied orders from without. These
+facts lead to the conclusion that Persian art was carried by the
+Saracens or their Christian opponents to the same countries that
+Egyptian and Assyrian art had reached centuries before.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Maghreb Urn.]
+
+Turning now to the south and west, we follow the line of Saracenic
+conquest along the north coast of Africa until it reached the Atlantic
+Ocean. Egypt first fell under Mussulman control, and the standard of
+Islam was carried westward from the Nile. Thirteen hundred years after
+Battus founded Cyrene, the Mussulman Keironan was built upon its ruins.
+In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco the Saracenic works multiply. One
+traveller in Tunisia describes a mosque with the walls overlaid with
+tiles of many patterns. Another, crossing Algeria, visits the mosque at
+Telemeen, and finds _azulejos_ (from the Arabic for "varnished tile")
+equal to those of Granada, and tiling in blue, red, and yellow, again
+compelling a comparison with the works of the Moors in Spain. The
+brilliant domes and mosaic pavements of mosques and houses mark the
+Saracenic progress. Besides these, many examples of urns and other
+vessels of Saracenic fabrication have been found, colored in brown,
+yellow, blue, and green, in styles not far removed from the Persian.
+Viewed comprehensively, the pottery of Northern Africa (Fig. 164) would
+show pieces of local fabrication, and Persian styles and processes
+modified by removal from their eastern centre. What concerns us chiefly
+is that the Saracenic predominates. It is reasonable to suppose that the
+invaders, in order to decorate the edifices which quickly gave
+indication of their presence, sent for tiles to the seats of the
+industry in the East. Afterward, when the Mussulman power had been
+firmly established, factories were built, and a new industry rose among
+the conquered people. Imitations are mingled with works showing a
+developing originality. The Mussulman and Persian traditions become
+modified, and the symbolical meaning of the animals painted on the
+dishes and basins appears to have become obscure to the artists
+employing them as decoration.
+
+A great deal of the African pottery can only be taken as a basis for
+conjecture. Its place of manufacture is unknown. Its style is peculiar
+and its coloring unique. It is not impossible that European art was
+paying the debt it had incurred to Southern teachers. Ceramic art
+travelled with the Saracens wherever they went. How far that was may be
+estimated from the fact that they conquered within eighty years as much
+territory as it had taken Rome four hundred years to bring into
+subjection. They crossed into Spain, Sicily, and Italy, and there
+planted settlements. A great deal has been said of the _reflet a
+metallique_ and stanniferous enamel, and notably of the _discovery_ of
+the latter in Italy. Both came from the East, and reached Europe through
+the Saracens. The employment of tin in producing a white opaque enamel
+was, as we have seen, known to the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and
+Assyrians. It does not appear to have been so highly esteemed as the
+silicious glaze by means of which the Persians worked their greatest
+ceramic wonders, but it was not forgotten. Fragmentary evidences of its
+use by the Saracens are found in the places which they passed, and it
+is, at least, more reasonable to suppose that through them the process
+reached Europe, than that it was rediscovered there. One is almost
+wearied with the endless conjectures on these matters. We find a certain
+art in the East. We trace the different channels of communication with
+Europe. We find Greece touching Asia Minor, trade binding Phoenicia
+with every port in the Mediterranean, Etruria bringing to her own ports
+the manufactures of Eastern experts, colonies settling in all manner of
+places and coming from many sources. It has been plainly demonstrated
+that the lines of intercourse cross and recross in a hundred different
+ways and directions. When, therefore, we have it proved to a
+demonstration that analogous knowledge was transmitted by certain
+routes, it is hardly worth one's while to discuss the European discovery
+of a process which we know did not originate there, however much it may
+have been improved.
+
+The art which we call Hispano-Moresque might, therefore, with equal
+propriety, be called Persico-Spanish or Hispano-Saracenic. Spain was
+twice overrun by Mohammedan conquerors. In the eighth century (711) the
+Arabs subdued the Goths and founded the Caliphate of Cordova. It is both
+singular and disappointing that no ceramic relic of this period has
+been found. The Spanish, even under the sway of Rome, had attained to a
+comparative excellence in the art, and the productions resulting from
+the union of original traditions with Arabian influences would have
+formed an interesting link in our history. The Arabians remained for
+about five hundred years, when, in 1235 the Moors overturned the Arab
+rule, and founded the kingdom of Granada. The Moors succumbed, in their
+turn, to Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492, and between these two dates,
+1235 and 1492, was the golden era of the ceramic art of Spain.
+
+Meantime it is to be observed, as showing the possible and actual extent
+of Persian influence:
+
+_Firstly._--That under the Moorish sway a colony of Persians existed in
+Spain. This, according to Major R. Murdoch Smith, is attested by a
+document recently brought to notice by a Spanish traveller in Persia,
+assigning the town Rioja to the Persians as their place of residence.
+
+_Secondly._--That mosaic work has been found in Persia, composed of star
+and cross shaped tiles of different colors fitted together, and that
+similar tiles are made in Spain at the present time.
+
+_Thirdly._--That in Persia are found the prototypes of the Spanish style
+of ornamenting vaults with hanging-work, like plaster stalactites.
+
+_Fourthly._--That, according to Piot, "numerous Persian faience plaques
+and pieces of vases, resembling those of our own time, are found
+encrusted in the white marble of a church in Naples."
+
+_Fifthly._--That Mr. Drury C. Fortnum has found a specimen of Persian
+ware in the church of St. Cecilia, at Pisa. The piece is clearly Persian
+in style, black arabesques on a blue ground, similar to others found at
+Rhages.
+
+_Sixthly._--That the Saracens overran Sicily in the ninth century, and
+that a Moorish colony landed there some centuries later.
+
+The corollary deducible from these facts is clear, viz., that in Persian
+art, as brought into Europe by the Moors, Arabs, or Saracens, and by the
+Persians themselves, we must find the bridge upon which to cross from
+the ancient arts of Assyria and Babylonia to those of Italy and Spain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GREECE.
+
+ General Character of Greek Ceramics.--Form and Color.--Borrowed
+ from Egypt and Phoenicia.--How Original.--UNBAKED CLAY: Bricks
+ and Statues.--TERRA-COTTA: Where
+ Used.--Tiles.--Models.--Vessels.--Pithos.--Amphora.--Pigments used
+ on Terra-cotta.--Rhyton.--GLAZED WARES: Quality of
+ Glaze.--Paste.--Enumeration and Description of Vessels.--Uses of
+ Vases.--Chronological Arrangement.--Methods of Making
+ Vessels.--Successive Styles of Ornamentation.--Figures.--Earliest
+ Style.--Archaic Style.--Human Figures.--"Old Style."--Approach to
+ Best Art.--"Fine Style."--"Florid Style."--Decline.--Classification
+ according to Subjects Represented on Vases.--Reliefs and Statuettes
+ as Decoration.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Early Greek Aryballoi. Egypto-Phoenician
+Style. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+Were we to be guided solely by continuity in point of time and the
+succession of ideas, our next subject would be the art of Spain and
+Italy. We turn, in preference, to that of Greece. It claims the
+precedence due to priority of date. It holds also a position of what
+might be called isolation. Its general character has been indicated in
+the Introduction. The severity and simplicity of the taste of the Greek,
+and his indifference to effects in color, while permitting him to
+receive suggestions from Egypt and the East, led him to disregard those
+adjuncts of art which they held in highest esteem. To him beauty of form
+was everything, color little or nothing. The former he brought to such
+perfection that no advance has been made beyond the point he reached.
+Greek form embodies all that can be said of grace and proportion. We may
+imitate, but we can hardly hope to excel, what Greece accomplished in
+her early bloom. We may find prototypes in Egypt for some of her vessels
+(Fig. 165), but still her art, the culmination of all that was best in
+preceding forms, is pre-eminently her own. We say this without
+disparagement to those who were her teachers. To Egypt, in particular,
+Greece turned, at a remote age, for instruction, and learned from
+Phoenicia and the other nations with which trade brought her into
+contact. In this connection the group (Fig. 166) of vases from Athens
+may be compared with the Phoenician from Cyprus. There are in the
+decoration the same geometrical designs, the same vertical concentric
+circles, the same animal figures which the Phoenicians drew from
+Assyria. But after making every allowance for suggestions from abroad,
+after conceding that Grecian art is the development of that which
+preceded it, and that it occupies a well-defined place in progressive
+history, we fail to find anywhere the equals of the best ceramic works
+of Greece.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Primitive Vessels, from Athens and Argos.]
+
+Taking them as a whole, they are divisible into unbaked; terra-cotta, or
+burnt clay, without a glaze; and glazed. The Greeks employed unbaked
+clay for bricks, statues, and several kinds of decoration. The former
+were used for city walls and buildings. Terra-cotta was devoted to
+similar purposes. It is not improbable that we may yet return, to a very
+considerable extent, to the ancient employment of this material in
+architecture. The Greeks made use of it for pillars, roofs, paving,
+bricks, friezes, cornices, lamps, statues, flower-pots, and numberless
+domestic and sepulchral vessels and ornaments. Bricks do not appear to
+have been held in very high esteem in building, but the custom of
+roofing with terra-cotta tiles was widely prevalent and of great
+antiquity. These tiles were occasionally embellished with painted
+flowers, and designs in blue, red, and yellow. The terra-cotta figures
+vary in color from red to bright yellow, and are soft in texture and
+easily marked. Terra-cotta models were used in casting, and in the same
+material were made copies of statues, like those in plaster of Paris of
+our own time; and some painters were even accustomed to make terra-cotta
+models of the figures they afterward painted. Of the specimens which
+have come down to us a very great number consists of small statuettes of
+the gods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Greek Vase, from Apulia. (Louvre.)]
+
+The vessels of terra-cotta are either domestic or sepulchral. The
+largest was the _pithos_, which, as we have seen, was large enough to
+hold a man satisfied with such limited domestic conveniences as
+Diogenes. There were also _amphorae_, large vases, somewhat smaller than
+the _pithoi_; _phialai_, or saucers, plates, pots, and jugs. Of these
+the _amphora_ occurs most frequently. Its name is derived from
+_amphis_--on both sides, and _pherein_--to carry, and it is so called
+because it had two handles, one on each side, to be grasped by the
+person carrying it. It is easily recognized (see Fig. 2) by its sharp
+base--so made to be stuck in the ground--its oval body, its long neck,
+and its generally heavy lip. The cover was conical, and sometimes the
+base is surrounded by a ring of clay to keep it more easily in an
+upright position. The height of the _amphora_ ranged from three feet to
+over six feet, and it was used for holding wine, water, oil, and for
+storing figs and other edibles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.--Head of Minerva, with Figure of Nike. (Prime
+Coll., N.Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+Various pigments were applied to terra-cotta, including white, red,
+green, and blue, the use of which, in painting statues and architectural
+decorations, formed a distinct branch of art. Colors are also found on
+sepulchral vases, some of which are further ornamented with applied
+bas-reliefs; that is, made separately, and fixed to the vase before
+drying. This practice was carried to such an extent as to represent a
+combination of the arts of potter, painter, and sculptor (Fig. 167).
+Closely allied to the cinerary urns were the vases intended solely for
+ornamental purposes. In one of extraordinary beauty, a large and finely
+moulded head of Pallas Athene is seen surmounted by a full figure of
+Victory. There are many of a similar character, representing female and
+animal heads. The latter are found in the _rhyta_, or drinking cups. The
+ornamental vases were often painted after being covered with a white
+slip: evidently the case with the piece (Fig. 168) in Dr. Prime's
+collection.
+
+Before treating of glazed vases we shall give the leading denominations
+of all vases glazed and unglazed, and then the styles of decoration of
+the former as nearly as may be in their chronological order. They are
+said to be glazed, although the glaze is so slight that, as Mr. Fortnum
+says, "it leaves a barely appreciable effect upon the eye, beyond that
+which might be produced by a mechanical polish." It is altogether a very
+inferior kind of glaze, and is supposed to have been made from an alkali
+without any admixture of lead. The paste resembles terra-cotta, and
+varies in density, being in some cases scratched with ease, in others
+with difficulty. It can always be marked with iron. These facts are
+worth noting, were it only that that art may be thoroughly appreciated
+which, out of the poorest and commonest materials, has wrought forms of
+the most wonderful beauty.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.--Stamnos.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Askos.]
+
+The chief names with which we shall have to deal are the pithos,
+pithakne, stamnos, cheroulion, bikos, hyrche, lagynos, askos, amphorens,
+kados, hydria, kalpis, krossos, skyphos, or kothon, rhyton, lekythos,
+alabastros, krater, holmos, kelebe, oxybaphon, psykter, dinos, chytrai,
+tripous, oinochoe, prochoos, aryballos, epichysis, kotylos, kyathos,
+skaphe, kantharos, karchesion, kylix, phiale, kanoun, pinax, and diskos.
+
+The _pithos_, already described in part, was a large, open-mouthed cask
+or jar of unglazed earthen-ware, which was used mainly for the
+preservation of victuals and wines.
+
+The _pithakne_ was a pithos of smaller size used for holding wine.
+
+The _stamnos_ (Fig. 169) was an open-mouthed jar with two handles, and a
+body inclined to be oval, but of great rotundity, curving inward to a
+comparatively narrow base. It held liquids. The _cheroulia_ and _bikoi_
+were modifications of the stamnos, the latter being used for holding
+wine and solids.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Skyphos, or Kothon.]
+
+The _hyrche_ is not very well known, either in regard to its shape or
+purpose, but appears to have had a narrow neck, and to have been used in
+conveying goods a long distance. Its narrow neck is a tolerably sure
+indication that it was not intended to be stationary.
+
+The _lagynos_ also appears to have had a very narrow neck, and to have
+been of considerable size, varying according to circumstances.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Greek Rhyton.]
+
+The _askos_ (Fig. 170), literally a wineskin, which it resembled in
+shape, had an aperture and neck on one side, from which a handle passed
+over a hollow on the body to the other side. Both the _askos_ and
+_stamnos_ are frequently painted with red figures.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Krater, with Volute Handles.]
+
+The _amphora_, already described in the form it commonly took, may be
+called a general receptacle, although usually employed for holding
+provisions and liquors. There were many different shapes, which varied
+according to the district where made, and the special purpose for which
+they were destined. The chief kinds are the Egyptian, Apulian,
+Tyrrhenian, Panathenaic, Bacchic (Fig. 186), and Nolan, the last
+mentioned being the most perfectly finished, and unexcelled in
+gracefulness of shape. They were decorated with either red or black
+paintings.
+
+The _kados_ is the first of the vessels for drawing liquids, of which
+class the _hydria_ (Fig. 188) is the best known. Its name implies its
+purpose as a water-pitcher. It had two small side handles, and one
+larger one, somewhat similar to that of the modern ewer. The _kalpis_
+(Fig. 187) and krossos were modifications of the hydria.
+
+The _kothon_ (Fig. 171) is supposed to have been a drinking-cup.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Krater.]
+
+The _rhyton_ (Fig. 172) belongs to the later style of drinking-cups, and
+its peculiarity is that it could not be set down except when empty. The
+base is modelled after the head of a dog, goat, deer, or other animal,
+and the neck or cup proper is either cylindrical or elongated and
+sloped.
+
+The _lekythos_ (Fig. 305) was an oil-jar of an elongated shape, neck in
+proportion, cup-like orifice, and one handle. It is decorated in all the
+styles of Grecian art, and is generally about one foot in height. It was
+sometimes made of metal or marble.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Holmos.]
+
+The _alabastros_ was a diminutive lekythos, used for toilet unguents,
+with two small ears by which to suspend it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Kelebe.]
+
+The _krater_ (Figs. 173 and 174) was the vessel in which the Greeks
+cooled and mixed their wine, of which it would hold about three gallons.
+It is the later form of a class of vessels of which the _holmos_ (Fig.
+175), _kelebe_ (Fig. 176), and _oxybaphon_ (Fig. 177) are the earlier
+representatives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Oxybaphon.]
+
+The _psykter_, or wine-cooler, was a double-walled vessel of the amphora
+type, rotund in shape.
+
+The _dinos_ was another form of the wine vessel, open-mouthed, round in
+body and base, and allied to the krater.
+
+The _chytrai_ were warming-pots with two handles. The _tripous_, or
+three-footed pot, was employed in a similar manner.
+
+The _oinochoe_, in the shape most frequently occurring, resembled a jug
+with a lip either round or pinched in at the sides, and with a handle
+rising above the orifice. The oinochoe was used in serving the guests
+from the krater.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178.--Prochoos.]
+
+The _prochoos_ (Figs. 178 and 179) was also a jug, either with or
+without a handle, for either water or wine. The _olpe_ (Fig. 180)
+belongs to the same class.
+
+The _aryballos_ (Fig. 165) was round or bladder-shaped and short-necked,
+and bore a close resemblance to one of the toilet vases of the
+Egyptians.
+
+The _arystichos_ was also used for serving from the krater, a usage
+which gave rise to several other shapes. Of the cups designed for the
+same purpose, the _kotylos_ may be mentioned, although its shape is
+doubtful. The _kyathos_ (Fig. 181), or ladle, belongs to the same class.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.--Prochoos.]
+
+The drinking-cups were of many shapes and assumed great elegance of
+form. The several varieties cannot now be specified by description. The
+_skyphos_ was the generic name applied also to a few special shapes now
+unknown. The _kantharos_ (Fig. 182) was wide, somewhat shallow, with two
+handles rising well above the lip, and either with or without a stem.
+
+The _kylix_ (Fig. 183) was the cup most generally used, and varied in
+shape. In the earliest specimens it has a long stem, two handles, and is
+shallow and wide. The later forms are wider, and shorter in the stem,
+which ultimately disappears entirely. The _phiale_ was the religious
+counterpart of the kylix.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Olpe.]
+
+The _kanoun_, _diskos_, and _pinax_ were for table use, the two latter
+corresponding with our plates, with the exception that the diskos stood
+upon a stem or foot.
+
+Of the vessels named those deserving closest attention, as most
+frequently presenting themselves, are the kylix, oinochoe, krater,
+aryballos, kyathos, lekythos, rhyton, hydria, amphora, and pithos. The
+kylix is to be specially commended for its beauty of shape, and its
+decoration with red figures exemplifies some of the best art of Greece.
+
+From the descriptions given of the various vessels, it will be seen
+that many of them were devoted to household use. Vases were also made as
+toys for children, as prizes to victorious athletes, for holding the
+viands and liquids placed beside the dead, and more recently for the
+ashes of the dead. Among the exceptional uses of pottery by the Greeks
+may be mentioned the giving of receipts on potsherds, the recording on
+fragments of pottery of votes for ostracizing (from _ostrakon_, a
+potsherd) a citizen, and for deciding the side to be taken by the
+entrants for the game called _ostrakinon_. This last was decided by
+"tossing up" a piece of pottery, and assigning a side to the player
+according to its falling with the red or black side uppermost. Vases
+were also made in honor of great men and authors, whose names are
+inscribed on them. All the vases now in museums, numbering, according to
+different estimates, from twenty to fifty thousand, were taken from the
+tombs of Greece, Southern Italy, and Etruria. It was the custom to place
+beside the dead the vessels necessary for the religious rites, the
+favorite vases and prizes of the deceased; and in this way they have
+been preserved to illustrate in our age the branch of Greek art to which
+they belong. No precise age can be ascribed to any one specimen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Kyathos]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Kantharos.]
+
+The first glazed vases date probably from the ninth century before
+Christ, and from the beginning of the third century the art declined.
+It had probably reached its highest point four hundred years before our
+era.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.--Kylix. Black on Red. Female Faces and Feet
+White. Naked Satyrs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)]
+
+The earliest vases were made by hand, and even after glazing was
+introduced that method was continued. It was also resorted to in making
+the gigantic _pithoi_, which were too large to be turned on the wheel.
+The finer vases were made on the wheel or moulded. After being moulded
+they were dried and painted. There were two methods of painting. By the
+first the figures were outlined and then filled in, leaving them black
+on a red or pale ground. The vase was then glazed and fired. By the
+second the figures were left untouched and of the color of the paste, by
+painting the ground black. A color slightly different from that of the
+body was employed for the finer lines of the figures. The vase was then
+glazed and fired as before.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Early Greek Oinochoe, showing Phoenician
+Influences. About B.C. 700-500. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y.
+Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+We now come to the successive styles of ornamentation. The natural order
+would give the first place to the uncolored vases, the second to those
+painted all over in black, the next to the different styles of figures.
+In addition to what has been said in the Introduction, and to go more
+deeply into details, the following points may be noted in regard to the
+last of the above stages--the ornamentation by means of figures. These
+first took the form of simple belts of color drawn round the body of
+the piece. A vase of a later but still very early period has the space
+between the two zones passing round the widest part of the body filled
+in with vertical designs, alternating with small rings, each containing
+a cross (see Fig. 166). When animal and floral decoration was first
+attempted, the artist's work was rude and the forms were unnatural.
+White upon black grounds indicate the earliest style. Another very
+ancient style has the figures, which are all those of animals, painted
+in dark lines upon the pale red paste (Fig. 184).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Greek Oinochoe. Painting, Black and Reddish
+Brown. Height, 7-1/2 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Mus. of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The vases of the next, or Archaic, group vary in color from a pale
+yellow to a deep red, on which the figures are painted in a darker
+color. One of its leading features is the profusion of flowers. The
+presence of human forms, more or less skilfully drawn, may be taken as
+the criterion by which to determine the later members of this group.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.--Bacchic Amphora. Black on Red Ground. Height,
+15 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+In the next style (Fig. 186) human figures become more prominent in the
+designs, and are perfectly black, with the exception of the flesh of
+females, which is painted white or red. Many of the subjects are taken
+from mythology and the heroic legends. This developed into the "old
+style," where the black appears greatly improved; and while the hands,
+face, and exposed parts of the females are pure white, their eyes are
+red. The drawing is still stiff and constrained, and where attempts at
+perspective are made, they are eminently unskilful. White is also more
+plentifully distributed, and is seen in the hair and beard of old men,
+in horses, and in many accessories, for which red is also occasionally
+employed. As the art developed, red figures were more frequently
+introduced among those in black; and we also find the artist entirely
+obscuring the natural color of the paste by means of a white slip, or
+coat, upon which he painted the black figures.
+
+As we approach the best art of Greece the colors are inverted. The
+figures are drawn upon the paste of the red or yellow color of which
+they appear, and the rest of the vase is painted black (Fig. 187).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Greek Kalpis. Red Figures on Black Ground.
+(Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The "fine style," the culmination of Greek art, was a development of
+that last described. The black ground, red figures, and white ornaments
+show the highest point to which previous styles gradually led upward.
+Drawing and composition are here at their best. The early stiffness has
+given place to a fuller grace, and there is a nobility in the figures
+and faces to which the earlier artists never attained. The limbs lose
+their unnatural distortion, the muscles are less rigid--there is, in one
+word, more life in the drawing. The accessories also gain by the greater
+freedom of treatment. The drapery hangs more gracefully, its
+straight-lined stiffness giving place to a more natural arrangement.
+
+In the later specimens of this style--so markedly different from the
+earlier ones that they have been classed together as the florid
+style--there is a more minute attention to finish, a greater elaboration
+of dresses and other accessories, and a decided tendency toward finding
+the ideal human form in that which is most graceful. Gold appears in the
+ornamentation (Fig. 188), and arabesques encircle the necks. Polychrome
+vases were made at the same time, some of them showing the utmost
+excellence of figure-drawing, and draperies of blue, green, or purple.
+
+When the art began to decline, taste and execution both deteriorated.
+The figures lose their graceful proportions, and acquire a heavier
+appearance. They are also more crowded, and the dresses become more
+garish, until at last all refinement, both of conception and treatment,
+was lost in coarseness and grotesque puerility. The amphora (Fig. 189)
+illustrates the decadence.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Hydria. Black, with Gilt on Neck, and Red Rim
+with Black Studs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Greek Amphora, with Columnar Handles. Red on
+Black. From Canosa. Height, 20 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of
+Fine Arts.)]
+
+The classification of vases by the subjects represented upon them is
+unsatisfactory and confusing. Scenes are taken from mythology, heroic
+legends, funeral ceremonies, from civil life, and from the gymnasium,
+which permit neither of a chronological arrangement of the vases nor of
+one based upon their position in the scale of art. A distinct group
+might, without any loss of lucidity, be made of vases decorated with
+subjects in relief, or with statuettes arranged upon the body and neck.
+This was a union of sculpture and pottery occasionally embellished by
+the painter's art in the coloring of the drapery and subsidiary
+ornaments. Color was also applied to sculptured reliefs. A vase now in
+St. Petersburg is thus described: "It is a piece of very large size,
+with three handles, and of the finest and most lustrous glaze. It is
+ornamented at several heights with sculptured friezes in terra-cotta,
+and gilded; but that which gives it its priceless value is a frieze of
+figures from four to five inches high, sculptured in bas-relief, with
+the heads, feet, and hands gilded, and the vestments painted in bright
+colors--blue, red, and green--in the finest Greek style imaginable.
+Several heads from which the gilding has become detached show the
+modelling, which is as fine and as finished as that of the finest
+ancient cameo." Cups or vases with two heads, one on each side, such as
+Hercules and Omphale, illustrate the same branch of art. Such features
+as these, beautifully modelled relievos, ideal heads, figure scenes in
+which drawing and composition are almost above criticism, not less than
+its elegance of shape, have made the Greek vase a model for all time. We
+can trace Assyrian ideas in the decoration of some of the earlier vases,
+and Egyptian influences may also occasionally be detected. We can even
+find foreign models for a few of the Greek forms; but the Hellenizing
+process has obliterated every antecedent, and the art which Greece gave
+the world is as purely Grecian as if in every particular it were
+indigenous to the soil of that favored land.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE IBERIAN PENINSULA.
+
+ SPAIN: Ancient Pottery.--Valencia the Most Ancient Centre.--The
+ Roman Period.--Arabs.--Valencia under the Moors.--Its
+ Decline.--Malaga the Most Ancient Moorish Settlement.--The Alhambra
+ Vase.--Influence of Christianity.--Majorca.--Azulejos.--Modern
+ Spain.--Porcelain.--Buen Retiro.--Moncloa.--Alcora.--PORTUGAL:
+ Vista Allegre.--Rato.--Caldas.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Hispano-Moresque Vase. End of 13th Century.
+(S. Kensington Mus.)]
+
+A mere glance is all that is necessary to bestow upon the ancient
+pottery of Spain before we resume the history of the Moorish
+fabrications in that country. Valencia is the centre to which the
+greatest antiquity must be accorded. Pliny alludes to Saguntum, now
+called Murviedro, as having twelve hundred potteries, and Martial is not
+stinted in his praises of their work. All the remains found there are of
+the Roman period, and are classed under red Samian ware, and three other
+groups, of which one was of a yellowish color and another of pale
+terra-cotta. From that time we must make a great leap across the chasm
+between the downfall of Roman civilization and the first Saracenic
+occupation of the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century. Even then
+there is little to guide research. Arabian azulejos have been met with,
+and in 1239, four years after the Moorish kingdom of Granada had been
+founded, a charter was granted by James I. of Aragon to the Saracen
+potters of Xativa (San Felipe) relieving them from servitude on payment
+yearly of one besant for each kiln. We have no means of identifying the
+early works of these Saracenic workmen, and it is not until 1517 that
+they are referred to in literature as producing well-worked and
+well-gilded faiences, more highly esteemed than any other of Spanish
+manufacture. Several writers of the sixteenth century praise the
+Valencian pottery, but in the beginning of the seventeenth century it
+began to decline. Christian designs (Fig. 191) take the place of
+Moresque; and at the present day, according to Marryat, the
+metallic-lustred wares of Manises, near Valencia, are made by an
+innkeeper, who thus spends the time lying heavy on his hands by reason
+of a lack of guests in his inn. In the olden time the pottery of Manises
+was exchanged with Italy for that of Pisa, and was ordered by "the Pope,
+cardinals and princes admiring that with simple earth such things can be
+made." Such is the difference between now and then.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Spanish Majolica. Dark-blue and Brown Painting
+on White. (J. W. Paige Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+From the style of the decoration it would appear that most of the
+Valencian remains are to be attributed to the Christian period, _i. e._,
+after the thirteenth century. The general color is yellow with
+mother-of-pearl lustre. St. Catherine and St. John were highly venerated
+in Valencia, and this veneration appears in the frequency of their
+representation, either actually, or by their emblems, or in invocations
+and passages from the gospel of the fourth evangelist. The eagle--the
+emblem of St. John--and the opening words of his gospel appear also,
+however, on wares from Malaga and Majorca; and, further, the yellow
+lustre was produced at Barcelona. It is, therefore, evidently unsafe to
+ascribe, after an examination of general characteristics, individual
+specimens to a specific source.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--The Alhambra Vase.]
+
+Of the Moresque pottery it is probable that Malaga was the most ancient
+centre. Its golden pottery is spoken of as an article of export as far
+back as 1350. There also we are brought into contact with the famous and
+beautiful vases of the Alhambra (Fig. 192). The palace itself was built
+by Mohammed-ben-Alhamar, the first Moorish king of Granada, in 1273,
+with the intention, possibly of rivalling the richly decorated mosques
+of the Mussulman Arabs. The Alhambra vase is the only survivor of three
+of similar style found under the palace pavement. The others fell
+victims to the Vandalism of memento or relic hunters. The one still in
+existence is seven feet in circumference and four feet three inches in
+height. It is supposed to belong to about the year 1320. It is made of
+earthen-ware, and is decorated in three colors. The ground is white and
+the decorations are a golden yellow lustre and blue. The vase is not
+only a masterpiece of Moresque art, but a magnificent example of the
+decorative genius of the Moors, which spent itself in devising quaint
+combinations of lines and in a wealth of arabesque. There are many other
+pieces which, from their metallic lustre and blue ornamentation, are
+also credited to Malaga, and date from the middle of the fourteenth
+century. It is unfortunate that this exquisite art soon deteriorated. As
+we approach the Christian epoch we come upon the works of copyists
+devoid of intelligence, in whose hands the decoration they strove to
+follow loses its delicacy and meaning. The Valencian art with which we
+are acquainted was thus rising as that of Malaga was gradually, sinking
+out of sight. Faience was made at the latter place in the beginning of
+the sixteenth century. For a time the Catholic conquerors under
+Ferdinand tolerated the art. But intolerant zeal asserted itself,
+Moorish customs were suppressed, and at length the Moorish settlers were
+driven into exile.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--Hispano-Moresque Plaque in Frame. Diameter, 16
+in. Copper Color on White: Metallic Lustre. (Wales Coll., Boston Museum
+of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The third great centre of the ceramic art was at Ynca, in Majorca, the
+largest of the Balearic group of islands. Majorca was conquered by James
+I., in 1230, nine years before he took Valencia; and no Moresque
+specimen now known can be ascribed to a period preceding that date. The
+lustre of Majorca was very bright, and the ornamentation consisted
+mainly of scrolls and flowers. The other islands of the group, Minorca
+and Ivica, were also seats of the manufacture. We shall afterward see
+how closely Majorca was connected by its commerce with Italy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--Early Hispano-Moresque. (Boston Household Art
+Rooms.)]
+
+We have reserved the azulejos, or tiles (Fig. 194), the best indicators
+of the progress of Arabian art, for separate treatment. We find in the
+tiles of the Alhambra, in the buildings of Seville and the Cuarto Real
+of Granada (Fig. 195), the products of the same skill which embellished
+the edifices of Persia, Arabia, and the Maghreb. They are made of
+light-colored clay, covered with a stanniferous enamel, upon which are
+laid intricate designs in blue or golden lustre. The brilliant and
+dazzling beauty they lent to the interior of the Alhambra, from
+pavement, walls, and roof, can now only be imagined. So much did the
+Spaniards admire the azulejos, that they were employed, not only for the
+embellishment of public and royal edifices, but for the houses of the
+wealthy. Their manufacture is continued in Valencia down to the present
+day.
+
+From what has been said, the chronological sequence of the
+Hispano-Moresque potteries may, in part, be inferred. The most ancient
+is that resembling the Alhambra vase, decorated with blue and yellow
+lustre. As we come later down, the lustre assumes more of a golden hue,
+and becomes exceedingly brilliant, as we find it at Valencia, when the
+less dazzling wares of Malaga were falling into disfavor. The ruddier
+copper lustres are the farthest removed from the early wares. They excel
+in brightness, and show less restraint and chasteness of taste, and mark
+the decline from those works which have given celebrity to
+Hispano-Moresque pottery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195--Moorish Tile, from the Cuarto Real.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Early Hispano-Moresque. (Boston Household Art
+Rooms.)]
+
+The Spain of our day retains not even a semblance of its former
+greatness. What is best in its modern art, such as the terra-cotta of
+Barcelona, contains no tradition of ancient times. At the Centennial
+Exhibition, it was, as compared with leading European countries, poorly
+represented. It may be assumed that Seville, famous for its azulejos
+from the sixteenth century, and Valencia, which has an unwritten
+continuous ceramic history from the Roman epoch to the present day,
+would not send their inferior works to America. The former city was
+represented by a pyramid of wares showing great diversity of design and
+decoration. A large vase, best described as after the Alhambra type, was
+of a yellow lustre, and surrounded by narrow gilt bands. There were also
+a few smaller pieces of iridescent blue, green, and gold. A pair of
+vases with floral decoration on a red ground and black base hardly
+suggested relationship with the works exemplifying the exquisite taste
+of ancient Spain.
+
+The Valencian tiling was, as a rule, coarse and inartistic. On a series
+of wall-pieces were figures of some of the apostles, and a landscape,
+fairly drawn, but weak in color. The artist manifested an unfortunate
+predilection for a shading of brownish purple, which enhanced neither
+his figures nor landscapes. The old style of mosaic tiling was
+represented by some specimens composed of small star-shaped and
+elongated hexagonal tiles. There was no sign of the preservation of even
+a tradition of Hispano-Moresque art. We may turn to Spanish history for
+an explanation of this decadence, and find in the latter an illustration
+of its history. Its art was essentially foreign; and when it fell
+entirely into the hands of the Spanish, on the expulsion of the Moors by
+the bigotry of Philip II., its doom was sealed. We read the history of
+the ceramic art during its best days in Spain as an additional chapter
+to the Saracenic and Maghrebrian, and as that of a branch which, by the
+accident of location, and not from its having any element really
+Spanish, came to be known as Hispano-Moresque.
+
+We nowhere find any literary evidence that the Persians who settled in
+Spain exercised any practical influence upon its ceramics. Very likely
+they did; and, further, it is not improbable that commerce may have
+brought Spain into a closer connection with the East than is generally
+suspected. The early Hispano-Moresque works are so clearly suggestive of
+Eastern influence, that one is almost led at times to question their
+right to the name conferred upon them. As if to give the half-shaped
+doubt a more decided form, we remember also that as the art becomes more
+purely Spanish it declines from its ancient beauty. We can only admire
+and criticise the odd combinations of color and form; and while
+indulging in conjectures as to the immediate fabrication of the pottery
+under consideration, we must regard it as illustrative of the
+development of an art of Oriental origin.
+
+The manufacture of artificial porcelain in Spain was instituted, about
+1760, by Charles III., who took with him a number of workmen and artists
+from Naples. This accounts for the similarity between the Spanish and
+Neapolitan productions. The works were situated in the gardens of the
+Buen Retiro at Madrid, and were kept strictly secluded from visitors.
+The ware was of fine quality, and was said by some writers who had seen
+specimens at the palace, to rival that of Sevres. La China, as the
+Royal Manufactory was called, was blown up by Lord Hill during the
+Peninsular War, in 1812. A second manufactory was established at
+Moncloa, near Madrid, in 1827. Mention is also made of a factory of
+natural porcelain at Alcora, in 1756, but the reference must be accepted
+with hesitation.
+
+Of the ceramics of Portugal very little is known; but that little is
+sufficient to lead us to wish for more exact knowledge. In this matter,
+Portugal has not yet, in fact, been appointed to any recognized place in
+history. Her ceramic art has not been known to Europeans for more than
+ten years, and to Americans for little more than one; and we have no
+means of telling whence it was derived. Probably it came from Spain, as
+we learn that the Portuguese use azulejos as extensively as the
+Spaniards. We are further told that many of their imitations are
+exceedingly clever. Of the truth of this we have had ample evidence.
+None of the imitation Palissy ware exhibited at the Centennial was more
+realistic and full of life than that of Portugal. Some majolica vases,
+with coiled snake handles, were very creditable. The snake evidently
+plays an important part in Portuguese ceramics, as we met with it
+elsewhere, and notably as the handle of a fish-shaped dish. Very
+remarkable were the unique and droll little figures of painted pottery,
+sometimes grouped into a humorous scene, sometimes single, and
+illustrative of the national costumes. The humor which the Portuguese
+contrived to infuse into their art evidently lent the pottery section of
+their department at the Centennial its greatest attraction; and combined
+as it was with excellent modelling and colors, the nature of which we
+can hardly specify, it excited our curiosity to learn what historical
+background there may be to the art which now chooses such expression. A
+natural porcelain factory at Vista Allegre, near Oporto, is mentioned,
+and the faience fabrics of Rato and Caldas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ITALY.
+
+ Italian Art.--Whence Derived.--Greece and
+ Persia.--Divisions.--Ancient Roman and Etruscan.--Etruria and
+ Greece.--Questions Resulting from Discoveries at Vulci.--Early
+ Connection between Etruria and Greece.--Etruscan Art an Offshoot of
+ Greek.--Examples.--Best of Black Paste.--Why Etruscan Art
+ Declined.--Rome.--Nothing Original.--Its Debt to Etruria and
+ Greece.--Decline of its Art.--Unglazed Pottery and its
+ Divisions.--Glazed Pottery.--Samian
+ Ware.--Aretine.--Terra-cotta.--After Rome fell.--The
+ Renaissance.--Saracenic Influences.--Crusades.--Conquest of
+ Majorca.--Tin Enamel and Metallic Lustre.--Bacini at Pisa.--Lead
+ Glaze.--Majolica Made at Pesaro.--Sgraffiati.--Luca della
+ Robbia.--Sketch of his Life.--His Alleged Discovery.--What he
+ really Accomplished.--Where he Acquired the Secret of Enamel.--His
+ Works.--Bas-Reliefs.--Paintings on the Flat.--His
+ Successors.--Recapitulation of Beginnings of Italian
+ Majolica.--Chaffagiolo.--Siena.--Florence.--Pisa.--Pesaro.
+ --Castel-Durante.--Urbino.--Gubbio and Maestro Giorgio.--Faenza.
+ --Forli, Rimini, and Ravenna.--Venice.--Ferrara.--Deruta.--Naples.
+ --Shape and Color.--Modern Italy.
+
+
+The ceramic art of Italy, beginning with the Roman and Etruscan, and
+coming down to the Renaissance in the fifteenth century, is the
+successor of those of Greece and the East, on the one hand, and of the
+Saracenic and Hispano-Moresque on the other. There have been two
+questions under discussion in reference to the latter period, viz.,
+Where did Italy acquire her knowledge of the use of stanniferous enamel?
+and, Whence did she draw her skill in the application of metallic
+lustre? We shall find, on examining the evidence, that the great works
+of her artistic prime were the results of a derivative and not of an
+original art. They are only original in so far as they indicate a point
+in advance of Italy's predecessors. We have said that Oriental art
+culminated in Greece. Italy presents us with a later point of union
+between two lines issuing from the East. We find subjects and forms
+recalling at once the ideals of Greece and the rich mythological and
+legendary sources from which were drawn the aids to her prolific
+imagination. We also find that the Greek restraint in the use of colors
+is thrown aside, and that Italy availed herself to the full of the
+skilful processes and methods of embellishment brought to her shores
+from Persia, and by the Saracens and Moors from their settlements in
+Africa and Spain.
+
+There are thus two great divisions of Italian pottery: the ancient Roman
+and Etruscan, and that of the Renaissance. Between these two there is a
+long period of darkness, extending from the last smouldering glow of the
+art of Italy, after Constantine took the seat of the imperial power to
+Byzantium, to the entrance of the Saracens into Europe.
+
+In considering the ancient epoch, one pertinent fact may be borne in
+mind, viz., that the best remains of the art of Greece have been found
+beyond its own borders, and that its history might be written from those
+discovered in Italy alone. Dividing Italy into three sections, we shall
+have Magna Graecia, Campania, and Etruria. Of these the latter has the
+greater antiquity, in so far as its ceramic remains are concerned. Greek
+colonies settled all along the southern part of the peninsula and in
+Sicily, and such relics as are found there may, in the mean time, be
+dismissed as corresponding in style with those of the same dates
+produced in Greece.
+
+Although the same rule might be held in a less broad sense to apply to
+Etruria, it is deserving of more lengthened consideration. When, in
+1825, the great discoveries were made at Vulci, the learned world was
+divided as to the places to which the vases should be credited. Some
+maintained that they were made in Greece and imported; others, that they
+were made in Etruria by Greek workmen; others, that they were really
+Etruscan; others, that they were partly native and partly imported from
+Greece; and still others, that many of them came from Magna Graecia and
+Sicily. To reconcile these suppositions, without affecting the eastern
+origin of Etruscan art, we are reminded that the Pelasgi--the name given
+to the ancient inhabitants of Greece--founded Agyllos, on the coast of
+Etruria. Bunsen places the first introduction of art into Etruria at
+this remote period. We come next to the arrival of Demaratus in
+Tarquinii, about the year B.C. 655. Demaratus was a wealthy Corinthian,
+of the family of the Bacchiadae. On the usurpation by Cypselus of the
+government of Corinth, Demaratus fled, accompanied by all his family,
+and, landing in the above named flourishing city, married an Etruscan
+bride, and by her had a son, Lucumon, who afterward occupied the throne
+of Rome under the name of Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of the
+Romans and the first of the Tarquins. Demaratus was either accompanied
+or followed by certain of the artists who had brought celebrity to
+Corinth for its pottery, and thus the art of Greece, as it was at that
+period, might have been introduced into Etruria. It must, however, be
+admitted that the story of Demaratus is not as clear as might be wished,
+the authorities differing as to his status in Corinth, and as to
+Lucumon, who is considered by some as having been merely one of his
+companions. The Tyrrheno-Pelasgians were driven from the sea-coast
+probably in the sixth century before Christ. We would from these facts
+be led to expect specimens of ceramic art, firstly, rude and indigenous;
+secondly, showing signs of the same Oriental origin from which Greece
+derived its first lessons; and thirdly, examples of pure Greek
+fabrication mingled with Etruscan imitations. In regard to such a
+collection as that found at Vulci, it may thus be assumed that there is
+a modicum of truth in each of the suppositions above referred to. There
+cannot, in any case, be any reason for calling in question the statement
+that, in the main, Etruscan ceramic art was of Grecian birth. We are
+speaking of the productions of 2300 years ago. Etruria was open to the
+little world surrounding the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Its ships
+brought enamelled bottles from Egypt, which its citizens set in gold and
+placed in their tombs. It had maritime connections with Spain,
+Phoenicia, and perhaps with England, and with the southern ports of
+the Italian peninsula, and those of Sicily. It imported both potters and
+their wares, and turned from its own ancient standards to a higher.
+While the immigrant Greeks were making such wares as they had made at
+home, the native Etruscan artists were imitating, clumsily and awkwardly
+at times, but gradually improving and approaching their teachers more
+nearly. Etruscan art, with the exception of the earlier specimens of
+rude aboriginal skill, must, therefore, be studied as an offshoot of
+that of Greece.
+
+The oldest examples, more distinctly indigenous than any of the
+succeeding styles, are of a brownish color and rude shape, and are
+decorated with bands and knobs or studs in relief. One peculiar shape
+bears a resemblance to a miniature rustic cottage, and belongs to the
+sepulchral class. Others, which are painted, recall the art of Greece
+in its first devotion to Phoenician or Egyptian models. They may,
+therefore, be referred to the age when the Tyrrheno-Pelasgians still
+held their settlements in Etruria, and are probably the work of these
+settlers and of the aboriginal inhabitants who preceded them. When the
+Etruscans overran the settlements of the Pelasgi, a red and black ware
+was introduced, and soon afterward we are brought more directly into
+contact with Grecian art by importations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Ancient Etruscan Vase. Height, 21 in. (J.J.
+Dixwell Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The best Etruscan works are of black paste (Fig. 197), toward which the
+brown changed as it improved. The ornaments are incised flowers, and
+bas-reliefs of animals and human faces, executed, designed, and arranged
+in styles decidedly Oriental. On one found at Vulci are monsters like
+the Egyptian sphinx, winged and woman-headed. It is probable that, of
+the two styles of ornamentation, the incised is the more ancient, and
+that the black ware, as a whole, belongs to between the seventh and
+third centuries before Christ. The prevalence of Egyptian forms and
+symbols in connection with this class, such as the scarabaeus and ostrich
+eggs painted with strange winged monsters, gives additional probability
+to our estimate of their age, and shows how far Etruria availed herself
+of the act of Psammetichus I. of Egypt, who, B.C. 654, threw open the
+ports of that country to foreign traders. Contemporaneous with these are
+large vases of red ware corresponding with the Greek _pithoi_. The
+decoration displays a knowledge of the art of Egypt and the East,
+mingled with examples of that of Greece. The yellow ware is allied to
+the Doric; and specimens of a still paler color, ornamented with Grecian
+subjects, modified and adapted to Etruscan ideas, mark the close of the
+art. It at no time attained to any very great excellence, and declined
+early. Both of these facts are easily explained. In the wonderful
+collection of Signor Alesandro Castellani are many beautiful specimens
+of Etruscan bronze, carved gems, and work in gold. These are ascribed to
+the third, fourth, and fifth centuries before the Christian era; and it
+is only natural to suppose that the delicate skill acquired in the
+manipulation of such materials should have given rise to a distaste for
+the humbler though more obedient clay. Many of the vases suggest the
+transition from pottery to bronze in the evidence which their decoration
+gives of having been imitated from metal.
+
+When we turn to Rome, little investigation is required to satisfy us
+that there is no such thing as an independent Roman ceramic art.
+Whatever Rome possessed was acquired from without, not developed from
+within. One could expect no artistic sense to manifest itself among the
+horde of refugees, outcasts, and criminals who surrounded Romulus in his
+little castle on the Palatine hill. His successor, Numa Pompilius, in
+aiming a blow at idolatry, may have also retarded the growth of art. He
+forbade the use of images, and for one hundred and sixty years after his
+death no statue appeared in the temples of Rome. This brings us down to
+the Etruscan monarch, Tarquinius Priscus, who placed in the Roman
+capitol a terra-cotta statue of Jupiter, by an Etruscan artist. Whatever
+the Romans required they obtained from Etruria, until they found a new
+source of supply in Magna Graecia. That they made very slow progress in
+the arts may be inferred from one incident which happened nearly five
+hundred years after Numa had issued his order against idolatry. While
+the second Punic war was raging, the Roman consul, Marcellus, besieged
+Syracuse, a Corinthian city in Sicily, and, after taking it, sent its
+paintings and statues to Rome, in order that his countrymen might learn
+from the art of Greece, and acquire a taste for such works. Syracuse
+fell B.C. 212, and eleven years afterward the war was brought to an end.
+It was by thus acquainting themselves with the beauty of Grecian art
+that the Romans began to display a desire for the artistic embellishment
+of their homes and capital. When their arms were directed against
+Greece, and Athens fell under their assaults, in the first century
+before Christ, Greek artists flocked to Rome, and for a time made it the
+workshop in which they labored and the school in which they taught. But
+with the sun itself its rays of golden light must disappear, though for
+a time they gild the earth and clouds with their departing glory. Greece
+was enslaved. Her ancient spirit was crushed. She had taught the world
+the lesson intrusted to her, and with political independence sank art
+and literature, though not without leaving imperishable monuments
+behind. As the tree withered, so did the branches; and the expatriated
+Greeks in Rome and the long-subdued colonies of Magna Graecia, deriving
+no longer any warmth from the centre from which they came, were quickly
+lost to sight. There also, as in Etruria, richness took the place of
+beauty. Gold, silver, and gems were more to the luxurious Romans of the
+empire than ceramic art, and that which had embellished the palaces of
+kings was left to the gods and the poor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198.--Roman Terra-cotta Lamps.]
+
+The different kinds of unglazed Roman ware may be divided, according to
+the color of their pastes, into yellowish white, red, gray, and black.
+The yellow paste was the coarsest, and was used for large pieces, such
+as the _dolia_ and _amphorae_. The smaller pieces of this color are of a
+better quality. Many of the household vessels were of red ware, such as
+plates, bottles, and jars. Some of it, as, for example, the false
+Samian, was dipped in a slip. The gray class comprises _amphorae_, and
+flat cooking-pans, and includes some specimens which have all the
+characteristics of modern stone-ware. The black paste was largely
+employed in making dishes and other table utensils, such as cups and
+candle-sticks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 199.--Roman Bowl of Samian Ware.]
+
+The leading kinds of glazed pottery were the Aretine and red Samian
+wares. The latter of these is the more celebrated (Fig. 199). Its
+prototype is to be found in the red ware of the Greek islands. The paste
+is close and fine, and the glaze is clear and very thin. The similarity
+in texture of all the specimens points to the conclusion that they were
+made in one place. The Samian ware has, like the legionary tiles, been
+found wherever the arms of Rome were carried. Like the unglazed red
+pottery, it was extensively used for table services, and may broadly be
+said to have been the chief domestic ware of the Romans. The
+ornamentation consists of mouldings in relief, incised rings, and
+intaglio patterns.
+
+The Aretine ware is also red, and is very like the Samian in many
+respects, but of a lighter shade, and more finely decorated, chiefly in
+relief. There are also two kinds of black Roman ware, one of dark paste,
+the other of red paste colored black. The ornamentation of the first is
+generally very simple, while that of the latter, in some cases,
+resembles the mouldings on red ware. Like the Samian, it is found over
+the greater part of Europe.
+
+One of the most interesting branches of Roman ceramics--the various uses
+of terra-cotta, we pass with a brief reference. The oldest statues are
+terra-cotta, and of the same material are water spouts, window frames,
+friezes, capitals, and pillars. Terra-cotta statues were made from the
+early days, when Etruria was the centre from which Rome supplied itself,
+down to the Empire, although in the interim the conquest of Magna Graecia
+and Greece had rendered the beautiful Greek marbles and bronzes
+accessible to the Romans. The architectural bas-reliefs were highly
+esteemed by the Romans themselves, and show that the Greeks, both at
+home and residing in Italy, applied themselves to this particular branch
+of art with devotion and success. The subjects are generally Greek, and
+are taken from both mythology and history. The gods of both greater and
+lesser orders appear under many of the characters ascribed to them, and
+the adventures of Ulysses and Achilles, the feats of Theseus, and the
+labors of Hercules, are a never-failing treasury of effective subjects.
+
+The result of all our inquiries may be summed up in this contradiction,
+that Roman ceramic art deserving of the name is Greek, and that the
+potters who were Roman have left little beyond household wares to attest
+their skill.
+
+With the fall of the Roman Empire the art, which had long been
+declining, disappeared from view. Pottery must, no doubt, have been
+produced. The household necessities of the people must have been
+satisfied, even amidst internal disruption and barbarian invasions; but
+there is no evidence that anything worthy of being called an art was
+kept alive. The revival of the ceramic art of Italy must be dated from
+the time of Luca della Robbia, in the fifteenth century. To account for
+the forms it took, an endeavor must be made to join it on to the
+different branches which preceded it elsewhere. The only danger to be
+incurred is that of being confused by the multiplicity and yet
+substantial unity of its sources. Without repeating what has been said
+in the chapter devoted to the fountains of European art, let it be
+remembered that, in the year 827, the Saracens conquered Sicily, and
+that they introduced into that island a manufacture similar to that
+found in Spain. They embellished the mosque of Palermo with tiles like
+those of the Alhambra, and these tiles were afterward imitated in works
+produced in Sicily itself. Afterward, in the fourteenth century, Moorish
+works were established at Calata Girone, or Caltagirone, in Sicily, and
+some pieces attributed to them are decorated with copper lustre upon
+stanniferous enamel. To this period belong the Siculo-Moresque vases in
+the Castellani collection, which date from the fourteenth century
+downward (Fig. 201). It is observable that the metallic lustre does not
+appear in the earlier pieces, which have an unmistakably Persian style
+of decoration. One specimen will suffice, viz., an oval vase covered
+with a silicious glaze, and decorated in blue and black, with gazelles
+and inscriptions. Meanwhile Venice and other maritime cities on both
+sides of the Italian peninsula were developing an extensive trade with
+the East. The Crusaders had been converting the old battle-ground of the
+Jews into the scene of another strife, in which Judaism was ignored.
+Mohammed preached the gospel of the sword, and the Christians took up
+the gauntlet thrown down by the Saracens. Is it not possible that by
+these two courses--trade, and the movements of followers of the
+Cross--some inklings of Persian art may have crept into Italy?
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200.--Siculo-Moresque Vase.]
+
+The crusading spirit of the twelfth century was a most potent agency.
+In 1113 the Pisans were roused to a sense of the wrongs suffered by
+Christians from the piratical Saracens of Majorca. They set sail, and in
+1115 the island was in their power; and their galleys returned home
+freighted with the spoils of war. An extensive trade between the
+Balearic Islands and Italy was maintained in the fourteenth century.
+Looking at these facts, does it appear improbable that Moorish wares and
+Moorish potters may have reached Italy from Majorca? Coming still later,
+we find Moorish refugees from Spain flocking toward Italy in vast
+numbers. Leaving the Saracens and Moors entirely out of the question,
+the art of enamelling might have reached Italy from the Byzantine
+Greeks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 201.--Siculo-Moresque Vases. (Castellani Coll.)]
+
+With all these facts before us, the bacini, or plates found incrusted in
+the walls of the old churches of Pisa, need give us little trouble. Mr.
+Fortnum found one Persian piece. Mr. Marryat thinks them of Moorish
+origin. Mr. Fortnum is of the further opinion that many of the bacini,
+both of Pisa and other Italian cities, are of native Italian
+manufacture. Each specimen must be judged separately, and it may be
+pointed out that with the highway of the sea open to the East and to the
+Saracenic settlements in Africa and Spain, with Saracens already settled
+in Sicily, and with the known early connection by commerce between Italy
+and Spain, it is difficult to specify the route by which any special
+ware or process _must_ have reached Italy. We shall afterward see that
+in Germany tin enamel was known in the thirteenth century. If it should
+be asked, How did it get there? the question would illustrate a good
+deal of idle speculation indulged in regarding its introduction into
+Italy. The same rule will apply to the metallic lustre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 202.--Sgraffiato of the 15th Century.]
+
+The Italians used lead glaze on their pottery from a very early period.
+According to Passeri, mezza-majolica covered with marzacotto was made at
+Pesaro as early as the beginning of the fourteenth century. Sgraffiato
+ware was made in a similar manner, and derived its name from the incised
+ornaments which were cut into the white engobe or slip (with which the
+ware was covered), so as to show the original color below the slip. In
+the example here given (Fig. 202) the incised decoration is combined
+with figures and flowers in relief. But the brilliant importations from
+Spain made a deep impression upon the public taste. The wares of Majorca
+were those best and most generally known, and its name, as changed to
+majolica, had been given to the entire class of lustred wares, although
+the art of lustring was already known in Italy. It is well to
+discriminate between the name and the article. It is quite possible that
+the name of the best known type should come to be applied to the entire
+class. Jacquemart finds the early wares of Pesaro very suggestive of
+Persian influence. He concludes, also, that the art of applying the
+metallic lustre may have been communicated by Persian potters, or by
+others who had learned it from them, to the eastern potteries of Italy.
+We may conclude that, as the Majorca ware surpassed that of the early
+Italian potteries, the potters of Italy endeavored to derive what
+benefit they could from calling their own productions by the same name.
+Metallic lustres were used before stanniferous enamel was adopted. The
+invention of the latter in Italy has been generally ascribed to Luca
+della Robbia, but there is every reason for believing that this is
+incorrect. It is impossible to suppose that the Saracen and Moorish
+potters in Italy were unacquainted with it. It is much more likely that,
+being satisfied with the results of the processes to which they were
+accustomed, and the beauty of lead glaze, they did not care to use it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 203.--Luca della Robbia.]
+
+To tell what Robbia _did_ accomplish we must glance at his personal
+history. Luca della Robbia (Fig. 203) was born at Florence in the year
+1399 or 1400. At first he turned his attention to the business of a
+goldsmith, but afterward aspired to sculpture. About 1438 his marble
+bas-relief of "The Singing Boys" was placed in the Duomo of Florence,
+and was so great a success that orders quickly multiplied. He had also
+done some work in bronze, but neither chiselling nor casting was
+sufficiently speedy. Statues must be copied from a clay model. The model
+was his own; the copy was, in the general case, the work of an
+assistant; and probably, even if he chiselled the marble himself, he
+could not reproduce the effects so easily reached in the plastic clay.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204.--Holy Family. Medallion by Luca della Robbia.
+(Hotel Cluny, Paris)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205.--Luca della Robbia. Infant Saviour and Virgin.
+(Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+Luca was an enterprising artist, and it occurred to him that if he could
+only dispense with the chiselling and casting, his art and profit would
+both improve. But how could he make the clay as hard as bronze and as
+white as marble? Remember that Luca was a sculptor, not a potter.
+Whatever he did afterward, there can be no doubt that his attention was
+first turned to statuary. He probably decided upon applying to the men
+who were accustomed to working in clay, to coloring it and glazing it,
+to help him in his difficulty. He inquired, and learned that by dipping
+his statuary in tin enamel and firing it, his object would be
+accomplished. These considerations give his supposed discovery a new
+aspect. If we consider that for centuries stanniferous enamel had been
+in use by Eastern potters, and that the Saracens were perfectly familiar
+with it, the secret is divested of all mystery. Luca probably acquired
+his knowledge in one or other of the Italian potteries. What, then, are
+we to credit to him? He must be admitted to have improved the enamel
+after a series of experiments, and to have succeeded in bringing it to
+the degree of fineness and opacity demanded by his purpose (Fig. 204).
+His first work was a bas-relief of the Resurrection, made about the year
+1440, and still standing in the Cathedral of Florence. This piece is of
+blue and white, the latter for the figures, the former for the ground.
+He afterward introduced green and yellow, but these colors are very
+sparingly used. His best works are in and around Florence. Of a Madonna
+in the circle above a chapel door, Ruskin, in his "Mornings in
+Florence," says: "Never pass near the market without looking at it; and
+glance from the vegetables underneath to Luca's leaves and lilies, that
+you may see how honestly he was trying to make his clay like the garden
+stuff." The same colors are introduced in a bas-relief in the Castellani
+collection, in which the Madonna kneels before the Infant Saviour, and
+angels look down from above. The figures are white, the ground blue, and
+green is introduced in the grass. Of the same class is the preceding
+example (Fig. 205) from Boston.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206.--Medallion by Luca della Robbia. (South
+Kensington Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 207.--Andrea della Robbia. Holy Family. (Boston Mus.
+of Fine Arts.)]
+
+While producing these works in enamelled earthen-ware, Robbia also
+painted on the flat. Of this work there are twelve circular medallions
+in the South Kensington Museum, and several specimens in Florence--a
+tondo, some tiles, and a lunette. The medallions are enamelled, and the
+paintings are allegorical representations of the months (Fig. 206).
+Vasari says in regard to the tiles: "For the bishop of Fiesole, in the
+church of San Brancazio, he also made a marble tomb, on which are the
+recumbent effigy of the bishop and three other half-length figures
+besides; and on the pilasters of that work he painted, on the flat,
+certain festoons and clusters of fruit and foliage so skilfully and
+naturally, that were they even painted in oil on panel, they could not
+be more beautifully or forcibly rendered."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 208.--Modern Imitation Robbia Ware. (Boston Museum
+of Fine Arts.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 209.--S. Sebastian, by Giorgio. (South Kensington
+Museum.)]
+
+Luca died in 1481, leaving the full knowledge of the process he had
+perfected to his nephew Andrea, who, however, was less successful than
+his uncle. His art is less pure (Fig. 207). He becomes elaborate where
+Luca was simple, especially in his heavy borders of fruit. Andrea was
+born in 1457, and died in 1528, and left the transmissible part of his
+art to his four sons, Giovanni, Luca, Ambrosio, and Girolamo. Of these,
+Girolamo became a monk, and one specimen of his work is said to be at
+Siena. Giovanni's works are signed, and cannot, therefore, lead to any
+confusion. Luca, junior, settled in Rome, and Girolamo went to France,
+where he executed several works. Luca, the elder, had also two
+assistants, Agostino and Ottaviano, the former of whom displayed great
+talent, and worked in Perugia. The special art was carried to Spain by
+Nicoloso Francesco, of Pisa, who made some bas-reliefs for a church in
+Seville. Of the other successors of Luca we need only refer to Maestro
+Giorgio Andreoli, of Gubbio, who is said to have produced some pieces
+after the Della Robbia type (Fig. 209). The style finally passed away in
+the earlier part of the sixteenth century. The demand for it appears to
+have failed about that time. Stanniferous enamel continued to be used
+here and there after Luca's death, and after the lapse of some years
+came gradually into general use. The oldest piece not of his style is
+dated 1475. For the sake of lucidity it may also be here mentioned, that
+the metallic lustre, for which the first pressure of public demand was
+felt toward the close of the fourteenth century, passed into oblivion in
+less than a hundred years, until revived in more modern times.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 210.--Chaffagiolo Pitcher. (South Kensington
+Museum.)]
+
+Besides that of perfecting a special process, to Luca della Robbia must
+be assigned the credit of paving the way to the revival which culminated
+in the products of Gubbio. The distinction between mezza-majolica and
+majolica must not be forgotten, viz., that the former name was
+originally applied to wares covered with a white slip, then painted,
+lead-glazed, and lustred, and the latter to tin-enamelled ware similarly
+lustred. The latter was thus the highest representative of the
+combination of two processes, both of Oriental origin. The application
+of metallic lustre was Persian. Stanniferous enamel was successively
+Egyptian, Babylonian, and Saracenic--the Saracens undoubtedly acquiring
+a knowledge of it in Persia, where the beautiful silicious glaze kept it
+in subordination. The Moors in Spain brought it more freely into use in
+decoration, and with Luca della Robbia, who perfected the process still
+farther, raised it from the desuetude into which it had fallen in Italy,
+where, however, it was already known to Saracenic settlers and their
+pupils.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 211.--Siena Vase. (South Kensington Museum.)]
+
+With this recapitulation of the beginnings of real Italian majolica, we
+may now continue our history. The impetus Italian ceramic art received
+from foreign contact, and from the knowledge acquired by trade, was kept
+up by the wisdom and devotion to the cause of art manifested by several
+of the ducal houses. From Pesaro, under the house of Sforza, from
+Urbino, under that of Montefeltro, and from Florence and Chaffagiolo,
+under the Medicis, and from other centres, the art spread over all
+Italy. It is, therefore, by inquiries at these places that our
+investigations must be continued. Leaving out of view the questions as
+to the priority of Chaffagiolo to Faenza and Pesaro's precedence in
+metallic lustring, we may begin with Tuscany.
+
+The leading Tuscan towns were Chaffagiolo, Florence, Siena, and Pisa.
+The first of these produced the earliest Tuscan majolica. Its leading
+features are a thick dark blue, made from cobalt; a bright orange and
+yellow; a fine clear green, red, brown, and purple. Before the artists
+of Chaffagiolo had awakened to the spirit of the Renaissance, they
+issued some works enamelled on one side, with central designs of a
+Gothic character, and borders of orange, white, and blue. In the
+fifteenth century a marked improvement was made, but it was not until
+the beginning of the sixteenth century that the best Chaffagiolo ware
+was made. Their colors then become more brilliant, and are more daringly
+handled. Some of these pieces are dated 1507 and 1509. Metallic lustres
+were used about the same period. Later, the brilliancy of the enamels is
+toned down, and the execution of the designs is more careful and
+refined. Chaffagiolo continued to make majolica to the end of the
+sixteenth century. The pieces frequently show heraldic designs (Fig.
+210) and mottoes, the letters S. P. Q. F. (the senate and people of
+Florence), and the letters P. S. sometimes with I. and sometimes
+without.
+
+The works made at Siena (Fig. 211) are in many cases undistinguishable
+from those of Chaffagiolo. An artist named Benedetto produced at Siena
+some very fine pieces.
+
+The majolica of Florence, if such were ever made, is now unknown. Lazari
+states that an artist was brought by the Grand Duke Francesco Maria to
+decorate Florentine vases; but assuming the truth of the statement, his
+works are now either destroyed or lost among those ascribed to other
+places. We have already learned something of Pisa as fitting out a
+Balearic crusade and exchanging pottery with Spain. Probably the wares
+it exported came from other parts of Tuscany, although it had a majolica
+manufactory of its own. The Pisan decoration closely resembles that of
+Urbino.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 212--The Sforza Dish. Pesaro.]
+
+In the Duchy of Urbino, Pesaro, Castel-Durante, Urbino, and Gubbio are
+the leading centres, and absorb a large share of the interest
+surrounding the pottery of Italy. When the Sforza family acquired the
+lordship of Pesaro, they instituted pottery works there, and in 1486 and
+1508 passed edicts against the importation of earthen-ware into Pesaro.
+The first of these protective measures was granted by Giovanni Sforza
+and Camilla, his father's widow, and was commemorated by a dish called
+the Sforza dish, a very wonderful specimen of majolica (Fig. 212). The
+centre is occupied by portraits of the granters of the edict, shaded
+with blue on an indigo ground, and having gold and ruby lustred hair,
+dresses, and head-dresses. A scroll representing the edict forms a white
+back-ground to the faces, and is finished with ruby lustre. The borders
+are blue, with ruby and gold lustre. Under the house of Sforza the
+manufacture of mezza-majolica improved, and in 1500 fine, or
+tin-enamelled, majolica was introduced. Up to 1530 it steadily improved,
+and in that year the wife of the reigning Duke of Urbino, who had
+succeeded the Sforza lords of Pesaro, erected a palace near Pesaro. From
+1540 to 1568, under Duke Guidobaldo II., the art continued to rise,
+until it reached its highest point of perfection. The duke first
+employed Battisto Franco, an eminent Venetian artist, and Raffaelle del
+Borgo. Girolamo Lanfranco and Giacomo Lanfranco were also employed as
+artists at Pesaro. After 1560 the art began to decline.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 213--Pesaro Vase. (John Taylor Johnston Coll., N. Y.
+Metrop. Museum.)]
+
+The earliest Pesarese works very closely resemble the Persian, and are
+the best indications to be found of the presence of an art brought
+directly from Iran to Italy. These are lustred and painted in green and
+blue. At Pesaro we first meet with pieces showing the portraits and love
+mottoes by which the lovers of the day celebrated the beauty of their
+mistresses and gave lasting tokens of their passion. If we seek peculiar
+features in this majolica, we shall find them in the strong execution
+and finely blended tints of the early pieces, and in the yellow of the
+_madreperla_ lustre combined with blue. As the art rose under the second
+Guidobaldo, historical scenes after the great masters present
+themselves, taken from both profane and sacred history--the brave
+Horatius defending the bridge at Rome against the army of Lars Porsenna,
+Samson, Brennus, Mutius Scaevola, Judith, and other characters. In 1567
+the Giacomo Lanfranco already mentioned applied real gold to majolica,
+and several of his pieces thus decorated are still in existence.
+
+Castel-Durante appears to have produced faience as early as 1361, but
+none of its pottery can be recognized until we come down to 1508, after
+which the specimens multiply. With the year 1580 the art passed its
+meridian, and declined steadily for nearly two hundred years. The
+characteristic decoration consists of scrolls with fantastic chimerical
+terminations. The colors are at first a dull green upon blue, and about
+1550 lustrous rich yellows appear, and led to the decline thirty years
+later.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 214.--Castel-Durante Portrait Plaque. (South
+Kensington Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215.--Castel-Durante Dish. (Castellani Coll.)]
+
+The city of Urbino was the great centre at once of majolica painting and
+of the ducal patronage, which gave the entire duchy its pre-eminence.
+From 1477, when Garducci was working in a comparatively humble way, down
+to 1530, the history of Urbino hardly demands notice. Its highest glory
+came with Francesco Xanto (Fig. 216), whose broad and generally true
+drawing and masterly composition mark him as one of the great artists of
+the Renaissance. His subjects are taken from the Latin classical and the
+later Italian poets, and from Raffaelle. Living at the time when the
+demand for metallic lustre was at its height, he applies it with a
+boldness and effectiveness in harmony with his brilliant coloring. All
+his works are signed. From him we turn to the equally illustrious
+Fontana family--Guido, Camillo, and Orazio, the latter of whom is
+specially deserving of study. He attained to a higher mechanical
+excellence than any of his predecessors, his best works dating from
+after 1540, when Xanto's career was closing; and his paintings are in
+consequence characterized by a softness of color and a fineness of glaze
+which leave him without a peer. Few pieces by the Fontana family are
+signed. Their most famous works are the vases for the Spezieria, ordered
+by the Duke Guidobaldo II., and painted from designs by Raffaelle
+Battista Franco, Michael Angelo, Giulio Romano, and others. Nicola da
+Urbino and Francesco Durantino are among the other artists who
+contributed to the fame of Urbino.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Urbino Plate, by Xanto. Scene, the Storming of
+Goleta. (Marryat Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217.--Urbino Vase. Figure of Justice with Sword.
+(Castellani Coll.)]
+
+The lustres of Gubbio (Fig. 219) are inseparably associated with the one
+great name of Giorgio Andreoli, or, as he is usually called, Maestro
+Giorgio. He was a native of Pavia, and was originally a sculptor; and
+after he went to Gubbio, in 1498, executed some works in the Della
+Robbia style (Fig. 209). A piece dated 1489, and signed "Don Giorgio,"
+is ascribed to him while he was still at Pavia, but the first piece
+characteristic of the master, signed and lustred, is dated 1519, and the
+last 1541. We have said that Xanto of Urbino lustred his own pieces, but
+the matter is not free from doubt. Maestro Giorgio certainly was master
+of the art of lustring, and the brilliancy of his ruby reds, copper, and
+mother-of-pearl is unrivalled. But the statement of many writers that
+artists at other places sent their works to Gubbio to be lustred, and
+allowed Giorgio to affix his name to them, is too repulsive to be
+accepted without protest or reservation. One can hardly imagine a more
+unworthy course than that ascribed to Giorgio, of laying aside his
+proper artistic functions and becoming merely a decorator with lustres,
+"indifferent," as Marryat says, "by whose hands they were executed or
+from what fabric they proceeded." It is in this capacity of decorator
+that the otherwise finished paintings of Xanto and others are said to
+have been sent to him to be enriched with lustre. The earlier Gubbio
+wares generally have a pale-blue ground, with grotesques and scrolls
+terminating in animals' heads, and mingled occasionally with cherubs'
+heads. The grounds afterward became more brilliant, and the designs
+include mottoes and busts in celebration either of the great men of the
+time or of its fair ladies. It is to be noted that Giorgio lived before
+the accession of Guidobaldo II., and consequently did not partake of the
+benefits enjoyed by the Fontana family at Urbino.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 218.--Urbino Pilgrim's Bottle. (South Kensington
+Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Lustred Gubbio Vase, of about A.D. 1500.
+(South Kensington Museum.)]
+
+From the Duchy of Urbino we may turn to Faenza. It has already been
+referred to as supplying an etymology for the word faience. Ganzoni,
+writing in 1485, speaks of the whiteness and polish of the Faenza
+majolica, and Lazari praises its soft tints and good drawing, which
+manifested themselves after the first quarter of the sixteenth century.
+The earlier fabrics bear strong evidences of Oriental influences, and,
+as seen in the Castellani collection, would carry us back to a very
+early stage of the art. The glaze is either lead or litharge, and some
+of the designs consist of geometrical combinations in manganese and
+copper. Other primitive pieces are of a very pale blue or white,
+changing at times to a blue border surrounding heads with beards
+terminating in acanthus leaves and scrolls attached. A slight
+examination of these pieces shows that the strength of the artists of
+this period lay in the accessories, and that they were weak and
+uncertain in their attempts at figure-drawing. The pieces ascribed to
+Casa Pirota, of which Signor Castellani has some notable examples, are
+those in which we discover the point of Lazari's encomiums. These date
+from 1525 downward, and show the excellence of drawing and brightness
+of decoration which gave the Faentine majolica its celebrity. The
+borders frequently consist of grotesques in shaded white on pale or dark
+blue or gray grounds. Dishes with chiaroscuro arabesques on grounds of
+blue, surrounding figures, busts, or heraldic designs, represent a
+prevailing Faentine style. A plate belonging to Signor Castellani has a
+blue ground in the centre, on which a coat-of-arms is laid in yellow,
+and the broad border of pale gray finishes with a rim of green and
+yellow. An exceptional piece is described as black with white reserved
+arabesques. Forli, Rimini, and Ravenna may be dismissed briefly. Forli
+produced pottery at least as early as 1396; but it was not until the
+sixteenth century that it made any majolica which we can recognize, and
+even then it might easily be confounded with the productions of
+Chaffagiolo and Faenza. The Rimini majolica is chiefly remarkable for
+its wonderful glaze.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Plateau by Giorgio. (South Kensington
+Museum.)]
+
+Venice had majolica factories at least as early as 1520, and probably
+half a century before that date. The earlier wares are illustrated by
+certain pieces of faience pavement. Of the sixteenth century the
+earliest specimens are dated 1540 and 1543, and of this period the
+designs are chiefly in blue and white, sometimes soft and undecided. The
+ware is thin and hard, and the rims of plates are frequently decorated
+with fruit and flowers in relief. Scrolls on a deep blue ground, and oak
+leaves on pale blue, are also met with.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Faenza Fruit Dish.]
+
+With Ferrara, Deruta, and Naples we may conclude our enumeration.
+Ferrara was an offshoot of Faenza, whence we find Fra Melchiorre coming
+in 1495, Biagio in 1501, Antonio in 1522, and Catto in 1528. The artist
+Camillo who painted vases, the Dossi brothers who designed, "El Frate,"
+Grosso, and Zaffarino are among those who gave Ferrara its reputation.
+It is probably to the Dossis that the grotesques on a white ground are
+to be attributed. Deruta takes us back to Robbia, whose pupil, Agostino
+di Antonio di Duccio, went to Perugia in 1461, and thence certainly
+influenced the Deruta school. With such teaching Deruta produced, early
+in the sixteenth century, majolica of a very high order of merit, with
+blue grounds and yellow lustred cherubs' heads in relief, and
+arabesques. Within such borders are white enamelled inner circles, with
+scrolls mingled with birds and chimeras, surrounding a raised centre of
+deep blue bearing a bust or head. Several pieces subsequent to 1544 are
+signed "El Frate," and are, as a whole, weak and unpleasing, although
+some others are strong and beautiful. As a rule, the artists of Deruta
+appear to have been the direct opposites of those of early Faenza, _i.
+e._, they expend their resources upon their principal figures, and make
+the details entirely secondary. The earliest Deruta vases are conical,
+and decorated in lustre and white enamel with blue. Naples and Castelli
+are both surrounded with more or less mystery, although evidence is not
+wanting that the latter at least produced excellent majolica. With the
+end of the sixteenth century appear some large vases of Naples, painted
+in dark colors with religious subjects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Deruta Dish. (South Kensington Museum.)]
+
+The shapes which engaged so much of our attention in Greece, are in
+Italy too manifold and varied for classification. We are in presence of
+an entirely new order of things, when we find artists expending their
+best efforts upon decoration with enamels, lustres, arabesques,
+grotesques, and wonderful scrolls turning in their sweeping folds round
+all manner of impossible monsters, of a plain, broad-bordered dish, with
+no pretension to form. When the Italian artists concede something to
+shape, they frequently become wilful, embellishing a vase reminding us
+of Greece with serpent handles, or running off into elaborate inkstands
+or quaint table wares. In the Italy of the Renaissance we are in the
+presence of the triumph of decoration, and it is upon decoration that
+we, in common with all inquirers, must concentrate attention, thankful
+if at times we detect a harmony between the gracefulness of a vase and
+the beauty of its brilliant colors.
+
+Possibly it may be reserved for the United Italy of the nineteenth
+century to turn back to the earlier pages in her ceramic history, and,
+having filled herself with the spirit of the potters of Magna Graecia and
+Apulia, to pass down to the brilliancy of the sixteenth century, and,
+with both in full view, to execute something worthy of the later prime
+of her unity. Endless repetitions of the famous fabrics of the
+Renaissance have led her into spiritless imitation and boundless fraud.
+Some of the pieces displayed at the Centennial Exhibition were by no
+means destitute of merit. Faenza can still produce good drawing and
+effective coloring, and Della Robbia ware is still manufactured with
+tin-enamelled figures, which look considerably better than whitewashed
+terra-cotta. But let us imagine the energy and skill devoted to
+imitation with intent to deceive, and the painstaking labor of honest
+men who make no attempt to rise above the rank of copyists, to be
+together thrown into an endeavor to reach a new originality. Might not
+Italy be raised from the rank of a country resting upon a brilliant past
+into that of one working in the present to reach an equally brilliant
+future?
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ Florence and Earliest Artificial Porcelain.--Theory of Japanese
+ Teaching.--La Doccia.--Venice, and the Question of its First Making
+ European Porcelain.--Le Nove.--Capo di Monte.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223.--Medicean Porcelain (Castellani Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224.--Design at Bottom of Bowl, Fig. 223.]
+
+To Italy and to the family of the Medici, as we have seen, belongs the
+honor of making the first artificial European porcelain of which any
+specimens have come down to our time. The result of recent researches
+has been to throw much light upon the interesting discovery made at
+Florence. Dr. Foresi, of that city, was the first whose attention was
+drawn to the matter. He collected several pieces of porcelain, evidently
+of European manufacture; and his curiosity having been aroused as to
+their origin, he found that the Grand Duke Francis I. had a private
+factory in the Boboli gardens, that there experiments had been made with
+a view to discovering the composition of porcelain, and that success had
+been attained. The marks on the pieces are the letter F. and a dome, the
+arms of the Medici, and on one, the arms, the letters F. M. M. E. D.
+II.--the initials of Franciscus Medici Magnus Etruriae Dux Secundus--the
+letter F. and the dome. The latter of these were clearly the initial
+letter of Florence or of Francis, and the dome of the city's magnificent
+cathedral. A fine specimen of the Florentine porcelain was brought to
+America in the Castellani collection (Fig. 223). It is a fluted dish,
+with the figure of St. Mark and the lion painted in blue on the bottom
+(Fig. 224). Under the lion's paw is a volume bearing the letters G. and
+P., supposed to be the artist's initials, and on the reverse are the
+letter F. and the dome. In the same collection is a plate, also
+decorated in the Japanese style, light blue and white, and having the
+dome and letter on the under side. There are not thirty pieces of this
+ware known. In connection with the fact that the decoration, as we
+pointed out when speaking of this ware under Japan, is undoubtedly
+Japanese, an interesting question has been raised by Mr. B. Phillips. He
+expresses the belief that the presence of Japanese--composing the
+embassy to the Pope--in Italy may have had a direct influence, not only
+on the ornamentation but on the manufacture of the Medicean porcelain.
+He then says: "That these Japanese nobles visited the Grand Duke in
+Florence cannot be doubted. Now, as to the Medicean porcelain, we have
+been careful not to use the word 'discovery' in connection with its
+early manufacture in Florence. We are strongly of the opinion that the
+method of selecting and preparing the material from which porcelain had
+to be made was derived directly from the Japanese. If the decoration, as
+we believe has been undoubtedly proved, was taken from the Japanese,
+might not the method of making porcelain have been derived from the same
+source?" That Italy may have full credit for the Grand Duke's success,
+it may be pointed out that there are two objections to the above theory.
+
+It is nowhere stated that the Japanese were acquainted with any other
+than natural kaolinic porcelain, and it is exceedingly improbable that
+the members of an embassy had any knowledge of the combination of
+materials in an artificial paste. The Medicean was not a pure kaolinic
+porcelain, but "a composite paste having for basis quartz and a vitreous
+frit, with a small quantity of the kaolin of Vicenza." In the second
+place, the embassy did not leave Japan until 1583, and only reached
+Italy in 1585. "In 1581," says Jacquemart, "the experiments of the Grand
+Duke had produced their fruits, and he already sent presents of his
+translucent pottery to the other sovereigns of Europe." The porcelain
+was, therefore, made before the Japanese arrived in Italy.
+
+Were anything further needed to preserve for Italy the exclusive credit
+of one of the greatest contributions to ceramic art, it may be found in
+the styles of decoration of the Medicean porcelain. These are divisible
+into two classes: the Oriental and the Italian. The latter resembles
+that of faience, and consists chiefly of grotesques. Such are the pieces
+upon which appear the arms of the Medicean family, for whose use they
+were reserved. The specimens with Oriental decoration were gifts made to
+spread abroad the renown of the Grand Duke's laboratory. Such a purpose
+could certainly not have been fulfilled with inferior works, and this
+class, to which the Castellani porcelain belongs, may be taken as
+representing the best Medicean paste. In this view the fabric was at its
+highest before the Japanese left their own country, as we have seen that
+pieces of this character were being sent over Europe in 1581.
+
+The probability is that the Grand Duke, or Bernardo Buontalenti, who
+really made the discovery, arrived at it by independent investigations
+prompted by Oriental porcelain, and that the latter and the finer
+specimens of majolica suggested the decoration.
+
+About one hundred and fifty years later, or in 1735, the Marquis Carlo
+Ginori established a manufactory at La Doccia, near Florence. The
+enterprise of the founder was so great, manifesting itself in the
+introduction of the chemist Wandelein as director, and the importation
+of material from China, that in a few years the Doccia porcelain had
+become famous. The earlier pieces bear a close resemblance to the
+Chinese. The artists of Doccia excelled in modelling, and many of their
+groups are beautifully executed. It is unfortunate that from an early
+period of the existence of the workshop its artists should have engaged
+in imitation. After following Chinese models they turned to Sevres, and
+then to Capo di Monte. More lately, Doccia has won an unenviable
+notoriety by its spurious imitation of old majolica and the wares of
+Luca della Robbia. Early in the last century Doccia became possessed of
+some of the moulds of Capo di Monte, and as the Doccia mark does not
+appear upon the pieces made from them, a wide opening was offered for
+fraud. It is worth noting, however, that it is by its copies and
+imitations that the Doccia manufactory reached its greatest financial
+success. The success of the counterfeit has destroyed the genuine, and
+the artistic is overshadowed by the commercial.
+
+In Venetia, porcelain was made at Venice and Le Nove. The history of the
+manufacture in Venice is somewhat obscure. Early in the sixteenth
+century--and, therefore, before the Medicean ware was
+produced--experiments, the success of which cannot now be measured, were
+made by a Venetian artist. He seems, after making a few pieces, to have
+relinquished the enterprise for lack of support and patronage. His story
+is thus told: "There was an old potter in Venice about 1504-1519, whose
+name is unknown, of whom, in fact, we know nothing except from a few
+notes discovered by the Marquis Campori among the relics of the Duke
+Alphonso I. of Ferrara, but whose name ought to be blazoned in gold as
+the first European who made porcelain. In 1504 the Duke was in Venice,
+and his book of expenses shows an item of two liri and a fraction, paid
+for a piece of porcelain. Fifteen years afterward his ambassador in
+Venice wrote him a letter, sending with it a plate and bowl of
+porcelain, from the 'master,' from whom the Duke had ordered them. And
+the ambassador goes on to say that the master declined to take more, as
+his experiments cost him too much time and money; and, further, he
+declines to accept an invitation of the Duke to remove to Ferrara and
+make porcelain there, pleading that he is too old, and does not want to
+leave Venice. Enthusiastic collectors imagine that a few specimens to
+which they can assign no other origin are works of the old Venetian, but
+there is no satisfactory evidence that any of his work remains." In the
+absence of any relics of this ancient Venetian to substantiate his claim
+to the invention of a true porcelain, the honor will probably continue
+to be ascribed to Florence. However this may be, the existence of
+Venetian specimens with decoration suggestive of seventeenth century
+styles, would indicate that the industry was at least kept alive, and
+that there were several predecessors to the manufactory founded by
+Francesco Vezzi early in the eighteenth century. Some very beautiful
+works are attributed to the Casa Vezzi. In or about 1765 another
+manufactory was established by Geminiano Cozzi, and from it were turned
+out table-sets, groups, statuettes, and vases. The establishment at Le
+Nove, founded in 1752 by Pasquale Antonibon, produced majolica,
+terraglia--a mixed composition of pottery and porcelain--and artificial
+porcelain. Of the latter (Fig. 225) some magnificent examples have been
+preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Nove Porcelain Vase.]
+
+The most famous Italian porcelain is that of Capo di Monte. This
+manufactory was founded in 1736 by Charles III., whom we have already
+seen introducing the art into Madrid, after he left Naples to mount the
+throne of Spain. The founder does not appear to have been indebted to
+any extent whatever to the discoveries made at Meissen, but to have set
+on foot a perfectly independent and national industry. The king
+frequently worked in the factory, and under his guidance and the favor
+of his consort, Queen Amelia of Saxony, its products rapidly improved
+after the first essays, which closely followed the Japanese. The Capo di
+Monte forms assume a distinctive character. Her artists turned to the
+sea, as became citizens of the Queen of the Sea, and there found
+inspiration. They took the shells of the Mediterranean for their models,
+and by combining them with coral and sea-plants, and coloring all after
+nature, produced some of their most beautiful works. A very handsome
+ewer is thus composed, the body representing an ingenious combination of
+shells set in a foot of coral, a branch of which climbs up the side,
+and, arching to the lip, forms the handle. A basin is similarly
+designed, and is dotted with smaller shells. Or again, a salt-cellar is
+modelled after a boat steered by a youth. These examples will suffice to
+show that not the least merit of the artists of Capo di Monte is their
+originality. The table services present us with some of the finest
+porcelain made in Europe. The paste is fine and transparent, and many of
+the pieces are as thin and light as the egg-shell of China.
+
+When Charles III. set out for Spain, he took a number of the artists
+with him, and left to his successor in Naples the work of maintaining
+the industry. In this Ferdinand was not successful, and Capo di Monte
+rapidly sank, and disappeared altogether in 1821.
+
+The porcelain made at all the places named was artificial. The only
+Italian manufactory of natural porcelain was that of Vineuf, near Turin,
+which began to work toward the end of last century. The body contains
+magnesia. The workshop was founded by Dr. Gioanetti.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 226.--Old Sevres Biscuit. Judgment of Paris. (August
+Belmont Coll.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FRANCE.
+
+ Prospect on approaching France.--Present and Past.--The Ancient
+ Celts.--Under the Romans.--Middle Ages.--Poitou, Beauvais, and
+ Hesdin.--Italian Influence.--A National Art.--Bernard Palissy,
+ Barbizet, Pull, and Avisseau.--Henri Deux
+ Ware.--Rouen.--Nevers.--Moustiers.--Marseilles.--Strasburg.--Limoges.
+ --Haviland's New Process.--Examples.--Bourg-la-Reine.--Laurin.--Deck.
+ --Colinot.--Creil.--Montereau.--Longwy.--Parville.--Gien.--Sarreguemines.
+ --Niederviller.--Luneville.--Nancy.--St. Clement.--St. Amand.
+ --Paris.--Sceaux.
+
+
+Turning as we leave Italy we seem to look back across a wide, unbroken
+plain, from the midst of which rises a mountain range, its summits
+glowing with the rays of the setting sun behind us. It is thus we revert
+across comparative barrenness to the Renaissance, beyond which, and
+hidden, lie the earlier glories of Etruria and Graeco-Italy. As we turn
+to France the sun is in front of us, striking full upon a height still
+cloud-capt and unrevealed, and bathing the intervening undulating
+landscape in the fulness of its undimmed splendor. With France the
+present sheds lustre, life, and light upon a long past beginning with
+pre-Roman Gallia, and extending through Roman domination, the darkness
+of the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance to the present time.
+
+The early pottery of Gallia has been variously viewed, but there seems
+no reason for withholding from the ancient Celtic potters the credit of
+having adopted a high and pure standard of art before the Roman power
+was established. It has even been questioned, in the light of a full
+knowledge of the subject, if the Romans did not, by the introduction of
+new models, retard the growth of native skill and destroy an art
+superior to their own. Judging from the examples still remaining, it is
+at least unquestionable that the Celts had, at a very early date,
+arrived at ideas of simplicity and elegance of form far in advance of
+those entertained by contemporary nations. These works, moreover, give
+no indication of foreign influence, and probably represent the last
+stage of native art, before it was disturbed by the entrance of the
+invader. The ornamentation is chaste almost to severity, and although in
+some instances it shows a community of style with the early German
+pottery, it is generally independent and distinctive. We do not assign
+an age to these pieces, but it appears probable that they were preceded
+by a ruder pottery also referable to the ancient Celts. The earlier
+remains, supposed to belong to the pre-Roman era, have been found in the
+North, and are of a very primitive character, evidently made entirely by
+hand, without the assistance of either mould or wheel. The paste is
+dark-colored and coarse. There is also a class equally rude, in so far
+as the composition is concerned, but giving in the shapes a suggestion
+of Roman influence. Red Roman ware has been found in every part of Gaul,
+and a furnace was discovered in Auvergne. At Bordeaux red, black, white,
+and yellow Roman pottery has been exhumed, and several localities are
+indicated at which potteries existed.
+
+As we approach the Middle Ages, and begin to detect evidences in France
+of a knowledge of processes with which we are already familiar, and to
+question ourselves as to their special origin, it may be well to keep
+the following facts in view: firstly, that Marseilles was founded by a
+Phoenician colony; secondly, that pottery of the South of France,
+after the Arabs had spread over the States of Barbary, so closely
+resembled the Arabian as to suggest at once communication with the North
+of Africa; thirdly, that France was open to the same influences of
+trade, intercourse, and immigration which had so powerful an effect upon
+Italy. Let us allude to one point, the probable transmission of
+lead-glaze from Greece to Rome, and thus to the Gauls, for an
+illustration of the untraceable route by which knowledge was spread, and
+for an explanation of the phenomenon so often witnessed of a certain
+product revealing itself in the most incomprehensible manner at a point
+far removed from the accepted centre of works of its class.
+
+In the twelfth century Oriental ideas in France begin to supersede those
+of Gothic inspiration, and Christianity and chivalry together operate a
+decided change in ceramic ornamentation. Processes gradually improved.
+At Poitou, in the thirteenth century, green-glazed conical urns were
+made, and Beauvais had already reached celebrity. More interesting is
+the fact that, at Hesdin, Jehan de Voleur was, toward the close of the
+fourteenth century, acquainted with stanniferous enamel. In France,
+therefore, as in Italy, this secret was known long prior to the supposed
+discovery by Luca della Robbia. It is, however, to Italy that France is
+indebted for the access of spirit infused into its ceramic art in the
+sixteenth century. Italy supplied models to the French potters, who had
+been busying themselves with ornamentation of Gothic origin and
+Christian devices and legends. And, further, Italian artists flocked to
+France between the close of the fifteenth and the latter part of the
+sixteenth century, and settled at Lyons, Amboise, Nantes, and elsewhere.
+After a time the Italian taste they represented and their technical
+skill were turned into a channel more thoroughly French, and to the
+building up of an art purely national.
+
+Among those who assisted in this great work no name is more eminent than
+that of Bernard Palissy (Fig. 227). We have already characterized his
+life as the great romance in the history of ceramics, and certainly it
+reads more like a romance than sober fact. Let us look at it a little in
+detail. His father was a humble artisan, and the honor of his birthplace
+is ascribed to La Chapelle Biron, between the years 1506 and 1510. His
+education was of the most limited kind, including merely reading and
+writing; and at an early age he began professional life as a worker in
+glass, a combination of the glazier and painter. His artistic instincts
+were thus kindled; and besides acquainting himself with drawing,
+painting, modelling, and geometry, he studied the Italian masters,
+copied their works, and devoted part of his time to literature.
+Thereafter, to add to his stock of knowledge and widen his experience,
+he began to travel, and visited Germany, Flanders, and the several
+provinces of his native country. As he travelled, he worked as surveyor
+and glass-painter, and studied chemistry and natural history. It is with
+some astonishment that we find this man, unknown to the world at large
+except as a potter, investigating the subjects upon which the noble
+science of geology was afterward built, and theorizing upon the
+elasticity and power of steam.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Bernard Palissy. (From a Painting in the Hotel
+Cluny, Paris.)]
+
+He finished his travels in 1539, settled at Saintes, married, and
+devoted himself to his original profession and to land-measuring. A few
+years later he saw the beautiful enamelled earthen cup--whether
+Oriental, German, or white Ferrarese need not concern us--which turned
+the entire course of his life. He wished to imitate the enamel without
+knowing anything of its composition, and embarked upon the long series
+of experiments which led him, through numberless trials, to eminence and
+fame. He presents at this period one of the most curious figures
+possibly in all history, that of a man apparently bent upon shutting out
+all benefit that might have been derived from the experience of others,
+literally "groping in the dark," as he says of himself, and determined
+to make up for lack of technical knowledge by assiduous experiment. He
+ground, built furnaces and fired them, tried the potter's oven of
+Chapelle-des-pots--all to no purpose. Having accepted a surveying
+mission he returned with treasury replenished and ardor unabated.
+
+Surely, no man ever knocked with such pertinacity at the door of
+knowledge. He met his first success by trying a glass-maker's furnace.
+One of the pieces came out "white and polished." This was food to live
+upon, and he began to build a furnace of his own, doing all the work
+himself--three masons in one. At length it was finished, and the first
+attempt ended in failure. He tried again, becoming poorer and poorer, so
+that he could not buy wood for his furnace. In his strait, he took the
+tree-props from his garden, his furniture, and house-flooring for fuel.
+"My shirt had not been dry for more than a month; and also, to console
+me, they laughed at me, and even those who ought to have helped me went
+crying about the town that I was burning my floor, and by these means
+made me lose my credit; and they thought me mad." He was evidently in a
+bad way when he dropped into wearing a wet shirt for a month, and
+thinking that any one ought to have helped him. After a short rest, he
+turned his attention to the preparation of a new furnace.
+
+To carry out this new plan, he was compelled to mortgage his credit by
+employing a potter to assist him. His assistant he kept in food by the
+friendly offices of a tavern-keeper, who seems not to have shared in the
+madness theory. After six months he felt himself obliged to pay off his
+help, and did so--in clothes, part of his own scanty wardrobe. Still he
+was not to be beaten. He finished his furnace single-handed, put in his
+pieces, and started the fire; but still the gods were inexorable. The
+pebbles in the mortar used in building the furnace cracked under the
+heat and flew in splinters, sticking in the glaze of his pieces, and
+spoiling them. Remorselessly, he broke them all, declining even to give
+his importunate creditors a single specimen in part payment of his
+debts. One can imagine the storm such conduct raised, and to make
+matters worse, "I met with nothing in my house but reproaches, and
+received maledictions instead of consolation." The ashes spoiled his
+next batch, and when he resorted to seggars the unequally distributed
+heat marred the enamels. He was now, however, too near victory to be
+altogether discouraged, and finally, after fifteen or sixteen years of
+unheard-of struggle and misery, this indomitable genius produced the
+long-sought enamel, and the secret of his well-known rustic pottery was
+discovered.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 228.--Palissy Dish. (Rothschild Coll.)]
+
+Fame and patronage came with success, but Palissy's troubles were by no
+means ended. Having embraced Protestantism, he fell under the edict of
+1559, saw his workshop destroyed, and was only saved from death by the
+intervention of the king. Under the protection of Queen Catherine de
+Medici, he first went to Rochelle, but was afterward summoned to Paris,
+and there, in a workshop erected in the garden of the Tuileries,
+produced some of his best works. Saved by court influence from the
+massacre of St. Bartholomew, he afterward, in 1588, fell into the hands
+of the Leaguers, and in the following year, at the age of eighty, died
+in the Bastille.
+
+His first success was the production of the white enamel, which appears
+to have engrossed his entire attention. His second attainment was a
+jasper glaze, the examples of which show a mixture of brown, white, and
+blue, and which he deemed only worthy of using as a means of temporary
+subsistence. His third and most famous achievement was the _Rustiques
+figulines_ (Fig. 228), with which his name is most intimately
+associated. These are known by imitations almost everywhere, and consist
+of variously shaped dishes and vases ornamented with shells, frogs,
+lizards, snakes, fish of several varieties, and leaves (Fig. 229). He
+was succeeded by certain members of his family, upon whose death his
+specialty was lost. At the Centennial Exhibition several imitations were
+shown in the French, Swedish, and Portuguese departments. Of these the
+best were those of M. Barbizet (Fig. 230), of Paris, the son of an
+artist who is said to have rediscovered Palissy's method, some fifty
+years ago, and who introduced his father's discovery into commerce in
+1850. Pull, of Paris, and Avisseau, of Tours, are also modern imitators
+who have been very successful in approaching their model. Pull began to
+produce his imitations in 1856, and has even deceived connoisseurs. One
+of his pieces has been sold at as high a figure as L240. Mr. Walters, of
+Baltimore, has an excellent example by the elder Avisseau. With the
+exception of the works of Avisseau, Pull, and Barbizet, the imitations
+of Palissy ware are neither skilful nor in any way attractive; as
+independent works of art, accomplished on the suggestion supplied by
+him, they are hardly deserving of serious consideration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 229.--Pitcher by Palissy. (Rothschild Coll.)]
+
+What is to be admired or condemned in Palissy as a man requires no
+mention; the admirable in him as a potter has been already pointed out
+(see Introduction, page 42). Passing now from his _rustiques figulines_,
+we find him, after his settlement in Paris, carrying his peculiar style
+into works of a totally different general character. In one piece a
+figure representing Charity is surrounded by a rustic frame, and a
+Magdalen kneels in another among shells and plants. In these, as in his
+rustic pottery, the figures are admirably executed and the coloring
+vigorous. His palette was limited to a few colors, of which yellow,
+blue, and gray were the chief, although sometimes we find him
+introducing violet, green, and brown. Some tiles are attributed to him,
+but the statuettes formerly ascribed to him are now generally conceded
+to be the works of other hands. His vases, basins, and dishes are
+extremely varied, and are decorated with subjects taken from
+contemporary life and from history. A very remarkable vase now in the
+Louvre is blue, with yellow ornaments in relief, and not less
+characteristic are his large oval cisterns, with masques, foliage,
+fruit, and shells for ornaments. One of these (Fig. 231) is a perfect
+marvel of soft and harmonious coloring. The heads are white; the drapery
+white, with yellow fringe, and in its heavier folds blue; the fruit and
+feathers white, gray, red, yellow, and blue; the ground gray in tone,
+and composed of blue, maroon, and green. In two specimens of dishes the
+ground is white, upon which reptiles lie in strong relief. None of his
+pieces are signed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Barbizet's "Palissy Ware." (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+One would imagine the idea to be prevalent that Palissy executed nothing
+but _Rustiques figulines_, if we are to judge from the tendency of
+imitators to produce pieces of that character, and from the prevailing
+taste of collectors, who appear to demand lizards and fish as essential
+to the correct imitation of the master. Having given as full a view of
+his great works as may be necessary to appreciate their variety and
+beauty, let us revert once more to the fact that Palissy was original in
+two respects: firstly, in his methods; secondly, in his adoption of
+natural objects as models. He deliberately shut out all influences which
+might consciously or unconsciously have affected his aim; and as a
+consequence, although tin enamel and reliefs were in vogue all over
+France, he emerged from his obscurity, and lived through the period of
+his eminence without being affected by either German or Italian ideas or
+processes. He must be accepted as the exponent of an art emphatically
+French. His imitators have used his moulds, and his pupils have followed
+his styles; but even when possessing the secrets and skill, copyists
+seldom catch the intelligence of their master, and thus we find that on
+his death his art declined.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231.--Palissy Cistern.]
+
+While Palissy was still in early manhood, the famous and wonderful Henri
+Deux ware, or Faience d'Oiron, had been made. There are only sixty-seven
+pieces in existence; and the mystery which for a long time enveloped its
+manufacture, its rarity, and its beauty, have both surrounded it with a
+peculiar interest and rendered specimens almost fabulously valuable. At
+a sale in 1865, no less a sum than $5500 was given for a biberon. This
+ware was made about 1530, by a potter named Francois Cherpentier, and
+Jehan Bernart, secretary and librarian, both in the service of Helene de
+Hangest, widow of Artus Gouffier, Sieur de Boisy. How this lady came to
+acquire a taste for ceramics, it is not, in view of what heretics call
+China-mania, hard to imagine. In any case, she built for Cherpentier and
+Bernart a workshop and furnace near the chateau of Oiron, and there the
+admirable Henri Deux ware was made. After the death of Helene de
+Hangest, in 1537, Bernart appears to have continued his labors under the
+superintendence of her son. This faience, therefore, which has created
+more curiosity--the place of its manufacture was not known until
+1862--than any other, and been more lavishly praised, owes its existence
+to the whim or enthusiasm of a woman.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232.--Henri Deux Ewer.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 233.--Biberon. Henri Deux Ware. (Malcolm Coll.)]
+
+It is an entirely exceptional ware. The paste is a pipe-clay, pure,
+fine, and white. Upon the first or inner layer, a second layer of a
+still finer and whiter clay was laid, in which the design was engraved.
+Colored pastes were then used for filling in the cavities, and the
+surface was then made level. So closely did the work resemble niello in
+metal that the name "Faience a Niellure" was given to the ware (Fig.
+233). On the earlier works arabesques in zones, initials, and heraldic
+designs were thus engraved, chiefly in black, brown, and red. The zones
+are also frequently yellow, and the borders brown. A further
+ornamentation consists of frogs, shells, lizards, and wreaths in relief.
+After the death of Helene de Hangest the decoration assumed an
+architectural character, and soon afterward the colors lost their
+beauty, the forms their elegance, and the art, as a whole, degenerated.
+For a period of about twenty years the faience was made which puzzled
+ceramists for over three centuries. Copies of this ware, by Minton of
+England, are in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and in the collections
+of Mr. Walters, of Baltimore, and Mr. W. L. Andrews, New York.
+
+Having referred to the specialties of Saintes and Oiron, we now turn to
+the other centres of French ceramics, grouping all its porcelain
+together in a separate section. Beauvais, Poitou, and Hesdin have been
+already alluded to incidentally. Of the remaining seats of the faience
+manufactory in France, a few are selected for their importance as
+producing styles more or less distinctive, such as Rouen, Nevers,
+Moustiers, and Limoges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Rouen Cup. Lambrequin Decoration.]
+
+Rouen may be taken as representing independent Norman art. Marreot
+Abaquesne was engaged there in enamelling from 1535, and two tile
+pictures from the chateau of Ecouen, dated 1542, are still in existence,
+representing, in blue, green, yellow, and white, Mutius Scaevola and
+Marcus Curtius. Abaquesne worked until 1557, and after that date the
+manufacture of tiles was continued by others. In 1646 Nicolas Poirel,
+Sieur de Grandval, obtained a privilege or patent for making faience,
+and immediately transferred it to Edme Poterat, already established in
+the business in Saint-Sever. To this potter is, in all probability, due
+the most distinctive styles of decoration practised at Rouen, those
+resembling lambrequins and lace (Fig. 234.) These are modifications of
+the Oriental type. In 1673 another patent was granted to Louis Poterat,
+a son of the former, for the making of "porcelain similar to that of
+China, and of violet faience painted with white and blue and other
+colors, in the manner of that of Holland." After the expiry, about
+1700, of Poirel's patent, manufactories multiplied rapidly, and reached
+an aggregate of eighteen, from which some estimate may be formed of the
+number of artists and potters engaged at Rouen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Rouen Faience. Decoration, a la corne.
+(Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+As to the successive styles, there is no doubt that designers drew
+largely from the works of the gold and silver smith. Flowers in wreaths
+and bouquets surround landscapes painted on white. Then came the senior
+Poterat's adaptation of Oriental designs in the lace and cognate styles
+already mentioned, at first in blue camaieu, and afterward mingled with
+red. Equally well known is the brilliant decoration _a la corne_ (Fig.
+235), in which many-hued flowers issue from a cornucopia, and dazzling
+insects fill in the interstices between the flowers. All these styles
+have been imitated both throughout France and in other countries. No
+faience of the eighteenth century was more rich and artistic than that
+of Rouen. Many of the pieces are of large size and highly ornate in
+character.
+
+To Nevers it has been usual to accord the honor of being the earliest
+producer of enamelled pottery in France, but without good reason. The
+evidence appears to be rather in favor of Rouen. When Louis Gonzaga
+became Duke of Nevers, he sent for a number of Italian artists, and from
+that date, about 1565, the production of faience at Nevers took its
+rise. In 1578 the brothers Conrade came from Albissola, near Genoa, and,
+settling at Nevers, were patronized by the ducal family. Their works
+date from 1602, and it was not until thirty years later that a second
+manufactory was established. The influence of the Conrades upon the art
+is very doubtful, notwithstanding the monopoly they appear to have
+enjoyed. One thing may be accepted as certain, that there existed a
+Nivernais style prior to that introduced by them. Louis Gonzaga, the
+patron, as we have seen, of ceramic art, died in 1595; and as the
+Conrades did not establish themselves until 1608, although they had been
+working for a few years previously, we have a period of forty-three
+years to account for, dating from the accession of Gonzaga, during
+thirty of which that prince was alive. The Nivernais styles may,
+therefore, be divided into the Franco-Urbino prior to the Conrade, the
+Italo-Chinese which existed under them, the Italo-Nivernais, and the
+Franco-Nivernais. The Franco-Urbino is marked by a predominance of blue
+and yellow, by violet tracings, a yellowish flesh tint, a peculiar
+copper-green, and a scarcity of red. A favorite form of vase handle is
+the dragon, and the sea is represented in lines of wavy blue. The styles
+of Persia, Japan, and China began to manifest themselves under the
+Conrades, and continued down to near the middle of the eighteenth
+century. We have, after the Persian, blue grounds with white and yellow
+ornamentation, and white grounds with polychrome and blue decoration. At
+the same time we find minglings of Italian and Oriental designs. After
+1640, however, the traces of Italian influence become less distinct. The
+Italian school is disappearing, foreign artists are giving place to
+natives, and down to the end of the eighteenth century there are obvious
+traces of the styles of Rouen and Moustiers. From that time Nevers
+declined.
+
+Moustiers has only been known for a few years, but facts have been
+discovered which prove it to have held a highly important place in
+ceramic art. Situated in the Lower Alps, its works were long attributed
+to other places, although its geographical position near Marseilles and
+Italy would naturally point to it as one of the most favored centres of
+Provencal art. It is chiefly known by the productions of the Clerissy
+family and of Joseph Olery. Pierre Clerissy's works extended from 1686
+to 1728, and to this period some of the finest specimens belong. The
+pieces are generally large oval or round dishes, with hunting or
+scriptural scenes as central decorations, and borders either of flowers
+or masks and fabulous monsters and arabesques. The paintings are in
+blue, upon a very pure white enamel. In the succeeding styles the centre
+scenes after Tempesta were abandoned. One piece has in the centre a
+small medallion representing Diana, the huntress, equipped for the chase
+and accompanied by her dogs. Surrounding it are arabesques, grotesque
+figures, heads, busts, and amorini, and for an outer border there is a
+narrow edging of the lace-like pattern of Rouen. Olery (Fig. 236) seems
+to have abandoned entirely the styles of Clerissy. He enriched his
+palette with violet, green, brown, and yellow, and revelled in floral
+decoration. Heavy wreaths of flowers surrounding a series of medallions,
+with bouquets between, form a deep border for scenes from mythology and
+the classics.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 236.--Moustiers Faience Dish. By Olery.]
+
+Intercourse afterward obliterated the lines between distinctive styles.
+Olery went to Spain, and probably acquired there his taste for
+polychrome decoration (Fig. 237). Spanish artists accompanied him on his
+return, and worked, no doubt, in the light of their national traditions;
+and toward the end of the century it is impossible to recognize the
+styles of either individual artists or schools. Clerissy's workshop was
+continued after his death by his partner, Joseph Fouque, whose family
+retains it to the present day.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 237.--Moustiers Dish. Polychrome.]
+
+Allied to Moustiers, as representing the art of Southern France, is
+Marseilles, a city in every way favorably situated for the prosecution
+of the faience industry. Of its earlier works, dating as far back as the
+fifteenth century, nothing is known; but toward the end of the
+seventeenth century a workshop was founded, in which was made an
+authenticated faience. The distinguishing feature of the decoration is
+the combination of violet from manganese with cobalt blue. The style
+bears a general resemblance to that of Moustiers, and it is probable
+that the works of the two factories are frequently confounded. About
+1750 the Marseilles faience was exported in immense quantities; and from
+that date, when the name of Honore Savy appears in the list of potters,
+polychrome decoration became more prevalent. Savy was, in 1777, on the
+visit of the future Louis XVIII., authorized to call his workshop
+"Manufacture de Monsieur, Frere du Roi," and is said to have then
+adopted the _fleur-de-lis_ as his mark. The mark alone cannot, however,
+be accepted as indicating with absolute certainty a work of Savy. The
+same potter is said to have invented a particular green; but it appears
+to have been common to the other potters of Marseilles, as it is found
+upon pieces by Joseph Gaspard Robert and Mme. Perrin. Robert ranks next
+to Savy in faience, and was making porcelain at the time of the royal
+visit.
+
+In Strasburg we find the origin of a style of faience painting which,
+although displaying unquestionable excellence of workmanship, was
+carried to such an extent that the suitableness of the decoration to the
+earthen-ware body was completely lost sight of. Reference is made to the
+porcelain style, by which decoration more properly reserved for
+porcelain was applied to faience. The Strasburg paste is of comparative
+fineness, the glaze is excellent, and the colors brilliant. The first
+factory was established by Charles Francois Hannong in 1709. In 1721
+Hannong associated himself with a German potter from Anspach, named
+Wackenfield, and in 1724 started a second workshop at Haguenau. The
+latter ultimately fell to Balthasar Hannong, a son of Charles; and the
+Strasburg establishment was carried on by another son, Paul Antoine. The
+latter worked industriously, and brought the establishment up to a very
+high position. On his death, in 1760, it was carried on by his son
+Pierre Antoine, who transferred it to Joseph Adam, his brother, and in
+1780 the production ceased. The best period was that between 1740 and
+1760, when Paul Antoine was proprietor.
+
+The places mentioned, Nevers, Rouen, Moustiers, Marseilles, and
+Strasburg, are the centres from which emanated the leading old styles of
+decoration. An exact classification is impossible, since, as Marseilles
+faience often bears a striking resemblance to that of Moustiers, the
+works of Strasburg, on the other hand, are closely related to those from
+Marseilles. After them comes a centre, more interesting because very
+recently arriving at eminence, from which has emanated a style different
+from that of any of its predecessors.
+
+Limoges is as yet scarcely known in the history of pottery, although
+there is a probability, almost amounting to a certainty, that it will
+hereafter be accepted as one of the leading representatives of the
+ceramic art of France in our day. We find, in 1737, a decree granted in
+favor of Sieur Massie, empowering him to establish a workshop of faience
+at Limoges. The discovery of kaolin at St. Yrieix appears to have
+directed the attention of potters from faience to porcelain. One piece
+of the Massie period, dated 1741, is now in Limoges. A border,
+resembling those of Moustiers, surrounds the figure of Justice
+enthroned and holding the sword and scales. Religion, Truth, and Law
+attend her, and Crime is crushed under her foot. Other equally
+remarkable pieces may be in existence, but Limoges nowhere appears in
+the records as producing any faience of importance or of a very high
+order of art.
+
+Within the past few years the aspect of affairs has changed, and the
+Havilands of New York have made for Limoges--in conjunction with
+Auteuil, near Paris, where much of the moulding and decorating is
+executed--a place in the history of pottery as lofty as that which it
+occupies in the history of enamelling. Notwithstanding all that has been
+said of Saracenic and Italian decoration, we believe that it was
+reserved for Haviland to show the real decorative capacity of faience,
+and to demonstrate the possible harmony between decoration and its
+excipient. For a long time Limoges was known solely as a seat of the
+porcelain industry. It was in this way that Americans first became
+familiar with its name. When the time came for Haviland to turn his
+attention to faience the change above referred to set in. He did more
+than merely institute a revival of an obscure industry. While Montagnon
+of Nevers was following closely in the track of his predecessors, and
+other manufacturers, both French and Italian, were busy with imitations
+of dead styles, Haviland set a gigantic task before himself, and it is
+to the credit of Americans that they have been among the readiest to
+appreciate his works and to encourage his efforts. His faience is
+remarkable by reason of its combining three very important
+qualities--novelty of process, originality of decoration, and the
+strength of drawing and color which are most perfectly in keeping with
+the material on which they appear.
+
+We have already pointed out the difficulties with which artists on clay
+have contended. The action of the fire made the result, in so far as the
+coloring is concerned, always more or less of a problem. Too much or too
+little heat changed the entire aspect of the piece. Although, therefore,
+we find in Italy and elsewhere great painters furnishing designs for the
+decoration of pottery, we seldom find them actually engaged upon the
+ware itself. Artists naturally prefer the medium which preserves their
+individuality of touch and finish. This personality the fire destroyed.
+All that was distinctive of the individual palette and brush vanished
+under the heat. What the exact nature of the Havilands' new process and
+the composition of their palette may be we have not the means of
+discovering. We know, however, that the painting is laid upon the clay
+before it is fired, that the piece is then glazed, and is afterward
+baked for between twenty and thirty hours. Body, glaze, and colors are
+therefore subjected to the fire together. The glaze is alkaline, and is
+similar in its general character to that used on _pate tendre_
+porcelain. We need not inquire into the preparation of the colors. It is
+claimed that the possession of the latter brings the result of any
+operation within such bounds that it can be calculated with a reasonable
+approach to certainty. Let it be fully understood what this implies. It
+means that with palette practically unlimited, any artist can apply
+himself to the decoration of earthen-ware, and find his work emerging
+from the furnace stamped as clearly with the individuality of his design
+and execution as if he had applied it to a painting upon a panel or
+canvas.
+
+Among the artists engaged upon the Haviland faience are M. and Mme.
+Bracquemond, MM. Lindeneher, Noel, Chaplet, Damousse, Lafond, and
+Delaplanche. With Messrs. Chaplet, Laurin, and Lafond, the new
+enamelling process may be said to have accidentally originated at
+Bourg-la-Reine in 1873, and M. Bracquemond was the first to appreciate
+its value and to bring it under the notice of the Messrs. Haviland. The
+latter at once saw its merit, and by farther experiment and the use of
+the resources at their command, brought it to perfection. The works of
+their artists have made America as familiar with their faience as it
+formerly was with their porcelain. The process having been discovered,
+the second step was the adoption of a style. Here we meet with a
+peculiarity of the ware. We speak of schools of painting, and our
+language implies a limitation, a peculiarity of _technique_. All artists
+who follow nature closely must needs belong to the same school. Their
+success in the reproduction of natural effects is a bond of union, which
+brings them together across the boundaries of special methods of
+treatment. Each of Havilands' artists may have his specialty, but we
+find no broad dividing lines. Their subjects are taken from nature or
+from imagination, which is only a wider field based upon the natural.
+The sympathy between them lies in the new sense of the capabilities of
+their art. The brush is wielded with a stronger hand, and the designs
+appear bolder, at times almost reckless. There is no striving after
+what might be called "prettiness of style." Where we have been
+accustomed to restraint we find largeness and liberty. There are no
+longer minute divisions of surfaces to be covered in detail with
+graceful precision, but designs of full artistic completeness and strong
+simplicity. Color is applied with a commensurate boldness, which carries
+the conviction that here at last we find a decoration suited to its
+basis of earthen-ware.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 238.--Memorial Vase. Haviland Faience. (Smithsonian
+Institute.)]
+
+A recent visitor to the workshop of Haviland & Co., near Paris, where
+much of their faience is painted, thus describes what he saw: "While in
+Paris, I studied the way in which the vases are painted, and was
+surprised to find what an amount of care is expended upon them. They
+demand more exact treatment than China or English faience. The artist
+works as if the material were canvas. A bouquet of flowers, for
+instance, is minutely painted, and the shades of the grounds are all
+carefully studied. Nothing is left to chance. During the process of
+firing everything fuses, and it is then that the appearance of boldness
+is produced. If a vase were painted, as on a cursory examination it
+appears to be, with a bold brush and careless hand, the result would be
+a mere daub of no value. The peculiar talent of the artists consists in
+producing an effect of boldness and carelessness with a great deal of
+work and a close imitation of nature. Could all the work actually
+bestowed upon one of these vases, and as it can be seen before firing,
+be seen after firing, the faience of Limoges would resemble that of
+England or any other pottery which is painted on the glaze. But the
+process is different, and after the firing the detail of the work melts
+away, leaving behind that fascinating harmony of colors which has never
+before been produced on any pottery. Nothing has as yet been invented to
+replace work and care; and when anything you may see presents something
+pleasing, be certain that both have been lavished upon it. No writing or
+music seems so easy to imitate as that which cannot be imitated; and it
+is the part of a good author to conceal the method he employs."
+
+There are now in the Smithsonian Institute at Washington three pieces of
+Haviland faience which may be taken as exemplifying much of what has
+been said. These are the Memorial Vases (Fig. 238) and Bracquemond's
+tile-piece allegorizing Human Progress. Let us take the vases first.
+They are the joint productions of MM. Bracquemond, designer, and
+Delaplanche, sculptor, and are intended to commemorate the Centennial of
+American Independence. The broad and easily understood conception is
+intensely American, and was, in fact, due to American inspiration. They
+fitly stand in the capital, not only as lasting memorials of the
+hundredth anniversary of America's entrance into the great commonwealth
+of nations, but as a congratulatory compliment from the ceramic artists
+of France.
+
+Viewed in the light of history and of historical usage, they both
+acquire a fresh interest, and are better understood. They are
+exceptions, in the idea they represent, to the myriad ornamental vases
+which load our cabinets and shelves. We have already seen that, from the
+most ancient days of Egypt downward, vases were employed for the
+conveyance of religious sentiments. The Chinese followed the same
+course, and joined with it the custom of using pottery as a reward, or
+for the purpose of conferring a mark of imperial distinction upon
+officers deserving well of the state. Vases were also made the media
+between friends for the conveyance of compliments or congratulations. We
+might, in this connection, revert once more to the Greeks, who carried
+the Oriental practice still farther. By that people vases were, as we
+have seen, used as prizes, as wedding presents, as pledges of love or
+friendship, the legends they bear enabling us at this distant day to
+listen to the whisperings of passions which burned and died over two
+thousand years ago. We also find such commemorative vases as that which
+bears the legend, "The beautiful horse, twice conqueror at the Pythian
+games." On many others are inscribed the names of the great men of
+antiquity, its kings and its poets. Some of these belong to times
+posterior to those in which the persons they were intended to honor
+lived, and may, therefore, be called commemorative in the same manner as
+statues. Throughout the Middle Ages we find the same usage more widely
+prevalent. When, therefore, the artists of France decided upon
+commemorating the American Centennial, they had, as a precedent for
+making a memorial distinctive of their art, the usage of the potters of
+all countries back to the most remote times.
+
+In regard to design and decoration, these vases will bear consideration
+in detail. There is one very large class of Greek vases which represent
+what we have called the union of pottery and sculpture. In one we have
+the helmeted head of Pallas Athene surmounted by a figure of Nike, or
+Victory. On others are Tritons bearing Nereids, Medusa's head, pennate
+figures, and the winged steeds of Aurora. The artist had no thought of
+utility to hamper him in designing accessories. It is said that M.
+Bracquemond, while in the Louvre, was attracted by one of the Grecian
+vases of this class found in Apulia (see Fig. 167). The style is full of
+grandeur and pomp. The form of the vase would be heavy and clumsy were
+its outline unrelieved by the decorating figures. On the neck stands a
+divinity in graceful drapery. Lower down, on the sides, are two
+statuettes of deities, and on either side of Minerva's head surmounted
+by Nike in front are two Tritons, with their horse-feet pawing the air.
+This vase suggested to M. Bracquemond a design for the Memorial Vases in
+Washington. All that he thus derived, however, was merely a suggestion.
+
+The details of the design may be gathered from a description of the
+vases themselves. One is intended to represent the year in which the
+United States won independence; the other the hundredth anniversary of
+that event. Between them is a whole century of history. The vase "1776"
+rises from a base consisting of greenish, foamy waves, lashing angrily
+against rocks surmounted by a circlet of cannon modelled after the
+ordnance of Revolutionary times. In this we have the whole story of the
+struggle for independence, and of the turmoil and confusion of the
+strife. It is worth noting that this symbolical use of the wave
+ornamentation is strictly classical. When the potters of Greece sought a
+symbol of caprice and mutation, they could find none more expressive
+than the foam-crested waves of the sea. From the cannon the body of the
+vase swells gracefully outward, and attains its widest girth near the
+top, where it curves rapidly inward to the upper rim. The orifice is
+closed by a star-covered dome of blue, from either side of which spring
+statuettes of Fame and Victory. On a pedestal on the rim in front stands
+a bust of Washington, modelled by Houdon, after one formerly owned by
+Lafayette, and now in the Louvre.
+
+The ornamentation on the body is simple and expressive. Green fronds
+cross each other above the cannon, and smaller branches and stars are
+sprinkled over the whole surface. On the front is the American eagle
+with outstretched wings, with the national colors on either side. Above
+it, and immediately under the bust of Washington, in small gilt
+letters, are the names of the signers of the Declaration of
+Independence.
+
+The base of the Centennial vase, "1876," symbolizes peace and prosperity
+by means of fruit, cereals, and the implements of husbandry. Above the
+eagle, in place of the names of the signers of the Declaration, are
+those of the Presidents, from Washington to Grant, and the surmounting
+bust represents Columbia. In other respects the two vases are alike. The
+story they tell is plain, and for every observer to read. Out of the
+struggle of a hundred years ago have come liberty, peace, and
+prosperity. The designer was exposed to dangers which he has coped with
+successfully. He has achieved something grateful to American patriotism
+without throwing originality aside. The American flag, the eagle,
+Washington, and the Goddess of Liberty, compose a group which, but for
+their artistic combination, might have been viewed with the indifference
+begotten of familiarity. As they stand, it becomes hard to conceive how
+otherwise, in equally intelligible language, a great historical event
+could have been commemorated in the everlasting record supplied by clay.
+They are records, and not mere ornaments. They mirror the first century
+of America's life as a nation. They tell all or nearly all that history
+can tell of the passage from the struggle of 1776 to the prosperity of
+1876.
+
+The story of their formation is interesting, that of one applying to
+both. The body was modelled by M. Renard, chief modeller at Sevres. He
+worked incessantly on the inside for thirty-four hours without resting
+more than a few minutes at a time, in order that his work might be
+finished before the clay lost any of its plasticity by the evaporation
+of the moisture. When this operation was completed the body was allowed
+to dry for fifteen days. A kiln was then built round it, its great
+size--the vases are twelve feet high, and the largest ever made in
+Europe--rendering removal impossible. It was fired for eight days at a
+low temperature, and then for three days at a high degree of heat, and
+the result of the stupendous work was in every way successful. The
+furnace required eight days to cool. If anything more is needed to
+enable us to estimate the immense labor involved in such a work, it may
+be summed up in this, that these vases demanded thirteen months' work of
+some of the ablest artists and potters of France.
+
+It is difficult to criticise them apart from the sentiment they embody,
+and which invests them with a never-fading interest. It was, however, a
+touch of genius to get away from immediate usage to a style of
+ornamentation with which the artists of Magna Graecia and Apulia
+embellished their vases. It is the style best suited to their enormous
+size. The enamel is applied only to the ornamentation, the body, busts,
+and statuettes being all left unglazed and showing the natural color of
+the clay. Every detail is made expressive, while the strictest
+simplicity is retained. The size of the work forbade minute
+ornamentation of a symbolical character, and there is thus a harmony
+between the entire work and the details. The colors are brilliant, and
+the general effect, though sombre, is imposing and fine. They will be
+viewed hereafter with increasing interest, as marking the revival of an
+old complimentary usage under particularly gratifying conditions; and
+the grandeur and beauty of the art they represent is not likely to be
+forgotten in the contemplation of the sentiment they express.
+
+We turn to the tile-piece in which, upon nearly a thousand tiles, M.
+Bracquemond presents his allegory of Human Progress, with a mingled
+feeling of dislike and attraction. It also stands in the Smithsonian
+Institute. The repellent influence is first experienced, and arises,
+probably, from an apparent absurdity of design and the peculiar
+coloring. A figure of gigantic size occupies the centre, trampling fire
+underfoot, and having a greenish bronze statuette in the right hand and
+a vase in the other. On the left are the chimneys and smoke of a
+factory, and on the opposite side is a railway train. A flash of
+lightning strikes in from the right, and above the central figure is the
+recumbent form of a woman partially enveloped in cloud. The picture, as
+we have said, is allegorical, and represents the genius of man utilizing
+the waters of the rebellious stream and storm, the fires of the volcano
+and lightning, and making them subservient to progress. As it is more
+closely studied, its true place in art is better understood, and we
+ultimately accept the piece as an indication of the possibilities of M.
+Bracquemond's art. We feel that another stage has been passed on the way
+toward the perfect union of the potter's and painter's skill, and toward
+the picture "permanent as the Pyramids" of which Ruskin writes.
+
+Many of the other tile-pieces, panels, and plaques (Fig. 239) from
+Limoges and Auteuil are more absolutely excellent. On a circular plaque
+appears a draped female head, in which the flesh tint, clear and ruddy,
+is simply wonderful. The delicacy which it lacks is found on two panels,
+perfect rural pictures, with single female figures. These pieces
+illustrate the fineness of landscape effect and the nicety of touch to
+which the artist in possession of Haviland's palette can attain. The
+trees stand out well against the sky, its blue slightly shaded with
+cloudy gray; and if we turn from these to the figure-drawing, the
+arrangement of the drapery, even the finish of the embroidery, we feel
+that we are in presence of an art of the decorative and artistic
+capacity of which we are only catching the first glimpses.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 239--Haviland Faience. (H. Havemeyer Coll.)]
+
+If we pass now to the vases of this ware, we are struck by the
+originality of their shapes, the freedom of their designs, and the
+remarkable depth and beauty of their coloring. There is nowhere visible
+any symptom of the nervous feeling after a doubtful result
+characteristic of an artist without confidence in himself and his
+process. Everything indicates strength, assurance, and power; and if
+there is weakness anywhere, it is evidently the result of a boldness
+which is over-hasty or too careless of finish and detail. We find no
+precedent for the decoration. It is as far removed as possible from all
+that is associated with China or Japan, from the majolica of Italy,
+Spain, or Berlin, from the stone-ware of England, or the faience of
+Sweden. The forms of the vases are of boundless variety, and suggest
+originality by their very multiplicity. One would carry us back to the
+pottery of ancient Gaul before it had felt the heavy hand of Rome.
+Another recalls the Anglo-Saxon vases of England. A third would lead us,
+in searching for a precedent, to the clumsy, rotund urns of ancient
+Germany. These would all be equally fanciful, no doubt; and in that
+suspicion one is confirmed by the exquisite forms of a small _pichet_, a
+quaint card-receiver, and a vase rising to its slightly out-turned lip
+as gracefully as the cup of a flower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 240.--Haviland Faience. (G. W. Gibson Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 241.--Haviland Faience. (Whitelaw Reid Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 242.--Luna Vase. Haviland Faience. (Mrs. William H.
+Dannat Coll.)]
+
+We may take a few examples in order to illustrate the decoration. It
+consists of painting on the surface, of carved figures in unglazed
+relief, and of forms glazed and attached to the surface. Of the first
+of these the choice is wide. On some appear hunting dogs full of life
+and action and in many attitudes. On another is a Cupid with full-drawn
+bow, rosy and chubby, and evidently bent upon dealing a fatal wound. On
+a third is a nymph and satyr (Fig. 241). A fourth shows us a barn-yard
+pair, a duck and drake, the latter preening himself in the sun, under
+which his many-hued plumage glitters with a lustre almost iridescent.
+On a fifth a gayly feathered open-throated songster appears to be
+warbling his even-song upon a tiny spray. Flowers are painted with all
+the splendor of nature, and cling round the forms with gracefully
+sweeping stem. One in particular is made attractive simply by its color,
+a mottled gray, into the depths of which we look as into the clouds
+hanging over the couch of the sun in the early mornings of summer. Its
+beauty is in its suggestiveness, which strikes us again in many of the
+flower-wreathed vases where there are openings of green, into which one
+can look as into a forest glade. The mind creates what the eye cannot
+see, and the glade is peopled with beings whose forms are never caught.
+This is, no doubt, an example of fancy helping out the artist, but the
+artist is none the less fortunate and skilful who can thus induce the
+fancy to take wing. He leaves her room to take flight, and the vase he
+has decorated with a simple flower becomes a poem suggesting far more
+than it tells.
+
+Of the vases showing unglazed carvings in bas-relief there is a single
+pair, sufficient for illustration. On one is represented Phoebus, the
+golden-haired god of day, and on the other the triform goddess Luna.
+Phoebus stands with bow drawn full to the shoulder, just as we picture
+him in Homer. It will be remembered that when Lyrnessus was taken by the
+Greeks and the spoils divided, Chryseis, the wife of the king of the
+captured place, and daughter of Chryses, one of the priests of Apollo,
+fell to the share of Agamemnon. Her father sought her restoration from
+the "king of men," and on his request being refused, asked aid from the
+god he served. We here have Apollo in the attitude of returning an
+answer to his suppliant priest.
+
+ "Bent was his bow, the Grecian hearts to wound,
+ Fierce, as he moved, his silver shafts resound;
+ Breathing revenge, a sudden night he spread,
+ And gloomy darkness rolled around his head.
+ The fleet in view, he twang'd his deadly bow,
+ And, hissing, fly the feather'd fates below.
+ On mules and dogs the infection first began,
+ And last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man."
+
+On the companion vase (Fig. 242) is the figure of the goddess of night,
+Luna, Diana, or Hecate, in her character of Luna, with the crescent
+under her feet, and throwing back a mantle from her graceful form. In
+both vases the beauty of the conception is skilfully carried out in the
+execution. The figures are admirably modelled, and, being of a light
+paste and left unglazed, stand out in bold relief against the ground.
+The daring of the latter innovation is amply justified by the result.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 243.--Faience Vase. (Mrs. Colonel T. Scott Coll.)]
+
+Of the third class of vases with glazed ornaments applied to the body
+there are many fine specimens. One of the most charming (Fig. 243) is
+wreathed by flower sprays twined naturally and gracefully round the
+body. The flower is in full bloom, and its large leaves are spread out
+above it and below. For handles there are snakes turning in their
+changeless coil round the flower stem. On another the handles consist of
+butterflies beautifully moulded and colored, and placed as though they
+might have been transformed into clay as they alighted on the vase.
+Another, of small size and quaintly rotund form, has a mass of leaves
+and flowers in relief clustering round the body. A pitcher with a soft
+gray ground is lightly overrun with an ivy branch, which twines itself
+round the neck and handle as naturally as the plant creeps up and winds
+itself round the stem of a tree.
+
+Can anything be more simple than the suggestions to which these
+creations are due? Do we need to be reminded of the fable which explains
+how Callimachus was inspired to produce the Corinthian capital? We are
+told that he was walking in the country, and as he travelled he came to
+the grave of a child, upon which, in a basket, some relative--its
+mother, probably--had placed the customary offering of food. To keep off
+the birds and small animals, a tile had been laid upon the basket. In
+course of time an acanthus appeared; and as it grew, its stalk was
+pressed back by the tile and turned round spirally under its edge.
+Nothing more was needed. Callimachus found in the little basket on the
+flower-grown grave a suggestion for the order of architecture which has
+never been surpassed to this day. We have similarly, in the faience
+vases of Haviland now under consideration, constant hints of inspiration
+drawn from the simplest forms of nature. A branch falls upon a vase and
+becomes its ornament. A butterfly hangs for a moment on fluttering wing
+and drops from its flight, and it too becomes an ornament. The workman
+leaves his unfinished work at night, and when he returns at day-break,
+finds that a lizard or an asp has crept upon the still slimy vase to
+bask itself in the first rays of the morning sun. It darts out of sight,
+but it has left an idea which appears in the decoration; and on the spot
+from which it glided when disturbed a snake displays its spiral
+convolutions.
+
+Where but in nature shall we see anything suggestive of such decoration?
+We do not find it in Japan, for the symbolical and semi-imaginative,
+semi-realistic style of the extreme East has nothing in common with this
+naturalism. As little do we find it among the brilliant colors and
+fantastic forms of Persia. If we come nearer home, to Italy, even to the
+French centres we have already visited, there is nothing in their
+classical scenes and floral wreaths and bouquets to prepare us to find
+in Limoges their orderly successor. In a word, the style is original.
+There is no crowding of tints for the sake of their rich beauty. A
+single flower lying on a ground of one prevailing tone is sufficient
+ornamentation for a vase; or a handful of flowers may be scattered upon
+the surface in tumbled profusion, or woven into a wreath. Haviland has
+entered upon a hitherto undiscovered path, and let us pray that he may
+never be tempted to try the porcelain decoration which threatened to
+ruin faience, nor to give us anything more meretricious than the beauty
+of a garden flower or of the many other admirably conceived forms which
+he has endowed with life.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 244.--Haviland Faience. (Miss Clara Louise Kellogg
+Coll.)]
+
+The best pieces have been chosen for commendation and to illustrate the
+highest results to be expected from the new process. It is
+unquestionable, however, that there are many pieces of this faience
+which could be disposed of without seeking words for the expression of
+enthusiastic praise. This gives those desiring specimens every
+opportunity for the exercise of a judicious discrimination. In some
+pieces the simultaneous melting of the color and glaze has resulted in a
+haziness of outline and confusion of colors by no means characteristic
+of the better examples. On others with figure decoration the drawing has
+been completely destroyed, and the figure left in obscurity. These
+inferior pieces are useful, however, for showing how careful must be the
+work which produces the bold effects securing our admiration.
+
+When Haviland took up the process discovered by MM. Chaplet, Laurin, and
+Lafond, at Bourg-la-Reine, he secured the services of two of these
+artists. The third, M. Laurin, carried out the process at the place of
+its discovery. Many of this artist's works come to us bearing his mark
+and the name of the factory, Bourg-la-Reine, in full. Like that of
+Haviland, his work is occasionally irregular; but, as a rule, it is
+entitled to very high commendation. The flower decoration is extremely
+beautiful, and when laid upon a soft ground, such as the gray, which
+Laurin produces to perfection, is entitled to nearly all the praise
+bestowed upon the corresponding works from Haviland's factory. The
+Bourg-la-Reine faience is chiefly painted on the flat, and the leading
+decoration consists of flower and figure painting. We meet with many
+well-selected subjects and much strong and realistic treatment. On one
+vase appear an eagle and a serpent on an excellent ground of gray and
+blue, the former of which is also employed with fine effect in a variety
+of flower pieces.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 245.--Bourg-la-Reine Faience. (G. Collamore.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 246.--Bourg-la-Reine Plaque. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+A very common mistake is made regarding this faience. It is often
+confounded with that of Haviland, although the differences between the
+two fabrics are obvious. In the first place, the marks can be consulted.
+That of Limoges is stamped "H. & Co."--or, Haviland & Co.--with or
+without the place of manufacture. The artist's mark also is generally
+attached. The Bourg-la-Reine is marked either with the name "Laurin" or
+"B.-la-R.," or with both. In the second place, the alkaline glaze of the
+Haviland faience gives the paintings, especially of flowers, a life-like
+appearance peculiar to itself. It is a mistake to suppose that the
+processes of decoration are identical in every particular. In one
+respect only they are alike. In both, the colors are laid upon the
+unbaked clay. In the mixing of the colors and in the glaze they are
+distinct. Laurin's decoration is harder in outline than the Limoges, and
+never possesses the mingled softness and strength which constitute the
+great charm of the latter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 247.--Deck Faience. (Corcoran Art Gallery.)]
+
+Of the early history of Bourg-la-Reine little of general interest is
+known. It appears that Jullien and Jacques of Mennecy founded a workshop
+there about the year 1773. Jullien died in 1774, and was succeeded by
+his son, who resigned his share in the business to Jacques. When Jacques
+died, in 1799, his son, C. S. Jacques, continued the fabrication. At a
+later period fine white faience was made. It is upon Laurin alone that,
+in this country, the reputation of the place depends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 248.--Deck Bottle. (Gilman Collamore.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 249.--Deck Vase. (Gilman Collamore.)]
+
+The name of Deck, of Paris, brings before us much that is beautiful in
+the recent ceramics of France. For a long time, in fact, his name was
+supposed to represent nearly all that was excellent in the color and
+decoration of European pottery. Having enriched his palette with a
+wealth of colors which made him the envy of his cotemporaries, he turned
+his attention to reviving Oriental styles in hues rivalling those of the
+East. He was first attracted to Persia, and with marvellous skill
+applied his rich enamel colors to the reproduction of the faience of
+that country. In other cases he is manifestly inspired by Japanese art.
+His technical skill enables him to reach widely varied effects, and
+since to this are added truthful drawing and a fine taste in the
+assortment of tints, we can easily understand his eminence in the art.
+Specimens of his best work are comparatively rare in this country. The
+faience vase from the Corcoran Art Gallery (Fig. 247) is characteristic,
+and is an excellent example of M. Deck's coloring. The ground is a soft
+yellow or buff, and the plumage of the pheasant is brilliant and rich.
+The blue tints are especially fine, and the glaze, which is judged to be
+alkaline, gives the coloring that peculiar softness which is found in
+the greatest perfection on _pate tendre_. There is considerable doubt as
+to the body used by Deck. It varies very much in different pieces,
+approaching in some cases the hardness and compactness of porcelain. Of
+this character is the bottle, Fig. 248. The ground color of this
+specimen is a clear blue, and in it the white blossoms appear in thick
+clusters. A vase and plaque, with a somewhat similar, but possibly even
+a finer body, are shown at page 325 (Figs. 280 and 281). That given here
+(Fig. 249), singular alike in form and color, has a ground of undecided
+shades of brown and yellow. Deck's violet is soft and rich, approaching
+at times the velvety violet of China.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 250.--Colinot Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+The other names most familiar to Americans are those of Colinot,
+Parville, Longwy, Creil, Sarreguemines, and Montereau. Their products
+illustrate the taste for Oriental styles which sprung up a few years
+ago, and to the gratification of which much of the ingenuity of French
+makers has been devoted. Colinot, of Paris, has employed with great
+skill colored enamels in the imitation of Japanese work. On one
+cylindrical vase (Fig. 250) he has laid in strong relief, upon a
+dark-buff ground, flowers and leaves exactly after the models supplied
+by Satsuma and Kioto. On other specimens the decoration is outlined upon
+a white ground, and filled in with enamel colors. The method is
+productive of a clear hardness of outline, but the results are seldom
+unpleasing and often very attractive. Colinot has succeeded in obtaining
+several excellent colors. The vase (Fig. 251) is a rich purple, on which
+the flowers are laid in white and green. The treatment is similar to
+that of Deck, but the ground is less brilliant and clear. Colinot also
+acquired considerable reputation by his faience with colored
+stanniferous enamel. We give an example (Fig. 252) of his treatment of
+large pieces. The ground is a pale blue, and the medallions are
+admirably painted. The color is subdued throughout.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 251.--Colinot Vase. (Gilman Collamore.)]
+
+The Creil workshop was established some time during the eighteenth
+century, probably about 1780, by a number of English potters. Its
+earliest works appear to have consisted chiefly of services of a
+semi-porcelaneous paste. The Worcester method of transfer-printing and
+then painting the design in colors was adopted, and successfully
+handled. The founders transferred the establishment to Le Boeuf,
+Milliet & Co. and De St. Criq & Co. Porcelain was made until 1860, after
+which the production was restricted to English faience. The paste
+cannot, however, be distinctly qualified, as it varies from the original
+semi-porcelain to cream-colored ware. The latter has a wide reputation,
+both for its quality and its decoration under the glaze.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 252.--Colinot Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+The Montereau establishment was, like that of Creil, founded by
+Englishmen. Letters patent were granted on March 15th, 1775, to Clark,
+Shaw & Co., to make English faience and queen's-ware. The firm started
+under very favorable auspices, receiving an annual allowance of 1200
+francs for ten years, probably for the purpose of naturalizing the
+industry. Its wares helped to overturn the manufacture of French
+faience, and were imitated at several places, including Toulouse and
+Sarreguemines. In 1790 there were two establishments at Montereau. As at
+Creil, M. De St. Criq, in 1810, acquired the right of protection, and in
+1829 assigned it to Leboeuf & Thebaut.
+
+At Longwy the manufacture of faience was begun about forty years ago,
+when M. Huart de Northcomb was proprietor of a workshop. Its name is now
+found upon many excellent specimens of faience with colored stanniferous
+enamel. In the bottle and tray (Fig. 253) a rich effect is produced by
+the employment of two shades of blue in the scaly ground. The oval
+medallions and other ornamentation are yellow, with leaves and flowers
+in green and pink. It is one of the best examples we have seen from this
+factory, which is one of the largest of its kind in France. The pitcher
+(Fig. 254) has a ground of undecided very pale yellow, and the leaves,
+flowers, and birds are variously colored. Our third specimen, an oval
+plaque (Fig. 255), has, in its design and the brilliancy of its
+coloring, a decidedly Oriental appearance. In the other examples the
+ground is broken up by a crackle more or less open and irregular; but in
+the plaque the white enamel is veined with fine and regular darkly
+colored cracks, which bring the ground to a soft and pleasing gray. The
+flowers are red and pink, and the foliage green, turning at times to
+blue. The bird is brightly plumaged with blue and other colors. In this
+as in the other pieces, the ground alone is crackled, and the decoration
+has the appearance of being graved in the enamel and then filled in with
+the requisite colors.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 253--Longwy Faience. (Gilman Collamore.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 254.--Longwy Faience. Crackle. (G. Collamore.)]
+
+Parville, of Paris, makes enamelled faience of the same general
+description; and the vase chosen to represent it (Fig. 256) deserves
+attention both for the peculiarity of its form and for the illustration
+it gives of a French modification of the Persian style of decorating.
+The ground is a dull and sombre shade of dark-blue, upon which the
+ornamentation is laid in light-blue, white, red, and two shades of
+yellow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 255.--Longwy Faience. Crackle. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 256.--Parville Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+Gien faience, like those of Creil and Montereau, belongs to the class of
+ware with a colorless plumbiferous glaze, and its decoration is often
+remarkable both in design and color. In the vase with which we represent
+this faience (Fig. 257) the design is outlined on the biscuit, and the
+colors are then applied. The earlier products of Gien are said to be
+imitations of the styles of Marseilles. A more artistic faience,
+resembling the Gien, is made by M. Elysse at Blois, in the old Italian
+styles of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
+
+The Sarreguemines factory was founded in 1770, by Paul Utzchneider, and
+is now carried on under the firm of Utzchneider & Co. It turns out both
+faience and porcelain. Figures and groups in porcelain biscuit and
+artificial porcelain are made. The factory is also known by a fine white
+stone-ware. In the fine faience of Sarreguemines, certain works may be
+found which are, in many respects, the most extraordinary of the present
+time. Imitations of jasper, marble, granite, and porphyry, are produced
+of the most beautiful description, and other pieces resemble the
+jasper-ware of Wedgwood, with white decoration on a blue ground. The
+vase (Fig. 258) can hardly be described in words. Among the varied
+contents of Mr. Collamore's collection, it is perfectly unique. The
+ground is a deep and brilliant black, upon which the decoration is laid
+in white, gold, and blue, dotted with drops of jewel-like enamels. The
+handles are blue and gold. The design can be distinctly followed in the
+engraving, but even a colored plate could hardly do justice to the
+enamels, or give an idea of the general effect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 257.--Gien Faience. (Davis Collamore Coll.)]
+
+Niederviller has made faience in the Strasburg style since at least the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, and about 1760 was producing pieces
+with delicate flower paintings. It was then under the patronage of Baron
+de Beyerle, and afterward of Count Custine, under whose proprietorship
+the porcelain style was farther developed. A curious specimen is given
+by Jacquemart, in which the ground of the plate is painted to imitate
+wood, and in the centre is a reservation simulating a sheet of white
+paper with a landscape in pink. In 1768 the Baron de Beyerle was making
+a good quality of porcelain from German material. Under Count Custine,
+Francois Lanfrey was engaged as manager. Charles Sauvage, or Lemire,
+made small figures and groups in biscuit, and Cyffle also executed some
+of his works at Niederviller.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 258--Sarreguemines Faience. (G. Collamore.)]
+
+The name of this artist, Paul Louis Cyffle, is, however, more intimately
+associated with Luneville. The faience workshop of Luneville was founded
+about 1729, by Jacques Chambrette. In 1778 it was acquired by Keller &
+Guerin. The styles of Nevers and Strasburg were both successfully
+followed. It was here that Cyffle made his statuettes of fine "terre de
+Lorraine."
+
+In the same district are the factories of Nancy and St. Clement. The
+former produced faience in 1774, and a peculiar kind of biscuit which
+takes its name from the place. The factory was founded by Nicolas
+Lelong. Very little is known of the St. Clement works, though they are
+said to have been in operation in 1750. In 1835 they were under the
+directorship of M. Aubry. Both Luneville and St. Clement have been more
+recently known by their stanniferous faience.
+
+St. Amand holds an important position in the history of French art. It
+is one of the places, including Lille, Dunkirk, Valenciennes, and the
+other faience-producing towns of Flanders, which enabled France to
+domesticate, in a measure, the manufacture of ware resembling that of
+Delft. The paste of these faiences is identical with that used in the
+great Dutch establishment, with which they very soon came into
+competition. The history of St. Amand extends from 1740 down to the
+Revolution. It was founded by Pierre Joseph Fauquez, was continued by
+his son, Pierre Francois Joseph, until 1773, and by his grandson, Jean
+Baptiste Joseph, until the Revolution. The earlier style of decoration
+is based upon that of Rouen; the second is after that of Strasburg. One
+of the distinguishing features of this faience is the use of white
+enamel in relief upon the glaze, which is faintly tinged with blue.
+
+Having already touched upon a few of the leading names of modern Paris,
+there yet remains to be said something of its previous history. The
+relics discovered within the city belong to every period, from the Roman
+downward; and it may therefore be said that the metropolitan potters
+have been as busy, comparatively speaking, in the past as they are
+to-day. Faience was made from the beginning of the seventeenth century,
+and Reverend was, in 1664, making imitations of Delft, "thin, with a
+white enamel, with clear polychrome colors, often excessively pure."
+This is M. Jacquemart's description. Notwithstanding the privilege
+accorded to Reverend, many other workshops appear to have made faience
+throughout the whole of the eighteenth century, and it is generally
+impossible to tell them from the wares of Rouen and elsewhere, which
+they imitated.
+
+Artistic faience was made at Sceaux for about forty-five years previous
+to 1795, by Chapelle and Glot successively. Gros-Caillou, St. Denis,
+Vincennes, St. Cloud, and Sevres were all more or less engaged in the
+manufacture of faience. We find Pierre Antoine Hannong, from Strasburg,
+at Vincennes in 1767, but he met with little success.
+
+There are many other places at which faience was made, some, like
+Nantes, Bordeaux, and Orleans, of importance, and others of which little
+is known besides their names. A list of them would add nothing to our
+real knowledge of French art, which has been chiefly influenced by the
+styles of which we have most fully treated. To the accounts of them has
+been added all that could be learned regarding Limoges, Creil,
+Sarreguemines, and a few Parisian and other workshops especially
+interesting to the collectors of the present day.
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ Efforts to Make Porcelain.--First Artificial Porcelain.--St.
+ Cloud.--Lille.--Paris.--Chantilly,--Mennecy.--Vincennes.--Sevres.--Natural,
+ or Hard, Porcelain.--Discovery of Kaolin.--Various
+ Factories.--Limoges.--Deck.--Regnault.--Solon.--Pate
+ Changeante.--Pate-sur-Pate.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 259.--St. Cloud Porcelain Salt-cellar. (Jacquemart
+Coll.)]
+
+We have already seen that the discovery of artificial porcelain preceded
+that of natural, or kaolinic, porcelain. In treating of the faience of
+Rouen, we quoted, from the letters patent granted to Louis Poterat on
+the 31st of October, 1673, a passage to show that he meditated the
+production of porcelain similar to the Chinese. A privilege was also
+granted to Claude Reverend, of Paris, in 1664, which bears that he
+possessed the secret of making a "counterfeit porcelain, as fine and
+finer than that which comes from the East Indies." All that Reverend
+achieved was a very fine faience; and Poterat, having met with success
+as a maker of faience, probably renounced the prosecution of the search
+for porcelain, although he may be said to have arrived at or very near
+success. The first French artificial, or soft, porcelain known to
+commerce was that made by the Chicanneau family at St. Cloud in 1695
+(Fig. 259). It is first noticed by Martin Lister, a traveller, in 1698.
+Henry Trou, having married the widow of Pierre Chicanneau, became head
+of the manufactory of St. Cloud; and a family quarrel having taken
+place, Marie Moreau, widow of one of the Chicanneaus, established
+herself in Paris. The earliest marks of St. Cloud porcelain are the sun
+and the letters S. C. and T., the former dating from 1702 to 1715, the
+latter from 1715 to 1730. The sun was the device of Louis XIV., and the
+letters afterward used were the initials of St. Cloud and Trou. The
+paste was close and white, and the glaze uneven. The decoration soon
+became varied in character, some pieces, with birds and flowers in
+relief, resembling the Chinese, and others of French patterns in blue,
+with arabesques or lace borders.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 260.--Vincennes Porcelain Cooler. (Duke de Martina
+Coll.)]
+
+The attempts of Poterat and Reverend, and the more perfect success of
+Chicanneau, indicate the prevalence of the desire to solve the mystery
+of Chinese porcelain. Experiments were being conducted almost
+everywhere, and the success of the potters of St. Cloud gave a new zest
+to the search. A manufactory was founded at Lille in 1711; at Paris, by
+the offshoot of the St. Cloud family, in 1722; and at Chantilly in 1725,
+where the porcelain of Corea was taken as a model. Ten years later
+Barbin was established at Mennecy, and in 1739 the philosopher Reaumur,
+led away by the universal search, arrived at a devitrified glass, which
+went under the name of "Reaumur's porcelain," though in no sense
+deserving such a name. With 1740 we reach the establishment of the royal
+manufactory at Vincennes (Fig. 260).
+
+Two brothers named Dubois, formerly of St. Cloud, offered to sell their
+secret to the Intendant of Finance, and were given the necessary means
+to carry on the production at Vincennes. These men did not fulfil their
+promise, and were succeeded by one of their workmen, named Gravant. The
+celebrated Madame de Pompadour used her influence with the king to
+induce him to favor an enterprise the success of which would make France
+independent of Saxony. The result was that the manufacture quickly rose
+to eminence. Chemists, artists, and goldsmiths were engaged in designing
+and decorating. Flowers were modelled and painted in a style so closely
+resembling the natural that the king is said, upon one occasion, to have
+mistaken the artificial for the real. In 1753, the position of manager
+was given to Eloi Brichard. Louis XV. took a third of the capital upon
+himself, and the name of "The Royal Porcelain Manufactory of France" was
+conferred upon the establishment. The workshops at Vincennes became too
+small, and in 1756 a removal was made to a new building erected
+specially for the purpose at Sevres.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 261.--Old Sevres Pate Tendre. (August Belmont
+Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 262.--Old Jewelled Sevres Pate Tendre. Cup diameter,
+2-1/2 in.; Saucer circumference, 18 in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 263.--Jewelled Sevres. (H. C. Gibson Coll.)]
+
+The imitations which had annoyed Adam, the director who preceded
+Brichard, continued under the administration of the latter. The king
+then took the entire establishment into his own hands, and appointed M.
+Boileau director. Such was an eighteenth century toy of royalty. The
+king, accompanied by the Pompadour, paid regular visits to Sevres, which
+was well worthy of being a royal possession. Everything that art could
+suggest in the form of gardens and groves had been done to embellish it.
+Even a private chase was provided for the artists, where, in hunting the
+boar and stag, they relieved the labors of the studio. Never, possibly,
+were artists so favored by patronage and place, and the productions of
+Sevres were worthy of the sunshine in which it basked. Its flowers and
+vases admit of no classification. Figures were also made in biscuit (see
+Fig. 226). Chemists vied with each other in the invention of colors, and
+the _bleu de roi_, Hellot's turquoise blue (1752), the Pompadour pink
+(1757), violet, greens, yellow, and iron-red followed each other in
+rapid succession, and were employed with dazzling effect. Special
+mention need only be made of the jewelled porcelain (Figs. 262 and 263)
+on a _bleu de roi_ ground. The successive directors after Boileau were:
+Parent, 1773-1779; Regnier, 1779-1793; Commissioners, with Chanou and
+afterward Salmon, Ettlinger, and Meyer, jointly as inspectors, down to
+1800; Brongniart, 1800-1847; and then MM. Ebelman, Regnault, and Robert
+in succession. The specimen here given (Fig. 264) is one of a pair
+dated 1772 and 1781 respectively, which formerly belonged to Louis XVI.
+On his request they were sold by Governor Morris, in order to raise
+money, and were bought by Dr. Hosack, of New York. The scene in the
+medallion represents Louis XVI. in his cabinet, and the nurse bringing
+in the newly born Dauphin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 264.--Sevres Pate Tendre (1772-1781). _Bleu de Roi_
+Ground. (Mrs. C. B. Hosack Coll.)]
+
+Meantime the paste was still artificial, and the researches for a
+natural, or hard, porcelain were not relaxed. In 1769 the discovery of
+kaolin and petuntse at St. Yrieix, near Limoges, led to the introduction
+of hard paste into Sevres. In 1804 M. Brongniart decided to abandon the
+manufacture of artificial porcelain, and soon afterward regretted having
+taken such a step. In 1847 M. Ebelman, Brongniart's pupil and successor,
+decided to revive the _pate tendre_, and for four years made use of a
+body which had been prepared by Brongniart forty-five years previously.
+The clay, instead of being thrown away, as Brongniart thought, had been
+stored throughout the long period of its neglect, and both saved the new
+director any trouble in experimenting, and supplied a standard for the
+future. The production of soft paste has been continued, but the
+quantity is inconsiderable. Mr. Walters, of Baltimore, has in his
+collection a valuable _pate tendre_ vase dated 1860.
+
+To give in detail the events which led to the introduction of natural
+porcelain into the royal factory, we must turn back to the year 1721,
+when Wackenfeld was attempting to utilize at Strasburg the knowledge he
+had brought from Germany. Hannong was engaged in the same enterprise;
+and his son, Paul Antoine, after endeavoring in vain to carry on the
+production in competition with the artificial porcelain of the royal
+factory, and engaging in fruitless negotiations with Director Boileau,
+at last retired to Frankenthal. His son afterward took the Strasburg
+works in hand, but failed. All this porcelain was made from imported
+material. That of Paul Antoine resembles in decoration the works of
+Meissen, and his son followed both the Saxon and Sevres styles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 265.--Charlotte Corday Vase; Sevres Porcelain,
+Mounted. Red and Gold. (White House.)]
+
+In 1758 an event happened of the first importance to the making of a
+true French natural porcelain. This was the discovery by the Count de
+Brancas Lauraguais of an inferior quality of kaolin near Alencon. The
+specimens of the ware in which it was used show a coarse body, and
+decoration after the Chinese and Japanese types. Shortly afterward
+Gerault, or to give his name in full, Charles Claude Gerault Daranbert,
+the proprietor of a faience establishment at Orleans, engaged in the
+manufacture of porcelain. A privilege had been granted to the Orleans
+workshop, in 1755, to make a white faience, and the making of porcelain
+appears to have begun about 1764, on the acquisition by Gerault of a
+kaolin mine at St. Yrieix-la-Perche. In 1765 Guettard, chemist in the
+establishment of the Duke of Orleans at Bagnolet, came upon the kaolin
+deposit at Alencon originally discovered by the Count Lauraguais. Within
+a few years, also, Robert was making porcelain at Marseilles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 266.--Old Sevres, Mounted in Metal. Dark-blue
+Ground. Height, 9-1/2 in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+The next events of importance are Madame Darnet's discovery of kaolin at
+St. Yrieix, and Macquer's experiments with it at Sevres. As at
+Strasburg, the mistake was made at Sevres of mixing the kaolin and
+petuntse in the wrong proportions, and the result of the excess of
+felspar was a very translucent glassy body. The first pieces and those
+of artificial paste were so nearly alike that, to distinguish the
+former, they were marked with the well known double L and crown. They
+may also be known by the color being laid upon the glaze. In the soft
+paste the colors appear to be sunk in the glaze. When Brongniart, in
+1804, stopped the production of _pate tendre_, the works of the royal
+factory began to assume the forms and to be decorated in the styles with
+which the world has been familiar for the last seventy years. "The
+largest pieces," says Jacquemart, "were undertaken, and sculpture and
+painting united to enrich gigantic vases. Plaques of forty-six by
+thirty-six inches were given to distinguished artists, who reproduced in
+unalterable colors the frescoes of Raffaelle, the masterpieces of
+Vandyke, Titian, and of the modern school." Of modern Sevres we give one
+example (Fig. 268), to which some interest attaches as belonging to a
+service presented by the French Government to Miss M. F. Curtis,
+distributor of funds sent from Boston for the relief of sufferers by the
+war with Germany in 1870-1871.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 267.--Franklin Vase. Sevres. Blue and Gold.
+Inscription on Vase, "Vue de la Maison de Franklin a Passy." (White
+House.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 268.--Sevres Porcelain Tea-Set. (Curtis Coll.,
+Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+To give an idea of the value of the Sevres porcelain, it may be
+mentioned that Napoleon, following an example set by Louis XV., sent to
+the King of Etruria a vase worth about sixty thousand dollars. Tea-sets
+worth $1000, vases at $1500 and $5000, are mentioned as being in the
+royal collection in England.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 269.--Washington's "Cincinnati" Sevres.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 270.--Mrs. Washington's Sevres Tea-Service.]
+
+There are several specimens of Sevres porcelain, formerly preserved at
+Arlington House, and now in the Patent Office at Washington, to which a
+historical interest attaches. There are, firstly, some pieces of the
+"Cincinnati China" (Fig. 269) presented to George Washington by the
+French officers who fought in the continental army. They are white, with
+deep-blue bands of leaves and scroll-work, and have on the bottoms or
+sides the figure of Fame holding in her left hand the Order of the
+Cincinnati. There are, secondly, several remnants of the set presented
+at the same time, and by the same gentlemen, to Mrs. Washington (Fig.
+270). The rim of each piece is surrounded by a chain of thirteen links,
+in each of which is the name of one of the original States. In the
+centre of each plate and saucer, and on the side of each of the other
+pieces, is the monogram of Martha Washington, surrounded by a green
+wreath of laurel and olive leaves. A golden aureole surrounds the
+wreath, beneath which is a ribbon scroll with the motto, _Decus et
+tutamen ab illo_. The colors are at once delicate and brilliant, and the
+painting admirable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 271.--Limoges Porcelain. Cup and Saucer. Painted by
+Pallandre. (S. S. Conant Coll.)]
+
+Manufactories rapidly sprung up in other French towns--at Niederviller,
+where German kaolin was used; at several places in Paris; at Bordeaux,
+Clignancourt, Lille, Valenciennes, Vincennes, Limoges, and elsewhere.
+Fauquez made porcelain at Valenciennes in 1785, and the works were taken
+by Lamoninary in 1787. Hannong was employed at Vincennes in 1786, and
+marked his pieces with two pipes crossed, with or without the letter H.
+The industry was afterward protected by the Duke of Chartres, when the
+monogram L. P. was adopted as the mark.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 272.--Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by
+Pallandre.]
+
+The porcelain of Limoges is probably better known in this country than
+any other, through the enterprise of the makers, whose works in faience
+have already arrested our attention. The proximity of Limoges to St.
+Yrieix would alone lead us to view it as an important centre. After the
+discovery of kaolin, the brothers Grellet, Massie, and Fourniera
+established a porcelain workshop in 1773. The mark C. D. occurs on many
+remarkable works. In 1784 the manufactory was absorbed by Sevres,
+Gabriel Grellet acting as director. The paste was then very pure and
+white, but deteriorated; and Alluaud succeeded Grellet in 1788. Another
+change was made in 1793, and the works were again carried on as a
+private enterprise in the hands of MM. Joubert and Cancate. In 1794 the
+convent at Limoges was converted into a manufactory, and another rose in
+1798, in the hands of the elder Alluaud, who was succeeded by his son.
+Though highly commendable in purity of glaze and compactness and
+whiteness of paste, his porcelain was inferior in decoration. The next
+we hear of Limoges is through David Haviland, of New York, who went from
+this country to Limoges upward of forty years ago. His firm worked
+steadily in the manufacture of porcelain, chiefly of a domestic
+character, before they conjoined it with that of faience.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 273.--Limoges Porcelain. (Mrs. Colonel T. Scott
+Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 274.--Limoges Porcelain. (Gen. A. J. Meyers Coll.)]
+
+At the present time Haviland & Co. make a domestic ware of exceptional
+purity and of great beauty of design. One set is modelled after and
+decorated with the water-lily, and others are of equal simplicity and
+beauty. The rule in these and in more strictly ornamental pieces is, to
+follow a chaste and refined style, marked by a limited use of color. The
+rule we laid down for the decoration of porcelain--that it should never
+be loaded with colors less beautiful than its own glaze--is here more
+closely followed than anywhere else occurring to us. Here, for example,
+is a set of plates painted with different scenes, such as a snow-storm,
+morning, night, before a shower, during a shower, and other similar
+subjects. The details are not wrought in with obtrusive precision.
+Something is left to imagination, and the effect of every view is
+perfect. They are painted by M. Bracquemond.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 275.--Limoges Porcelain. (Whitelaw Reid Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 276.--Limoges Pate Tendre. (H. J. Jewitt Coll.)]
+
+We nowhere find a better successor to the "egg-shell" of China than in
+the delicate, pure, and fragile specimens of thin porcelain from
+Limoges. This is an exceptional fabric, but there is elsewhere to be
+seen enough to substantiate the excellence of French porcelain for
+domestic use, in point of both beauty and strength. We have seen certain
+small coffee-cups so finely wrought, exquisitely modelled, and chastely
+colored, that when not in use they might serve as ornaments. The point
+to which painting on porcelain has been brought is further illustrated
+by a series of dessert plates ornamented with different kinds of
+fruit--grapes, peaches, and other varieties. The supreme delicacy with
+which the requisite tints are here applied is admirable. On others are
+different kinds of seaweed and other marine objects, in which the artist
+has caught the natural hues with wonderful precision. The porcelain
+vases are, as a rule, small in size. No attempt, so far as we are aware,
+has been made to follow the gigantic works of Sevres, Meissen, and
+Berlin, and we do not regret the fact. The works with which we are
+presented show great skill in the colors obtained, and the shapes are
+simple and sometimes severe. The domestic porcelain of Limoges deserves
+careful study for the sake of the refined taste which it invariably
+reflects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 277.--Dinner-set in Limoges Pate Tendre.]
+
+The most highly artistic pieces are in _pate tendre_, or artificial
+paste. Considering the difficulty of manipulating the body and its
+liability to sink in the furnace, many of the old Sevres pieces must be
+regarded as marvels of workmanship. We look with a similar interest upon
+the examples coming to us from Limoges. It has the honor of having
+produced the only complete dinner-set ever made of this ware (Fig. 277).
+Its beauty is parallel with its value, which we hardly dare estimate.
+Beautifully modelled and plumaged birds form the dish handles, and a
+simple accessory decoration on the body reveals to perfection the
+peculiar appearance presented by _pate tendre_ of having the colors sunk
+in the soft and creamy glaze.
+
+Haviland & Co. have attained an exceptional success in colors. A
+complete toilet-set of _pate tendre_ is turquoise blue of great richness
+and transparent depth. The modelling corresponds with an achievement in
+color which has been the despair of ceramic artists for centuries. Deck
+is the only French maker who, before the Havilands, approached the old
+turquoise of China. The art has long been lost in the East. Deck's
+pieces, however, are apt to craze or crack in irregular breaks, and this
+was thought to be unavoidable until Haviland made crackle closely
+resembling in color the rare old Chinese. Of the same material are two
+recumbent Psyches (Fig. 278), one in blue, the other in pink. In no more
+poetic form do we remember to have met the winged nymph who turned
+against Cupid the darts with which he was wont to afflict humanity. A
+set of three graceful vases (Fig. 279) with reticulated necks, and each
+supported on a tripod of goats' feet, is painted in blue, gold, and
+pink. The forms are graceful and the coloring refined. The paintings of
+Poitevin and Du Liege on these and other pieces are characterized by the
+most exquisite delicacy. M. Pallandre, the Parisian flower-painter, has
+also lent to the porcelain of Haviland & Co. the beauty conferred by his
+dexterous brush.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 278.--Psyche, in Blue Pate Tendre.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 279.--Pate-tendre Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 280.--Deck Vase. (G. Collamore.)]
+
+An excellent domestic ware, also made at Limoges, is largely imported by
+the manufacturers, Charles Field Haviland & Co., of New York. The
+greater portion of it is undecorated; but lately the makers have been
+turning their attention to decoration, and artistic work of considerable
+merit now comes from their establishment.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 281.--Deck Plaque. (G. Collamore.)]
+
+Before leaving France, the names of Deck, Solon, and Regnault may be
+allowed to stay our progress. The Messrs. Deck, of Paris, have, as we
+have seen, made a special study of color, and were the first, or among
+the first, to revive Oriental decoration. Their Persian ware, or
+imitation of the old art of Persia, is characterized by much of the
+beauty of the original. Their blue, as we have seen, is especially
+commendable, and enabled them to compete with the enterprising imitators
+of England, the Mintons, who have for several years been in possession
+of a blue very little inferior to the turquoise. It is to be regretted
+that Deck was not represented at the Centennial Exhibition, where, by
+the richness of his palette, he would have had an opportunity of
+extending his reputation in America.
+
+M. Regnault, who succeeded M. Ebelman in the directorate of Sevres, was
+the inventor, while at the Sevres manufactory, of _pate changeante_. The
+ware appears, during the day, like gray celadon, and at night, under
+artificial light, changes to a beautiful pink, whence its name.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 282.--Minton Porcelain. Pate-sur-pate, by Solon.
+(Wales Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)]
+
+The name of M. Solon recalls at once the peculiar style of decoration
+called "_Pate-sur-pate_," or paste upon paste. The process has been long
+known in China, and was first attempted in Europe by M. Ebelman at
+Sevres about thirty years ago. The experiments were successful, and some
+very fine works were issued. The process was taken to England from
+Sevres by M. Solon, who was engaged a few years ago by the Messrs.
+Minton (Fig. 282). In Mr. A. B. Daniells's collection at the Centennial
+Exhibition, some examples of _pate-sur-pate_ by M. Solon attracted
+general attention. There were two pairs of vases of a pure Greek shape,
+with a body of a rich bronze or chocolate color. On this, in white
+relief, were figures symbolizing Fire and Water, and a group of the
+Graces accompanied by Cupid in a race. The forms were exquisitely drawn,
+and were half revealed by the semi-transparent drapery. More usual
+grounds are a dark green and a grayish tint, either of which has a soft
+effect. A second specimen is given at Fig. 352.
+
+This method of treatment consists in applying to the surface to be
+decorated white liquid porcelain as a pigment. The application is
+repeated until the necessary relief is obtained, when the figures are
+finished by carving or scraping. Repeated firings are necessary before
+glazing, and the decoration, which is opaque while wet, becomes more or
+less transparent, according to the thickness of the pigment. The process
+is one of the nicest and most difficult in the entire range of ceramic
+art, as a mistake once made cannot be remedied, and the glaze has a
+tendency to destroy the fine outlines of the figures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GERMANY AND CENTRAL EUROPE.
+
+ Early Pottery.--Lake Dwellers.--Early German.--Peculiar
+ Shapes.--How Peasants Account for Relics.--Roman Epoch.--Tin
+ Enamel.--Leipsic.--Breslau.--Nuremberg.--The
+ Hirschvogels.--Villengen.--Hoechst.--Marburg.--Bavaria.--Switzerland.
+ --Belgium.--Delft.
+
+
+The early pottery of Germany and Central Europe dates from the Stone Age
+down to the Roman incursion, when the types change, and the evidences of
+more perfect mechanical appliances become apparent. The Lake Dwellers,
+who built their huts on piles in the lakes of Switzerland, have
+commemorated themselves by hand-wrought vessels, to the embellishment of
+which a decoration of the rudest kind was brought. Remains have been
+found throughout Germany, of which some are hand-made, while others are
+evidently thrown upon the wheel. These are both pre-Roman and
+contemporaneous with the Roman occupation. The paste varies from a
+friable clay to a hard, ringing stone-ware. Vases of a great variety of
+shape have been found along with cups, plates, saucers, and jars. Some
+of the vases are divided, like boxes, into compartments. The ornaments
+are paintings, mouldings, and incised lines. The painting consists of
+parallel lines of red, yellow, and black. Some of the smaller pieces
+were apparently used as toys. Others, of a sepulchral character, are
+thought to resemble the huts of the lacustrine dwellers. One found at
+Achersleben has a tall, conical cover, like a high-thatched roof, and
+the orifice in front is covered with a plate having a ring in the
+centre, through which a pin being passed fastened it on the outside. The
+orifice was in this way closed after the ashes of the dead had been
+introduced (Fig. 283). These and similar remains have been found in
+various parts of Germany, and have given rise to many superstitious
+stories among the peasantry. By some they are said to be the natural
+produce of the soil. Others ascribe them to the all-powerful fairies.
+Others consider them possessed of wonderful preservative properties. As
+to the art they represent, we are convinced here, as we are in a
+parallel manner, though more forcibly amidst the remains belonging to
+ancient Gaul, that the Romans were not the first to inspire the Teutonic
+population with a desire for the expression of artistic ideas. We find
+both an awakening sensitiveness to the graces of form, and a growing
+appreciation of the possible beauty of surface decoration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 283.--Ancient German Hut-shaped Vases.]
+
+With the Romans we find pottery both made on the spots where they
+settled and imported from the seats of the ceramic industry in Italy.
+These display the usual Roman characteristics, and need not be here
+considered. Crossing the Dark Ages, we find, in the thirteenth century,
+Germany in possession of processes for the presence of which--so far
+removed from their accepted centres and from the regular routes by which
+they travelled--it might be hard to account if it were absolutely
+necessary to travel by the regular route. We have seen this already in
+the case of early France. We see it again in Germany. Possibly the
+Romans may have taught their barbarian subjects something about glazing.
+Possibly some wanderer to Palestine and the East or to the Saracenic
+settlements in the South of Europe, or some stranger from these "foreign
+parts," may have initiated the German potters in the higher secrets of
+the art.
+
+In any event, Germany was making enamelled faience at least two
+centuries before Luca della Robbia had perfected his process in Italy. A
+potter of Schelestadt, in Alsace, is said by the Germans to have
+discovered tin enamel. Even his name is now forgotten, although his
+death is said to have occurred in 1283. At Leipsic is a glazed frieze,
+dated 1207, and at Breslau, in 1230, architectural reliefs of great
+excellence were produced. Two hundred years later, in 1441, Veit
+Hirschvogel was using stanniferous enamel. At Strehla, in 1565, the
+potters were so well skilled in the working of terra-cotta, that they
+had made a pulpit of that material. One is almost led by these facts to
+question if Germany did not lead both Italy and France, and to regret
+that the history of German ceramics has not been more fully opened up to
+us. One danger let us guard against, for the sake of securing the
+intelligent understanding of Germany, incompatible with either
+partiality or prejudice. We need not confound conservative tastes with a
+"very slow march of ideas." One rather loves to find an artist so
+impressed with what is good in his own art, that he is in no haste to
+leave it in order to catch the first whiff of foreign inspiration. Ideas
+evidently circulated at a tolerably high rate of speed in a country
+where the enamelled friezes and monumental bas-reliefs of Leipsic and
+Breslau existed in the beginning of the thirteenth century.
+
+To Leipsic, therefore, Germany is indebted for its first enamelled ware.
+The friezes above mentioned consisted of tiles with _alto-relievo_ heads
+of Christ and the Apostles. The enamel is dark green. What occurs to us
+at once is that no art ever _began_ with such works, and that in them we
+have the successful results of long experiment.
+
+Breslau is made famous by a large work of the same century, representing
+Henry IV. of Silesia, who died in 1290. The monarch lies stretched upon
+a tomb surrounded by twenty-one bas-reliefs.
+
+The Hirschvogels of Nuremberg have thrown a lustre upon their birthplace
+by their faience decorated with enamelled reliefs. The founder of the
+family, Veit Hirschvogel, was born in 1441, and died in 1525; and one of
+his sons, Augustine, has left some very artistic works in the prevailing
+style of ornamentation, with medallions and decorations in relief. One
+vase has green dragon handles (Fig. 284); and the fact that this style
+existed in Nuremberg at the time when Palissy was travelling in Germany,
+has led to the supposition that he may have acquired the rudiments of
+his art under Hirschvogel. The same city was deservedly celebrated for
+its tiles ornamented with bas-reliefs, generally of the deep green
+distinctive of the greater proportion of German pottery. The style was
+at a later period carried to a greater extent, as we find upon different
+vessels several animal forms in high relief, and even the vessels
+themselves modelled after the animals of the country.
+
+At Villingen, in the Black Forest, Hans Kraut, who died in 1590, carried
+the same branch of art to great perfection, his tiles and bas-reliefs
+marking him as a successful and talented disciple of the school of
+Nuremberg.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 284.--German Enamelled "Surprise" Vase. By
+Hirschvogel.]
+
+Hoechst and Marburg were both important seats of the industry, and at the
+former we find a vase having its neck ornamented with white reliefs,
+like the cameos of Wedgwood. During the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries the industry was established in many places throughout
+Germany, and styles of western and southern origin make their
+appearance. The faience of Anspach, Bavaria, follows the style of Rouen,
+and at Nuremberg, in the eighteenth century, the early Faentine style is
+making itself felt. The Bavarian towns of Goeggingen and Baireuth both
+produced pieces of great beauty and refinement. On some from the former
+appear bouquets, birds, and arabesques, and one from the latter is
+ornamented--with what delicacy of effect may be imagined--with a figure
+and medallion surrounded by blue arabesques laid upon the white enamel.
+Before the middle of the eighteenth century Nuremberg had instituted its
+modern style, blue arabesque borders on a bluish glaze surrounding
+centre-pieces of fruit, etc.
+
+
+SWITZERLAND.
+
+In Switzerland we know Zuerich, Schaffhausen, Winterthur, and one or two
+other places. Of these, Winterthur is probably the more ancient, pieces
+occurring dated 1678 and 1689. The styles are akin to the
+Italian--deep-bordered dishes with regularly arranged groups of fruit or
+flowers, or blue arabesques running round the margin. Escutcheons or
+fortified castles form the centre decoration. Precision and stiff,
+scrupulous care characterize the drawing.
+
+
+BELGIUM.
+
+Belgium, in at least two of the seats of its ceramic wares, has been
+closely allied with France. From Antwerp, the great centre of Belgian
+art, issued majolica of Italian styles in blue and yellow, violet and
+green, and another quality after the Oriental porcelain patterns. Toward
+the middle of the seventeenth century, if not earlier, Antwerp was in
+close relations with France. Tournay was of French origin in so far as
+its faience is concerned, and it was not until its workshop passed into
+the hands of Peterynck, of Lille, that it rose to eminence. The pieces
+attributed to it show a compound of Rouennais, Flemish, and Chinese
+decoration. Brussels had carried the art in 1761 to such a height, that
+its faience was said to be preferable to that of Delft and Rouen, with
+which it is possible it may sometimes be confounded by collectors. At
+Tervueren, near the capital, some pieces still in existence were made
+which are decorated with wreaths and bouquets and armorial bearings
+executed in colors of moderate purity.
+
+
+HOLLAND.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 285.--Delft Blue-and-white. Eighteenth Century.
+Chinese Style. Height, 17-1/2 in. (Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+For our present purpose, all Holland may be said to be comprised in the
+single town of Delft. Its works date from 1310, and may be divided into
+two eras, that preceding the making of "porcelain," and that during and
+after the fabrication miscalled by that name. The Delft faience is thin
+and hard, and was decorated with landscapes and scenes by the best
+painters of the time. It was made into tiles, large plaques, baskets,
+vases, statuettes, and many other forms. Toward the end of the sixteenth
+and beginning of the seventeenth centuries, when the Dutch were laying
+the foundation of their trade with Japan, the fine quality of faience,
+which has never been equalled by any other country, began to be
+produced. We find this imitation of Oriental porcelain officially
+recognized in 1614, and for a hundred and fifty years it was currently
+referred to as porcelain. In reality it was a fine faience, modelled and
+decorated after the peculiar forms and patterns with which their trade
+with Japan had made the Dutch almost exclusively familiar. The paste,
+which consisted chiefly of the clay of Bruyelle, near Tournay, was
+skilfully mixed with sand and carefully manipulated. The sand made it
+hard, and gave it a capacity for being wrought into thin pieces suitable
+for table services. The bluish enamel was perfectly smooth and even; and
+the decoration, chiefly in blue and iron-red, after the Oriental
+designs, imparted to it much of the appearance of Japanese porcelain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 286.--Delft Blue-and-white. Eighteenth Century.
+Size, 21 in. by 18 in. (Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+It is not to be wondered at that, as the processes were perfected, the
+reputation of Delft increased, and its commerce grew in proportion, and
+that no symptoms of decay manifest themselves until toward the end of
+the seventeenth century. The genius of both potters and painters ran
+riot among curious forms and decorations. One author mentions dinner
+services with dish covers resembling in form and color the birds to be
+served in them; a spice cupboard resembling a Chinese Mandarin, and
+other curiosities. Another strange form was that of a violin, one of
+which is painted in blue camaieu, with figures engaged in a dance, and
+musicians.
+
+
+STONE-WARE.
+
+ Countess Jacqueline.--Teylingen.--Graybeards.--Fine
+ Stone-ware.--Gres de Flandre.--Creussen.
+
+This ware, distinguished, as we have seen, by its vitrified fracture,
+although long known in the East, does not appear in Europe until between
+the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. When it was first made in France
+has not been ascertained with sufficient exactness, and to Germany the
+credit of instituting the fabrication has generally been accorded. We
+find it throughout the provinces on the Rhine at a very early period,
+and it probably passed down the Rhine to Holland and thence to England.
+
+The name of the beautiful and unfortunate Jacqueline of Bavaria,
+Countess of Hainault and Holland, is connected with the making of
+stone-ware by a very curious tradition. Jacqueline was the daughter of
+William IV., Count of Hainault and Holland, at whose request she married
+John, Duke of Brabant. This was the beginning of her troubles. A jealous
+and disappointed suitor, John of Bavaria, Bishop of Liege, marched
+against Holland, and having compelled the countess to nominate him as
+her successor, bribed her husband to transfer to him the management of
+her estates for a term of years. The countess, having good reason to be
+disgusted with men in general, and with her husband and quondam suitor
+in particular, fled to England after appealing in vain to Rome for a
+divorce. In England her beauty captivated the Duke of Gloucester, who
+espoused her cause as a preliminary to espousing herself. The duke
+marched against her husband of Brabant, who, assisted by his cousin of
+Burgundy, defeated the invader. Gloucester deserted Jacqueline, fled to
+England, and took a less involved bride. The countess in the mean time
+was imprisoned; but she escaped, and on the death, in 1425, of the
+prelate of Liege, resumed her rightful position. Then she was relieved
+by death of her husband, and was again involved in war by the Duke of
+Burgundy, whom she was forced to declare her heir. A second marriage
+into which she entered so enraged Philip--who, by-the-way, is known in
+history as, _par excellence_, "The Good"--that he arrested her husband,
+and would have executed him, had not Jacqueline handed over her coveted
+property to "The Good," and in 1433 retired to the privacy of the Castle
+of Teylingen. Three years afterward she died, at the age of thirty-six.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 287.--Graybeard. Brown German Stone-ware.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 288.--German Graybeard, found in England.]
+
+From what we can make out, the countess was twice an occupant of
+Teylingen, once in 1424, on escaping from imprisonment at Ghent, and the
+second time, as above mentioned, in 1433. On both these occasions she
+appears to have occupied herself with the superintendence of the
+stone-ware works, and even with fashioning the vessels with her own
+dainty hands. After they were made, we are told--although it is
+altogether incredible--that the flagons were thrown into the Rhine,
+either as mementos of her imprisonment, or "that they might in
+after-ages be deemed works of antiquity." Providing for posterity in
+that peculiar manner does not commend itself to one's reason, as in any
+way in keeping with the career of the Countess Jacqueline. There was a
+custom in Paris for patriotic citizens to assemble in the gardens
+adjoining the Seine, and there to relieve themselves by toasting and
+singing and flinging the empty flasks into the river. These have been
+found, with the legend "_Vive le Roi!_" inscribed on them, after the
+fashion of the Moyenage potters. The Germans had a similar manner of
+keeping the toast from future impurity by throwing away the vessels in
+which it was drunk. Probably in this way the "Vrouw Jacoba's Kannetjes"
+found their way into the Rhine and the moat of Teylingen. It is easy to
+imagine the potters toasting their lovely co-worker and superintendent,
+and, in the excess of their admiration and loyalty, tossing away the
+flagons, that they might never be drained to a less worthy toast. The
+story is attractive enough, and it is almost a pity that the pots which
+have been found are not of a high artistic rank. None of them is
+ornamented.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 289.--Fine German Stone-ware.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 290.--Fine German Stone-ware.]
+
+To the "common stone-ware" belong the pots called Graybeards (Fig. 287),
+from the bearded heads moulded on the necks. Many of these, though well
+formed, are rudely ornamented, and are of a very coarse composition
+(Fig. 288). The finer ware, which was made after the beginning of the
+sixteenth century, is divisible into two classes, the older belonging
+exclusively to the sixteenth century, and of a gray white or pale
+yellow, the other of a bluish and gray tint, made down to the present
+time. This is the ware commonly called _Gres de Flandre_, although, so
+far as we know, Flanders never produced any, and the ware so designated
+is a purely German fabrication. The canettes, or tall cups, of a nearly
+cylindrical shape, sloping slightly inward toward the top, and belonging
+to the first class of yellowish white stone-ware, are of very elegant
+form, and are beautifully ornamented with reliefs, made from moulds of
+wood and admirably executed. The subjects are sometimes scriptural,
+sometimes heraldic.
+
+To the second class of blue and gray stone-ware with salt glaze belong
+some of the best specimens of the art (Figs. 289 and 290). They date
+from 1500 to 1620, after which came the decline. The Bavarian town of
+Creussen made a peculiar stone-ware ornamented with colored reliefs. Of
+this we have samples in the "Apostle" mugs, so called from the reliefs
+surrounding them, and in a series of jugs with hunting scenes. These
+belong to the seventeenth century.
+
+The Boettcher stone-ware will be noticed under porcelain, to the
+invention of which in Germany it was the first step.
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ Boettcher.--His First Productions.--Meissen
+ Porcelain.--Decoration.--Best Days of Meissen.--Its
+ Decline.--Vienna.--Hoechst.--Fuerstenburg.--Hoexter.--Frankenthal.
+ --Nymphenburg.--Berlin.--Holland.--Weesp.--Loosdrecht.--The
+ Hague.--Switzerland.--Zuerich.--Nyon.
+
+It will always be the distinguishing honor of Germany that the Saxon
+Boettger, or Boettcher, was the discoverer, for Europe, of a true kaolinic
+natural porcelain. The circumstances have already been detailed (see p.
+52). While Boettcher was prosecuting his experiments in 1708, he had the
+furnace filled with trial pieces, which were fired for several days
+before a piece was withdrawn. A teapot was at length taken out and
+thrown into cold water. It was not porcelain, however, but a red
+stone-ware, very hard, and with a metallic ring when struck. It was
+called "red porcelain," probably to suit the wishes of the experimenter
+and of his royal patron. A teapot of this ware has been sold in England
+for sixteen pounds sterling. A very good example of it is now in the
+possession of Mr. Davis Collamore, of New York (Fig. 291), who was
+fortunate enough to pick it up in one of his European tours in quest of
+rare "bits." It is undecorated, and shows admirably the rusty red color
+of Boettcher's experimental stone-ware. Others of his early essays are
+almost black in color and are painted in relief. Several pieces are in
+the Metropolitan Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 291.--Boettcher Stone-ware. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 292.--Meissen Porcelain. Blue Festoon, Pink Rosette.
+1709-1726. (F. Robinson Coll.)]
+
+Whenever the kaolin of Aue was discovered, Boettcher, on his first
+attempt, succeeded in making natural porcelain. Though Meissen, where a
+workshop was erected without delay after the discovery, was kept like a
+prison or fortress, and every precaution observed to insure secrecy,
+although every man connected with the works was under oath to keep
+silence in regard to anything he might see or discover, the precautions
+were all in vain. The knowledge oozed out, and in a very few years
+Meissen had several rivals. White ware was made down to 1718. The Nankin
+blue was the first colored ware imitated, and after 1718 other colors
+were introduced. Boettcher died in 1719, and was succeeded in the
+directorate by Horoldt (Fig. 293), who carried out several great
+improvements, and mingled the previous exclusively Oriental designs with
+some of a more purely European character. Heavy gilt borders surrounded
+figures, flowers, or the royal arms. In 1731, while the king himself was
+director, Kandler, a sculptor, introduced, as an ornamentation for
+vases, flower wreaths in relief, and afterward attempted figures with
+great success. From 1725 to 1745 Lindenir, or Linderer, was painting the
+beautiful insects and birds which were his specialty. Then came, also
+during Kandler's time, the exquisite paintings by European artists which
+brought the Chinese style effectually to a close. The brightest days of
+Meissen's history were those from 1731 to 1756, before Frederick the
+Great robbed it, for the enrichment of Berlin, of men, moulds, models,
+and clay. Peace came too late to restore Meissen to its pre-eminence, as
+it now had rivals both at home and abroad in France and England.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 293.--Dresden Porcelain.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 294.--Old Dresden Porcelain. (L. Double Coll.)]
+
+The successive directors after Horoldt were the king, Augustus II., from
+1731 to 1733; Count Bruehl from 1733; the count's widow from 1763; the
+king, Augustus III., from 1778; Count Marcolini from 1796 to 1814;
+Bengrath Oppal from 1814 to 1833. The factory was, for the second time,
+plundered in 1759, and although it subsequently attained to a high
+position, it never reached its former prosperity. A marked change in
+style is noticeable during the last quarter of the eighteenth century.
+The forms and ornaments both assume more of a classical character. This
+style, borrowed most likely from France, was adopted by Marcolini, and
+entirely superseded its predecessors. The manufacture was now in its
+decline. Meissen had lost its prestige, and gradually sank in
+importance. From about fifty years ago the decoration became coarse and
+the works no longer paid expenses, and at the present time Dresden ware
+is a decidedly inferior fabrication. According to Jacquemart, the
+manufactory is busy counterfeiting its own old productions and its old
+marks. In comparing Dresden with its former self, its present position
+relative to other factories must not be lost sight of. It still gives
+to commerce many works which are valuable either for their historical
+associations or for their intrinsic merit. The candelabrum here given
+(Fig. 297) represents a style of work once very much in vogue at
+Dresden. It was Kandler who, while superintending the modelling
+department under Augustus II., between 1731 and 1733, introduced the
+beautifully fashioned flowers in relief, of which some idea may be
+formed from our specimen. Another, and a very curious work, is still
+reproduced, and specimens can occasionally be picked up in this country.
+Reference is made to the figures "Count Bruehl's Tailor" and "his Wife."
+The originals of these pieces were made by Kandler in 1760, under the
+count's directorate. With all his profligacy, Count Bruehl was a good
+deal of a wit, and having been repeatedly requested by his tailor to
+accord him permission to look through the manufactory, at length
+consented. The tailor presented himself at the works in due time, and
+was there, to give him an appetite for farther exploration, presented
+with the two figures referred to. In one he saw himself astride of a
+he-goat, brandishing his professional shears and carrying the other
+appurtenances of his business on his back, while the goat carries his
+"goose" in its mouth. The other figure was that of his wife, with a baby
+in her arms, sitting upon a she-goat. The discomfited tailor saw no more
+of the porcelain manufactory. The many elegant forms and styles of
+Dresden are too numerous to be detailed. They embrace vases,
+candlesticks, snuff-boxes, butterflies, flowers, clock-cases, and
+animal figures. The miniature paintings on some of the smaller pieces
+are exquisitely finished and wonderfully tinted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 295.--Early Meissen. (A. Belmont Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 296.--Dresden Cup and Saucer. Marcolini Period,
+1796. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)]
+
+The annals of the last century contain many curious stories of runaway
+workmen selling their secrets, and of the steps taken to keep down
+opposition and to acquire a knowledge of the manufacture by any means
+that offered. A runaway from Meissen led to the establishment at Vienna
+of a factory in 1720. After twenty years it rose to considerable
+eminence, although in both paste and glaze it is inferior to Dresden.
+Its raised gold decorations have brought it in modern times a certain
+celebrity. It came to an end during the directorate of Alexander Lowe,
+who was appointed in 1856. Some excellent specimens are in the
+collections of Mr. Walters, of Baltimore, and Mr. Gibson, of
+Philadelphia. From Vienna the secret spread to Hoechst, whither it was
+conveyed by a workman named Ringler. Ringler was in the habit of
+carrying with him written notes regarding the manufacture. His
+fellow-workmen at Hoechst made him drunk, copied his notes, and offered
+the secret thus obtained for sale at other centres. One of these
+runaways founded the workshop of Fuerstenburg. A few of the Fuerstenburg
+workmen attempted to establish a manufactory at Neuhaus, but, on
+discovery, were sent out of Brunswick. Another Fuerstenburger, a flower
+painter, tried to start the industry at Hoexter, whither he had fled, but
+failed, and was followed in the endeavor by one of the defrauders of
+poor Ringler. This man's name was Becker, and he succeeded in Hoexter,
+after fruitlessly hawking his secret through Belgium, Holland, and
+France. He was bought up by the offer of a pension, and his competition
+was thus brought to an end. When Ringler awoke to a full realization of
+the consequences of his folly at Hoechst, he went to Frankenthal,
+Bavaria, where the factory founded by Hannong, of Strasburg, made
+porcelain in 1755. This existed down to 1800. In the mean time, however,
+Ringler had left, as we find him first at Neudeck-Nymphenburg, in
+Bavaria, and then, in 1758, founding a factory at Ludwigsburg,
+Wuertemberg, which was worked until 1821. The porcelain made here was of
+excellent quality, and the figure pieces were admirably modelled. After
+this we hear no more of Ringler. In this way the industry spread over
+the whole of Central Europe--to Anspach, Baireuth, Baden, to
+Hesse-Cassel, Darmstadt, and Thuringia, each new workshop becoming the
+centre for a number of offshoots.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 297.--Recent Dresden Porcelain Candelabrum. (D.
+Collamore.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 298.--Berlin Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+Berlin obtained a knowledge of porcelain by the purchase of one of the
+copies of the indiscreet Ringler's notes, and the industry was founded
+in 1750. Let us bear in mind how Frederick carried off workmen, artists,
+tools, and material from Meissen, and it is not difficult to understand
+the rise of Berlin. The works were taken by the Crown in 1763, and were
+very soon yielding a handsome income. Berlin has been compared with
+Dresden in its best days, and its works are certainly of a high order.
+The Berlin rose-color is peculiar to the royal factory. At the
+Centennial Exhibition the Koeniglich Preussische Porzellan-manufactur of
+Berlin was almost the sole representative of the porcelain industry of
+Germany. The majority of the pieces were of an ornamental character,
+large vases and plaques. A mere list of them will show in what the
+workmen are now busying themselves. There were a Victoria vase with a
+picture of Aurora, after Guido Reni; Germania vase with pictures of
+Germania cultivating the arts and sciences, and Prussia the shield and
+protectress of the empire, after Von Heyden; Crater vase with "Triumphal
+Procession of King Wine," after Schroedter; Crater vase with picture of
+Helios, after Schinkel; vases in Neogrec style with paintings after
+Bendemann; Victoria vase with "Music," after Kloeber; Urbino vases,
+amphora vases, and several sets in the Persian, Chinese, and Japanese
+styles. All these pieces were of large size, the largest about six feet
+in height. Besides these there were candelabra, pictures on china
+enamel, table services, busts, and some beautiful specimens in biscuit.
+The collection probably represented very fairly the extent of the art
+practised at Berlin, and the best work of the Germany of to-day. In
+every case there were to be found great richness and admirable handling
+of colors, but it requires time to become accustomed to the German
+styles of drawing. Many of the figures painted on the surface, even
+those showing the utmost delicacy of tint, were hardly entitled to be
+described as graceful. Others were absolutely clumsy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 299.--Berlin Porcelain Vase. (A. Belmont Coll.)]
+
+The vase from Mr. August Belmont's collection (Fig. 299) is in both form
+and color a good example of the art workmanship of Berlin. The ground
+color is a soft and beautiful shade of green; and the handles, base,
+neck, and frame of the medallion are in gold. The portrait in the latter
+is that of the Queen of Prussia, the mother of William, the present
+Emperor of Germany, and is said to be a very correct likeness.
+
+
+HOLLAND.
+
+The first natural porcelain factory in Holland was founded in 1764, at
+Weesp, near the capital. It was closed in 1771. In the following year
+the business was recommenced at Loosdrecht, near Utrecht, and was
+carried on there, and after 1782 at Amstel, with moderate success until
+the beginning of the present century. Several other establishments,
+notably one in 1778 at the Hague, rose, and in a few years fell. The
+entire history of porcelain in the country may be comprised in
+twenty-five years, from 1760 to 1785.
+
+In Belgium there was, in 1791, a factory of natural paste at Brussels.
+
+
+SWITZERLAND.
+
+Switzerland owed its first workshop at Zuerich to one of Ringler's
+workmen from Hoechst. It was carried on for five years, until 1768, and
+the productions are after the German style. Imitations of the French
+style of Sevres came for a time from Nyon, where a Frenchman established
+a workshop.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+RUSSIA, DENMARK, AND SCANDINAVIA.
+
+ Scandinavian Pottery allied to Teutonic.--Hand-shaped
+ Vessels.--Primitive Kiln.--The Eighteenth Century.--St. Petersburg:
+ Its Porcelain.--Moscow.--Rorstrand.--Marieberg.--Modern Swedish
+ Faience.--Denmark.--Kiel.--Copenhagen.--Imitations of
+ Greek.--Copenhagen Porcelain.
+
+
+The prehistoric pottery of the Scandinavians is, in its general
+character, allied to the Teutonic. It is curious to find Brongniart
+describing methods of shaping vessels by hand and burning them in a
+hole, with hay for fuel, as being still practised in Scandinavia, which
+it is quite probable have been transmitted from generation to generation
+for untold centuries. A dark-gray, calcareous, coarse paste and
+herring-bone decoration are met with in the vessels of the Stone Age.
+Others apparently of the same age were thrown on the wheel. The
+hut-shaped urn also occurs, and rare specimens are surmounted by a
+cover.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 300.--Russian Faience. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+From these ancient times we may descend at once to the eighteenth
+century. In 1700 Peter the Great established some Delft potters at St.
+Petersburg, and a private workshop is mentioned as existing at Revel,
+but little is known of either. Peter the Great was also desirous of
+founding the porcelain industry within his dominions, but does not
+appear to have made any farther progress than bringing together a
+collection of Chinese porcelain with Russian decoration. In 1756
+Elizabeth established a workshop near the capital, and some years later
+it was enlarged by Catherine II. About sixty years ago a number of
+Sevres artists were imported, and from that time down to the present a
+very superior natural porcelain has been made. In 1756 an establishment,
+also for making natural porcelain, was founded near Moscow. The royal
+works made no contribution to the Centennial Exhibition, but some
+porcelain was exhibited of fine translucent paste and most extravagant
+price. Single cups and saucers, of fine body, but not characterized
+either by remarkable elegance of shape or beauty of decoration, were
+offered for $20. Some small plaques of majolica were also exhibited, of
+careful workmanship and tasteful ornamentation. The St. Petersburg
+porcelain made at the royal works is so high in price that it is said to
+be bought only for the Court. The Russian faience (Fig. 300) of the
+present time is decorated in styles altogether peculiar. It illustrates
+the ardent desire manifested for some years past throughout Russia to
+rear a distinctively Muscovite school of art. Natural porcelain has been
+made at Korzec, in Poland, since 1723.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 301.--Swedish Faience Stove. (Wm. Astor Coll.)]
+
+The first Swedish faience factory was established at Rorstrand in 1727,
+and is still running; and in 1750 a second enterprise was set on foot at
+Marieberg, also in the neighborhood of Stockholm. The earlier Rorstrand
+wares resemble those of Delft. The decorations are in some cases
+delicate and well designed. More lately Sweden has produced a great
+variety of very beautiful faience. At the Centennial Exhibition we had
+an opportunity of making acquaintance with the Stockholm potters through
+works not less surprising than artistic. The imitations of Palissy's
+_Rustiques figulines_ may be passed over. The most interesting pieces
+were of what was called "black northern faience," the paste of which is
+a skilfully manipulated fine dark-brown clay. Many of the tea-sets and
+vases might easily have been mistaken for porcelain. A peculiar and very
+effective ornamentation consisted of blue, gilt, red, and white floral
+designs, the white enamel having a charming pearly appearance, and the
+blue studs resembling turquoises. One of the best specimens of this
+faience was a fireplace (Fig. 301) elaborately decorated with pale-blue
+and green, of delicate shades mingled with gilt. In both design and
+color this work was of itself sufficient to establish the character of
+Swedish ceramic art. It was accompanied by a pair of gigantic candelabra
+(Fig. 302) of a similar style. A quaintly formed vase was surrounded by
+medallions illustrative of the life of the old Vikings, from the time
+when the boy played with his father's sword to that when the war-worn
+hero was laid in his grave. The design was excellent in conception and
+execution.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 302.--Swedish Faience Candelabrum. (Wm. Astor
+Coll.)]
+
+It is not improbable that the Swedish works may be involved in some such
+confusion as that which surrounded the early wares of Delft. Thus we
+find, in 1729, Rorstrand invested with the monopoly of making porcelain
+of delft, _i. e._, faience. In 1735 the privilege included _fayence
+fine et pate dure_, and in 1759 Dr. Ehrenrich was privileged to make
+porcelain and faience at Marieberg. Some of the Marieberg wares are in
+excellent taste, showing exquisitely modelled flowers and fruit in
+relief. It is singular that when, in 1780, the stock at Marieberg was
+sold off, some of it was disposed of in London under the name of delft.
+The works at Rorstrand closed in 1788. A kind of faience having a
+resemblance to the Swedish is manufactured near Christiania, in Norway
+(Fig. 303). It is made into table services, and the decoration partakes
+largely of the classical character so widely prevalent in the North.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 303.--Norwegian Faience, Schwarzenhorn. (W. B.
+Dickerman Coll.)]
+
+Denmark was first known by the productions of Kiel, of which the thin
+paste is carefully prepared, and the paintings are highly commendable.
+The Greek imitations by Madame Ipsen, of Copenhagen, have been an
+agreeable surprise to Americans. Greek vases are imitated at this
+establishment with equal fidelity and beauty. The world appears never to
+tire of these forms, and the amateurs of America are to-day busily
+engaged in attempting to follow the potters of Denmark, England, Brazil,
+and we know not of what other countries. The widow Ipsen's works are
+certainly well executed; and standing among them at the Centennial
+Exhibition, it was hard to realize that one was under the flag of
+Denmark. There were many there which we might have addressed, with
+Keats:
+
+ "What leaf-fringed legend haunts about your shape
+ Of deities or mortals, or of both,
+ In Tempe or the vales of Arcady?
+ What men or gods are these?"
+
+Both form and ornamentation were as purely Greek as those of any pottery
+unearthed by the antiquary. The biga, quadriga, scenes from the Iliad
+and mythology, appear just as they do on the works of the master potters
+of antiquity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 304.--Ipsen Terra-cotta. (Ovington Bros. Coll.)]
+
+What has been said of the Ipsen factory might be applied with equal
+truth to the terra-cotta works of Wendrich & Sons, also of Copenhagen.
+Greek vessels of every description, and illustrating both ancient Greek
+and modern Danish styles of decoration, bear their name, and can be
+fully studied in such a collection as that of Mr. T. Schmidt, at the
+Danish Consulate, New York. The Danish imitators, in rivalling each
+other, have left most, if not all, of their competitors far behind, and
+the fact leads us to consider at greater length the circumstances which
+led a people apparently so distantly removed from the Greeks in genius,
+to follow them in this particular branch of art.
+
+First among these was the weighty influence everywhere felt of the
+greatest of Danish artists, the sculptor Thorvaldsen. In him we have an
+instance of a single man turning, in a measure, the current of thought
+of an entire people. The titles of his works show the subjects which
+touch his artistic sympathy. Instead of the Scandinavian Odin, Thor,
+Baldur, Sigurd, Freia, Brunhild, or Gudrun, we have Apollo, Mercury,
+Venus, Hebe, Ganymede, and the heroes of the Iliad. Thorvaldsen was
+fascinated by the classic art of Greece, and it obliterated from his
+memory the mythology and legends of the North. While he gave us Hebe, it
+was reserved for his pupil and successor, Bissen, to give us the more
+truly national Valkyrie.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 305.--Ipsen Terra-cotta Lekythos. (Ovington Bros.
+Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Danish Terra-cotta. (Ovington Bros. Coll.)]
+
+A second reason may have been the possession of a fine pale-buff clay
+admirably adapted for imitating the antiques of Greece. "In texture,"
+says Boutell, "it is so fine that it is capable of producing bas-relief
+medallions not larger than cameo gems, in which the figures have the
+sharpness of the gems themselves, with a surface of exquisite and
+silk-like softness." On the one hand was the material, on the other the
+Thorvaldsen museum presenting "the noblest models for using it with the
+happiest effect." The way to antiquity having thus been opened up, the
+Danish potters widened the range of their art, and found in Etruria and
+Egypt abundant models for imitation. Our classification must be of the
+most general character. Forms are reproduced with the most perfect
+fidelity, and the natural color of the buff clay changes through tints
+of warm brown and red to black, according to the original. The
+ornamentation is exceedingly varied. On some of the vases are subjects,
+taken from the pottery of Greece, painted in red upon a black ground, or
+in black upon buff, as we find them in Greece. These comprise the first
+class, and are in the strictest sense reproductions of the antique. In
+others, while the accessory decoration is Greek, the subjects are taken
+from the sculptures or bas-reliefs of Thorvaldsen or Flaxman. The
+"Triumph of Neptune" of the latter, and the many works of the former,
+being purely classical in conception and feeling, are in perfect
+harmony with the motive animating the artists of Denmark. There is a
+third class, in which the leading designs are essentially modern, and no
+strict rule is followed in accessory decoration. Thus, an amphora after
+the Greek, in form and accessories, has a central design taken from
+Thorvaldsen's bas-relief "Autumn." Egyptian amphorae and other
+black-glazed vases are painted with naturally tinted bouquets of
+flowers, and thus in form and ground-color alone suggest the antique. At
+times the several styles are mingled. The colors most extensively used
+are red of several shades, gold, blue, white, buff, and black.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 307--Wendrich Terra-cotta. (T. Schmidt Coll.)]
+
+Leaving the southern antique, the Danish potters have also reproduced
+the prehistoric vessels of their native land in several simple and
+elegant forms. The originals were found in the tombs of the ancient
+Danes, and supply their descendants with an opportunity of perpetuating
+an art essentially Norse. The national side of Danish art is also seen
+in many of the terra-cotta statuettes and medallions. We pass over the
+copies of Thorvaldsen's classical sculptures in order to reach the
+comical figures, full of humor, character, and feeling, of the elfish
+Nisser of the old Norsemen. The statuettes of these elves, and many
+quaint little figures of peasants, fishermen, and the like, are very
+attractive, both intrinsically and as reflections of Danish old-time
+superstition and Danish life. One of the Nisser appears upon the top of
+a flower-stand, and we meet with them again in the paintings upon
+porcelain.
+
+A warm, satisfying quietude and an elevation of tone pervade these works
+in terra-cotta, which, added to their artistic merits, commend them to
+the student of household decoration, and insure a welcome from all who
+can appreciate their mingled softness and chaste dignity.
+
+Taking Danish porcelain as a whole, it is both of good quality and
+tastefully decorated. The paste is pure, fine in texture, and carefully
+worked. In thin pieces, which approach very nearly the egg-shell of the
+East, the body is extremely translucent, and the glaze is smooth, hard,
+and even. This quality comes in fluted services, decorated under the
+glaze with delicate patterns, generally floral, in blue camaieu. In
+thicker pieces greater strength is gained without any sacrifice of
+quality. Styles of decoration more peculiarly European occur in great
+variety, and illustrate the Danish artist's capacity for handling the
+richer colors of the porcelain painter's palette. Flowers, birds,
+insects, and landscapes are seen in medallions edged with gold; and
+cupids or Nisser, as grotesque as those in terra-cotta, are represented
+in every conceivable attitude. The flower pieces are drawn with feeling,
+and the coloring follows that of nature as closely as the medium will
+allow. In the figure pieces the attitudes are, as a rule, expressive,
+and suggestive of life and motion. Many of Thorvaldsen's works, and some
+of those of Bissen and Jerichau, have been reproduced in biscuit
+statuettes and bas-relief medallions. While lacking the warmth of
+terra-cotta, the porcelain biscuit is sharp in outline and soft in
+color.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Copenhagen Porcelain. White, Shaded with Blue.
+(Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+Porcelain was made at Copenhagen (Fig. 308) in 1760, where a Frenchman
+named Fournier established a workshop. In 1772 another establishment was
+founded, or that of Fournier was revived, by the Minister of Justice,
+Muller, assisted by a fugitive from Fuerstenburg, named Von Lang. In 1775
+it was taken into the hands of the Government, and is now called the
+Royal Porcelain Works. Many ornamental pieces and works in biscuit are
+issued of different decrees of merit.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
+
+ Continuity of History.--Early British Urns.--Scottish
+ Relics.--Irish Urns.--Roman Conquest.--Caistor Ware.--Anglo-Roman
+ Ware.--Saxon Period.--After the Norman Conquest.--Tiles.--Dutch
+ Potteries in England.--English
+ Delft.--Stone-ware.--Sandwich.--Staffordshire Potteries.--Early
+ Products.--The Tofts.--Salt Glaze.--Broadwell and the Elers
+ Family.--Use of Calcined Flint.--Wedgwood.--His Life.--Jasper
+ Ware.--Queen's Ware.--The Portland Vase.--Basaltes.--Wedgwood's
+ Removal to Etruria.--His Death.--Minton & Co.--Their Imitations of
+ the Oriental.--Pate Changeante.--Pate-sur-Pate.--Cloisonne Enamel
+ on Porcelain.--Other Reproductions.--Their Majolica.--Their
+ Artists.--Minton, Hollins & Co.--Lambeth.--Doulton
+ Ware.--Terra-cotta and Stone-ware.--George Tinworth.--Fulham.
+ --Bristol.--Leeds.--Liverpool.--Lowestoft.--Yarmouth.--Nottingham.
+ --Shropshire.--Yorkshire.
+
+
+The ceramic history of the British Isles is invested with a peculiar
+interest by reason of its nearly perfect continuity from the early
+Celtic works to the Romano-British wares, the early Saxon, the Norman
+mediaeval imitations of Saracenic tiling, the lead-glazed wares of the
+sixteenth century, the stone-ware of the same period, the pottery of
+Staffordshire and Wedgwood, the first appearance of English porcelain,
+and so on, downward, to the works of Minton, Doulton, and others at the
+present time. In no other country do we find material for an equally
+lucid illustration of the regular advance of the art from the primitive
+and rude to the elaborate, beautiful, and skilful. England supplies us
+with a wonderful and in every way admirable picture of the efficacy of
+persistent skilled endeavor in contending with technical difficulty.
+
+From the old tumuli, or barrows, have been exhumed urns in which were
+held the cinerary remains of the dead (Fig. 309). The differences
+existing among them are such, in regard to both composition, shape, and
+ornament, that they evidently belong to different periods and to
+different branches or tribes of the early British population. They have
+been found all over England, from the Channel Islands to
+Northumberland. They are sun-dried and hand-made, and have wide
+orifices, often expanding gradually from a comparatively narrow base to
+the lip. They are pale in color, either yellow or gray, and the
+ornamentation consists of zigzags, frets, and studs.
+
+In Scotland the general character of the remains is the same as that of
+the English. The appearance of a number of them suggests, however, the
+use of the wheel. They have been exhumed in every part of Scotland, from
+the Tweed to the Orkney Islands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 309.--Group of Ancient British Vases.]
+
+The Irish urns are somewhat in advance of those found in England and
+Scotland. The red paste shows that considerable care was bestowed upon
+its preparation, and the entire body is very often covered with
+ornaments of lines and zigzags. As in the case of the English and
+Scotch, we are indebted for the preservation of these relics of the
+Irish Celts to a usage which our researches have shown to be almost
+universal, that of employing urns in connection with the interment of
+the dead. Cremation was not resorted to in every instance. The Celts put
+the ashes in the urns, or covered them by inverting the urns over the
+spot where the ashes were laid, or placed their sepulchral vases round
+the unburnt remains.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 310.--Celtic Urn.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Celtic Pottery, found in Staffordshire.]
+
+In the first century before Christ the tide of Roman conquest passed the
+white cliffs of Albion, and a new element was introduced into its
+ceramics. There, as elsewhere, the Romans made and imported the ware, of
+which examples have been brought to light all over the old Roman Empire,
+from England to Jerusalem. The extent to which the manufacture was
+carried in England may be estimated from one fact stated by Dr. Birch,
+that the Roman potteries have been traced for twenty miles along the
+gravel banks of the Nen, in Northamptonshire. Caistor, in the same
+county, is an exceptionally interesting locality, as both early Celtic
+wares and the remains of a Roman kiln have been found there. Under the
+Romans it must have been an important seat of the manufacture, as its
+productions have been unearthed at several places on the Continent--in
+France and the Low Countries. The Caistor ware is very often ornamented
+with unusual skill and taste by means of reliefs. The Roman Samian ware
+is found in many sections of England, whither it was probably imported.
+Some of the specimens belonging to the latter part of the Roman period,
+and to be classed as Anglo-Roman, are of a thin black paste, carefully
+wrought and totally devoid of ornament. After the arrival of the Saxons
+the pottery was more closely allied to the Teutonic found in Germany
+(Fig. 314).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Romano-British Ware.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 313.--Romano-British Upchurch Ware.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Saxon Vase.]
+
+The urns are black, hand-made, and stamped with a variety of decorative
+designs. The shapes are heavy, and the appliances for firing were
+apparently of a rude kind. Of the Anglo-Saxon period few relics have
+been discovered, and little is in consequence known. One fragment of the
+eleventh century, or possibly earlier, is described by Mr. Marryat as
+"of a yellow color, coarsely made and unglazed." It seems probable that
+the disturbances attendant upon the Norman invasion in 1066 distracted
+the popular attention from the plastic art, as the next evidences of its
+pursuit belong chiefly to the thirteenth century. These are the tiles
+employed in paving the ecclesiastical edifices of the day. In the
+greater number the patterns are inlaid, or filled in with white paste,
+and the whole then glazed yellow. To this class belong the thirteenth
+century tiles from Chertsey Abbey, in Surrey, and those of the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries from Malmesbury Abbey and Malvern.
+Those from Chertsey are peculiarly elaborate. One has a scene
+representing a king and a female harper, surrounded by a circular
+border, the whole forming the inside of a square richly ornamented in
+the corners and on the sides. The Malvern tiles are also very
+elaborately decorated with designs of an apparently heraldic character.
+Another style of tile decoration, followed from the thirteenth to the
+eighteenth century, consisted of mouldings in relief. The glaze is green
+or brown.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Anglo-Norman Vases.]
+
+In others the patterns are incised, but not filled in. A very good
+example of this style is to be seen in Crauden's chapel at Ely. The
+fourth style of decoration was upon the _pate-sur-pate_ principle--a
+white paste being employed as a pigment upon the body of the tile, after
+which the piece was glazed. The introduction of tiling for pavements and
+walls was evidently in a great measure due to English intercourse with
+Spain and the East. Toward the close of the eleventh century, while
+England had not yet recovered from the first shock of the Norman
+invasion, Peter the Hermit was carrying from land to land the
+anti-Saracenic Gospel of the Sword, which led to the First Crusade.
+Fifty years later, in 1147, the Second Crusade was organized, while
+England was still groaning under the oppression of her rulers. In the
+first quarter of the twelfth century the Saxon chronicler says: "God
+sees the wretched people most unjustly oppressed: first they are
+despoiled of their possessions, then butchered." Under Stephen, "Men
+said openly that Christ and his saints were asleep." Clearly this was no
+time either for joining in crusades or cultivating art. When, in 1189,
+the Third Crusade was arranged, Richard the Lion-hearted was one of the
+three sovereigns who joined in the ineffectual enterprise. With his
+followers may have been brought back the incentives to art cultivation
+which make their effects apparent in the next century. The government
+was, in the mean time, taking the form which it assumed before the end
+of the thirteenth century, and which it has retained ever since.
+Political and art history here run exactly parallel. Given disorder and
+despairing apathy, and art is unknown. But let order take the place of
+chaos, and constitutional rule that of despotism, and the discarded arts
+again blossom into flower. Eastern influences manifested themselves in
+England almost contemporaneously with the revival of the ceramic art. On
+one specimen from Ely, a scriptural subject--Eve offering the apple to
+Adam, while a human-headed serpent coils itself round the tree--is
+surrounded by several designs of clearly Saracenic or Moorish
+inspiration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Old Tile from Salisbury. (Boston Household Art
+Rooms.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 317.--Old Tile from Milton Abbey. (Boston Household
+Art Rooms.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 318.--Old Tile from Chester. (Boston Household Art
+Rooms.)]
+
+For at least four centuries tiles formed the staple production of the
+potters of England. The annals indicate a popular indifference to the
+domestic use of earthen-ware, which contrasts strongly with more
+southern preferences. In the reign of Edward I. a chance cargo from
+Spain, containing some plates and other household table-wares, reached
+England, but failed to affect the national use of wooden trenchers,
+leathern jugs, and metal. Lead-glazed pottery was, however, made as
+early as the fourteenth century, though not to a great extent. The
+specimens which have been preserved are generally coarse in texture, and
+are covered with green or yellow glaze. A ewer of the thirteenth or
+fourteenth century is rudely designed to represent a mounted knight.
+Other examples of the same period are jugs, of which some are
+inartistically formed, while others are not devoid of a certain
+gracefulness of shape. Costrels, or costrils (elongated bottles which
+answered the purpose of the modern flask), occur of a red paste with red
+and white glaze. A candlestick with white studs for ornaments has been
+found of the same red color.
+
+As we pass to the later works of English potters, we become conscious of
+the difficulty of following our usual plan of dividing them into
+pottery, stone-ware with vitrified fracture, and porcelain. The
+treatment of the name of Wedgwood alone would make such an arrangement
+undesirable, as tending to break the continuity of our narrative.
+Stone-ware and earthen-ware will therefore be considered together.
+
+The making of both enamelled pottery and stone-ware appears to have been
+an imported industry. Dutch potters are said to have settled at both
+Lambeth and Fulham in the seventeenth century, and to have there
+originated the manufacture of what was called "Delft," after the name of
+the seat of the industry in Holland. White wine-pots of this ware date
+from about the middle of the seventeenth century. Plates, oval and round
+dishes, mugs and cups, of the same ware appear in various collections,
+some with figures in relief, others with paintings in brown, blue,
+yellow, and green, and others with medallions or mottoes. They generally
+date from between 1650 and 1690. Delft was also made in Liverpool and in
+Staffordshire.
+
+The first mention of stone-ware occurs in 1581, in the petition of a
+certain William Simpson, for "full power and onlie licence to provyde,
+transport, and bring into this realm, drinking stone pottes" made at
+Cologne and transported into England by a dealer living in
+Aix-la-Chapelle. As a reason why his prayer should be granted, Simpson
+stated that he would, "as much as in him lieth, drawe the making of such
+like pottes into some decayed town within this realm, whereby many
+hundred poore men may be sett a work." Whether he found some decayed
+town suitable for the carrying out of his philanthropic intent does not
+appear; but in 1588 a Delft potter was carrying on his business at
+Sandwich. Lambeth, Fulham, and the Staffordshire potteries appear among
+the later producers of stone-ware.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Posset-pot. Staffordshire. Fifteenth century.
+(Bateman Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Staffordshire Tyg, or Drinking-cup.]
+
+The leading English centres are the Staffordshire Potteries, including
+Tunstall, Burslem, Hanley, the Fentons, and other towns comprising
+Stoke-upon-Trent, Lambeth, Fulham, Liverpool, Leeds, Lowestoft, Bristol,
+Yarmouth, and Nottingham. Of these the place of honor must be accorded
+to Staffordshire. It has been associated with the ceramic art ever since
+the Roman invasion; and the name of a family in the district
+(Tellwright) is adduced as a proof that under the Saxons the advantages
+of the locality for the making of pottery were fully recognized. The
+name is a corruption of tile-wright, or potter. Many interesting facts
+relating to English pottery in general, and to that of Staffordshire in
+particular, are brought together by Mr. Marryat, whose able work
+deserves the study of all desirous of following the gradual development
+of the art in England. Early specimens of Staffordshire ware are the
+butter-pots of the period, and the tall vessels (Fig. 320) called
+"Tygs." About 1650, Thomas and Ralph Toft and Thomas Sans were making
+round dishes with some pretensions to an ornamental character. The year
+1680 was made memorable by the discovery of salt glaze. The story goes
+that a servant of Mr. Joseph Yates, occupant of Stanley Farm, near
+Palmer's Pottery, Bagnall, was boiling salt in water preparatory to
+using it in curing pork. An earthen pot was used as a pan, and the
+servant having left it for a time, the water boiled over, and would also
+appear to have all boiled away, since the pan became red hot. When it
+cooled it was found to be covered with what was afterward known as salt
+glaze. The hint was quickly taken by the potters in the neighborhood,
+and the process soon became common. The Burslem makers adopted it in
+1690, and called the salt-glazed ware "Crouch-ware." Five years earlier,
+Mr. Thomas Miles was making stone-ware at Shelton, and the district
+production from about that time increased very rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Teapot. Elers Ware.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Medallion of Wedgwood, by Flaxman. On Monument
+in Stoke Parish Church.]
+
+At Bradwell, in 1690, the Elers brothers, from Nuremberg, who had
+crossed with the Prince of Orange, set up one of the first
+establishments worked upon a regular mercantile basis. It had been for
+some time the object of both native and Dutch potters to imitate the red
+ware of China, and the Elers were the first to reach approximate
+success. Having discovered a bed of red clay, they set about working it
+in conjunction with gray stone-ware, with which they produced very fine
+reliefs (Fig. 321). Notwithstanding the strictest watchfulness, and the
+employment of semi-idiotic workmen, their secret was stolen by one
+Astbury, who for several years feigned idiocy in order to be allowed to
+work in their place, and in that way secure possession of their methods.
+The competition then became so great in their neighborhood that in
+twenty years they closed their establishment. Their reliefs were
+remarkably sharp in outline, and the paste was of fine quality.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Cameo Medallion, by Flaxman. Mrs. Siddons as
+Lady Macbeth.]
+
+It is curious to find that to another accident the Staffordshire potters
+were indebted for the discovery of the value of calcined flint mixed in
+the paste. A son of the above named Astbury was riding through Dunstable
+in 1720, when he noticed symptoms of disorder in his horse's eyes. The
+hostler at the inn where he stopped undertook to cure the animal by
+burning some flint and blowing the powder thus produced into the horse's
+eyes. Astbury saw the dust, and it at once occurred to him that it might
+be useful in his business. From calcined flint, sand, and pipe-clay
+colored by means of oxides, were made the wares called "Agate" and
+"Tortoise-shell." Then followed the adoption of plaster of Paris moulds
+and a more general resort to mouldings in bas-relief.
+
+We now approach the era made illustrious by the name of Mr. Josiah
+Wedgwood (Fig. 322), the greatest of English potters, of whom it has
+been said, in the most unqualified terms: "With him the ceramic art
+received its highest development in ancient or modern times; for while
+greater beauty of decoration in painting characterized other wares, he
+produced the noblest artistic results of the moulding in clay." However
+much others may be led by individual preference to qualify this
+encomium, there is no doubt that Wedgwood ranks among the highest names
+known in the history of English ceramic art. Born at Burslem, in
+Staffordshire, in 1730, of a family which had been engaged in the making
+of pottery for many years, Josiah enjoyed in early life none of the
+educational advantages which might have developed in him the promise of
+his future brilliant career. It is highly probable that his schooling
+did not carry him farther than reading and writing, and at the age of
+eleven we find him engaged as a thrower in his brother's workshop. Then
+came sickness in the worst of all its forms, smallpox, which left him so
+lame that amputation of one leg became necessary, and ended his career
+at the wheel. It is possible that, in current phraseology, this
+misfortune may have been a blessing in disguise. He at once turned his
+attention to the production of ornamental pottery and the imitation of
+precious stones, mixing variously compounded clays with oxides, and
+otherwise experimenting.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Black Basaltes. (Meyer Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Black and White Jasper. (Barlow Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 326.--Early Wedgwood. Blue; Moulded. (W. S. Ward
+Coll.)]
+
+The idea must have got abroad that he had talent, as, at the age of
+twenty-two, we find him in partnership with a Mr. Harrison, and then, in
+1754, with Mr. Thomas Wheildon, of Fenton. This gentleman lacked his
+partner's enterprise, and in 1759 Wedgwood was in business for himself,
+at Burslem, at first in a small way, then in a larger, and again in a
+still larger manufactory. In the last he made the ware called
+"Queen's-ware"--a cream-colored fabric of very delicate color, composed
+of white clay mixed with flint, and brilliantly glazed. It derived its
+name from a specimen service having been accepted by Queen Charlotte.
+His fortune was now practically guaranteed, and his career an assured
+success. Court patronage made him the fashion in England, and we also
+find him engaged in an export business. Prosperity did not rob him of
+any of his early enterprise, but rather acted upon him as an incentive
+to farther and greater exertion. He continued studying, investigating,
+and experimenting, and with the assistance of his partner, Mr. Bentley,
+pushed his business in all directions. Several kinds of earthen-ware and
+stone-ware were produced by him (Fig. 326), and after effecting various
+improvements upon his table ware, he turned his attention to those
+imitations of the antique, and of cameos, intaglios, and seals, with
+which his name is indissolubly associated. With these are to be classed
+his fifty copies of the Barberini, or Portland vase (Fig. 327). The
+original is glass in two strata--dark blue and opaque white--and is an
+example of Roman work of the second or third century. It was bought by
+the Duke of Portland for L1029.
+
+These works admit of no classification. Some are earthen-ware, others
+stone-ware, and others are of such a composition that they may be most
+correctly classed with porcelain. The name "Basaltes" was given to a
+series of imitations of Egyptian styles in black biscuit, with reliefs
+in white and red (Figs. 324 and 325). More charming than these is the
+jasper or onyx ware from the blue or soft green ground of which the
+white busts (Fig. 328), figures, and flowers stand out in the most
+exquisite relief. The biscuit is a porcelaneous stone-ware, colored all
+through by means of oxides. Wedgwood made in all more than two thousand
+copies of antique gems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 327.--The Barberini, or Portland Vase.]
+
+In 1771 Wedgwood removed from Burslem to Etruria, a village which he
+erected in proximity to his works, and for the accommodation of his
+workmen. There he also built for himself a handsome residence, which he
+occupied until his death, in 1795, in the sixty-fifth year of his age.
+His decorated cream-colored ware had, in the mean time, become known all
+over Europe, in India, and in this country. In 1775 he made a service
+for the Empress Catherine II. of Russia, undervalued at fifteen thousand
+dollars. We close our brief sketch of his remarkable career by noting
+that the success of the Etruria of his foundation was based upon
+commerce, and not upon royal patronage; that his humblest works are
+marked by a thoroughness and fitness parallel with the artistic
+qualities of his higher pieces; and that excellence of workmanship was
+in all cases his primary aim. One of his contemporaries and successors
+was Mr. Enoch Wood, who established a workshop at Burslem in 1770, and
+was succeeded by Messrs. Caldwell & Wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 328.--Wedgwood Jasper-ware. (John W. Britton Coll.)]
+
+The later products of the Wedgwood factory are hardly less varied than
+those of its founder's lifetime. The jasper-ware is still produced, and
+although some of the pieces lack the exquisite finish of the original,
+others show little, if any, inferiority. The plate of blue jasper, with
+white decoration, given in the illustration (Fig. 330), is a remarkably
+fine example of recent work. The Wedgwood majolica is, both in regard to
+color and the modelling of the ornaments and figures, unsurpassed by any
+similar ware of the present time. Of this the vase (Fig. 331) is an
+excellent illustration. The body is a clear deep blue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 329.--Recent Wedgwood Earthen-ware. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+In our time the Staffordshire Potteries maintain their old repute. One
+well-known name is that of Minton. It occurs in three firms, all located
+in the Potteries: Minton & Co.; Minton, Hollins & Co., of
+Stoke-upon-Trent; and Mr. Robert Minton Taylor, of Fenton. The
+establishment of Minton & Co. was founded while Wedgwood was still
+alive, by Mr. Thomas Minton, in 1791. The founder of the firm had been
+successively an employe of Mr. Thomas Turner, of Caughley, and of Spode,
+before, in 1788, he went to Stoke, and there bought land and built a
+house and factory. In 1790 he took Spode's manager, Mr. Joseph Paulson,
+into partnership, and in 1793 assumed a second partner, Mr. Pownall. The
+latter retired in 1800, and Paulson died in 1809, after which, for a
+number of years, Thomas Minton carried on the works alone. Previous to
+1798 the factory made nothing but earthen-ware, the greater portion of
+which was decorated in blue and white, after the type supplied by the
+porcelain of Nankin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 330.--Modern Wedgwood Jasper. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+In 1817 Herbert Minton, a younger son of Thomas, was taken in as partner
+by his father, and although he practically retired from the business
+between 1823 and 1836, he succeeded to it in the latter year on the
+death of the founder. He went into partnership first with Mr. John
+Boyle, who subsequently joined the Wedgwoods, and secondly with Michael
+Daintry Hollins. At the time of his death, in 1858, he had two partners,
+Hollins and Colin Minton Campbell. At that time fifteen hands were
+employed in the factory. Herbert had directed his attention to the wide
+range of works which have since given the name of Minton a world-wide
+reputation. These were earthen-ware, artificial porcelain, natural
+porcelain, parian, encaustic tiles, azulejos, mosaics, Della Robbia
+ware, Palissy ware, and majolica. The Mintons divide with Copeland the
+honor of first making parian. Both firms exhibited it at the London
+Exhibition of 1851, and the jury to which the question of priority was
+referred could not decide between them. To continue the history of the
+firm, Colin Minton Campbell dissolved his partnership with Hollins in
+1868, and now carries on the business in connection with his cousins,
+Thomas, William, and Herbert Minton, the great-grandsons of the founder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 331.--Wedgwood Majolica. (Horace Russell Coll.)]
+
+The firm now ranks with the first of English manufacturers. Their
+enterprise has traversed a field as wide as that into which Wedgwood
+entered, and their success has been very great. In the pursuit of the
+commercial they have not neglected the artistic. It is said of Wedgwood
+that he copied and imitated everything worth imitating. Minton & Co.
+have followed a similar course, though in a different direction.
+Twenty-five years ago we find them attempting to make natural porcelain,
+but the enterprise was abandoned. When the taste for Oriental styles
+revived, they were among the first to succeed in gratifying the public
+whim. In doing so they produced specimens of color highly praiseworthy,
+and of a beauty vividly recalling that of the Oriental originals. Their
+Persian ware and _pate changeante_ have both excited the admiration of
+connoisseurs. The Mintons have also been successful in reproducing with
+wonderful fidelity the _cloisonne_ enamel of China and Japan, using a
+porcelain base. Here, as in the Persian ware, their turquoise blue is
+very effective, and the decoration in enamels reflects faithfully the
+tone of Oriental ornament. Leaving the East, Minton & Co. have been no
+less fortunate in imitating the Italian Grafitto ware of the fifteenth
+century, and the famous inlaid Henri Deux ware of France. Several
+specimens of the latter were exhibited by Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Son at
+the Centennial Exhibition, and included a teapot, a pitcher, and a pair
+of candlesticks, all of pale yellow body inlaid with red. Examples are
+in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and in the collections of Mr. Walters
+and Mr. W. L. Andrews. A mere reference must suffice for their majolica
+(Fig. 334), which is rather an independent product than an imitation of
+the majolica of Italy. It is peculiar both in composition and in the
+colors employed in its decoration, and is fired at a very high
+temperature. Mr. Herbert Minton was the first to copy the azulejos of
+Spain. The above are only a few of the achievements which might be
+adduced to show how Minton & Co. have boldly essayed to duplicate the
+choicest products of ceramic art. One is forcibly reminded by them of
+the Chinese workman's delight in contending with technical difficulty
+for the mere sake of surmounting it. Among their artists are Mr. Solon,
+W. S. Stevens, Charles Toft, H. Darling, J. Leese, M. Mussill, Kirby,
+Mellor Slater, F. Fuller, and H. Protat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 332.--Minton Stone-ware. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+The firm of Minton, Hollins & Co., of Stoke-upon-Trent, was founded by
+Michael Daintry Hollins, on the dissolution of his partnership with
+Colin Minton Campbell in 1868. He built extensive works, and began to
+make majolica and encaustic tiles, slabs, panels, and other similar
+wares. The firm now produces an almost endless variety of tiles. At the
+Centennial Exhibition this firm was represented by some pieces of great
+brilliancy of color and very careful drawing. In one scene two finely
+plumaged wading-birds appeared among the water-lilies in a brook. The
+soft gray of the feathers tipped with bright blue, and the green of the
+reeds and other plants, were thrown out well by the dark-brown
+background. On some smaller pieces birds of tropically gay plumage were
+painted upon a sombre chocolate ground. On others were flowers and
+butterflies upon a pale ground. The style of treatment is purely
+Oriental. Drawing and color are paramount. The ground is merely
+intended for contrast with, or the heightening of, the superimposed
+decoration. Some beautiful heads of dogs, lions, and asses were
+marvellous examples of animal portraiture, and illustrated the capacity
+of tiling for the reception of that style of decoration. In them was
+seen the work of an artist who fully understood that, given the
+requisite mastery of color, a tile may be employed as a more lasting
+substitute for canvas. It is also worth noting that whenever tiles are
+used for covering a large surface, and each one is treated as a unit,
+the result is an artistic blunder. The eye wearies with monotonous
+repetition, and no minuteness of finish in the single tile can relieve
+the bewildering effect of the mass. Minton, Hollins & Co. have been
+fortunate in designing fire-places of tiling, with side paintings of
+birds and flowers, and larger scenes above the mantel, of a character in
+keeping with their place in a household.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 333.--Minton Plaque, by Mussill. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 334--Minton's Prometheus Vase. (Corcoran Art
+Gallery.)]
+
+From the Trent we pass to Lambeth, near London. It was here that in 1640
+the Dutch makers of stone-ware and delft settled. At one time there were
+twenty different establishments, but on the rise of Staffordshire their
+number decreased under the weight of competition. Some of the early
+Lambeth ware is very skilfully painted, the tiles with a blue ground
+being especially commendable. At the present time Lambeth is best known
+by its Doulton ware and Lambeth faience. The Doulton or Lambeth pottery
+was founded by Mr. John Doulton, who was born at Lambeth in 1793. He
+served an apprenticeship with White of Fulham, and in 1815 associated
+Mr. John Watts with himself in establishing the present pottery. Mr.
+Watts died in 1858, and Mr. Doulton in 1873, and the business is now in
+the hands of Messrs. Henry and James D. Doulton, sons of the founder. In
+1870 they first issued an artistic ware, and in 1872 turned out the
+first specimen of what they have called "Lambeth faience." The "Doulton
+ware" may, without detracting from the originality of much of the
+decoration, be described as a revival in both composition and style of
+the German stone-ware, miscalled _Gres de Flandre_. Like other
+stone-wares the body is highly silicious, close in texture, and very
+brittle. The necessary firing takes several days to accomplish, and the
+glaze is made by throwing salt into the kiln, according to the process
+discovered, as we have seen, in Staffordshire, and long practised at
+Lambeth. The body-tints are the result of washing the pieces in a
+preparation of oxides, varied according to the shade desired. The
+ornamentation is fourfold. It consists either of incrustations,
+indented designs, incised figures or scenes, or colors. These methods
+are occasionally combined. The Lambeth faience is a finer ware, and is
+decorated under the glaze with paintings of flowers, landscapes,
+portraits, and figures. The Messrs. Doultons' artists are all taken from
+the ranks of pupils in the Lambeth School of Art. Among them are Miss
+Hannah B. Barlow, a very skilful animal painter, Mr. Arthur Barlow, Mr.
+Frank A. Butler, Mrs. Sparkes, and Mr. George Tinworth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 335.--Doulton Ware. (W. B. Dickerman Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 336.--Doulton Ware. (W. B. Dickerman Coll.)]
+
+A great deal of the Doulton ware very closely resembles the _Gres de
+Flandre_ in its decoration, but even to these specimens is to be
+accorded the originality resulting from a modified development of the
+fundamental style. A larger experience may lead to something more
+perfectly original. The present tendency appears to be toward an excess
+of ornament, in some instances not a single square inch being left
+uncovered. Studs and bosses are affixed in bands, are led over the
+surface in floriated designs, and give the arched handles a peculiar
+serrated appearance. A very ingenious design consists of incised broad
+leaves overlapping each other, and becoming more sharply pointed and
+elongated as they rise up the neck to the lip. Studs are then laid in
+vertical bands from top to bottom, the lines converging as the leaves
+become smaller. In many cases, however, the reliefs destroy the outline,
+and mar the beauty of a host of otherwise admirable shapes. In the
+matter of form, the Messrs. Doulton, in fact, leave little to be
+desired. Many of their vases display a pure, classical gracefulness, and
+others are possessed of a quaintness and novelty almost equally
+attractive. Canettes, goblets, and small covered jars decorated with
+plain or ornamental bands, and dotted with flower-like studs, are to be
+classed among the best examples of the more characteristic or
+distinctive style of Lambeth decoration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 337.--Lambeth Faience.]
+
+The plaques and tiles of Lambeth faience deserve separate notice. Some
+of the smaller pieces illustrate the capacity of the ware for
+portraiture. The drawing is invariably careful, and the coloring is
+applied with both taste and delicacy. The colors will probably be
+improved in time, and become more decided without losing anything in
+softness. The pieces we have seen inspire us with this hope, and that
+here again experience may lead to greater excellence. A large
+tile-piece, by Mrs. Sparkes, representing the departure of the Pilgrim
+Fathers, and painted upon two hundred and fifty-two tiles of Lambeth
+faience, was exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition. The lady-artist is
+deserving of all praise for her composition and drawing. The perspective
+was very well managed, and the figures were brought out in strong relief
+against a sky glowing with the rays of the setting sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 338.--Lambeth Faience. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+The Messrs. Doulton have achieved some wonderful results in the
+combination of terra-cotta with their stone-ware. At the Centennial
+Exhibition they had a brown terra-cotta fireplace and mirror-frame, with
+tiled panels and hearth and terra-cotta fender. In another mantel-piece,
+of oak, a set of tiles in the panels showed admirably designed and
+executed illustrations of scenes and characters from Shakspeare. In
+these and other similar works a great deal of taste and ingenuity was
+shown in the combination of material. A magnificent example of the
+union of terra-cotta with Doulton ware is now in the Smithsonian
+Institute at Washington (Fig. 340). It is a pulpit of red and light buff
+terra-cotta with ornaments of blue stone-ware. The balusters on the
+stairs leading up to the pulpit are Doulton ware ornamented with bands
+of terra-cotta. Under the base of the balustrade, and round the pulpit
+under the panels in front and on the sides, are bands of Doulton ware. A
+similar band surrounds the alcoves or panels. The latter are by Mr.
+George Tinworth, of London, and illustrate scenes in the life of Christ,
+from the offering in the Temple of "a pair of turtle-doves or two young
+pigeons" to the ascension. Of this artist's execution, also, are the
+panels in a baptismal font which accompanies the pulpit. These and other
+similar works are so deeply sunk that they have the appearance of groups
+of figures separately modelled and placed in the recess rather than of
+mouldings in relief. They are in every way admirable. The expression and
+attitudes of some of the faces and figures are marvellously life-like
+and forcible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 339.--Lambeth Faience. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+Fulham owes the beginnings of its pottery to the Dutch. In 1684 Mr. John
+Dwight was making stone-ware, earthen-ware, statues, and porcelain. The
+latter was very soon discontinued. The production of other wares was
+carried on by descendants of the founder.
+
+The history of Bristol pottery is said to go back to the commencement of
+the thirteenth century, but its first piece with a date is five hundred
+years later. It is delft-ware, and is dated 1703. A German, named Wrede,
+or Reed, is said to have made stone-ware about the same period.
+Otherwise Bristol is unimportant in so far as earthen-ware is
+concerned.
+
+Leeds is one of the towns which, toward the close of the last century,
+were adopted as fields for a pottery enterprise. It did an extensive
+trade with the Continent in a cream-colored ware.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 340.--Terra-cotta Pulpit. (Smithsonian Institute.)]
+
+Liverpool begins its history, in 1716, with the manufacture of delft.
+The first event of any importance is the invention by Mr. John Sadler,
+in 1753, of a method of printing upon earthen-ware. Wedgwood was in the
+habit of sending Queen's-ware to Sadler to be printed. In 1752 Mr.
+Richard Chaffers set up an earthen-ware establishment, but soon turned
+his attention to porcelain, which he succeeded in making after
+discovering the necessary material in Devonshire. On his death the
+enterprise came to an end. The next name of distinction is that of
+Pennington, who, about 1760, made delft bowls and vases, some of which
+were painted by an artist named Robinson. Pennington ultimately returned
+to Worcester. In 1794 the "Herculaneum Pottery" was opened at
+Birkenhead, and was worked until 1841.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 341.--Lambeth Faience. (Dr. H. G. Piffard Coll.)]
+
+Mr. Herolin Luson made an ineffectual attempt to establish a pottery at
+Lowestoft in 1756. His failure is to be attributed to the infidelity of
+his workmen, who were induced by the London manufacturers to spoil the
+ware. Notwithstanding the opposition which led competitors to resort to
+similarly unworthy devices, Walker, Brown, Aldred, and Rickman founded a
+workshop within a year of Luson's failure, and by taking the necessary
+precautions against treachery, placed it upon a permanent basis. It made
+ware of every grade. The Lowestoft earthen-ware was usually decorated
+with blue, and occasionally with red. The early porcelain was painted in
+the same colors, and the later pieces were ornamented with flowers. The
+latter are artistically drawn and colored, and equal the best work found
+on English porcelain. Plain Chinese ware was imported and decorated at
+Lowestoft; but the production ceased about the year 1830.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 342.--Lowestoft Pottery. (F. Robinson Coll.)]
+
+It is questionable if ware of any kind was ever made at Yarmouth,
+although it is certain that a decorating establishment and kiln existed
+there probably about 1752. It is more than possible that this workshop
+was in part supplied with Lowestoft biscuit.
+
+Nottingham manufactured pottery from about 1650, and the business was
+continued for at least a century. The precise period at which it came to
+an end is not known.
+
+The Shropshire factories were offshoots of those of Staffordshire. The
+Brosely establishment was founded by Mr. Richard Thursfield, of Stoke,
+in 1713, and passed from his family into the hands of the Roses of
+Colebrookdale about 1799. A black stone-ware decorated with gilt or
+with reliefs was the chief product.
+
+Mr. Francis Place, of the Manor-house, York, made fine pottery or
+stone-ware in the latter part of the seventeenth century. The well-known
+"Rockingham ware" took its name from a brown pottery made upon the
+estate of the Marquis of Rockingham, at Swinton, in Yorkshire. The
+production originated in 1757, and the enterprise was subsequently
+carried on by Mr. William Malpass (1765); Mr. Thomas Bingley (1778);
+Messrs. John and William Bramfield (1807-1842), when the works stopped.
+The brown teapots of this factory were at one time very fashionable in
+England. Of these and other works each had its specialty of decoration
+or composition, but to detail them in full would only complicate a
+sketch in which it is intended to give merely salient points, on a
+comprehensive plan.
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ Plymouth Hard Porcelain.--Cookworthy.--Bow.--Chelsea.--Derby.--Worcester.
+ --Minton.--Pate-sur-Pate.--Spode.--Copeland.--Bristol.--Tunstall.
+ --Caughley.--Nantgarrow.--Swansea.--Colebrookdale.--Pinxton.--Shelton.
+ --Belleek.--General Character of Manufacture in Great Britain.
+
+It may be as well to premise that the porcelain now made in England all
+belongs to the soft, or, according to our classification, the artificial
+class. Its composition has already been described. The leading seats of
+the industry are Bow, Chelsea, Derby, Plymouth, Bristol, Worcester, and
+a few workshops in the midland counties and Wales.
+
+With the possible exceptions of Lowestoft and Bristol, Plymouth stands
+alone as the only place in England at which a manufactory of hard, or
+natural, porcelain ever existed (Fig. 343). This distinction is due to
+the enterprise of William Cookworthy, who was born near Plymouth, in
+1705. Cookworthy was a chemist and druggist, and was led into his
+porcelain venture by the discovery of kaolin and petuntse near Helstone,
+in 1755. Five years later his manufactory was running at Coxside, but
+meeting with no adequate commercial support, he sold his patents, in
+1772, to Richard Champion, of Bristol. The production then ceased.
+Cookworthy's first attempts were not encouraging, but perseverance
+brought a certain measure of success, and his later works are of fine
+quality. He procured a Sevres painter, and also employed Bone, the
+enameller and artist, and by their help turned out many valuable
+services and pieces richly ornamented after the prevailing Oriental
+styles, with birds, flowers, and insects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 343.--Plymouth Hard Porcelain Coffee-pot.]
+
+Before Cookworthy embarked in his porcelain enterprise at Plymouth,
+artificial porcelain was made at Stratford-le-Bow and Chelsea. The
+beginnings of the industry at neither place have ever been
+satisfactorily freed from obscurity, and it is not known to which the
+priority belongs. Thomas Frye, an Essex artist, superintended the works
+at Bow for some time, and is said to have been the first who succeeded
+in making English porcelain. He died in 1762. Probably the Bow and
+Chelsea works both started about twenty years before that date. It is
+certain that both stopped after less than fifty years existence. The
+porcelain made at Stratford-le-Bow, and designated "Bow china," is of
+coarse paste, and is often found decorated with a bee either painted or
+embossed (Fig. 344). The painting of flowers and scenes is not of a high
+order, but the reliefs are frequently effective and well executed. The
+Bow artists also made figure groups.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 344--Bow cream-jug.]
+
+The decoration of early Chelsea porcelain closely followed the Chinese,
+which it was intended to rival. The business there did not attain to
+any eminence, nor did the art rise to a noticeable height, until the
+works were patronized by the Court of George II and supported by the
+Duke of Cumberland. Between 1750 and 1765, Chelsea porcelain most
+closely approached its great Continental rivals (Fig. 345). After 1750
+the manufacture could hardly be called an English enterprise, since
+material and workmen were both imported from Germany. The management
+also was in the hands of a foreigner named Spremont. The articles
+produced included all the forms of Sevres and Dresden, table services,
+candlesticks, figures, vases, and the numberless designs among which the
+inventive ingenuity of Continental artists was exercised. In 1784 the
+works stopped. The Chelsea paste was extremely soft, and the glaze was
+vitreous and liable to crack. The colors were superb, and included some
+of the choicest found on Sevres porcelain, besides at least one other, a
+claret color, peculiar to Chelsea. Very high prices have been obtained
+for this porcelain at auctions, more than a thousand dollars having been
+given for a pair of vases. In design, workmanship, color, and
+decoration, there are pieces of Chelsea porcelain unexcelled by any
+other establishment, either English or foreign.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 345.--Chelsea Porcelain Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 346.--Derby Porcelain. Third Duesbury Period. (F.
+Robinson Coll.)]
+
+Mr. Duesbury, who purchased the Chelsea works in 1769 and finally
+transferred them to Derby, had been making porcelain in the latter place
+since 1750. He had also bought and transferred the Bow works, and
+carried on a most extensive business, taking the place in public
+estimation of the two establishments he had consolidated. The elder
+Duesbury died about the year 1788, and the subsequent proprietorship is
+not very clear. He appears, however, to have been succeeded by his son,
+who died in 1798, and the works then fell to the third Duesbury, who
+carried them on in conjunction with Michael Kean until they were
+acquired by Robert Bloor in 1815. Bloor kept them until he died in 1849,
+and then Locker & Co. held them until 1859, when they were assumed by
+Stephenson & Hancock, of which firm Mr. Hancock, the surviving partner,
+came into sole possession in 1866. The ware was called Chelsea-Derby
+from 1769 to 1773, when it received the name of Crown-Derby, a crown
+having been added to the mark after a visit of the king and queen. The
+Derby paste was very fine and translucent, and in the production of
+biscuit figures it was unrivalled. The best of the old Derby colors was
+a beautiful bright blue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 347.--Bloor-Derby Porcelain. (F. Robinson Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 348.--Old Worcester Porcelain. (Robert Hoe, Jun.,
+Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 349.--Worcester Porcelain. (G. Collamore.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 350.--Worcester Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+The Worcester works were founded in 1751, by a company headed by Dr.
+Wall. To this gentleman has been ascribed the invention of printing on
+porcelain, which we have already found in use on pottery in Liverpool in
+1753. The matter is involved in doubt, as the process was in vogue at
+Battersea about the same period, and it is improbable that it was
+simultaneously invented at three different establishments so far apart.
+However this may be, Dr. Wall availed himself of the invention, and
+handled it with great skill and precision. Steatite obtained from
+Cornwall was first used by the company in 1770, and in 1783 the Messrs.
+Flight bought up the original establishment, which had found competitors
+in the Chamberlains, who had commenced business as decorators in 1786.
+In 1788 the works were visited by King George III., who became a patron
+of Flight, and were afterward called the Royal Worcester Porcelain
+Works. One of the Flights died in 1791, and a partnership was formed by
+the survivor with Martin Barr in 1793. The concern was carried on under
+the firm of Flight & Barr until 1807, when it became Barr, Flight &
+Barr, Jun., and in 1829 another change was made to Flight, Barr & Barr.
+It retained that form until 1840, when an amalgamation was effected with
+the Chamberlains. In 1862 a joint-stock company was formed, under which
+Mr. R. W. Binns, the author of a history of Worcester potting, acted as
+superintendent of the artistic department. It is estimated that at
+present upward of four hundred workmen are employed in the Worcester
+establishment, which is made all the more interesting by reason of its
+being one of the few survivors of the old English works. Every effort
+is made to bring the porcelain to perfection, and the body and
+decoration are both very fine. The Worcester paste does not appear at
+first to have equalled that of some other English centres, but its
+yellowish tinge made it very well suited for the brilliant color
+demanded by the Oriental styles of decoration. The process of transfer
+printing is said to have been perfected by Josiah Holdship, who was
+assisted by his brother Richard in engraving the plates. Robert Hancock
+was also an engraver in the factory. Some rare specimens of transfer
+printing are found painted with colors and gold, by which means good
+imitations of Dresden were made. This success led to the adoption of the
+Dresden mark, a practice to which the Worcester manufacturers seem to
+have been too much addicted, as the marks of several of the leading
+workshops are found upon their wares. At the present time the Worcester
+factory is turning out a great deal of excellent work. The table ware,
+of which an example is given (Fig. 351), is generally tastefully and
+often brilliantly decorated. The colors in the specimen given are
+yellow, red, blue, green, and gold, very judiciously combined, and have
+a warm and rich effect. The portrait plaque (Fig. 349) is by A. Handley,
+and is executed in flat colors. The flesh-tint is especially soft and
+refined. It is a highly satisfactory example of its class.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 351.--Worcester Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+A work widely differing from either of the above is the basket vase
+(Fig. 350), with rustic handles and feet, and decorated with leafy
+branches in relief. The only color used is a pale shade of blue, which
+deepens in the interstices of the wicker-work. These examples have been
+chosen not for any exceptional qualities, but for the purpose of
+illustrating the average products of a factory which ranks among the
+first in England.
+
+The Mintons, although devoting themselves chiefly to stone-ware and
+earthen-ware, made porcelain at an early period of their history. This
+occurred in 1798, when a semi-translucent porcelain of inferior quality
+was made. The production ceased in 1811, and was taken up subsequently
+by Herbert Minton. Their _pate-sur-pate_ has been noticed under France,
+but we here give a superb specimen of their decoration in that style by
+Mr. Solon (Fig. 352).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 352. Pate-sur-pate, by Solon. (H.C. Gibson Coll.)]
+
+Another famous firm working at Stoke-upon-Trent is that of the
+Copelands. It was founded in 1780 by the first Josiah Spode, who
+established himself in the works which had been occupied by Banks &
+Turner. He appears to have been chiefly engaged in the manufacture of
+blue printed willow-ware, and imitations of the more famous works of
+Wedgwood, especially his cream and jasper wares. He died in 1797, and
+his son and namesake carried on the business, and first turned his
+attention to porcelain about the beginning of the present century. The
+body he used was of great purity, and the ware was chiefly decorated
+with gold and flowers after the fashion of his day. In this venture he
+was very successful, and devoted every energy to pushing his enterprise.
+In 1805 he achieved another triumph by what he described as "a sort of
+fine ware, called opaque porcelain," which was extensively consumed on
+the Continent, to the great detriment of the makers of French faience.
+In 1806 the honor was conferred upon him of being appointed potter to
+the Prince of Wales, and in 1827 he died, after amassing a large
+fortune. The firm consisted for some time of Josiah Spode, William
+Spode, and William Copeland, and in 1833 the concern was bought by a son
+of the latter, William Taylor Copeland. He was joined by Mr. Garrett in
+1843, and the firm consisted of Copeland and Garrett until 1847, when
+Mr. Copeland again became sole proprietor, and continued so until 1867,
+when he was joined by his sons. The works are now carried on under the
+firm of Copeland & Sons, and have attained to great dimensions, covering
+about twelve acres of ground, and giving employment to about nine
+hundred operatives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 353.--Copeland Vase. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+Mr. Abraham, art director of the Copeland works, has furnished much of
+the above information, and of that which follows regarding the wares of
+both Spode and Copeland. According to Mr. Abraham, one of Spode's most
+celebrated wares was the stone china already referred to, an opaque or
+nearly opaque compact body of a blue-gray tint resembling Oriental
+china. It was fired at a much higher temperature than earthen-ware, and
+in reproducing it at the present time it is fired in the porcelain kiln.
+It was decorated by Spode in various ways, the qualities most highly
+prized being the "old Japans" and oven blues of different shades.
+Spode's stone china and ivory bodies are exceptionally well adapted for
+treatment in which oven blue is employed.
+
+This stone china has never been entirely out of use, but for a long time
+it did not receive the attention it deserved, and has only been recently
+revived. When receiving least attention its manufacture was restricted
+to matching sets, the possessors of which were so sensible of its high
+qualities as a table ware, that they were desirous of making up
+deficiencies in their services whenever practicable. The name of
+Copeland is now well known wherever commerce has carried the ceramic
+wares of England. Some of the most artistically designed and finely
+decorated pieces found in the collections of the present time are from
+this workshop. The Copelands have rivalled the most prominent houses of
+England, we might say of Europe, both in the many-sidedness of their
+enterprise and in its results. The best artists and modellers are
+employed, and the products may be compared with any in Europe. What may
+be considered a specialty of the Copelands is the employment of royal
+blue upon porcelain, both in arbitrary designs and in landscape and
+figure painting. They have it so perfectly under control that the most
+delicate tints and the greatest depths of which the color is capable are
+produced at will, without the overflowing of the color on the one hand,
+or on the other the harshness and poverty of tone so common in works
+decorated in this blue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 354.--Copeland Parian.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 355.--Copeland Parian.]
+
+A great deal of the Copeland jewelled ware is exceedingly beautiful. We
+have chosen one specimen as being exceptional, both in its design and
+decoration (Fig. 353), and it would certainly be difficult to lavish
+upon it too much praise. The base is gilt, the body is of two shades of
+blue, and the gracefully expanding neck pale brown dotted with brown of
+a darker tint. The handles consist of golden butterflies resplendent
+with jewels. The effect is rich, but harmonious and charming, and the
+piece may be regarded as one of the most favorable illustrations of what
+the English artists of our time can accomplish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 356.--Copeland Reticulated Porcelain. (W. B.
+Dickerman Coll.)]
+
+In approaching the Copeland parian (Figs. 354 and 355), we find
+ourselves among some of the finest works in that material yet given to
+the world. An enumeration of the artists regularly or specially engaged
+in this department would include many of the highest names in the
+profession. This branch of art has developed rapidly, partly on account
+of the rivalry between manufacturers, but chiefly by reason of the
+welcome everywhere extended to the works issued. Among the subjects
+chosen by the Copelands, many, possibly the greater number, are
+ideals--such personifications as those of Music and Poetry. It could not
+be expected that all these would be of equal merit, and fault may
+occasionally be found with attitudes and proportions; but they are, as a
+whole, admirably executed.
+
+Yet another branch of art in which the Copelands have been eminently
+successful is represented by the perforated or reticulated ware of which
+the Chinese supply the types. The potting difficulties and risk in
+making this double surface ware are greater or less according to the
+intricacy and delicacy of the perforations. In the cup and saucer here
+given (Fig. 356) the manipulation and firing were exceptionally delicate
+and hazardous, far more so than in the case of the honey-comb
+perforation. Held up to the light, the inner surface appears to be as
+thin as egg-shell; and it seems a perfect marvel that, when the heat has
+softened the body, the upper surface does not sink down upon that below.
+Where plugs can be used to keep them apart, or where the perforated
+surface is strongly arched, or where the article can be placed upright,
+the danger is manifestly less than in such a piece as the saucer, with
+its pointed leaf-work bending downward rather than arching. It is also
+necessarily placed flat in the kiln. Many pieces of the same kind have
+been made by the Copelands.
+
+We have already seen that Cookworthy sold his patent to Mr. R. Champion,
+of Bristol. It appears, however, that he retained an interest in it
+after Champion started his manufactory in that city until the year 1773,
+when he relinquished his right on payment of a royalty. The Bristol
+workshop was founded a few years previously, but no natural porcelain
+was put upon the market until that date. The fact that Champion was, in
+1776, making artificial porcelain indicates that he very soon found his
+hard porcelain venture would not be remunerative. He was, according to
+one authority, associated with a company of Bristol gentlemen in his
+enterprise, and it appears to be certain that when he applied for the
+extension of his patent he did not stand alone. In 1781 or 1782 he
+resigned his right to a company of Staffordshire potters, and was
+appointed Paymaster of the Forces, under his friend Mr. Edmund Burke. He
+died in 1787, at Camden, South Carolina. The Bristol china is chiefly
+valuable by reason of its rarity. The decoration is after Continental
+and Chinese styles, and the paste is inferior.
+
+The company which purchased Champion's patent continued to make natural
+paste until 1810, first at Tunstall and afterward at Shelton. It was
+called "New Hall china." Artificial porcelain was made until 1825.
+
+When, in 1807, the Bramelds acquired the Swinton works, they conjoined
+the manufacture of Rockingham and fine pottery with porcelain of
+excellent quality. They endeavored to make a ware of the finest sort in
+both body and decoration, but fell into financial difficulties in 1826,
+and, although assisted by Earl Fitzwilliam, finally succumbed, as we
+have already seen, in 1842.
+
+Caughley is the earliest and most important of the Shropshire
+porcelains. The workshop would be deserving of remembrance were it only
+for one reason--that it was here Mr. Thomas Turner originated, in 1780,
+the willow pattern. The manufacture of porcelain at Caughley was
+inaugurated soon after the middle of the eighteenth century. Turner took
+the management about 1780, although he had been interested in the works
+for some years previously. He effected great improvements, introduced
+printing, raised the quality of the ware, and engaged the most skilful
+decorators. He also made white ware for other decorating establishments,
+especially those of Worcester. The Caughley works were, in 1799,
+amalgamated with those of Colebrookdale.
+
+A factory was founded at Nantgarrow in 1813, by Walker & Beely, or
+Billingsley, and was carried on, in conjunction with Mr. W. Young, until
+1828, when it was bought by Mr. John Rose, of Colebrookdale.
+
+The "Cambrian Pottery" of Swansea was founded in 1750, and began to make
+"opaque china" in 1790, and from 1814 to 1819 was making porcelain.
+Young and Billingsley, the Nantgarrow artists, both appear to have been
+employed at Swansea, by Mr. Dillwyn, who had bought the works in 1802.
+In 1820 they passed into the possession of Mr. Rose, of Colebrookdale.
+
+At this place, or Coalport, as it is alternatively called, the Caughley,
+Nantgarrow, and Swansea factories were thus consolidated in the hands of
+Mr. John Rose, a pupil of Turner of Caughley, and a man of great
+enterprise. He took with him the best artists of the works successively
+absorbed, and it is here that we again meet Walker and Billingsley as
+superintendents. The present proprietor is Mr. W. F. Rose. The Messrs.
+Daniell, of London, are among the leading supporters of the factory, and
+have incited Mr. Rose to some of his most successful experiments in
+color. Of these the Dubarry rose, one of the most famous and beautiful
+colors of Sevres, is probably the most important.
+
+Billingsley worked first at Derby, then successively at Pinxton,
+Mansfield, Worcester, Nantgarrow, Swansea, and Coalport. He died at the
+last mentioned place in 1828.
+
+The Pinxton factory here mentioned was established in 1795, by Mr. John
+Coke, who transferred it to Billingsley, from whom it passed to Mr.
+Cutts. It was closed in 1812.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 357.--English Porcelain. Brown, Westhead, Moore &
+Co. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+Brief mention has already been made of Tunstall and Shelton. The latter
+place is less known in America, in connection with the working of the
+Champion patent, than by the names of Ridgway and Brown, Westhead, Moore
+& Co. (Fig. 357). Job Ridgway was a Shelton potter in the latter part of
+the last century, and was, in 1814, succeeded by his sons John and
+William, who were followed by the above firm. The porcelain of both
+firms is well known in this country. With Shelton, although there are or
+have been many other factories in England, we close our sketch of that
+country.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 358.--Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+A peculiar ware from Belleek, Lough Erne, Fermanagh County, Ireland, has
+made its appearance in America within the past ten years, and has been
+received with considerable favor both here and in Canada. It is
+carefully and artistically wrought into ornamental pieces and services.
+Its chief peculiarity is an iridescent glaze of a silvery, lustrous
+appearance. In the specimen (Fig. 358) the pedestal is unglazed, and its
+dead white contrasts admirably with the lustrous flowers, base, and top.
+The ware is obtained from a combination of clays found in the
+neighborhood from which it takes its name. It is a true porcelain and
+very translucent, and in thin lustred pieces rivals the egg-shell of the
+far East. It is equally beautiful in biscuit or glazed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 359.--Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+Several original designs appear among the table services of this ware,
+which are rendered very attractive by the peculiar glaze. Exceedingly
+beautiful imitations of shells (Fig. 359) are made of Belleek ware, a
+purpose for which it is especially suited by reason of the similarity
+the glazed surface presents to the inside pearly lining of a shell (Fig.
+360). A ware somewhat similar in appearance is made in England and
+France, where an artificial metallic glaze is employed to produce the
+_madreperla_ lustre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 360.--Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)]
+
+The ceramics of England are of special interest to the American reader.
+In many of our old homes are to be found samples of English pottery and
+porcelain brought to this country long before Revolutionary times. Many
+of them are, like heirlooms, passed on from generation to generation,
+the remnants being all the more highly prized as they become fewer in
+number. A great deal of the earthen-ware and porcelain used here within
+the last century has come from the centres of which we have been
+treating. To the student of the art, also, England has an interest all
+its own. The workmen of England have, from the earliest times, shown
+that moral as well as mental capacity for coping with mechanical and
+scientific difficulties which marks the typical English character.
+Wedgwood was a remarkable instance of a man who, with materials usually
+considered of inferior quality for artistic embellishment, steadily
+aimed at producing works which should be, and actually were, the best of
+their kind. So it is with the Mintons and Doultons of our day. They
+surround themselves with the best artists they can find, and have taught
+England, which was still disposed to reserve its warmest admiration for
+works executed in the long-coveted and only recently possessed
+porcelain, to forget the medium in the art it conveys.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 361.--Tile-piece, by F. T. Vance.]
+
+
+
+
+BOOK IV.--AMERICA.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+ Antiquity of American People.--Scope of Inquiry.--PERU: Its Old
+ Inhabitants.--Course of Ceramic Art.--Doubts regarding Origin of
+ Peruvian Civilization.--Periods.--The Incas.--Pizarro.--Geological
+ Evidence of Antiquity.--Unbaked Bricks.--Pachacamac.--Its
+ Graves.--Opposite Types.--Effect of Religion.--Symbols.--Forms of
+ Pottery.--Water-Vessels.--Human Forms.--Leading Features of
+ Decoration.--Colors Employed.--Processes.--Customs Learned from
+ Pottery.--BRAZIL: Ancient Specimens.--Modern Ware.--Bricks and
+ Tiles.--Talhas.--Moringues and other Water-Vessels.--Colombia.
+
+
+The ceramics of America bring us into a field hitherto unexplored, and
+showing few footprints of the investigators who have been led to its
+borders. We are here confronted by a state of things to which we have
+hitherto been strangers. As creatures belonging to the New World we have
+been taught to look with a respect in which America has no share upon
+the aged civilizations of Egypt, Assyria, and China. Their ancient
+inhabitants were the patriarchs of the world, the pioneers of
+civilization; we are the latter-day heirs to the arts and sciences of
+which they laid the foundations. The present citizens of those lands are
+the children of aeons, we the mushroom growth of centuries. Research has
+already partially succeeded in endowing America with so much of the
+venerable as can be conferred by age. Such notions as those above
+referred to are being rapidly dissipated. We have long known that the
+hemisphere we inhabit was styled new, not because its geological
+formation is of later growth than those of the Old World, nor because
+its inhabitants are the after-math of the world's population, but
+because five hundred years ago it was new to the navigators of the East.
+We now know that, from Lake Superior to Peru and Chili we can traverse
+the sites of old settlements and find the vestiges of peoples who lived
+we cannot tell how many hundred or thousand years ago. In the history of
+ceramic art America in no way differs from Europe or Asia. We can begin
+with the sun-dried bricks of the Peruvians, or Mound-builders, and end
+with the porcelain of Greenpoint. As Europe loosed its hold upon the
+earlier arts of Greece and Rome, was dismembered, and was for centuries
+plunged in darkness by the incursions and dispersal of barbarians, and
+then, as it revived, developed a new artistic sense and greater
+strength, so America passed through a precisely similar ordeal.
+
+Two thousand years ago--possibly many more--art and civilization existed
+here, and continued to expand until Europeans came and checked their
+farther growth. America is not even singular in this, that a broad chasm
+divides the old from the new.
+
+There are thus two great periods which we shall be called upon to
+consider. There is, first, the ancient, when the aboriginal people were
+building curious and wonderful monuments of their presence, and
+modelling the quaint vessels now found in our museums. There is, then,
+the second period, limited to little more than half a century, in which
+art wears a modern guise, when the products of American potteries become
+a recognized item in the industry of the country, and the manufacture is
+substantially founded upon a broad commercial basis. Our inquiry will
+not, therefore, be entirely confined to a recent past and a present
+chiefly remarkable for the promise that it contains. We shall, in a
+hasty review, turn back across the centuries intervening between the
+present time and the advent of Europeans with Columbus, Cortez, and
+Pizarro, across the barbarism of the Indian period, across even the
+earlier times, when the Aztecs in the North, and the Peruvians under the
+Incas in the South, were cultivating their peculiar forms of
+civilization, to a more remote past occupied by those elder children of
+Time, to whose heritage these peoples appear to have succeeded.
+Afterward will come the indulgence of the characteristic tendency of the
+nineteenth-century American, who is more addicted to looking to the
+future than to the past. In the mean time, we must try to accustom
+ourselves to the fact that, for the purposes of a continuous history,
+the potters of our own time are the successors of those who deposited
+their urns in the mounds of the Mississippi valley and in the tombs of
+Peru.
+
+It will probably be both the only historically consequent and the most
+lucid method to treat the different countries from south to north. We
+begin with Peru. We need not go into the theories, mostly fanciful, by
+which an origin and genealogy are found for the ancient inhabitants of
+America. We cannot even undertake to solve the question whether the New
+World may not be the Old.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 362.--Peruvian Water-vessels.]
+
+The evidence in support of America's having been the resting-place of
+the lost tribes of Israel, of its having been visited from the Pacific
+by Malays, from the Atlantic by Phoenicians, of the truth of the old
+legend of Atlantis, a land which lay beyond the Pillars of Hercules, is
+in great part composed of inferences from assumptions. Reason would
+point to Behring Strait as the point at which the first inhabitants
+entered, but even that supposition may account for nothing more remote
+than the arrival of the Indians of North America. Or, to find a
+genealogy for the same people, we might adopt Mr. Griffis's very
+plausible theory of a Japanese descent, based upon the fact that "for
+twenty centuries past Japanese fishing-boats and junks, caught in the
+easterly gales and typhoons, have been swept into the Kuro Shiwo, and
+carried to America." It is more pertinent to our purpose to find that,
+amidst a civilization which bears a stamp of originality, ceramic art
+followed the course it had taken in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
+Similarity in forms, even in symbols, may argue nothing more than a
+mysterious identity in the workings of humanity toward artistic and
+religious expression. They cannot, without other evidence, be held to
+prove an identity of origin. This preliminary observation is made that
+we may not fall into the baseless theorizing which is the bane of
+science. External resemblances have, before this day, sadly misled
+scientists, with whom possibilities have become probabilities, and
+probabilities have unconsciously passed into assumed facts.
+
+Let us take the parallel supplied by the search for the primitive tongue
+before language became the subject-matter of a science. For centuries
+the idea was entertained that the honor of priority was to be accorded
+to the Hebrew. In the sixteenth century Goropius, of Antwerp, proved,
+beyond a peradventure, that the language of Paradise was Dutch. Erro
+advocated the claims of Basque; and about a century after Goropius had
+settled the question, it was gravely recorded in the minutes of the
+Chapter of Pampeluna, that, though it could not be asserted with
+confidence that Basque was the primitive language of mankind, yet "it
+was impossible to bring forward any reasons or rational objection to
+this proposition, that it was the only language spoken by Adam and Eve
+in Paradise." Assume the positive, and leave it to objectors to prove
+the negative! Science came afterward, and found that not fanciful verbal
+resemblances, but similarity of grammatical construction, was the test
+of radical affinity, and all the above fine theories were exploded. The
+rule will hold good with pottery. If two potters at two places far
+remote from each other, possibly as far removed in point of time, should
+produce similar forms, it would be rash at once to conclude that they
+were inspired by the same idea or followed the same model. The adoption
+of such a course would amount to a resuscitation of the extinct
+philological rule of comparing the words in different tongues to
+demonstrate relationship. We shall find a point for this caution as we
+proceed.
+
+When Peruvian civilization began we have no means of ascertaining.
+Repeated changes have swept over it. It rose and fell, and rose and fell
+again, at epochs only partly within our ken. Of the overwhelming
+antiquity claimed for it some of the facts brought together by Mr. J. D.
+Baldwin may give an idea. Montesinos, a Spaniard, who believed Peru to
+be the Ophir of Solomon, dates its ancient history from the year B.C.
+2500. His first period extends down to the first or second century of
+our era, when the ancient kingdom was broken up into fragments, and
+shorn of its earlier glory. Then came a long interval of confusion,
+strife, and internecine struggle, which ended with the advent of
+Inca-Rocca, the first of the Incas. The Incas had extended their sway
+over the old limits of Peru, when Pizarro came, in 1531, and with his
+Spanish followers swept everything back into chaos. A greedy lust for
+gold was the sole impulse of the treacherous and brutal invaders.
+Perfectly dead to every sense of honor, stained with the reddest hues of
+crime, too rapacious to withhold their hands from the commission of any
+brutality, too crassly ignorant to care for knowledge, the Spanish
+buccaneers turned Peruvian progress back in its course, and struck such
+a blow at the vitality of the country that it has never recovered.
+
+It will at once be thought that B.C. 2500 is a very remote date at which
+to begin the history of a country in the New World, but let us see what
+countenance science lends to such a chronology. Professor Orton says:
+"Geology and archaeology are combining to prove that Sorata and
+Chimborazo have looked down upon a civilization far more ancient than
+that of the Incas, and perhaps coeval with the flint flakes of Cornwall
+and the shell mounds of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are
+extensive ruins which antedate the advent of Manco Capac (the second of
+Montesinos' oldest dynasty of kings), and may be as venerable as the
+lake-dwellings of Geneva." Mr. James S. Wilson, in 1860, found "ancient,
+or fossil, pottery" on the coast of Ecuador. To help in assigning it an
+age, the fact is all-important that it was found _below_ a marine
+deposit several feet in thickness. This pottery, then, was made; the
+land was submerged at a rate almost incalculably slow; it was covered
+with a marine deposit; the land was then upheaved to its former level,
+again at a very slow rate, and seventeen years ago, the pottery came to
+light, like a fossil taken from the rocks, to tell us that at an age so
+remote that it is hard even for imagination to reach it, the Peruvians
+were accustomed to working in clay. Compared with this people the Incas
+are creatures of yesterday, and the earliest date of Montesinos is
+hardly mediaeval. The difficulty is to assign an exact, or even an
+approximate, date to the ceramic remains we possess. Many of them belong
+to an era preceding that of the Incas, but no more precise language can
+be employed in specifying their age. The conditions, moreover, are such
+that an erroneous deduction might easily be made. The great road from
+Quito to Chili, for instance, is built chiefly of stone. The same
+material was used for the inns along its course, and for many other
+buildings. This road must, at least in part, be ascribed to a period
+anterior to that of the Incas. At a later date, when the least ancient
+part of Pachacamac, the ruined city of the Incas, near Lima, was built,
+sun-dried bricks appear as the chief building material. Pachacamac was
+originally built by the natives of the coast, and among its ruins are
+those of one of their temples, composed of adobes painted red. The Inca
+Mamacuna on the same site is composed of the same material. This is a
+reversal of previous experience. We have hitherto associated unbaked
+bricks with the earliest attempts of the potter. If we argue from
+Asiatic or European usage, the most ancient Peruvians would appear as
+primitive settlers ignorant of art, which we have already seen they were
+not.
+
+The best articles of pottery have been taken from the tombs. The
+connection of moulded clay with the burial of the dead was thus
+universal. We have seen the Egyptian mummy surrounded by vases and jars,
+urns holding or covering the ashes of the ancient British dead, the
+hut-shaped urn of the Teuton, the remains of the Roman legionary
+deposited in an _olla_ covered by tiles or bricks, and the _tuguria_ of
+Etruria; and here, in Peru, is a precisely similar custom regulating the
+burial rite.
+
+At Pachacamac Mr. Squier found three strata of mummies. Most of these
+were taken from little vaults of adobes, roofed with sticks and rushes.
+In one of them he found, lying beside the dead family, the implements of
+the husband's business as fisherman, the wife's domestic articles,
+including a primitive spindle, a girl's work-box under her body, small
+contrivances of hollowed bone for cosmetics, and between her feet the
+dried body of a pet parrot. An infant's body had a rattle beside it.
+"Besides the bodies there were a number of utensils, and other articles
+in the vault; among them half a dozen earthen jars, pans, and pots of
+various sizes and ordinary form (Fig. 363). One or two were still
+incrusted with the soot of the fires over which they had been used.
+Every one contained something. One was filled with ground-nuts,
+familiar to us as peanuts; another with maize, etc., all except the
+latter in a carbonized state." Probably the nuts and maize were
+deposited for the use of the deceased in the future, and the supposition
+helps to increase the illusion that we are away from Peru, and back
+among the graves of Ancient Egypt. To this superstition, common, as we
+have seen, to nearly all peoples, we are therefore indebted, not only
+for our knowledge of Peruvian pottery, but for much of our information
+regarding the people themselves. No other place could have equalled the
+grave in safety for the preservation of the records which have been
+passed from its secrecy into our hands. The imaginary wants of a future
+state led the poor and the Inca to be laid in their respective vaults
+with the articles they had used here, and which they were supposed to
+stand in equal need of hereafter. "Every Inca," says Mr. Ewbank, "had
+his cooking utensils in his cemetery; not only his gold and silver ware,
+but, observes the native historian, 'the plates and dishes of his
+kitchen.'" The favorable conditions of soil and climate under which they
+were interred increase the difficulty of telling their age by
+examination merely. They might from their appearance have been buried
+for generations or for ages. It is, however, evident, from the character
+of the deposits and the assumed wants they anticipated--corn,
+cooking-vessels, toys, pets, fishing-lines, spindles--that the Peruvians
+shared the belief held by Christians, that here they were strangers and
+sojourners. They prepared for the next life by taking all their movables
+with them, as if merely changing their place of abode.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 363.--Pottery from Pachacamac.]
+
+The tombs being thus the great receptacles of Peruvian antiquities, what
+do we find to be the general character of the art represented in the
+pottery? The same that is found in the architecture or statuary of the
+country, viz., the greatest possible disparity in both design and
+workmanship. On one hand are creations of art, the conception of an
+artist carried out by an artist's hand; on the other are the most
+outrageous concessions to an idolatrous barbarism. In a similar manner,
+earthen-ware vessels of diametrically opposite types are found side by
+side in the same tomb. To perplex us still farther, French writers have
+advanced the theory that for a very long period art in South America
+gradually but surely declined. They state that from a primitive
+simplicity and purity of style it sank step by step into barbarism.
+
+This may or may not be true, but in any case the two sets of facts may
+be thus explained. We have seen that in Egypt religion set a limit to
+art. Practically the matter resolved itself into this, that the
+potter-artist could rise above neither the god he worshipped nor the
+sacred symbol he revered. Priestcraft is necessarily conservative.
+Change and improvement involve a departure from the old, and the ancient
+gods might be left behind and their shrines deserted, were art to rise
+above the delineation of the artistic abominations which were encased in
+sacred tradition as the symbols of deity. The image cannot change any
+more than the god. In Egypt nearly every form of life--bird, beast, and
+plant--was monopolized by its religious system and petrified into a
+traditional form. It is possible that a similar influence was at work in
+Peru. The rude forms may really have been what we have styled them,
+"concessions to an idolatrous barbarism."
+
+It is necessary in the case of Peru, as in that of China or Egypt, to
+make an attempt to discover the essentials of its religion, that we may
+understand its ceramic art. With Peru, however, we must in part work
+backward, by first constructing a system from what we find upon pottery.
+Mr. Squier gives much valuable information on this point. "To them," he
+says, referring to the sacred vessels of pottery devoted to religious
+and mortuary services, "in default of other probable or possible means
+of recording a religious symbolism, we must look for all the scanty
+illustrations we are ever likely to obtain of the religious ideas and
+conceptions of their makers." Pachacamac took its name from the chief
+divinity of the people prior to the coming of the Incas, and means, "He
+who animates the universe," "The creator of the world." The idea of a
+supreme being may thus be inferred to have been the foundation of a
+system which, like many other ancient religions, resorted to symbols,
+and thence by an easy transition assumed in popular practice the form of
+idolatry. We thus find that when the Inca Yupanqui invaded the Chimus,
+he called upon them to renounce their worship of fishes and animals, and
+turn to that of the sun. There is no reason for believing that the creed
+of the Incas was superior to that of the Chimus. It appears rather that,
+in broadly condemning that people for their worship of animals, the Inca
+mistook the use of symbols for the adoration of the animals so used. Our
+researches in Egypt and elsewhere would lead us to the conclusion that
+if the worship of animals existed anywhere, it resulted from a
+misapprehension by the ignorant of the purpose of symbolizing by living
+things the attributes of a higher power. As in Egypt, so in Peru the
+religion may be said to have been dual. On the one hand is the worship
+of a supreme power, and the personification of visible agencies in air,
+earth, and water. On the other is a lower form, an idolatry bordering
+upon fetichism. Under the higher form water is personified, and the god
+thus constructed is accompanied by befitting symbols of his domain--the
+turtle, fish, or crab; the earth is personified, and has as symbols the
+serpent and lizard; the air is also personified, and the figure carries
+in his hand a spear, as representing the thunder-bolt, his symbol. Mr.
+Squier gives an engraving of a design upon a Chimu vase, in which the
+powers of earth and sea are arrayed in combat. The latter is armed with
+the claws and shell of a crab, hence assumed to be his symbol. The
+former bears on his front a serpent's head, wields a horned serpent in
+one hand, and has two similarly horned reptiles hanging at his back:
+hence the serpent is accepted as his symbol. Probably coeval with a form
+of belief which sought such expression, was another under which images
+were resorted to, and set up as the recipients of the worship originally
+directed to a higher power. It is not impossible that the worship of a
+supreme being, and of his attributes and symbols, may have been
+coexistent among the same people. On the contrary, such actually appears
+to have been the case; and if the highest form of belief existed along
+with the lowest form of expression, it is not hard, as already pointed
+out, to find a reason for the coexistence of the highest and lowest
+forms of art.
+
+As to the French theory of a long-continued decline of Peruvian art, if
+we assume its truth, it may be explained in the light of Peruvian
+history. The supposition has reference, apparently, to the earliest
+Peruvian elevation, prior to the dismemberment of the empire. Before the
+coming of the Incas art must have suffered from the civil discord, and
+under the Incas its recovery was probably hindered by the wars which
+extended down to the Spanish conquest. After Pizarro--a second death.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 364.--Peruvian Water-jar. (Smithsonian Institution,
+5341.)]
+
+Let us now examine some of the forms of Peruvian pottery. It would be
+impossible to classify or enumerate them all. Nature and religion
+contributed decorations and forms. The beings of earth, sea, and
+air--men, fishes (Fig. 364), animals, and plants (Fig. 365)--were
+modelled in clay, and decorations were drawn from the same sources and
+from the customs of the people. The only classification of a
+comprehensive character is that into coast and inland. The former of
+these divisions comprises the greater part of the specimens now
+existing, including, of course, all from Pachacamac, Huacho, Santa, and
+Truxillo, or Chimu. The latter includes all that comes from Cuzco (Fig.
+367) and other places in the interior.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 365.--Peruvian Pottery.]
+
+Visitors to the Centennial Exhibition may remember to have seen a large
+array of vases and household utensils sent from Lima. In the collection
+of Mr. W. B. Colville were several clay idols, belonging to the period
+before the advent of the Incas. Some of these were wrapped in cloth, and
+none possessed any claims to artistic finish or design. A similar image
+was exhibited by Brown University, in the Rhode Island section. All were
+mere caricatures of the human form. Along with them, in the space
+allotted to Lima, were several hundreds of quaintly shaped water-vessels
+and bottles. In some of these were to be found those compound typical
+forms distinctively American. In others appeared forms which at once
+recalled the Egyptian. Of the latter the most remarkable were the
+double or twin bottles joined together by bands at the neck and base,
+after a fashion observed in Egypt and also in Mexico. It is unnecessary
+to conclude from this fact that Egypt had an ancient connection with
+Peru. Sometimes on one of the bottles a head was placed as a cover to
+the orifice, others had both necks plain and open.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 366.--Peruvian Drinking-vessel. Stag and Doe.]
+
+The more characteristic forms belonged to the class comprising the
+water-vessels. Of these the favorite form appeared to be what might be
+described as a pot-bellied graybeard ornamented with a rude semblance of
+the human face, hands, and feet. It was made of all sizes. Another might
+be taken as the prototype of the modern round-bodied glass water-bottle,
+or carafe. A third had the arched syphon handle characteristic of an
+entire class; and on the body, under the span of the arch, was the
+figure of an animal, too rudely modelled for us to give it a name. On a
+small proportion of those mentioned weak and undecided colors were
+applied in a primitive style of decoration, and in others the
+ornamentation consisted of lines and dots or studs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 367.--Vases from Cuzco.]
+
+The Peruvian potters bestowed a large share of their inventive talent
+upon water-vessels, and the reason is not difficult to find. According
+to its present limits, Peru extends from the third to the twenty-first
+degree south latitude. In the sixteenth century it included the entire
+territory now divided into Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Chili. The
+country in which its remains are found extended over two thousand miles
+south of the equator. In some parts of this vast territory rain
+occasionally falls, in others never. In this fact we see the necessity
+for ample means of slaking thirst. The quaint forms are largely due to
+the dread of small creeping animals finding their way into the jars or
+flagons. The latter were, therefore, made in the comparatively intricate
+shapes already described, and in others still more complex and more
+highly ornamental.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 368.--Coiled Water-vessel. Peru. (Smithsonian
+Institution, 1403.)]
+
+The largest class comprises those with the bifurcate spout, which serves
+at the same time for a handle. This is found attached to vessels of
+every conceivable form. The simplest shape is that seen in the specimen
+from the Smithsonian Institution (Fig. 368), the body of which, however,
+is somewhat peculiar, by reason of its rising from the base in a coil of
+spiral folds. Several modifications of this style are seen in the
+engraving (Fig. 369). The presence of this spout in any of its forms is
+of special interest as distinctive of pottery from the coast
+settlements. Its modifications include a vast number of interesting
+examples more or less artistic. From the single vessel with bifurcate
+spout we may pass to others in which there are two openings joined
+together by a handle. Higher than these are the vases, in which, with
+only one orifice, the body is double.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 369.--Ancient Peruvian Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 370.--Peruvian Pottery.]
+
+In one the receptacle for the water consists of a series of four
+chambers, with pointed bases arranged in a circle, and joined together
+(Fig. 370). The handle is the arch, with spout on the top. In some the
+vessel assumes the form of a fish, with a handle on the ridge of the
+back, or of an animal with semi-human face. The twin shape is
+exceedingly varied. A very fine specimen has the bottles with round,
+flattened bodies, and one of them surmounted by a diminutive human
+figure holding a cross on the right shoulder, while from the left the
+handle crosses to the tall, slightly tapering neck of the twin bottle.
+The flat sides of the bottles are decorated with studs and zigzags,
+which might be construed into serpentine forms. A bird sitting in the
+cavity of one neck sometimes takes the place of the heads already
+alluded to. In some of the double bottles the communication is through
+the handle. In others it is effected by joining the bodies together, as
+in the curious specimen (Fig. 371), in which the rudely modelled
+kneeling figure of a man eating and drinking is joined to the twin
+compartment at the back by the passage-way between the two sections.
+There are many other varieties; but the most remarkable specimens are
+those in which an attempt is made to simulate the human head and form.
+The former is carved in coarse lines covering the entire expanse of a
+heavily formed vase, the handles of which, low down on the body,
+represent the ears. Even lower than this, and parallel with the most
+primitive _bessa_ of Egypt, are other wide-mouthed jars of a type
+altogether different, designed to serve a purpose entirely distinct from
+those last considered. From these as a base we can rise to what we must
+regard as the _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of ancient American art.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 371.--Peruvian Water-vessel. (Smithsonian Inst.,
+1399.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 372.--Greek Drinking-cup.]
+
+It is curious to observe, en passant, a similarity of usage between Peru
+and Greece (Figs. 372 and 373) in selecting the human head as the model
+of a drinking-cup; but let us observe the Peruvian type. In one (Fig.
+373) the head is thrown back, and from the forehead to the crown passes
+the syphon handle. To balance this backward weight the face is thrust
+forward, and the expression is affected by the position. We see that the
+artist has made allowance for this in the lines round the mouth and the
+slightly parted lips. A faint suspicion of weakness is thus left upon
+the countenance. Taking it in profile, one almost wonders where the
+artist found a model for the large but well-formed nose and strong
+underjaw. Even finer is another head (Fig. 374), covered with a
+close-fitting cap falling in heavy flaps behind. In this the face is, we
+would say, of the best Saxon type, full of strength, vigor, and
+determination. Not a weak line can be found. With it before us, all
+wonder as to the civilization of ancient Peru is at an end. Apart
+altogether from the workmanship, there are moral qualities traceable in
+the model which convince us that with such men civilization was a
+condition of life; not a labor, but a necessity. The face wears the
+placid, self-confident, powerful expression of one born to be a ruler of
+men. That the artist has caught such a look of strength in repose may
+imply either his mastery of portraiture or his familiarity with a high
+type of manhood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 373.--Peruvian Drinking-vessel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 374.--Peruvian Water-vessel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 375.--Head of Ruminhauy.]
+
+Belonging to a lower order of the same class is that given in the
+engraving (Fig. 375), the head of a man whose whole history is written
+in indelible lines in his face. The head is that of Ruminhauy, or
+Rumminaui, a Peruvian cacique. The piece is from the collection of
+Senhor Barboza, Rio de Janeiro, and originally belonged to General
+Alvares, "the last Spanish political chief and commandant of the
+province of Cuzco." Mr. Ewbank saw it at Rio, and gives a description of
+it, and a sketch of the monster whose features are thus preserved. The
+piece is of reddish clay, modelled by hand, nine inches in height, and
+with an internal depth of six inches. Everything indicates that the
+work is a likeness. Little peculiarities, such as the want of a tooth
+and a scar on the cheek, cannot be explained upon any other hypothesis.
+The piece is comparatively recent. When, in 1531, Pizarro entered Peru
+at Tumbez, the Inca, Huayna Capac, had divided his kingdom between his
+two sons, Huascar and Atahualpa, between whom a struggle ensued for the
+sole power, and resulted in the death of Huascar. Atahualpa was
+afterward seized by Pizarro, and, under circumstances of gross treachery
+and brutality, was put to death. It was then that Ruminhauy comes upon
+the scene in the history of Garcilasso de la Vega. Scheming to succeed
+Atahualpa, he invited his brother and children to a banquet, and, after
+making them drunk, murdered them. With the skin of Atahualpa's brother
+he covered a drum, and left the scalp hanging to it. His next atrocity
+was the burying alive of a number of women, young and old. "Thus," says
+Garcilasso, as quoted by Mr. Ewbank, "did this barbarous tyrant discover
+more inhuman cruelty and relentless bowels by this murder committed on
+poor silly women, who knew nothing but how to spin and weave, than by
+his bloody treachery practised on stout soldiers and martial men. And
+what farther aggravates his crime was, that he was there present to see
+the execution of his detestable sentence, being more pleased with the
+objects of his cruelty, and his eyes more delighted with the sad and
+dismal sight of so many perishing virgins, than with any other prospect.
+* * * Thus ended these poor virgins, dying only for a little feigned
+laughter, which transported the tyrant beyond his senses. But this
+villany passed not unpunished; for, after many other outrages he had
+committed during the time of his rebellion against the Spaniards, and
+after some skirmishes with Sebastian Belalcacar (who was sent to
+suppress him), and after he had found by experience that he was neither
+able to resist the Spaniards, nor yet, by reason of his detestable
+cruelties, to live among the Indians, he was forced to retire with his
+family to the mountains of _Antis_, where he suffered the fate of other
+tyrannical usurpers, and then most miserably perished." These details,
+beside giving a ghastly kind of interest to the object engraved, enable
+us to form an opinion of the artist's ability. Aside from the
+possibility that the piece has preserved the actual features of the
+monster, it certainly gives expression to all the bad qualities with
+which the historian has clothed Ruminhauy, and contrasts strongly with
+those given above, and with that (Fig. 376) from the Smithsonian
+Institution.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 376.--Peruvian Water-vessel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 377--Peruvian Water-vessel. (Smithsonian
+Institution, 7242.)]
+
+After these individual examples a few of the leading points of Peruvian
+decoration and technique must be noticed. We have seen that in forms the
+leading tendency was toward the reproduction of the natural object.
+Mingled as the high is with the low, the ultimate aim appears to have
+been the excellence contained in similitude. In decoration we find
+designs with which old-world experience has made us more or less
+familiar. The vessels on which they appear illustrate the tendency not
+toward a purely ornamental art, but toward the artistic embellishment of
+the useful. Like all other nations, the Peruvians rose from use to
+beauty, and having devised the shape best subserving the useful object,
+they then attempted its ornamentation. In doing so they resorted to
+decoration closely allied with the European and Asiatic. Their fret is
+the same as that distinguished by the name "Grecian," although it
+originally came from Asia. Their scrolls also occasionally bear a close
+resemblance to the European. The faces already referred to are either
+incised, engraved, or laid upon the surface. Those engraved leave the
+impression of having been cut into a body made sufficiently thick to
+permit of the successful application of such a method of decoration.
+They have no appearance whatever of having been made from a mould. Of
+the same general character is the drinking-vessel (Fig. 377). The
+design, the import of which it is difficult to determine, is graved in a
+panel covering the greater part of one side of the piece. Other pieces
+have the figures similarly graved upon panels studded with dots, for the
+evident purpose of heightening the relief. On one of this class is a
+long-billed bird, and on another, which is here given (Fig. 378), the
+design consists of a nondescript animal. A singular resemblance to a
+Chinese habit is discoverable in the employment of monkey forms, either
+for handles or otherwise, where the Chinese used those of lizards. On
+one of the double-bellied bottles common to Peru, China, and Japan, we
+find two monkeys clinging to the upper sphere, as if supporting it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 378.--Peruvian Pitcher. (Smithsonian Institution.)]
+
+The chief colors employed were red, black, and brown. It appears
+probable that they were mineral colors fixed by firing, since we cannot
+otherwise account for their preservation. The Chilians are said (Hartt)
+to have baked their pottery in holes dug in the hill-sides, and to have
+applied to it a sort of varnish made of mineral earth. It is worth
+noting, however, that the Peruvians possessed vegetable dyes of which we
+have no practical knowledge. All the wonderful colors used for dyeing
+cloth, which preserved their original hue and brilliancy after ages of
+exposure or burial in the tombs, are vegetable. The lasting quality
+alone does not, therefore, compel the conclusion that the colors on
+pottery are mineral.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 379.--The Caballito, from Chimu.]
+
+The consideration of the uses of these colors, and of several other
+kinds of decoration, may be combined with that of the customs and tastes
+of the Peruvians as reflected in their clay records. Travellers reaching
+Peru from the sea tell of encountering, as they neared the shore,
+numbers of the natives paddling their _caballitos_. These quaint
+apologies for boats are merely bundles of reeds tied together, across
+which the boatman strides, and rows, Indian fashion, with a
+double-bladed paddle. The prow is turned up in front. So crazy a craft
+would seem to be among the things least calculated to inspire the potter
+with an idea. It did, however, prove suggestive (Fig. 379), and the
+_caballito_ has been found in clay on the sites of different coast
+settlements.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 380.--Trumpet. Baked Clay.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 381.--Tambourine Player.]
+
+We also learn from their ceramic decorations that the Peruvians of Chimu
+lived in buildings of a single story with slanting roof, and having a
+hole in the gable for light or ventilation. That they had a taste for
+music is placed beyond dispute by their vessels and instruments of clay
+(Fig. 380). Some of their ruder devices are very singular. Mr. Ewbank
+mentions a whistle formed in the body of a small bird of baked clay. The
+relic, he says, was very old, and the head missing. "The tone was shrill
+and clear, and was pleasantly modified by partially or wholly closing
+with the finger an opening in the breast." The water-vessels are also
+sometimes so constructed that the handle passes from the spout on one
+side to a similar projection on the other, on which is a bird or
+animal's head. The air rushing through a hole left in the latter, as the
+vessel is being filled or emptied, frequently causes a sound resembling
+that peculiar to the bird or animal. To this class of "whistling jars"
+belongs the double vessel (Fig. 371) representing a man at lunch.
+Musicians and musical instruments are painted upon vases, and, as in the
+cut (Fig. 381), the vessel itself may be a representation of a musician.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 382.--Black-ware. Peruvian. (Smithsonian Inst.,
+1701.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 383.--Peruvian Cup, found at Arequipa. (Smithsonian
+Inst., 1812.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 384.--Peruvian Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 385.--Peruvian Vessels.]
+
+The decorations hitherto observed have consisted of gravings in the
+paste, dots, and colors. The black-ware jar (Fig. 382) is a farther
+exemplification of the first of these methods. The head and the ears of
+corn which divide the surface into four sections have all been
+apparently carved in an originally thick body. By cutting it down the
+ears are left in high relief. The specimen is evidently very old. The
+vessels decorated with paintings are generally of a totally different
+artistic order, although a few, such as the cup here given (Fig. 383),
+combine painting with a rude attempt at modelling. The handle consists
+of a monkey with its forepaws, or hands, resting upon the edge of the
+cup. It was taken from a grave at Arequipa, eleven feet below the
+surface of the soil, and was brought to this country and presented to
+the Smithsonian Institution by United States Consul Eckel, Talcahuana,
+Chili. The decoration is dark brown on a creamy ground. Similar to it,
+but having the mitred head of an Inca on the handle, is the cup on the
+left of the adjoining cut (Fig. 384). The other vessels, with the
+exception possibly of the lower one, have been used as pans or boilers,
+the largest showing marks of the fire, and all being destitute of
+ornament with the exception of the painted stopper of the largest
+specimen. It thus appears the Peruvians used earthen-ware for culinary
+purposes, and several vessels of this kind are elaborately painted in
+black and red on the yellow ground. In the illustration (Fig. 385) Nos.
+1 and 3 are of this class. They were apparently designed either to be
+suspended above an open fire, or to rest in a stove-cover perforated for
+their reception. To serve the purpose of a lid hollow stoppers, like No.
+4, were used. The lower part of the vessels is undecorated. The
+flat-bottomed pitcher and bowl, Nos. 2 and 5, are especially worthy of
+attention for their decoration. The light red body of the former is
+covered with a dark chocolate ground-color, in which the design appears
+in white--a mingling of the star, circle, and chain pattern. Other
+varieties are seen in the pieces (Fig. 386) from Senhor Barboza's
+collection. On the left is a caldron, flat-bottomed and with side rings.
+The greater part of its ornamentation has been worn away. The remaining
+three pieces are supposed to have been used for carrying liquids, and
+that on the right has, besides the rings on the body, perforated ears
+immediately below the lip. The decoration of the small round-bottomed
+pichet consists of incised lines. The long-necked bottle is ornamented
+in colors, in regard to the arrangement of which the piece may be taken
+as representing a large class of vessels in which the
+decoration--consisting of squares, the larger containing the smaller--is
+arranged vertically. The art is of the same order as the geometrical
+designs and concentric circles of Phoenicia and early Greece. We find
+it again in the shallow ladles (Fig. 387), notably in that on the right,
+which was found near St. Sebastian, Cuzco, in 1820.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 386.--Peruvian Pottery. (Senhor Barboza Coll.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 387.--Peruvian Pottery. (Barboza Coll.)]
+
+On these pieces yellow is combined with the red, white, brown, and black
+we have hitherto met. A yet richer palette was brought to the decoration
+of the flat circular bottle (Fig. 388), the upper part of which is
+painted upon the red paste in black, white, green, and purple lines.
+
+As to the processes to which the Peruvians resorted, Marryat quotes a
+passage from Southey's "History of Brazil" which gives a little light.
+"The Tupinambas," he says, "were in many respects an improved race. The
+women were skilful potters. They dried their vessels in the sun, then
+inverted them, and covered them with dry bark, to which they set fire,
+and thus baked them sufficiently. Many of the American tribes carried
+this art to great perfection. There are some who bury their dead in jars
+large enough to receive them erect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 388.--Peruvian Pottery. (Barboza Coll.)]
+
+"The Tupinambas, by means of some white liquid, glazed the inside of
+their vessels so well, that it is said that the potters in France could
+not do it better. The outside was generally finished with less care.
+Those, however, in which they kept their food were frequently painted in
+scrolls and flourishes, intricately intertwisted and nicely executed,
+but after no pattern; nor could they copy what they had once produced.
+This earthen-ware was in common use; and De Lery observes that in this
+respect the savages were better furnished than those persons in his own
+country who fed from trenchers and wooden bowls." Other Indian tribes
+used water-colors after burning, and also a vegetable varnish. How far
+these customs extended we cannot define by geographical limits. It shows
+the tendency of this people, already remarked in the Peruvians, to
+making beauty subservient to use. An inside glaze in connection with a
+rough exterior is something rarely to be found elsewhere. That the
+Peruvians used moulds is almost certain. Mr. Hartt is of the opinion
+that many of their vessels were moulded in two parts and then luted
+together, and that some of the moulds were made from natural objects. He
+also suggests that the mould was sometimes made from a pattern vessel,
+and then baked.
+
+To conclude as to Peru, its ceramics may yet be more fully and
+systematically studied. At present it is instructive to remark how, on
+the assumption of its art being original and not derivative, it sought
+expression in ways so nearly identical with those of the Old World. A
+theory of chronology cannot, in the present condition of our knowledge,
+be constructed. The works passed in review evidently belong to epochs
+far apart from each other, and probably to different branches of the
+people inhabiting Peru. Some of the specimens are undoubtedly very old,
+and others, including the painted wares, cannot be ascribed to a very
+remote era. The head of Ruminhauy cannot be referred to a more distant
+date than the middle of the sixteenth century, and the modern work,
+though inferior to that we have noticed, is too closely allied to it, in
+composition and the style of decoration, for us to feel justified in
+according to much of the older painted pottery a greater age than two or
+three hundred years.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 389.--Brazilian Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 390--Brazilian Coroados Chief, in Funeral Urn.]
+
+Of modern Brazil we would expect much, if we take its ruler, the
+indefatigable and enlightened Dom Pedro, as a representative of his
+people. Our knowledge is extremely meagre. In an otherwise admirable
+section at the Centennial Exhibition, the pottery was of little
+consequence. The best works were unglazed terra-cottas, Greek in form,
+and decorated with Greek subjects. There were also some vases of red
+clay representing native Brazilian forms decorated with reliefs,
+medallions, and faces, in light-brown clay. In others the colors were
+reversed, the light brown clay forming the body and the red the
+ornaments. Some of the better specimens are now in the Smithsonian
+Institute, at Washington.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 391.--Modern Brazilian Pottery.]
+
+Of the ancient Brazilian pottery Mr. Thomas Ewbank describes a basin
+(Fig. 389) in the Rio Museum. It is made presumably by hand, as no marks
+of the wheel are observable, of a grayish yellow clay imperfectly
+burned, covered with a light and poor kind of glazing, and is overrun by
+minute cracks. It is colored inside and out with red, yellow, and brown.
+The outside was black with smoke, and suggests that the vessel may have
+been used as a pot or caldron. The decoration consists of a dark-red
+band just below the rim, and a tangled mass of lines and dots. Some of
+the tribes, and among them the Coroados of the Parahiba River, used
+earthen jars for the reception of the mummies of their chiefs (Fig.
+390). Mr. Ewbank also gives some interesting details regarding the
+making and quality of modern Brazilian pottery. On one estate which he
+visited he found a number of female slaves engaged in making bricks and
+tiles. The native Brazilian gives no encouragement to foreign trade,
+preferring the pottery of his own country as better suited to the
+domestic usages among which he lives. Water-vessels form the staple of
+the industry, entire cargoes sometimes consisting of _talhas_ and
+_moringues_, for holding water and drinking. The large centre piece in
+the illustration (Fig. 391) is a _talha_, and may be seen in almost any
+Brazilian house. It will hold from ten to fifteen gallons. The four
+vases in the engraving, two on either side of the talha, are varieties
+of the same vessel. Of the drinking-vessels the most common is that
+called the "monkey" (Fig. 392, _a_). Although it holds from a gallon and
+a half to two gallons and a half, it is used without the intervention of
+a tumbler, the smaller spout being applied to the lips. In the same
+engraving, _b_, _c_, _d_, and _e_ are table moringues, as are those at
+_i_, _i_. The decanter, _h_, is common porous earthen-ware, admirably
+suited for keeping its contents cool. The ewer and basin, _f_ and _g_,
+are highly colored earthen-ware from Bahia, and between them stands an
+Indian moringue of ingenious construction. It is filled from the bottom
+by means of the tube marked by a dotted line. The cup-like vessel at _k_
+is one of the ordinary kind of censers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 392.--Modern Brazilian Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 393.--Corrugated Ware. Colombia. (Smithsonian
+Institution, 15,352.)]
+
+To show that the Peruvians did not necessarily use mineral colors for
+their pottery, Mr. W. H. Edwards's description of the processes he found
+among the wild tribes on the Amazon may be referred to. Their colors
+were of the simplest kind: indigo blue, black from the juice of the
+mandioca, green from another plant, and red and yellow from clays. A
+small kind of palm was made into a brush to apply the pigments. The
+designs consisted of squares, circles, and rudely drawn figures. A
+resinous gum was rubbed over the vessels after they had been warmed, and
+answered all the purposes of a glaze.
+
+Before leaving the South American continent attention may be directed to
+a single specimen from Colombia. It is (Fig. 393) an unpainted bowl of
+corrugated ware, and is of importance to the present inquiry, as
+belonging, apparently, to a class of pottery of which examples have been
+found in many parts of the North American continent. These will be
+treated of hereafter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+ Connection with Peru.--Nicaragua.--Ometepec.--Modern
+ Potters.--Guatemala.--Ancient Cities.--Who Built
+ Them.--Copan.--Quirigua.--Palenque.--Mitla.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 394.--Red-ware Vase. Ometepec. (Smithsonian
+Institution, 28,914.)]
+
+Passing the Isthmus we reach the archaeological wonderland comprising
+Central America and Mexico. It is not improbable that there was an early
+connection between the ancient occupants of these regions and the South
+Americans. As they appear to us in their architectural remains, however,
+there is little beyond the grandeur common to their undertakings to
+suggest affinity. At the time of the Conquest the natives of the Isthmus
+had undoubtedly relations with Peru. It was there that Balboa and the
+more successful Pizarro first heard anything definite of that country.
+On Pizarro's second attempt to reach the rumored land of gold, he met
+one of the Peruvian _balsas_ laden with textile fabrics, silver mirrors,
+vases, and general merchandise. It is curious to find Mr. Squier
+describing the same primitive craft in the Gulf of Guayaquil, more than
+three hundred and fifty years later. These rafts could hardly have been
+used for distant voyages, but were apparently the means of carrying on a
+coast trade between Peru and the north. The inhabitants of the Isthmus
+had a tolerably intimate acquaintance with Peru, and Balboa, according
+to Mr. Baldwin, gained clear information in regard to that country from
+natives who had evidently seen it. From this it may be inferred that the
+intercourse between the two peoples was sufficiently close to account
+for any similarity between the pottery belonging to Central America and
+that of Peru.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 395.--Nicaraguan Vase. Ometepec. (Smithsonian
+Institution, 28,436.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 396.--Painted Tripod. Ometepec. (Smithsonian
+Institution, 28,479.)]
+
+Passing northward through Costa Rica, where many specimens have been
+found, we reach Nicaragua. Dr. J. F. Bransford, U. S. N., exhumed from
+the graves on Ometepec Island, in Lake Nicaragua, a number of very
+interesting relics, which are now in the Smithsonian Institution. They
+are especially worthy of study as having been discovered in different
+deposits marked by successive layers of volcanic matter. One of the
+oldest (Fig. 394) was taken from a grave below the low-water level of
+the lake. Making due allowance for the fact that the lake lies in a
+region dotted in every direction with volcanoes, the grave and its
+contents must still possess a very respectable antiquity. Generally the
+old burying-grounds occupy elevated sites. The design resembles the
+double cross, and is graved in the paste. A similar style of decoration
+appears on another vase (Fig. 395) from the same district. The red clay
+is covered with a creamy enamel, overrun with incised lines. These are
+carried round the body in two bands of three lines each, and are
+otherwise disposed over the surface without any apparent method in the
+arrangement. The colors found upon many of the Peruvian vessels, red,
+creamy buff, and black, are seen upon the tripod (Fig. 396), also from
+Ometepec. Whatever may have been the purpose for which this vessel was
+employed, its use was not confined to Ometepec. At Gueguetenango, in
+Guatemala, Mr. Stephens found one of polished ware of the same general
+design. It was taken from a vault containing bones, under a
+religious--probably a sacrificial--pyramidal structure. The specimen
+from Ometepec was found in a grave.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 397.--Burial Urns from Ometepec.]
+
+The urns of the ancient Nicaraguans are generally of one shape (Fig.
+397), and have been found containing both ashes and unburned bones.
+Terra-cotta vessels of all kinds, some of them painted, have been dug up
+both within and beyond the bounds of the cemeteries. They occasionally
+take the form of men (Fig. 398) and animals.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 398.--Terra-cotta from Ometepec--1/4 size.]
+
+The present inhabitants are skilful potters. They follow methods of
+decorating practically identical with those of the Brazilians, and such
+as they have been acquainted with for at least three centuries. The
+wheel is unknown among them. Colors and a kind of glaze are both brought
+into requisition.
+
+The old inhabitants of Guatemala have left clay idols and urns. One of
+the former, from Santa Cruz del Quiche, and here given in front and
+profile (Fig. 399), is hollow, very hard and smooth. It is said to be
+the image of Cabuahuil, one of the old deities of the country. From the
+same district come the terra-cotta heads (Fig. 400), one of which--that
+on the left--is hollow, and the other is solid. They are well polished
+and extremely hard.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+Profile of Figure.
+
+Fig. 399.--Terra-cotta Hollow Figure, from Santa Cruz del Quiche,
+Guatemala.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 400.--Terra-cotta Heads, from Santa Cruz del Quiche,
+Guatemala.]
+
+Resembling the burial urns of Ometepec is one taken from a mound at
+Gueguetenango (Fig. 401). The chief differences are the handle and a
+decoration in relief on the unpolished surface. It was accompanied by a
+vase or cup (Fig. 402) of polished ware tastefully decorated with bands
+and a graved design.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 401.--Vase found at Gueguetenango, Guatemala.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 402.--Vase found in a Mound at Gueguetenango,
+Guatemala.]
+
+Over this entire region, extending from Nicaragua to Mexico, and only
+partially explored, there are evidences of successive changes having
+taken place between the Spanish conquest and a remote antiquity. As in
+Peru, dates are purely conjectural. Epochs are marked by broad
+divisions, such as make it clear that the changes which took place were
+deeply felt. History, properly so called, gives us but little aid. We
+are told of a time when the Chichimecs inhabited the country--a rude,
+ignorant people, classed as aboriginal. The name Chichimecs is applied
+to all savage tribes. They may have been either the original inhabitants
+of the country, or wanderers from the Peruvian centre of civilization,
+from which they had been separated so long that they had relapsed into
+barbarism, or detached portions of the original settlers who travelled
+from the north to the south. In any event, civilization came to Central
+America with the Colhuas, who introduced the arts and industries, and
+left the grandest monuments to be found in that strange land. Who were
+the Colhuas? and whence did they come? No positive answer can be
+returned to these questions, and that is selected which appears most
+reasonable, viz., that they came by sea from the northern parts of South
+America. Tradition points in this direction. After the Colhuas the
+Toltecs arrived, and reduced their predecessors to subjection at a
+suppositious epoch, B.C. 1000. For some reason or other, possibly on
+account of both internal disorganization and attack from without, the
+Toltec power is said to have decayed a few centuries before the Aztecs
+appear on the scene. Several hundred years later (1519) Cortez arrived,
+and the results marking Pizarro's conquest of Peru followed in Mexico.
+That the Aztecs were a people of great intelligence cannot reasonably be
+doubted; that they equalled their Toltec or Colhuan predecessors may be
+questioned. All the evidence goes to show that they went upward from the
+South, where they had existed as a semi-civilized tribe, and that, on
+reaching the seat of the Toltecs, they subjugated them, and availed
+themselves, to the best of their ability, of all the knowledge and
+attainments with which conquest brought them in contact. The beginnings
+of Central American civilization are buried in an antiquity which even
+to the Aztecs was remote. To measure it, we must bear in mind that
+forests grow upon the ruins of cities which were as inaccessible to the
+Aztecs as they are to the modern explorer, and that the science and art
+of which they are the monuments must have required many centuries to
+develop.
+
+We have already glanced at a few of the ancient settlements on the
+Pacific slope. The remains found among the ruins of Yucatan and the
+entire sweep of country between the Sierra Madre and the Gulf and
+Caribbean Sea were also taken from the tombs. They are usually of a red
+paste, and present an endless variety of form and, if those found
+together are contemporaneous, an equally wide range of taste. Of the
+leading cities it is necessary to mention only Quirigua, Copan, and
+Palenque. Of these the first named is considered the most ancient, and
+Palenque the most modern. Copan is situated in the western part of
+Honduras, and many urns of the prevailing red color have been taken from
+the recesses of its arched tombs. At Palenque and Mitla a
+silico-alkaline glaze covers some of the specimens of gray earthen-ware.
+The shapes include grotesque images of deities and priests, and rudely
+modelled snakes and other animals. Found at places far apart, and
+presenting widely varying characteristics, these potteries admit of no
+classification, either by date or character.
+
+In Central Mexico bricks were used alternatively with stone for facing
+the gigantic pyramidal mounds which there abound. The Tlascalans, who
+aided Cortez in his war upon Montezuma, burned their bricks.
+
+At Palenque, farther to the south, the ceramic remains are of a higher
+artistic order. At the risk of invading the domain of architecture, we
+may mention the stucco or plaster figures with which the buildings were
+embellished. In other places were statuettes, one of which is described
+as "made of baked clay, very hard, and the surface smooth, as if coated
+with enamel." At Mitla we again meet with the phenomenon which we found
+so strange in Peru--the association of two entirely different orders of
+art, the most magnificent architecture and exquisite inlaid decoration
+with rude paintings of the figures of idols. The knowledge of coloring
+materials is nowhere better illustrated than in Yucatan, where red,
+yellow, blue, green, and brown appear in the wall-paintings. We find the
+pottery of Nicaragua compared with that of Mexico and Peru, but far more
+enthusiastic language was employed by the Spaniards in regard to what
+they saw. Cortez, in 1520, compared the pottery of Tlascala with the
+best of Spanish manufacture, and Herrera finds in Faenza ware the best
+parallel with that of Chulula.
+
+Should farther explorations be made of the cities buried by the forests
+which have sprung up around the ruins we have indicated, a more
+connected history of the ceramics of the entire region may be written.
+At present one is liable to be lost in conjecture, and to launch into
+speculations such as that which very plausibly attributes to Central
+America a civilization the most ancient in the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
+
+ Who were they?--Their supposed Central American Origin.--The place
+ they occupy in the present History.--Recent Discoveries.--Pottery
+ of the Lower Mississippi.--Deduction from Comparison with Peruvian.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 403.--Mound-builders' Vases, from Southern Missouri.
+Centre piece, height, 9 inches. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)]
+
+In the central part of the North American continent, along the valleys
+of the Mississippi and the Ohio, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great
+Lakes, the land was, in a very remote age, settled by a people akin to
+those of Mexico and Central America. Their name is now unknown, and to
+designate them they are, from the great mounds of earth which they have
+left, called "Mound-builders." Whence they came or whither they went is
+unknown. It is conjectured that they are the same people whom we have
+called Toltecs; that therefore they passed up from the south, and then,
+in course of ages, deserted their northern settlements on the incursion
+from the north-west of the Asiatic tribes known as North American
+Indians. It is surmised that they were then in part absorbed by the
+invaders of their lands, and that they in part sought refuge in the
+south, whence they had issued centuries before. Their long absence had
+given them all the appearance of a distinct people. The evidence in
+favor of these several surmises may be condensed into the following
+form:--
+
+That the mounds of North America were intended apparently for both
+religious and defensive purposes, and are practically identical with
+those of Central America;
+
+That their most populous settlements were in the southern part of the
+Mississippi valley, whence they passed upward until they reached and
+overspread the valley of the Ohio;
+
+That, according to old books and traditions, the Toltecs reached Central
+America from the north-east;
+
+That the reason given for the Toltecs deserting their settlements in the
+north-east, designated Huehue-Tlapalan, was the successive attacks of
+Chichimecs. We have already seen that the name Chichimecs was applied to
+all barbarians, and would in this case point to the North American
+Indians.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 404.--Mound-builders' Vase. (Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts.)]
+
+The question is an important one, since in the above view the
+Mound-builders would, as we shall hereafter see, form the link
+connecting the ancient people of South and Central America with the
+pottery-making Indians of our own time in New Mexico, Colorado, and
+Arizona.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 405.--Missouri Mound-builders' Vase. (Smithsonian
+Institution, 27,939.)]
+
+Now and again new discoveries are made which act as stimuli to fresh
+researches. A few months ago a terra-cotta tablet covered with written
+characters was reported to have been brought to light in Stoddard
+County, Missouri. It was said to bear the appearance of having been
+impressed with its undecipherable characters while the clay was still
+damp, to have then been hardened and glazed. A hint is all that is
+needed to originate speculation. We can turn to the terra-cotta tablets
+of Assyria and ask if there is no connection between them and this
+Missouri relic, and if the partially submerged continent in mid-Atlantic
+of old writers is really mythical. Such a hint was dropped at the time
+of the discovery. It might possibly be better to compare the tablet with
+some of the inscriptions of Central America. It concerns us more at
+present to find that the Mound-builders used sun-dried bricks in rearing
+their giant structures. In the Lower Mississippi and along the Gulf
+these bricks appear to have been generally employed to strengthen the
+embankments. One in Mississippi is described as having a supporting wall
+of "sun-dried brick two feet thick, filled with grass, rushes, and
+leaves." On some appears the impress of human hands. As to their
+pottery, it may be said in general terms to compare well with that of
+the South Americans. In the Peabody Museum at Harvard, an extensive
+collection has been brought together. Some of the vases are admirably
+finished, and of good design. Others are quaintly designed, but somewhat
+rudely worked, and would appear to indicate that fictile art had little
+attraction for that people. We have seen numberless specimens showing a
+partiality even in the humblest vessels for imitations of animal and
+human forms. Examples of this and other kinds are given in the preceding
+illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 406.--Mound-builders' Jar. (Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 407.--Mound-builders' Vases.]
+
+From a comparison of the pottery of the Mound-builders with that of
+South and Central America, the conclusion will be inevitably reached
+that the view already taken of the migrations of the former people is
+correct. Between the ruder works of the two peoples there is often a
+striking and close resemblance. To this class belongs a great deal of
+the pottery of the Mound-builders to be seen in collections. Among them
+we find nothing equal to the best Peruvian art; but in the details of
+decoration and the tendency of the potter toward certain typical forms,
+specimens may be discovered such as we might expect from a nation
+composed of emigrants, and far removed from the centre where the
+rudiments of their art were acquired.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+INDIAN POTTERY.
+
+ Successors of the Mound-builders.--Opinion of Professor
+ Marsh.--Pueblos descended from the Mound-builders.--Natchez and
+ Mandan Tribes.--Pueblos of Colorado, etc.--Pottery found at El
+ Moro.--Zuni.--Further Discoveries.--Immense Quantities of
+ Fragmentary Pottery.--Corrugated Pottery of Colorado.--Painted
+ Pottery.--Moquis of Tegua.--Modern Pueblos.--Trade in
+ Pottery.--Resemblances between Potteries of South, Central, and
+ North America.--Indian Pottery from Illinois.--Louisiana, and how
+ Pottery made.--New Jersey Indians.--Tennessee.--Maryland.--Other
+ Indian Tribes.
+
+
+After the Mound-builders came the Indians. A distinction must be
+observed between the real North American Indians and those tribes in New
+Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona, of whose pottery specimens belonging to
+the present day have been obtained. It is clear that whether or not the
+Mound-builders and Toltecs were the same people, the former had no
+affinity of race with the Indians. They were undoubtedly an American
+race, while the Indians were as undoubtedly Asiatic, for whom no
+ancestry can with any show of reason be traced to the Mound-builders.
+Were the resemblance between the Indians and the nomadic tribes of
+Siberia beyond Behring Strait to be set aside as proving nothing, we
+should yet have the tradition common to many tribes pointing to a
+north-western source, to fall back upon in disposing of the question of
+the origin of the red man. We may, therefore, leave him out of farther
+present consideration, and turn to the successors of the Mound-builders.
+
+Professor O. C. Marsh in a recent lecture touched upon this point, and
+at the same time hinted at a possible community of race among all the
+ancient peoples of America. "On the Columbia River," he said, "I have
+found evidence of the former existence of inhabitants much superior to
+the Indians at present there, and of which no tradition remains. Among
+many stone carvings which I saw, there were a number of heads which so
+strongly resemble those of apes that the likeness at once suggests
+itself. Whence came these sculptures, and by whom were they made?
+Another fact that has interested me very much is the strong resemblance
+between the skulls of the typical Mound-builders of the Mississippi
+valley and those of the Pueblo Indians. I had long been familiar with
+the former, and when I recently saw the latter, it required the positive
+assurance of a friend who had himself collected them in New Mexico to
+convince me that they were not from the mounds. In a large collection of
+Mound-builders' pottery, over a thousand specimens which I have recently
+examined with some care, I found many pieces of elaborate workmanship so
+nearly like the ancient water-jars from Peru, that no one could fairly
+doubt that some intercourse had taken place between the widely separated
+people that made them."
+
+According to this view the Mound-builders would have a relationship with
+the Peruvians on the one hand, and with the Pueblos on the other. When
+the Mound-builders retreated from their upper settlements, they
+maintained for some years their occupancy of territory along the lower
+Mississippi, before finally retiring toward the south. It is hardly
+possible that they disappeared _en masse_ before the invaders, or that
+those lingering behind the main body should have been utterly
+exterminated. It would be difficult in that case to account for such
+exceptional Indian tribes as the Natchez and Mandan. Both tribes were
+skilful workers in clay. The Natchez, at the time when the West was
+first opened up by Europeans, over three hundred years ago, were making
+pottery comparable with that of Europe. They found the requisite clay on
+the banks of the Mississippi, and were acquainted with the use of color.
+The Mandans employed earthen-ware in their households, almost as
+extensively as any modern people. They baked pots in such a way that
+they were as capable of resisting the action of heat as the metal
+utensils of the present day. These were hung over the fire for purposes
+of cooking and numberless other articles of earthen-ware were seen in
+their lodges. The Mandans were making pottery on the upper Missouri
+forty-five years ago, and probably continued doing so until a late date.
+
+The Pueblos of New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona present us with another
+problem, which can only be solved by one of two suppositions, either
+that they are the descendants of emigrants from Central America who
+degenerated through contact and association with Indians, or that they
+represent a remnant of the Mound-builders who sought in the west the
+security which the main body of their countrymen found in the south. We
+shall find additional reason hereafter for believing that if there was
+no extensive amalgamation of the races, the Indians at least borrowed
+some of the customs of their predecessors. If it be well understood that
+the ancient occupants of the territory extending from the mouth of the
+Mississippi northward and westward to Arizona had a common origin, and
+that their victorious barbarian successors were in certain districts
+modified by absorption, such facts as a similarity between the pottery
+of Louisiana or Illinois and Colorado need not be received with either
+hesitation or bewilderment. And, besides, the historical necessity for
+ascribing it to a specific age is thereby materially lessened.
+
+The Pueblos, or Village Indians, of New Mexico and Arizona have left
+many interesting pieces of earthen-ware, and many others of the present
+time come from the same section. There is abundant proof that this
+entire district was inhabited at a very ancient date, and the relics of
+successive degrees of civilization are found in the ruins. El Moro, in
+New Mexico, was visited by Lieutenant Simpson in 1849, and afterward by
+Lieutenant Whipple. Pottery was found painted in zones and wavy lines,
+and occasionally highly polished. Following the same parallel westward,
+Lieutenant Whipple discovered other ruins to which no age could be
+ascribed, although some were clearly more ancient than others,
+indicating that the region must have been inhabited throughout a long
+series of years. More pottery was collected, brightly colored, and
+painted after patterns resembling those noticed at El Moro. The
+paintings occasionally assumed the forms of animals and insects. Still
+farther to the west, at Zuni, and at places beyond it in the same
+direction, the examples of the ceramic work of the early inhabitants
+multiplied. Sun-dried bricks were found to have been employed in
+building, and in addition to painted pottery, an older indented kind was
+met with.
+
+An extended exploration of the same region, but somewhat farther north,
+was made in 1875, under the auspices of the United States Geological and
+Geographical Survey of the Territories. Mr. W. H. Holmes and Mr. W. H.
+Jackson subsequently presented notices of the results of their
+examinations of the ancient ruins within an area of six thousand square
+miles, chiefly in Colorado, but partially also in New Mexico, Arizona,
+and Utah. Their joint evidence regarding the immense quantities of
+fragmentary pottery seen in the course of their explorations must create
+great astonishment. In speaking of the ruins of a village in New Mexico,
+situated on the Rio de la Plata, about twenty-five miles above its
+junction with the San Juan, Mr. Holmes says, "The soil was literally
+full of fragments of painted and ornamented pottery." Near the same
+locality, and while riding through a desert-like district, he observed
+"fragments of pottery strewed around," and "on the high dry table-lands,
+on all sides, fragments of pottery were picked up." Writing of the
+Montezuma canon in Utah, Mr. Jackson says, "As the valley widened it was
+dotted in many places with mounds thickly strewed over with the
+ever-accompanying ceramic handiwork of the ancient people in whose
+footsteps we are following, and occurring so frequently and of such
+extent as to excite astonishment at the numbers this narrow valley
+supported." The same writer says, "All who have ever visited this
+region, which extends from the Rio Grande to the Colorado and southward
+to the Gila, have been impressed with the vast quantities of shattered
+pottery scattered over the whole land, sometimes where not even a ruin
+now remains, its more enduring nature enabling it to long outlive all
+other specimens of their handiwork."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 408.--Ancient Corrugated Pottery of Colorado.]
+
+The presence of such immense quantities of fragmentary pottery can
+possibly be explained upon the hypothesis that the vessels were liable
+to fracture when exposed to the fire, and that those cracking under the
+heat were thrown away when taken out of the primitive and open kiln.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 409--Fragment showing Manner of Making Corrugated
+Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 410.--Ancient Corrugated Pottery, from Utah.]
+
+The specimens obtained, both fragmentary and entire, give abundant
+opportunity for studying the processes and decoration of these old-time
+potters. As illustrating the fertility of their talent for shaping and
+ornamenting their wares, Mr. Holmes observes that on one occasion, when
+encamped in the Mancos Canon, he found, within a space of ten feet
+square, fragments of fifty-five different vessels, and adds that, "in
+shape these vessels have been so varied that few forms known to
+civilized art could not be found." The clay varies according to
+locality, in some cases being of an apparently fine quality mixed with
+sand and shells, and in others coarse and more friable. All this old
+pottery was made by hand, and fired, although no remains of kilns have
+been discovered.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 411.--Handle of Twisted Clay.]
+
+The smaller pieces, such as cups and jars, are usually covered with a
+peculiar thin, hard, and smooth glaze or enamel, and then painted. The
+larger pieces, which apparently answered the purpose of the Egyptian
+amphora, present a rough, corrugated surface, are seldom glazed and
+never painted. A specimen of the latter class, found among the _debris_
+in one of the cliff-houses of the Mancos in Colorado, is given in the
+illustration (Fig. 408). Its rough exterior is to be attributed to the
+process of making. The potter began by drawing the clay into strips, and
+then commencing at the bottom, wound the strips spirally and pressed
+each layer down upon that below it, indenting the outside with a stick
+or with his thumb. The illustration (Fig. 409) may serve to elucidate
+the method of construction. The inside is perfectly smooth, and so well
+are the strips worked together, that they show no division on fracture.
+An attempt was made at decoration or variety, by running the strips a
+few times round without indenting them and by attaching scrolls or
+spirals immediately below the neck. All the pottery of this description
+is ancient. A jar of similar construction to the above, but of a better
+shape, was found in Epsom Creek, Utah (Fig. 410). The fragment of a
+handle (Fig. 411) would appear to indicate that the ancients were
+familiar with the well-known cable pattern of modern porcelain
+manufacturers. It is made by twisting together three rolls of clay. A
+ladle (Fig. 412) and what seems to have been a pipe (Fig. 413) will tend
+to show farther the extent of the resources of the aboriginal potters of
+the west.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 412.--Pottery Ladle.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 413.--Clay Pipe.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 414.--Painted Mug.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 415.--Pitcher, from a Grave on the San Juan.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 416.--Small Jug, from Ruins on the De Chelly.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 417.--(Entire).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 418.--(Restored).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 419.--(Restored).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 420.--(Fragment).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 421.--(Extended to show Pattern).]
+
+In the specimens of their painted pottery we have the best means of
+judging their art. The painting is generally black laid upon the white
+enamel or glaze; and however the color was obtained, it was very
+durable. Although the fragments, as we have seen, have lain on the
+ground exposed to the action of the weather for at least several
+centuries, the color, in very few cases, shows any symptom of decay. In
+one piece the white ground has actually worn away, leaving the black
+decoration in relief. The designs show a vast amount of ingenuity on the
+part of the artists. They are nearly all modifications of the fret and
+scrolls. A very common style (Fig. 414) consists of a series of enclosed
+squares, the alternate borders being composed of crossed lines and
+straight lines, and having undecorated bands between. A remarkably fine
+specimen (Fig. 415), both in shape and the simplicity of its
+decoration, was taken from a grave on the banks of the San Juan, near
+the mouth of the Mancos. Its excellent form, and the throwing of the
+classical fret round the widest part of the body, bear witness to an
+artistic sentiment of considerable refinement. The artists of the time
+appear to have chiefly directed their attention to tasteful combinations
+of lines in triangular, rectangular, and other odd forms, in which the
+two latter are united or conjoined with straight bands of color. A fine
+specimen (Fig. 416) was found in a heap of rubbish at a cave ruin on the
+De Chelly. Its perfectly rotund form argues a skill in manipulating the
+clay which one can hardly conceive possible without the assistance of
+the wheel. For the purpose of farther illustrating the decorations and
+shapes, a few fragments are presented in a restored and extended form
+(Figs. 417-420). In nearly every case the decoration is on the inside of
+the vessel, sometimes covering the entire surface, but more frequently
+taking the form of a band round the lip; when it appears on the outside,
+it generally consists of a narrower band (Fig. 422). It will be observed
+that, so far, we have not met with a single attempt at decoration by
+painting animal or floral forms. Mr. W. H. Jackson says that only one
+fragment has been found exemplifying such a style (Fig. 423). It was
+found in the upper canon of the Montezuma, and has the figure painted on
+the inside. A rudely modelled frog on the outside of a fragment of a cup
+(Fig. 424) is from the same district. In this case the ornamentation is
+in relief on the outside.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 422.--Outside Decoration of Ancient Pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 423.--Fragment of Pottery, with Painting of Animal.]
+
+It would be interesting to inquire if the modern Moquis of Tegua are the
+degenerate descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the cave-dwellings
+and cliff houses of the valleys of the San Juan and its tributaries. The
+probabilities are in favor of such a supposition, just as the
+semi-civilized dwellers in modern Zuni are the descendants of the old
+Pueblos. There are evidences of decay scattered throughout the entire
+region.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 424.--Fragment of Pottery, with Frog in Relief.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 425.--Painted Water-vessel, found at Tegua.]
+
+In architecture the inhabitants of the present day are certainly
+inferior to their old-time predecessors, and in the ceramic art there is
+a similar decadence. A very peculiar and altogether exceptional piece
+(Fig. 425) was found by Mr. W. H. Jackson among the Moquis of Tegua,
+about which its possessors could give him no information. He concluded
+that it had been made at Zuni by the Pueblos, and a color of probability
+is lent to this supposition by the fact, previously noted, that the
+Pueblos of Zuni make use of insect and animal forms in decorating their
+pottery. The specimen mentioned is evidently of modern manufacture. The
+upper part is white, the lower red, and the figures are red and black.
+More nearly resembling, although far inferior to, the ancient works is a
+piece (Fig. 426) made by the Moquis of Tegua. The decoration is after
+the ancient type, but more crowded and complicated, and covers both the
+inside and the outside of the vessel. It is a fair example of the modern
+work, of which two further examples are given (Figs. 427 and 428).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 426.--Pottery of the Moquis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 427.--Modern Pottery, from Zuni. (United States
+Geological Survey.)]
+
+The modern Pueblos are exceptional both for the comparative excellence
+of their work, and by reason of the fact that they make pottery for the
+purposes of trade, as well as for their own use. This appears from
+Gregg's work, published about twenty-five years ago, entitled "Commerce
+of the Prairies." The author says: "They manufacture, according to their
+aboriginal art, both for their own consumption and for the purpose of
+traffic, a species of earthen-ware not much inferior to the coarse
+pottery of our common potters. The pots made of this material stand fire
+remarkably well, and are the universal substitutes for all the purposes
+of cookery, even among the Mexicans, for the iron castings of this
+country, which are utterly unknown there. Rude as this crockery is, it
+nevertheless evinces a great deal of skill, considering that it is made
+entirely without lathe or any kind of machinery. It is often fancifully
+painted with colored earths and the juice of a plant called _guaco_,
+which brightens by burning."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 428.--Modern Moqui Pottery, from Zuni. (United
+States Geological Survey.)]
+
+To revert for a moment to Professor Marsh's remarks, there appears to be
+abundant reason for considering a great proportion of the old pottery of
+America as belonging to one class, and that the old inhabitants were
+originally of one race. The corrugated ware which we first found in
+Colombia reappears among the Pueblo Indians, and has also been found in
+Utah. The Indians made it in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
+Georgia, Florida, and District of Columbia, having probably acquired the
+art from their predecessors. Professor Rau says it was widely known in
+North America, and Mr. Hartt shows the wide spread of the practice of
+coiling throughout South America. The latter states upon authority that
+the tribes on the Araguaya River all coil, using the hand, water, and a
+bamboo trowel. The same process is found among the tribes of the Orinoco
+section. The red and dark brown painted ware we have traced from Peru to
+Nicaragua, and thence to the Moqui settlements. The Moquis of Arizona
+make great numbers of the shallow ladles with short handles terminating
+in animals' heads, similar to those of Peru. We have seen the Brazilians
+and Moquis both using vegetable colors on pottery, and it is probably
+only our ignorance of Peruvian and Central American methods which
+hinders our tracing these processes back to antiquity. It is difficult
+upon any other hypothesis than that of a community of race to explain
+these facts. We have said that the Moquis may be descendants of
+Mound-builders seeking safety in the west. They may also have come
+directly from the south, and having passed the country lying between the
+Gulf of Mexico and the Sierra Madre, have reached the Colorado River,
+along the upper affluents of which their settlements extend.
+
+An interesting discovery was made some years ago by Mr. Charles Rau on
+the Cahokia Creek in Illinois, in the rich alluvial strip of land known
+as the "American Bottom." He there found the place where pottery had
+been made by some former inhabitants, and saw the clay-pit, and the
+heaps of shells to be ground or broken and mixed with the clay. The
+vessels were all round-bottomed, and do not appear to have differed much
+in shape from those of the San Juan Valley. The painting deserves
+particular notice. It was laid upon the outside so as to cover it, and
+sometimes on both sides, and in either black, dark brown, or a beautiful
+red, only one color being used on each article. "It is evident that the
+coloring preceded the process of baking, and the surfaces thus coated
+are smooth and shining, the paint replacing to a certain extent the
+enamel produced by glazing." Covering the entire surface with one color
+does not suggest much ingenuity, but on the pieces where incised lines
+and indentations form the decoration, there are fuller evidences of
+artistic feeling. The lines were either drawn straight round the
+vessels, or formed zigzags or figures of greater or less simplicity.
+Without insisting upon any relationship between the potters of the
+Cahokia and the Mound-builders, Mr. Rau believes the pottery he found to
+be equal to that taken from the mounds of the Mississippi valley. Some
+of the unpainted vessels were made in basket moulds, and other remains,
+such as the fragment of a toy canoe, show that modelling was practised
+to some extent. The age of this pottery is left to conjecture.
+
+The same writer quotes from Dumont, who wrote about a century and a
+quarter ago, a description of the method of making earthen-ware adopted
+by the inhabitants of the large tract of country then called Louisiana.
+The passage is here given in full: "After having amassed the proper kind
+of clay and carefully cleaned it, the Indian women take shells which
+they pound and reduce to a fine powder; they mix this powder with the
+clay, and having poured some water on the mass, they knead it with their
+hands and feet, and make it into a paste, of which they form rolls six
+or seven feet long and of a thickness suitable to their purpose. If they
+intend to fashion a plate or a vase, they take hold of one of these
+rolls by the end, and fixing here with the thumb of the left hand the
+centre of the vessel they are about to make, they turn the roll with
+astonishing quickness around this centre, describing a spiral line; now
+and then they dip their fingers into water and smooth with the right
+hand the inner and outer surface of the vase they intend to fashion,
+which would become ruffled or undulated without that manipulation. In
+this manner they make all sorts of earthen vessels, plates, dishes,
+bowls, pots, and jars, some of which hold from forty to fifty pints. The
+burning of this pottery does not cause them much trouble. Having dried
+it in the shade, they kindle a large fire, and when they have a
+sufficient quantity of embers, they clean a space in the middle, where
+they deposit their vessels and cover them with charcoal. Thus they bake
+their earthen-ware, which can now be exposed to the fire, and possesses
+as much durability as ours. Its solidity is doubtless to be attributed
+to the pulverized shells which the women mix with the clay." It will be
+observed that this is practically the same method of construction
+described by Messrs. Jackson and Holmes as existing in the San Juan
+valley.
+
+In a valuable paper upon "The Stone Age in New Jersey," by Dr. C. C.
+Abbott, of Trenton, and published in the report of the Smithsonian
+Institution for 1875, much interesting information is given of the
+Indian pottery of that State. Dr. Abbott describes a small round vase
+with flaring rim, decorated before firing with lines roughly made with a
+pointed stick. He then gives a caution which it is well to bear in mind
+when examining the pottery comprehensively styled Indian. The vase is in
+size similar to those found in western mounds, but less carefully
+ornamented. Difference in decoration is not, however, always a safe test
+to apply in order to distinguish the pottery of the Mound-builders from
+that of the Indians. "In gracefulness of outline the New Jersey vase is
+the equal of that of the Mound-builders, while we have seen a drawing of
+a large vase found in Vermont which exceeds in elaborateness of detail
+any figured by Messrs. Squier and Davis. The Mound-builders were never
+inhabitants of what is now known as New Jersey nor of the State of
+Vermont, but pottery is sometimes found in these sections the equals in
+some instances of the pottery of the west in style of decoration, while
+in all cases it is as hard and durable." A pipe, the bowl of which
+slopes outward and with the underside of the stem flattened, is also
+described by Dr. Abbott. It is made of fine yellow clay. A fragment of
+another pipe with a quadrangular bowl was made of the paste generally
+used by the Indians, a mixture of clay, mica, and shells. Some of the
+fragments of pottery are curiously marked with dots and lines. In one
+case a spear of grass had been employed to make bead-like studs in rows
+on the surface.
+
+A discovery was made a few years ago in Tennessee, by which we learn
+something of the Indian processes (Dr. J. F. Wright on "Antiquities of
+Tennessee," Smithsonian Report, 1874). It consisted of an excavation six
+or eight feet in diameter, and four or five feet deep, and was
+apparently a kiln or oven for baking pottery. Unwrought clay, charcoal,
+fragments of pottery, and pieces of bark more or less charred were found
+among the sand in the excavation. The pottery was peculiarly marked on
+the _inside_, and investigation led to the conclusion that the vessels
+had been moulded round an interior core of beech bark, the corrugations
+of which corresponded exactly with the impressions on the pottery. The
+Maryland Indians (Paper by O. N. Bryan, Smithsonian Report, 1874) are
+thought to have baked some of their pottery in nets.
+
+Many others of the Indian tribes practised the fictile art, very few, so
+far as is known, being entirely ignorant of it. Moulding in clay was
+not, however, a practice likely to commend itself or to offer any
+attractions to the nomadic red man, and it fell into desuetude, whenever
+the introduction of metal utensils rendered its continued pursuit not
+absolutely necessary. Some of the tribes which followed the buffalo
+possibly never engaged in it, but left the practice to their
+corn-raising brethren (Dr. W. E. Doyle on "Indian Forts and Dwellings,"
+Smithsonian Report, 1876). The exceptional tribes of New Mexico and
+Arizona, which cannot, as already pointed out, be identified with the
+North American Indians, are chief among the few which still continue to
+make pottery. We have seen that they adhere in a great measure to the
+ancient shapes and primitive decorative patterns. The fact of chief
+importance in connection with the old potters of the West and the
+processes to which they resorted is their employment of a glaze. It is
+considered by Dr. Emil Bessels as the most striking peculiarity of the
+pottery found near the ruins. It is regular, very hard, sometimes opaque
+and whitish, at others transparent and tinged with blue. Neither this
+glaze nor the colors have been accurately analyzed, but of the latter
+the reddish-brown and brown are undoubtedly mineral, derived from iron
+and manganese. The black was probably an organic substance, such as
+charcoal made into a pigment by being mixed with fine clay.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+UNITED STATES.
+
+ The Future of America.--Obstacles in the Way of
+ Progress.--Commercial Conditions Illustrated by Tariff.--Expense of
+ Artistic Work.--Lack of Public Support.--American
+ Marks.--Misrepresentation of American Wares.--Materials.--Early Use
+ in England by Wedgwood, etc.--Cookworthy and a Virginian.--Native
+ Use of Clay.--New Jersey.--Value of Clay Deposit
+ Illustrated.--American Kaolin.--Vague Use of
+ Word.--Analysis.--Opinions of American Deposits.
+
+
+We now approach the potters and artists of the present day. That there
+is a brilliant future in store for the ceramic art of America may be
+inferred from the rapidity with which it has been pushed forward to the
+stage it has already reached. With a limitless wealth of material at his
+command, and gifted with enterprise, originality, and taste, the
+American artist can look confidently forward to taking his place beside
+the best the world has produced.
+
+And here it may be profitable to consider some of the obstacles in his
+way. The first of these is commercial. With a high protective tariff the
+home manufacturer is barely enabled to compete with the foreign producer
+in plain domestic wares. The import duty does not cover the greater
+expense of working in this country. Statistics show that in the items of
+labor and material the American manufacturer, as compared with the
+European, labors under a disadvantage of about one hundred per cent. In
+works of art this disadvantage is vastly increased. The makers of the
+tariff draw a distinction of only ten per cent. between white granite
+and decorated porcelain, or, in other words, they give the makers of
+artistic porcelain protection greater by twenty-five per cent. than that
+accorded the makers of granite. A distinction to the extent of five per
+cent. is drawn in the tariff between undecorated and decorated porcelain
+and parian. Art work, therefore, is benefited to the extent of one-ninth
+more than plain goods of the same material. It need not be pointed out
+that art is thus protected less than workmanship, since the
+proportionate cost of artistic work, as compared with skilled and
+unskilled labor, is far greater here than in Europe. As a consequence,
+there is little to induce manufacturers to turn to art unless some
+profit can be drawn from the reputation which it brings. It is not
+intended to discuss here the question of protection _versus_ free trade.
+The tariff is merely brought forward to illustrate the difficulty of
+rearing up something worthy of being called an American art. To
+demonstrate this by example, here (Fig. 429) is a porcelain plate made
+at Greenpoint on a challenge. It is a copy of a plate now in the
+possession of Mr. George Such, of South Amboy, by whom it was purchased
+at the sale of the effects of Louis Philippe. The original is from
+Sevres, and is decorated chiefly in gold. The Greenpoint copy was made
+in order to test the question whether it were altogether unreasonable to
+entertain the hope that American decoration might not--at some future
+day, of course--equal that of Sevres. Those who saw both had some
+difficulty in distinguishing the original from the copy, and in some
+instances could not do so without examining the ware as well as the
+decoration. The copy is a remarkably fine specimen of decorative art,
+and would lead us to entertain great expectations regarding the work of
+the artist when his skill is devoted to original designs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 429.--Greenpoint Porcelain. Sevres Decoration.]
+
+The challenge made was, therefore, fully answered. Should it be asked
+why, under these circumstances, similar work should not be done
+regularly, the answer is simple. The existing state of the market, in so
+far as the demand for American artistic work is concerned, is such that
+prices will barely bring back the actual cost of production. Toward
+lessening that cost the efforts of manufacturers must be directed; and
+in connection with this subject a remark may be quoted, made by
+President T. C. Smith at the Convention of the Potters' Association:
+"Foreign clays can be put down in New York tide-water cheaper than you
+can buy Pennsylvania clays, by about fifteen per cent."
+
+The great expense attending the production of works of art is not,
+however, the only drawback with which the American manufacturer has to
+contend. It may, in fact, be said that the impediments to the rapid
+advancement of ceramic art in America have not yet been touched upon.
+They consist of neither the lack of capital, enterprise, experience, nor
+skill.
+
+It is a singular fact that while native manufacture advances with rapid
+strides, and finds on all sides a public ready to give it a hearty
+reception, native art must force its way to recognition. Its first
+honors must be won abroad. It must bear a foreign stamp to be accepted
+at all in the home of its birth. The cause of this is not far to find.
+The American market is a good market, and is so regarded by the world at
+large. Foreign artists send their works to it, and are sure of a
+welcome. Competition by a native superior is thereby made difficult; by
+an equal almost impossible; by an inferior, an absurdity. The foreign
+competitor comes branded as a genius, and home critics hesitate about
+issuing a verdict in favor of a countryman. They appear to have a lack
+of confidence in their own judgment, and would rather endorse or modify
+another's opinion, than take the responsibility of issuing an
+independent one of their own. Patrons suffer from a similar diffidence.
+On the one hand they see certainty, on the other uncertainty. On this
+side is the work of one who has won the praise of all Europe; on the
+other, nothing but that of one who makes a direct appeal to their own
+discrimination.
+
+Under such conditions it is difficult for an art to struggle into
+existence. French art is to a Frenchman the finest and best the world
+ever saw. Englishmen support English art because it is their own. They
+are satisfied with it, if all the universe should wonder what it is they
+nurse and cherish. It is good to them, and that is enough. If their own
+opinion should change, it will then have become a curiosity, and
+therefore doubly worthy of their care. American art may be good, even
+equal to the best, but unfortunately it is American. Receiving no
+notice, the artist loses even the benefit of criticism, and concludes
+that his own people compliment themselves by believing that no work of
+art can be produced among them.
+
+This may appear overdrawn, but the facts are eloquent. It has been said
+that, as a rule, Americans take a pride in their own manufactures. That
+of pottery is an exception. Almost anywhere granite-ware can be seen
+bearing as a mark the royal arms of England, with the motto in full--in
+this case very appropriately--_honi soit qui mal y pense_. It is a
+curious mark for an American potter, or at first sight seems so. The
+ware may have been made at Trenton, or anywhere else in America, and the
+explanation is simple. The dealers will not buy it without that mark,
+and first suggested its use as they would order a certain style of
+decoration. Inquiry among the dealers brings out the whole truth. Their
+customers look for the English mark, and finding it, are satisfied.
+After this we need not inquire if the English granite-ware is superior
+to the American. There is no question of superiority or inferiority, but
+only one of the potency of a name.
+
+Again, in the matter of porcelain, that made and decorated in this
+country is sold every day for French, German, or English. It is, in
+fact, "all things unto all men," according to the requirements of the
+purchaser and the ingenuity of the dealer. In some cases it is bought
+plain, and decorated, after it leaves the factory, in the various
+foreign styles. No objection is ever made to its appearance, its finish,
+purity, durability, or decoration, only it has the misfortune to be
+American, and its parentage must be concealed at all hazards, and even
+in spite of the manufacturer's mark. Here, again, there is no question
+of quality, but only one of the effect of a name.
+
+To discuss the objectionable part of misrepresentation is away from the
+present purpose, and the deduction from these facts is the only thing
+now requiring to be made. They argue that upon their merits there are
+wares produced in America which, if made anywhere else, would cope with
+the corresponding qualities now imported.
+
+For artistic works the struggle is still harder. In their case the test
+is not practical, but critical. They demand taste, and not use, to be
+appreciated; and, as a consequence, very rarely receive the recognition
+to which they are entitled. Art grows slowly, and, especially in a
+country so largely interested in commerce as America, is long in
+reaching its maturity. Looking at it aright, there is all the more
+reason why, when it makes its appearance, it should be received with
+warmth and treated with deferential respect, in order that its growth
+may be hastened and not retarded. America is, in this respect, an
+exception to the nations of the earth. The question may be looked at
+from various points of view. The patriotic course would certainly be to
+encourage, and not by neglect to stifle, a budding art. If the art be
+poor, it stands in all the greater need of encouragement, in order that,
+for America's sake, it may rise to an equality with that of other
+countries.
+
+In France, Germany, Prussia, Russia, Italy, China, and England, the
+ceramic art received the support of governments and wealthy patrons, and
+the result has been recorded. In America such support is neither given
+nor required. What is chiefly needed is appreciation. In the Republic
+the people are the rulers and patrons. In their hands are both power and
+wealth, to be used in the rearing of art, surely with as much
+discrimination and judgment as in the monarchies of Europe and the
+Orient. We might say from another stand-point that the earliest works in
+any branch of the arts are those of the highest value in the future.
+They reveal to the historian the foundations of the eminence from which
+he views the past, and that eminence America will undoubtedly attain.
+The skill now being developed, and the taste now being cultivated, are
+the legacy of the present generation to the next, and future attainments
+will be but the interest of present struggle and endeavor.
+
+These considerations, however, are, in a certain sense, extraneous. The
+American artist and artist-manufacturer demand no exceptionally
+favorable position, nor that their works shall be viewed in any other
+than a fairly critical and commercial light. Prejudice in art is the end
+of criticism; prejudice in commerce is suicidal.
+
+The materials for making every kind of ware are found in different parts
+of the country, and the industry is for that reason well distributed. As
+early as 1766 American clays were imported into England, captains on
+their return voyages often taking samples from the Carolinas, Georgia,
+and Florida. Many of these reached Wedgwood, who, in allusion to one of
+them, says, "It will require some peculiar management to avoid the
+difficulties attending the use of it." He elsewhere avows his
+willingness to make all necessary experiments with American clays. These
+trials turned out well, as we find him making arrangements for a
+regular supply from Ayor, in the country of the Cherokees, about three
+hundred miles from Charleston. He desired a monopoly by patent or
+parliamentary grant, but ultimately sent out an agent, of whom we learn
+nothing more, except that he began his journey to the Cherokee deposit.
+In October, 1768, a cargo of Carolina clay reached Liverpool, and the
+trade became general both in the Cherokee and Pensacola clays, Wedgwood
+apparently giving the preference to the latter. What use he made of it
+is not precisely stated. More interesting is the fact that America
+contributed to Cookworthy's invention of natural porcelain in England in
+1760. It is said that an American showed Cookworthy, in 1745, specimens
+of both kaolin and petuntse found in Virginia, and samples of the ware
+made from them. Cookworthy's own account of it is slightly different,
+inasmuch as lie only mentions having seen specimens of the manufactured
+china. He says: "I had lately with me the person who has discovered the
+china earth. He had with him several samples of the china ware, which I
+think were equal to the Asiatic. It was found on the back of Virginia,
+where he was in the quest of mines; and having read Du Halde, he
+discovered both the petuntse and the kaolin. It is this latter earth
+which he says is essential to the success of the manufacture. He is gone
+for a cargo of it, having bought from the Indians the whole country
+where it rises." Mr. Cookworthy was not favorably impressed by the
+gentleman from Virginia, of whom no more is heard. Nor does it appear
+that he returned to England with the cargo, which he thought he could
+land there at about sixty-five dollars per ton. There is one purely
+American feature of the story, and that is the purchase from the Indians
+of "the whole country where it rises."
+
+The final practical effect of Mr. Cookworthy's association with this
+American was the foundation of the English porcelain industry. The
+acknowledgment is thus made in the catalogue of the Museum of Practical
+Geology: "The great advance of the porcelain manufacture in England is
+due to the discovery of the kaolin of Cornwall by William Cookworthy, of
+Plymouth, about 1755. He apparently had his attention directed to the
+subject by an American, who showed him samples of china-stone and kaolin
+from Virginia, in 1745." One hundred and thirty-two years later, the
+country from which the suggestion came is importing kaolin from that
+which received and acted upon it.
+
+New Jersey is the only State of the clay deposits of which we know much
+historically or have any precise information. The facts here presented
+are gleaned from a report issued by the State Geological Survey, and
+will give an idea of the value of our native clays. It is stated, on the
+authority of Mr. Samuel Dally, of Woodbridge, that the clay there was
+known to the soldiers before and during the Revolution, and that, when
+stationed at Perth Amboy, they called it _fuller's-earth_, and used it
+for cleaning their buckskin breeches. In 1800 the South Amboy clay was
+dug for making stone-ware, and after 1812 the use of New Jersey clays
+for fire-bricks and other refractory materials began. Soon after 1816,
+Mr. Price was shipping fire-clay from Woodbridge to Boston, to be used
+in making fire-bricks. About 1820, Mr. Jacob Felt, of Boston, bought
+fifty tons of Woodbridge clay from Jeremiah Dally, at twenty-five cents
+per ton, and so started a regular trade, which was maintained for many
+years. The Woodbridge deposit is very rich, and is now extensively
+worked, the clay being suitable for different purposes. It can be used
+as fire and pipe clay, or for white-ware, and also meets the
+requirements of paper-makers. In 1835 the same clay was in use by Howell
+& Bros., Philadelphia, for satining wall-paper. Gordon, in his Gazetteer
+(1833), speaks of a discovery of extensive beds of white pipe-clay
+between Woodbridge and Amboy; but even in 1840 its extent and uses were
+not fully known. Coming down to 1855, we find clay for fifty millions of
+fire-bricks being taken from the pits at Woodbridge, Perth Amboy, and
+South Amboy; 2000 tons for the paper-makers; 2000 tons for making alum,
+and a large quantity for fine pottery. In 1868 the aggregate production
+had doubled. In 1874 265,000 tons of fire-clay were dug, and brought, at
+an estimated average price of $3 50 per ton, $927,000; 20,000 tons of
+South Amboy stone-ware clay, at $4 per ton, brought $80,000. These
+figures are sufficient for the formation of an opinion of the worth of a
+good clay deposit.
+
+With regard to the materials to be obtained in this country, it may be
+premised that, from a vague use of words having an otherwise definite
+meaning, it has been difficult to obtain satisfactory information upon
+some of the most interesting points. The following extract is taken
+from a report upon the pottery industry, by the secretary of the United
+States Pottery Association to the Industrial Directory for 1876: "The
+clay, or kaolin, mines of the United States have been wonderfully
+developed the past few years. Rich and inexhaustible beds of fine kaolin
+are now being worked in the following States: Delaware--three extensive
+deposits; Pennsylvania--three very fine mines are worked, and the whole
+of Chester County abounds with as fine a deposit as England can boast;
+Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana can boast of rich deposits also now
+being worked; New Jersey abounds in ball-clay, common white-ware clay,
+and all kinds of fire and retort clays; while Maine, Connecticut, and
+Maryland furnish felspar in abundance, and Pennsylvania and Maryland
+endless quantities of quartz or silica. Every section of the country,
+from the Rocky Mountains to the State of Maine, has raw material in
+great variety, as yet unimproved." In view of these statements, it may
+appear singular that the Union Porcelain Works at Greenpoint are
+consuming large quantities of imported kaolin. To explain this, we must
+believe the word kaolin in the above extract to be applied to the native
+clay as found, and before it is freed from any impurity. This belief is
+supported by M. Ch. de Bussy, one of the French members of the
+International Jury at the Centennial Exhibition. In his report he says:
+"Les matieres premieres pour la poterie sont abondantes aux Etats-Unis.
+Des depots de kaolin sont exploites dans un grand nombre d'Etats,
+principalement dans ceux de New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania,
+Illinois, Georgia. Plusieurs des matieres designees sous le nom de
+_kaolin_ ne sont pas toutefois le produit de la decomposition du
+feldspath _in situ_; ce ne sont a proprement parler, que des argiles
+blanches qui ne peuvent servir a la fabrication de la porcelaine que par
+leur association a du feldspath et du quartz." He then goes on to say
+that the kaolin is not prepared with sufficient care, and that for that
+reason the Greenpoint factory uses for its table porcelain a great deal
+of English kaolin.
+
+Another reason is that the English clay can always be depended upon, and
+that the native, for lack of proper preparation, cannot. The general
+conclusions of M. Ch. de Bussy are confirmed by investigations made
+here. The above mentioned report by the Geological Survey, embracing all
+or the greater number of the clays of the State of New Jersey, gives
+much valuable information, and farther substantiates our view. The
+following table has been compiled from the data there given, for the
+purpose of comparing the imported kaolin with the New Jersey clays, and
+thus arriving at the truth upon this point:
+
+ +------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+------+--------+-------+
+ | |Cornwall,|Cornwall.|Standard| Redruth,|Perth | Staten |Washing|
+ | | England.| | Kaolin.|Cornwall.|Amboy.| Island.| -ton. |
+ +------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+------+--------+-------+
+ |Silica | 46.32| 46.29| 46.00| 28.40| 77.10| 92.70| 99.40|
+ |Alumina | 39.74| | 40.00| 24.11| 17.10| 5.70| 7.80|
+ |Water | 12.67| | 13.00| 7.90| 4.50| 0.70| 2.60|
+ |Potash | | | | 0.96| 1.30| 0.35| |
+ |Line | 0.36| 0.50| 0.33| | | | |
+ |Magnesia | | | 0.33| | | | |
+ |Iron | 0.27| 0.27| 0.33| 0.79| | | |
+ |Titanic Acid| | | | 0.20| | | |
+ |Sand | | | | 37.80| | | |
+ | | | | | | | | |
+ +------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+------+--------+-------+
+ | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
+ +------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+------+--------+-------+
+
+ No. 4.--This clay is used with others to give toughness to vessels
+ to be exposed to sudden changes of temperature.
+
+ Nos. 5, 6, and 7.--In these the silica and sand are added together,
+ and the alumina includes the iron.
+
+In the selected clays of New Jersey the great preponderance of silica at
+once attracts attention, and is to be attributed to the admixture of
+sand, which averages about seventy-five per cent. of the mass. Whenever
+the silica is present in a greater amount than the standard percentage
+given in the table, and particularly when it appears in the form of
+sand, the clay becomes less fit for making fine ware. The body is
+proportionately coarser. The Jersey clay, therefore, although locally
+dignified with the name of kaolin, cannot be used by the manufacturer of
+porcelain.
+
+The deposit has been made under less favorable circumstances than that
+of south-western England. There nature has to a great extent performed
+the washing process, by carrying the decomposed felspar along a valley
+and dropping the impurities and coarser ingredients by the way. The
+artificial process is simply the counterpart of that of nature. In New
+Jersey the clay and quartz-sand are in some places deposited together,
+and are then miscalled _felspar_; in others they have been partially
+assorted, the fine particles being deposited in one bed, the quartz-sand
+in another. An analysis of three specimens of this "felspar" shows the
+following ingredients, the decrease of sand and increase of alumina
+being especially noteworthy:
+
+ Silicic Acid and Quartz-sand...... 75.88 74.00 77.40
+ Alumina........................... 18.95 17.55 16.07
+ Water............................. 4.90 6.30 4.30
+ Iron.............................. 0.49 0.54 0.53
+ Magnesia.......................... ..... ..... 0.25
+ Potash............................ 0.15 0.12 0.15
+ Soda.............................. 0.21 0.21 .....
+ Titanic Acid...................... ..... 0.90 .....
+ ______ _____ _____
+ 100.58 99.62 98.70
+
+These tables will explain the language of the report, that the New
+Jersey "kaolins" are "simply mica-bearing sands," and that the felspar
+"is more properly a kaolin." "The so-called kaolin is a micaceous sand,
+consisting of fine-grained white quartz-sand, mixed with a small and
+varying percentage of white mica, in small flakes or scales, and a very
+little white clay." In other words, there is no New Jersey clay entitled
+to the distinctive name of kaolin, and the inveterate misapplication of
+the word illustrates the difficulty to be encountered by the inquirer
+into this matter. M. de Bussy, for example, in the passage quoted, falls
+very naturally into the error of classing New Jersey with the "large
+number of States in which deposits of kaolin are found." His mistake,
+and the confusion of terms which led to it, makes it all the more
+desirable that something definite should be known of the deposits in
+other States.
+
+As to the deposits of Pennsylvania and the West, there appears to be
+considerable difference of opinion, but the existence of clay for making
+every kind of ware, from drain-pipes to porcelain vases, is beyond all
+doubt. A partial analysis of Georgia kaolin showed that in the leading
+ingredients of silica and alumina it approached very nearly the standard
+given in the table. The whole question appears to be one of analysis,
+preparation, and experiment, so that when the manufacturers buy clay for
+a special purpose, they can depend absolutely upon what they obtain.
+
+Mr. T. C. Smith, of Greenpoint, is so confident of the richness of this
+country, that he believes kaolin of the best quality exists in
+abundance, and that it will in course of time be an article of export.
+
+At the Centennial Exhibition, Mr. Laughlin, of East Liverpool, Ohio,
+appeared as one of the representatives of Western enterprise. He thinks
+the varieties of clay in America outnumber those of all the rest of the
+world. At East Liverpool all the varieties are used. A new clay found in
+Missouri, and expected to be very valuable, has recently been added to
+the list. It gives the paste a peculiar softness of color, and lends
+additional beauty to the manufactured ware. Mr. Laughlin said nothing of
+exporting clays, but thought it highly probable that European capital
+would be brought into this country to work the inexhaustible materials
+which it contains for every kind of ware. What are wanted to render
+these kaolinic treasures available are the enterprise, skill, and
+capital to prepare and compound them. It is, at least, suggested that
+this is the greater part of the difficulty, and that if the peculiar
+qualities of each deposit were more precisely known, if the crude
+material were skilfully cleaned, and experiments were systematically
+conducted for the purpose of discovering the combinations necessary for
+making a true and regular porcelain clay, there would be no necessity
+for going away from home for any ingredient of the requisite porcelain
+paste. This supposition is borne out by the fact that a few years ago a
+number of American potters attempted to make porcelain with kaolin
+brought from the South, and in every instance failed. Others have since
+met with success more or less complete. Boettcher did not succeed on his
+first attempt, and, in fact, it was not until several years after his
+death that the best Dresden ware was made. In a similar manner,
+experiment alone can enable American potters to avail themselves of the
+undoubted wealth of their own country. Meantime, it is noteworthy that
+the deposits of all kinds now being worked are of sufficient value to
+maintain a number of mills for levigating, drying, and grinding. Several
+are on the Susquehanna, in Maryland; at East Liverpool, Ohio; at Fort
+Ann, New York; on the Connecticut River; and at Trenton, New Jersey.
+
+
+POTTERY.
+
+ Dependence upon England.--Wedgwood's Fears of American
+ Competition.--Norwich.--Hartford.--Stonington.--Norwalk.--Herbertsville.
+ --Sayreville.--South Amboy.--Philadelphia.--Baltimore.--Jersey City.
+ --Bennington.--New York City Pottery.--Trenton.--Present Extent of
+ Industry.--Trenton Ivory Porcelain.--Terra-cotta.--Beverly.--Chelsea.
+ --Portland.--Cambridge.
+
+The few known incidents in the development of the art may be stated as
+nearly as possible in chronological order; and, to keep the thread of
+the narrative unbroken, reference may at the same time be made to the
+early and unsuccessful attempts at establishing the manufacture of
+porcelain in conjunction with that of pottery. During the eighteenth
+century the records open to our inspection, especially the journals of
+the day, make occasional references to imported wares, chiefly of
+English manufacture. Mr. Marryat, in treating of English pottery, refers
+to the popular indifference in England to the advantages of crockery
+over pewter dishes and wooden trenchers. He then says, "The introduction
+of stone-ware in the sixteenth century, and of Oriental porcelain in its
+imitation delft-ware shortly afterward, and, lastly, the Staffordshire
+earthen-ware, gradually expelled pewter dishes and plates, though it is
+but recently they have been entirely dismissed." Popular usage in
+America followed a parallel course, and there are many places at which
+the substitution of crockery for wood and metal was made within the
+memory of persons now living. Mr. J. F. Watson, in his "Annals of
+Philadelphia," describing the furniture of a room of presumably about a
+century ago, gives some interesting particulars in regard to this
+subject. "One corner," he says, "was occupied by a beaufet, which was a
+corner closet with a glass door, in which all the china of the family
+and the plate were intended to be displayed for ornament as well as use.
+A conspicuous article in the collection was always a great china
+punch-bowl, which furnished a frequent and grateful beverage; for wine
+drinking was then much less in vogue. China teacups and saucers were
+about half their present size; and china teapots and coffee-pots with
+silver nozzles were a mark of superior finery. The sham of plated ware
+was not then known, and all who showed a silver service had the massive
+metal too. This occurred in the wealthy families, in little coffee and
+tea pots; and a silver tankard for good sugared toddy was above vulgar
+entertainment. Where we now use earthen-ware, they then used delft-ware,
+imported from England; and instead of queen's-ware (then unknown) pewter
+plates and porringers, made to shine along a dresser, were universal.
+Some, and especially the country people, ate their meals from wooden
+trenchers." This passage may be taken as affording a faithful view of
+American usage in regard to the different points upon which it touches,
+not in Pennsylvania alone, of which Mr. Watson is more particularly
+treating, but throughout the country. China was still an article of
+luxury, in which only the rich could indulge. We are, therefore,
+prepared to find that it was not until the close of the last century,
+and after the Revolutionary troubles, that crockery assumed any
+importance as an article of commerce between England and the United
+States. For a long time prior to that period it is reasonable to suppose
+that America had been able to satisfy the home demand for all the
+coarser wares, and also for bricks; but at the close of the eighteenth
+century the manufacture had made little or no progress. It had not
+advanced beyond the production of bricks, tiles, and certain kinds of
+coarse stone-ware and pottery. It is, to say the least, amusing to find
+Wedgwood, in 1765, expressing fears for England's earthen-ware trade
+with America, on account of the establishment of some "new Pottworks in
+South Carolina." "They have," he said, "every material there, equal if
+not superior to our own, for carrying on that manufacture;" and on these
+and other grounds he asked if something could not be done to protect the
+home manufacture!
+
+Miss Meteyard, Wedgwood's biographer, relates that in 1766 a Mr.
+Bartlem, a Staffordshire potter, emigrated to South Carolina, and having
+induced several workmen to join him, began his trade in that State. He
+failed there, as he had done in England, and a similar fate befell an
+enterprise which had for its object the establishment of china works in
+Pennsylvania.
+
+Previous to 1796 both earthen and stone ware were made by Mr. Charles
+Lathrop at Norwich, Connecticut; and in 1789 Mr. Samuel Dennis made an
+unsuccessful application for State aid in founding a stone pottery in
+Connecticut, at which he promised to make ware resembling the
+Staffordshire queen's-ware. The industry was also pursued at Hartford by
+Isaac Hanford, at Stonington by Adam States, and at Norwalk. Shortly
+afterward, or in the first decade of the present century, ware of an
+apparently higher class began to be made in the Eastern States, and
+although large quantities continued to be imported from England, the
+native wares rapidly improved in quality and increased in quantity.
+
+About the year 1800, Van Wickle's stone-ware factory was in operation at
+Old Bridge, now Herbertsville, New Jersey. The clay used was obtained
+from Morgan's Bank at South Amboy. Two years later a similar factory,
+using the same material, was started by the Prices at Roundabout, now
+Sayreville, on the Raritan. In 1833 J. R. Watson, of Perth Amboy,
+established a factory of fire-brick, and was working it regularly three
+years later.
+
+The workshop now carried on by Mr. Richard C. Ramey at Philadelphia is
+one of the oldest stone-ware factories in America. It turns out a good
+quality of fire-brick and ware for chemical purposes. A few other
+Philadelphia firms may here be noticed. Harvey & Adamson make a strong
+and durable quality of stone-ware, with a hard vitreous glaze (_gres
+cerames_), and artistic terra-cotta. Jeffords & Co., of the same city,
+manufacture an excellent grade of fine stone-ware for household
+purposes, and table wares. The pieces have usually mouldings in relief,
+and are colored brown or yellow on the outside and white inside. The
+latter is apparently produced by making use of an _engobe_ of very white
+clay. Galloway & Graiff make earthen-ware of various kinds, including
+terra-cotta in Greek shapes. Moorhead & Wilson have very extensive clay
+works at Spring Mills, and manufacture terra-cotta for building
+purposes. They also make terra-cotta vases, after the antique, for
+decorators.
+
+At Baltimore good qualities of common earthen-ware and salt-glazed
+stone-ware are made by Perrine & Co.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 430--Jersey City Earthen-ware Pitcher.]
+
+About 1825 a factory of natural porcelain was founded by a number of
+Frenchmen in Jersey City. We have a specimen of this porcelain, made in
+1826--a small bowl, with excellent body and glaze, and decorated with a
+gold band round the outside of the rim. The venture did not prove a
+success, and the production ceased within a year or two. In 1829 the
+works were assumed by David Henderson & Co., and carried on under the
+firm of the American Pottery Company. It was here that the throwing and
+turning of earthen-ware upon the English principle was first performed
+in America, by William and James Taylor. This was also the first
+successful attempt to compete with England, and was made in connection
+with the manufacture of a yellow ware. Three years later, or in 1832,
+the same potters were making a cream-colored ware chiefly from imported
+materials. To the decoration of a white ware the English process of
+printing was successfully brought, and a brown earthen-ware, made about
+the same date, was variously ornamented with reliefs and colored
+enamels. Three specimens of the latter are in the Metropolitan Museum.
+One consists of a water-pitcher modelled by Daniel Greatbatch (Fig.
+430), with the handle in shape of a hound, and a hunting scene in
+relief, and belongs to the earlier period of the factory. About 1845 a
+change appears to have taken place in the proprietorship, as we then
+find the company consisting of Messrs. William Rhodes (whom we shall
+meet again in Trenton), Strong, and M'Gerron. The firm made white
+granite and cream-colored ware until 1854. At that time the pressure of
+foreign competition was so great that they could not gain a foothold in
+the regular trade. Their wares were chiefly sold by peddlers and
+itinerant dealers, who were in the habit of going to the factory with
+wagons, when they knew that a kiln was to be drawn, and carting off the
+goods before they were trimmed. Rhodes resigned in 1854, and went to
+Vermont; and the remaining partners sold out, in 1855, to Rouse, Turner,
+Duncan & Henry, of whom Messrs. Rouse & Turner are now carrying on the
+establishment. The popularity occasionally reached by a single form was,
+perhaps, never better exemplified than by the brown pitcher above
+mentioned. It is made down to the present time, and has become so
+identified with the factory, that, when wishing to send a memento to
+his friend Mr. John Haslem, of the Derby Works in England, Mr. Rouse
+thought he could not do better than send him one of these pitchers, of a
+size larger than ordinary. The present firm have not used any imported
+clay for the past fifteen years. They now obtain spar from Connecticut,
+flint from Lantern Hill, Connecticut, China clay from South Carolina,
+and other clays from New Jersey. The staple of the factory is
+granite-ware, for which a peculiar ivory-colored glaze has recently been
+adopted. Parian is also made. The Jersey City biscuit is extensively
+consumed by decorators, and some new and very handsome shapes have been
+designed for this special branch of trade (see Fig. 457).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 431.--Porcelain Statuette, New York City Pottery.]
+
+Messrs. Lyman, Fenton & Co. embarked, in 1847, in an enterprise at
+Bennington, Vermont, which promised to be a commercial success. They
+made both pottery and artificial porcelain. The enamel upon certain
+specimens of the former in the Metropolitan Museum, and belonging to the
+Trumbull-Prime collection, is of a notably good quality. The works
+stopped, after running for about twelve years.
+
+The oldest establishment in New York is the Hudson River Pottery, in
+West Twelfth Street. It was founded in 1838, and is now carried on under
+the firm of William A. Macquoid & Co. The only products, until within a
+year ago, were stone-ware and glazed earthen-ware. At that time the
+demand by decorators for terra-cotta in the choicest antique forms led
+the firm to add it to their list of productions. The experiment was
+successful. The paste is fine and well worked.
+
+The "Manhattan Pottery" of Stewart & Co., in West Eighteenth Street, New
+York, is engaged chiefly in the production of drain-pipes and
+terra-cotta. The former are glazed with "Albany slip," obtained from the
+bed of the Hudson at Albany, which renders them perfectly impervious to
+the action of acids.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 432.--Iron-stone China Plaque.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 433.--New York City Pottery.
+
+Lambeth style.]
+
+Mr. James Carr, of the New York City Pottery, after working for some
+time with the American Pottery Company, in Jersey City, went, in 1852,
+to South Amboy, and founded an establishment for making yellow,
+Rockingham, and cream-colored ware. Twenty-two years ago he removed to
+his present premises in West Thirteenth Street, New York. Mr. Carr makes
+use of six or seven different bodies, all composed of American
+materials. Some time ago he made a few pieces, including a tea-service
+and two statuettes (Fig. 431) of artificial porcelain, using bone and
+kaolin from Chester County, Pennsylvania. The table-pieces are decorated
+with festoons of flowers, in pink and green, and a rim of blue and gold.
+The statuettes are well modelled and very tastefully colored. The staple
+product of the factory is stone china, which is largely sought in
+biscuit by decorators. The quality is probably as fine as it is possible
+to make stone china, and styles of decoration are followed which are
+rarely found on a similar body. Dinner-services are decorated with all
+the care usually reserved for porcelain, and many ornamental pieces,
+including a series of circular plaques, show admirable taste and
+workmanship (Fig. 432). A third quality of ware is called "Semi-china,"
+and is nearly as translucent as porcelain. It is made from American
+kaolin clay, with a large admixture of felspar. It is decorated in
+styles similar to those found upon the iron-stone china. Mr. Carr also
+makes statuettes and busts in terra-cotta, of a warm, rich tint, and in
+a fine, partially translucent parian. Besides these, the works produce
+cream-colored ware and majolica. The latter is made into a great variety
+of forms--jars, pedestals, seats, boxes, and cups, the leading colors of
+which are a clear deep blue, yellow, and green.
+
+Some of the colors found upon iron-stone china pieces are remarkably
+good, notably a fine mazarine blue and a brilliant black. Artistic work
+of all kinds is receiving attention. Mr. Carr has made many experiments,
+and continues making them with unremitting ardor (Fig. 433). Beginning
+to work at a time when the mechanical difficulties in the way of success
+seemed insuperable, he gradually extended his efforts as these
+difficulties disappeared, and is now reaching toward the higher forms of
+the art. The story of his life is the history of modern American
+pottery.
+
+The history of Trenton is interesting from the enormous development of
+the manufacture in that city within a very short space of time. The
+business was begun in 1852, by the firm of Taylor & Speeler. Taylor is
+said to have made the first porous cup at Jersey City, for Professor
+Morse's experiments. This honor is also claimed for the Robertsons of
+Chelsea, Massachusetts. But leaving that question in the mean time, it
+would appear that the Taylor here spoken of is the same whom we have
+seen at work as a thrower with the American Pottery Company. The Trenton
+firm made yellow and Rockingham ware, with which they were successful
+from the first. They also attempted porcelain and parian; but these
+wares, though of fine quality, were not received with such favor as to
+make their production a commercial success. This resulted, in all
+probability, from the difficulties attending the manufacture. Since
+their day the business has almost entirely turned toward another class
+of white goods, the granite-ware in common use, and for a long time no
+attempts to manufacture porcelain were made except in the way of
+experiment. This was done by nearly every firm in the business.
+
+Taylor & Speeler were making white granite in 1856, but only to a
+limited extent, and in connection with yellow-ware and Rockingham. A
+medal was awarded them for the manufacture of superior pottery. This
+honor was conferred in 1856, by the Franklin Institute of the State of
+Pennsylvania. The medal is now in Mr. Taylor's possession. As a memento
+of the skill shown in the early days of American pottery it will bear
+description. It is made of silver, and has on one side the inscription,
+"Reward of skill and industry to Taylor, Speeler & Bloor, Trenton, New
+Jersey, for china, granite, and earthen ware, 1856." On the obverse is a
+likeness of Benjamin Franklin, and the words "Franklin Institute of the
+State of Pennsylvania, 1824." To Mr. Taylor, the senior partner of the
+firm, the credit is due of first firing a kiln with anthracite coal.
+
+The factory is now called the Trenton Pottery Works. Mr. Bloor joined
+the original firm of Taylor & Speeler in 1854, and retired in 1859. Soon
+afterward Mr. Speeler sold out to John F. Houdayer, and in 1870 the firm
+consisted of Mr. Taylor and John Goodwin. A year later Mr. Goodwin was
+bought out by his son, James H. Goodwin, and Isaac Davis, the latter of
+whom soon afterward acquired Goodwin's share, and in 1875 became sole
+proprietor by purchasing Mr. Taylor's interest. Mr. Davis, like several
+others of the older Trenton potters, is an Englishman, and the fact is
+noteworthy, in view of the opposition to goods of American manufacture.
+It shows how blind was the prejudice which, there being no question of
+the excellence of American materials, will not concede to an Englishman
+in America the skill and ability of the same Englishman in England. Mr.
+Davis went to Trenton from Staffordshire in 1862, worked first with
+William Young & Sons, formed a copartnership with George Lawton, upon a
+capital of $300, joined the Glasgow Pottery Company, and then, as we
+have seen, bought an interest in the firm of Taylor & Goodwin.
+
+The first to make cream-colored ware for the market were William Young &
+Sons, Astbury & Millington, who comprised the firm which, in 1853, laid
+the foundation of an industry which has since attained to enormous
+dimensions. They had large orders for strawberry bowls from a trucker
+near Rocky Hill, and these they fired in Taylor & Speeler's yellow-ware
+kiln. The business, although greatly increased, has not changed its
+character, and is at the present time carried on by William Young's
+sons.
+
+Of the original partners Astbury formed a copartnership with Mr.
+Maddock, and the present firm is Astbury & Maddock, of which the latter
+is the only surviving partner. Its chief product is sanitary and
+druggists' ware, and experiments are also made with American
+kaolins--those of Missouri, Pennsylvania, and other States--with a view
+to the manufacture of a true American porcelain. Decorating and printing
+are now receiving a considerable amount of attention. Mr. Millington,
+also of the old firm, resigned, and founded the pottery now bearing his
+name.
+
+The first pottery fitted up for the exclusive manufacture of white
+granite and cream-colored ware was that of Rhodes & Yates, in 1859, at
+the present City pottery, on Perry Street. This Mr. Rhodes is the same
+one who was partner in the Jersey City pottery. On going to Vermont, in
+1854, he established the manufacture of white-ware, and remained there
+until the fall of 1859, when he joined Mr. Yates in a new enterprise in
+Trenton. The previous history of the City pottery is a story of
+continuous changes. At one time it was occupied by William Young & Sons,
+who were making porcelain hardware trimmings. In 1853 it was purchased
+by Mr. Charles Hattersley, and in 1856 passed into the possession of Mr.
+Yates, who leased it to James and Thomas Lynch. For two years they
+occupied it as a drain-pipe factory, and in 1859 it was assumed by Mr.
+Yates, in partnership with Mr. Rhodes. In putting granite and
+cream-colored ware upon the market, the firm had many obstacles to
+overcome. Chief among them was the all-prevailing prejudice of dealers
+and consumers in favor of imported goods. Success, however, came in
+course of time. An entrance was forced into the market, and other firms
+which rapidly sprung into existence seconded their efforts in securing
+for Trenton a remunerative recognition in the white-ware trade. Meantime
+several changes took place in the firm of Rhodes & Yates. Mr. Higginson
+became leading partner, and in 1865 the firm was Yates & Titus, which
+was changed, in 1870, to Yates, Bennett & Allen, and in the fall of 1875
+to the City Pottery Company, of which Mr. Yates and Mr. John Rhodes--a
+son of William Rhodes--are two of the partners. The period of seven
+years between Taylor & Speeler's venture and that of Rhodes & Yates may
+be called the infancy of the Trenton manufacture. Since that time the
+production has increased year by year, and Trenton well deserves the
+title conferred upon it of "The Staffordshire of America." Its annual
+productive capacity is about two and a half millions, and during 1876
+the actual production was about $1,750,000. There are, in all, nineteen
+potteries in the city, and several decorating establishments. To
+illustrate what is now being done, and to indicate the new channels
+which the industry is seeking, a few of the leading factories may be
+referred to.
+
+The Etruria Pottery Company is now working the factory built, in 1863,
+by Messrs. William Bloor, Joseph Ott, and Thomas Booth. Mr. Booth
+retired in 1864, and was succeeded by G. S. Burroughs, who, in 1865,
+withdrew and made way for J. Hart Brewer. In 1871 Mr. Bloor retired, and
+the firm of Ott & Brewer remained in possession until January, 1878,
+when the Etruria Pottery Company was organized. Until 1876 the staple
+products of the factory were white granite and cream-colored ware. Its
+ivory porcelain and parian will be noticed hereafter.
+
+The Glasgow Pottery of John Moses & Company sends out an immense
+quantity of white granite and cream-colored ware, and experiments are
+also conducted, chiefly with Pennsylvania kaolin, with a view to making
+porcelain. That now regularly made is called semi-porcelain, and many
+trial pieces have a pure translucent body and excellent glaze.
+
+The firm of Coxon & Co. was founded, in 1863, by Mr. Charles Coxon, and
+is now composed of his widow, J. G. Forman, and S. M. Alpaugh. Mr. Coxon
+began with cream-colored ware, and conjoined it with white granite
+toward the end of 1863. Since that time the firm has produced both
+qualities.
+
+One of the later establishments is the Mercer Pottery, built in 1868, of
+which Mr. James Moses is sole proprietor. Besides the common grades of
+earthen-ware, stone china and semi-porcelain are made and decorated.
+There is a decided tendency here toward the production of a finer
+quality of ware, and of styles of decoration possessed of artistic
+merit.
+
+At the Arsenal Pottery Mr. Joseph Mayer manufactures Rockingham and
+brown stone-ware, and is in the possession of a number of excellent
+designs. Of the remaining Trenton potteries--the East Trenton Pottery
+Company, the American Crockery Company, Joseph H. Moore's, the Greenwood
+Pottery Company, and the Millham--it is unnecessary to give details.
+Within the past two or three years all have been turning their
+attention to work of a more or less artistic character, some directing
+their efforts more particularly to decorating, and others to the
+perfecting of a body which shall enable them to compete with the
+manufacturers of porcelain. In the latter respect the Greenwood company
+has met with gratifying success, and has given their ware the name of
+"American China."
+
+It will thus be seen that the history of modern American art and
+manufacture does not extend much beyond a century. Progress has been
+rapid, and the trade has developed with gigantic strides.
+
+It is estimated that there are in all seven hundred and seventy-seven
+pottery establishments in the United States, including those for all
+kinds of ware, from terra-cotta to porcelain. All, or nearly all, these
+have sprung up within twenty-five years, and many of them since the
+Civil War. The productive capacity of some of the leading centres may be
+judged from the number of kilns they require. At Trenton there are
+fifty-seven kilns; at East Liverpool, forty-six; at Cincinnati, twelve;
+at Flushing and Greenpoint, Long Island, eleven; at Pittsburg six; or
+there are at sixteen seats of the industry, and excluding terra-cotta
+manufactories, one hundred and seventy kilns. The capital invested by
+the forty firms, members of the Potters' Association, is upward of four
+millions, an amount vastly increased by the remaining seven hundred and
+thirty odd establishments throughout the country. White granite-ware, an
+abomination in point of art, but eminently useful, is made at other
+places in this country besides Trenton in great abundance. The only
+manufactory of white granite and cream-colored ware in the Eastern
+States is that of the New England Pottery Company at East Boston. It was
+established in 1854.
+
+A display was made at the Centennial Exhibition of what was called
+"Ivory Porcelain," from the Etruria Pottery of Ott & Brewer, Trenton. It
+has a hard, semi-translucent body, and clear, smooth boracic glaze. It
+bears a close resemblance to Mr. Carr's semi-china, and is substantially
+the same ware that is now receiving attention from many of the other
+Trenton potters. It may be said to mark the first stage on the way to a
+true American porcelain. By exhibiting it at the Centennial Exhibition,
+Ott & Brewer were really the first to draw the public attention to this
+new departure in American manufacture. Its distinctive name is taken
+from its soft, ivory-like tint. The advantages claimed for it are, that
+while it answers all the purposes of china, its manufacture is less
+expensive, and permits its being put upon the market at a much lower
+price; that it equals the average china in point of both utility and
+appearance; and that its consistency is such that it can be made into
+more graceful or less clumsy shapes than granite. Experience alone can
+dispose of these claims. It is fired, like granite-ware, hard in the
+biscuit and soft in the gloss-kiln, from which it would appear that the
+glaze and paste are not homogeneous, as in natural porcelain.
+Practically, however, this new ware represents a great and substantial
+improvement in the manufacture of a general domestic article. All the
+component ingredients of both paste and glaze are found in America.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 434.--Parian Vase. Etruria Pottery Company.]
+
+At Ott & Brewer's, also, are to be discovered the first glimmerings of
+what may be called an art, in the studio of Mr. Isaac Broome, an
+American artist of considerable repute and skill. Mr. Broome devoted
+himself to both painting and sculpture before turning his attention to
+ceramic art. Some years ago he established a terra-cotta workshop in
+Pittsburg; but the locality was unfavorable, and the enterprise was
+abandoned. A similar venture in New York city also failed.
+
+Several months prior to the Centennial Exhibition he was employed by
+Messrs. Ott & Brewer to design and model certain works in parian. These
+were exhibited at Philadelphia, and were very favorably received. The
+improved kiln previously described (see page 79) was built after his
+plans, and under his personal direction for firing the works turned out
+of his studio. Of these one of the best was suggested by Mr. J. Hart
+Brewer, and consists of (Fig. 434) a pair of vases in parian designed to
+illustrate the national game of base-ball. Great variety of detail is
+attained without detriment to a certain severity of outline. From a
+narrow base the body contracts quickly to its smallest girth, and thence
+expands gradually to the top. Round the foot of each vase, and standing
+on the supporting pedestal, are arranged three figures of base-ball
+players, modelled after a thoroughly American ideal of physical beauty,
+embodying muscular activity rather than ponderous strength. The
+attitudes are very well chosen, and invest the figures with an
+appearance of life and vigorous action. A series of clubs belted round
+with a strap ornaments the stem of the vases, and some exquisitely
+wrought leaves and berries are woven round the top. The orifice is
+covered by a cupola or dome, composed of a segment of a base-ball, upon
+which stands an eagle. These vases are the work of a genuine artist, who
+has surrounded a general design of great merit with many finely executed
+and suggestive details.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 435.--Pastoral Vase. Etruria Pottery Co.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 436.--Faun's Head Bracket. Etruria Pottery Company.]
+
+The same artist's "rustic," or "Pastoral," vases (Fig. 435) illustrate a
+different order of ideas. Here the surface is covered with mouldings in
+relief, composing a design partly suggested by mythology, partly
+original. It carries us back to the golden age of the poets. A female
+figure, which might be that of Flora or Proserpina, dances to a satyr
+who plays a musical instrument. The details are all in perfect
+harmony--the dancing goats, the grape-vines, the leaves, rustic
+wood-work, and goat's-head handles. A tasteful finish is given to the
+decoration by a fluting running round the upper part of the neck to the
+lip. To produce a good effect, work of this kind, all in relief and
+uncolored, demands the nicest finish, and a design which shall lean
+neither toward scantiness on the one hand, nor overloaded ornamentation
+on the other. In both respects Mr. Broome has been fortunate. The
+decoration relieves without destroying the fine outline of the vase.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 437.--Parian Vase. Etruria Pottery Company.]
+
+Mr. Broome's "Fashion" vases (Fig. 437) are embellished with some very
+fine illustrations of the fashions of a century ago and also of the
+present time. Of these the shapes are exceedingly quaint and uncommon,
+and the figures in low relief are very highly finished.
+
+Besides these, Mr. Broome has modelled a great number of the heads and
+busts which have always been the staple of workers in parian. Some are
+original, others are reproductions from the antique. To the former class
+belongs an ideal Cleopatra (Fig. 438). The artist has chosen a full and
+sensuous type of beauty, vastly different from that adopted by recent
+painters who have ventured to portray upon canvas the charms which
+melted the stern Caesar and enslaved Antony. Somehow one associates the
+style of beauty represented in Mr. Broome's bust rather generally with
+the land of Egypt than specially with the conquests of Cleopatra. This
+may result from a familiarity with less truthful conceptions, and in
+that view implies a decided merit. The artist has in details followed
+history as closely as it seems possible for him to have done, and has
+wisely preferred study and research to giving his imagination a free
+rein. Imagination, or an American model, might have led him to present a
+higher type of beauty, but neither would have led him to produce a
+distinctively Egyptian Cleopatra. Accepting his ideal, it is worked out
+with unmistakable talent, and with the most painstaking attention to
+workmanship.
+
+It is unnecessary to particularize farther. The Etruria Pottery Company
+have made a good beginning, and in directing the efforts of their
+artists it is to be hoped that they may not allow the commercial success
+of copies of the antique to divert attention from such works as those
+described. The paste employed is fine, compact, and hard, and assumes in
+some pieces the clear and polished appearance of marble. Its precise
+composition is not known. The paste is, as in the usual case, poured in
+a fluid state into plaster moulds, which absorb the superfluous water.
+Oxides are used to vary the color of the casts, and a number of tints of
+great delicacy and beauty have been secured.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 438.--Cleopatra, in Parian.]
+
+American terra-cotta must be briefly dismissed. At the Centennial
+Exhibition an extensive assortment was shown from works situated in many
+parts of the country. One or two makers displayed an utterly misguided
+taste in attempting something original. Others appeared to confine
+themselves to the well-known Apollo Belvederes, Niobes, and other
+antique subjects. Garden vases and ornaments were meritorious as a
+class; but whatever artistic work may be produced in some quarters, in
+others art is only budding, and will take some time before it blooms
+into flower. Some excellent work in terra-cotta is executed in
+Philadelphia and New York, and has been referred to above. Of the
+hundreds of other factories throughout the country few have done
+anything distinctive. One or two might possibly be mentioned, such as
+the Halm Art Pottery Company, of Sandy Hill, New York, which are
+gradually drawing away from the commonplace, and may be expected, sooner
+or later, to possess an artistic individuality. Among Eastern workshops
+may be mentioned those of Beverly, Portland, North Cambridge, and
+Chelsea, Massachusetts. A great deal of the red terra-cotta of Beverly
+is consumed by decorative artists and students. The Portland terra-cotta
+is well known both for excellence of body and beauty of shape. The paste
+is unusually fine and close in texture, and is excellent under the
+brush. The North Cambridge establishment also turns out ware of a high
+quality. The designing department is evidently under skilful and
+competent supervision, and the forms have an antique grace which never
+loses its charm. As in the case of Beverly, the products of both these
+workshops are well adapted to the purposes of the decorator.
+
+Chelsea demands a larger share of our attention for styles of work in
+terra-cotta unique among American products. The establishment is at
+present carried on by Robertson & Sons, under the name of the "Chelsea
+Keramic Art Works." The firm consists of J. Robertson and his two sons,
+A. W. Robertson and Hugh C. Robertson. The workshop was founded on 1st
+June, 1868, by A. W. Robertson, for the production of English
+brown-ware. He was joined by his brother, and the chief wares made at
+that time were fancy flower-pots. J. Robertson was admitted to the firm
+by his sons on 1st June, 1872, and affords a good instance of the wide
+experience it is possible to compress into one lifetime. Mr. Robertson
+was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and first worked in the Fife pottery,
+at Dysart, where his father was head workman. He there acquired a
+knowledge of modelling and mould-making, and at the age of sixteen was
+engaged by the Watsons of Prestonpans, Mid-Lothian, then the leading
+fine-ware factory in Scotland. He next tried the North of England, and
+worked as modeller and mould-maker at several factories, gaining
+experience and proficiency, and ultimately took the management of a
+small red-ware pottery, where he introduced both white and printed ware,
+"smeared black" and "lustred" ware. On leaving, he tried manufacturing
+on his own account for a time, and then accepted the position of
+superintendent of a black-ware factory at North Shields. He arrived in
+America in 1853, and worked first in a factory at South River; then with
+Mr. J. Carr, at South Amboy, and afterward at Thirteenth Street, New
+York; next with Speeler, Taylor & Bloor, at Trenton; and lastly as
+manager of the East Boston pottery. His next step was to join his sons
+at Chelsea, each of whom has had a more or less varied career, and is
+expert in at least one branch of the business. Since the establishment
+was opened, a great many experimental pieces have been made of different
+materials, sizes, and shapes. What are known as porous cones were made
+some time ago for chemical purposes, and are of so open a body that the
+breath can be drawn through them with ease. We have already seen that
+Jersey City claims this discovery. The credit is probably due to both,
+as they appear to have arrived at the same result by independent
+courses. Work of a more purely artistic character was tried about eight
+years ago, but, commercially speaking, without success. A second attempt
+was made in 1873, and the production has been continued down to the
+present time. The artists and collectors of Boston soon discovered
+certain qualities in the Chelsea potters and their works deserving
+recognition. They may possibly have reached the conviction that Chelsea
+is to be numbered among the places where artists value their work solely
+according to its truth, excellence, and beauty. Without affecting to
+disregard commercial considerations, they succeed in giving their art
+the precedence. It is not, therefore, a matter of surprise either that
+they should have convinced a section of the public that Chelsea can do
+noble service in the cause of American art, or that many excellent works
+should bear its mark. Allusion may first, however, be made to certain
+matters with which the Robertsons allow their attention to be diverted
+from more serious pursuits. They have been inspired by Doulton's
+treatment of stone-ware to make certain small pieces of fine
+earthen-ware of a gray color faintly tinged with blue, and very
+brilliantly glazed. The decoration consists of incised designs. The
+pieces do not bear a very close resemblance to Doulton ware, but are in
+themselves decidedly attractive. The Robertsons, having mastered the
+fundamental secret of the Haviland process, viz., of applying the colors
+upon the unbaked clay, have, in the second place, brought out a few
+pieces after the style of the Limoges faience. Their success here is
+limited by a palette which must be considerably enriched before the
+effects of the French ware are reached.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 439.--Chelsea (Robertson) Terra-cotta.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 440.--Chelsea (Robertson) Terra-cotta.]
+
+The best Chelsea works are in red and white unglazed earthen-ware. Of
+these we give two illustrations (Figs. 439 and 440). Some of the forms
+are original, and others are after the Greek, Italian, and other types.
+The decoration consists of designs graved in the paste, of mouldings in
+relief, and of carvings in relief. The application of moulded ornaments
+to the surface has been practised in all ages, and the Chelsea work does
+not demand special comment, although many of the designs are attractive
+and simple. The carving in relief belongs to a different order of work.
+Instead of being moulded, the ornamentation of leaves or flowers is
+carved out of clay laid upon the surface of the vase while still moist
+from the hands of the thrower. The effect is similar to that obtained by
+mouldings, but the work is finer, the details more highly finished, and
+the outlines sharper and clearer. Of the designs in these and the pieces
+decorated with mouldings, the best are those in which leaves either lie
+across the vase or form a calyx from which it rises upward. The absence
+of color allows the attention to rest solely upon the fidelity with
+which every detail is rendered. If this be the quality of work with
+which the Robertsons tested American taste eight years ago, it is not
+easy to understand why they did not succeed.
+
+
+PORCELAIN.
+
+ Philadelphia.--William Ellis Tucker.--Bennington.--Jersey
+ City.--Greenpoint.--Decorating Establishments.--Metal and
+ Porcelain.
+
+The history of American porcelain is necessarily brief. The impetus
+toward the higher branches of the art, emanating from Europe, in due
+time reached these shores. It affected the rapidly developing enterprise
+of the citizen of the young Republic, and touched his faith in the vast
+and varied resources of his country. Previous to the achievement of
+independence, however, and during the early colonial intercourse with
+England, an incident occasionally transpired not without interest in our
+narrative. When Mr. Richard Chaffers died in Liverpool, and his
+porcelain establishment was closed, many of his workmen came to this
+country. In 1771 it was reported in England that a large china
+manufactory was established in Philadelphia, where "better china cups
+and saucers are made than at Bow or Stratford." It may astonish many who
+are not acquainted with anything in American ceramics beyond the
+competitive spirit which rules the business, to find that more than a
+century ago it had left England behind in the race!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 441.--Philadelphia Natural Porcelain.
+(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+There appears to be no longer any doubt of the existence of a porcelain
+factory in Philadelphia about the year 1770, and that, therefore, the
+report alluded to above was "founded on fact." Advertisements have been
+discovered which go far toward settling the question. They promise work
+equal to that of Bow, and are therefore in all probability the basis of
+the rumor above mentioned, which was current in England a year later.
+How long the works were carried on is not known.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 442.--Philadelphia Natural Porcelain.
+(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+The next porcelain venture was made in the same city, between 1816 and
+1830, by William Ellis Tucker. Tucker began as a decorator, and, after a
+series of experiments, made first a non-translucent ware of good
+quality, and then natural porcelain (Figs. 441 and 442).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 443.--Bennington Artificial Porcelain.
+(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)]
+
+His works were originally situated behind his father's china store in
+Market Street, and afterward at the corner of Market, Schuylkill, and
+Front streets. One serious impediment to success was a treacherous
+workman, who did all he could to frustrate his employer's design. His
+first experiment was to cut the handles off the pieces when placing them
+in the kiln. His next was to wash the seggars with felspar, which melted
+in the kiln and fastened the wares to the bottom of the seggars. When
+Tucker first made porcelain for the market is not recorded, but in 1827
+he was honored with a silver medal by the Franklin Institute of the
+State of Pennsylvania. Some time prior to Tucker's death, in 1832, Judge
+Hemphill had been admitted as partner, and subsequently carried on the
+factory, in connection with Thomas Tucker, a brother of the founder, for
+a few years. He then sold out. Thomas took the works in hand alone in
+1837, and kept them running for about a year, when the production
+ceased. The products of the factory were chiefly table wares. The paste
+and glaze were both excellent, but the form and decoration would not
+permit of competition with imported china. The workshop went down for
+want of public support, and also on account of the alleged impossibility
+of securing the services of skilled artists. We have already seen that
+Lyman & Fenton conjoined the making of artificial porcelain (Fig. 443)
+with that of pottery at Bennington, Vermont. This factory is chiefly
+remarkable as the first from which figures in biscuit were turned out.
+We have also noticed the Jersey City enterprise of Henderson & Co.
+Several attempts to produce porcelain were made at Greenpoint, Long
+Island. In 1848, Mr. Charles Cartalege met with some success in the
+manufacture of knobs and buttons, but in no table ware. Altogether it is
+probable that about a dozen different establishments were founded for
+the purpose of inaugurating the manufacture of a native porcelain. They
+generally succeeded in making a few pieces, and then stopped for lack of
+patronage. The honor of first establishing the industry upon a
+successful basis, and of turning out a commercial ware, is to be
+ascribed to Mr. Thomas C. Smith, of the Union Porcelain Works,
+Greenpoint.
+
+Mr. Smith is an American, whose ancestors arrived in the Eastern States
+about one hundred and fifty years ago. He was brought up as a mechanic,
+and first went into the porcelain manufacture in 1857, under a company
+composed of a number of Germans who had started the business about three
+years previously. At this time several small kilns existed in
+Greenpoint, like that of Cartalege, for the purpose of making door-knobs
+and other hardware trimmings. The paste then used was compounded upon
+the principle of the English artificial paste, and contained a large
+proportion of burned bones or phosphate of lime. This was the
+composition used by the Germans with whom Mr. Smith connected himself.
+These Germans, through dishonesty and want of knowledge of the business,
+soon brought the concern into trouble, from which Mr. Smith tried to
+extricate it by acting as manager for a time, but the derangement and
+prostration of trade, caused by the outbreak of the Civil War, compelled
+the company to wind up its affairs. Mr. Smith, being the largest
+creditor, became the purchaser, his intention being to bring the
+porcelain enterprise to an end, and make the property available for some
+other purpose. Meantime he went abroad. At the time when the second
+battle of Bull Run was fought he was in France, and it was there the
+idea grew upon him that there was a good opportunity for establishing
+the porcelain business in his native country. So complete was the change
+in the formation of his plans, that he immediately turned his attention
+to making such inquiries as might subserve his purpose, among the great
+workshops of France and England. When he returned home, his intention of
+abandoning the manufacture of porcelain disappeared, and he decided to
+embark anew. The experiments which followed were attended with much
+anxiety. Up to November, 1863, the old bone body had been retained; but
+in 1864 Mr. Smith stopped using it, and directed his attention solely to
+the production of a natural kaolinic porcelain like that of China or
+Meissen. His experiments extended over about two years. The first pieces
+were uneven and the vitrification was incomplete. This arose from an
+ignorance of the correct composition required for success. Farther
+trials were more encouraging, and in 1865 he succeeded in making a plain
+white-ware, which he could place upon the market. Mr. Smith prides
+himself upon one fact, that, unlike any one of the European
+establishments, from that of Florence downward, he succeeded without aid
+either from a wealthy patron or from government.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 444.--Century Vase. Greenpoint Porcelain.]
+
+In 1866 he first began to decorate, with one English and one German
+artist. By availing himself of odd fragments of information, he not only
+improved his decoration, but discovered some European usages, the
+prevalence of which he had not suspected. One of these was that Dresden
+ware was sent in large quantities to England to be decorated, and was
+afterward returned to Dresden and sold as Meissen ware. On one occasion
+he bought in Europe a Meissen porcelain cup decorated with blue, red,
+and gold. On returning home, he broke the cup, and put one of the pieces
+in his porcelain furnace, to see if the colors would stand the heat to
+which his own were exposed. When it was withdrawn the red had
+disappeared, a thin, almost imperceptible line was all that was left of
+the gilt, and the blue had run into streaks and blotches. This little
+experiment taught him that he was contending with difficulties, in
+firing his colors, which European makers had not thought it necessary to
+meet. That he has succeeded is marked by the extension of his works,
+which cover about an acre of ground, and give employment to about one
+hundred and seventy people. All his porcelain is decorated by his own
+artists. Mr. Karl Mueller is the chief designer and modeller, and brings
+a long experience as a sculptor to bear upon his studies in clay. He is
+a German, whose art education was mainly acquired in Paris under the
+tuition of the ablest artists of Europe. His predilection for the
+potter's art led him to associate himself with Mr. Smith. Before doing
+so, in 1874, he modelled three terra-cotta figures of base-ball players,
+in different attitudes suggestive of athletic activity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 445.--"Keramos" Vase. Greenpoint Porcelain.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 446.--Greenpoint Biscuit Porcelain.]
+
+The ingredients of Greenpoint porcelain are the kaolins of Cornwall,
+Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Georgia; felspar from Maine and Connecticut;
+and quartz, also from Connecticut. These are compounded according to the
+purpose for which the paste is to be used. In that for table ware the
+proportions are: kaolin, 37; felspar, 33; quartz, 30. For the glaze:
+felspar, 15; lime, 15; kaolin, 12; quartz and broken porcelain, 58. The
+paste made into hardware trimmings contains a greater proportion of
+American kaolin than that for table ware. As to the merits of the latter
+it is thus spoken of by M. Ch. de Bussy, from whose official report we
+have already quoted: "The porcelain of Greenpoint is second to none in
+quality of paste and hardness of glaze. Most of the articles are heavy,
+and may be compared in form with that which in French commerce is known
+as _limonade_: we have, however, seen thinner pieces, such as tea and
+coffee cups, well made, and which would figure honorably among the
+productions of Europe (bien fabriquees, et qui pourraient figurer
+honorablement parmi les productions d'Europe)." Mr. Karl Mueller's first
+work of art was a "Century Vase" (Fig. 444), designed by Mr. Smith for
+the Centennial Exhibition. Bison heads form the handles; medallions
+decorate the front and back, and below them is a belt of gold with small
+bison, walrus, ram, and other animal heads arranged at intervals. The
+base is surrounded by a series of medallions or panels, representing, in
+white relief, Indians, a soldier of the Revolutionary era, the Tea Scene
+in Boston Harbor, and other historical incidents. The body is painted in
+blue, red, and gold. The artistic character of the vase can be
+sufficiently studied in the engraving. The decoration, it will be
+observed, consists in part of paintings on the flat, and in part of the
+reliefs already mentioned, which give a meaning to the distinctive
+title, "Century Vase," chosen for the piece. It illustrates the
+national progress of a century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 447.--"Song of the Shirt." Greenpoint Biscuit
+Porcelain.]
+
+When Mr. Longfellow wrote his poem "Keramos," it is hardly probable that
+he contemplated the possibility of supplying a subject to the art of
+which he sang. The poet wrote of the potter, and the potter has
+illustrated his song. The poem had no sooner appeared than it was made
+the groundwork of an illustrative vase (Fig. 445). As in the "Century
+Vase" history is represented by periods and leading events, so in the
+"Keramos" vase the history of ceramic art is represented by the leading
+contributions to its continuous progress. In panels on the base the
+potters of all ages are seen at work--Egyptian, Greek, and modern. Above
+these, on the body, are reliefs illustrative of the pottery of Peru,
+Italy, France, Spain, England, and other countries. As we turn it round,
+the advance of ceramic art is seen as in a diorama, and amidst the
+various scenes appears in relief the bust of the poet whose song
+inspired the work. The form of the vase is singular, simple, and severe,
+but well suited to the artist's treatment of his subject. Its rigidity
+is considerably softened by the quaint, projecting feet and the figures
+they support, and by the decoration surrounding the flaring top.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 448.--Greenpoint Porcelain.]
+
+Among the other productions of Greenpoint is a series of statuettes,
+groups, and animal figures, which were first made in a non-translucent
+hard clay, of a light but warm brown or buff, and afterward in porcelain
+biscuit. The material first used is dense and non-vitrifying, more
+nearly resembling terra-cotta than parian. It is well suited to the
+production of statuettes and groups, in the modelling of which
+unmistakable talent and originality are displayed. We can in this
+department, better perhaps than in any other, appreciate the spirit
+permeating the designing-room at the Union Works. The rule appears to be
+to study the antique, but instead of copying or reproducing the works of
+the ancients, to follow their example in choosing subjects from the
+every-day life of the artist's own time. We nowhere see a copy of
+ancient statuary or feel a breath of borrowed inspiration. Every subject
+is taken from modern literature, or from life in America in the
+nineteenth century. One piece (Fig. 447) has under it the words "Stitch!
+stitch! stitch!" and presents us with a softened illustration of Hood's
+poem. We say "softened," because the artist has preferred--wisely or not
+we will not now determine--to tone down the unutterable misery of the
+picture, in which the "woman sat in unwomanly rags, plying her needle
+and thread." The unspoken weariness and mingled longing and resignation
+are here, but the squalor and wretched poverty are rather suggested by
+the broken box upon which the needle-woman sits, than forced upon our
+notice. If we accept what was evidently the artist's working canon, that
+the literal realization of human wretchedness has no place in art, then
+we must also accept the work as a fitting counterpart to that of the
+poet. In any case the conception is praiseworthy, and the execution
+skilful. Another group was suggested by Poe's "Raven:"
+
+ "And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor
+ Shall be lifted--_nevermore_!"
+
+The bust of Pallas stands, with the raven on its shoulder, upon a
+pedestal, in front of which lies a veiled figure. The piece is, we have
+said, suggested by the poem, of which it is in no sense a literal
+interpretation. A third group consists of a nude boy and dog, and tells
+its little story truthfully and forcibly. The attitudes and modelling
+are alike excellent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 449.--Greenpoint Porcelain.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 450.--Greenpoint Porcelain. (E. Bierstadt Coll.)]
+
+Other pieces, such as a procession of frogs and turtles with shouldered
+"pitcher-plants," illustrate the humorous side of the artist's genius
+(Fig. 448). The subject appears to be a favorite one, as we find it
+variously treated in porcelain also. The other statuettes particularly
+deserving of notice are a stone-mason, two firemen--one of the old
+_regime_ and one of the new--and a bust of Forrest as William Tell.
+These specimens will suffice, with what was said above, to indicate the
+direction in which this branch of art at Greenpoint is being extended.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 451.--Poets' Pitcher. Greenpoint Biscuit Porcelain.]
+
+There has yet to be considered the staple product of the Union Works,
+viz., its household porcelain. The paste is, as we have seen, of good
+quality, and the manufactured ware is strong and serviceable. One of the
+great obstacles in the way of the success of other enterprises--the lack
+of skilled artists--Mr. Smith has overcome, and now employs a number of
+decorators whose work augurs well for the continued prosperity of the
+establishment. We have seen one set (Fig. 449), composed of a circular
+tray, sugar-bowl, milk-pitcher, and teacups, which is entirely
+praiseworthy in both design and workmanship. The prevailing color is
+lavender, into which are wrought, in the form of birds and flowers,
+delicate tints of blue and yellow. The effect of the whole is soft and
+pleasing, and is heightened by the graceful design of the pieces, and
+the fine translucent body upon which the decoration is laid.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 452.--Greenpoint Porcelain.]
+
+We cannot here point to any style as being particularly distinctive of
+the workshop. The taste of the decorators is broad and catholic.
+
+White reliefs are occasionally used with fine effect in the
+ornamentation of pitchers and cups. One of the latter shows white
+figures in relief upon pale grounds.
+
+The cup is of a very graceful shape, and a miniature Columbia supported
+by an eagle forms the handle. A pitcher in biscuit (Fig. 451) is
+surrounded by heads of distinguished poets in relief. In this case also
+the shape is excellent, and the mouldings, including the subsidiary
+decoration, are admirably finished.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 453.--Greenpoint Porcelain. View of Memorial Hall.]
+
+The painting upon some of the plates is deserving of particular notice.
+They can only be referred to individually, as we have seen that no
+leading style has been adopted under which they could be treated of
+collectively. There is no uniformity either in the merit of the designs
+or decorations. One has for centre-piece a view of Memorial Hall (Fig.
+453), and, set in a rim of deep crimson, oval medallions with similar
+views. The drawing is very careful, and the colors well assorted. On
+another style a flower or a fern covers the bottom and falls upon the
+rim, which has no other decoration. Others have views of a windmill
+(Fig. 455), a cottage embowered in foliage painted in monochrome, or
+fruit. In some we find delicacy, and in others the work of a brush
+unaccustomed to search for subtleties of tint or the more refined
+expression of which color is capable. Fortunately the latter are the
+exception and the former the rule.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 454.--Greenpoint Porcelain.]
+
+To examine the methods of the artists of Greenpoint, the plate (Fig.
+452) may be referred to. The flowers forming its decoration may be
+found by almost any country roadside. Gathered as they grew, they were
+taken to the decorating-room, and were there transferred to porcelain.
+Apart altogether from the artistic result, there is a principle in such
+a manner of seeking designs deserving of attention. We have seen that in
+Japan the secret of the infinite variety of art lies in the close
+sympathy between the artist and nature. He turns to his promptress on
+all occasions for inspiration and suggestion. It must be so everywhere.
+The boundless wealth of form and color found in nature confers an
+equally boundless variety upon the art in which it is reflected. The
+conventional is limited by human ingenuity: the natural has no limit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 455.--Greenpoint Porcelain. Painted by J. M.
+Falconer.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 456.--English Porcelain. Decorated by Mrs. Hoyt. (D.
+Collamore.)]
+
+As a final example of table ware let us instance a plate (Fig. 454)
+decorated in gold, blue, red, green, yellow, and pink, so sparingly that
+only a close examination brings out the real richness of the coloring.
+In the first place, the decoration lies entirely upon the rim, with the
+exception of two circles of gold and blue. The design consists of
+crossed branches painted in blue and gold, with insects and brightly
+feathered birds. The effect is exceedingly soft, the delicacy of the
+colors being as pleasing to the eye as it is satisfactory in point of
+taste. The mark of the Greenpoint porcelain is an eagle's head with the
+letter S--the manufacturer's initial--through the beak.
+
+Besides the manufacturers and the artists employed in their
+establishments, many persons make a business of decorating earthen-ware
+and porcelain, and within the past few years many more have been
+attracted to this branch of art. It is regularly taught by two New York
+institutions, the Decorative Art Society and the Ladies' Art
+Association, and has many devotees both in the East and West. Much of
+the work executed by these artists is highly creditable; and there is a
+great deal that never reaches the public eye, which is marked by both
+delicacy and originality.
+
+One of the regular professional establishments is that of Warrin &
+Lycett, of New York. The example here given (Fig. 457) is Jersey City
+earthen-ware, and was painted by Mr. Warrin, who has had an experience
+of about fifteen years as a decorator. The colors are bright, and are
+very happily blended. The ground is a shade of light green, and the
+flowers are painted in their natural colors. At this workshop success
+was reached some time ago in a very delicate operation, that of
+transferring photographs to porcelain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 457.--Jersey City Earthen-ware. Decorated by
+Warrin.]
+
+Mr. John Bennett, formerly the Director of the Faience Department of the
+Doulton factory at Lambeth, has within the past year settled in New
+York, and is now turning out decorated faience after the styles seen in
+the English original. He uses imported Lambeth biscuit, and has erected
+a kiln in connection with his studio for firing the decoration. It is
+his intention, in course of time, to use American clays, in order to
+obviate the necessity of importing biscuit, and at the same time to
+obtain new shapes made after his own designs. Among his best ground
+colors are pale yellow, pale blue, and a rich brown tinged with red.
+The latter is very effectively used with leaves and flowers drawn over
+the piece in shades of green and yellow. All Bennett's pieces have an
+even and brilliant glaze. After what has been said of Lambeth faience,
+no attempt need here be made to characterize the art represented by this
+ware. It will be, as indeed it deserves to be, admired; and America
+ought to be congratulated upon the acquisition of so good a
+representative of the Lambeth school of decorators.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 458.--Bennett Faience. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+The tile-piece at the opening of the book devoted to America (page 391)
+was painted by Mr. F. T. Vance, of New York. The drawing is excellent,
+and the design is original and decidedly meritorious. The arrangement of
+the figures gives a life to this and other pieces by the same artist
+entirely lacking in the styles of tile-painting, which consist of a
+repetition on each tile of the same design, or of varied but independent
+designs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 459.--Bennett Faience. (D. Collamore.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 460.--Lambeth Faience. Decorated by Bennett.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 461.--Plate Painted by Mr. John M. Falconer.]
+
+Mr. John M. Falconer, of Brooklyn, is an artist who has devoted himself
+very successfully to ceramic decoration. Some of his designs on
+Greenpoint porcelain (see Fig. 455) are very pleasing, and the coloring
+is chaste and well handled. A more ambitious work is that given below
+(Fig. 461), an appropriate wedding-gift to an artist's daughter. The
+distance toward which the bride and groom are walking is rose-hued, and
+the church-spire and foliage partake of the effect. Roses are strewn
+along the path. A heavy knotted white sash forms a curtain and encloses
+the scene. Above, in a lunette of dark blue bordered with white pearls,
+is a golden-haired Cupid holding a box of wedding-cake, with the names
+of the lady and gentleman on the lid. The border of the plate is a deep
+flat pink, with a narrow outer line of white. The plate is remarkable
+both as a work of art and for the delicate manner in which, as a gift,
+it conveys the congratulations and good wishes of the giver. Some of his
+works, besides the one above alluded to, are in the possession of Mr. T.
+C. Smith; and others, both in camaieu and polychrome, are entitled and
+owned as follows: "Independence Hall," Rev. Morgan Dix, D.D.; "The Old
+Clothing Store, Boston," Mrs. C. F. Blake; "Albert Durer's House," and
+"The Oldest House in St. Louis, Missouri," Charles Brown, Troy, New
+York; "Shakspeare's House," Edward Green, New York; "A Smoke Fancy,"
+"Autumn, Montclair, New Jersey," "Church at West Point," "Moonlit
+Lake," Aaron Vail, Jr., Troy, New York; "Crescent Moon," John Gale,
+Esq.; "Killearn Manse, Scotland," Hon. M. B. Macleay, New York; "The Old
+Tower, Newport," Mrs. S. P. Avery; "Across the Water," F. A. Bridgman,
+Paris; "At Montreal," George H. Boughton, London; "At Wilmington, North
+Carolina," Mrs. J. P. Whitehead, Newark, New Jersey; "Old Castle,
+Sunset," Alfred Jones, Yonkers, New York; "The Philosopher," Rev. L. L.
+Noble, Annandale, New York; "Moonlight," Charles Parsons, Montclair, New
+Jersey; landscape, and a set of two blue and one yellow vases, Hon.
+George B. Warren, Jr., Troy, New York. Mr. Falconer has the advantages
+of a cultivated taste and well-trained skill to help him win such a
+reputation as might induce him to substitute, even to a greater extent
+than at present, porcelain or pottery for the more perishable canvas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 462.--Limoges Porcelain and Silver. (Reed & Barton,
+N. Y.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 463.--Copeland Porcelain and Silver. (Reed & Barton,
+N. Y.)]
+
+There remains to be noticed an artistic combination in which, although
+it has long been practised in Europe, American workmen have recently
+succeeded in producing exceptionally fine effects. Reference is made to
+the combination of metal and porcelain. We have seen with pleasure
+slender and exquisitely wrought stands of silver and gold, in which
+delicately painted French porcelain dishes and basins are converted into
+card-receivers, flower-stands, and fruit-dishes. A great deal of taste
+can be displayed in the selection of colors to suit the metal, as well
+as in the deeper harmony which reproduces in silver or gold the flower
+stems on the porcelain. Chinese porcelain, in rich colors--green, pink,
+and blue--is similarly treated. Pieces of the Green family are
+tastefully set in silver and gold, the mouldings on the bands of metal
+corresponding with the painted borders of the porcelain.
+
+From such specimens of a double art we turn to others less rich, but
+scarcely less attractive. Faience vases are mounted in bronze and
+brightly burnished brass, and derive a new character from the
+association. Works of this class show that, while it is possible to
+define the limits of the field peculiar to ceramic art, its place in
+household decoration cannot be specified with equal precision. Already
+it has entered into effective alliances with the arts of the
+silversmith, goldsmith, the workers in the baser metals, of the
+enameller, the carver, and the cabinet-maker. In these several relations
+it is not now intended to follow it farther. They would lead to the
+consideration of many arts essentially distinct, and as foreign to each
+other as to that whose history has led us from the sun-dried bricks of
+Egypt to the porcelain of Greenpoint.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 464.--Worcester Porcelain and Silver. (J. W. Britton
+Coll.)]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Abaquesne, Marreot, 281.
+
+Abraham, Copeland's director, 383.
+
+Abubeker, 191.
+
+Adam, director at Vincennes, 314.
+
+Adobes, 396.
+
+Africa, 213, 216, 217, 241.
+
+Agapenor, 201.
+
+"Agate" ware, 361.
+
+Agostino, assistant of Luca della Robbia, 253, 263.
+
+Agyllos, 241.
+
+Ahriman, 190.
+
+Ainos, 163.
+
+Akai, 161.
+
+Alabastros, 225.
+
+Alambra, 203.
+
+Albany slip, 457.
+
+Alcora, 239.
+
+Alencon, 53, 317.
+
+Alexander the Great, 190, 200.
+
+Algeria, 216.
+
+Alhambra, 235, 236, 247.
+
+Ali, 191.
+
+Alluaud, director at Limoges, 321.
+
+Amasis, 200.
+
+Amathus, 201, 204.
+
+Amazon, tribes on, 417.
+
+Ambrosio, son of Andrea della Robbia, 253.
+
+America, 391-487
+ (_see_ South America, Central America, Mound-builders,
+ Indians, United States).
+
+American china, 463.
+
+American clays, 446, _et seq._
+
+American Crockery Company, Trenton, 462.
+
+American Pottery Company, 455.
+
+Ameya, 160.
+
+Ammon, 85.
+
+Amphora,--ae, 24, 27, 90, 222, 224.
+
+Amstel, 343.
+
+Andrea della Robbia, 253.
+
+Anglo-Roman pottery, 354.
+
+Anglo-Saxon pottery, 355.
+
+Anspach, faience, 330;
+ porcelain, 341.
+
+Antonio, artist at Ferrara and Faenza, 262.
+
+Antwerp, majolica, 331.
+
+Aphrodite, 201.
+
+Apostle mugs, 336.
+
+Apries, 200.
+
+Apulia, 221, 265, 293, 295.
+
+Arabesque, origin of, 213.
+
+Arabs, 189, 190, 213, 214, 217, 218, 233, et seq., 273.
+
+Araguaya Indians, 438.
+
+Archaic Greek vases, 229.
+
+Arequipa, 410.
+
+Aretine ware, 246.
+
+Arita, 161, 172, 176, 179.
+
+Arizona, 429, _et seq._
+
+Arsenal Pottery, Trenton, 462.
+
+Artaxerxes, 190.
+
+Articulated vase, 153.
+
+Artificial porcelain, invented in Europe, 52;
+ classification, 55, 56, and meaning of term 57;
+ analysis, 61;
+ difficulty of its manufacture, 81;
+ Chinese, 122;
+ Persian, 122, 196;
+ Spanish, 238;
+ Italian, 265, _et seq._;
+ French, 312, _et seq._;
+ English, 376, _et seq._;
+ American, 457, 458, 471, 472.
+
+Aryballos, 226.
+
+Arystichos, 226.
+
+Asia Minor, 211, 213, 214, 215.
+
+Askos, 224.
+
+Assyria, --n, 32, 63-65, 97-102, 198, _et seq._, 220, 426;
+ porcelain, 100.
+
+Astarte, 202, 204.
+
+Astbury, English potter, 360;
+ uses calcined flint, 361.
+
+Astbury & Maddock, Trenton, 460.
+
+Aster decoration, 130.
+
+Athieno, 203.
+
+Aubry, M., director at St. Clement, 311.
+
+Aue, kaolin of, 53, 337.
+
+Augustus II., director at Meissen, 338.
+
+Augustus III., director at Meissen, 338.
+
+Auteuil, Haviland's workshop at, 287.
+
+Avisseau of Tours, 277.
+
+Awadji, 171.
+
+Awata, 167, 171.
+
+Aztecs, 423.
+
+Azulejos, 216, 233, 236, 239;
+ Minton's, 366, 368.
+
+
+Babel, 22, 101.
+
+Babylon, 65, 97.
+
+Babylonia, 64, 98.
+
+Bacchus, 21, 22.
+
+Baden, porcelain of, 340.
+
+Bahia, 416.
+
+Bagnall, 360.
+
+Baireuth, 330; porcelain, 341.
+
+Balboa, 418.
+
+Balearic Islands, 236, 248
+ (_see_ Majorca, Minorca, Ivica).
+
+Baltimore, Maryland, 455.
+
+Banko-yaki, 171.
+
+Banks & Turner, 382.
+
+Barberini Vase, 363.
+
+Barbin of Mennecy, 313.
+
+Barbizet of Paris, 277.
+
+Barcelona, 234, 237.
+
+Barlow, Arthur, 371.
+
+Barlow, Hannah B., 371.
+
+Barr, Martin, Worcester, 380.
+
+Bartlem, potter in South Carolina, 454.
+
+Basaltes, Wedgwood's, 364.
+
+Battersea, 380.
+
+Battisto Franco, 257.
+
+Battus, 216.
+
+Beauvais, 273.
+
+Becker, workman at Hoexter, 341.
+
+Belgium, 331;
+ porcelain, 343.
+
+Belleek, Ireland, porcelain of, 388, _et seq._
+
+Benedetto, artist at Siena, 255.
+
+Bengrath Oppal, director at Meissen, 338.
+
+Bennett, John, New York, 483.
+
+Bennington, Vermont, 457;
+ porcelain, 472.
+
+Benten, 162.
+
+Berlin, 338, 341, 342.
+
+Bernardo Buontalenti, inventor of Medicean porcelain, 268.
+
+Bernart, Jehan, 279.
+
+Beverly, Massachusetts, 468.
+
+Beyerle, Baron de, 310.
+
+Biagio, artist at Faenza and Ferrara, 262.
+
+Bikos, 223.
+
+Billingsley, or Beely, 387.
+
+Bingley, Thomas, 376.
+
+Binns, R. W., director at Worcester, 380.
+
+Birkenhead, 375.
+
+Biscuit, meaning of, 53.
+
+Bis-ja-mon, 162, 163.
+
+Bissen, Danish sculptor, 349, 351.
+
+Bleu fouette, 132.
+
+Blois faience, 308.
+
+Bloor, Ott & Booth, Trenton, 462.
+
+Bloor, Robert, 379.
+
+Bloor, Trenton potter, 460.
+
+Blue-and-white porcelain of China, 123, _et seq._;
+ of Japan, 126, 175.
+
+Blue of the sky after rain, 122, 131.
+
+Blunger, 67.
+
+Boccaro, 119.
+
+Boileau, director at Sevres, 314.
+
+Bone, enameller (Plymouth), 377.
+
+Bordeaux, 312;
+ porcelain, 320.
+
+Boettcher, 52, 336, 337, 452.
+
+Bourg-la-Reine, 288, 302, 303, 304.
+
+Bow china, 377, 379, 471.
+
+Boyle, John, partner of Minton, 366.
+
+Bracquemond, M. and Mme., 288, 291, 295, 322.
+
+Bradwell stone-ware, 360.
+
+Bramelds of Swinton, 386.
+
+Bramfield, J. and W., 376.
+
+Brazil, 413, 414-417.
+
+Breslau, 329.
+
+Brewer, J. Hart, Trenton, 462, 465.
+
+Brichard, Eloi, director at Vincennes, 314.
+
+Bricks, 88, 89, 98, 101, 106, 220, etc.
+
+Brick stamp, 88, 101.
+
+Bristol pottery, 373;
+ porcelain, 376, 386.
+
+Britain, Great, and Ireland, 352-390.
+
+Brongniart, director at Sevres, his classification, 54, 55, 315, 316, 318.
+
+Broome, Isaac, Trenton artist, 464, _et seq._
+
+Brosely pottery, 375.
+
+Brown, Westhead, Moore & Company, 388.
+
+Bruehl, Count, 338, 339.
+
+Brussels, 331;
+ porcelain, 343.
+
+Buddha, 110, 111.
+
+Buddhism, 111, 161.
+
+Buen Retiro, 238.
+
+Bunsen, 85, 241.
+
+Burroughs, G. S., Trenton, 462.
+
+Burslem, 360;
+ Wedgwood at, 362.
+
+Butler, Frank A., 371.
+
+Byzantium, --ine, 241, 248.
+
+
+Caballito, Peruvian, 409.
+
+Cabuahuil, 421.
+
+Cairo, 214.
+
+Caistor ware, 354.
+
+Caldas, 239.
+
+Caldwell & Wood, 364.
+
+Callimachus and the Corinthian order, 301.
+
+Caltagirone, 247.
+
+Camaieu, 123, 282, 333.
+
+Cambrian Pottery, 387.
+
+Cambridge, Massachusetts, 468.
+
+Cambyses, 29, 200.
+
+Camillo, artist at Ferrara, 262.
+
+Campania, 241.
+
+Campbell, Colin Minton, 360, 368.
+
+Capo di Monte, 268, 269, 270.
+
+Carolina, clays, 440, 447;
+ works in, 454.
+
+Carr, James, New York, 458, 463.
+
+Cartalege, Charles, Greenpoint, 472.
+
+Casa Pirota, 261.
+
+Castel-Durante, 257.
+
+Castellani collection, 185, 243, 247, 252, 261, 262, 266.
+
+Castelli, 264.
+
+Catto, artist at Faenza and Ferrara, 262.
+
+Caughley, 387.
+
+Celadon, 116, 131, 150, 161, 179, 195, 197.
+
+Celts, --ic, 274;
+ Irish, 353.
+
+Central America, 418-424.
+
+Ceramic art, its origin, 19, _et seq._;
+ etymology of "ceramic," 22, 49;
+ general view of, _see_ Introduction;
+ its struggles in America, 444, _et seq._
+
+Cesnola, General L. P., 199, 202, _et seq._
+
+Chaffagiolo, 255.
+
+Chaffers, Richard, 374, 471.
+
+Chamberlains of Worcester, 380.
+
+Chambrette, Jacques, Luneville, 310.
+
+Champion, Richard, 376, 386.
+
+Chang-ti, 110, 111.
+
+Chanon, Commissioner at Sevres, 315.
+
+Cha-no-yu, 160.
+
+Chantilly, porcelain of, 313.
+
+Chapelle of Sceaux, 311.
+
+Chaplet, artist, 288, 302.
+
+Chelsea-Derby, 379.
+
+Chelsea (England) porcelain, 377, _et seq._
+
+Chelsea (Massachusetts), 459, 468, _et seq._
+
+Cheou-lao, 111, 162.
+
+Cherokee, clay, 447.
+
+Cheroulion, 223.
+
+Cherpentier, Francois, 279.
+
+Chertsey, tiles, 355.
+
+Chicanneau, 52, 312.
+
+Chichimecs, 422, 426.
+
+Chili, --ans, 402, 408.
+
+Chimu, --s, 399, 400, 408, 409.
+
+China, --ese, general history, 109-153;
+ legend, 20, 110;
+ porcelain in Egypt, 25;
+ customs, 28, 292;
+ in Persia, 191, 196, 197;
+ general reference, 37, 107, 163, 164, et passim, to 188,
+ 213, 268, 270, 281, 283, 306, 313, 322, 324, 338, 377, 385, 408.
+
+Christ, 22.
+
+Christiania, faience of, 347.
+
+"Christian" porcelain, 164, 184.
+
+Chrysanthemo-Paeonian family, 138, 176, 177.
+
+Chulula, 424.
+
+Chytrai, 225.
+
+Cincinnati, 463.
+
+Citium, 201, 202.
+
+City Pottery, Trenton, 461.
+
+Clark, Shaw & Co., of Montereau, 307.
+
+Classification, 54, _et seq._
+
+Clay, composition of, 61.
+
+Clays, American, 446, _et seq._
+
+Clerissy family at Moustiers, 283.
+
+Clignancourt, 320.
+
+Cloisonne, enamel, 108, 181, 182;
+ Minton's, 367.
+
+Coast pottery of Peru, 400.
+
+Cobalt, blue, 123.
+
+Cockscomb, 124.
+
+Coke, John, Pinxton, 387.
+
+Colebrookdale Pottery, 375, 387.
+
+Colhuas, 422.
+
+Colinot of Paris, 306.
+
+Colombia, 417, 437.
+
+Colorado, 429, _et seq._
+
+Color, its place in Greek art, 36;
+ in Oriental art, 37, _et seq._;
+ how obtained, 65, 81.
+
+Composition of wares and glazes, 59.
+
+Concealed color, porcelain of, 123.
+
+Cones, Egyptian, 30, 89.
+
+Confucius, 111.
+
+Connecticut felspar, 449;
+ stone-ware made in, 454.
+
+Conrade Brothers, artists at Nevers, 282.
+
+Constantine, 241.
+
+Convent of Gratitude, 118.
+
+Cookworthy, William, 376, 386, 447.
+
+Copan, 423.
+
+Copeland parian, 366;
+ sketch of, 382, _et seq._;
+ porcelain and silver, 486.
+
+Copenhagen faience, 347;
+ porcelain, 351.
+
+Cordova, 217.
+
+Corea, 154, 155, 159, 161, 163, 313.
+
+Corean, 158, 160, 161, 164.
+
+Corinth, 241, 242.
+
+Cornwall kaolin, preparation of, 61;
+ analyses, 450;
+ used at Greenpoint, 449, 475.
+
+Coroados of Brazil, 415.
+
+Corrugated ware, from Colombia, 417;
+ from the West, 433, 437, 438, 439.
+
+Cortez, 423, 424.
+
+Costa Rica, 419.
+
+Coxon & Co., Trenton, 462.
+
+Coxside porcelain, 376.
+
+Cozzi, Geminiano, 269.
+
+Crackle, 116, 120, 148, 161, 168.
+
+Crauden's chapel tiles, 356.
+
+Cream-colored ware, Wedgwood's, 363;
+ American, 456, _et seq._
+
+Creil faience, 306;
+ porcelain, 307.
+
+Creussen stone-ware, 336.
+
+"Crouch-ware," 360.
+
+Crown-Derby, 379.
+
+Crusaders, 214, 247, 356, 357.
+
+Cuarto Real, 236.
+
+Cup of Tantalus, 152, 153.
+
+Cup of the learned, 125.
+
+Curium, 201, 204, 206, 207, 208.
+
+Custine, Count, 310.
+
+Customs illustrated by pottery, 26, _et seq._
+ (_see_ also different countries--Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, etc.).
+
+Cutts of Pinxton, 387.
+
+Cuzco, 400, 412.
+
+Cyffle, Paul Louis, Luneville and Niederviller, 310.
+
+Cyprus, 199, 220.
+
+Cypselus, 241.
+
+Cyrene, 216.
+
+Cyrus, 190.
+
+
+Daikokou, 162.
+
+Dali, 202, 206, 208, 209.
+
+Damascus, 214, 215.
+
+Damousse, artist, 288.
+
+Danaus, 21.
+
+Darmstadt, porcelain of, 341.
+
+Darnet, Mme., 53, 317.
+
+Davis, Isaac, Trenton, 460.
+
+Deck, faience of, 304;
+ porcelain, 324, 325.
+
+Decoration, best styles of, 44, 80, 81.
+
+Decorative Art Society, 483.
+
+Delaplanche, artist, 288, 292.
+
+Delaware, Indian pottery, 438;
+ Kaolin, 449.
+
+Delft, 136;
+ French, 311, 331, 333;
+ English, 358, 373, 454.
+
+Della Robbia ware, imitation, 265, 268, 366
+ (_see_ Luca, Andrea).
+
+Demaratus, 241, 242.
+
+Denmark, 347-351.
+
+Dennis, S., Connecticut potter, 454.
+
+Derby porcelain, 378, 379.
+
+Deruta, 263.
+
+Desima, 176, 186.
+
+De St. Criq & Company, at Creil, 307; at Montereau, 307.
+
+Difficult ware, 168.
+
+Dillwyn, Swansea, 387.
+
+Dinos, 225.
+
+Diogenes, 26, 27, 222.
+
+Diskos, 226.
+
+District of Columbia, Indian pottery, 438.
+
+Doccia, La, 268.
+
+Dog of Fo, 113, 157, 163.
+
+Dossi Brothers, artists at Ferrara, 262.
+
+Doulton ware, 370, _et seq._;
+ sketch of John Doulton, 370;
+ artists, 371;
+ terra cotta, 372;
+ imitation, 469.
+
+Dragons, Chinese, 112;
+ Japanese, 163.
+
+Dresden, 52, 336, _et seq._;
+ ware imitated, 381, 475.
+
+Dubarry, or Pompadour Rose, 315, 387.
+
+Dubois Brothers, 313.
+
+Duesbury family, 378, 379.
+
+Du Liege, porcelain painter, 324.
+
+Dunkirk, 311.
+
+Durantino, Francesco, 259.
+
+Dutch in Japan, 164.
+
+Dynastic colors of China, 115.
+
+Dwight, Dr., first English porcelain, 52.
+
+Dwight, John, potter at Fulham, 373.
+
+
+East Boston, 463.
+
+East Liverpool, 451, 452, 463.
+
+East Trenton Pottery Company, 462.
+
+Ebelman, director at Sevres, 315, 316, 326.
+
+Ecouen, chateau of, 281.
+
+Egg pottery, 171.
+
+Egg-shell porcelain, 133, 140;
+ French, 322.
+
+Egypt, --ian, 20, legend, 21;
+ Chinese porcelain in, 25;
+ customs illustrated by pottery, 29-31, 89, _et seq._;
+ porcelain, 48, 62, 92, _et seq._;
+ glaze, 63-65, 91, 92;
+ symbols, 85, _et seq._;
+ in Cyprus, 198, _et seq._;
+ in Etruria, 243;
+ processes, 71, 74;
+ history and general reference, 82-96, 97, 98, 99, 101,
+ 102, 103, 104, 220, 242.
+
+Elers Brothers, 360.
+
+"El Frate," artist at Ferrara, 263.
+
+El Moro, 431.
+
+Ely tiles, 357.
+
+Enamel, 63-65.
+ (_See_ Stanniferous.)
+
+Encaustic tiles, 366.
+
+England, first porcelain made in, 52, 242, 352, _et seq._;
+ tiles, 355;
+ lead-glazed pottery, 357;
+ Delft, 358;
+ porcelain, 376;
+ her debt to America, 447.
+
+English marks in America, 445.
+
+English porcelain, composition, 61;
+ history, 376, _et seq._
+
+Eraku, 179.
+
+Etruria, 241, _et seq._;
+ Wedgwood's, 364.
+
+Etruria Pottery Company, Trenton, 462, _et seq._
+
+Etruscan, 240, _et seq._;
+ black, red, and yellow ware, 243.
+
+Ettlinger, commissioner at Sevres, 315.
+
+Europe, 198.
+
+European art, its fountains, 198.
+
+Evagoras, 200.
+
+
+Faenza, 261, 262, 265, 424.
+
+Faience defined, 49;
+ a niellure, 280;
+ a la corne, 282.
+
+Falconer, John M., artist, 484, 485.
+
+Families of Chinese porcelain, 138.
+
+Fauquez family, St. Amand, 311;
+ of Valenciennes, 320.
+
+Ferrara, 262.
+
+"Fine style," Greek, 230.
+
+Flanders, faience of, 311.
+ (_See_ Gres de Flandre.)
+
+Flashed glaze, 133.
+
+Flights of Worcester, 380.
+
+Florence, porcelain invented at, 52;
+ its majolica, 255;
+ porcelain, 265.
+
+"Florid style," Greek, 230.
+
+Florida, Indian pottery, 438;
+ clay, 446.
+
+Flushing, Long Island, 463.
+
+Fo, 110, 113.
+
+Fogen, 159.
+
+Fong-hoang, 114, 163.
+
+Fontana family, 258.
+
+Fontenoy vase, 23.
+
+Forli, 262.
+
+Fou-hi, 110.
+
+Fouque, Joseph, 284.
+
+Fournier, 351.
+
+Fourniera of Limoges, 320.
+
+France, 271-326;
+ ancient, 271-273;
+ porcelain, composition of, 60;
+ history, 312, _et seq._
+
+Francesco Durantino, 259.
+
+Francesco Maria, 255.
+
+Francesco Vezzi, 269.
+
+Francesco Xanto, 258.
+
+Francis I., 266.
+
+Frankenthal, 317, 341.
+
+Frye, Thomas, artist at Bow, 377.
+
+Fulham settled by Dutch, 358;
+ stone-ware, 359, 373.
+
+Furnaces, 74, _et seq._
+
+Fuerstenburg, porcelain of, 340, 351.
+
+
+Gallienus, 25.
+
+Galloway & Graiff, Philadelphia, 455.
+
+Garducci, artist at Urbino, 258.
+
+Garrett, partner of Copeland, 383.
+
+Gaul, 272.
+
+Gelanor, 21.
+
+Geminiano Cozzi, 269.
+
+Genghis Khan, 190.
+
+Georgia, Indian pottery, 438;
+ clay, 446;
+ kaolin, 451.
+
+Gerault Daraubert, 317.
+
+Germany, pottery of, 327-330;
+ stone-ware, 333-336;
+ porcelain, composition of, 60, 336-342.
+
+Gien faience, 309.
+
+Ginori, Marquis Carlo, 268.
+
+Gioanetti, Dr., founds factory at Vineuf, 270.
+
+Giorgio Andreoli, imitator of Luca della Robbia, 253;
+ artist at Gubbio, 259, _et seq._
+
+Giovanni, son of Andrea della Robbia, 253.
+
+Girolamo, son of Andrea della Robbia, 253.
+
+Giyoki, or Gyoguy, 73, 159, 160.
+
+Glasgow Pottery Company, 460, 462.
+
+Glaze, porcelain, 60;
+ artificial porcelain, 61;
+ pottery, 63;
+ history of, 64, 80, 81.
+
+Glazing, 80, 81.
+
+Glot of Sceaux, 311.
+
+Goeggingen, 330.
+
+Golgoi, 203.
+
+Goodwin, John, Trenton, 460.
+
+Gosai, 176, 177.
+
+Goths, 217.
+
+Graeco-Egyptian, 91.
+
+Graffiti, 249;
+ Minton's, 367.
+
+"Grains of rice" work, 152, 197.
+
+Granada, 216, 218, 233, 236.
+
+Granite-ware, 456, _et seq._
+
+Gravant, director at Vincennes, 314.
+
+Graybeards stone-ware, 335.
+
+Greatbatch, D., modeller, at Jersey City, 456.
+
+Greece,--eek, legend as to origin of pottery, 21, 22;
+ conquests defined, 24;
+ customs illustrated by pottery, 26-28, 227;
+ painting, 32-34, 36, 37, 221, 222, 228-232;
+ forms, 35, 41, 223, _et seq._, 264, 326;
+ whence derived, 90, 209-212, 219, _et seq._;
+ glaze, 65, 222, 223, 273;
+ moulding and modelling, 68;
+ wheel, 72, 73;
+ furnaces, 74-76;
+ in Cyprus, 199, _et seq._;
+ origin of Greek art, 198-212;
+ general history, 219-232;
+ sun-dried pottery, 220;
+ terra-cotta, 220;
+ styles, 228, _et seq._;
+ influence in Italy, 240, _et seq._, 264;
+ in France, 292, 295;
+ in Denmark, 347-350;
+ in Brazil, 414;
+ in United States, 455, _et seq._ _passim_, 467, 470;
+ general reference, 20, 49, 84, 95, 110, 190, 191, 192,
+ 198, 240, 273, 299, 392, 404, 477.
+
+Green family, China, 130, 139.
+
+Greenpoint porcelain, 443;
+ imported kaolin, 449;
+ kilns, 463;
+ history, 472, _et seq._;
+ ingredients, 475, 476;
+ biscuit, 478.
+
+Greenwood Pottery Company, 462.
+
+Grellet Brothers of Limoges, 320.
+
+Gres de Flandre, 336;
+ revived by Doulton, 370.
+
+Gros-Caillou, 311.
+
+Grosso, artist at Ferrara, 263.
+
+Guatemala, 420.
+
+Gubbio, 259.
+
+Gueguetenango, 420, 421.
+
+Guettard, chemist at Bagnolet, 317.
+
+Guidobaldo II., 257, 259, 261.
+
+Guik-mon, 161.
+
+
+Hague, the, 343.
+
+Haguenau, 286.
+
+Haji, 158, 159.
+
+Halm Art Pottery Company, New York, 468.
+
+Hancock, R., engraver, 381.
+
+Handley, A., artist at Worcester, 381.
+
+Hanford, Isaac, potter at Hartford, 454.
+
+Hangest, Helene de, 279.
+
+Hannong, Charles Francois, potter at Strasburg, 286;
+ family, 286, 312, 316, 320, 341.
+
+Hard porcelain. (_See_ Natural.)
+
+Harrison, partner of Wedgwood, 362.
+
+Hartford, Connecticut, 454.
+
+Harvey & Adamson, Philadelphia, 455.
+
+Hattersley, Charles, Trenton, 461.
+
+Haviland, Charles Field, 325.
+
+Havilands, of New York and Limoges, 287;
+ their faience and process, 287, 288;
+ their artists, 288;
+ examples, 291, _et seq._;
+ mark, 304; porcelain, 321, _et seq._;
+ faience imitated, 469.
+
+Hawthorn pattern, Chinese, 128; black, 129.
+
+Helstone china clay, 376.
+
+Hemphill, Judge, Philadelphia, 472.
+
+Henderson & Co., D., Jersey City, 455, 472.
+
+Henri Deux ware, 63, 279;
+ Minton's, 367.
+
+Herbertsville, New Jersey, 455.
+
+Herculaneum pottery, 375.
+
+Hermann, 24.
+
+Hesdin, 273.
+
+Hesse-Cassel, porcelain of, 341.
+
+Hide-yoshi, 160.
+
+Hindoos, 105.
+
+Hirschvogel, 329.
+
+Hispano-Moresque, 217, 233, _et seq._, 240.
+
+History illustrated by pottery, 23, 139.
+
+Hizen, 160, 161, 175, _et seq._, 179.
+
+Hoang-ti, 20, 110, 113, 116.
+
+Hoechst, faience, 330; porcelain, 340.
+
+Holland, faience, 331-333;
+ porcelain, 343.
+
+Holmos, 225.
+
+Holdship, Josiah, Worcester, 381.
+
+Hollins, Michael Daintry, 366, 368.
+
+Homer, 75.
+
+Ho-nan, 121.
+
+Honduras, 423.
+
+Honorific marks, 123.
+
+Horoldt, director at Meissen, 337, 338.
+
+Hotei, 162.
+
+Houdayer, John F., Trenton, 460.
+
+Hoexter, 341.
+
+Hudson River Pottery, New York, 457.
+
+Hulaku, Khan, 191, 193.
+
+Hydria, 224.
+
+Hyrche, 223.
+
+
+Iberian peninsula, 233-239.
+
+Ibis mummy pots, 90.
+
+Idalium, 202, 203.
+
+Illinois, ancient, 431, 438;
+ kaolin, 449.
+
+Imari, 175.
+
+Inachus, 21.
+
+Incas of Peru, 395.
+
+India, 105-108, 138.
+
+"Indian" porcelain, 187.
+
+Indiana kaolin, 449.
+
+Indians, North American, 425, 429-441.
+
+Inland pottery of Peru, 400.
+
+Ipsen, Mme., 347.
+
+Ireland, ancient, 353.
+
+Iron-stone china, 458.
+
+Irving, 24.
+
+Ise, 160, 172.
+
+Israelites, 31, 88.
+
+Italy: potter's wheel, 73;
+ furnaces, 76, 217;
+ history, 240-270;
+ general character of its art, 264;
+ porcelain, 265, _et seq._;
+ influence in France, 273.
+
+Ivica, 236.
+
+"Ivory porcelain," 463.
+
+
+Jacqueline, Countess, 333.
+
+Jacques, manufacturer at Bourg-la-Reine, 304.
+
+Jade, 146, _et seq._, 149, 150.
+
+Jade-colored porcelain, 123, 146, 147.
+
+Jasper-ware, Wedgwood's, 364, 365.
+
+Jeffords & Co., Philadelphia, 455.
+
+Jehan de Voleur, 273.
+
+Jehovah, 21.
+
+Jerichau, Danish sculptor, 351.
+
+Jersey City, New Jersey, 455, 472;
+ decorated earthen-ware, 483.
+
+Jewelled porcelain, Sevres, 315;
+ Copeland's, 384.
+
+Jinmu, 158.
+
+Joubert & Cancate, makers of porcelain, Limoges, 321.
+
+Jou-yao, 122.
+
+Judaea, 103, 104.
+
+Jullien, manufacturer at Bourg-la-Reine, 304.
+
+Jupiter, 21.
+
+
+Kados, 224.
+
+Kaga, 170, 175, 179, _et seq._
+
+Kagoshima, 167.
+
+Kalpis, 225.
+
+Kami,--ism, 20, 161.
+
+Kandler, artist at Meissen, 337-339.
+
+Kanoun, 226.
+
+Kantharos, 226.
+
+Kaolin, 51;
+ discovered in Saxony, 52, 337;
+ in France, 53;
+ St. Yrieix, 316;
+ Alencon, 317;
+ etymology, 59;
+ composition, 59;
+ how prepared, 59, _et seq._;
+ American, 447, _et seq._
+
+Karatsu, 172.
+
+Kato Shirozayemon, 144, 159, 160.
+
+Kato-siro-ouye-mon, _ibid._
+
+Kean, Michael, partner of Duesbury, 379.
+
+Keironan, 216.
+
+Kelebe, 225.
+
+Keller & Guerin, Luneville, 310.
+
+Keramos, 22, 49.
+
+Kiel, 347.
+
+Kien-long, 134, 135, 138.
+
+Kilns, 71, 74, _et seq._;
+ in America, 463.
+
+King-teh-chin, 112, 122, 123, 126, 133, 135, 137, 142, 150.
+
+Kioto, 167, 171, 175, 179.
+
+Kiri-mon, 161.
+
+Kiusiu, 167, 172.
+
+Korzec, porcelain of, 345.
+
+Kothon, 225.
+
+Kotylos, 226.
+
+Kouan-yao, 122, 123, 127.
+
+Kouei, 124.
+
+Kouen-ou, 20, 116.
+
+Koung-tseu, 111.
+
+Koutsi fakata, 159.
+
+Krater, 225.
+
+Kraut, Hans, 330.
+
+Krossos, 225.
+
+Kuan-in, 111.
+
+Kutani, 170.
+
+Kyathos, 226.
+
+Kylin, 113, 163.
+
+Kylix, 27, 209, 226.
+
+
+La China, 239.
+
+Lacquer, 165, 181.
+
+Ladies' Art Association, 483.
+
+Lafond, artist, 288, 302.
+
+Lagynos, 224.
+
+Lake dwellers, 327, 395.
+
+Lambeth settled by Dutch, 358;
+ stone-ware, 359;
+ faience, 370;
+ school of art, 371;
+ artists, 371;
+ American, 458, 483.
+
+Lambrequin decoration, 124.
+
+Lamoninary, Valenciennes, 320.
+
+Lancelle, 127.
+
+Lang lizen, 125.
+
+Land of Great Peace, 163.
+
+Lanfranco Brothers, 257.
+
+Lanfrey, Francois, manager at Niederviller, 310.
+
+Lao-tseu, 111.
+
+Lapis-lazuli blue, 132.
+
+Larnaca, 202, 205.
+
+Lathrop, Charles, potter at Norwich, 454.
+
+Laughlin, Mr., East Liverpool, 451, 452.
+
+Lauragais, Count de Brancas, 317.
+
+Laurin, artist, 288, 302, 303, 304.
+
+Learned, cup of the, 125.
+
+Leboeuf and Thebaut, 307.
+
+Leboeuf, Milliet & Co., of Creil, 307.
+
+Leeds pottery, 374.
+
+Leipsic, 329.
+
+Lekythos, 225.
+
+Lelong, Nicholas, founds Nancy, 311.
+
+Lemire, artist at Niederviller, 310.
+
+Levigating mills, 452.
+
+Licou-li, 118.
+
+Lille faience, 311;
+ porcelain, 313, 320.
+Limoges faience, 286;
+ porcelain, 320;
+ imitated, 469;
+ with metal, 486.
+
+Lindeneher, artist, 288.
+
+Lindenir, painter at Meissen, 338.
+
+Literature enriched by figures, 31.
+
+Liverpool delft, 358, 374, 380.
+
+Locker & Co., Derby, 379.
+
+Longevity, god of, 111;
+ symbols, 114, 124, 163.
+
+Longwy faience, 307.
+
+Loosdrecht, 343.
+
+Lotus as a symbol, 85.
+
+Louisiana, ancient, 431, 439.
+
+Lowe, Alexander, director at Vienna, 340.
+
+Lowestoft pottery, 375;
+ porcelain, 376.
+
+Luca della Robbia, 247;
+ sketch of his life, 250, _et seq._;
+ his works, 251;
+ the younger Luca, 253;
+ successors and imitators, 253, 263, 329.
+
+Lucumon, 242.
+
+Ludwigsburg, 341.
+
+Luneville, 310.
+
+Luson, Herolin, 375.
+
+Lyman, Fenton & Co., 457, 472.
+
+Lynch, J. and T., Trenton, 461.
+
+
+Macquoid & Co., W. A., New York, 457.
+
+Madrid, 238, 239.
+
+Magistrates' porcelain, 122, 123.
+
+Magna Graecia, 241, 244, 245, 246, 265, 295.
+
+Maine felspar, 449.
+
+Majolica, defined, 49-51;
+ how painted, 80, 193;
+ imported into Italy, 249, 254;
+ earliest Italian, 255;
+ Wedgwood, 365;
+ Minton, 366, 368;
+ Carr, 459.
+
+Majorca, 234, 236, 248, 249, 250.
+
+Malaga, 234, 235.
+
+Malmesbury tiles, 355.
+
+Malpass, William, 376.
+
+Malvern tiles, 355.
+
+Mancos, 433.
+
+Mandan Indians, 430.
+
+Mandarin vases, 135.
+
+Manhattan Pottery, 457.
+
+Manises, 234.
+
+Manor-house, York, pottery, 376.
+
+Manufacture, 66, _et seq._
+
+Marburg, 330.
+
+Marcolini, Count, director at Meissen, 338.
+
+Marieberg, faience of, 346, 347.
+
+Marreot Abaquesne, 281.
+
+Marseilles, founded by Phoenicians, 273;
+ faience, 285;
+ porcelain, 317.
+
+Maryland Indians, 440;
+ felspar and quartz, 449.
+
+Massie, Sieur, potter at Limoges, 286, 320.
+
+Mayer, Joseph, Trenton, 462.
+
+Mazarine blue, 132.
+
+Mecca, Temple of, 213.
+
+Medicean porcelain, 52, 185, 265, _et seq._
+
+Meissen, 52, 53, 337, _et seq._, 475.
+
+Melchiorre, Fra, 262.
+
+Mennecy, porcelain of, 313.
+
+Mercer Pottery, Trenton, 462.
+
+Mercury, 21.
+
+Mesopotamia, 211.
+
+Metallic lustre, 50, 65;
+ how applied, 80, 193, 195, 217, 233, _et seq._, 240, 247, 249, 254.
+
+Mexico, 418, 421, _et seq._
+
+Meyer, commissioner at Sevres, 315.
+
+Mezza-majolica, 50, 249, 254.
+
+Mikado, 158, 161, 163.
+
+Miles, Thomas, stone-ware maker, 360.
+
+Millham Pottery, Trenton, 462.
+
+Millington, Mr., Trenton, 460, 461.
+
+Ming dynasty, porcelain of, 123, 133, _et passim._
+
+Mino, 175.
+
+Minorca, 236.
+
+Minton & Co., Henri Deux ware, 281;
+ pate-sur-pate, 326;
+ sketch of firm, 365, _et seq._;
+ porcelain, 382.
+
+Minton, Herbert, 366, et seq.
+
+Minton, Hollins & Co., 368.
+
+Minton, Thomas, 365, 366.
+
+Mississippi, 425, 426, 427, 430, 439.
+
+Missouri, ancient pottery, 425, 426, 427;
+ Indian, 430;
+ kaolin, 449, 450.
+
+Mitla, 423, 424.
+
+Moguls in Persia, 191, 195.
+
+Mohammed, 190, 191; tomb of, 214, 247.
+
+Mohammed-ben-Alhamar, 235.
+
+Moore, Joseph H., Trenton, 462.
+
+Moncloa, 239.
+
+"Monkey," Brazilian, 416.
+
+Montereau faience, 307.
+
+Montesinos, Spanish historian, 394.
+
+Montezuma, 423.
+
+Moorhead & Wilson, Spring Mills, Pennsylvania, 455.
+
+Moors,--ish, 216, 218, 233, _et seq._, 241.
+
+Moquis, 436, 438.
+
+Moreau, Marie, porcelain-maker, Paris, 313.
+
+Moresque, 189, 234.
+
+Moringues, 416.
+
+Morocco, 216.
+
+Moscow, porcelain of, 345.
+
+Moses, James, Trenton, 462.
+
+Moses, John, & Co., Trenton, 462.
+
+Moulding, 68.
+
+Mound-builders, 425-428, 438, 439, 440.
+
+Moustiers, 283.
+
+Muller, Danish minister, 351.
+
+Mueller, Karl, Greenpoint, 475, 476.
+
+Mummy figures, 93.
+
+Murviedro, 233.
+
+Mylitta, 202.
+
+
+Nagasaki, 176, 184.
+
+Nagoya, 181.
+
+Nancy faience, 311.
+
+Nankin blue, 123, 175.
+
+Nankin, tower of, 118.
+
+Nantes, 312.
+
+Nantgarrow, 387.
+
+Naples, 238;
+ majolica, 264.
+
+Natchez Indians, 430.
+
+Natural porcelain, its ingredients, 51;
+ invented in Europe, 52;
+ classification, 55, 56;
+ meaning of term, 57;
+ analysis, 60;
+ Egyptian, 62, 92;
+ Assyrian, 99, 100;
+ Indian, 107;
+ Chinese, 121, _et seq._;
+ Corean, 154, 155;
+ Japanese, 159-161, 164, 174, _et seq._;
+ Persian, 191, 195, _et seq._;
+ Spanish, 239;
+ Portuguese, 239;
+ Italian, 270;
+ French, 316, _et seq._;
+ German, 336, _et seq._;
+ Dutch, 343;
+ Russian, 344, 345;
+ Danish, 351;
+ English, 376, 377;
+ Irish, 388, 389;
+ American, 443, 455, 459, _et seq._, 471, _et seq._
+
+Neo-Paphos, 201, 204.
+
+Neudeck-Nymphenburg, 341.
+
+Neuhaus, 340.
+
+Nevers, 282.
+
+New England Pottery Co., 463.
+
+Newhall china, 386.
+
+New Jersey, Indian pottery, 437, 440;
+ clays, 448, _et seq._;
+ analyzed, 450, 451.
+
+New Mexico, 429, _et seq._
+
+New York, 457-459.
+
+Nicaragua, 419, 421, 424, 438.
+
+Nicola da Urbino, 259.
+
+Nicoloso Francesco, artist of Robbia school, 253.
+
+Niederviller faience, 310;
+ porcelain, 320.
+
+Nile, 21, 83, 89, 216.
+
+Nishikide, 161, 176, 177.
+
+Nisser, Danish, 350.
+
+Noel, artist, 288.
+
+Nomino-Soukoune, 158.
+
+Normans in England, 355.
+
+North American Indians. (_See_ Indians, North American.)
+
+Northamptonshire, ancient, 354.
+
+Northcomb, Huart de, 307.
+
+"Northern faience," 346.
+
+Norwalk, Connecticut, 455.
+
+Norwich, Connecticut, 454.
+
+Nottingham, 375.
+
+Nove, Le, porcelain, 268, 269.
+
+Num, 21.
+
+Numa Pompilius, 244.
+
+Nuremberg, 329, 330.
+
+Nyon, porcelain of, 343.
+
+
+Oanamuchi-no-mikoto, 20, 158.
+
+Oinochoe, 225.
+
+Oiron, faienced, 279.
+
+Old Bridge, New Jersey, 455.
+
+"Old style," Greek, 229.
+
+Olery, Joseph, artist at Moustiers, 283.
+
+Olpe, 226.
+
+Omar, 191.
+
+Ometepec Island, 419, 420, 421.
+
+Onyx-ware, Wedgwood's, 364.
+
+Oosei-tsumi, 20, 158.
+
+Opium-pipes, 119.
+
+Oporto, 239.
+
+Oppal, Bengrath, 338.
+
+Oriental art, its leading features, 37;
+ use of color, 37, 38;
+ conventional forms, 38.
+
+Orinoco, tribes of the, 438.
+
+Orleans faience, 312;
+ porcelain, 317.
+
+Ormuzd, 190.
+
+Osiris, 21.
+
+Osman, 191.
+
+Ostrakinon, 227.
+
+Ott & Brewer, Trenton, 462, _et seq._
+
+Ottaviano, assistant of Luca della Robbia, 253.
+
+Ouan-lou-hoang, 139.
+
+Outang, 124.
+
+Owari, 159, 175, 179, 181.
+
+Oxides, 65.
+
+Oxybaphon, 225.
+
+
+Pachacamac, 396.
+
+Pa-kwa, 110.
+
+Palenque, 423.
+
+Palermo, 247.
+
+Palestine, 70, 71.
+
+Palissy, Bernard, 42, 63, 179;
+ imitation ware, 239;
+ sketch of his life, 273;
+ imitators, 277;
+ works, 277, 329, 346, 366.
+
+Pallandre, flower-painter, 324.
+
+Pallas Athene, 222.
+
+Palmer's pottery, 360.
+
+Pandora, 21.
+
+Paphos, 201, 204.
+
+Parent, director at Sevres, 315.
+
+Parian, 61;
+ Minton's, 366;
+ Copeland's, 385;
+ American, 457, 459, 464, _et seq._
+
+Paris faience, 311
+ (_see_ also Deck, Colinot, Parville, Barbizet, Pull, Haviland);
+ porcelain, 313, 320.
+
+Parville of Paris, 308.
+
+Pasquale, Antonibon, 269.
+
+Pate changeante, 326, 367.
+
+Pate dure, 51, 55.
+ (_See_ Natural porcelain.)
+
+Pate-sur-pate, 326, 381.
+
+Pate tendre, 52, 55, 81.
+ (_See_ Artificial porcelain.)
+
+Paullownia imperialis, 161.
+
+Paulson, Joseph, 365.
+
+Pearl, 124.
+
+Pectoral tablets, 93.
+
+Pelasgi, 241, 242.
+
+Pennington, Liverpool potter, 374.
+
+Pennsylvania, Indian pottery, 437;
+ kaolin, 449, 451;
+ china works in, 454, 458, 462.
+
+Pensacola clay, 447.
+
+Perrin, Mme., Marseilles, 286.
+
+Perrine & Co., Baltimore, 455.
+
+Persia,--n, 38, 106, 107, 130, 189-197;
+ in China, 130;
+ in Spain, 218, 238;
+ influence of, 198, _et seq._, 241, 247, 249, 254, 257,
+ 283 (fig. 240), 297, 304, 325, 367.
+
+Perspective in Chinese art, 150.
+
+Perth Amboy clay, 448;
+ analyzed, 450;
+ fire-brick factory, 455.
+
+Peru, 393, _et seq._;
+ its history, 394;
+ pottery, 395, _et seq._;
+ religion, 398;
+ forms, 400;
+ decoration, 407;
+ colors, 408;
+ customs, 409;
+ processes, 413, 418, 428, 430, 438.
+
+Perugia, 263.
+
+Pesaro, 249, 255, 256, 257.
+
+Peterynck of Lille at Tournay, 331.
+
+Petuntse, 51;
+ its composition, 59, 60.
+
+Phiale, 223, 226.
+
+Philadelphia stone-ware, etc., 455;
+ terra-cotta, 467;
+ porcelain, 471, 472.
+
+Phoenicia,--ns, 199, _et seq._, 210, 220, 242, 243;
+ in Gaul, 273.
+
+Piccolpasso, 50, 68, 76.
+
+Pinax, 226.
+
+Pinxton, 387.
+
+Pirota, Casa, 261.
+
+Pisa, --ns, 218, 234, 248;
+ majolica, 255.
+
+Pithakne, 223.
+
+Pithos, 27, 222, 223, 228, 243.
+
+Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, 463.
+
+Pizarro, 395, 418.
+
+Place, Francis, 376.
+
+Plumbiferous glaze, 64, 65.
+
+Plymouth, porcelain of, 376.
+
+Poa-en-ssi, 118.
+
+Poirel, Nicolas, 281.
+
+Poitevin, artist, 324.
+
+Poitou, old pottery, 273.
+
+Poland, 345.
+
+Pompadour, Madame de, 314; Rose, 315, 387.
+
+Porcelain, word misapplied, 48;
+ definition and etymology, 51;
+ invented in China, 51, 121;
+ introduction into Europe, 51;
+ invention in Europe, 52;
+ composition, 59, _et seq._;
+ Egyptian, 92;
+ Assyrian, 100;
+ Indian, 107;
+ Chinese 121;
+ without embryo, 140;
+ invented in Japan, 160, 174;
+ Persian, 195, etc;
+ porcelain and metal, 486;
+ (_see_ also artificial, natural, and different countries).
+
+Porous ware, 459, 469.
+
+Portland vase, 363.
+
+Portugal, --uese, 164, 239.
+
+Poterat, Edme, 281;
+ his son Louis, 281, 312.
+
+Potters' Association, 463.
+
+Potter's wheel, 70, et seq.
+
+Pottery, etymology and meaning, 49;
+ composition of different kinds, 62.
+
+Pou-tai, 112, 118.
+
+Prices, potters in New Jersey, 455.
+
+Printing on faience at Creil, 307;
+ at Liverpool, 374;
+ on porcelain at Worcester, 380;
+ at Battersea, 380, 381.
+
+Prochoos, 225.
+
+Prometheus, 21.
+
+Psykter, 225.
+
+Ptolemy Claudius, 210.
+
+Ptolemy Lagus, or Soter, 200.
+
+Pueblo Indians, 430, 431, _et seq._
+
+Pug-mill, 67.
+
+Pull of Paris, 277.
+
+
+Quamon, 162.
+
+Queen's-ware, Wedgwood's, 363;
+ made in Connecticut, 454.
+
+Quintilius Varus, 24.
+
+Quirigua, 423.
+
+
+Raffaelle Del Borgo, 257.
+
+Raku, 160.
+
+Ramey, R. C., Philadelphia, 455.
+
+Rato, 239.
+
+Ravenna, 262.
+
+Reaumur makes "porcelain," 313.
+
+Reed, Bristol potter, 373.
+
+Reflet metallique. (_See_ Metallic lustre.)
+
+Regnault, director at Sevres, 315, 325.
+
+Regnier, director at Sevres, 315.
+
+Religion and art, 28, 31, 83, 234, 398 (_see_ under each country).
+
+Renard, M., modeller at Sevres, 294.
+
+Reticulated porcelain, Chinese, 152;
+ Copeland's, 385.
+
+Revel, 344.
+
+Reverend, Claude, made "counterfeit porcelain," 312.
+
+Rhages, 193.
+
+Rhodes, 211, 213, 214, 215.
+
+Rhodes, William, potter at Jersey City, 456;
+ at Vermont, 461;
+ at Trenton, 461.
+Rhodes & Yates, Trenton, 461.
+
+Rhyton, 27, 222, 225.
+
+Ridgway, Job, potter at Shelton, 388.
+
+Rimini, 262.
+
+Ringler, workman at Vienna, 340, _et seq._
+
+Robert, director at Sevres, 315.
+
+Robert, Joseph Gaspard, artist at Marseilles, 286, 317.
+
+Robertsons of Chelsea, Massachusetts, 459, 468, _et seq._
+
+Robinson, Liverpool, artist, 374.
+
+Rockingham ware, 376, 386, 458, 459, 462.
+
+Rome, 24, 240, _et seq._
+
+Roman, --s, 233, 240, _et seq._;
+ unglazed ware, 245;
+ in Gaul, 272;
+ in Germany, 327, 328;
+ in England, 354.
+
+Romulus, 244.
+
+Rorstrand faience, 346.
+
+Rose-back decoration, 140.
+
+Rose family (Chinese and Japanese), 140, 141, 142, 176, 182, _et seq._
+
+Roses of Colebrookdale, 375, 387.
+
+Rouen, 125, 281, 311, 312, 330.
+
+Roundabout, New Jersey, 455.
+
+Rouse & Turner, Jersey City, 456, 457.
+
+Ruminhauy, Peruvian cacique, 405, 414.
+
+Russia, 344, 345.
+
+Rustiques figulines, 42, 276, 346.
+
+
+Sacred axe, 124.
+
+Sacred horse, 114.
+
+"Sacred things," 124.
+
+Sadler, John, 374.
+
+Saguntum, 233.
+
+St. Amand faience, 311.
+
+St. Clement faience, 311.
+
+St. Cloud, 52;
+ faience, 311;
+ porcelain, 312.
+
+St. Denis faience, 311.
+
+St. John, Knights of, 215.
+
+St. Petersburg, 344, 345.
+
+St. Yrieix, 53, 286, 316, 317.
+
+Saki or Sake, 170.
+
+Salamis, 201, 204.
+
+Salmon, commissioner at Sevres, 315.
+
+Salt glaze, 81;
+ discovered in England, 359;
+ used at Lambeth, 370.
+
+Samian ware, 104, 233, 245;
+ in England, 354.
+
+Sandwich, delft pottery of, 359.
+
+Sandy Hill, New York, 468.
+
+San Felipe, 233.
+
+Sans, Thomas, 359.
+
+Santa Cruz del Quiche, 420, 421.
+
+Saracens,--ic, 189, 214, 215, _et seq._, 233, _et seq._, 240, 241, 247, 248.
+
+Sargon, 200.
+
+Sarreguemines faience, 309;
+ porcelain, 309.
+
+Sassanian dynasty, 190.
+
+Satsuma, 161, 167-170.
+
+Sauvage, Charles, Niederviller, artist, 310.
+
+Savy, Honore, potter at Marseilles, 285.
+
+Saxons, 354.
+
+Sayreville, New Jersey, 455.
+
+Scandinavians, ancient, 344.
+
+Scarabaeus, 85;
+ as signet, 92, 93.
+
+Sceaux faience, 311.
+
+Schaffhausen, 330.
+
+Schelestadt, 329.
+
+Schiites, 191.
+
+Schist, 95.
+
+Schnorr, John, 52.
+
+Scotland, ancient remains, 353.
+
+Seggars, 76.
+
+Seidji, 179.
+
+Seleucus Nicanor, 190.
+
+Semi-china, 458, _et seq._, 463.
+
+Seto, 159, 181.
+
+Seville, 236, 237.
+
+Sevres: old paste analyzed, 61;
+ how porcelain is made, 67, 239, 294;
+ faience, 311;
+ Royal factory at, 314, _et seq._;
+ copied at Strasburg, 317;
+ value of, 319;
+ pate changeante, pate-sur-pate, 326;
+ imitated in Switzerland, 343;
+ artists in Russia, 345;
+ imitated in Chelsea, 378;
+ Coalport, 387;
+ copied in America, 443.
+
+Sforza family, 255, 256.
+
+Sgraffiato, 249;
+ Minton's, 367.
+
+Shelton, stone-ware, 360;
+ porcelain, 386, 388.
+
+Shintoism, 161.
+
+Shiogun, 160.
+
+Shiou-ro, 162, 170.
+
+Shonsui, 144, 160, 176, 179, 185.
+
+Shropshire, 375, 387.
+
+Siam, 108.
+
+Sicily, 217, 218, 241, 242, 247.
+
+Siculo-Moresque, 247.
+
+Sidon, 200, 211.
+
+Siena, 255.
+
+Silicious glaze, 64.
+
+Simpson, William, English potter, 358.
+
+Skyphos, 226.
+
+Smith, T. C., of Greenpoint, 443, 451;
+ sketch of, 473, _et seq._
+
+Soft porcelain. (_See_ artificial.)
+
+Soli, 204.
+
+Solon, M., 325, 326, 381.
+
+Sometsuki, 161;
+ blue Sometsuki, 175, 179, 186.
+
+Sonorous stone, 124.
+
+Souffle, 132, 152.
+
+South Amboy, New Jersey, clay, 448, 455.
+
+South America, 391.
+
+Spain, 216, 217, 218, 233-239, 241, 242, 249.
+
+Spaniards in Peru, 395.
+
+Sparkes, Mrs., Lambeth artist, 371, 372.
+
+Spode, Josiah, 382.
+
+Spring Mills, Pennsylvania, 455.
+
+Staffordshire, Delft, 358;
+ stone-ware, 359;
+ general history, 359, _et seq._
+
+Stamnos, 223, 224.
+
+Stamps for bricks, 88, 101.
+
+Stanniferous enamel, 50, 54, 56, 64, 65, 95,
+ 100, 101, 102, 106, 217, 240, 247, 248, _et seq._, 253;
+ resume of history, 254;
+ in France, 273;
+ in Germany, 329.
+
+States, Adam, potter at Stonington, 454.
+
+Stephenson & Hancock, 379.
+
+Stewart & Co., New York, 457.
+
+Stoke-upon-Trent, 359, 365, 382.
+
+Stone china, Copeland's, 387;
+ Carr's, 458.
+
+Stonington, Connecticut, early pottery of, 454.
+
+Stone-ware, 81, 118;
+ German, 333;
+ English, 358;
+ American, 454, _et seq._
+
+Strasburg, faience, 286, 311;
+ porcelain, 316.
+
+Stratford-le-Bow, 377, 471.
+
+Strehla, 329.
+
+Sultaneah, mosque of, 39, 195.
+
+Suma, 173.
+
+Sun as a symbol, 86.
+
+Sun-dried clay, 74;
+ Egyptian, 88;
+ Assyrian, 98, 101;
+ Greek, 220;
+ Peruvian, 396;
+ Mound-builders', 427; Pueblo, 431.
+
+Sunnites, 191.
+
+Surprise hydraulique, 152.
+
+Swansea, 387.
+
+Sweden, 345, _et seq._
+
+Swinton, 376, 386.
+
+Switzerland, 327, 330, 331;
+ porcelain, 343.
+
+
+Tablet of honor, 124.
+
+Tai-thsing, 134, 135, 137, 185.
+
+Talhas, 416.
+
+Tamerlane, 190.
+
+Tao-te-king, 111.
+
+Tarquinii, 241.
+
+Tarquinius Priscus, 242, 244.
+
+Tarsus, 211.
+
+Taylor & Speeler, Trenton, 459, 460.
+
+Taylor, William & James, potters, Jersey City, 456;
+ at Trenton, 459.
+
+Tch'ai, 122, 131.
+
+Tchang, 122.
+
+Tcheou, 134.
+
+Tcheou blue, 122, 123, 131.
+
+Tchini, 196, 197.
+
+Tchoui, 116.
+
+Tea-parties, 160.
+
+Technology, 48.
+
+Tegua, 436, _et seq._
+
+Tellwrights of Staffordshire, 359.
+
+Tennessee Indians, 440.
+
+Terra-cotta, 64;
+ Egyptian, 88;
+ Assyrian and Babylonian, 100-102;
+ Indian, 107;
+ Phoenician, Greek, etc., Book III., Cap. I., _passim_;
+ Greek, 220, _et seq._;
+ Roman, 246;
+ Danish, 347, _et seq._;
+ Doulton's, 372;
+ American, ancient, 426; modern, 455, 457, 467, _et seq._
+
+Tervueren, 331.
+
+Teucer, 201.
+
+Teylingen, 334.
+
+Thang-kong, 130, 134, 137.
+
+Tho-tai-khi, 140.
+
+Thoth, 21.
+
+Thothmes III., 200, 206.
+
+Thorvaldsen, 348, _et seq._
+
+Throwing, 70.
+
+Thuringia, 341.
+
+Thursfield, Richard, 375.
+
+Tin enamel. (_See_ Stanniferous.)
+
+Ting-yao, 122, 134.
+
+Tinworth, George, Lambeth artist, 371;
+ plaques by, 373.
+
+Tlascalans, 423, 424.
+
+Toft, T. and R., English potters, 359.
+
+Tokio, 181.
+
+Toltecs, 422, 425, 426, 429.
+
+Tortoise-shell ware, 361.
+
+Tossi-toku, 162, 170.
+
+Tournay, faience of, 331.
+
+Transmutation, 133.
+
+"Treasures of writing," 124.
+
+Trenton, New Jersey, 459-467.
+
+Trenton Pottery Works, 460.
+
+Tripous, 225.
+
+Trou, Henry, of St. Cloud, 312.
+
+Truite, 120.
+
+Tucker, Thomas, Philadelphia, 472.
+
+Tucker, William E., Philadelphia, 471.
+
+Tunisia, 216.
+
+Tunstall porcelain, 386.
+
+Tupinambas, 413.
+
+Turner, Thomas, Caughley, 387.
+
+Turquoise blue, how made, 123, 131;
+ French, 323, 324;
+ Minton's, 367.
+
+Tuscany, 255.
+
+Tycoon, 160, 161, 163.
+
+"Tygs," 359.
+
+Tyre, 211.
+
+Tyrians, 200.
+
+Tyrrheno-Pelasgians, 242, 243.
+
+
+Ulysse of Blois, 309.
+
+Unbaked pottery. (_See_ Sun-dried clay.)
+
+United States, 442-487;
+ materials, 446-452;
+ pottery, 453-470;
+ porcelain, etc., 455, 457, 458, 459, 461-463, 471-487.
+
+Univalve shell, 124.
+
+Urbino, 255, 256, 257, 258.
+
+Utah, 432, 437.
+
+Utzchneider & Co., 309.
+
+
+Valencia, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238.
+
+Valenciennes, 311, 320.
+
+Vance, F. T., artist, 391, 484.
+
+Van Wickle, stone-ware manufacturer, 455.
+
+Varus, 24.
+
+Venice, 247;
+ majolica, 262;
+ porcelain, 52, 268, 269.
+
+Venus, temple of, 203.
+
+Vezzi, Francesco, 269.
+
+Vienna porcelain, 53, 340.
+
+Villingen, 330.
+
+Vincennes faience, 311;
+ porcelain, 313, 314, 320.
+
+Vineuf, 270.
+
+Violet, Chinese, 149.
+
+Virginia clay, 447.
+
+Vista Allegre, 239.
+
+Voleur, Jehan de, 273.
+
+Von Lang, workman at Copenhagen, 351.
+
+Vulcan, 21.
+
+Vulci, 241, 242, 243.
+
+
+Wackenfield, potter at Strasburg, 286, 316.
+
+Wagenaar, 186.
+
+Walker & Beely, 387.
+
+Walker, Brown, Aldred & Rickman, 375.
+
+Wall, Dr., 380.
+
+Wandelein, director at La Doccia, 268.
+
+Warrin & Lycett, decorators, 483.
+
+Washington, 24, 108, 293;
+ his Sevres, 319.
+
+Water-vessels, Peruvian, 401, _et seq._
+
+Watson, J. R., 455.
+
+Watts, John, partner of Doulton, 370.
+
+Wedgwood, imitation jasper-ware of, 309;
+ cameos of, 330;
+ life of, 361, 367, 374, 382;
+ using American clays, 446;
+ his fear of America, 454.
+
+Weesp, porcelain factory, 343.
+
+Wendrich & Son's terra-cotta, 348.
+
+Wheildon, T., partner of Wedgwood, 362.
+
+Whistling jars, Peruvian, 409, 410.
+
+White, Chinese, 145, _et seq._, 147, 148.
+
+Willow-ware, 382, 387.
+
+Winterthur, 330.
+
+Wood, Enoch, 364.
+
+Woodbridge, New Jersey, clay, 448.
+
+Worcester porcelain, 379;
+ and silver, 487.
+Wrede, Bristol potter, 373.
+
+
+Xanto, Francesco, 258, 260.
+
+Xativa, 233.
+
+
+Yang, 110.
+
+Yarmouth, 375.
+
+Yebis, 162.
+
+Yeddo, 181.
+
+Yellow, imperial, 150.
+
+Yn, 110.
+
+Ynca, 236.
+
+Young, William, Nantgarrow, 387.
+
+Young, William, & Sons, Trenton, 460, 461.
+
+Yu, 147.
+
+Yucatan, 423, 424.
+
+
+Zaffarino, artist at Ferrara, 263.
+
+Zoroaster, 190.
+
+Zuni, 431, 436, _et seq._
+
+Zuerich, 330; porcelain, 343.
+
+THE END.
+
+
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