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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:35:04 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:35:04 -0700 |
| commit | 6e07e48486f44b3638307ec5a3be1774665d3512 (patch) | |
| tree | 10b47a0544147ebbb159b66ac5354bf0625a2222 /43221-h | |
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diff --git a/43221-h/43221-h.htm b/43221-h/43221-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eefaa44 --- /dev/null +++ b/43221-h/43221-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,24554 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> + <head> <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> +<title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Ceramic Art, by Jennie J. Young. +</title> +<style type="text/css"> + p {margin-top:.2em;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:.2em;text-indent:4%;} + +.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} + +.cb {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;font-weight:bold;} + +.clr {clear:both;} + +.csml {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;font-size: 70%; +margin:3% auto 3% auto;} + +.enlargeimage {margin: 0 0 0 0; text-align: center; border: none;} + +.hang {text-indent:-2%;margin-left:2%;} + +.nind {text-indent:0%;} + +.nindb {text-indent:0%;font-size:110%;font-weight: bold;margin-top:1%;} + +.r {text-align:right;margin-right: 5%;} + +small {font-size: 80%;} + + h1 {margin-top:5%;text-align:center;clear:both;} + + h2 {margin-top:5%;margin-bottom:2%;text-align:center;clear:both; + font-size:120%;} + + h3,h4,h5 {margin:5% auto 2% auto;text-align:center;clear:both;} + + hr {width:90%;margin:2em auto 2em auto;clear:both;color:black;} + + hr.full {width: 50%;margin:5% auto 5% auto;border:4px double gray;} + + table {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:none;text-align:left;} + +.bt {border-top:1px solid black;} + + body{margin-left:8%;margin-right:8%;background:#fdfdfd;color:black;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:medium;} + + ul {list-style-type:none;text-indent:-1em;} + +a:link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} + + link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} + +a:visited {background-color:#ffffff;color:purple;text-decoration:none;} + +a:hover {background-color:#ffffff;color:#FF0000;text-decoration:underline;} + +.smcap {font-variant:small-caps;font-size:80%;} + + img {border:none;} + +.blockquot {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;font-size:.8em;} + +.caption {font-weight:bold;font-size:.8em;} + +.figcenter {margin-top:3%;margin-bottom:3%; +margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} + +.figleft {float:left;clear:left;margin-left:0;margin-bottom:1em;margin-top:1em;margin-right:1em;padding:0;text-align:center;} + +.figright {float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em;margin-bottom:1em;margin-top:1em;margin-right:0;padding:0;text-align:center;} + +.poem {margin-left:25%;text-indent:0%;font-size:.9em;} +.poem .stanza {margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom:1em;} +.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: .45em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} +.poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +.pgnumb {font-style:normal;position:absolute;left:95%;font-size:75%;text-align:right;color:gray;background-color:#ffffff;font-variant:normal;font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-indent:0em;} +.pgnumb1 {font-style:normal;position:absolute;left:90%;font-size:75%;text-align:right;color:gray;background-color:#ffffff;font-variant:normal;font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-indent:0em;} + +</style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43221 ***</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="374" height="540" alt="bookcover" title="" /> +</p> + +<p class="cb">THE CERAMIC ART</p> + +<h1>THE CERAMIC ART<br /> +<br /> +<small><small>A COMPENDIUM OF</small></small><br /> +<br /> +<small>THE HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE</small><br /> +<small><small>OF</small></small><br /> +POTTERY AND PORCELAIN</h1> + +<p class="cb"><span class="smcap">By</span> JENNIE J. YOUNG<br /> +<br /> +WITH 464 ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 25%;"><i>Argilla quidvis imitaberis uda</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 35%;"><span class="smcap">Horace, Epist.</span>, II., 2, 8</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/colophon.jpg" width="80" height="62" alt="" title="" /> +</p> + +<p class="c">NEW YORK<br /> + +HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS<br /> + +<small>FRANKLIN SQUARE</small><br /> +1878</p> + +<p class="csml"> +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">H a r p e r & B r o t h e r s</span>,<br /> +<br /> +In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.<br /> +</p> + +<table border="2" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr align="center"><td><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents</a><br /> +<a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">Illustrations</a><br /> +<a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pgnumb1"><a name="page_001" id="page_001">{<small>P<small>AGE</small></small> 1}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h3> + +<p>I<small>N</small> writing the present volume, the author’s object has been to answer as +tersely and lucidly as possible the more important questions in +connection with the history and manufacture of pottery and porcelain, +and to bring the results of recent research to bear upon some of the +unsolved problems of the “science of ceramics.” The literature of the +subject is formidable in dimensions. Authors have divided the field into +sections, and have in many cases presented learned and exhaustive +special treatises. Notwithstanding the solid learning and critical +acumen reflected in their pages, their form and voluminous character, +however, detracted from their value as books for familiar and speedy +reference, and left the acquirement of a general knowledge of the +ceramic art a matter for wide research and prolonged study on the part +of every reader and collector. The attempt has here been made to +condense the leading points of the subject, to arrange them after a +simple and easily intelligible method, and thus to present in one volume +a comprehensive history. No hesitation has been shown in drawing upon +foreign authors. Many of the later developments of the art have also +been touched upon, and the results of the more recent efforts of artists +and manufacturers have been illustrated and described. In treating of +America, the author has endeavored to convey some idea of its wealth in +materials and of the present condition and tendencies of the industry, +and to do justice to those who have laid the foundation of its claim to +recognition in the world of art.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_002" id="page_002">{2}</a></span></p> + +<p>The author has incurred obligations in many quarters for information and +assistance. Mr. Samuel P. Avery, the Hon. Yoshida Kiyonari, Japanese +Minister at Washington, General Di Cesnola, and the many private +collectors whose cabinets are represented in the following pages, gave +valuable aid both in obtaining illustrations and in other respects. Mr. +Charles Edward Haviland, Mr. Theodore Haviland, and M. Bracquemond +contributed many valuable hints upon technology and the manufacture and +composition of different wares. The dealers of New York, Boston, +Washington, Albany, and other cities took an active interest both in +directing the author to collections and in furnishing specimens for +illustration. Among American manufacturers, Mr. Thomas C. Smith, of +Greenpoint; Mr. James Carr, of New York; Mr. Hugh C. Robertson, of +Chelsea, Massachusetts; and Mr. J. Hart Brewer, of Trenton, are +especially deserving of thanks for helping the author to a true insight +into the past history, present condition, and prospects of the art in +the United States.</p> + +<p>In regard to the engravings, while it was, of course, found necessary in +many cases to cull from the rich accumulations of ceramic treasures in +Europe, in order to secure the proper illustration of the work, the +preference has invariably been given to the collections of America. Such +a course recommended itself for obvious reasons. It was thought that it +would, in the first place, gratify those desirous of knowing where, in +this country, the best representatives of the art of certain countries +are to be found; and that, in the second place, it would direct artists +where to study the best styles of decoration. One result of the author’s +investigations in this matter has been the conviction that the American +collector is cosmopolitan in his tastes, and that the American +cabinet—in many instances the American tea-table—represents the amity +of nations. The arts of all countries are found arrayed side by side in +a profusion of which it would have been hard, a few years ago, to find a +trace.</p> + +<p>In choosing the pieces to be engraved, a threefold aim has been kept in +view: the elucidation of the text, the representation of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_003" id="page_003">{3}</a></span> greatest +number of different wares by characteristic examples, and the +introduction of as many beautiful works of art as possible consistently +with the accomplishment of the two previous objects. The requirements of +the student of decorative art have been fully considered, and due weight +has been given to the fact that these requirements can be met better by +the pencil than the pen.</p> + +<p>In procuring specimens, the author has acknowledgments to express both +to private collectors and to the curators of public institutions. Among +the latter may be mentioned General Loring, of the Boston Museum of Fine +Arts, and Mr. H. C. Hutchins, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in this +city, both of whom admitted the author to a close inspection of the +collections under their charge, and personally superintended the taking +of sketches and photographs. Similar favors were received from the +trustees and Dr. M‘Leod, of the Corcoran Art Gallery; from Professor +Baird and Mr. Cushing, of the Smithsonian Institution, in Washington; +and from the officers of the United States Geological and Geographical +Survey of the Territories. Mr. Edward Bierstadt of New York, and Mr. T. +W. Smillie of Washington, also granted facilities and volunteered +courtesies which proved invaluable.</p> + +<p>Casual reference is made in the following pages to the marks of +factories and artists, but after due deliberation it was decided not to +make them the subject of special treatment or illustration. Several good +manuals are already in the hands of the public, and a book of marks +should never take any other form. It is comparatively useless unless +easily portable and handy. Then, again, marks are, and always have been, +imitated to such an extent that they are not the most trustworthy guides +to the parentage of specimens. Collectors who buy pieces for the sake of +the mark they bear may be deceived; those who buy for the sake of beauty +may occasionally be mistaken; but a cultivated taste can never be +deluded into finding beauty in the unbeautiful. The art, and not the +mark, should be studied; and the fact that many of the finest and most +highly valued specimens—Chinese,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_004" id="page_004">{4}</a></span> Japanese, Persian, Saracenic, Greek, +Italian, and many modern wares—have no mark gives additional point to +the observation.</p> + +<p>If the present work should be found defective in certain points, it must +be remembered that it could hardly be otherwise, considering its scope +and limits. The author will be satisfied if, besides answering its +primary purpose, it should increase the interest already awakened in the +subject of which it treats, and lead students to appreciate and examine +the collections at their command in this country.</p> + +<p class="r"> +J. J. Y.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_005" id="page_005">{5}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h3> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS" +style="margin:auto auto auto auto;max-width:70%;font-size:0.9em;"> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Advantages of the Study.—The Lost Origin of the Art.—Ascribed to the Gods.—Legends of +China, Japan, Egypt, and Greece.—Keramos.—A Solution suggested.—How Pottery illustrates +History.—How it explains the Customs of the Ancients.—Its Bearings upon Religion.—Examples +from Egypt, Greece, and China.—The Art represented in Pottery.—Its +Permanency.—As a Combination of Form with Drawing and Color.—Greek Art.—Its +Merits and Defects.—The Orientals, and their Attention to Color.—Eastern Skill.—The +Aim of Palissy.—The Highest Aim of the Ceramic Artist.—Painting on Porcelain.—Rules +to be Observed in Decorating.—Where Color alone is a Worthy Object.—How the Art +affords the Best Illustration of the Useful combined with the Beautiful.—Its Place in the +Household</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">Page <a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#BOOK_I_NOMENCLATURE_AND_METHODS">BOOK I.—NOMENCLATURE AND METHODS.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I-b1">CHAPTER I</a><br /> +TECHNOLOGY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Confusion in Use of Terms.—Porcelain as an Instance.—Derivation of Ceramic.—Pottery.—Faience.—Majolica.—Mezza-Majolica.—Composition +of Porcelain.—Origin of Word.—Where +first made.—When introduced into Europe.—Hard and Soft Paste.—Soft Porcelain +of Venice, Florence, England, France.—Hard Porcelain invented at Meissen by +Böttcher.—Vienna.—Discovery of Kaolin in France.—Biscuit</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II-b1">CHAPTER II</a><br /> +CLASSIFICATION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Tabulated View.—Brongniart’s Division: Its Objections.—Classification adopted.—Leading +Features and Advantages.—Distinctions between Different Bodies and Different +Glazes<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_006" id="page_006">{6}</a></span></p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_054">54</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III-b1">CHAPTER III</a><br /> +COMPOSITION OF WARES AND GLAZES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Hard and Soft Pottery and Porcelain.—<span class="smcap">Composition of Porcelain</span>: Kaolin—Its Derivation +and Ingredients—Petuntse—How prepared in China.—The European Process.—Differences +between Chinese and European Porcelains.—Chemical Analysis.—English Porcelain +and its Peculiarities: Its Average Composition.—How English Clay is prepared.—French +Artificial Porcelain.—Parian.—<span class="smcap">Common Earthen-ware</span>: Table of Ingredients of +different kinds.—General Table.—<span class="smcap">Glazes</span>: Classes.—Brongniart’s Classification.—Difference +between Enamel and Glaze.—Silicious Glaze.—History.—Use of Oxides.—Egyptian +Processes.—Metallic Lustre.—Stanniferous Enamel: Its History</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_059">59</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV-b1">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> +MANUFACTURE AND DECORATION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Divisions of Chapter.—Japanese Method of Preparing Porcelain Clay.—Old Sèvres Soft +Porcelain.—Pug-Mill.—Blunger.—Early Italian Methods.—Shaping the Clay.—Moulding +among the Egyptians, Greeks, Italians, and at the Present Day.—Moulding Porcelain.—Japanese +Method.—European.—Throwing.—The Potter’s Wheel in all Countries.—Baking +and Firing.—Egyptian, Greek, Italian, and Japanese Kilns.—Those of Modern Europe and +America.—Times of Firing.—Glazing and Painting.—Metallic-Lustre Majolica.—Japanese +Methods.—Glazing Stone-ware.—Natural and Artificial Porcelain</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#BOOK_II_THE_ORIENT">BOOK II.—THE ORIENT</a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I-b2">CHAPTER I</a><br /> +EGYPT.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">The East the Cradle of Art.—The Antiquity of Egypt: Its Claim to Notice in every Branch +of Inquiry.—The Fountains of Oriental and Greek Art.—The Nile Clay.—Egypt’s Early +Maturity.—Limitation of Material.—Effect of Religion upon Art.—Two Periods in Art +History.—Ancient Religion.—Various Symbols.—<span class="smcap">Unglazed Pottery</span>—<i>Sun-dried</i>: Bricks.—Moulds, +Stamps, etc.—Vessels.—<i>Baked Ware</i>: Its Early Date.—Color of Vessels and +Bricks.—Coffins.—Cones.—Figures.—Sepulchral Vases.—Amphoræ and other Vessels.—Decoration.—Græco-Egyptian +Pottery.—<span class="smcap">Glazed Ware</span>, miscalled Porcelain: Its Nature, +and how Colored.—Wall Tiles.—Inlaying of Mummy Cases.—Personal Ornaments.—Images.—Beads, +etc.—Vases.—Bowls.—Glazed Schist.—Stanniferous Enamel</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II-b2">CHAPTER II</a><br /> +ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Possible Priority to Egyptian Pottery.—Similarity between Assyrian and Egyptian.—The +Course followed by both Arts.—Unbaked Bricks.—Baked Bricks.—Writing Tablets.—Seals.—Vases.—Terra-cottas.—Porcelain.—Glazing +and Enamelling.—Tin.—Colored Enamels.—Babylonian +Bricks.—Glazes<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_007" id="page_007">{7}</a></span></p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_097">97</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III-b2">CHAPTER III</a><br /> +JUDÆA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Art Derived from Egypt.—Never Reached any Eminence.—Preference for Metals.—Frequent +Allusions in Scripture.—Bought Earthen-ware from Phœnicia and Egypt.—Home +Manufacture.—Decoration.—Necessity for Distinguishing between Home and Foreign +Wares</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV-b2">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> +INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Mystery Surrounding People.—History of its Art in great measure Unknown.—Questions +of its Existence and Originality.—How they Arose.—The Brahmins.—Geographical Position.—Views +of Early Travellers.—Later Investigations.—More Ancient Pottery.—Clay +Used.—Knowledge of Glazing: Its Application to Architecture.—Glazed Bricks.—Terra-cotta.—Chronological +Arrangement.—Porcelain: Its Decoration.—Use of Gold.—Siam</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_105">105</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V-b2">CHAPTER V</a><br /> +CHINA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Art Different from that of Europe or America.—How it must be Viewed.—Religion.—Legend.—Hoang-ti +the Inventor of Pottery.—The Leading Points of Religious System.—Personified +Principles.—Lao-tseu, Confucius, and Buddha.—Kuan-in.—Pousa or Pou-tai.—Dragons.—Dog +of Fo.—Ky-lin.—Sacred Horse.—Fong-hoang.—Symbols.—Meaning of Colors and +Shapes.—<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>: When First Made.—Céladon.—Crackle.—How Made.—Porcelain +Crackle.—Decorations on Crackle.—Household Vessels.—Stone-ware.—Licouli.—Tower +of Nankin.—Pipe-clay.—Boccaro.—Colors and Decoration of Pottery.—Colors on Crackle. +<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: When Invented.—King-teh-chin.—All Classed as Hard, Exceptions.—Old +Porcelains.—Kouan-ki.—Blue-and-white.—Persian Styles.—Turquoise and other Blues.—Leading +Events of Ming Dynasty.—Egg-shell.—Tai-thsing Dynasty.—Mandarin Vases.—Families.—Old +White.—Jade.—Purple and Violet.—Liver Red.—Imperial Yellow.—Chinese +Ideas of Painting.—Soufflé.—Grains of Rice.—Articulated and Reticulated +Vases.—Cup of Tantalus</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI-b2">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> +COREA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Geographical Position.—Successive Conquests.—Its Independent Art.—Confused Opinions +regarding it.—Its Porcelain.—Decoration</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII-b2">CHAPTER VII</a><br /> +JAPAN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">How to Study Japanese Art: Its Origin.—Its Revived Independence.—Nomino-Soukoune.—Shirozayemon.—Raku.—When +Porcelain was First Made.—Shonsui.—Form of Government.—The +Gods.—Symbols.—“Land of Great Peace.”—Foreign Relations.—General +Features of Art.—Chinese and Japanese Porcelains.—<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>: Geographical Distribution.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_008" id="page_008">{8}</a></span>—Classification.—Satsuma.—Difficult +Ware.—Saki Cups.—Imitations of Satsuma.—Kioto.—Awata.—Awadji.—Banko.—Kiusiu.—Karatsu.—Suma.—<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: +Leading Differences +between Japanese and Chinese.—Sometsuki Blue.—Ware for Export.—Gosai, or +Nishikide.—Arita, or Hizen.—Families.—Decoration.—Modern Hizen.—Seidji.—Kioto.—Eraku.—Kaga.—Portraiture.—Owari.—Lacquer.—Cloisonné.—Rose +Family.—Early +Styles: Indian: Dutch Designs.—General Characteristics of Japanese Art</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII-b2">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /> +PERSIA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Persia, and its Influence.—History.—Conquests.—Religious Revolutions.—Zoroaster.—Mohammed.—Geographical +Position.—General View of Influences bearing upon Art.—Decoration.—Flowers +and Symbols.—Conventional Styles.—Whence came the Monsters Appearing +upon Wares.—Metallic Lustre.—<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>: Composition.—Caution in Looking at +Specimens.—Wall-Tiles and their Decoration.—Vases.—<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: Had Persia a True +Porcelain?—Classification, and the Difficulties Attending It.—Decoration.—Classes Formed +by Prevailing Color</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#BOOK_III_EUROPE">BOOK III.—EUROPE</a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I-b3">CHAPTER I</a><br /> +THE FOUNTAINS OF EUROPEAN ART.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Routes by which Art Travelled.—Their Point of Convergence.—Cyprus: Its History.—The +Successive Nations Governing It.—The Strata of Ancient Civilization found within its +Shores.—The Discoveries of Cesnola.—Larnaca.—Dali.—Athieno.—Curium.—Progress of +Cypriote Pottery.—Early Greek Art: Its Connection with Assyria and Egypt.—Phœnician +and Assyrian Art.—General Deductions.—Asia Minor.—Oriental Art turning in various +Streams to Greece.—What Greece Rejected, Persia Seized upon.—Persia’s Contributions +to Ceramic Art.—History in Reference to its Art.—Effect of Conquest.—What Persia +Taught the Arabs.—Spread of Persian Art by the Saracens.—Rhodes.—Damascus.—Progress +of Saracenic Art.—The North of Africa.—Metallic Lustre and Stanniferous Enamel.—Hispano-Moresque.—Early +Spain.—Persian Influence upon Europe</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_198">198</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II-b3">CHAPTER II</a><br /> +GREECE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">General Character of Greek Ceramics.—Form and Color.—Borrowed from Egypt and Phœnicia.—How +Original.—<span class="smcap">Unbaked Clay</span>: Bricks and Statues.—<span class="smcap">Terra-cotta</span>: Where Used.—Tiles.—Models.—Vessels.—Pithos.—Amphora.—Pigments +used on Terra-cotta.—Rhyton.—<span class="smcap">Glazed +Wares</span>: Quality of Glaze.—Paste.—Enumeration and Description of Vessels.—Uses +of Vases.—Chronological Arrangement.—Methods of Making Vessels.—Successive +Styles of Ornamentation.—Figures.—Earliest Style.—Archaic Style.—Human Figures.—“Old +Style.”—Approach to Best Art.—“Fine Style.”—“Florid Style.”—Decline.—Classification +according to Subjects Represented on Vases.—Reliefs and Statuettes as +Decoration<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_009" id="page_009">{9}</a></span></p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_219">219</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III-b3">CHAPTER III</a><br /> +THE IBERIAN PENINSULA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spain</span>: Ancient Pottery.—Valencia the Most Ancient Centre.—The Roman Period.—Arabs.—Valencia +under the Moors.—Its Decline.—Malaga the Most Ancient Moorish Settlement.—The +Alhambra Vase.—Influence of Christianity.—Majorca.—Azulejos.—Modern Spain.—Porcelain.—Buen +Retiro.—Moncloa.—Alcora.—<span class="smcap">Portugal</span>: Vista Allegre.—Rato.—Caldas</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV-b3">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> +ITALY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Italian Art.—Whence Derived.—Greece and Persia.—Divisions.—Ancient Roman and Etruscan.—Etruria +and Greece.—Questions Resulting from Discoveries at Vulci.—Early Connection +between Etruria and Greece.—Etruscan Art an Offshoot of Greek.—Examples.—Best +of Black Paste.—Why Etruscan Art Declined.—Rome.—Nothing Original.—Its +Debt to Etruria and Greece.—Decline of its Art.—Unglazed Pottery and its Divisions.—Glazed +Pottery.—Samian Ware.—Aretine.—Terra-cotta.—After Rome fell.—The Renaissance.—Saracenic +Influences.—Crusades.—Conquest of Majorca.—Tin Enamel and Metallic +Lustre.—Bacini at Pisa.—Lead Glaze.—Majolica Made at Pesaro.—Sgraffiati.—Luca +della Robbia.—Sketch of his Life.—His Alleged Discovery.—What he really Accomplished.—Where +he Acquired the Secret of Enamel.—His Works.—Bas-Reliefs.—Paintings +on the Flat.—His Successors.—Recapitulation of Beginnings of Italian Majolica.—Chaffagiolo.—Siena.—Florence.—Pisa.—Pesaro.—Castel-Durante.—Urbino.—Gubbio +and +Maestro Giorgio.—Faenza.—Forli, Rimini, and Ravenna.—Venice.—Ferrara.—Deruta.—Naples.—Shape +and Color.—Modern Italy.—<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: Florence and Earliest Artificial +Porcelain.—Theory of Japanese Teaching.—La Doccia.—Venice, and the Question of its +First Making European Porcelain.—Le Nove.—Capo di Monte</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_240">240</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V-b3">CHAPTER V</a><br /> +FRANCE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Prospect on approaching France.—Present and Past.—The Ancient Celts.—Under the Romans.—Middle +Ages.—Poitou, Beauvais, and Hesdin.—Italian Influence.—A National Art.—Bernard +Palissy, Barbizet, Pull, and Avisseau.—Henri Deux Ware.—Rouen.—Nevers.—Moustiers.—Marseilles.—Strasburg.—Limoges.—Haviland’s +New Process.—Examples.—Bourg-la-Reine.—Laurin.—Deck.—Colinot.—Creil.—Montereau.—Longwy.—Parville.—Gien.—Sarreguemines.—Niederviller.—Luneville.—Nancy.—St. +Clement.—St. Amand.—Paris.—Sceaux.—<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: +Efforts to Make Porcelain.—First Artificial Porcelain.—St. +Cloud.—Lille.—Paris.—Chantilly.—Mennecy.—Vincennes.—Sèvres.—Natural, or Hard, +Porcelain.—Discovery of Kaolin.—Various Factories.—Limoges.—Deck.—Regnault.—Solon.—Pate +Changeante.—Pate-sur-Pate</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_271">271</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI-b3">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> +GERMANY AND CENTRAL EUROPE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Early Pottery.—Lake Dwellers.—Early German.—Peculiar Shapes.—How Peasants Account +for Relics.—Roman Epoch.—Tin Enamel.—Leipsic.—Breslau.—Nuremberg.—The Hirschvogels.—Villengen.—Höchst.—Marburg.—Bavaria.—Switzerland.—Belgium.—Delft.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_010" id="page_010">{10}</a></span>—<span class="smcap">Stone-ware</span>: +Countess Jacqueline.—Teylingen.—Graybeards.—Fine Stone-ware.—Grès +de Flandre.—Creussen.—<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: Böttcher.—His First Productions.—Meissen Porcelain.—Decoration.—Best +Days of Meissen.—Its Decline.—Vienna.—Höchst.—Fürstenburg.—Höxter.—Frankenthal.—Nymphenburg.—Berlin.—Holland.—Weesp.—Loosdrecht.—The +Hague.—Switzerland.—Zürich.—Nyon</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_327">327</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII-b3">CHAPTER VII</a><br /> +RUSSIA, DENMARK, AND SCANDINAVIA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Scandinavian Pottery allied to Teutonic.—Hand-shaped Vessels.—Primitive Kiln.—The +Eighteenth Century.—St. Petersburg: Its Porcelain.—Moscow.—Rorstrand.—Marieberg.—Modern +Swedish Faience.—Denmark.—Kiel.—Copenhagen.—Imitations of Greek.—Copenhagen +Porcelain</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_344">344</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII-b3">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /> +GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Continuity of History.—Early British Urns.—Scottish Relics.—Irish Urns.—Roman Conquest.—Caistor +Ware.—Anglo-Roman Ware.—Saxon Period.—After the Norman Conquest.—Tiles.—Dutch +Potteries in England.—English Delft.—Stone-ware.—Sandwich.—Staffordshire +Potteries.—Early Products.—The Tofts.—Salt Glaze.—Broadwell and the Elers +Family.—Use of Calcined Flint.—Wedgwood.—His Life.—Jasper Ware.—Queen’s Ware.—The +Portland Vase.—Basaltes.—Wedgwood’s Removal to Etruria.—His Death.—Minton +& Co.—Their Imitations of the Oriental.—Pate Changeante.—Pate-sur-Pate.—Cloisonné +Enamel on Porcelain.—Other Reproductions.—Their Majolica.—Their Artists.—Minton, +Hollins & Co.—Lambeth.—Doulton Ware.—Terra-cotta and Stone-ware.—George Tinworth.—Fulham.—Bristol.—Leeds.—Liverpool.—Lowestoft.—Yarmouth.—Nottingham.—Shropshire.—Yorkshire.—<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: +Plymouth Hard Porcelain.—Cookworthy.—Bow.—Chelsea.—Derby.—Worcester.—Minton.—Pate-sur-Pate.—Spode.—Copeland.—Bristol.—Tunstall.—Caughley.—Nantgarrow.—Swansea.—Colebrookdale.—Pinxton.—Shelton.—Belleek.—General +Character of Manufacture in Great Britain</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_352">352</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#BOOK_IV_AMERICA">BOOK IV.—AMERICA</a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I-b4">CHAPTER I</a><br /> +SOUTH AMERICA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Antiquity of American People.—Scope of Inquiry.—<span class="smcap">Peru</span>: Its Old Inhabitants.—Course of +Ceramic Art.—Doubts regarding Origin of Peruvian Civilization.—Periods.—The Incas.—Pizarro.—Geological +Evidence of Antiquity.—Unbaked Bricks.—Pachacamac.—Its +Graves.—Opposite Types.—Effect of Religion.—Symbols.—Forms of Pottery.—Water-Vessels.—Human +Forms.—Leading Features of Decoration.—Colors Employed.—Processes.—Customs +Learned from Pottery.—<span class="smcap">Brazil</span>: Ancient Specimens.—Modern Ware.—Bricks +and Tiles.—Talhas.—Moringues and other Water-Vessels.—Colombia<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_011" id="page_011">{11}</a></span></p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_391">391</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II-b4">CHAPTER II</a><br /> +CENTRAL AMERICA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Connection with Peru.—Nicaragua.—Ometepec.—Modern Potters.—Guatemala.—Ancient +Cities.—Who Built Them.—Copan.—Quirigua.—Palenque.—Mitla</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_418">418</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III-b4">CHAPTER III</a><br /> +THE MOUND-BUILDERS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Who were they?—Their supposed Central American Origin.—The place they occupy in +the present History.—Recent Discoveries.—Pottery of the Lower Mississippi.—Deduction +from Comparison with Peruvian</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_425">425</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV-b4">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> +INDIAN POTTERY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">Successors of the Mound-builders.—Opinion of Professor Marsh.—Pueblos descended from the +Mound-builders.—Natchez and Mandan Tribes.—Pueblos of Colorado, etc.—Pottery found +at El Moro.—Zuni.—Further Discoveries.—Immense Quantities of Fragmentary Pottery.—Corrugated +Pottery of Colorado.—Painted Pottery.—Moquis of Tegua.—Modern Pueblos.—Trade +in Pottery.—Resemblances between Potteries of South, Central, and North America.—Indian +Pottery from Illinois.—Louisiana, and how Pottery made.—New Jersey Indians.—Tennessee.—Maryland.—Other +Indian Tribes</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_429">429</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V-b4">CHAPTER V</a><br /> +UNITED STATES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">The Future of America.—Obstacles in the Way of Progress.—Commercial Conditions Illustrated +by Tariff.—Expense of Artistic Work.—Lack of Public Support.—American Marks.—Misrepresentation +of American Wares.—Materials.—Early Use in England by Wedgwood, +etc.—Cookworthy and a Virginian.—Native Use of Clay.—New Jersey.—Value of +Clay Deposit Illustrated.—American Kaolin.—Vague Use of Word.—Analysis.—Opinions +of American Deposits.—<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>: Dependence upon England.—Wedgwood’s Fears of +American Competition.—Norwich.—Hartford.—Stonington.—Norwalk.—Herbertsville.—Sayreville.—South +Amboy.—Philadelphia.—Baltimore.—Jersey City.—Bennington.—New +York City Pottery.—Trenton.—Present Extent of Industry.—Trenton Ivory Porcelain.—Terra-cotta.—Beverly.—Chelsea.—Portland.—Cambridge.—<span class="smcap">Porcelain</span>: +Philadelphia.—William +Ellis Tucker.—Bennington.—Jersey City.—Greenpoint.—Decorating Establishments.—Metal +and Porcelain</p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_442">442</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><p class="hang">INDEX: +<a href="#A">A</a>, +<a href="#B">B</a>, +<a href="#C">C</a>, +<a href="#D">D</a>, +<a href="#E">E</a>, +<a href="#F">F</a>, +<a href="#G">G</a>, +<a href="#H">H</a>, +<a href="#I">I</a>, +<a href="#J">J</a>, +<a href="#K">K</a>, +<a href="#L">L</a>, +<a href="#M">M</a>, +<a href="#N">N</a>, +<a href="#O">O</a>, +<a href="#P">P</a>, +<a href="#Q">Q</a>, +<a href="#R">R</a>, +<a href="#S">S</a>, +<a href="#T">T</a>, +<a href="#U">U</a>, +<a href="#V">V</a>, +<a href="#W">W</a>, +<a href="#X">X</a>, +<a href="#Y">Y</a>, +<a href="#Z">Z</a></p></td> +<td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_489">489</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_012" id="page_012">{12}</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_013" id="page_013">{13}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> + +<tr><td align="center">Some of the illustrations have been moved from within paragraphs +for ease of reading.<br /> The figure-numbers are linked directly to the +image's location.<br />In most browsers and versions of this file + clicking on this symbol <img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> above the image will bring up +a larger version of the image.<br /> +(note of etext transcriber.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table border="2" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;margin:auto auto auto auto; max-width:80%;"> +<tr class="smcap" align="center"><td align="center"> Fig.</td><td> Country or</td><td> Subject</td><td> Collection</td><td> Page</td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap" align="center"><td> </td><td> INTRODUCTION</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_1">1</a></td><td> France</td><td> Old Sèvres Pate Teudre</td><td> L. Double</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_023">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_2">2</a></td><td> Greece and Phonecia</td><td> Amphoræ</td><td> Di Cesnola</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_3">3</a></td><td> China</td><td> Bottles</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_4">4</a></td><td> Greece</td><td> Diogenes in Pithos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_5">5</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Prize Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_6">6</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Rhyton</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_7">7</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Kylix</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_8">8</a></td><td> Egypt</td><td> Sepulchral Cone</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_030">30</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_9">9</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Painted Ball</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_10">10</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Glazed Draughtsman</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_11">11</a></td><td> Babylon</td><td> Enamelled Brick</td><td> Louvre</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_12">12</a></td><td> Japan</td><td> Hexagonal Vase</td><td> R.H. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_037">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_13">13</a></td><td> Persia</td><td> Tile</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_038">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_14">14</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Mosque of Sultaneah</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_15">15</a></td><td> Japan</td><td> Porcelain Vase</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_040">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_16">16</a></td><td> China</td><td> Crackle Vase</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_17">17</a></td><td> France</td><td> Palissy Dish</td><td> Soltykoff</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_18">18</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Limoges Porcelain</td><td> Mrs Charles Crocker</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_19">19</a></td><td align="center"> "</td><td> Limoges Porcelain</td><td> Thomas Scott</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> TECHNOLOGY</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_20">20</a></td><td> Egypt</td><td> Blue-glazed Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> MANUFACTURE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_21">21</a>,<a href="#fig_22">22</a></td><td align="center"> ...</td><td> Pug-mills</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_067">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_23">23</a></td><td> Judea</td><td> Potter at Work</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_070">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_24">24</a></td><td> Egypt</td><td> A Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_072">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_25">25</a></td><td> Italy</td><td> Venetian Potter</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_074">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_26">26-29</a></td><td align="center"> ...</td><td> Earthen-ware and Porcelain Kilns</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_077">77,79</a></td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> EGYPT</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_30">30</a></td><td></td><td> Captives making Bricks</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_31">31</a></td><td></td><td> Scarabæus</td><td> Way, Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_32">32</a></td><td></td><td> Gods</td><td> Way, Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_33">33</a></td><td></td><td> Earthen-ware</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_34">34</a></td><td></td><td> Pottery Cone</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_35">35</a></td><td></td><td> Terra-cotta Vase</td><td> British Museum</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_36">36</a></td><td></td><td> Polished Terra-cotta</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_091">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_37">37</a></td><td></td><td> Polished Terra-cotta</td><td> British Museum</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_091">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_38">38</a></td><td></td><td> Glazed Pottery Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_39">39</a></td><td></td><td> Scarabæi</td><td> Way, Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_40">40</a></td><td></td><td> Pectoral Tablets</td><td> Way, Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_41">41</a>,<a href="#fig_42">42</a></td><td></td><td> Mummy Figures</td><td> Way, Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_094">94,95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_43">43</a></td><td></td><td> Fragment Tin Enamel</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> ASSYRIA, Etc</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_44">44</a></td><td></td><td> Pottery Vases</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_45">45</a></td><td></td><td> Terra-cotta Venus</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_46">46</a></td><td></td><td> Cylinder</td><td> British Museum</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_47">47</a></td><td></td><td> Inscribed Seal</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_48">48</a></td><td></td><td> Seal of Sabaco</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_49">49</a></td><td></td><td> Enlarged Impression</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_50">50</a></td><td></td><td> Back of Assyrian Seal</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_51">51</a></td><td></td><td> Fragment: Porcelain (?)</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_52">52</a></td><td></td><td> Box in Porcelain(?)</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_53">53</a></td><td></td><td> Enamelled Brick</td><td> Louvre</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_54">54</a></td><td></td><td> Babylonian Brick</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_55">55</a></td><td></td><td> Mujellibé</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_56">56</a></td><td></td><td> Terra-cotta Tablet</td><td> British Museum</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_57">57</a></td><td></td><td> Baked Clay Ram</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_58">58</a></td><td></td><td> Glazed Coffins</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> JUDEA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_59">59</a></td><td></td><td> Earthen-ware Vessels</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_60">60</a></td><td></td><td> Lamps and Oil Vessels</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> INDIA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_61">61</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Vases</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> CHINA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_62">62</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Group</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_63">63</a></td><td></td><td> Cheon-lao</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_64">64</a></td><td></td><td> Kuan-in S. P. Avery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_65">65</a></td><td></td><td> Dog Fo</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_66">66</a></td><td></td><td> Vase with Ky-lin</td><td> August Belmont</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_67">67</a></td><td></td><td> Sacred Horse</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_68">68</a></td><td></td><td> Fong-hoang</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_69">69</a></td><td></td><td> Vase with Fong-hoang</td><td> Robert Hoe, Jr</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_70">70</a></td><td></td><td> Crackle Vase</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_71">71</a></td><td></td><td> Nankin Tower</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_119">119</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_72">72</a></td><td></td><td> Bricks from Nankin Tower</td><td> N. Y. Metro. Museum</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_119">119</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_73">73</a></td><td></td><td> Crackle Vase</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_74">74</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Lantern</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_75">75-82</a></td><td></td><td> Honorific Marks</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_83">83</a></td><td></td><td> Blue-and-white Porcelain</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_84">84</a></td><td></td><td> Blue-and-white Porcelain</td><td> W.L. Andrews</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_85">85</a></td><td></td><td> Lancelle Vase</td><td> W.L. Andrews</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_86">86</a></td><td></td><td> Blue-and-white Vase</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_87">87</a></td><td></td><td> “Hawthorn” Vase</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_88">88</a></td><td></td><td> “Hawthorn” Vase</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_89">89</a></td><td></td><td> Black “Hawthorn”</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_90">90</a></td><td></td><td> Aster Plaque</td><td> W.L. Andrews</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_91">91</a></td><td></td><td> Ewer, Persian Style</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_92">92</a></td><td></td><td> Turquoise Vase</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_93">93</a></td><td></td><td> Kieu-long Green</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_94">94</a></td><td></td><td> Ming Vase</td><td> G.R. Hall, Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_137">137</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_95">95</a></td><td></td><td> Ming Vase</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_96">96</a></td><td></td><td> Ming Vase, Green</td><td> F. Robinson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_97">97</a></td><td></td><td> Rose Family</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_98">98</a></td><td></td><td> Rose Plate</td><td> Robert Hoe, Jr</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_99">99</a></td><td></td><td> Rose Bowl</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_100">100</a></td><td></td><td> Rose Egg-shell</td><td> W.L. Andrews</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_101">101</a></td><td></td><td> White Porcelain Cup</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_102">102</a></td><td></td><td> Five-fingered Rosadon</td><td> G.W. Wales</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_103">103</a></td><td></td><td> Yellow Porcelain</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_104">104</a></td><td></td><td> Grains of Rice</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_151">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_105">105</a></td><td></td><td> Reticulated Vase</td><td> S.P. Avery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_106">106</a></td><td></td><td> Cup and Saucer</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> COREA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_107">107</a></td><td></td><td> Earthen-ware Jar</td><td> A.A. Vantine & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_108">108</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Cup and Saucer</td><td> W.L. Andrews</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_109">109</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> JAPAN</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_110">110</a></td><td></td><td> Japanese Gods</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_111">111</a></td><td></td><td> Raku Bowl</td><td> A.A. Vantine & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_112">112</a></td><td></td><td> Kiri-mon</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_113">113</a></td><td></td><td> Guik-mon</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_114">114</a></td><td></td><td> Tycoon’s Arms</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_115">115</a></td><td></td><td> Dragon Bowl</td><td> Corcoran Art Gall.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_116">116</a></td><td></td><td> Satsuma Vase</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_117">117</a></td><td></td><td> Satsuma Vase</td><td> August Belmont</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_118">118</a></td><td></td><td> Satsuma Vase</td><td> R.H. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_119">119</a></td><td></td><td> Satsuma Vase</td><td> J.W. Paige</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_120">120</a></td><td></td><td> Satsuma Vase</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_121">121</a></td><td></td><td> Kioto Faience</td><td> A.A. Vantine & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_122">122</a></td><td></td><td> Kioto Faience</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_123">123</a></td><td></td><td> Kioto Faience</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_124">124</a></td><td></td><td> Kiusin Vase</td><td> A.A. Vantine & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_125">125</a></td><td></td><td> Karatsu Vase</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_126">126</a></td><td></td><td> Suma Vase</td><td> A.A. Vantine & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_127">127</a></td><td></td><td> Satsuma Vase</td><td> Robert H. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_128">128</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Plaque</td><td> W.L. Andrews</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_129">129</a></td><td></td><td> Old Hizen, or Imari</td><td> A.A. Vantine & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_130">130</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Dish</td><td> R.H. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_131">131</a></td><td></td><td> Hizen Porcelain Vase</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_132">132</a></td><td></td><td> Japanese Porcelain Vase</td><td> H.C. Gibson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_133">133</a></td><td></td><td> Kaga Vase</td><td> A.A. Vantine & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_134">134</a></td><td></td><td> Owari Vase</td><td> Yoshida Kiyonari</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_135">135</a></td><td></td><td> Lacquer Vase</td><td>Corcoran Art Gallery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_136">136</a></td><td></td><td> Tokio Cloisonné Enamel</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_137">137</a></td><td></td><td> Owari Cloisonné Enamel</td><td> J.F. Sutton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_138">138</a></td><td></td><td> Rose Family Vase</td><td> Robert H. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> PERSIA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_139">139</a></td><td></td><td> Faience Plaque</td><td> Robert Hoe, Jr</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><a href="#fig_140">140</a>,<a href="#fig_141">141</a></td><td></td><td> Faience Plaques</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_142">142</a></td><td></td><td> Shrine of Imam Hussein</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_194">194</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_143">143</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Bottle</td><td> Jacquemart</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_144">144</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain Narghili</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> FOUNTAINS OF<br /> +EUROPEAN ART</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_145">145</a></td><td></td><td> General Di Cesnola</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_199">199</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><a href="#fig_146">146-149</a></td><td></td><td> Phœnician Vases</td><td> Di Cesnola</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_200">200-202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_150">150</a></td><td></td><td> Assyro-Phœnician Vase</td><td> Di Cesnola</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_151">151</a></td><td></td><td> Greek Vase</td><td> Di Cesnola</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><a href="#fig_152">152-158</a></td><td></td><td> Phœnician Pottery</td><td> Di Cesnola</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_205">205-209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_159">159</a></td><td></td><td> Greek Vases and Cups</td><td> Di Cesnola</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_210">210</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_160">160</a></td><td></td><td> Saracen Tile</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_161">161</a></td><td></td><td> Saracen Tiles</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><a href="#fig_162">162,163</a></td><td></td><td> Rhodian Faience</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_214">214</a>,<a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_164">164</a></td><td></td><td> Maghreb Urn</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> GREECE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_165">165</a></td><td></td><td> Early Greek Aryballoi</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_166">166</a></td><td></td><td> Early Greek Vases</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_167">167</a></td><td></td><td> Greek Vase</td><td> Louvre</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_221">221</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_168">168</a></td><td></td><td> Head of Minerva</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_169">169</a></td><td></td><td> Stamnos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_223">223</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_170">170</a></td><td></td><td> Askos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_223">223</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_171">171</a></td><td></td><td> Skyphos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_223">223</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_172">172</a></td><td></td><td> Rhyton</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><a href="#fig_173">173,174</a></td><td></td><td> Kraters</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_224">224</a>,<a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_175">175</a></td><td></td><td> Holmos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_176">176</a></td><td></td><td> Kelebe</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_177">177</a></td><td></td><td> Oxybaphon</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><a href="#fig_178">178,179</a></td><td></td><td> Prochoos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_180">180</a></td><td></td><td> Olpe</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_181">181</a></td><td></td><td> Kyathos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_182">182</a></td><td></td><td> Kantharos</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_183">183</a></td><td></td><td> Kylix</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_184">184</a></td><td></td><td> Early Greek Oinochoe</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_185">185</a></td><td></td><td> Early Greek Oinochoe</td><td> T.G. Appleton, B. M. of F. A.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_186">186</a></td><td></td><td> Bacchic Amphora</td><td> T.G. Appleton, B. M. of F. A</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_187">187</a></td><td></td><td> Kalpis</td><td> T.G. Appleton, B. M. of F. A</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_230">230</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_188">188</a></td><td></td><td> Hydria</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_189">189</a></td><td></td><td> Amphora</td><td> T.G. Appleton, B. M. of F. A</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> SPAIN</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_190">190</a></td><td></td><td> Hispano-Moresque Vase</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_191">191</a></td><td></td><td> Hispano-Moresque Plaque</td><td> J.W. Paige</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_234">234</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_192">192</a></td><td></td><td> Alhambra Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_235">235</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_193">193</a></td><td></td><td> Hispano-Moresque Plaque</td><td> G.W. Wales, B. M. of F. A</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_194">194</a></td><td></td><td> Early Hispano-Moresque</td><td> Boston Household Art Rooms</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_195">195</a></td><td></td><td> Moorish Tile</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_196">196</a></td><td></td><td> Early Hispano-Moresque</td><td> Boston Household Art Rooms</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> ITALY</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_197">197</a></td><td></td><td> Etruscan Vase</td><td> J.J. Dixwell</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_198">198</a></td><td></td><td> Roman Lamps</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_199">199</a></td><td></td><td> Samian Ware</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_200">200</a></td><td></td><td> Siculo-Moresque Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_247">247</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_201">201</a></td><td></td><td> Siculo-Moresque Vases</td><td> Castellani</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_202">202</a></td><td></td><td> Sgraffiato</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_203">203</a></td><td></td><td> Luca della Robbia</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_204">204</a></td><td></td><td> Robbia Medallion</td><td> Hôtel Cluny</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_205">205</a></td><td></td><td> Robbia Plaque</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_206">206</a></td><td></td><td> Robbia Medallion</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_207">207</a></td><td></td><td> Andrea della Robbia Plaque</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_208">208</a></td><td></td><td> Imitation Robbia</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_209">209</a></td><td></td><td> St Sebastian, by Giorgio</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_210">210</a></td><td></td><td> Chaffagiolo Pitcher</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_211">211</a></td><td></td><td> Siena Vase</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_212">212</a></td><td></td><td> The Sforza Dish</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_256">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_213">213</a></td><td></td><td> Pesaro Vase</td><td>John Taylor Johnston</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_257">257</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_214">214</a></td><td></td><td> Castel-Durante Dish</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_215">215</a></td><td></td><td> Castel-Durante Dish</td><td> Castellani</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_216">216</a></td><td></td><td> Plate by Xanto</td><td> Marryat</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_217">217</a></td><td></td><td> Urbino Vase</td><td> Castellani</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_260">260</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_218">218</a></td><td></td><td> Urbino Pilgrim’s Bottle</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_219">219</a></td><td></td><td> Gubbio Lustre</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_220">220</a></td><td></td><td> Platean by Giorgio</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_221">221</a></td><td></td><td> Faenza Dish</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_222">222</a></td><td></td><td> Deruta Dish</td><td> South Kensington</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_223">223</a></td><td></td><td> Medicean Porcelain</td><td> Castellani</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_224">224</a></td><td></td><td> Design on the Above</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_267">267</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_225">225</a></td><td></td><td> Nove Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_269">269</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> FRANCE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_226">226</a></td><td></td><td> Biscuit Group, Sèvres</td><td> August Belmont</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_271">271</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_227">227</a></td><td></td><td> Bernard Palissy</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_274">274</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_228">228</a></td><td></td><td> Palissy Dish</td><td> Rothschild</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_276">276</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_229">229</a></td><td></td><td> Palissy Pitcher</td><td> Rothschild</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_277">277</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_230">230</a></td><td></td><td> Barbizet Plaque</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_278">278</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_231">231</a></td><td></td><td> Palissy Cistern</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_279">279</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_232">232</a></td><td></td><td> Henri Deux Ewer</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_280">280</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_233">233</a></td><td></td><td> Henri Deux Biberon</td><td> Malcolm</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_280">280</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_234">234</a></td><td></td><td> Rouen Faience</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_281">281</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_235">235</a></td><td></td><td> Rouen Faience</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_282">282</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_236">236</a>,<a href="#fig_237">237</a></td><td></td><td> Moustiers Dishes</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_284">284</a>,<a href="#page_285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_238">238</a></td><td></td><td> Haviland Faience</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_239">239</a></td><td></td><td> Haviland Faience</td><td> Henry Havemeyer</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_240">240</a></td><td></td><td> Haviland Faience</td><td> G.W. Gibson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_241">241</a></td><td></td><td> Haviland Faience</td><td> Whitelaw Reid</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_242">242</a></td><td></td><td> Haviland Faience</td><td> Mrs Wm. H. Dannat</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_243">243</a></td><td></td><td> Haviland Faience</td><td> Mrs Col T. Scott</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_244">244</a></td><td></td><td> Haviland Faience</td><td> Clara L. Kellogg</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_245">245</a></td><td></td><td> Bourg-la-Reine Faience</td><td> G. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_246">246</a></td><td></td><td> Bourg-la-Reine Faience</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_247">247</a></td><td></td><td> Deck Faience</td><td>Corcoran Art Gallery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_248">248</a>,<a href="#fig_249">249</a></td><td></td><td> Deck Bottle and Vase</td><td> G. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_250">250</a></td><td></td><td> Colinot Faience</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_251">251</a></td><td></td><td> Colinot Faience</td><td> G. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_252">252</a></td><td></td><td> Colinot Faience</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_253">253</a></td><td></td><td> Longwy Faience</td><td> G. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_254">254</a>,<a href="#fig_255">255</a></td><td></td><td> Longwy Faience</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_308">308</a>,<a href="#page_309">309</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_256">256</a></td><td></td><td> Parville Faience</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_309">309</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_257">257</a></td><td></td><td> Gien Faience</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_258">258</a></td><td></td><td> Sarreguemines Faience</td><td> G. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_259">259</a></td><td></td><td> St Cloud Porcelain</td><td> Jacquemart</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_312">312</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_260">260</a></td><td></td><td> Vincennes Porcelain</td><td> Duke de Martina</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_313">313</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_261">261</a></td><td></td><td> Sèvres Pate Tendre</td><td> August Belmont</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_314">314</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_262">262</a></td><td></td><td> Jewelled Sèvres</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_263">263</a></td><td></td><td> Jewelled Sèvres</td><td> H.C. Gibson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_264">264</a></td><td></td><td> Sèvres Vase</td><td> Mrs C.B. Hosack</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_316">316</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_265">265</a></td><td></td><td> Sèvres Vase</td><td> White House</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_317">317</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_266">266</a></td><td></td><td> Sèvres Porcelain Candlestick</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_317">317</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_267">267</a></td><td></td><td> Sèvres Vase</td><td> White House</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_318">318</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_268">268</a></td><td></td><td> Sèvres Tea-set</td><td> Miss M.F. Curtis</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_318">318</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_269">269</a>,<a href="#fig_270">270</a></td><td></td><td> Washington’s Sèvres</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_319">319</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_271">271</a></td><td></td><td> Limoges Porcelain</td><td> S.S. Conant</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_320">320</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_272">272</a></td><td></td><td> Limoges Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_320">320</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_273">273</a></td><td></td><td> Limoges Porcelain</td><td> Mrs Col T. Scott</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_274">274</a></td><td></td><td> Limoges Porcelain</td><td> General A.J. Myer</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_275">275</a></td><td></td><td> Limoges Porcelain</td><td> Whitelaw Reid</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_322">322</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_276">276</a></td><td></td><td> Limoges Pate Tendre</td><td> H.J. Jewitt</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_322">322</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_277">277</a>,<a href="#fig_279">279</a></td><td></td><td> Limoges Pate Tendre</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_323">323</a>,<a href="#page_324">324</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_280">280</a>,<a href="#fig_281">281</a></td><td></td><td> Deck Vase and Plaque</td><td> G. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_325">325</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_282">282</a></td><td></td><td> Pate-sur-pate, by Solon</td><td> G. W. Wales, B. M. of F. A</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_326">326</a></td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> GERMANY</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_283">283</a></td><td></td><td> Hut-shaped Vases</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_328">328</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_284">284</a></td><td></td><td> Hirschvogel Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_330">330</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_285">285</a>,<a href="#fig_286">286</a></td><td></td><td> Delft Faience</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_331">331</a>,<a href="#page_332">332</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_287">287</a>,<a href="#fig_288">288</a></td><td></td><td> Graybeards</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_334">334</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_289">289</a>,<a href="#fig_290">290</a></td><td></td><td> Fine Stone-ware</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_335">335</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_291">291</a></td><td></td><td> Böttcher Stone-ware</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_337">337</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_292">292</a></td><td></td><td> Meissen Porcelain</td><td> F. Robinson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_337">337</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_293">293</a></td><td></td><td> Meissen Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_338">338</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_294">294</a></td><td></td><td> Meissen Porcelain</td><td> L. Double</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_339">339</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_295">295</a></td><td></td><td> Meissen Porcelain</td><td> August Belmont</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_340">340</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_296">296</a></td><td></td><td> Meissen Porcelain (Marcolini)</td><td> J.C. Runkle</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_340">340</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_297">297</a></td><td></td><td> Modern Dresden Porcelain</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_341">341</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_298">298</a></td><td></td><td> Berlin Porcelain</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_341">341</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_299">299</a></td><td></td><td> Berlin Porcelain Vase</td><td> August Belmont</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_342">342</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> RUSSIA,<br /> +DENMARK, &<br /> +SCANDINAVIA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_300">300</a></td><td></td><td> Russian Faience</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_344">344</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_301">301</a>,<a href="#fig_302">302</a></td><td></td><td> Swedish Faience</td><td> William Astor</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_345">345</a>,<a href="#page_346">346</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_303">303</a></td><td></td><td> Norwegian Faience</td><td> W.B. Dickerman</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_347">347</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_304">304</a>,<a href="#fig_306">306</a></td><td></td><td> Ipsen Terra-cotta</td><td> Ovington Brothers</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_348">348</a>,<a href="#page_349">349</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_307">307</a></td><td></td><td> Wendrich Terra-cotta</td><td> T. Schmidt</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_350">350</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_308">308</a></td><td></td><td> Copenhagen Porcelain</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_351">351</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td>GREAT BRITAIN</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_309">309</a></td><td></td><td> Ancient British Vases</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_353">353</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_310">310</a>,<a href="#fig_311">311</a></td><td></td><td> Celtic Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_354">354</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_312">312</a>,<a href="#fig_313">313</a></td><td></td><td> Romano-British Ware</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_355">355</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_314">314</a></td><td></td><td> Saxon Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_356">356</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_315">315</a></td><td></td><td> Anglo-Norman Vases</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_356">356</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_316">316</a>,<a href="#fig_318">318</a></td><td></td><td> Old English Tiles</td><td> Bost. Household Art Rooms</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_357">357</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_319">319</a></td><td></td><td> Posset-pot, 15th Century</td><td> Bateman</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_359">359</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_320">320</a></td><td></td><td> Staffordshire Tyg</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_359">359</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_321">321</a></td><td></td><td> Elers Ware</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_322">322</a></td><td></td><td> Josiah Wedgwood</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_323">323</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Cameo</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_361">361</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_324">324</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Basaltes</td><td> Meyer</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_362">362</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_325">325</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Jasper</td><td> Barlow</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_363">363</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_326">326</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Earthen-ware</td><td> W.S. Ward</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_363">363</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_327">327</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Portland Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_364">364</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_328">328</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Jasper Vase</td><td> John W. Britton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_365">365</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_329">329</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Earthen-ware</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_365">365</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_330">330</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Plate</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_366">366</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_331">331</a></td><td></td><td> Wedgwood Majolica</td><td> Horace Russell</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_367">367</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_332">332</a></td><td></td><td> Minton Stone-ware</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_368">368</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_333">333</a></td><td></td><td> Minton Plaque</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_369">369</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_334">334</a></td><td></td><td> Minton Majolica</td><td>Corcoran Art Gallery</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_370">370</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_335">335</a>,<a href="#fig_336">336</a></td><td></td><td> Doulton Ware</td><td> W.B. Dickerman</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_371">371</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_337">337</a></td><td></td><td> Lambeth Faience</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_372">372</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_338">338</a>,<a href="#fig_339">339</a></td><td></td><td> Lambeth Faience</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_373">373</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_340">340</a></td><td></td><td> Doulton Terra-cotta</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_374">374</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_341">341</a></td><td></td><td> Lambeth Faience</td><td> Dr H.G. Piffard</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_375">375</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_342">342</a></td><td></td><td> Lowestoft Pottery</td><td> F. Robinson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_375">375</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_343">343</a></td><td></td><td> Plymouth Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_377">377</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_344">344</a></td><td></td><td> Bow Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_377">377</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_345">345</a></td><td></td><td> Chelsea Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_378">378</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_346">346</a></td><td></td><td> Derby Porcelain</td><td> F. Robinson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_378">378</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_347">347</a></td><td></td><td> Bloor-Derby</td><td> F. Robinson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_379">379</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_348">348</a></td><td></td><td> Old Worcester Porcelain</td><td> Robert Hoe, Jr</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_379">379</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_349">349</a></td><td></td><td> Worcester Porcelain</td><td> G. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_380">380</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_350">350</a>,<a href="#fig_351">351</a></td><td></td><td> Worcester Porcelain</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_380">380</a>,<a href="#page_381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_352">352</a></td><td></td><td> Minton Pate-sur-pate,</td><td> H.C. Gibson</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_382">382</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> Solon</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_353">353</a></td><td></td><td> Jewelled Copeland</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_383">383</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_354">354</a>,<a href="#fig_355">355</a></td><td></td><td> Copeland Parian</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_356">356</a></td><td></td><td> Copeland Reticulated</td><td> W.B. Dickerman</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> Ware</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_357">357</a></td><td></td><td> Shelton Porcelain</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_388">388</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_358">358</a>,<a href="#fig_360">360</a></td><td></td><td> Belleek Porcelain</td><td> Tiffany & Co</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_388">388</a>,<a href="#page_389">389</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td>SOUTH AMERICA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_361">361</a></td><td></td><td> Tile-piece, by F.T. Vance</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_391">391</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_362">362</a>,<a href="#fig_363">363</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_393">393</a>,<a href="#page_397">397</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_364">364</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Water-jar</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_365">365</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_366">366</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Drinking-vessel</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_401">401</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_367">367</a></td><td></td><td> Pottery from Cuzco</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_401">401</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_368">368</a></td><td></td><td> Coiled Water-vessel</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_402">402</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_369">369</a>,<a href="#fig_370">370</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_403">403</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_371">371</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Water-vessel</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_404">404</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_372">372</a></td><td></td><td> Greek Head-shaped Cup</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_404">404</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_373">373</a>,<a href="#fig_375">375</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_405">405</a>,<a href="#page_406">406</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_376">376</a>,<a href="#fig_378">378</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_407">407</a>,<a href="#page_408">408</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_379">379</a>,<a href="#fig_381">381</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_408">408</a>,<a href="#page_409">409</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_382">382</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Black Vessel</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_410">410</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_383">383</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Painted Cup</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_410">410</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_384">384</a>,<a href="#fig_385">385</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_411">411</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_386">386</a>,<a href="#fig_388">388</a></td><td></td><td> Peruvian Pottery</td><td> Barboza</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_412">412</a>,<a href="#page_413">413</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_389">389</a></td><td></td><td> Brazilian Basin</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_414">414</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_390">390</a></td><td></td><td> Burial Urn</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_414">414</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_391">391</a>,<a href="#fig_392">392</a></td><td></td><td> Modern Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_415">415</a>,<a href="#page_416">416</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_393">393</a></td><td></td><td> Colombia Corrugated Ware</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_417">417</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> CENTRAL<br /> +AMERICA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_394">394</a></td><td></td><td> Vase from Ometepec</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_418">418</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_395">395</a></td><td></td><td> Vase from Ometepec</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_419">419</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_396">396</a></td><td></td><td> Tripod from Ometepec</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_419">419</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_397">397</a></td><td></td><td> Urns from Ometepec</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_420">420</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_398">398</a>,<a href="#fig_399">399</a></td><td></td><td> Terra-cotta Figures</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_420">420</a>,<a href="#page_421">421</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_400">400</a></td><td></td><td> Terra-cotta Heads</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_421">421</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_401">401</a></td><td></td><td> Guatemala Urn</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_422">422</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_402">402</a></td><td></td><td> Guatemala Cup</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_422">422</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> MOUND-BUILDERS</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_403">403</a></td><td></td><td> Vases from Missouri</td><td> Mrs J.V.L. Pruyn</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_425">425</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_404">404</a></td><td></td><td> Vase</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_426">426</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_405">405</a></td><td></td><td> Vase</td><td> Smithsonian Inst.</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_426">426</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_406">406</a></td><td></td><td> Vase</td><td> Bost. Mus. of Fine Arts</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_427">427</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_407">407</a></td><td></td><td> Vases</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_427">427</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> INDIAN</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_408">408</a>,<a href="#fig_410">410</a></td><td></td><td> Corrugated Pottery</td><td> U. S. Geol. Survey</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_432">432</a>,<a href="#page_433">433</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_411">411</a></td><td></td><td> Pottery Handle</td><td> U. S. Geol. Survey</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_433">433</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_412">412</a></td><td></td><td> Pottery Ladle</td><td> U. S. Geol. Survey</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_413">413</a></td><td></td><td> Pottery Pipe</td><td> U. S. Geol. Survey</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_414">414</a>,<a href="#fig_423">423</a></td><td></td><td> Painted Pottery</td><td> U. S. Geol. Survey</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_434">434-436</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_424">424</a></td><td></td><td> Pottery with Relief</td><td> U. S. Geol. Survey</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_436">436</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_425">425</a>,<a href="#fig_428">428</a></td><td></td><td> Modern Moqui</td><td> U. S. Geol. Survey</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_436">436</a>,<a href="#page_437">437</a></td></tr> +<tr class="smcap"><td> </td><td> UNITED STATES</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_429">429</a></td><td></td><td> Greenpoint Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_443">443</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_430">430</a></td><td></td><td> Jersey City Earthen-ware</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_456">456</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_431">431</a></td><td></td><td> N. Y. City Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_457">457</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_432">432</a></td><td></td><td> N. Y. Iron-stone China</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_458">458</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_433">433</a></td><td></td><td> N. Y. City Pottery</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_458">458</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_434">434</a>,<a href="#fig_438">438</a></td><td></td><td> Trenton Parian</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_464">464-467</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_439">439</a>,<a href="#fig_440">440</a></td><td></td><td> Chelsea Terra-cotta</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_470">470</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_441">441</a>,<a href="#fig_442">442</a></td><td></td><td> Philadelphia Porcelain</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_471">471</a>,<a href="#page_472">472</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_443">443</a></td><td></td><td> Bennington Porcelain</td><td> Trumbull-Prime</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_472">472</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_444">444</a></td><td></td><td> Greenpoint Century Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_474">474</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_445">445</a></td><td></td><td> “Kéramos” Vase</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_475">475</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_446">446</a></td><td></td><td>Greenpoint Biscuit Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_476">476</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_447">447</a></td><td></td><td> “Song of the Shirt”</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_477">477</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_448">448</a>,<a href="#fig_449">449</a></td><td></td><td> Greenpoint Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_478">478</a>,<a href="#page_479">479</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_450">450</a></td><td></td><td> Greenpoint Porcelain</td><td> E. Bierstadt</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_479">479</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_451">451</a></td><td></td><td> Poets’ Pitcher</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_480">480</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_452">452</a>,<a href="#fig_454">454</a></td><td></td><td> Greenpoint Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_480">480</a>,<a href="#page_481">481</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_455">455</a></td><td></td><td> Greenpoint Porcelain</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_456">456</a></td><td></td><td> English Porcelain</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_457">457</a></td><td></td><td> Jersey City Earthen-ware</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_458">458</a>,<a href="#fig_460">460</a></td><td></td><td> Bennett Faience</td><td> D. Collamore</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_484">484</a>,<a href="#page_485">485</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_461">461</a></td><td></td><td> Plate by J.M. Falconer</td><td></td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_485">485</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_462">462</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain and Silver</td><td> Reed & Barton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_486">486</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_463">463</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain and Silver</td><td> Reed & Barton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_486">486</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <a href="#fig_464">464</a></td><td></td><td> Porcelain and Silver</td><td> J.W. Britton</td><td align="center"> <a href="#page_487">487</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_019" id="page_019">{19}</a></span></p> + +<h1>THE CERAMIC ART.</h1> + +<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Advantages of the Study.—The Lost Origin of the Art.—Ascribed to +the Gods.—Legends of China, Japan, Egypt, and Greece.—Keramos.—A +Solution suggested.—How Pottery illustrates History.—How it +explains the Customs of the Ancients.—Its Bearings upon +Religion.—Examples from Egypt, Greece, and China.—The Art +represented in Pottery.—Its Permanency.—As a Combination of Form +with Drawing and Color.—Greek Art.—Its Merits and Defects.—The +Orientals, and their Attention to Color.—Eastern Skill.—The Aim +of Palissy.—The Highest Aim of the Ceramic Artist.—Painting on +Porcelain.—Rules to be Observed in Decorating.—Where Color alone +is a Worthy Object.—How the Art affords the Best Illustration of +the Useful combined with the Beautiful.—Its Place in the +Household.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> history of ceramic art carries us back to ages of which it has +furnished us with the only records. Beginning almost with the appearance +of man upon the globe, it brings us down through the intricate paths of +his migrations to the time in which we live. Historically, therefore, +the study of the art is not only replete with interest, but promises +much benefit to the student. The forms under which it appears are so +varied, the circuitous route it has followed leads to so many lands and +among so many peoples, and the customs it illustrates are so distinctive +of widely separated nationalities, that its history is co-extensive with +that of humanity. In many cases it supplies us with information +regarding nations whose works in pottery are their only monuments.</p> + +<p>Were we, therefore, to attempt to find its origin, we might go back as +far as written history could guide us, and then find proofs of its +existence in a prehistoric age. It is curious to observe that, as we +compare the earliest productions of different countries, we discover a +similarity between the crude ideas to which they owe their origin.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_020" id="page_020">{20}</a></span> It +is equally remarkable—and the fact is worthy of notice as pointing to +the great antiquity of the practice of working in clay—that all nations +of whose early religious ideas we have any knowledge ascribe its +inception to the gods. Daily habit demonstrated its utility, and +gratitude found a cover for ignorance, in bestowing upon the heavenly +powers the credit of inspiring man with a knowledge of the capabilities +of the plastic clay.</p> + +<p>Reason supplies an easy solution of the problem, but one not likely to +occur to the unreasoning man of the primitive world. “On the day,” says +Jacquemart, “when man, walking upon the clayey soil, softened by +inundations or rain, first observed that the earth retained the prints +of his footsteps, the plastic art was discovered; and when lighting a +fire to warm his limbs or to cook his food, he remarked that the surface +of the hearth changed its nature and its color, that the reddened clay +became sonorous, impervious, and hardened in its new shape, the art was +revealed to him of making vessels fit to contain liquids.” The reason of +the nineteenth century conflicts strangely with old-world opinions of +what was due to beneficent deity. Of this we can easily find abundant +illustration. Let us take, as examples, China, Japan, Egypt, and Greece. +We will find that each reverts to the misty boundary between legend and +history, or to the earlier age when the gods had not deserted the +world—the horizon of mortal vision or fancy, where heaven seems to +touch earth. It is said that nearly two thousand seven hundred years +before the Christian era the potter’s art was discovered in China by +Kouen-ou. This was during the reign of the enlightened Emperor Hoang-ti. +Of him it is recorded that after many labors for the good of his +subjects, the amelioration of their condition, and the extension of +their knowledge, he was translated to the upper sphere on the back of a +huge and whiskered dragon.</p> + +<p>The Japanese follow a precisely similar course. Having no real +knowledge, they call imagination to their aid, and solve an historical +problem by the creation of a legend. Turning back to a period long +before history begins, they affect to find the inventor of pottery in +Oosei-tsumi, a legendary being who lived in the age of +Oanamuchi-no-mikoto, and conferred upon him the title of “Kami,” +distinctive of deity.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_021" id="page_021">{21}</a></span></p> + +<p>The Egyptians, more reverently, gave the art directly to the gods. +Having a pantheon, they merely singled out that one of its occupants to +whom the honor should be ascribed. As Osiris is their Bacchus, and Thoth +their Mercury, so to the director Num, the first creature, they ascribe +the art of moulding clay. Like the Hebrew Jehovah, he first made the +heavens and earth, the firmament, the sun, and the moon, and, from the +fact of his having made the rivers and mountains, would appear also to +have evolved order out of the Egyptian chaos. Lastly, he made man. +Turning the clay of the Nile upon his wheel, he fashioned the last and +greatest of created things, and having “breathed into his nostrils the +breath of life,” made man the cornerstone of the fabric of creation. +Inspiration and monotheism apart, it would almost appear that the Jewish +law-giver found in the hated “house of bondage” a foundation for his +cosmogony.</p> + +<p>In how many instances did the Greeks lay the honors due to some +forgotten mortal at the feet of a god or a semi-divine hero? To them +Inachus, who about 1800 B.C. founded the kingdom of Argos, was not the +leader of a band of adventurous emigrants from Egypt, but a child of the +sea over which he came, a son of Oceanus and Tethys. It was only when +Gelanor, the last of the race of Inachus, was deposed by Danaus, that we +find a Greek recognition of the early connection of that country with +Egypt. Danaus was the son of Belus, and brother of Ægyptus, jointly with +whom he occupied the throne of Egypt. Quarrelling with his brother, +Danaus set sail, and, arriving at Argos, rose to the throne by the means +above indicated. These statements are only of value to our present +purpose as showing the close connection between Greece and Egypt, and +pointing to the conclusion that Egypt dropped the germs of that art +which Greece cultivated to such perfection that it won the admiration of +the world. If we turn to the origin of pottery accepted by the Greeks +themselves, we are confused by the liveliness of their teeming +imagination. The exercise of fancy takes the place of an undeveloped +historical sense. When Jupiter wished to punish the rash impiety of +Prometheus by giving him a wife, Vulcan made Pandora, the first of +mortal women, out of clay. Prometheus is one of the strangest figures in +Greek mythology. He laughed at the whole Pantheon, cheated the great +Jove himself, and was yet a benefactor of mankind, after he had created<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_022" id="page_022">{22}</a></span> +the species; for to him also is ascribed the creation from clay of the +first man and woman. Thus the gods and heroes were potters, and the art +was practised by them before mortal life began. To two Corinthians, one +Athenian, and one Cretan, the invention of the plastic art has been +attributed; but, passing these by, let us turn, for philological +reasons, to the legend of Keramos. The story of the adventures of +Theseus is pretty well known. By the help of Ariadne, he killed the +Minotaur of Crete, and escaped from the Labyrinth, and, having +subsequently abandoned his fair assistant on the island of Naxos, she is +said by some to have hanged herself in despair. Others, however, +assert—and to their tale we must listen—that in the arms of Bacchus +she found solace for her sorrows. Their son Keramos was the patron of +potters, and to his name we owe our word “keramic” or “ceramic.” When +the Argives pointed out the tomb of Ariadne, her ashes were deposited in +an urn in one of their temples, so that by means of the art attributed +to the son, the mother’s remains were preserved.</p> + +<p>It is thus made clear that the practice of making vessels of clay had no +origin to which we can now turn back. The art was born in the “twilight +of the gods,” whose productions are now used in illustrating the pages +of history. Even in these wild fancies there is a germ of truth. The +first attempts at moulding in clay had a common origin in the +necessities of man, and the promptings of nature to supply them. The +material was on all hands ready for use; and why should the men of +antiquity be held to differ from the children of after-ages, or those of +our own time? To one the suggestion may have come from one source, to +another it may have come from another; and unless we choose to bind +ourselves to the narrative of the building of the great Tower of Babel, +and the dispersal of races, we may be led to think that its origin may +have been manifold, as its rudest attempts have certainly been +discovered in places wide apart.</p> + +<p>On the sea-shore the child builds its house and mill, giving by the help +of water a certain consistency to the inadhesive sand. On the roadside, +or by the pond’s rim, it shapes the oozy mud into the forms suggested to +childhood’s imitative instinct. One of the earliest and most beautiful +of the legends relating to the youth of Christ has reference to this +very matter. He was engaged with his playmates in<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_023" id="page_023">{23}</a></span> making earthen birds. +His efforts were clumsy and his art rude, and his companions jeered him, +until the birds he had made became living things, and flew away. Let us +by all means concede this to have been an impossible miracle, based upon +an idle legend. Yet it proves that either in the early days of Galilee, +or in those of the inventor of the tale, the habits of children differed +in no degree from those of to-day. A kind of instinct would almost +appear to lead them to model and imitate in clay; and putting primitive +man upon the level of childhood, there is no reason for believing that +the plastic art had not several independent origins.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_1" id="fig_1"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg023_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg023_sml.jpg" width="216" height="435" alt="Fig. 1.—Old Sèvres Patetendre. Fontenoy Vase, +commemorative of the Battle of Fontenoy. Painted by Genest. (M. L. +Double Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1.—Old Sèvres Patetendre. Fontenoy Vase, +commemorative of the Battle of Fontenoy. Painted by Genest. (M. L. +Double Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The manner in which pottery illustrates history brings us to one of the +most interesting features of the study (<a href="#fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). While the connoisseur +is deep in the history of the art itself, the student prefers to view it +in its relation to that of mankind. It suggests difficulties, confirms +deductions, and offers hints for the solution of the problems of +history. The memory of extinct nations is perpetuated by the clay +records which have survived their submergence in the tide of time. In +these we may read, as in a book, of the gods they worshipped, of their +daily life, of their death and burial. Historians now, in fact, consult +the relics of the potter’s art with as much confidence and readiness as +they would turn to the pages of an old-world chronicle. Migrations, +intercourse, and conquest have all been<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_024" id="page_024">{24}</a></span> recorded in clay. One might in +that way define with the utmost exactness the line bounding the vast +empire of Rome. The bricks or tiles, placed over the graves of the +soldiers or found in their camps, show the stations of the legions and +the extent of conquest. Wherever</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">“the Empress of the world<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of yore her eagle wings unfurled,”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="nind">in England, Scotland, France, Germany, Jerusalem, or elsewhere, there +have been found tiles or bricks stamped with the number of the legion or +its distinctive appellation. The tragic end of Quintilius Varus is known +to all readers of Roman history. A Roman proconsul of high birth, and +enriched by the governorship of Syria, he was appointed to the command +of the army confronting the hordes of Germany. Surprised by the German +chief Hermann, or Arminius, his army was almost annihilated, and he, in +despair, after the fashion of his time, sought death by his own hand. +The Emperor Augustus wailed for months, “Varus, give me back my +legions,” the legions which were lying on the field, at the farthest +point to which the armies of Rome had penetrated, and also the farthest +in that direction, at which any specimens of Roman pottery have been +found. From the funereal urns of the Greeks we are enabled to tell how +far they pursued their conquests in any direction. Other nations left, +in the lands to which their arms were carried, similar mementos of their +presence, which, on being exhumed, after lying for centuries covered +thickly over by the dust time is continually spreading over the past, +are transferred to the page of history.</p> + +<p>A very forcible example of the historical value of earthen-ware is found +almost at our very door. Irving relates, in his “Life of Washington,” +that, not long after his birth, his father removed to Stafford County, +near Fredericksburg. The house stood on a knoll overlooking the +Rappahannock. This was the home of George’s youth. The meadow between +the house and the river was his play-ground. But this home, like that in +which he was born, has disappeared; the site is only to be traced by +fragments of <i>bricks</i>, <i>china</i>, and <i>earthen-ware</i>. Another example may +be taken from a paragraph which appeared in the daily papers very +recently, in which it was stated that two <i>amphoræ</i>—the name given to +the Greek two-handled, oval-bodied vases<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_025" id="page_025">{25}</a></span> (<a href="#fig_2">Fig. 2</a>) with pointed base, +which have been found wherever Greek commerce extended—containing fifty +thousand coins of the Emperor Gallienus and his immediate successors, +had been discovered at Verona. Nearly all were as fresh as when coming +from the mint. Gallienus assumed the purple A.D. 260, and reigned for +eight years before he was assassinated at Milan. For over fifteen +hundred years, therefore, these vases preserved their numismatic +treasures.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_2" id="fig_2"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg025_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg025_sml.jpg" width="357" height="244" alt="Fig. 2.—Greek and Phœnician (on right) Amphoræ. +(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2.—Greek and Phœnician (on right) Amphoræ. +(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_3" id="fig_3"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 281px;"> +<a href="images/illpg026_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg026_sml.jpg" width="281" height="267" alt="Fig. 3.—Chinese Bottles found in Egyptian Tombs." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 3.—Chinese Bottles found in Egyptian Tombs.</span> +</div> + +<p>Still another instance may be mentioned in which the close connection +between history and its handmaid, pottery, is illustrated. Some time ago +certain travellers in Egypt purchased a number of small jars (<a href="#fig_3">Fig. 3</a>) of +a kaolinic composition, which they were told had been taken from the +tombs. They were evidently, from the style of decoration and the +characters they bore, of Chinese manufacture; and the first conclusion +was, that, as evidence was not wanting to show that one of them had been +taken from a very old tomb on its being first opened, they were +possessed of a highly venerable antiquity. Subsequent investigations, +however, showed that they had been obtained from certain ports on the +Red Sea, and were to be ascribed to a comparatively recent date. The +discovery subtracted about two thousand five hundred years from their +age. But how came these Chinese vases to find their way to the +commercial cities of the Red<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_026" id="page_026">{26}</a></span> Sea? Before navigators had learned that +the great highway between Europe and the East was round the South of +Africa, intercourse was maintained either by the overland route or +through the Persian Gulf. This accounts for the abundance of Chinese +porcelain found in Persia. Some of the specimens may have been left on +the western side of the Gulf, and have thence found their way across +Arabia to the shores of the Red Sea, whence they were obtained by the +fraudulent venders of Lower Egypt.</p> + +<p>In this way the intercourse of nations may frequently be explained by +the help of pottery. Not only, be it observed, may it be taken as an +indicator of the movements or extension of the nations themselves, but +of the manner and extent of their intercourse with the rest of the +world.</p> + +<p>As an exponent of the customs of antiquity, its aid is of the highest +value. We learn, for instance, that among the Greeks the usual custom +was to mix wine in one vessel, cool it in another, draw it from the +latter into jugs, and from them fill and replenish the beakers or cups +of guests. We can see anywhere to-day tiny tea-sets for the amusement of +children. The Greeks had something closely akin to them. Vases were +given to children, as toys are given now. Some of those discovered are +so limited in their dimensions that they could not have been used for +any other purpose, and on others are depicted the games in which +children engaged. Of all the uses to which an earthen jar could be put, +certainly the most singular was that discovered by Diogenes, when he +chose one for his habitation (<a href="#fig_4">Fig. 4</a>).<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_027" id="page_027">{27}</a></span> That such was the case there is +strong reason for believing. This statement is one which may disconcert +popular belief, and break off the association between the philosopher +and a “tub;” but the authorities in favor of his home being a huge jar +are tolerably decisive. A tub, moreover, scarcely seems to meet the +requirements of the occasion, whereas it is easy to imagine a <i>pithos</i> +satisfying the limited demands of Diogenes in the way of house-keeping. +Nor was the whim of the philosopher without parallel. It is said that +during the Peloponnesian war the Athenians lived in similar vessels. The +<i>pithos</i> occupied by Diogenes was cracked and patched; and these +vessels, when unfit for other use, were, long after his day, used as +dwellings by the poor.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_4" id="fig_4"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;"> +<a href="images/illpg027_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg027_sml.jpg" width="261" height="253" alt="Fig. 4.—Diogenes in Pithos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4.—Diogenes in Pithos.</span> +</div> + +<p>Vases were presented as prizes (<a href="#fig_5">Fig. 5</a>) to the victors in the athletic +games; and it is from these and other kinds deposited in sepulchres, +that we derive the greater part of our knowledge of Greek ceramic art. +Not only were they used—at least after the earliest days of Greece—to +hold the ashes of the dead, but were evidently employed as tokens of +respect or affection. Thus, the vases the deceased had most admired or +used in life were placed in the tomb, along with others containing the +remains of the funeral feast, and those employed in the last rites. The +<i>amphora</i> was devoted to all kinds of domestic uses. The <i>rhyton</i> was a +drinking-cup (<a href="#fig_6">Fig. 6</a>). There were special vessels for oil and unguents; +and the different kinds of wine-jars and drinking-cups present an almost +endless variety of shapes, and, especially the latter, a most wonderful +beauty of form. Of these, the <i>kylix</i> affords a good example<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_028" id="page_028">{28}</a></span> (<a href="#fig_7">Fig. 7</a>). +In this way we see that, from childhood to the grave, the customs of the +Greeks are illustrated by their pottery. We pass by, in the mean time, +with a mere reference the numberless mythic themes decipherable in the +decoration of their vases.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_5" id="fig_5"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 197px;"> +<a href="images/illpg028_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg028_sml.jpg" width="197" height="466" alt="Fig. 5.—Greek Prize Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 5.—Greek Prize Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p>We meet with a precisely similar state of things among the Chinese. We +can only study the pottery of that people after familiarizing ourselves +with their religion. How otherwise can we understand the quaint figures +and designs which meet us at every turn—the God of Longevity, Pou-tai +the God of Contentment, their manifold dragons, the Kylin, the Dog of +Fo, or the Fong-hoang? Colors and shapes, as well as animals, are +employed as symbols. As the crane symbolized long life, so were certain +colors and forms distinctive of social rank. Let us take a vase and +study it closely, observe its proportions and decoration, and these will +guide us to its purpose and to the rank of the individual making use of +it. Vases and images tell of both the public and private worship of the +Chinese, and of the manner in which it was conducted. The excess to +which the Chinese carry the duties of hospitality and courtesy has been +frequently commented on. It would be hard to imagine anything showing +better the refinements of which etiquette is capable, than their manner +of decorating their reception-rooms, so that they may be filled with the +mildest incense of flattery to the expected guest. Should he be a +soldier, vases stand<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_029" id="page_029">{29}</a></span> on all sides, decorated with the warlike scenes +best suited to his professional taste. Should he be a poet, war is +changed to literature, and vases are chosen which recall the great names +of the profession. After a manner similar to that in vogue among the +Greeks, pottery and porcelain were used by the Chinese as media for the +conveyance of compliments and good wishes, and as special marks of +honor. They were conferred on the officer by his sovereign, and passed +between friends at the customary times of rejoicing.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_6" id="fig_6"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<a href="images/illpg029a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg029a_sml.jpg" width="128" height="176" alt="Fig. 6.—Greek Rhyton. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 6.—Greek Rhyton. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>We approach Egypt, in this connection, with a certain amount of awe. We +examine its early pottery with a sensation similar to that with which we +view a mummy. It comprises relics of a civilization of so hoary an +antiquity, that to study them is like peering into the secrets of the +grave. It is, in fact, from the tombs that the treasures have been +exhumed which enable us to trace Egyptian ceramic art. They tell of +customs followed long before the Persian Cambyses</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“O’erthrew Osiris, Orus, Apis, Isis,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And shook the Pyramids with fear and wonder<br /></span> +<span class="i1">When the gigantic Memnon fell asunder.”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="nind">Some of the specimens date from the Third Dynasty, about four thousand +years ago. There is now in existence a porcelain box bearing one of the +names of Amasis II., the king whom Cambyses overthrew six hundred years +before our era began. The earliest relics may be said to have been +coeval with the invention of a written language.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_7" id="fig_7"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg029b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg029b_sml.jpg" width="325" height="125" alt="Fig. 7.—Kylix, with Gorgon and Eyes." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 7.—Kylix, with Gorgon and Eyes.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_030" id="page_030">{30}</a></span></p> + +<p>A very curious custom may be allowed to arrest our attention for a +moment. In the tombs previous to the sixth century B.C., have been found +cones (<a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a>), having inscriptions on their base. From these we learn +the occupants’ names and office, whether scribes, priests, or nobles. +They served, in short, all the purposes of the inscriptions on the tombs +of our day, or of labels for establishing the identity of the dead. +Terra-cotta figures have also been found in some graves, bearing, like +the cones, the name and title of the deceased. In the same connection +may be mentioned the peculiar, and to us revolting, usage of devoting +vases to holding the viscera of the embalmed body.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_8" id="fig_8"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 228px;"> +<a href="images/illpg030_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg030_sml.jpg" width="228" height="114" alt="Fig. 8.—Red Earthen-ware Cone. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. +Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 8.—Red Earthen-ware Cone. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. +Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The multitudinous domestic uses of jars cannot here be enumerated. We +know that they were devoted to purposes which would now be considered +somewhat at variance with the legitimate object of the manufacture of +earthen-ware. We might almost say that all the receptacles designed in +modern times for domestic convenience, such as baskets, boxes, and tin +utensils, have their counterparts among the earthen fabrics of the +Egyptians. Nor must we stop there if we observe the many other purposes +of ornament and religion to which their ceramic wares were devoted. The +Egyptians had an idea that the physical wants of the deceased did not +come to an end with life, and they accordingly placed in the tombs jars +with meat and drink for consumption after death. Of these jars, many had +unquestionably been previously employed in the household. From such and +other sources we learn that earthen pots were employed in cooking, as +those of metal are with us, that certain vessels were used for holding +water; others for the juice of the grape, for butcher-meat or poultry, +for cosmetics, and, stranger than any, for holding the flax while it was +being spun. Manuscripts, or papyri, have also been discovered in them; +so that it may easily be seen how important a part pottery played in the +every-day life of the Egyptians.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_9" id="fig_9"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 102px;"> +<a href="images/illpg031a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg031a_sml.jpg" width="102" height="90" alt="Fig. 9.—Ball of Painted Earthen-ware. Egyptian." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 9.—Ball of Painted Earthen-ware. Egyptian.</span> +</div> + +<p>If we turn to their glazed ware, or porcelain, as it has been called,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_031" id="page_031">{31}</a></span> +we find it much more extensively applied to decorative purposes. The +unglazed was almost exclusively restricted to articles of a domestic +kind. The glazed ware was employed in tiling, and inlaying coffins and +boxes, and in the making of various vases and cups. Balls, presumably +for the amusement of children, and other toys sometimes also made of +pottery (<a href="#fig_9">Fig. 9</a>), ear-rings, the pieces for a game akin to draughts +(<a href="#fig_10">Fig. 10</a>) or checkers, amulets, beads, necklaces, small figures of the +gods (perforated), emblematic animals, finger-rings, and sepulchral +figures, have all been found of this material. The extent to which such +discoveries illustrate the customs of the Egyptians need not be enlarged +upon.</p> + +<p>Having thus brought forward China, Greece, and Egypt as instances, it is +hardly necessary to pursue this line of inquiry further. It may be said, +in the broadest language, that every nation of whose ceramic productions +we have any specimens, have in them reflected their religion and +customs, and thus furnished most important aids to the construction of +their national history.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_10" id="fig_10"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 93px;"> +<a href="images/illpg031b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg031b_sml.jpg" width="83" height="120" alt="Fig. 10.—Draughtsman of Glazed Pottery, from Thebes." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 10.—Draughtsman of Glazed Pottery, from Thebes.</span> +</div> + +<p>Literature has been enriched by figures drawn from the ceramic art. Some +of the most effective similes of Biblical writers are thus derived. It +is under the type of a potter that Jeremiah represents God as showing +his absolute power over the Israelites: “Behold as the clay is in the +potter’s hand, so are ye in mine hand, O house of Israel.” In a similar +manner, St. Paul typifies the divine control over man. “Nay but, O man, +who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to +him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus? Hath not the potter +power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honor and +another unto dishonor?” It is this absolute “power over the clay” which +led men to use it for the conveyance of their first conceptions of the +beautiful. The pottery of all countries shows how religion stimulated +art, by furnishing it with themes, and infusing into it a spiritual +signification which all could understand. The pottery of the Greeks +shows best how art may embellish religion and history, and perpetuate<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_032" id="page_032">{32}</a></span> +the legends belonging to neither. To the above may be added the very +effective simile employed by Plato in characterizing Socrates: “The +outside of the vase is scrawled over with odd shapes and writing, but +within are precious liquors and healing medicines, and rare mixtures of +far-gathered herbs and flowers.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_11" id="fig_11"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 110px;"> +<a href="images/illpg032_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg032_sml.jpg" width="110" height="88" alt="Fig. 11.—Enamelled Babylonian Brick. (Louvre.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 11.—Enamelled Babylonian Brick. (Louvre.)</span> +</div> + +<p>And thus, by a short step, we reach the art represented in pottery. It +supplies, beyond all question, the best means of observing the growth of +intelligence and the expansion of artistic ideas. The very qualities of +clay which led to its being used in the gratification of awakening +necessities, led also to its being adopted for the expression of the +first inspirations of art. When the Assyrian potter first ornamented the +brick he had moulded (<a href="#fig_11">Fig. 11</a>), the mechanical pursuit was elevated to +the sphere of art. The same course was followed among all nations. When +the discovery was reached, that clay could be made serviceable for +building or for household vessels, decoration sooner or later suggested +itself. Either forms were varied and became in themselves ornamental, or +a superficial decoration was resorted to. The useful led to the +beautiful, and their combination, as seen on the dinner-tables of our +day, is the natural result of a universal process by which nations have +advanced from rude and unskilful ignorance to art. The aboriginal +American potter decorated his coarse vase with a few scratches made with +a stick; his modern successor moulds his porcelain into graceful forms, +and brings to its ornamentation a palette of bright colors, a trained +hand, and a cultivated taste. The one is a relic of barbarism, the other +a work of civilization, and both are the fruits of a combination to +which all nations have been irresistibly led, viz., the useful with the +beautiful. This course has been universally followed, and may, for that +reason, be called natural. Man in every part of the world has given vent +to his instinctive longing for that which, to him, represents beauty in +the embellishment of objects in daily use. It is by the consideration of +such facts that we learn to appreciate fully the bearing of pottery upon +art and history. Upon this point Dr. Birch says: “By the application of +painting to vases, the Greeks made them something more than mere +articles of commercial<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_033" id="page_033">{33}</a></span> value or daily use. They have become a +reflection of the paintings of the Greek schools, and an inexhaustible +source for illustrating the mythology, manners, customs, and literature +of Greece. Unfortunately, very few are ornamented with historical +subjects, yet history receives occasional illustration from them; and +the representations of the burning of Crœsus, the orgies of Anacreon, +the wealth of Arcesilaus, the tributes of Darius, and the meeting of +Alcæus and Sappho, lead us to hope that future discoveries may offer +additional examples.”</p> + +<p>This passage leads directly to the consideration of the permanency of +ceramic works as compared with those of other branches of art. The +“reflections of the paintings of the Greek schools” have come down to us +in all the beauty they possessed on first leaving the artist’s hand. We +may allow Mr. Ruskin to state the reverse case, and draw the conclusion. +“It is surely,” he says, “a severe lesson to us in this matter, that the +best works of Turner could not be shown for six months without being +destroyed—and that his most ambitious ones, for the most part, perished +before they could be shown. I will break through my law of reticence, +however, so far as to tell you that I have hope of one day interesting +you greatly (with the help of the Florentine masters) in the study of +the arts of moulding and painting porcelain; and to induce some of you +to use your future power of patronage in encouraging the various +branches of this art, and turning the attention of the workmen of Italy +from the vulgar tricks of minute and perishable mosaic to the exquisite +subtleties of form and color possible in the perfectly ductile, +afterward unalterable clay. And one of the ultimate results of such +craftsmanship might be the production of pictures as brilliant as +painted glass—as delicate as the most subtle water-colors, and more +permanent than the Pyramids.” Both these writers thus refer to +permanency as a feature of the potter’s art, which lends it a special +importance. Whatever form the art may have assumed, it is, when applied +to pottery, practically imperishable. By his allusion to the effect of +time and exposure upon the paintings of Turner, Mr. Ruskin invests the +results he contemplates with a certain kind of grandeur. He has in view +the culminating point of ceramic art, the apex to which the works of the +artists of all time lead up step by step. What process he would adopt, +or what forms of the art he would discard, we need not now inquire. It +will be sufficient to take our stand<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_034" id="page_034">{34}</a></span> at the point indicated—the +perfection of form and decoration—and observe how the artists of the +past have approached it, and to mark the ideas by which they have been +influenced.</p> + +<p>The ceramic is the union of two branches of art, the architectural and +the graphic. It combines form and proportion with drawing and color. It +is unnecessary here to define art in the abstract; but there are certain +general principles which may help us to estimate the works of the +ceramic artists of all countries. Of these, the first is thus stated by +Ruskin: “The entire vitality of art depends upon its being either full +of truth or full of use; and however pleasant, wonderful, or impressive +it may be in itself, it must yet be of an inferior kind, and tend to +deeper inferiority, unless it has clearly one of these main +objects—<i>either to state a true thing, or to adorn a serviceable one</i>. +It must never exist alone—never for itself.... Every good piece of art +... involves skill, and the formation of an actually beautiful thing by +it.” The “statement of a true thing” referred to in the passage quoted +is Similitude, one of the philosopher-critic’s essentials in the graphic +arts. In the architectural arts, including pottery, he demands Skill, +Beauty, and Use; in the graphic arts, Skill, Beauty, and Likeness. If, +however, we keep in mind what Dr. Birch says of the vases of Greece +being a reflection of the Greek school of painting, and also Mr. +Ruskin’s desideratum of pictures upon exquisitely moulded porcelain, we +shall see that the essentials of the ceramic art, as a special branch, +comprise those of both the architectural and graphic divisions—Skill, +Beauty, Use, and Similitude. In one respect, therefore, it may be said +to be the highest of all the arts.</p> + +<p>The rule thus laid down can be easily applied, and is capable of various +modifications to suit the special object upon which it is brought to +bear. Thus, a work of art may represent Skill alone. Add, to equal +Skill, the second essential, Beauty, and the work will rank higher in +art. Invest an object for Use with both Skill and Beauty, and it is +raised still higher. If to these Similitude be added, the work will be +estimated according to the degree in which it possesses the four +essentials. It is obvious, however, that in the works of the ceramic +artist, it is neither always possible nor desirable to aim at bringing +the four essentials together; and this fact will receive ample +illustration from what follows. The rule has been modified<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_035" id="page_035">{35}</a></span> by every +nation according to its views of art and beauty. It is better to +recognize the good in all, than to accept one standard and exclude all +others. Catholicity of sympathy and breadth of appreciation are as +necessary to the collector’s enjoyment as to the student-artist’s +benefit. Should the one raise an inflexible standard by which to measure +his admiration, or the other allow only one carefully defined style to +kindle his emulation, both will shut out the greater part of the world +of art. Every work of art is an expression of feeling, and, to +appreciate it, it is necessary to make as near an approach as possible +to understanding the sentiment it embodies. The form of expression +varies with different nations and with different men; and to catch all +the fine and elusive shades of feeling surrounding the art of different +times and peoples, the cultivation of a keen and sensitive perception of +beauty is better than voluntary slavery under a despotic and arbitrary +rule. Art is the universal language in which humanity has couched its +ideas of beauty. The form of expression varies, but the impulse is +everywhere fundamentally the same. We have endeavored to put in words +rather the common aim of all, than a rule by which to measure individual +endeavor. It does not follow that all efforts are equal. Some have +approached the common object by one route, and others by another, and +some have approached it nearer than others; but in no case can one be +singled out as the only correct course, to the condemnation of all +others. The true artist will combine the best features of all +achievements, and so win a place nearer the goal than his predecessors. +If we find one artist excelling in form, and another in color, he who +combines excellence of form with beauty of color will surpass both. The +narrowness of schools and the vagaries of fashion have been a burden +upon art; and the less we allow ourselves to be enthralled by either, +the greater will be our enjoyment of artistic work. The more rigid our +rule, the more precarious is its existence. The standard of yesterday is +to-day looked upon with a feeling akin to contempt. Methods, models, +ideals change; and the wise man is he who can see the merits and +shortcomings, the beauties and defects, of all.</p> + +<p>We have said that different nations have shown in different ways their +sense of the aims and possibilities of ceramic art. The works of the +Greeks indicate an absorbing admiration of elegance of form<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_036" id="page_036">{36}</a></span> and +figure-drawing. Their vases mark the second step in the progress of +decoration. Firstly came linear ornamentation, and then light and line, +of which all the Greek vases are examples. If, then, the Greeks in their +best days had only reached the second step in decoration, to what must +we ascribe the wonderful influence of their art? Certainly it is not in +the subjects they chose to illustrate that its charm consists.</p> + +<p>Taking our stand in ancient Greece, we may glance along the whole line +by which the art has progressed toward an approximate perfection, and at +the same time see in what the Greeks were pre-eminent, and in what they +were deficient. “To Greece,” says one writer, “was intrusted the +cultivation of the reason and the taste. Her gift to mankind has been +science and art.” Her highest idea was beauty. She left behind her +canons of taste, beyond which, in their special application, we have not +advanced, and have little hope of advancing. We are not, therefore, +surprised when a writer on pottery reminds us that “to every eye +familiar with works of art of the higher order, the cleverest imitations +of nature, and the most elegant conceits of floral ornaments, whether +exhibited in the efforts of Oriental or European potters, appear coarse +and vulgar when contrasted with the chaste simplicity of the Greek +forms.” If we would appreciate the full truth of this, we have only to +make comparisons in any sufficiently extensive collection. The Greeks +took the articles of daily use, and made them representatives of their +ideas of beauty in both form and ornamentation. In this they followed +the examples set them ages before. In accomplishment only they were +alone. While, therefore, we study some as mere examples of skill, or +curiosities of design, we study the Greek forms as embodying our highest +ideal of beauty.</p> + +<p>Let us now examine that in which they were deficient, and see how others +have tried to remedy it.</p> + +<p>There are branches of the art which the Greeks either did not study, or +studied without success. They give little evidence of having been able +to appreciate color or to understand its uses. They, as Ruskin says, +painted anything anyhow—gods black, horses red, lips and cheeks white. +They attained to a certain unsurpassable elegance of shape, and the +beautiful outlines of their human-figure ornamentation<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_037" id="page_037">{37}</a></span> can at times +hardly be sufficiently admired; but their coloring was purely +conventional, and its application but little understood. Its changes may +be noticed with some curiosity. At first the favorite ground was a pale +cream-color, which, later, turned to a redder tint, and human took the +place of animal forms. The vases in what is called the “old style,” show +black figures and ornamentation in monochrome, with the exception of +female faces, which are white, and eyes red. The effects of perspective +are only occasionally tried. White was used for the hair and beard of +old men. Coming down next to the highest art of Greece, the ground is +black, the figures red, and the ornamentation white. Specimens belonging +to this period show advance chiefly in the drawing and expression. We +remark further, that, besides the use of conventional colors, the Greeks +did not care to copy nature too closely, and thus in two distinct ways +showed their indifference or inability to introduce into their art the +element of likeness. When Jacquemart says that “no natural object, be it +plant, bird, or animal, is rendered in its real form, or in its intimate +details,” he gives expression to a fact which shows the distinction +between Greek ceramic art and that in which a nearer approach is made to +similitude by the use of correct drawing and color.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_12" id="fig_12"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> +<a href="images/illpg037_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg037_sml.jpg" width="146" height="284" alt="Fig. 12.—Japanese Hexagonal Vase. Deep blue ground. +Figures in dark brown, three shades of green, and yellow. Height, 16½ +in. (R. H. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 12.—Japanese Hexagonal Vase. Deep blue ground. +Figures in dark brown, three shades of green, and yellow. Height, 16½ +in. (R. H. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_13" id="fig_13"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;"> +<a href="images/illpg038_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg038_sml.jpg" width="171" height="222" alt="Fig. 13.—Persian Tile. Arabesque Decoration." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 13.—Persian Tile. Arabesque Decoration.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Orientals went to the opposite extreme. They delighted in bright and +gorgeous decoration to an extent that, but for their many intensely +realistic works, would lead to the belief that the production of certain +effects in color was the highest object of their artists. Their strength +lies in their coloring. Nowhere else can the same skill be found in the +harmonizing of shades usually deemed discordant, and nowhere else have +colors the same brilliancy and depth (<a href="#fig_12">Fig. 12</a>). The Japanese and +Chinese, in particular, appear to have thoroughly grasped the true place +of color in the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_038" id="page_038">{38}</a></span> decoration of curving surfaces, from which the +brilliant glaze reflects the light. The artists of Sèvres, anticipating +in a manner Ruskin’s idea, embellished their vases with compositions +similar to those on canvas. They made the mistake of thinking that the +artist’s work is independent of the surface on which it appears, whereas +perspective is altered and sometimes destroyed by the curvature of a +vase and the brilliancy of the enamel. The artists of the Orient, on the +other hand, either restrict themselves to subjects which can be treated +upon a judiciously limited part of the surface, or throw aside +compositions entirely, and trust to floral designs, isolated figures, +repetitious decoration without unity of design, or to beauty of colors +alone. Everything contributed to exalt their estimation of color for its +own sake, and to it we accordingly find that they devote the regard +entertained by the Greeks for form. Any ulterior use of color, as for +picture-painting on the flat surface of porcelain plaques, does not +appear to have occupied their attention to any very great extent. It is +in isolated figures and flowers that we can best study the marvellous +delicacy of the Chinese or Japanese brush, and the fidelity with which +the suggestions of nature are followed. There is little absolute +imitation. Color is paramount, and its beauty obscures the incongruities +of Oriental art.</p> + +<p>The Persians, like the Greeks, mingled the natural with the +conventional. Their vases and tiles (<a href="#fig_13">Fig. 13</a>) are ornamented with floral +designs, in which, while some of the flowers can be distinguished, +others are altered beyond recognition. Among the Mussulman Persians the +enamels reached the highest point of gorgeous brilliancy: glowing red as +a ground-color, dishes with bottoms covered with rich +arabesques—everything set in tints of the most pronounced and striking +kind. Their decorations are many-hued as the rainbow; and if at times +they lack its softly melting shades, they appear at others as if<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_039" id="page_039">{39}</a></span> +suspended in the clear and liquid glaze, as soft as the tints of early +spring. White figures on a blue or yellow ground, or <i>vice versa</i>, are +distinctive of much of the ornamentation of Persia. The mosque at +Sultaneah (<a href="#fig_14">Fig. 14</a>) is described as having its walls entirely “cased +with enamelled tiles of deep blue, with yellow and white scrolls and +devices.” The patterns are arabesque, occasionally mingled with animal +and floral forms. The finest specimens of Persian tiling at the Museum +at Sèvres are in blue and white, the latter forming the ground.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_14" id="fig_14"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg039_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg039_sml.jpg" width="371" height="308" alt="Fig. 14.—Mosque at Sultaneah. Cased, inside and out, +with enamelled tiles." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 14.—Mosque at Sultaneah. Cased, inside and out, +with enamelled tiles.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_15" id="fig_15"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 134px;"> +<a href="images/illpg040_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg040_sml.jpg" width="134" height="249" alt="Fig. 15.—Japanese Porcelain. Cloudy gray, flecked with +gold; dress, rose and gold. (Sutton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 15.—Japanese Porcelain. Cloudy gray, flecked with +gold; dress, rose and gold. (Sutton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>These technical secrets, known centuries ago in Persia and the far East, +have been coveted by ceramists down to the present day. They have been +and are the most jealously guarded possessions of artists and factories, +and history records many instances of the extreme precautions adopted to +prevent their spread. The Japanese, for example, although indebted to +China and Corea for the foundation of the knowledge upon which the +magnificent structure of their subsequent art was built, guard with the +utmost care the borrowed secrets in their<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_040" id="page_040">{40}</a></span> possession. In a native work +on porcelain it is said: “The painting and decoration of vases is a +secret that it is not permitted to reveal.” Similar instances present +themselves on every hand. The production of any unusually beautiful +color, although really only one-half of the difficulty with which the +ceramic artist has to contend, is universally regarded as a triumph. +Such were the efforts upon which the potters of China expended their +skill, and upon which the emperors of the Flowery Kingdom bestowed +rewards. There are dynastic colors, but no dynastic style of +ornamentation with design. The ability to apply color to an artistic +creation was a secondary matter, and went without recognition. The +position of the artist and the workman were thus in a measure inverted, +if we insist that the production of color is mechanical, and its +application artistic. If the decoration be examined, its execution in +detail will be found to be almost perfect—birds of brilliant plumage, +flowers of richest hue, men and women draped in Oriental splendor (Fig. +15). In every case the colors used are those which produce the subtlest +harmony. They gleam through the glaze like gems, or lie upon its surface +like drops of pearl, ruby, or emerald. The drawing is precise and +minute. A cylindrical Japanese vase, in Mr. J. T. Sutton’s collection, +is decorated with a flock of cranes. They cover the upper part of its +surface, flying, turning, diving, in every conceivable attitude—a +perfect whirlwind of birds. The decorator has, with astonishing skill, +seized upon the varied attitudes most suggestive of motion, and has +produced what might be called “a study of cranes,” as far beyond the +apprehension of a European artist as the minutiæ are beyond his skill. +Elsewhere we may see a masterpiece of manual dexterity. It is +reticulated, or articulated; or has its paste perforated, and then +covered with glaze; or it may be a grotesque expression of Oriental +humor. Others are decorated with designs in color, and their aspects +have no monotony.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_041" id="page_041">{41}</a></span> Should one side weary, the vase may be partially +turned, and an entirely new effect is secured. In it, as in that +described above, there is no repetition.</p> + +<p>In Oriental work, as a whole, we therefore find skill in manipulation, +similitude in drawing, and beauty in color; and the greatest of these is +color. We have seen how it was regarded by the Chinese themselves, and +our collectors follow their lead. They value one piece for the rarity of +its prevailing green, another for the depth of its turquoise, a third +for the clearness of its blue and the transparency of its white, a +fourth for the harmony of its many tints, a fifth for the skill +displayed in its quaint form and decoration.</p> + +<p>We thus reach an interesting point where some instruction may be gained. +On the one hand, are the Greeks pursuing beauty of form with assiduity +and marked success; on the other, are the Orientals occupying themselves +with mechanical skill and the beauty resulting from color. Both were +right so far as they went. Men will admire Greek pottery so long as they +have any sense of elegant proportion; they will admire Oriental pottery +so long as they find any beauty in the changing colors of a kaleidoscope +or in a gem. The aims and ideals of the two peoples were different, and +the world has not yet seen the combination of a gracefulness of form +equal to the Greek with the coloring of the Orient.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_16" id="fig_16"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<a href="images/illpg041_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg041_sml.jpg" width="126" height="278" alt="Fig. 16.—Nankin Porcelain. Brown bands; base, white; +body, pale green; neck, light brown. Decoration chiefly pink, green, and +blue; neck and body crackled. (Sutton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 16.—Nankin Porcelain. Brown bands; base, white; +body, pale green; neck, light brown. Decoration chiefly pink, green, and +blue; neck and body crackled. (Sutton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In other directions, especially in Europe, it is more difficult to +unravel the lines of art, or to specify, without numberless exceptions +and modifications, the distinctive aims of artists or schools. The +example of the Orientals has led some manufacturers to choose the +production of color as their great aim. They have no intelligent +comprehension of its higher uses, as these might be studied in Chinese +decoration. They form an exaggerated estimate of Oriental processes, and +<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_042" id="page_042">{42}</a></span>seek to equal the wonderful coloring of the faience of Persia or +Rhodes. If they fail, as is generally the case, they are in no way +deterred from using their inferior colors as the Orientals used the +riches of their palette. Instead of turning toward a new object within +the compass of their lower skill, they appeal to the eye with works +which, by suggesting comparison with the models that inspired them, are +at once condemned. If a vase of Nankin porcelain should be placed side +by side with a Delft copy, the force of this will at once be seen.</p> + +<p>It is comparatively easy to assign a place to Palissy. His career +deserves study as an illustration of the movement of art between the +conventional and the natural. As we look back upon his works, we find +that truth to nature, in both form and color, was the guiding motive in +the production of his most remarkable pieces. We owe the romance of his +life to his earnestness in attempting to solve the mysteries of enamel. +“I thought,” he says, “that if I could discover the invention of making +enamel, I should be able to make vessels of earth, and other things of +beautiful arrangements, <i>because Heaven had given me to understand +something of painting</i>; and thenceforth, without considering that I had +no knowledge of argillaceous earth, I set about seeking enamel like a +man who gropes in the dark.” The story of his trials, his failures and +successes, his poverty, honors and persecutions, compose the great +romance in the history of ceramics. What he attained was, first, a white +enamel; then, jasper glaze of warm tints of blue, brown, and white; +lastly, his <i>Rustiques figulines</i> (<a href="#fig_17">Fig. 17</a>). The last was his crowning +effort. We regard him both as the leading representative of French art +in the sixteenth century, and as a great originator. He had made, after +long struggle and endeavor, a great discovery in enamelling; but what we +admire more than that is the ideal he had formed. He developed skill, +and aimed at both beauty and likeness. Palissy was great because, having +chosen a certain line of art, he adopted the only ideal by which he +could possibly reach perfection, viz., absolute truth to nature, alike +in form and color. He neither spared himself nor overlooked any detail. +His moulds were formed from living specimens. We recognize every +ornament—shells of the district round Paris, reptiles and plants from +the same places, and fish from the Seine. He did not dare to improve or +conventionalize. He preferred nature as he found her; and his wisdom was +genius. What we wish chiefly to note is, that here was an artist<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_043" id="page_043">{43}</a></span> who +used the beauties of enamel for the reproduction of the natural. He not +only moulded the clay into the forms of living things, but reproduced +the colors of his models. No better examples can be given of Similitude. +It hardly seems possible that his was a branch of the same art that we +have seen in the East and in Greece. The fact of its being so merely +shows the wide scope of ceramic art, and the infinity of the forms it +may assume.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_17" id="fig_17"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg043_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg043_sml.jpg" width="336" height="232" alt="Fig. 17.—Palissy Dish. (Soltykoff Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 17.—Palissy Dish. (Soltykoff Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Having chosen representatives of three different components of what we +have assumed to be the highest form of art, we may now glance at the end +in view, and see to what extent the lower forms may be worthily +followed. Let us suppose that a piece of pottery or porcelain has been +painted, and that the action of the fire has made the coloring +perennial, so that we find on it a portrait or a landscape everlasting +as the ware itself. Let us suppose, further, that the tints are natural, +that, in short, the portrait is all that we now understand by the word, +and that in the landscape nature is displayed as on canvas—then we +should have a specimen of the perfect union of the potter’s and +painter’s art.</p> + +<p>The lessening obstructions in the way of such a consummation may be +referred to in brief. The colors are mineral, and change by submission +to fire, different temperatures producing different tints,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_044" id="page_044">{44}</a></span> even when +the same pigment is used. The painter, therefore, in applying the +colors, must take into account the change to be effected by the fire in +endeavoring to produce a certain result. He has not merely, it will be +observed, to lay on given colors, and have them made perpetual by +glazing and firing. He must estimate and make allowance for the +transformations effected in the process. We are now in a position to +realize the difficulty attending the exercise of the combined skill of +potter and painter. As a consequence, although many great painters have +turned their genius to the decoration of earthen-ware, others have been +deterred from doing so by the very facts here mentioned. They are +unwilling to submit their work to processes unattended with certainty, +and to have their artistic individuality obliterated by the fire. It is +clear, therefore, that if by any means doubt can be changed to +certainty, and the finish characteristic of the individual artist be +preserved, artists of every grade will gladly avail themselves of the +opportunity to place their works above the reach of the defacing fingers +of Time. The ceramic art would be revolutionized. Artists, being at +present less able to follow nature, make a virtue of necessity, and lose +themselves among fantasies of tint and form. We find elaborately +decorated pieces, the great virtue of the floral ornamentation of which +is, that it is—not true, but—new. A new leaf or a novelty in flowers +is a valuable discovery; and the <i>répertoire</i> of the potter is filled +with designs in which nature has no part. If nature be brought within +the artist’s reach, it will be followed more closely; and the result +might be the realization of Ruskin’s idea—the rendition of absolute +similitude in outline, color, and perspective.</p> + +<p>The next question arising is, in view of the restraints upon artists, +what styles of decoration are the best? The subject is worth considering +at length. There may be a beauty of a certain kind in the ware itself. +As a rule, porcelain should never be overloaded with gold or any kind of +decoration or color less beautiful than its own enamel. It demands +lightness of ornamentation and gracefulness of design, rather than +brilliancy of decoration. We can, when these canons are observed, find +something to admire in capricious floral designs, even although they may +not be floral to the naturalist. The best rule is to adapt the +decoration to the object upon which it is<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_045" id="page_045">{45}</a></span> laid. It would be a violation +of good taste to demand pictures upon plates, or that a soup-tureen +should resemble a sarcophagus. If an object be for use, let its +usefulness be the primary consideration; if for ornament, let its beauty +be its first; if it be meant to combine them, let the ornamentation be +that best suited to the useful purpose.</p> + +<p>When we come to consider color alone, a distinction must again be drawn +between articles for different purposes. Ornamentation may address +either the eye alone or the sensibilities through the eye. Restricting +ourselves to the former, the article will be the most ornamental which, +apart from shape, seems most brilliant, and reflects the most light. To +illustrate this, we might reproduce an object in different +materials—diamond, ruby, topaz, gold, iron, lead, sand, and plaster. +Show it, in all these materials, to a savage, an ignoramus, an artist, a +woman, and each will select the copy in precious stone as the most +agreeable to the eye. The plaster would be the least likely to attract, +and the person choosing it would be at once put down as devoid of taste. +Suppose, now, that a vase is presented to us duplicated in different +materials, we should find the turquoise of Japan or the red of China +more pleasing to the eye than stanniferous enamel. It would, again, be +like choosing between ruby and plaster. In this way a rule could be +drawn up capable of universal application, one which would surmount all +the advancing and receding waves of changing fashion.</p> + +<p>In the shape which an object intended for ornament should assume, or in +the style of its decoration, there is, as we have seen, no absolute +rule. Individual taste is paramount, since ornaments are intended mainly +to administer to the pleasure of the possessor, but one rule may be +considered universal in regard to the decoration. If the object be a +vase intended to brighten a house, then its ornamentation should never +be of such an order that its greatest and best effect is perceived when +it stands alone. What ought to be kept in view, is the extent to which +it will increase the attractiveness of the room in which it stands. It +is a very curious fact that the most perfect decoration demands +isolation for the appreciation of its full effect, and that decoration +of comparative mediocrity will frequently add more to an apartment. We +are thus led to observe that decoration is not an end, but a way, a +means to the beautifying of a home.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_046" id="page_046">{46}</a></span> Every such object in a house should +be a note, and from combination of all the notes comes harmony. Were +each a tune complete, however perfect, the result would be a jarring +discord. For that reason, a vase of one perfectly simple color may +harmonize with its surroundings as well as, or even better than, another +showing a masterpiece of painting. Such a color must, however, be as +near perfection as possible, like that of a precious stone. A vase of +turquoise-blue may produce in a room the effect of diamonds in the ears +of a woman. Taste is not likely to lead her to carry pictures in her +ears, nor to exclude all but picture-painted porcelain from her rooms.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_18" id="fig_18"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg046_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg046_sml.jpg" width="216" height="217" alt="Fig. 18.—Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by M. +Bracquemond. (Mrs. Charles Crocker Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 18.—Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by M. +Bracquemond. (Mrs. Charles Crocker Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_19" id="fig_19"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;"> +<a href="images/illpg047_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg047_sml.jpg" width="229" height="231" alt="Fig. 19.—Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by Pallaudre. +(Thomas Scott Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 19.—Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by Pallaudre. +(Thomas Scott Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Having thus seen how ceramic productions illustrate the art ideas of all +nations, having touched upon the influence of pottery upon art in +general, and having glanced at its present aims and possible +accomplishments, it will not be forgotten, after what has just been +said, that the combination of the useful and the beautiful is the great +charm of the ceramic art, making between them a new beauty which finds +its best place in the household. Let us look at the usual appurtenances +of the table. They both reflect taste and form it. A wide range is +before us from which to choose—from the vulgarity of overloaded glaring +colors and gilt, to the most exquisite simplicity of design and +perfection of workmanship. Every house-keeper ought to visit an +extensive collection, and, by comparing and contrasting one style with +another, learn in what the true beauty of ceramic decoration consists. +The painting and moulding of pottery and porcelain are quite as +important as oil-painting and sculpture. As we look at the pictures and +statues in a gallery, we read the stories they tell, feel the sentiment +they express, study the grace they embody, or linger lovingly over the +evidences they present of artistic skill. A plate may appear<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_047" id="page_047">{47}</a></span> an humble +thing to which to turn from them. But let us consider the intimate +relations into which we are brought with its unobtrusive beauty. It is +the daily contact that lends so comparatively lowly a matter its real +importance, and daily contact with delicately painted and gracefully +moulded cups, platters, and dishes cannot be without its influence upon +taste. Or suppose the ceramic treasure be an earthen-ware jar. It +presents us with green, its depth suggestive of a forest glade, shading +off into blue like that of the sky. As we turn it slowly round, a leaf +appears attached to a tiny stem, and still farther lies a flower, +colored with the very hue of nature, and suggesting the perfume of a +garden in summer. Art such as that is never out of place, and never +thrown away. Or let our attention rest upon more purely ornamental +representatives of the art. There are vases which, while offering for +our admiration a beauty which is eternal, are yet invested with a +chameleon-like power of change. They never allow monotony to break their +charm. It may consist of a mere color. Take the old turquoise-blue of +China. The eye can scarcely catch the fleeting shades, to determine +whether the vase is blue or green. While daylight lasts, the blue is +dominant, but when the lamps are lit in the evening, the blue gives +place to a green of greatly increased brilliancy. The same thing may be +observed in many flower-painted vases. They may be examined once without +revealing a tithe of their beauty. The sky is overcast and the outside +world gloomy, and the flowers, as sympathetic as though growing in the +garden, look sombre and drooping. But let a ray of sunshine fall across +the vase, and mark how the flowers are glorified. Their hues change and +brighten, and, as if endowed with life, they smile, and lift up their +heads in the face of the sun.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_048" id="page_048">{48}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="BOOK_I_NOMENCLATURE_AND_METHODS" id="BOOK_I_NOMENCLATURE_AND_METHODS"></a>BOOK I.—NOMENCLATURE AND METHODS.</h2> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I-b1" id="CHAPTER_I-b1"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> +<small>TECHNOLOGY.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Confusion in Use of Terms.—Porcelain as an Instance.—Derivation +of +Ceramic.—Pottery.—Faience.—Majolica.—Mezza-Majolica.—Composition +of Porcelain.—Origin of Word.—Where first made.—When introduced +into Europe.—Hard and Soft Paste.—Soft Porcelain of Venice, +Florence, England, France.—Hard Porcelain invented at Meissen by +Böttcher.—Vienna.—Discovery of Kaolin in France.—Biscuit.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_20" id="fig_20"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<a href="images/illpg048_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg048_sml.jpg" width="154" height="185" alt="Fig. 20.—Blue-glazed Pottery. Egyptian." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 20.—Blue-glazed Pottery. Egyptian.</span> +</div> + +<p>I<small>T</small> will be necessary as we proceed to make use of certain terms, the +meaning of which should be defined with as much exactness as possible. +It may be premised that considerable confusion exists in the +nomenclature of the art. This has arisen partly from the want of +precision in the language employed by writers, and partly from diversity +of usage. As an illustration, the word “porcelain” may be adduced. The +material to which the Egyptians applied a glaze, and which was very +largely used in making ornaments and small images, has been called, and +is constantly spoken of, as Egyptian porcelain (<a href="#fig_20">Fig. 20</a>). In reality the +substance is not porcelain, having neither the transparency nor the +hardness of that ware, but a compound between porcelain and +earthen-ware. The word was also used by the Italians in the sixteenth +century, to designate their finer qualities of majolica. An equally +incongruous application of it is made in the case of Lambeth faience, +which is described by the manufacturers as a “kind of porcelain.” Such +words as faience, hard and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_049" id="page_049">{49}</a></span> soft porcelain, majolica, stone-ware, etc., +are in continual use by writers upon ceramic art, and a few of the more +important will now be defined.</p> + +<p>Allusion has already been made to the derivation of the word “ceramic.” +Viewing the subject more prosaically, the name <span title="Greek: keramos">κεραμος</span> was +applied by the Greeks to pottery in general, and also to a large jar; +and several derivatives were used for the designation of different +vessels. The potter himself was called <span title="Greek: kerameus">κεραμευς</span>, and the +pot-market <span title="Greek: kerameikos">κεραμεικος</span>. Although the matter has been differently +viewed, it appears probable that the root of all the above words is +<span title="Greek: keras">κερας</span>, a horn. The horn was used at a very early period as a +drinking-cup, and a more decided air of probability is thus given to the +above assumption, since Bacchus was the reputed parent of [Greek: +keramos κεραμος], or Ceramus. However philologists may ultimately settle this +matter, the word “ceramic” is now employed to designate the potter’s art +and its productions.</p> + +<p>The word “pottery” is variously used. Its root is the Latin <i>potum</i>, a +drinking-vessel. It is applied, according to general English usage, to +all wares distinguished by their opacity from translucent porcelain. The +French word <i>poterie</i>, on the other hand, is applied to all vessels, +including those made of porcelain. The latter fact has led to a slight +confusion in the use of the English word. One writer makes the assertion +in one place, that the words “earthen-ware” and “pottery” have limited +and distinctive meanings, the former applying only to vessels of the +coarser qualities, the latter to the finest products of the fictile art, +“including even porcelain.” In another place, he draws a distinction +between pottery and porcelain, and in the latter course he is followed +by the present writer.</p> + +<p>Faience, fayence, or fayance, is a French word applied to every kind of +glazed earthen-ware. According to the earlier French usage, the term +included porcelain, but more lately it has been applied only to pottery.</p> + +<p>The word “majolica,” as now employed, has almost the same meaning as +faience. A more limited signification is attached to it by some. The +writer of the article on pottery in “Appleton’s Cyclopædia” says it is +used “to signify all faience of Italian manufacture. Lately the word has +been used as almost, if not quite, synonymous with faience.” A more +recent writer has said, “In its now common acceptation, the word is +applied to all kinds of decorated pottery made<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_050" id="page_050">{50}</a></span> in Italy, or made in +colors and styles imitating the old Italian work. But when you read a +book on pottery written during the present century by an expert, you +will do well to remember that the word in that book means exclusively +Italian decorated pottery of the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and +eighteenth centuries, in the old Italian styles. It does not include +Italian vases made in imitation of German, French, Dutch, or English +wares.”</p> + +<p>The changing meaning of this word is a good illustration of the careless +use of the terms employed in treating of ceramic art. Originally, +majolica, or maiolica, had a meaning different from any of those given +above. The name is derived from Majorca, the largest of the Balearic +Islands, between which and Italy intercourse is known to have taken +place in the twelfth century; and two hundred years later, the +commercial transactions of Majorca were of a very extensive kind. The +evidence in favor of the above derivation of the word is conclusive. +Scaliger says distinctly that the Italian pottery derived its name of +majolica from Majorca, where the pottery was most excellent. Ferrari +believes that “the use of majolica, as well as the name, came from +Majorca, which the ancient writers called Majolica.” The “Dictionary +della Crusca” adds weight to these authorities. Such being the case, it +seems probable that the Italians derived part of their knowledge of +making majolica from the place which gives it its name. Even admitting +that the Saracens who settled in Sicily, and the Moors expelled from +Spain who settled in Italy, initiated the Italians in the art, nothing +is thereby detracted from the importance of Majorca. The fact is left +unaffected that the intercourse with the Balearic group enabled the +Italians to find a name for the ware they admired so much. On trying to +imitate it, the ware called “mezza-majolica” was produced. The red clay +was first thinly coated with white earth, upon which the colors were +laid. After a partial firing, lead glaze was applied, and lustre +pigments gave the ware the iridescence characteristic of real majolica. +It was after this that tin enamel was used in place of a white slip; and +the lustre pigments being applied as before, fine majolica was produced. +It will thus be seen that the words “mezza-majolica” and “majolica” were +originally applied only to wares showing the <i>reflet métallique</i>, or +lustre. This limited use of the word was observed down to the middle of +the sixteenth century. Piccolpasso,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_051" id="page_051">{51}</a></span> writing in 1548, in no case applies +the name to the painted and glazed wares of his own production. All the +glazed earthen-ware of Italy was thereafter called majolica; and the +application of the word has been growing wider ever since. Mr. Fortnum +says, “We think, with M. Jacquemart, M. Darcel, Mr. J. C. Robinson, and +others, that the word ‘maiolica’ should be again restricted to lustred +wares.” Any such attempt must necessarily end in failure. The popular +employment of a word is not to be controlled by its scientific +application. The tendency is in the opposite direction—toward the +establishment of a universal usage by which faience and majolica will +become convertible terms.</p> + +<p>The different kinds of ware, such as Lucca della Robbia, Palissy, +Doulton, and Limoges, will be found described under the countries to +which they belong.</p> + +<p>Porcelain is composed of two ingredients, one of which—kaolin—is +infusible, and the other—petuntse—vitrifies, and envelops the kaolin. +It is translucid, and therein differs from pottery, which is opaque. As +to the origin of the word, we have already seen that it was, in its +Italian form, applied to majolica in the sixteenth century; and the word +“pourcelaine” occurs two centuries earlier. It was used to designate +Oriental china in the fifteenth century. Mr. J. F. Davis, in his work on +the Chinese (1840), quotes Marsden to the effect that the word +“porcelain,” or <i>porcellana</i>, was applied by Europeans to the ware of +China, from the resemblance of its fine polished surface to that of the +univalve-shell so named; while the shell itself derived its appellation +from the curved or gibbous shape of its upper surface, which was thought +to resemble the raised back of a <i>porcella</i>, or little hog. When +porcelain was first invented in China is not exactly known. The +combination was discovered in the province of Honan about eighteen +hundred years ago; but the date cannot be more specifically fixed. From +China it was introduced into Persia, Egypt, and Barbary, at a very early +period, and was thence imported into Europe, where, however, it was not +generally known until 1518. The first specimens of Oriental porcelain +known to have reached England were given by Philip of Austria to Sir +Thomas Trenchard, of Wolverton, in 1506.</p> + +<p>To continue its history in Europe, it is necessary to observe that there +are two kinds of porcelain—the natural, or <i>pate dure</i>, and the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_052" id="page_052">{52}</a></span> +artificial, or <i>pate tendre</i>. The latter cannot stand so high a +temperature as the former, and can be scratched with a knife, which the +hard porcelain resists. The soft-paste was the first to be discovered in +Europe. Chemists, struck with the beauty of the Chinese porcelain, and +impelled by a desire to imitate, began to experiment in the sixteenth +century; and the first success, of which substantial evidences now +exist, was gained at Florence in 1580. It is said that a Venetian potter +made porcelain sixty or seventy years earlier; but no specimen known to +be his is now in existence. After that of Florence, the next discovery +was made by Dr. Dwight, of Fulham, England, in 1671; and in 1695 the +secret was penetrated by M. Chicanneau, at St. Cloud, France. By that +time the Florentine porcelain and process had been forgotten, and the +English and French ceramists pursued perfectly independent +investigations.</p> + +<p>The problem of making a hard-paste porcelain resembling that of the +Orient still remained unsolved. No chemistry could avail the +experimenters so long as the materials were wanting. To the accidental +discovery of a bed of kaolin, Europe owed its first hard porcelain. This +important event took place about the year 1709, and the circumstances +leading to it are full of interest.</p> + +<p>John Frederic Böttger, or Böttcher, was a chemist’s assistant in Berlin, +and having fallen under suspicion as an alchemist, he took refuge in +Saxony, which was then under the electorate of Augustus II. The elector, +having questioned him as to his researches in the forbidden science, +placed him in the laboratory of a chemist who was in search of the +philosopher’s stone. While working to that end, Böttcher surprised +himself by producing something akin to Chinese porcelain. The course of +his experiments was turned at once from the channel in which it had run. +The king gave him every facility for continuing his experiments and +working out his secret. He was first established at Meissen, then at +Königstein, and last at Dresden. The first results were comparatively +rude; then came a reddish stone-ware, and afterward a dull white +porcelain. How long his experiments might have been continued, or what +might have been their ultimate result, cannot be estimated, had not an +accidental discovery brought the object at which he was aiming suddenly +within his reach. John Schnorr, a wealthy iron-founder, riding one day +in the vicinity<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_053" id="page_053">{53}</a></span> of Aue, near Schneeberg, Saxony, noticed that his horse +lifted his feet with difficulty. On examination he found that the clay +was very white and peculiarly adhesive. Schnorr, although rich, would +gladly be richer, and avarice made him ingenious. Why not use this white +earth in the making of hair-powder? was the question which occurred to +him. The commodity was dear, and clay was a cheap substitute. He took a +quantity with him, made the new hair-powder, and was successful in his +venture. In due course, the new powder reached Böttcher, and he, in +turn, found an original use for the white earth. Inquiring into the +nature of the powder, he found it was earthy, and at once tried it in +his laboratory. The powder was kaolin, and hard porcelain was +discovered. A manufactory was established at Meissen, of which Böttcher +was director until his death, in 1719.</p> + +<p>In 1720, the manufacture was begun at Vienna, whither the secret was +carried by an escaped foreman from Böttcher’s works at Meissen.</p> + +<p>It is very curious to note that the first manufacture of hard porcelain +in France was due to a chance discovery almost identical with that made +in Germany. Kaolin had been found at Alençon, but the porcelain made +from it was not pure in color. In 1765, the wife of a surgeon found near +St. Yrieix a peculiarly soft earth of great whiteness. Being poor, +Madame Darnet was also economical. Unlike Schnorr, her thoughts turned +in the direction rather of keeping down household expenses than of +adding to her income. The earth had a soft, oily touch, and the good +lady thought that it might answer all the purposes of soap. Her husband +sent a sample to a chemist, and it was soon afterward decided to be +kaolin. The manufacture of hard porcelain was begun at Sèvres in 1769, +the quarries of St. Yrieix supplying both the kaolin and petuntse. As +illustrating the ingratitude of the world, it may be mentioned that the +humble instrument by whose aid France reached its lofty eminence in the +manufacture of porcelain was, for about sixty years, left unrewarded. In +1825, Madame Darnet, spending her old age in poverty, received a pension +from Louis XVIII.</p> + +<p>Biscuit is the technical term applied to both pottery and porcelain +before they are enamelled or glazed. In this condition, porcelain is of +a dead white, and is not very well suited to receive decoration in +colors which require a glaze to bring out their full beauty.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_054" id="page_054">{54}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II-b1" id="CHAPTER_II-b1"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> +<small>CLASSIFICATION.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Tabulated View.—Brongniart’s Division: Its +Objections.—Classification adopted.—Leading Features and +Advantages.—Distinctions between Different Bodies and Different +Glazes.</p></div> + +<p>I<small>N</small> order to avoid repetitions and explanations, and for the sake of +lucidity, tabulated views of the different branches of ceramics are here +presented. The first is least detailed, but gives the salient points of +a systematic arrangement.</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> + +<tr> +<td rowspan="7" valign="middle">P<small>OTTERY</small></td> +<td rowspan="4" valign="middle"><i>Soft</i></td> + +<td>Unglazed</td> <td>Common brick. Earthen-ware.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lustrous</td> <td>Greek pottery.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Glazed</td> <td>Some ancient and most modern faience.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Enamelled</td><td>Robbia ware.</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan="2" valign="middle" colspan="2"><i>Hard</i></td> +<td>Stone-ware.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fire-brick.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> + +<tr><td rowspan="5" valign="middle">P<small>ORCELAIN</small></td> + +<td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><i>Soft</i></td> +<td>Naturally soft</td> <td>English porcelain.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Artificially soft </td><td> French porcelain, <i>pate tendre</i>, such as old Sèvres.</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan="3" valign="middle" colspan="2"><i>Hard</i></td><td>China.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dresden.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sèvres.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>The following is more full, and is to be ascribed to M. Brongniart:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td align="center">FIRST CLASS, SOFT-PASTE.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>1st Order.</i> Baked clay without glaze.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>2d Order.</i> Lustred wares with silico-alkaline glaze.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>3d Order.</i> Glazed pottery with plumbiferous glaze.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>4th Order.</i> Enamelled pottery, in the enamel of which tin is used.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">SECOND CLASS, HARD-PASTE (OPAQUE).</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>5th Order.</i> Fine faience, uncolored paste with plumbiferous glaze.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>6th Order.</i> Stone-ware without glaze, or with salt or plumbiferous glaze.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">THIRD CLASS, HARD-PASTE (TRANSLUCENT).</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>7th Order.</i> Hard porcelain, paste and glaze both felspathic.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>8th Order.</i> English natural soft-paste porcelain—paste, argillaceous kaolin, pegmatite, phosphate of lime, etc.; glaze, boracic.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><i>9th Order.</i> French artificial soft-paste porcelain—paste, a frit, marly alkaline; glaze, alkaline containing lead, alkali, and silica.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_055" id="page_055">{55}</a></span></p> + +<p>If these tables be studied carefully, it will be found that in arranging +the nine orders, a gradual ascent is made from the humblest ware—baked +clay left unglazed—to the finest of artificial compounds. Its only +objection—and it is one very likely to confuse an inexperienced student +of the art—is, that, under the head of hard-paste pottery, are classed +the soft-paste porcelains of England and France. The question is, also, +very likely to suggest itself, why the distinction should be drawn +between the soft-pastes of England and France, and the one called +natural, the other artificial. The reason is that the paste of England +is naturally soft, while that of France is made soft by the chemical +action of certain of its ingredients. The classification has, on the +other hand, the advantage of being in general use. Terms are employed in +its construction which have a peculiar but well understood significance; +and even in its errors there is a modicum of truth. Thus, although the +artificial porcelain of France is invariably called <i>pate tendre</i>, or +soft porcelain, it is not improperly classed under translucent +hard-pastes. The error is in the distinctive name rather than in the +classification. There is, in reality, very little difference in hardness +between the hard-paste and the soft-paste; and although the glaze of the +latter is not so hard as the body, the appellation soft-paste has been +adjudged a misnomer. The question then came to be whether it might not +be better to retain the old terms, with an explanation of their +technical meaning, than to supplant them with something new. The latter +course has been adopted, upon the ground of obviating meaningless and +misleading distinctions. Both simplicity and a clear understanding of +one of the most important practical divisions of our subject point +toward a revision of the old system of grouping. Pottery and porcelain +differ in one essential respect, and their varieties can also be classed +according to the leading features of their composition, manufacture, or +appearance. These differences have been taken as the basis of the +following classification, against which, at least, none of the +objections to that of M. Brongniart can be brought. It has been prepared +by a distinguished French artist of the present time, and is offered in +the hope that it may be intelligible, although it is not claimed to be +either perfectly exact or altogether complete.</p> + +<p>All wares are divisible into two great classes, viz., transparent +porcelain and opaque earthen-ware.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_056" id="page_056">{56}</a></span></p> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Porcelain</span> may be natural or artificial + +<ul> +<li>I. Natural porcelain is made from kaolinic clay. It may have— + +<ul> +<li>1. A pure felspathic glaze, such as porcelain of China, Japan, Limoges, Sèvres, Dresden, Berlin; or,</li> + +<li>2. No glaze, such as the biscuit porcelain of China or France.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>II. Artificial porcelain may be made from alkaline clay, calcareous clay, or felspathic clay. + +<ul> +<li>1. Alkaline clay may have an alkaline glaze, either colorless or colored, or may be biscuit. + +<ul> +<li><i>a.</i> Alkaline glaze, colorless—Persia, China, St. Cloud, Limoges, Sèvres, Tournay.</li> + +<li><i>b.</i> Alkaline glaze, colored—Persia, China, Limoges, Deck.</li> + +<li><i>c.</i> Biscuit—Old Sèvres statuettes.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>2. Calcareous clay has a colorless boracic glaze, as in the case of the English china of Minton, Copeland, and Worcester.</li> + +<li>3. Felspathic clay is exemplified in the parian of Copeland, Minton, and Worcester.</li> +</ul></li> + +</ul></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Earthen-ware</span> is of two kinds—that showing a non-vitrified fracture, and that showing a vitrified fracture. + +<ul> +<li>I. <span class="smcap">Earthen-ware</span> with non-vitrified fracture may have either a transparent glaze or an opaque enamel. + +<ul> +<li>1. Transparent glaze may be plumbiferous or alkaline, and in either case colorless or colored.</li> +<li> + +<ul> +<li><i>a.</i> Plumbiferous.<br /> +Glaze, colorless—Faience d’Oiron or Henri Deux ware, Wedgwood, Meakin, Creil, Montereau.<br /> +Glaze, colored—Palissy, Nuremberg, Minton’s majolica.</li> + +<li><i>b.</i> Alkaline.<br /> +Glaze, colorless—Persian faience, Chinese and Japanese faience; Deck, of Paris.<br /> +Glaze, colored—Haviland or Limoges faience.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>2. Opaque enamel is stanniferous, and may be either colorless or colored.<br /> +Stanniferous, colorless—Della Robbia, Rouen, Moustiers, Delft, Nevers.<br /> +Stanniferous, colored—Colinot, Parville, Longwy.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_057" id="page_057">{57}</a></span></li> +</ul></li> + +<li>II. Earthen-ware with vitrified fracture may be either glazed or in biscuit. Of the former, the <i>Grès</i> of Germany, Beauvais, and Doulton may be taken as examples.</li> +</ul></li> +</ul> + +<p>For convenience of reference, the same classification may be given in tabulated form:</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" summary=""> +<tr valign="middle"><td align="center" colspan="5" +style="border:none;">CLASSIFICATION OF ALL KINDS OF WARE.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="7" class="smcap" align="center">Translucent<br /> +Porcelain.</td> +<td rowspan="2"><i>Natural</i></td> +<td rowspan="2">Kaolinic paste</td> +<td>Glaze of felspath, pure</td> +<td>China, Japan, Dresden, Berlin, Sèvres, Limoges.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Biscuit</td> +<td>Biscuit porcelain of Limoges and China.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="5"><i>Artificial</i></td> + +<td rowspan="3">Alkaline paste</td> +<td>Glaze alkaline, colorless</td> +<td>Persia, China, St. Cloud, Tournay Sèvres, Haviland.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Glaze alkaline, colored</td> +<td>Persia, China, Deck, Haviland.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Biscuit</td> +<td>Old Sèvres statuettes.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Calcareous</td> +<td>Glaze boracic, color</td> +<td>English china, +Minton, Worcester, +Copeland.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Felspathic paste</td> +<td>Parian</td> +<td>Copeland, Worcester, Minton.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" summary=""> +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="8" class="smcap" align="center">Opaque<br /> +Earthen<br /> +Body.<br /><br /> +Terres.</td> +<td rowspan="6" align="center"><i>Earthen body<br /> +with a<br /> +non-vitrified<br /> +break</i></td> +<td rowspan="4">Transparent glaze.</td> + +<td rowspan="2">Plumbiferous glaze</td> +<td>Glaze, colorless</td> +<td>Faience Henri II., Wedgwood, Meakin, Creil, Montereau.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Glaze, colored</td> +<td>Palissy, Nuremberg, Minton’s majolica.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="2">Alkaline Glaze</td> +<td>Glaze, colorless</td> +<td>Faience of Persia, China, and Japan; Deck.</td></tr> +<tr valign="middle"><td>Glaze, colored</td> +<td>Limoges faience of Haviland, Bracquemond, and Chaplet.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="2">Opaque</td> +<td rowspan="2">Stanniferous enamel</td> +<td>Colorless</td> +<td>Delia Robbia, +Rovigo, Fontana, +Rouen, Moustiers, +Nevers, Delft, +Ulysses de Blois, +St. Clement.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Colored</td> +<td>Colinot, Parville, Longwy.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="2" align="center"> +<i>Earthen body<br /> +with a<br /> +vitrified<br /> +break</i></td> +<td>Biscuit</td><td colspan="2"> </td> +<td>Boccaro, Bizen.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Glaze</td><td colspan="2"> </td> +<td>Grès from Germany.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Under the above arrangement, it will be observed that the distinction<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_058" id="page_058">{58}</a></span> +between hard and soft porcelain and pottery is done away with. The first +is divided into natural and artificial, the kaolinic paste being the +only one coming under the former head, and the “soft-pastes” of both +England and France coming under the latter. The subdivisions are made +according to the glaze employed. The division of pottery into two +classes, according to the nature of the body as revealed by fracture, is +the most lucid and comprehensive. The subdivisions, as in the case of +porcelain, are made according to the enamel or glaze applied to the +ware. It is presumed that any one can distinguish between transparent +and opaque wares, and thus tell porcelain from pottery, and similarly, +tell whether the fracture of a broken specimen is vitrified or +otherwise, and thus distinguish stone-ware, or <i>grès</i>, from ordinary +earthen-ware.</p> + +<p>In the matter of glazes, it requires a great deal of skill and long +practice to tell one from another. All are transparent, with the +exception of tin or stanniferous enamel. Felspathic glaze is that most +readily recognized; but in the case of the others—the alkaline, +plumbiferous, and boracic—they are very often only to be distinguished +by their different effects upon the colors used in decoration.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_059" id="page_059">{59}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III-b1" id="CHAPTER_III-b1"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> +<small>COMPOSITION OF WARES AND GLAZES.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Hard and Soft Pottery and Porcelain.—<span class="smcap">Composition of Porcelain</span>: +Kaolin—Its Derivation and Ingredients—Petuntse—How prepared in +China.—The European Process.—Differences between Chinese and +European Porcelains.—Chemical Analysis.—English Porcelain and its +Peculiarities: Its Average Composition.—How English Clay is +prepared.—French Artificial Porcelain.—Parian.—<span class="smcap">Common +Earthen-ware.</span>: Table of Ingredients of different kinds.—General +Table.—<span class="smcap">Glazes</span>: Classes.—Brongniart’s Classification.—Difference +between Enamel and Glaze.—Silicious Glaze.—History.—Use of +Oxides.—Egyptian Processes.—Metallic Lustre.—Stanniferous +Enamel: Its History.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> division of pottery and porcelain into two great classes, hard and +soft, is based upon the difference of their composition, their hardness +of surface, and their power of resisting the action of fire. The +simplest test is scratching with a knife or other instrument. Hard +porcelain and pottery resist the metal, while the soft is marked. The +former will also stand a temperature in the kiln at which the latter +would crumble or fuse.</p> + +<p>To understand the composition of porcelain, it is necessary to bear in +mind that it is a compound of kaolin and petuntse, the former of which +is infusible, and the latter fusible at a high temperature. The former +constitutes the body of the piece, the latter gives it its translucency. +The word “kaolin” is derived from <i>Kaoling</i>, the name of a mountain near +King-teh-chin, one of the great centres of the manufacture in China. +Kaolin is simply the result of the decomposition of granitic rock, and +silica and alumina are its chief ingredients. Petuntse is pure felspar. +The conditions in which these materials are found in China may be +briefly stated. They are either in the form of stone or sand, from which +the unsuitable parts are removed by the action of water. When they are +thrown into the water, the fine particles which do not sink are +collected and dried. The paste, before being used, is again put into +water and strained through a sieve, so that only the finest is +preserved, and used in making porcelain. The<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_060" id="page_060">{60}</a></span> materials are obtained +from different parts of the country, and blended according to their +respective qualities, as ascertained by the most systematic +investigation and experiment. The European process is similar, the +kaolin being first washed clear of all argillaceous impurity, and then +mixed with felspar and silicious sand. Of the further similarity between +the two, MM. Ebelman and Salvetat say:</p> + +<p>1st. The kaolin and petuntse used in making paste for Chinese porcelain +are chemically identical with the materials used in Europe. The Chinese +kaolin is evidently disintegrated granite. Chemically, petuntse +resembles the pegmatite of Limoges; mineralogically, it is to be classed +with petrosilicious felspar.</p> + +<p>2d. The mechanical preparation of the pastes of China and Europe is +based upon similar methods.</p> + +<p>3d. The Chinese paste is the more fusible of the two.</p> + +<p>4th. The Chinese glaze is also the more fusible, on account of the +addition of lime to the petuntse, which the French use pure.</p> + +<p>It may be added that the Dresden, Sèvres, and Limoges porcelains are +baked at a higher temperature, and are harder than the Chinese.</p> + +<p>The basis of the natural pastes of Germany and France is 46.66 parts of +silex, 40 of aluminous earth, and 13.33 alkaline earth, although the +proportions vary, and the following may be nearer an average: Silex, 66; +alumina, 30; potash, magnesia, and lime, 4. In the glaze the proportions +are different, the silica largely preponderating: Silex, 73.4; alumina, +15.7; potash, lime, and magnesia, 10.9.</p> + +<p>The following table is given by M. A. Salvetat as the result of analyses +made at different times by himself and others:</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td align="center"> Pastes.</td><td align="left">Silica.</td><td align="left">Alumina.</td><td align="center"> Oxide<br /> of Iron.</td><td align="left">Lime.</td><td align="left">Magnesia.</td><td align="left">Potash.</td><td align="left">Soda.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">China, 1st quality</td><td align="left">69.00</td><td align="left">23.60</td><td align="left">1.20</td><td align="left">0.30</td><td align="center">0.02</td><td align="left">3.30</td><td align="left">2.90</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">China, 2d quality</td><td align="left">70.00</td><td align="left">22.20</td><td align="left">1.30</td><td align="left">0.80</td><td align="center">traces</td><td align="left">3.60</td><td align="left">2.70</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">China, 3d quality</td><td align="left">73.80</td><td align="left">19.30</td><td align="left">2.00</td><td align="left">0.60</td><td align="center">traces</td><td align="left">2.50</td><td align="left">2.30</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">China, 4th quality</td><td align="left">68.94</td><td align="left">21.30</td><td align="left">3.48</td><td align="left">1.14</td><td align="center">traces</td><td align="left">3.42</td><td align="left">1.78</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Meissen</td><td align="left">58.50</td><td align="left">35.10</td><td align="left">0.80</td><td align="left">0.30</td><td align="center">traces</td><td align="left">5.00</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Vienna</td><td align="left">59.60</td><td align="left">34.20</td><td align="left">0.80</td><td align="left">1.70</td><td align="center">1.40</td><td align="left">2.00</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Berlin</td><td align="left">64.30</td><td align="left">29.00</td><td align="left">0.60</td><td align="left">0.30</td><td align="center">0.45</td><td align="left">3.65</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Limoges</td><td align="left">70.20</td><td align="left">24.00</td><td align="left">0.70</td><td align="left">0.70</td><td align="center">0.10</td><td align="left">4.30</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sèvres</td><td align="left">58.00</td><td align="left">34.50</td><td align="center">....</td><td align="left">4.50</td><td align="center">....</td><td align="left">3.00</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sèvres (sculpture)</td><td align="left">64.10</td><td align="left">30.24</td><td align="center">....</td><td align="left">2.82</td><td align="center">traces</td><td align="left">2.80</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Worcester</td><td align="left">82.00</td><td align="left">9.10</td><td align="center">.....</td><td align="left">1.30</td><td align="center">7.40</td><td align="center">....</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Paris</td><td align="left">71.20</td><td align="left">22.00</td><td align="left">0.80</td><td align="left">0.80</td><td align="center">....</td><td align="left">4.50</td><td align="center">....</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_061" id="page_061">{61}</a></span></p> + +<p>The English artificial porcelain differs from the natural paste of China +and the European continent chiefly in one particular. At first the +compound used was white clay, white sand, and glass, the latter being +employed to impart the necessary transparency. More recently bone came +largely into use, and is now one of the distinctive ingredients of +English paste. The phosphoric acid of that material was found to +produce, in combination with the other materials, a clear, translucent +body, of less strength than natural paste, but less liable to sink. The +following may be taken as the mean composition: Bone, 47; kaolin, 34; +felspar, 19. The kaolin is found in Cornwall, where a very large tract +is formed chiefly of decomposed granite. The purest rock having been +selected, it is placed on an inclined plane, upon which water can be +turned. It is washed down into a trench, and thence into a catch-pit, +and again into lower pits, in which successively the impure ingredients +are retained, the water laden with the finer particles running into +tanks, and there depositing its fine silt. The clay is partially dried, +and cut into blocks, and in that shape reaches the potters. The manner +in which the kaolin is prepared bears a very close resemblance to that +adopted by the Chinese, as previously described. The glaze is composed +of felspar, carbonate of lime, borax, and white-lead. Sometimes the +kaolin is mixed with the bone and felspar in the proportions above +specified, and sometimes the bone is made, in combination with silex and +pearlash, into a frit.</p> + +<p>The artificial or soft porcelain of France, exemplified in the old china +of Sèvres, was produced by a very intricate and ingenious process. A +frit was made of saltpetre, sea-salt, burnt alum, soda-ash, gypsum, and +sand. This mixture, having been purified by partial vitrification, was +ground, and mixed with chalk and marl. The glaze was as follows: +Litharge, 38; sand, 27; calcined flint, 11; and the carbonates of soda +and potash, 15 and 9 parts respectively.</p> + +<p>The composition called parian, in which the potters of England and +America have executed much beautiful work, varies considerably. Analysis +of one specimen resulted thus: Silica, 58.57; alumina, 21; oxide of +iron, 1; lime, 0.14; magnesia, 0.5; potash, 11.40; soda, 5.08.</p> + +<p>The clay from which common earthen-ware is made is composed to a great +extent of silica and alumina, with admixtures of iron, lime, and +magnesia. An average combination is 60 parts silex, 30 alumina,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_062" id="page_062">{62}</a></span> 7 iron, +and 2 lime. These proportions vary very widely, certain substances +appearing in one place and not in another. In some, carbon is found; in +others, quartz, sand, marl, or chalk, as the case may be. The work of +classification, except in a very extended form, is thus rendered +somewhat difficult. Possibly the following series of tables will serve +our purpose most intelligibly.</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td align="center">Pottery.</td><td align="center"> Silica.</td><td align="center"> Alumina.</td><td align="center"> Oxide of<br /> +Iron.</td><td align="right"> Lime.</td><td align="center"> Magnesia.</td><td align="center"> Water.</td><td align="center"> Carbon.</td></tr> +<tr><td>German</td><td align="right"> 63.90</td><td align="right"> 12.76</td><td align="right"> 10.24</td><td align="right"> 1.04</td><td align="right"> 0.52</td><td align="right"> 9.98</td><td align="right"> 1.02</td></tr> +<tr><td>Scandinavian</td><td align="right"> 64.02</td><td align="right"> 10.77</td><td align="right"> 11.23</td><td align="right"> 2.48</td><td align="right"> 0.05</td><td align="right"> 9.97</td><td align="right"> 1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Old Gallic</td><td align="right"> 62.22</td><td align="right"> 18.36</td><td align="right"> 5.71</td><td align="right"> 1.17</td><td align="right"> 0.47</td><td align="right"> 10.56</td><td align="right"> 0.78</td></tr> +<tr><td>Peruvian</td><td align="right"> 67.04</td><td align="right"> 10.83</td><td align="right"> 10.17</td><td align="right"> 3.24</td><td align="right"> 0.28</td><td align="right"> 7.07</td><td align="right"> 1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Etruscan</td><td align="right"> 64.02</td><td align="right"> 12.49</td><td align="right"> 8.53</td><td align="right"> 3.00</td><td align="right"> 1.83</td><td align="right"> 8.13</td><td align="right"> 2.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the following carbon does not appear, and the proportion of silica +increases:</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td align="center">Pottery.</td><td align="center"> Silica.</td><td align="center"> Alumina.</td><td align="center"> Oxide of<br /> +Iron.</td><td align="center"> Lime.</td><td align="center"> Magnesia.</td><td align="center"> Water.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Roman</td><td align="right"> 64.00</td><td align="right"> 17.77</td><td align="right"> 10.23</td><td align="right"> 4.86</td><td align="center"> ....</td><td align="center"> 2.23</td></tr> +<tr><td>Middle Ages</td><td align="right"> 72.55</td><td align="right"> 20.27</td><td align="right"> 2.54</td><td align="right"> 1.04</td><td align="center"> ....</td><td align="center"> 3.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Egypt</td><td align="right"> 81.00</td><td align="right"> 13.50</td><td align="right"> 1.00</td><td align="right"> 3.00</td><td align="center"> ....</td><td align="center"> 1.90</td></tr> +<tr><td>Egypt</td><td align="right"> 92.00</td><td align="right"> 4.00</td><td align="right"> ....</td><td align="right"> 2.00</td><td align="center"> 0.60</td><td align="center"> 0.40</td></tr> +<tr><td>Persian</td><td align="right"> 90.00</td><td align="right"> 1.50</td><td align="right"> 1.50</td><td align="right"> 3.00</td><td align="center"> 0.80</td><td align="center"> 0.60</td></tr> +<tr><td>Jerusalem</td><td align="right"> 87.16</td><td align="right"> 5.50</td><td align="right"> ....</td><td align="right"> 3.00</td><td align="center"> 0.78</td><td align="center"> ....</td></tr> +<tr><td>Arabian</td><td align="right"> 89.95</td><td align="right"> 3.87</td><td align="right"> ....</td><td align="right"> 2.00</td><td align="center"> 0.51</td><td align="center"> 3.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Egyptian, compounded as above, is that which has been commonly known +as Egyptian porcelain. Many of the better known wares of Europe and the +East have a common characteristic in the calcareous nature of their +pastes. The silica decreases and the lime increases, while carbonic acid +appears as a new ingredient.</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td align="center">Pottery.</td><td align="right"> Silica.</td><td align="center"> Alumina.</td><td align="center"> Magnesia.</td><td align="center"> Oxide of<br /> Iron.</td><td align="center"> Carbonic Acid.</td><td align="center"> Lime.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lucca della Robbia</td><td align="right"> 49.65</td><td align="right"> 15.50</td><td align="right"> 0.17</td><td align="right"> 3.70</td><td align="right"> 8.58</td><td align="right"> 22.40</td></tr> +<tr><td>Majorca</td><td align="right"> 48.00</td><td align="right"> 17.50</td><td align="right"> 1.17</td><td align="right"> 3.75</td><td align="right"> 9.46</td><td align="right"> 20.12</td></tr> +<tr><td>Spain (old)</td><td align="right"> 46.04</td><td align="right"> 18.45</td><td align="right"> 0.87</td><td align="right"> 3.04</td><td align="right"> 13.96</td><td align="right"> 17.64</td></tr> +<tr><td>Valencia (modern)</td><td align="right"> 51.55</td><td align="right"> 20.52</td><td align="right"> 1.24</td><td align="right"> 2.63</td><td align="right"> 10.42</td><td align="right"> 13.64</td></tr> +<tr><td>Delft</td><td align="right"> 49.07</td><td align="right"> 16.19</td><td align="right"> 0.82</td><td align="right"> 2.82</td><td align="right"> 13.09</td><td align="right"> 18.01</td></tr> +<tr><td>Persian</td><td align="right"> 48.54</td><td align="right"> 12.05</td><td align="right"> 0.30</td><td align="right"> 3.14</td><td align="right"> 16.72</td><td align="right"> 19.25</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nevers</td><td align="right"> 56.49</td><td align="right"> 19.22</td><td align="right"> 0.71</td><td align="right"> 2.12</td><td align="right"> 6.50</td><td align="right"> 14.96</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rouen</td><td align="right"> 47.96</td><td align="right"> 15.02</td><td align="right"> 0.44</td><td align="right"> 4.07</td><td align="right"> 12.27</td><td align="right"> 20.24</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_063" id="page_063">{63}</a></span></p> + +<p>Of the potteries which hold a place between the hard and soft wares are +the Palissy and Henri Deux. The composition of the former is 67.50 +silica, 28.51 alumina, 1.52 lime, 2.05 oxide of iron, with a very slight +admixture of alkalies. That of the latter is 59.10 silica, and 40.24 +alumina.</p> + +<p>From what has been said, it will be seen that the difference between +earthen-ware, stone-ware, and porcelain is to be attributed to a few +minor ingredients, to the preparation, and to the degree of heat to +which they are subjected. The following table may be studied for the +sake of making comparisons:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td align="left">Common earthen-ware...</td><td align="left">Silica, 60; alumina, 30; iron, 7; lime, 2.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Blue clay...</td><td align="left">Silica, 46; alumina, 38; iron, 1; lime, 1.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Staffordshire clay...</td><td align="left">Pipe-clay, 40; kaolin, 25; quartz, 20; felspar, 15.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Stone-ware...</td><td align="left">Felspar, 25; quartz or silex, 25; soda, 25; plastic clay, 15; boracic acid, 10.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Porcelain...</td><td align="left">Silica, 66; alumina, 30; potash, 3.4; magnesia and lime, 1.1.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Porcelain glaze...</td><td align="left">Silica, 73.4; alumina, 15.7; potash, 7.4; magnesia and lime, 2.2.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">English porcelain...</td><td align="left">Kaolin, 34; bone, 47; felspar, 19; soda ash, 36.</td></tr> +<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Old Sèvres soft-paste...</td><td align="left">Saltpetre, 22; sea-salt, 7.2; burnt alum, 3.6;<br /> +soda ash, 3.6; gypsum, 3.6; sand, 60. This was made into a frit and mixed—75<br /> +parts frit, 17 chalk, and 8 of calcareous marl.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>As to the glazes applied to clay or opaque ware, we have seen that they +are broadly distinguished as translucent plumbiferous or alkaline, +opaque stanniferous, and salt glaze. The distinction is also to be +observed between glaze and enamel, although they are often confounded. +Thus, according to M. Brongniart, there are three kinds of +glaze—varnish, enamel, and couverte—all of which are vitrifiable. +Varnish he describes as a transparent and plumbiferous material, melting +at a lower temperature than that required for baking the paste; enamel, +an opaque, generally stanniferous (containing tin) substance; couverte, +a substance which melts at a temperature equal to that required for +baking the paste. Birch, on the other hand, draws a distinction between +glaze and enamel. In one place he speaks of “opaque glasses or enamels,” +and again, “among the Egyptians and Assyrians, enamelling was used more +frequently than glazing.” So, also, Fortnum, who, dividing pottery into +soft and hard, subdivides the former into unglazed, lustrous, glazed, +and enamelled. The glazed he again divides into silicious, or +glass-glazed, and plumbeous, or lead-glazed, both of which are +transparent. The word “glaze” is thus<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_064" id="page_064">{64}</a></span> more correctly applied to the +covering, which does not alter the color of the body upon which it is +laid, and “enamel” to that which obscures the body.</p> + +<p>Glass, or silicious glaze, is formed by fusing sand with an +alkali—potash or soda. When to this is added the oxide of lead, +transparent plumbiferous glaze is the result; and when to both of these +oxide of tin is added, we have opaque stanniferous enamel. The glass and +plumbeous glazes may be colored with a variety of other oxides, without +losing their transparency.</p> + +<p>When or where glaze was first applied to clay is not known. Like many +other branches of knowledge and many nations, it has its roots in the +East, but whether we are indebted for it to India, Egypt, or Assyria, +cannot now be decided. Upon this question Dr. Birch says:</p> + +<p>“The desire of rendering terra-cotta less porous, and of producing vases +capable of retaining liquids, gave rise to the covering it with a +vitreous enamel or glaze. The invention of glass has been hitherto +generally attributed to the Phœnicians; but opaque glasses or +enamels, as old as the eighteenth dynasty, and enamelled objects as +early as the fourth (<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 3000-2000), have been found in Egypt. The +employment of copper to produce a brilliant blue-colored enamel was very +early both in Babylonia and Assyria, but the use of tin for a white +enamel, as recently discovered in the enamelled bricks and vases of +Babylonia and Assyria, anticipated by many centuries the rediscovery of +that process in Europe in the fifteenth century, and shows the early +application of metallic oxides. This invention apparently remained for +many centuries a secret among the Eastern nations only, enamelled +terra-cotta and glass forming articles of commercial export from Egypt +and Phœnicia to every part of the Mediterranean. Among the Egyptians +and Assyrians enamelling was used more frequently than glazing, and +their works are consequently a kind of faience, consisting of a loose +frit or body, to which an enamel adheres after only a slight fusion. +After the fall of the Roman Empire the art of enamelling terra-cotta +disappeared among the Arab and Moorish races, who had retained a +traditional knowledge of the process. The application of a transparent +vitreous coating, or glaze, over the entire surface, like the varnish of +a picture, is also referable to a high antiquity, and was universally +adopted either to enhance the beauty of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_065" id="page_065">{65}</a></span> single colors or to promote the +combination of many. Innumerable fragments and remains of glazed vases, +fabricated by the Greeks and Romans, not only prove the early use of +glazing, but also exhibit, in the present day, many of the noblest +efforts of the potter’s art.”</p> + +<p>The use of oxides is also very ancient. The Egyptians employed that of +copper for the production of their turquoise-blue, and possibly also for +their green, manganese for violet, iron or silver for yellows, etc. The +same processes were known in Babylon and Assyria. To the Persians and +Arabians the application of metallic lustres was known at a very early +period. Plumbiferous, or lead-glaze, was employed by the Babylonians, +and the knowledge of its composition was in all probability imported +thence among the Greeks, and by them may have been carried into Southern +Italy.</p> + +<p>The course of enamel is equally difficult of definition. Although used +in Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria, it does not appear to have supplanted +the lead-glaze; and for a long period all traces of it are lost, until +it reappeared among the Arabs. We next meet with it as a distinctive +characteristic of the potteries of Spain. It was also known to the +Saracenic and Moorish potters of Sicily, and from either of these +sources may have found its way into Italy.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_066" id="page_066">{66}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV-b1" id="CHAPTER_IV-b1"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> +<small>MANUFACTURE AND DECORATION.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Divisions of Chapter.—Japanese Method of Preparing Porcelain +Clay.—Old Sèvres Soft Porcelain.—Pug-Mill.—Blunger.—Early +Italian Methods.—Shaping the Clay.—Moulding among the Egyptians, +Greeks, Italians, and at the Present Day.—Moulding +Porcelain.—Japanese Method.—European.—Throwing.—The Potter’s +Wheel in all Countries.—Baking and Firing.—Egyptian, Greek, +Italian, and Japanese Kilns.—Those of Modern Europe and +America.—Times of Firing.—Glazing and Painting.—Metallic-Lustre +Majolica.—Japanese Methods.—Glazing Stone-ware.—Natural and +Artificial Porcelain.</p></div> + +<p>H<small>AVING</small> thus glanced at the different wares, and learned the composition +of the leading kinds of paste and glaze, the attention is next attracted +by the processes of preparing the materials, and the different methods +of manufacture. The levigation of kaolin and making of porcelain have +already been touched upon incidentally. The subject of the present +chapter naturally divides itself into the following heads:</p> + +<ul style="margin:1% auto 1% 3%;"><li>Preparation of the paste;</li> +<li>Forming the vessel to be made;</li> +<li>Baking or firing;</li> +<li>Preparation of the glaze or enamel;</li> +<li>Applying the glaze or enamel;</li> +<li>Laying on the color and painting.</li></ul> + +<p>To what has been said about the preparation of English and Chinese +kaolin pastes, little need be added. There is, however, a peculiarity +about the Japanese custom not unworthy of notice. In that country the +raw material, whether kaolin, quartz, or felspar, is reduced to a powder +by a horizontal balancing pounder of primitive construction, and worked +by water-power. Two long beams are joined together at one end by an +iron-cased crossbar, and a trough is attached to the other. This frame +is then erected near a stream, so that the water will fall into the +trough. The weight of the water carries the trough down, and the other +end is raised to a corresponding height. When the trough has fallen so +far that, by reason of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_067" id="page_067">{67}</a></span> slope, the water runs out and thus takes off +the weight at that end, the iron-shod beam at the other descends, and +falling into a stone mortar in which the raw material has been placed, +in a very short time pulverizes it. The above is the only machine +employed by the Japanese. After being pulverized, the paste is sifted, +mixed with water, and decanted, and the water is finally drained off +through matting and sand. The fine clay to be used in making porcelain +is deposited on the mat.</p> + +<p>For the old Sèvres soft porcelain, the frit was crushed, cleared of +salts, and ground in water. The paste was then mixed with the other +ingredients, as previously given in the table.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_21" id="fig_21"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> +<a href="images/illpg067a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg067a_sml.jpg" width="146" height="218" alt="Fig. 21.—Vertical Pug-Mill, in use at Union Porcelain +Works, Greenpoint." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 21.—Vertical Pug-Mill, in use at Union Porcelain +Works, Greenpoint.</span> +</div> + +<p>To prepare clay for making earthen-ware or stone-ware, machines are now +generally used. That for the coarser kind of wares, such as bricks or +common stone-ware jars, is a pug-mill (Figs. 21 and 22). The clay, +having been brought by water to a certain workable consistency, is put +into the mill. This is simply a cylindrical box, with blades projecting +from the inside, and having in the centre a shaft also armed with +blades. By the revolving of the shaft the clay is worked into a perfect +pulp, and in that condition issues from a hole in the lower end of the +mill. Should any hard substance have resisted the knives, it is removed +by hand.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_22" id="fig_22"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 221px;"> +<a href="images/illpg067b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg067b_sml.jpg" width="221" height="176" alt="Fig. 22.—Horizontal Pug-Mill, in use at Union Porcelain +Works, Greenpoint." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 22.—Horizontal Pug-Mill, in use at Union Porcelain +Works, Greenpoint.</span> +</div> + +<p>For the finer kinds of earthen-ware, into the composition of which +pipe-clay, kaolin, quartz, and felspar enter, the ingredients are mixed +in a “blunger.” This machine is not unlike a steam butter churn, there +being a shaft passing from end to end, in exactly the same way, and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_068" id="page_068">{68}</a></span> +armed with similar paddles. Water is added to the ingredients, and, as +the blunger turns, these are all thoroughly mixed into a “slip,” which +is drawn off at the bottom. It is then strained and finally passed +through a pug-mill, and is ready for use.</p> + +<p>Piccolpasso, or the Cavaliere Cipriano Piccolpasso Durantino, who wrote +in Italy, in 1548, gives very minute information regarding the processes +of the potters of his time and country. The clay was either washed down +by rivers or taken from pits. In the former case it was taken from the +river-bed when the water was low, and was placed in holes in the ground, +either after or without being dried in the sun. The object of keeping it +was to allow all impurities to pass off. Where there were no rivers, a +series of pits was dug in any convenient hollow, and connected by a +channel. The earth was washed down by the rain into these pits, and +purified by the passage from one to another. In some cases it was found +necessary to place the earth on sieves exposed to the rain, through +which the finer particles were washed into receivers placed below. +Instead of using a pug-mill, the Italian potters put the earth upon a +table, where it was beaten with an iron instrument, and thoroughly +kneaded and cleaned by hand.</p> + +<p>The next process is the formation or shaping of the vessel. This may be +done either by moulding or by “throwing” upon the potter’s wheel. Both +of these methods are very ancient. The Egyptians used moulds in making +bricks before they resorted to the use of fire for baking them. Their +lamps, etc., also give evidence of having been moulded. The Greeks used +modelling tools for their ornaments, and also for <i>pithoi</i>, or casks. +Afterward moulding was resorted to, and by that means the potter made +certain parts of the vases—the handles and feet, for example, and also +the ornaments. The entire vessel was sometimes produced by moulding, +such as the <i>rhyta</i>, or drinking-cups, with terminations in the form of +animals’ heads. Amphoræ, cups, saucers, and vases of many shapes were +formed by the same process.</p> + +<p>We must refer to Piccolpasso again for the manner in which the Italian +potters moulded. Like the Greeks, they appear first to have moulded the +parts, such as the handles, which were fixed to the body after it was +fashioned. They then, again like the Greeks, began to imitate metal +vessels, and thus were brought directly to the process of moulding upon +their models, or shaped pieces ornamented in relief.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_069" id="page_069">{69}</a></span> The moulds were +made of plaster of Paris, and, when ready, the clay was worked into a +cylindrical shape, and sliced by drawing a wire across it. The thickness +of the slice was regulated and made uniform by pieces of wood placed at +either side of the lump of clay. A slice was then taken and pressed into +the mould, and another for the other side into the other half of the +mould. Any excess appearing over the edges was cut away. The feet were +similarly moulded, and subsequently fixed to the body by means of a +composition of clay and fine wool cuttings. In making vases or ewers, +moulds were made for both sides, and joined at the front and back. A +wire was used to cut off the superfluous clay, and the two pieces were +joined together with the composition above mentioned. The handle was +fastened on by the same means.</p> + +<p>Moulds are at the present day used in every branch of the art, from the +lowest to the highest. Drain-pipes are made in a cylindrical mould, with +a smaller and solid cylinder inside. The clay is pressed between the two +concentric cylinders. In making earthen-ware, the clay is sometimes +rolled out and spread upon a block of the desired shape. In making +plates, the clay is spread over a round block, and moulded by a form +pressed down from above. When plaster of Paris is used, the process is +very like that described by Piccolpasso. The mould is in two parts, into +each of which the clay is pressed. The two pieces are then brought +together, and the seams joined. Or a plaster mould may be used, into +which the paste is poured in a liquid state. The absorption of the +liquid by the plaster soon gives the clay sufficient consistency to take +the necessary shape. Subsequent shrinkage allows its removal from the +mould. After a partial drying, the ware is dressed or “shaved.” The +process is a very delicate one, especially in the finer kinds of ware, +in which a finely polished surface is necessary. The piece is placed on +a lathe, and cut to the necessary thickness, and receives its ornamental +lines, or has the mouldings applied. The handles are then attached, and, +after drying, the piece is ready for the kiln.</p> + +<p>The moulding of porcelain requires very great care, on account of the +fragility of many of the pieces. In Japan, clay moulds were exclusively +used until within the past three years. After being thrown or moulded, +and slightly dried, the pieces are shaped by means of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_070" id="page_070">{70}</a></span> sharp metal +instruments in the same lathe on which the throwing is done. A coat of +pure white clay is then laid on for the purpose of enhancing the beauty +and heightening the effect of the color. This having been done, the +piece is ready for the preliminary firing. When large pieces are made, +the European method is to pour the necessary thickness of slip over the +inside of the mould, against the side of which it is kept by means of +forcing air into the interior, after covering the surface, or exhausting +the air through the mould. When sufficiently dry to support its own +weight, the piece is fired.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_23" id="fig_23"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg070_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg070_sml.jpg" width="330" height="410" alt="Fig. 23.—A Potter in Palestine." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 23.—A Potter in Palestine.</span> +</p> + +<p>The other method of forming the wares is technically called “throwing” +upon the potter’s wheel, and is suitable for all circular<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_071" id="page_071">{71}</a></span> vessels, or +those with modifications of the circular shape. The process is very +simple. A piece of clay, large or small, as required, is thrown down on +the revolving disk, and, as it whirls round, is formed by the potter’s +hand into the requisite shape. The potter’s wheel is one of the oldest +mechanical appliances in existence. Its invention was due to the desire +of remedying the irregularities of handiwork, and as such was a valuable +and in every way wonderful achievement. It brought symmetry and all the +varieties of circular form within the potter’s reach. Its inventor is +unknown. The prehistoric vases of Greece were made upon the wheel. It +was used in Egypt at least four thousand years ago. In Assyria, and +among the Jews, its use is attested by the frequent reference made to it +in Scripture.</p> + +<p>It is curious to find a modern traveller, Dr. W. M. Thomson, speaking +thus in “The Land and the Book” of the potter of Palestine. “I have been +out on the shore again examining a native manufactory of pottery, and +was delighted to find the whole Biblical apparatus complete, and in full +operation. There was the potter sitting at his ‘frame,’ and turning the +‘wheel’ with his foot (<a href="#fig_23">Fig. 23</a>). He had a heap of prepared clay near +him, and a pan of water by his side. Taking a lump in his hand, he +placed it on the top of the wheel (which revolves horizontally) and +smoothed it into a low cone, like the upper end of a sugar-loaf; then, +thrusting his thumb into the top of it, he opened a hole down through +the centre, and this he constantly widened by pressing the edges of the +revolving cone between his hands. As it enlarged and became thinner, he +gave it whatever shape he pleased with the utmost ease and expedition.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_24" id="fig_24"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg072_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg072_sml.jpg" width="548" height="289" alt="Fig. 24.—An Egyptian Pottery. (From a Tomb.) a, e, +i, p, the wheels on which the clay was put. (Fig. 1 forms the inside +and lip of the cup as it turns on the wheel a. b, c, d are cups +already made. (Fig. 2 forms the outside of the cup, indenting it with the +hand at the base, preparatory to its being taken off. (Fig. 3 has just +taken off the cup from the clay, l. (Fig. 4 puts on a fresh piece of +clay. (Fig. 5 forms a round slab of clay with his two hands. (Fig. 6 stirs +and prepares the oven, q. At s is the fire, which rises through the +long, narrow tube or chimney of the oven, upon the top of which the cups +are placed to bake, as in v. (Fig. 7 hands the cup to the baker, 8. +Fig. 9 carries away the baked cups from the oven." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 24.—An Egyptian Pottery. (From a Tomb.) a, e, +i, p, the wheels on which the clay was put. (Fig. 1 forms the inside +and lip of the cup as it turns on the wheel a. b, c, d are cups +already made. (Fig. 2 forms the outside of the cup, indenting it with the +hand at the base, preparatory to its being taken off. (Fig. 3 has just +taken off the cup from the clay, l. (Fig. 4 puts on a fresh piece of +clay. (Fig. 5 forms a round slab of clay with his two hands. (Fig. 6 stirs +and prepares the oven, q. At s is the fire, which rises through the +long, narrow tube or chimney of the oven, upon the top of which the cups +are placed to bake, as in v. (Fig. 7 hands the cup to the baker, 8. +Fig. 9 carries away the baked cups from the oven.</span> +</p> + +<p>The entire process of making clay vessels in Egypt has been preserved in +a scene depicted in a tomb (<a href="#fig_24">Fig. 24</a>). The clay was first trampled +underfoot to give it evenness of consistency and make it more perfectly +plastic. It was then prepared for working by being rolled out, and was +then put on the wheel. The latter was either round or polygonal and +flat. It was placed upon a stand, and was turned with one hand, while +with the other the potter shaped the clay, and, as he worked, sat either +upon a low stool or upon the ground. Both the hollowing and external +shaping were done by hand. The furnaces were hollow cylinders, about six +and a half feet high, in which the wares to be baked were placed about +half-way up. An<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_072" id="page_072">{72}</a></span> aperture at the bottom admitted draught sufficient to +drive the flames out of the top of the furnace. Among the Greeks the +wheel was also employed at a very early period, so early that its +inventor or introducer is forgotten. One of the Grecian legends ascribes +the honor to<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_073" id="page_073">{73}</a></span> Dædalus, an Athenian of royal descent, and inventor of the +wedge, axe, and other mechanical contrivances. Another legend ascribes +it to Talos, the nephew of Dædalus, whose murder compelled the latter to +seek safety in flight. To whatever individual or city the credit may be +due, the wheel was used by Grecian potters from time immemorial. They +turned it with the foot—as did the Egyptians also at one period—and it +appears that the turning was sometimes left to an assistant. The process +was almost identical with that described above. The clay was placed upon +the wheel and shaped by the hand, and when the vessel was of so large a +size as to make it necessary, one hand supported and shaped the clay +from the inside. In this way the body of the vessel was made, and before +the clay dried, the feet, handles, and other parts were fixed to it. +Before the wheel was known, the vessels were hollowed out and shaped by +the hand, and the larger vessels were subsequently made in the same way.</p> + +<p>It is said that the potter’s wheel was invented in Japan, in the year +724, by a priest named Giyoki, and the event at once raised the potter’s +art into very high estimation. In Arita, the wheel consists of a +fly-wheel and revolving disk, the latter placed about a foot above the +former, and connected with it by a hollow wooden prismatic axle. In the +centre of the working disk, and between the three sides of the prism, a +hollow piece of porcelain is inserted. The whole is then placed upon a +pointed stick fixed firmly in the ground, in such a way that the entire +weight is supported upon the point of the upright wood. As that point +comes in contact with the inserted porcelain, friction is reduced to a +minimum. Vessels of any size can be thrown in this way—from the huge +basin three feet in diameter to the smallest work which the potter’s +hand has shaped. A driving cord is employed for turning the wheel when +very large pieces are being made.</p> + +<p>The Italians of the sixteenth century used the wheel in the same way, +fashioning the clay with the hands and certain tools of wood and iron +(<a href="#fig_25">Fig. 25</a>).</p> + +<p>It would thus appear that the potter’s wheel improved in due course of +time. At first it was merely a horizontal revolving disk turned by hand; +then it consisted of a three-feet shaft with the disk on the top, and a +driving-wheel below to be turned by the potter’s foot; later still, it +was turned by means of a foot-board, like that of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_074" id="page_074">{74}</a></span> a turning-lathe or +printing-press; afterward the driving-wheel was separated from the disk +which it turned by means of a connecting rope or band, and was worked by +an assistant; more recently, steam has been brought in to the saving of +labor, and in many large factories is the chief power used.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_25" id="fig_25"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 257px;"> +<a href="images/illpg074_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg074_sml.jpg" width="257" height="129" alt="Fig. 25.—Venetian Potters of the Sixteenth Century. +Showing two kinds of potter’s wheels in use among them. (From engraving +by V. Biringuccio.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 25.—Venetian Potters of the Sixteenth Century. +Showing two kinds of potter’s wheels in use among them. (From engraving +by V. Biringuccio.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is almost unnecessary to add that when throwing was resorted to in +place of moulding, the subsequent operations of shaving, polishing, and +attaching the handles and ornaments were performed in the same manner as +that described above.</p> + +<p>We now reach the third process, that of baking or firing. Sun-dried +bricks have been found in nearly every part of the world. They were +introduced into Spain by the Arabs, and in the New World have been found +from Mexico to Peru. In Egypt they represent the earliest works of the +potter; and from that country, Assyria, and Babylonia, relics of the +rudest stage of the art of working in clay have reached our own time. +The climate of Egypt was such that unbaked bricks were sufficiently +lasting for architectural purposes, and walls, tombs, and entire +pyramids were constructed of them. The use of sun-dried clay was +restricted in Assyria to bricks and small figures of an apparently +religious character. In Babylon, as in Assyria, similar bricks were used +as foundations for buildings. Among the Greeks sun-dried clay was widely +employed. Many of their temples and the walls of some of their fortified +cities were constructed of bricks dried in the sun. Even statues and +models were made of unbaked clay.</p> + +<p>The kind of furnace in use among the Egyptians at a very early period +has already been described. No remnant of those used by the Greeks has +been discovered, and all the information regarding them has been derived +from representations on pottery or gems. A tolerably correct idea of the +more ancient ones may be conveyed by describing them as tall baker’s +ovens, into which the wares were pushed<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_075" id="page_075">{75}</a></span> and baked like loaves. There +are several vases now in existence upon which furnaces of this kind are +depicted. A kylix from Vulci, and now at Munich, is remarkable for the +scene depicted on it. One of the epigrammata of Homer, entitled [Greek: +‘O Kaminos ‘Ο Καμινς]—“The Furnace,” has been translated by Cowper. The +explanatory preface is attributed to Herodotus.</p> + +<p>“Certain potters, while they were busied in baking their ware, seeing +Homer at a small distance, and having heard much said of his wisdom, +called to him, and promised him a present of their commodity—and of +such other things as they could afford—if he would sing to them, when +he sang as follows:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“‘Pay me my price, potters! and I will sing.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Attend, O Pallas! and with lifted arm<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Protect their oven: let the cups and all<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The sacred vessels blacken well, and, baked<br /></span> +<span class="i1">With good success, yield them both fair renown<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And profit, whether in the market sold<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Or streets, and let no strife ensue between us.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">But, O ye potters! if with shameless front<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Ye falsify your promise, then I leave<br /></span> +<span class="i1">No mischief uninvoked to avenge the wrong.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Come, Syntrips, Smaragdus, Sabactes, come,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And Asbestus; nor let your direst dread<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Omodamus delay! Fire seize your house!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">May neither house nor vestibule escape!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">May ye lament to see confusion mar<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And mingle the whole labor of your hands!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And may a sound fill all your oven, such<br /></span> +<span class="i1">As of a horse grinding his provender,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">While all your pots and flagons bounce within.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Come hither also daughter of the Sun,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Circe, the sorceress, and with thy drugs<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Poison themselves, and all that they have made!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Come also Chiron, with thy numerous troop<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Of Centaurs, as well those who died beneath<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The club of Hercules, as who escaped,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And stamp their crockery to dust! Down fall<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Their chimney! Let them see it with their eyes,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And howl to see the ruin of their art,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">While I rejoice: and if a potter stoop<br /></span> +<span class="i1">To peep into his furnace, may the fire<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Flash in his face and scorch it, that all men<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Observe thenceforth equity and good faith.’”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The scene on the kylix at Munich is supposed to represent Homer among +the potters. The furnace is on the extreme right, and has a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_076" id="page_076">{76}</a></span> tall +chimney. The fire is seen below. In front of it is a man who has +apparently been placing a vase in the oven, and behind him comes another +carrying what may be a large jar on his shoulder. The next figure is +that of Homer, holding a staff; behind him is a vase, and a youth +carrying another vessel toward the furnace. The next group shows the +operation of “throwing,” a boy turning the wheel while an old man shapes +the vessel. On the left is a young man sitting and holding on his knees +a vase to which he seems to be attaching the handle. The entire +composition is interesting, since—assuming the old man with the crook +to be Homer, and not the proprietor of the pottery—it illustrates a +poem which shows how widely, even at the early age in which the poet +lived, the various operations in making vases were understood. For our +present purpose, however, attention is chiefly directed to the furnace.</p> + +<p>The furnaces described by Piccolpasso as in use among the Italians were +of three kinds, one for oxidizing the tin and lead, a second for baking +glazed ware, and a third for majolica proper, or lustred ware. In the +first the furnace was rectangular, and was divided into two parts, one +of which was occupied by the fire, the other by the tray for the metals. +The latter was raised to such a height that the flames could play upon +the metals as they passed over them to the opening at the other side. +The baking furnace was also rectangular, and was built of brick. It was +divided by a perforated arch into an upper and lower compartment. In the +upper division the wares were placed. It had four openings on either +side and nine in the roof. Under the lower chamber was the ash-pit, and +each chamber had a door at one end. At Castel-Durante the usual +dimensions of a furnace were six feet in height and length, and five in +width. At Venice their dimensions were sometimes double those above +stated. The wares were arranged according to their quality. +Seggars—circular or oval cases of infusible fire-clay, bottomed, but +without covers, and perforated—were used for those of fine quality. The +seggars, which may be seen piled one above another in <a href="#fig_28">Fig. 28</a> and on the +lower right hand of <a href="#fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, were placed as in the first of these +engravings, the bottom of the one above acting as a lid to that next +below; and the coarser wares were arranged in rows between the piles of +seggars. The openings having been partially closed, the fire was +applied<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_077" id="page_077">{77}</a></span> below, and kept up for about twelve hours, when the first +firing was finished. The majolica furnace will be described hereafter.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_26" id="fig_26"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 212px;"> +<a href="images/illpg077_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg077_sml.jpg" width="212" height="163" alt="Fig. 26.—Common Pottery Kiln." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 26.—Common Pottery Kiln.</span> +</div> + +<p>Among the Japanese the kilns are arranged in a peculiar manner. That in +which the first firing is done is a small furnace, used only previous to +the painting. The oxide of cobalt, which is more extensively employed +than any other, is laid upon the white clay coating, and the piece is +then glazed, usually in a compound of felspath and wood-ashes. The +second firing then takes place. The kilns are built in terraced rows of +from four to twenty, and rise about three feet above each other, growing +larger in size as they extend up the hill. The ground-plan is +trapezoidal, and the walls rise vertically for a few feet, and are then +rounded off into an arch. The front wall, looking toward the lower end +of the row, is pierced with holes near the ground, and others are made +in the back wall at about three feet above the ground, so as to open +directly upon the floor of the next kiln above. The draught in this way +rushes through the entire row toward the chimneys behind the largest and +uppermost kiln. The fuel is thrown directly into the kiln, and not into +a fireplace. It is arranged along the lower side in a narrow space +divided from the rest of the kiln by fire-clay slabs set upright. The +fire begins in a furnace attached to the lowest kiln. The hot air rushes +through the air-holes into the next kiln, which is thus heated before +its own firing begins, and so on throughout the entire range, the kilns +furthest up the line having thus to stand the highest temperature. Each +one has the benefit of the heat of all the lower ones. The Japanese do +not make any extensive use of seggars. To keep the pieces free from dust +or falling particles of the vault, the inside of each kiln is glazed +before the firing begins. The pieces are placed one above another upon +fire-clay stands. The small kilns for the preliminary firing are in the +potter’s yard, but the kilns above described belong to the community, +and are rented to the manufacturers.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_078" id="page_078">{78}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_27" id="fig_27"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 235px;"> +<a href="images/illpg078a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg078a_sml.jpg" width="235" height="219" alt="Fig. 27.—Hard Pottery Kiln." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 27.—Hard Pottery Kiln.</span> +</div> + +<p style="clear:both;"><a name="fig_28" id="fig_28"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg078b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg078b_sml.jpg" width="301" height="221" alt="Fig. 28.—Porcelain Kiln." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 28.—Porcelain Kiln.</span> +</p> + +<p>The kilns in use in America and Europe vary very much in shape. M. +Brongniart gives representations of three—that for common pottery (Fig. +26), that for hard pottery (<a href="#fig_27">Fig. 27</a>), and that for porcelain (<a href="#fig_28">Fig. 28</a>). +Those used in England often take the shape of a low, vaulted chamber, +with the fire at one end, the chimney at the other, and the firing +chamber between. In the United States, the usual shape for both +earthen-ware and stone-ware is conical, not unlike a ball-cartridge. The +common pottery kiln is divided, by means of baked plates, into cells, in +which the wares are placed. The length of time during which they are +kept in the furnace varies according to the nature of the ware. It may +be twenty-four hours or, as in the case of fine stone-ware, several +days. For some wares, seggars are used in place of the open cells; and +the arrangement of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_079" id="page_079">{79}</a></span> the seggars may be seen in the porcelain kiln. When, +in the case of non-vitrifying earthen-ware, a combination of firing and +glazing in one operation is not practicable, the ware is kept at a +white-heat for about thirty-six hours; and on the kiln cooling, the +pieces then known as “biscuit” are removed for glazing. This operation +consists of dipping it into the glaze, composed as previously mentioned, +ground to a powder, and mixed with water until of the right consistency. +The second firing melts the glaze, and covers the surface with a thin, +transparent coating. The Italian potters gradually increased the heat +for four hours, and allowed the ware to remain at a white-heat for +twelve hours, and then to cool. Porcelain is fired according to its +composition. For English porcelain, the first firing lasts about fifty +hours; the second firing, after the glaze is applied, lasts about twenty +hours or less, at a lower temperature. Soft-paste or artificial French +porcelain takes from eighty to a hundred hours for the first, and thirty +for the second, firing. The greatest caution is demanded in placing the +pieces in the seggars and in regulating the heat. The chief peculiarity +about the making of porcelain is that the glaze fluxes with the paste, +and forms, with it, a translucent whole.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_29" id="fig_29"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 212px;"> +<a href="images/illpg079_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg079_sml.jpg" width="212" height="317" alt="Fig. 29.—Broome’s Improved Porcelain or Parian Kiln. A, +ash-pit; G, grate; F F, flues; B B, bags for the flames; D, door for +filling the kiln; E, damper, or draught regulator; S S S, spy-holes for +watching, or trials while burning." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 29.—Broome’s Improved Porcelain or Parian Kiln. A, +ash-pit; G, grate; F F, flues; B B, bags for the flames; D, door for +filling the kiln; E, damper, or draught regulator; S S S, spy-holes for +watching, or trials while burning.</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Isaac Broome, of Trenton, has invented a new kiln, of which an +engraving is here given (<a href="#fig_29">Fig. 29</a>). An equal distribution and perfect +regulation of the heat are the features which commend it to attention.</p> + +<p>Very little more need be said here about the preparation and +application<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_080" id="page_080">{80}</a></span> of the glaze, and that little can be included in what +requires to be added about the laying on of the colors. The Italians +worked in the following manner: The biscuit having been dipped in the +enamel bath, was allowed to dry, and was then painted and again dried. +The piece was then dipped in the transparent glaze, and, having been for +a third time dried, was ready for the final firing. Piccolpasso gives +much minute instruction regarding the preparation of the colors and +manner of painting, which must here be omitted. What he says about +painting majolica, or lustred ware, is, however, interesting. The parts +to receive the metallic-lustre pigment were sketched in outline, and +left white when the other colors were applied. After the piece was fired +the lustre pigments were laid on, and the piece was again placed in the +kiln. For this purpose a special kiln was necessary. It was built with a +square fire chamber intersected by two arches, on which was placed a +circular chamber large enough to touch the four sides of the square +kiln, but necessarily leaving the four corners uncovered. This chamber +was perforated in all directions, in order to admit the flames to direct +contact with the wares. Dry willow branches were used for the first +three hours, and then dry broom was thrown on the fire, which was kept +up for another hour. The kiln having cooled, the pieces were removed, +soaked in soap-and-water, washed, rubbed dry with flannel, and then +polished with wood-ash and flannel. The object of the process is +obvious. The flames being allowed to play directly upon the wares, the +carbon in the smoke decomposed the salts contained in the metallic +oxide, and the metal was left glittering and iridescent upon the +surface.</p> + +<p>The Japanese porcelain painted under the glaze with the oxide of cobalt +has been already described. Other qualities are painted over the glaze +with colored enamels made from glass (or silica, litharge, and nitre) +and white-lead. The coloring oxides are gold for carmine, copper, +antimony, manganese, red oxide of iron, and oxide of cobalt. These are +mixed and applied directly by the painter without any previous +preparation, so that the colors do not show themselves until brought out +by the fire. The method of decoration is peculiar. The design is first +sketched in black lines, with strokes for the shades. When the enamel +colors are opaque, they are laid on thinly; when translucent or +resembling colored glass, so that the design appears<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_081" id="page_081">{81}</a></span> under, they are +laid on more thickly. Occasionally a white opaque enamel—but containing +no admixture of tin—is first applied, and the colors are laid upon it.</p> + +<p>Stone-ware is very seldom glazed by a “dip.” The usual method is to +combine the firing and glazing. When the ware has been exposed to the +maximum heat for the necessary time, salt is thrown into the kiln. The +heat vaporizes the salt, and of its constituent parts one, the chlorine, +escapes; while the other, the soda, is, on coming in contact with the +silex in the red-hot ware, formed into a silicate of soda, a perfectly +transparent and intensely hard glaze.</p> + +<p>In regard to the colors, the only ones now known which will bear the +first firing—<i>couleurs de grand feu</i>—and are therefore put on before +glazing, are blue from cobalt, browns from iron, manganese, and chromate +of iron, green from chrome, and yellows from titanium and uranium. +Between these and the more delicate <i>couleurs de moufle</i>, or enamel +colors, are violets, reds, and browns from manganese, copper, and iron, +which are designated as <i>couleurs au demi grand feu</i>. Beyond these, the +colors used in decorating hard or natural porcelain are laid on the +glaze, to which they adhere without incorporating themselves.</p> + +<p>The great difficulties attending the manufacture of porcelain may now be +estimated. The piece must pass through the kiln as many times as there +are colors requiring different temperatures. Too much heat will blot out +the delicate colors, too little will leave them dull. Those on +artificial or soft porcelain sink into the glaze, and thus present a +softness and creamy delicacy never seen on any other kind of ware.</p> + +<p>The results are generally a sufficient reward for the difficulty of the +process. This is altogether exceptional in the case of <i>pate tendre</i>. As +its alkaline ingredients volatilize at a certain heat, the fire must be +stopped before that temperature is reached. The glaze, also alkaline, is +then applied in the form of dust, and not, as with hard porcelain, in +the form of a dip. The second firing melts the glaze. If the heat be too +strong, the alkalies will fly off; if too weak, the surface will be +uneven. For a third time the same danger is incurred, when the firing +for fixing the colors takes place.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_082" id="page_082">{82}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="BOOK_II_THE_ORIENT" id="BOOK_II_THE_ORIENT"></a>BOOK II.—THE ORIENT.</h2> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I-b2" id="CHAPTER_I-b2"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> +<small>EGYPT.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">The East the Cradle of Art.—The Antiquity of Egypt: Its Claim to +Notice in every Branch of Inquiry.—The Fountains of Oriental and +Greek Art.—The Nile Clay.—Egypt’s Early Maturity.—Limitation of +Material.—Effect of Religion upon Art.—Two Periods in Art +History.—Ancient Religion.—Various Symbols.—<span class="smcap">Unglazed +Pottery</span>—<i>Sun-dried</i>: Bricks.—Moulds, Stamps, +etc.—Vessels.—<i>Baked Ware</i>: Its Early Date.—Color of Vessels and +Bricks.—Coffins.—Cones.—Figures.—Sepulchral Vases.—Amphoræ and +other Vessels.—Decoration.—Græco-Egyptian Pottery.—<span class="smcap">Glazed Ware</span>, +miscalled Porcelain: Its Nature, and how Colored.—Wall +Tiles.—Inlaying of Mummy Cases.—Personal +Ornaments.—Images.—Beads, etc.—Vases.—Bowls.—Glazed +Schist.—Stanniferous Enamel.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>O</small> the Orient we look for the birthplace of man, and in it we also find +the cradle of Art. How it spread eastward to China and westward to +Egypt, we may not be able, with precise accuracy, to tell; but this we +know, that in and between these two countries the ceramic art had been +carried to a lofty eminence long before Europe had awakened from +barbaric slumber. Western history was, in fact, scarcely beginning, when +Eastern civilization was in one direction fading, and in another was +tottering to its fall.</p> + +<p>In beginning with Egypt, the most ancient relics of primitive art pass +first in review. To that wonderful country, long hidden under a thick +cloud of mystery, we must, in fact, first turn, no matter what may be +the subject demanding investigation. It had reached antiquity before the +oldest countries of the West were born. In the ceramic art, it appears +as the centre from which radiated the two great branches, many centuries +afterward converging in Southern Europe. On the one hand is the +silicious-glazed pottery, which, after moving eastward, reached Europe +in a slightly altered form; on the other<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_083" id="page_083">{83}</a></span> is the glazed and unglazed +terra-cotta, which the Greeks took up and carried forward to a new and +higher perfection. Egypt thus appears as the fountain-head of ancient +art. The progress it made toward comparative perfection will be +hereafter referred to. Meantime it may be pointed out, that, while +fortunate in one respect, Egypt was unfortunate in another. The banks of +the Nile gave a never-failing supply of pure and plastic clay, admirably +suited to all the purposes of the potter. When the periodical +inundations took place, they left a deposit of exceptionally pure silt +extending from the banks of the river to the furthest margin of the +flood. The material was thus ready to the potter’s hand. The counter +disadvantage was the absence of the materials required for the finest +ware, or their presence in such form as scarcely to suggest their +combination. The Egyptians appear to have carried their ceramic art to a +full development at a very remote stage of their history, or, in other +words, they soon arrived at the point beyond which they never passed. +The limitation laid upon them was that of material. The result of this +is shown by the other directions in which their art branched off. It +seemed impossible to accomplish anything in clay to vie with the +precious metals and stones. For purposes of ornament, therefore, clay +was discarded. It was worked by slaves (<a href="#fig_30">Fig. 30</a>), and fashioned into +domestic vessels and bricks; and when the nearest approach to porcelain +was made, then only do we meet with ornamental works, or those of a more +strictly artistic character.</p> + +<p>Their religion also appears to have deadened their ambition to reach a +higher excellence. There were two periods in their art history. In +studying the works belonging to the first, the observer will frequently +be impressed by the desire evinced to follow the forms offered by nature +for imitation. Such is the most striking characteristic of what may be +called the first school. It aimed at the reproduction of natural forms +in the most literal manner. Afterward, when the emblematic school took +its rise, the forms were still those of nature, with a religious or +spiritual significance superadded. The idea is evidently fatal to art, +that it can climb to nothing higher than the figure symbolical of a god. +In their efforts toward the production of what was graceful and +beautiful, the Egyptians are not, however, to be despised. Before +foreign influences made themselves felt, the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_084" id="page_084">{84}</a></span> Egyptian forms were +simple, and frequently displayed ideas of beauty which, if ruder than +those of the Greeks, are independent. The Egyptians were necessarily +original. They had no predecessors whose works they could copy; and in +appealing to nature for models, they took the only course open to them. +From their originality the Greeks borrowed and improved upon their +models, and it is in this view of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_085" id="page_085">{85}</a></span> its being a starting-point for +subsequent art that Egyptian pottery demands careful study.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_30" id="fig_30"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg084_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg084_sml.jpg" width="512" height="359" alt="Fig. 30.—Foreign Captives making Bricks in Egypt. 1, Man +returning from carrying load; 2, 7, and 10 carry the clay, after it has +been dug by 9, 11, 12, and 13, and throw it down at 7 and j, for the +brickmakers, 8 and 16; 4 and 5 carry them away to the drying-place or +furnace; 3 and 6 are taskmasters; 14 and 15 are carrying water from the +tank, h. At c and a are inscriptions to the effect that the bricks +were so made for the Temple of Amun-Ra, at Thebes." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 30.—Foreign Captives making Bricks in Egypt. 1, Man +returning from carrying load; 2, 7, and 10 carry the clay, after it has +been dug by 9, 11, 12, and 13, and throw it down at 7 and j, for the +brickmakers, 8 and 16; 4 and 5 carry them away to the drying-place or +furnace; 3 and 6 are taskmasters; 14 and 15 are carrying water from the +tank, h. At c and a are inscriptions to the effect that the bricks +were so made for the Temple of Amun-Ra, at Thebes.</span> +</p> + +<p>It is indispensable, in order to understand the highest forms of the art +in Egypt, that something should be known of its religion. In that +strange land we find an answer—possibly the first—to the question,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“The sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the hills, and the plains—<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Are not these, O soul, the vision of Him who reigns?”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>According to Bunsen, “the mythological system proceeded from ‘the +concealed god,’ Ammon, to the creating god. The latter appears first of +all as the generative power of nature in the Phallic god Khem, who is +afterward merged into Ammon-ra. Then sprung up the idea of a creative +power in Kneph. He forms the limbs of Osiris (the primitive soul) in +contradistinction to Ptah, who, as the strictly demiurgic principle, +forms the visible world. Neith is the creative principle as nature +represented under a female form. Finally her son, Ra Helios, appears as +the last of the series in the character of father and nourisher of +terrestrial things. It is he whom an ancient monument represents as the +demiurgic principle creating the mundane egg.” At the head of this +Pantheon stands Ammon, the concealed and invisible. The other figures +are personifications of his attributes, and appear as separate and +individual gods. In order to make the theogony intelligible to the +people, these gods are represented by symbols. There is thus a regular +gradation from the symbol to the divine attribute, and thence to the +Unknown Greatest. It is the sublimity of paganism, presenting us with +one god carrying on the infinite works of the universe by means of his +various attributes. The symbols were chosen from nature, and are +generally expressive, if not always dignified. Firstly, as to the +symbols proper, the lotus and scarabæus may be mentioned as of most +frequent occurrence. The former, the sacred flower, is often met with in +connection with the figures of the divinities, and symbolizes the +beneficence of nature’s revivifying powers, water and heat. The +scarabæus (<a href="#fig_31">Fig. 31</a>) is the symbol of creation, and when represented with +out-spread wings, of immortality. It may appear singular that a +loathsome insect should thus have been honored, but the explanation is +simple. It is to be found in the habits of the insect itself. Placing +its egg in a ball, it<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_086" id="page_086">{86}</a></span> buried the latter in the sand, where it was +hatched by the rays of the sun, and the ball opening with the breaking +of the egg, the young insect appeared. It was to the Egyptian a perfect +symbol of creation, and hence of the creative god Phtha. When found with +outstretched wings, it is an ornament of the dead, and symbolizes the +apparent circuit of the sun setting at night to rise in the morning. +Thus the sun of life sets in death to reappear in immortality, as the +scarabæus, under the influence of its divine warmth, breaks from its egg +into insect life. The sun was the symbol of Ra, the sun-god, “the father +and nourisher of terrestrial things.” In representing the gods, the +figures selected were to a great extent arbitrary. The Egyptians honored +themselves by discovering that in the humblest form of nature there was +something worthy of honor. They accordingly took the plants and animals +of their land and wove them into their religion, by adopting a system of +natural symbols too intricate to be here given in detail. The following +may, however, be found useful:</p> + +<p><a name="fig_31" id="fig_31"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 249px;"> +<a href="images/illpg086_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg086_sml.jpg" width="249" height="104" alt="Fig. 31.—Scarabæus. Dark-blue Glazed Pottery. (Way +Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 31.—Scarabæus. Dark-blue Glazed Pottery. (Way +Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The vulture was the symbol of divine maternity, because thought to +conceive spontaneously; and hence Souvan, the mother of all, is +represented with a vulture’s head. This single instance furnishes a key +to the system. The symbol is chosen which most nearly represents the +principle, and thus becomes a part of the embodied form of the deity +possessing the principle as his or her peculiar attribute. The dog and +jackal were emblems of Anubis, the guardian of the tombs, and the deity +presiding over embalmment. The scarabæus was the emblem of the demiurgic +god Phtha. The lion was also the emblem of Phtha and of the goddess +Pasht. Cynocephali were emblems of Chous and Thoth.</p> + +<p>Throughout the entire system, the birds, fishes, land animals, and +plants of Egypt, the hawk, vulture, ibis, uræi snakes, the cat, pig, +cow, and so on, are all used as symbols. It will be sufficient now to +glance at the converse, and note the forms under which the deities are +represented.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_087" id="page_087">{87}</a></span> Ra, the sun-god, appears with the head of a hawk; Athor, +the Egyptian Venus, with horns and ears of a cow; Anubis with head of a +jackal; Thoth with head of an ibis; Amun-ra, a man with solar disk on +head, and plumed; Mut, the mother goddess, crowned; Chous, sou of +Amun-ra and Mut, with moon disk, occasionally hawk-headed; Phtha with +scarabæus on head, sometimes with two heads, one of which is that of a +hawk; Pasht, Bast, and Tafne are all lion-headed goddesses; Her has a +lion’s head; Taur appears as a hippopotamus; Osiris sits enthroned with +the cap of truth, and holds a staff and scourge; Isis, like the Roman +Luna or Diana, appears in two forms, sitting as a terrestrial goddess, +suckling Horus or kneeling, or sitting in her celestial character, with +disk and horns, nursing her son Horus.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_32" id="fig_32"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg087_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg087_sml.jpg" width="324" height="300" alt="Fig. 32.—Egyptian Gods. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of +Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 32.—Egyptian Gods. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of +Fine Arts.)</span> +</p> + +<p>We are now in a position to give names to the group (<a href="#fig_32">Fig. 32</a>), each +piece in which is of the blue or green glazed pottery to be noticed +hereafter. It may be said, however, that no engraving could give an idea +of the exquisite finish of these pieces, especially of the two in the +middle. The lower central figure is the plumed Amun.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_088" id="page_088">{88}</a></span> It is +turquoise-blue, and is one and three-quarter inches in height. The upper +central figure is the lion-headed Pasht, surmounted by the solar disk +and the asp. To the left is ibis-headed Thoth, a flat figure intended to +be sewn into a mummy covering. On the right are Isis and Nepthys, with +Horus between them. From the combination of symbols, the study of the +mythology of the Egyptians as found illustrated on their pottery is of +deep interest, and of great importance both to the ceramist and the +student of the science of religion.</p> + +<p>The ceramic productions of Egypt are divisible into two great classes, +unglazed and glazed.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_33" id="fig_33"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"> +<a href="images/illpg088_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg088_sml.jpg" width="180" height="163" alt="Fig. 33.—Earthen-ware Vessels found at Thebes." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 33.—Earthen-ware Vessels found at Thebes.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unglazed Pottery.</span>—This may again be divided into the unbaked, or +sun-dried, and baked. Of these the former is unquestionably the more +ancient, and Egypt is one of the three countries whose sun-dried pottery +has lasted until the present time. Unbaked bricks are the oldest +examples. Some of those discovered recall the bondage and wrongs of the +Israelites under the “new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph.” The +command of Pharaoh will be remembered: “Ye shall no more give the people +straw to make brick as heretofore; let them go and gather straw for +themselves.” The straw was used to bind them together. They were moulded +generally in a rectangular shape, and were extensively used in the +construction of pyramids of various ages. They vary in size in different +edifices, and are marked according to their composition or destined use. +In the former case, the marks were used merely to distinguish the +quality; in the latter, the marks indicate either the individual’s tomb +in the construction of which they were to be employed, or the king in +whose reign they were made for public buildings. The whole process can +be studied in the engraving (<a href="#fig_30">Fig. 30</a>). The stamp for bricks was not used +until the fifteenth century before the Christian era.</p> + +<p>The vessels of unbaked clay which have been preserved are few<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_089" id="page_089">{89}</a></span> in +number, and are either religious in character, or devoted to sepulchral +uses. The ornamentation is of the simplest kind.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_34" id="fig_34"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<a href="images/illpg089a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg089a_sml.jpg" width="184" height="117" alt="Fig. 34.—Red Pottery Cone. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 34.—Red Pottery Cone. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_35" id="fig_35"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 173px;"> +<a href="images/illpg089b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg089b_sml.jpg" width="173" height="105" alt="Fig. 35.—Fish-shaped Vase of Red Terra-cotta. Egyptian. +(British Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 35.—Fish-shaped Vase of Red Terra-cotta. Egyptian. +(British Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Egypt was exceptionally favored by nature for advancing in the potter’s +art. The Nile mud was abundant and plastic, and was suitable for either +moulding or throwing. Specimens of baked earthen-ware (<a href="#fig_33">Fig. 33</a>) have +accordingly been found belonging to a very remote period. They represent +the second step in the manufacture, which was reached nearly three +thousand years before our era. From the tombs of that period have been +exhumed vessels of various kinds, such as were employed by the Egyptians +in their households; and taking these as a starting-point, the art can +be traced to its decline under imported ideas and foreign domination. +This ware is mostly of a dull red color, verging at times toward purple +or yellow, according to the temperature at which it was baked. The baked +bricks were of the same red color. They were used, apparently, for +purposes for which the less lasting unbaked bricks were not suitable, +but were not generally employed. Of the same material coffins, although +rare, have also been found. Many of the objects connected with the +Egyptian customs regarding the burial of the dead were made of this +clay. Among these were the cones (<a href="#fig_34">Fig. 34</a>), with inscriptions in +hieroglyphics stamped on the base, and giving the name of the deceased. +They indicate the resting-places of many civil and ecclesiastical +functionaries—clerks or scribes, priests, chamberlains, soldiers, and +seldom of women. They appear to have fallen into desuetude in the sixth +century before our era. Figures have also been found in the sepulchres +of a later period. The vases for holding the entrails of the embalmed +dead were of the same ware, and bring up for notice a very singular +custom. The viscera were divided into four parts, and deposited in +separate jars having the shapes of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_090" id="page_090">{90}</a></span> genii of the Egyptian Hades, +Amset, Hapi, Tuautmutf, and Kebhsnuf. The ibis mummy pots belong to the +same class. They were used for holding the embalmed body of the sacred +bird, and are very frequently of a conical shape, with a slightly convex +lid. Of domestic vases in this ware, the shapes and uses are very +numerous. Great numbers have been found in the tombs, varying as much in +size as in purpose. The latter may often be divined from the shape of +the vessel: thus those for liquids are wide-mouthed for convenience in +drawing the contents; those for bread and flesh-meats are wider and more +shallow. Ointment pots and oil jars are also fashioned in view of their +respective purposes.</p> + +<p>Another kind of unglazed ware is of a light gray color, and was common +to Egypt and some of the countries of Asia. Amphoræ have been found of +this material, with long bodies ornamented with horizontal grooves. Of +these the larger ones appear to have been intended for liquids, and the +smaller ones, some of which are very diminutive, for solids. The bases +of the former are pointed, while those of the latter are occasionally +rounded. The handles are both small and large, and the necks open or +contracted, according to their use. These are well deserving of notice +for the sake of comparison with the amphoræ of the Greeks; and for the +same reason reference may be made to the vessels with three handles, +which were in all probability the prototypes of the Greek <i>hydrai</i>, and +to others with only one handle, which were also reproduced in Greece. +The former are very frequently oval-bodied, and the position of the +handle is arbitrary. The latter were jugs of various shapes, with +pointed bases. The further we come down, the more distinct become the +proofs of Egypt’s having supplied models to the Grecian potters. It +would be impossible to specify all the shapes, but reference may be made +to those with handle arching the top from side to side, and of so small +a size that they are thought to have been used by children as toys.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_36" id="fig_36"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;"> +<a href="images/illpg091a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg091a_sml.jpg" width="211" height="85" alt="Fig. 36.—Egyptian Red-polished Terra-cotta." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 36.—Egyptian Red-polished Terra-cotta.</span> +</div> + +<p>The larger vessels, which answered all the purposes of a modern +meat-safe, have no handle, and have the usual pointed base for fixing +them upright in the floor of the cellar. They taper gradually from the +base upward, until their greatest girth is reached, when they curve more +suddenly inward to a short neck. From these the forms vary through the +intermediate shapes of oval jars, bottles with long necks,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_091" id="page_091">{91}</a></span> and narrow +oil vases, to wide bowls or dishes and plates. Reference was made in the +introduction to the multitudinous purposes to which clay vessels were +put by the Egyptians. They used their ware in many ways which to us +appear very primitive and strange—for storing all manner of eatables +and drinkables, for cooking and smelting. In fact, whatever one may +think of their ideas of beauty in pottery, there can be no doubt that +they took a very wide view of its infinite usefulness.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_37" id="fig_37"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"> +<a href="images/illpg091b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg091b_sml.jpg" width="100" height="308" alt="Fig. 37.—Egyptian Red-polished Terra-cotta Bottle. +(British Mus.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 37.—Egyptian Red-polished Terra-cotta Bottle. +(British Mus.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Decoration of a simple kind is occasionally found on both domestic and +sepulchral vessels. Colored bands were the usual ornament, and very +rarely the entire body was painted with a ground color upon which bands +were laid, and the whole was then varnished. It is rarely that a leaf or +lotus flower is found. The use of varnish points to a step in advance. +It has not yet been determined whether it is really varnish or a glaze +applied by firing, but in either case it is found upon the finer and +harder kinds of ware. The body color is black, brown, or red, of +different shades (<a href="#fig_36">Fig. 36</a>). To this class belong the single and double +cruses, generally of pale red paste, but sometimes black, used +apparently for holding oil or ointment. The best examples of polished +ware are red. They show both ornamentation of a higher order and more +artistic shapes than the others. The shape of one of these vases +resembles the goddess Isis suckling Horus, in the attitude previously +mentioned; another is in the form of a woman playing upon a stringed +instrument (<a href="#fig_37">Fig. 37</a>); a third is shaped like a fish; and many domestic +vessels, cups, jugs, and vases are of the same material.</p> + +<p>The Græco-Egyptian pottery forms a distinct class, differing in paste, +color, and decoration. The outside shows varying shades of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_092" id="page_092">{92}</a></span> gray and +red, and the ornamentation consists of lines and animal and floral +forms, in colors capable of standing the kiln. At the same period was +introduced the custom of making writing tablets of this ware.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_38" id="fig_38"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 107px;"> +<a href="images/illpg092a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg092a_sml.jpg" width="107" height="124" alt="Fig. 38.—Glazed Pottery Vase. Egyptian." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 38.—Glazed Pottery Vase. Egyptian.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_39" id="fig_39"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 119px;"> +<a href="images/illpg092b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg092b_sml.jpg" width="119" height="140" alt="Fig. 39.—Egyptian Scarabæi used as Signets. Average, ¾ +inch in length. Pale and dark green. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 39.—Egyptian Scarabæi used as Signets. Average, ¾ +inch in length. Pale and dark green. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_40" id="fig_40"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<a href="images/illpg093_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg093_sml.jpg" width="152" height="230" alt="Fig. 40.—Egyptian Pectoral Tablets. (Way Coll., Boston +Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 40.—Egyptian Pectoral Tablets. (Way Coll., Boston +Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glazed Ware.</span>—Leaving the unglazed and polished wares, there yet falls +to be considered that with an undoubted glaze, to which belong the most +artistic works of the Egyptian potters. This is the ware which has been +miscalled porcelain (<a href="#fig_38">Fig. 38</a>); and as the unglazed ware was never +employed for purely ornamental purposes, so we find the glazed seldom +used for domestic vessels. Contrary to what might be expected, specimens +have been found as old as the Sixth Dynasty, or nearly two thousand +years before the Christian era. The ware is not at all close in texture, +and the silicious glaze was colored by metallic oxides, of the +properties of which the Egyptians had an intimate knowledge. Chief among +the colors thus produced are the blue and green, exemplified in some of +the finest relics of Egyptian art. Their beauty is occasionally very +remarkable, and led to their being highly valued both by the Egyptians +and others, and to the ware itself being applied to special purposes of +ornamentation. It is found, for example, in the form of tiles as a wall +decoration, and as a material for inlaying. Tiles with figures in +relief, having parts such as the hair, beard, eyes, or extremities +inlaid with glazed ware, are among the most curious specimens +discovered. Detached beards are not unlike spirally ribbed hose. +Coffins, or mummy cases, are similarly inlaid. The forms the glazed +pottery assumes, when employed for this purpose and for figures to be +attached to other substances, are very numerous. The moulded ornaments +and amulets of both the living and the dead were most frequently of the +same material. These take the shape of finger and ear rings (<a href="#fig_39">Fig. 39</a>), +small images of the gods and of their symbols, and various other +ornaments, such as bracelets, necklaces, and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_093" id="page_093">{93}</a></span> hairpins. The nature of +the paste leads to the belief that these were more generally devoted to +sepulchral purposes, with a religious significance, than to any other. +All the minute beads, in a net-work of which the dead were often +encased, and also the pectoral or breastplates, were of this material +(<a href="#fig_40">Fig. 40</a>). In the lower specimen, Ra is represented by the scarab. In +the barge, on either side, are Isis and Nepthys. This tablet bears the +inscription, “He that is worthy goes over in the barge of Ra.” Of the +upper specimen only one-half is preserved, showing the figure of Isis. +In the hollow centre has been a scarab, probably of jasper, and in the +borders colored stones or glass have been set. The lower border consists +of a series of lotus flowers, and the wavy lines represent the water in +which they grow. Above was the winged disk of the sun. Figures of the +gods and goddesses and their emblems, and sacred animals and plants, +which were deposited with the dead, afford some of the most exquisite +examples of Egyptian glazed pottery. The images have either a perforated +upright support behind, or are otherwise perforated for attachment to +the necklaces of the mummies. The scarabæus is very often met with on +the breastplates. All these symbols and images were employed for the +supposed benefit of the dead, either to save them from evil, or as a +direct means of bringing good, and can only be understood through an +acquaintance with mythology. Rings of various colors appear properly to +belong to the same category of ornaments of the dead. Other sepulchral +figures were deposited with the deceased, besides those of the +protecting gods. These were supposed to aid the departed in his labors +in the future state, and are invariably small representations of a +mummied figure, partially covered with hieroglyphics. Like many of the +other figures and objects, they are generally of the beautiful Egyptian +blue. In the example (<a href="#fig_41">Fig. 41</a>) given on the following page, the figure +of a bird with human head, appears upon the breast. It is<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_094" id="page_094">{94}</a></span> an emblem of +the soul leaving or returning to the body. The more usual form is that +seen in the central figure in the engraving (<a href="#fig_42">Fig. 42</a>), with long beard, +a pickaxe and hoe in either hand, and having a cord in the right hand +which is crossed to the left, and allows the cord to pass over the left +shoulder. At the end of this cord is a bag or basket, which is faintly +discernible on the shoulder of the figure on the right. The +hieroglyphics are passages from the Ritual, in compliance with which +these figures were made. Balls, draughtsmen, and toys were also made of +glazed pottery. All the figures and ornaments to which reference has +been made were turned out of moulds, the friability of the paste not +permitting its being thrown.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_41" id="fig_41"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;"> +<a href="images/illpg094_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg094_sml.jpg" width="160" height="308" alt="Fig. 41.—Egyptian Mummy Figure. Style, XIXth Dynasty. +(Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 41.—Egyptian Mummy Figure. Style, XIXth Dynasty. +(Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>For the same reason the glazed vases are diminutive, but often very +beautiful, and intended for purely ornamental purposes. They are of +different shapes and sizes, generally a few inches in height, and some +of them illustrate the peculiar ideas entertained by the Egyptians of +personal beauty. One of their customs was that of darkening the eyes +with a black powder, sometimes held in a small case resembling a series +of reeds. The toilet is otherwise represented by a variety of boxes, +jars, bottles, small vases, and oil flasks. The latter are unique, and +sometimes elegant in shape, and supply good examples of the greenish +glazed-ware to which reference has been made.</p> + +<p>Many of the bowls evidently used by the wealthy are of a finer and +closer paste, and bear very characteristic ornamentation of flowers, +fish, hieroglyphics, or of lines only. Their uses can only be +conjectured from their shapes. The inscriptions sometimes point to their +owners, and at others to the place of fabrication.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians also resorted to a process of glazing vases, figures, +rings, and other articles for which pottery was usually employed,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_095" id="page_095">{95}</a></span> made +of a variety of hard schists. These, however, as not being properly +potter’s ware, are here passed over.</p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the Egyptians did not carry the art to a very +high point. They were, however, successful in creating a foreign demand +for the productions of their potteries. From discoveries made in Eastern +Greece, Nineveh, and elsewhere, it would appear that the fine pottery +ornaments of Egypt were in considerable repute in neighboring countries; +and, as we shall hereafter see, Egypt contributed its full share to the +furtherance of the art by supplying suggestions and models.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_42" id="fig_42"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg095_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg095_sml.jpg" width="216" height="282" alt="Fig. 42.—Egyptian Mummy Figures. Blue or Greenish-blue +Enamelled Pottery. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 42.—Egyptian Mummy Figures. Blue or Greenish-blue +Enamelled Pottery. (Way Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>One important matter remains to be disposed of. It has long been a +subject of doubt whether or not Egypt possessed the secret of +stanniferous enamel. It has been already intimated that the discovery of +the use of tin for a pottery enamel is due to either that country or +Assyria. The honor may probably be ascribed to Egypt. In the loan +collection of the Metropolitan Museum of New York is a fragment (Fig. +43) of a vase exhibited in the Egyptian section, and referable to a very +remote antiquity, covered with what is apparently tin enamel, bearing +purple decorations. Should this be the case, then this solitary fragment +will settle the matter, and we must believe that the Egyptians possessed +this secret of the art four thousand years ago. In that event, the +Assyrians probably acquired it from Egypt. The fact supplies us with the +means of arriving at a very clear idea of the grand antiquity of that +civilization under which a valuable art was practised, to which Europe +was a stranger for more than three thousand five hundred years +afterward.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_096" id="page_096">{96}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_43" id="fig_43"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;"> +<a href="images/illpg096_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg096_sml.jpg" width="148" height="137" alt="Fig. 43.—Fragment with White Enamel. (Trumbull-Prime +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 43.—Fragment with White Enamel. (Trumbull-Prime +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is, as we have seen, long since the art purely its own reached its +culmination. The Egypt of the nineteenth century in this respect +scarcely suggests that of the Pyramids. If we were to take that country +as it appeared at the Philadelphia Exhibition, we would hardly be +prepared to look upon its ceramic products as those of a country in +which the art has been practised for four thousand years. A few pieces +exhibited were of light, slate-colored body, unglazed, and so brittle +that dozens were broken in transit. The ornamentation was laid on the +bare surface, and was, as a rule, bright to the verge of gaudiness. The +greater portion of the painting was the work of an Italian artist +resident in Cairo. Some of the red terra-cotta was more satisfactory; +but all that can be said in favor of either kind is that it was, in its +way, characteristically Egyptian. One specimen of pale green “porcelain” +was sent by the Museum at Cairo. The last is mentioned because it +represented the farthest point which the Egyptians reached on the way +toward a true porcelain.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_097" id="page_097">{97}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II-b2" id="CHAPTER_II-b2"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> +<small>ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Possible Priority to Egyptian Pottery.—Similarity between Assyrian +and Egyptian.—The Course followed by both Arts.—Unbaked +Bricks.—Baked Bricks.—Writing +Tablets.—Seals.—Vases.—Terra-cottas.—Porcelain.—Glazing and +Enamelling.—Tin.—Colored Enamels.—Babylonian Bricks.—Glazes.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_44" id="fig_44"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg097_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg097_sml.jpg" width="329" height="209" alt="Fig. 44.—Pottery found in the Tombs above the Palaces of +Nimroud." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 44.—Pottery found in the Tombs above the Palaces of +Nimroud.</span> +</p> + +<p>Although we have taken Egypt as our starting-point, there may have been +a pottery antecedent to that we have considered. Looking farther east +for the cradle of the human race, knowledge and art may have spread east +and west from the Euphrates, the great river of Babylon. Egypt having +been first inhabited by settlers wandering from the province of which +that city became the capital, who found in the Nile a river resembling, +in many respects, that which they had left, these colonists may have +carried with them some knowledge of the uses of clay. However this may +be, it is beyond question that the oldest pottery of which the age is +known is Egyptian, and that the knowledge acquired from the East was +returned with interest.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_098" id="page_098">{98}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_45" id="fig_45"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;"> +<a href="images/illpg098a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg098a_sml.jpg" width="148" height="181" alt="Fig. 45.—Terra-cotta Assyrian Venus." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 45.—Terra-cotta Assyrian Venus.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_46" id="fig_46"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;"> +<a href="images/illpg098b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg098b_sml.jpg" width="145" height="257" alt="Fig. 46.—Assyrian Cylinder, inscribed with the Records +of a King’s Reign. (British Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 46.—Assyrian Cylinder, inscribed with the Records +of a King’s Reign. (British Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_47" id="fig_47"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_48" id="fig_48"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg098c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg098c_sml.jpg" width="370" height="122" alt="Fig. 47.—Inscribed Seal. (Assyrian.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 47.—Inscribed Seal. (Assyrian.) + Fig. 48.—Seal of Sabaco and Sennacherib.</span> +</p> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_49" id="fig_49"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_50" id="fig_50"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg099a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg099a_sml.jpg" width="375" height="151" alt="Fig. 49.—Impression of Sabaco’s Seal, enlarged. +Fig. 50.—Back of Assyrian Seal, showing Marks of +Fingers." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 49.—Impression of Sabaco’s Seal, enlarged. + Fig. 50.—Back of Assyrian Seal, showing Marks of +Fingers.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_51" id="fig_51"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg099b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg099b_sml.jpg" width="154" height="195" alt="Fig. 51.—Fragment in Porcelain (?). (Nimroud.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 51.—Fragment in Porcelain (?). (Nimroud.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_52" id="fig_52"></a></p> +<p><a name="fig_53" id="fig_53"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg099c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg099c_sml.jpg" width="385" height="129" alt="Fig. 52.—Box in Porcelain (?). (Nimroud.) +Fig. 53.—Enamelled Brick. (Louvre.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 52.—Box in Porcelain (?). (Nimroud.) + Fig. 53.—Enamelled Brick. (Louvre.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Assyria and Babylonia are almost necessarily considered in conjunction. +The latter having been a province of Assyria prior to its assertion of +independence, we anticipate, what is actually the case, a close +similarity between the ceramic productions of the two countries. In +tracing the history of their pottery, we not only discover many points +of resemblance between it and that of Egypt, but advance along an +exactly parallel line. From sun-dried bricks we pass to burnt bricks, +thence to unglazed pottery possessed of an artistic character, thence +again to glazed specimens and enamel. In both countries unbaked bricks +were made use of in the construction of mound-like foundations for +buildings. Walls, houses, and tombs were built of similar materials. In +Assyria, bricks were sometimes faced with marble, either externally, for +the sake of strength, or to give greater beauty to an interior. Some +were gilded and others colored. Small figures of both baked and unbaked +clay, and of a religious character, were also made by the Assyrians +(<a href="#fig_45">Fig. 45</a>). From the stamped and baked bricks much has been learned of +Assyrian history and topography, the sites of cities and names of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_099" id="page_099">{99}</a></span> kings +having been thus discovered or substantiated. By the same people writing +tablets of rectangular, cylindrical, or prismatic shapes were very +commonly made of terra-cotta (<a href="#fig_46">Fig. 46</a>). They form a very curious remnant +of ancient literature, which, thanks to the indestructibility of the +material upon which it was written, is still open to the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_100" id="page_100">{100}</a></span> study of the +historian. All kinds of records have thus been preserved—religious, +legal, and astronomical. The Assyrians and Egyptians both used seals +(Figs. 47, 48, 49, and 50) of baked and unbaked clay, in the same way +that wax seals are still occasionally appended or attached to documents.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_54" id="fig_54"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 239px;"> +<a href="images/illpg100a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg100a_sml.jpg" width="239" height="201" alt="Fig. 54.—Babylonian Baked Brick, with Nebuchadnezzar’s +Name. Twelve inches square, three inches thick." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 54.—Babylonian Baked Brick, with Nebuchadnezzar’s +Name. Twelve inches square, three inches thick.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_55" id="fig_55"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 267px;"> +<a href="images/illpg100b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg100b_sml.jpg" width="267" height="220" alt="Fig. 55.—The Mnjellibé, or Kasr. Showing brickwork." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 55.—The Mnjellibé, or Kasr. Showing brickwork.</span> +</div> + +<p>Many of the vases discovered in the ruined cities of Assyria are clearly +to be attributed to foreign occupants, and are therefore of +comparatively late date. To this class belong many of the cinerary urns +exhumed from the tombs. Ancient and really Assyrian vessels have been +discovered of a pale brown clay (<a href="#fig_44">Fig. 44</a>), unglazed, and of various +shapes, but seldom painted. It is, however, difficult, in many cases, to +discover the nationality of the potter or the age of the piece. Of +terra-cotta figures of the gods, several have been found, although these +must have existed in far greater numbers. Porcelain, or fine glazed +pottery (Figs. 51, 52), is rarely met with, and the specimens found are +inferior to the Egyptian. The several uses of the ware appear to have +been the same in the two countries. For <span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">{101}</a></span>a knowledge of glazing and +enamelling, the Assyrians were in all likelihood indebted to the +Egyptians. Bricks subjected to these processes, and ornamented with +flowers, leaves, and animals, were employed in decorating interiors and +even in building walls (<a href="#fig_53">Fig. 53</a>). These bricks reveal the fact that the +Assyrians were aware of the peculiar suitableness of tin for making a +white enamel. The other enamels employed were yellow, brown, blue, and +green, and were produced from metals almost identical with those +employed by the Egyptians.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_56" id="fig_56"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg101_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg101_sml.jpg" width="364" height="323" alt="Fig. 56.—Terra-cotta Tablet, from Babylon. (British +Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 56.—Terra-cotta Tablet, from Babylon. (British +Museum.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Like the Assyrian and Egyptian, the Babylonian bricks, whether unbaked +or baked, were moulded, and the latter were stamped. Hundreds of these +(<a href="#fig_54">Fig. 54</a>) bear the stamp of Nebuchadnezzar, the sites where they were +found indicating with tolerable exactness the bounds of his kingdom. The +extensive use of bricks by the Babylonians may be taken as +characteristic of a people inhabiting the country where the Tower of +Babel was built (<a href="#fig_55">Fig. 55</a>). In many respects the vessels found in +Babylonia resemble those of Assyria, so closely, in fact, that they need +not here be separately treated. As in the latter country,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_102" id="page_102">{102}</a></span> the +Babylonians used terra-cotta writing tablets. Several terra-cotta +bas-reliefs have been discovered, of one of the more remarkable examples +of which, now in the British Museum, we give the preceding engraving +(<a href="#fig_56">Fig. 56</a>). This tablet was found near Babylon. The dog is of the huge +Thibet breed, and both figures have been modelled. The small size of the +pieces would almost preclude their use as ornaments; and Dr. Birch +ventures the conjecture that they may have been an artist’s studies for +larger works. The fine paste is the same as that used for the writing +cylinders.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_57" id="fig_57"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 169px;"> +<a href="images/illpg102a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg102a_sml.jpg" width="169" height="75" alt="Fig. 57.—Ram in Baked Clay, from Niffer." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 57.—Ram in Baked Clay, from Niffer.</span> +</div> + +<p>In regard to the earthen-ware vessels and figures, the same difficulty +in determining their age is encountered here that was met with in +Assyria. They have been taken from the mounds in large quantities. To +this class belongs the ram (<a href="#fig_57">Fig. 57</a>) found at Niffer, on the supposed +site of ancient Babylon.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_58" id="fig_58"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg102b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg102b_sml.jpg" width="353" height="105" alt="Fig. 58.—Glazed Coffins, from Warka." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 58.—Glazed Coffins, from Warka.</span> +</p> + +<p>The Babylonian glazes resemble the Assyrian, and it may be particularly +mentioned that the oxide of tin was employed in making enamel. These +glazes are found upon both bricks and vases, and were applied +extensively to architectural decoration. At Warka, identified with the +ancient Ur of the Chaldees, thousands of coffins made of glazed ware +have been exhumed, variously decorated with figures. Of these one +specimen is given (<a href="#fig_58">Fig. 58</a>).<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_103" id="page_103">{103}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III-b2" id="CHAPTER_III-b2"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> +<small>JUDÆA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Art Derived from Egypt.—Never Reached any Eminence.—Preference +for Metals.—Frequent Allusions in Scripture.—Bought Earthen-ware +from Phœnicia and Egypt.—Home +Manufacture.—Decoration.—Necessity for Distinguishing between +Home and Foreign Wares.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_59" id="fig_59"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg103_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg103_sml.jpg" width="362" height="228" alt="Fig. 59.—Earthen-ware Jars and Water-pots." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 59.—Earthen-ware Jars and Water-pots.</span> +</p> + +<p>We now turn westward to Judæa, in order that, before penetrating farther +into Asia and to the extreme East, we may glance at a country showing in +its ceramic remains unmistakable signs of Egyptian teaching, but +exercising in its turn no recognizable influence upon the art which from +all sides of it was diffused over Southern Europe. The art never reached +any eminence among the Jews. They preferred the richer beauty of the +precious metals. Potters did, no doubt, exist among them in considerable +numbers, and were acquainted with the different processes of throwing, +firing, and glazing; but the formation of such a guild as that of which +Scripture speaks is not of itself a proof that the occupation was held +in high esteem. The few relics<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_104" id="page_104">{104}</a></span> which can be ascribed to a purely Jewish +origin might be passed over as immaterial to observers of the progress +of the art, were it not that everything pertaining to the land once +called that of Promise, and now designated by all Christendom as Holy, +possesses an interest altogether independent of its artistic merit.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_60" id="fig_60"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 256px;"> +<a href="images/illpg104_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg104_sml.jpg" width="256" height="127" alt="Fig. 60.—Terra-cotta Lamps and Oil Vessels." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 60.—Terra-cotta Lamps and Oil Vessels.</span> +</div> + +<p>For such earthen-ware vessels as they required, the Jews appear to have +applied on the one hand to the Phœnicians, and on the other to the +Egyptians. The manufacture among themselves was restricted to domestic +articles. These resemble the Egyptian in both style and finish, the body +being of a somewhat coarse paste, and the glaze of that peculiar kind +which is hardly distinguishable from varnish or mechanical polish. A +fragment now in the Louvre, of blue-glazed earthen-ware, resembling the +finer ware of Egypt, and found in Judæa, further substantiates the close +similarity between the pottery of the Jordan and that of the Nile. In +ornamentation, however, the Israelites have some claim to originality +and independence. Associating the lotus, papyrus, and the symbols of +Egypt with idolatry, the Jewish potters substituted grapes, leaves, and +pomegranates. In the description of the building of the Temple, in the +First Book of Kings, the decoration within the oracle of “carved figures +of cherubim and palm-trees and open flowers,” was repeated on the walls +and doors; and on the chapiters of the pillars made by Hiram of Tyre +were long rows of pomegranates. A similar style of ornamentation was +adopted by the potters.</p> + +<p>We have already seen that both Egyptian and Phœnician wares were +imported into the country, and in addition to these there have been +found at Jerusalem and elsewhere several examples of the red Roman, or +Samian ware.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">{105}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV-b2" id="CHAPTER_IV-b2"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> +<small>INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Mystery Surrounding People.—History of its Art in great measure +Unknown.—Questions of its Existence and Originality.—How they +Arose.—The Brahmins.—Geographical Position.—Views of Early +Travellers.—Later Investigations.—More Ancient Pottery.—Clay +Used.—Knowledge of Glazing: Its Application to +Architecture.—Glazed Bricks.—Terra-cotta.—Chronological +Arrangement.—Porcelain: Its Decoration.—Use of Gold.—Siam.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> antiquity claimed for the Hindoos as a people cannot, unfortunately, +be elucidated either by the help of such chronicles as the granite +records of Egypt, the terra-cotta tablets of Babylon, or the writings of +China. The history of Indian art has been surrounded by a more or less +impenetrable mystery. Two questions accordingly arise as to its ceramic +productions: firstly, Did India possess any knowledge of the plastic +art? secondly—that question having been answered in the +affirmative—Was it original or borrowed? These doubts, in all +probability, arose from the success of the Brahminical endeavors to +invest every branch of Hindoo knowledge with a veil of secrecy, and from +the geographical position of Hindostan. Occupying a peninsula about +half-way on the route by sea between Eastern and Western Asia, Africa, +and Europe, it became the recognized mart for the exchange of mercantile +commodities. European traders found in it a convenient halting-place, +even before they fully realized its actual commercial importance. +Similarly, on the north, it intercepted a portion of the overland +traffic, and ultimately became the centre toward which gravitated the +productions of Persia and Arabia on the west, and of China and Japan on +the east.</p> + +<p>Travellers who did not stop to examine things very closely, accordingly +declared India a stranger to ceramic art. Recognizing its importance as +an exchange, from the abundance of imports from abroad, they did not +pierce the commercial conditions which hid its productiveness and +originality. Later researches have shown not only that<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_106" id="page_106">{106}</a></span> India was not +dependent upon other countries, but that it had developed an exceptional +skill in the application of porcelain to the embellishment of +architecture. As if completely to subvert the statements of the first +visitors to Hindostan, China, the great seat of the porcelain +manufacture, has acknowledged its indebtedness to that country, and the +extent to which it has imitated its styles. There is no reason for +supposing that a country which had early shown a wonderful capacity for +reaching the highest forms of architectural magnificence, and for +executing work of the nicest delicacy in the precious metals and gems, +lent to China alone its ideas of ceramic beauty. The absence of thorough +investigation on the one hand, and the presence of a tendency to take +refuge in secrecy in regard to both methods and results, rather than to +court observation on the other, may, however, have had their effect in +lessening the influence India might otherwise have exercised on the art. +That she borrowed and adapted styles originating in both Persia and +Japan, after her marts had been flooded with imports from these +countries, there is every reason for believing, even when she preserved +styles sufficiently distinctive to enable us to distinguish the foreign +from the native work.</p> + +<p>Of the more ancient forms of pottery, specimens exist which are upward +of two thousand years old. The clay varies from red to a gray color, and +the ornamentation, when used, is simple and chaste. A funeral urn of +this class has a round body without decoration, short, thick neck, +projecting lip, and is accompanied by a lid. Another, of the same red +clay, instead of the rounded base of the former, has a wide, flat +bottom. A band is drawn round the widest part of the body, from which it +curves rapidly inward to the neck, and on this upper part, between the +greatest circumference and the neck, a simple ornament is laid. Although +rather clumsy in appearance, this urn does not lack a certain primitive +symmetry.</p> + +<p>Like the other ancient nations of which we have already treated, India +was intimately acquainted with the processes of enamelling and glazing, +and, better than that, brought a cultivated taste to bear upon their +employment in both architecture and the decoration of pottery. Glazed +bricks, of many colors, were used with great effect in the building of +temples and other edifices. They are of much harder and finer material +than the bricks of either Egypt or Babylonia. The application<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">{107}</a></span> of colors +and glaze to terra-cotta was productive of the most astonishing and +beautiful effects. The specimens preserved of a monumental character +substantiate the right of the Indian potters to a very high rank. Not +only is the coloring of their terra-cotta friezes brilliant, but the +floral and animal forms, introduced either for their symbolical +significance or by way of ornament, are masterpieces of art.</p> + +<p>Arranging these products chronologically, the wares belonging to the +second or third century before our era will take precedence. The +buildings in which glazed bricks were used bring us down to from five +hundred to upward of a thousand years later. After them come the +specimens of glazed terra-cotta. Subsequently a kind of faience was made +which has been very generally ascribed to Persia, but which may, from +the internal evidence supplied by a comparison with purely Indian work, +be safely attributed to India. Lastly, there is the faience of the +present time, so intimately allied with the more ancient in both +ornamentation and the prevailing shapes, as to be confidently pronounced +its legitimate successor. Flowers and ornaments, incised or in relief, +and grounds of blue, green, or yellow, are designed and mingled in the +most artistic and effective manner.</p> + +<p>The porcelain of India has been ascribed, on the one hand, to Persia, +and, on the other, to China or Japan, while a closer examination would +have revealed the fact that, though having many qualities in common with +them, it is yet radically distinct. It seems probable that in several +processes which the Indian artist borrowed, he followed Japan, without +allowing himself slavishly to copy. The art of India as represented in +porcelain manifests itself in a high technical skill, in the most +exquisite delicacy, and in a close attention to all the <i>minutiæ</i> of +detail. Indian figure-painting owes to these three qualities its +superiority alike over those of Persia and of the extreme East. In the +beauty consisting of delicacy and careful precision of finish, neither +country makes even an approach to an equality with it. This truth is +one, however, which can only be fully understood by actual comparison. A +similarly painstaking care and conscientious literalness of +interpretation characterize the floral ornamentation of Indian +porcelain. Even when we find traces of Eastern inspiration in the Hindoo +deep-blue or green, the Indian artist asserts his superiority in working +out details. In many cases we detect more refined perception combined +with a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_108" id="page_108">{108}</a></span> greater technical skill. A deep bowl has floral decoration in +green, blue, and red, on a white ground, the flowers being alternately +red and blue. Another has a ground of pale green, divided into sections +by arches of gold, immediately under the outward curving lip. Upon this +are laid larger sections of a rich red color, and filled with flowers. +The contrasts are strong, and the effect is magnificent. In one respect +the Indian artists are particularly skilful, and that is in the use of +gold. It is employed generally with reserve, and always with rich +effect.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_61" id="fig_61"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg108_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg108_sml.jpg" width="346" height="244" alt="Fig. 61.—Washington’s “Indian” Porcelain Vases. Deep +blue and gold." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 61.—Washington’s “Indian” Porcelain Vases. Deep +blue and gold.</span> +</p> + +<p>A specimen of Indian porcelain (<a href="#fig_61">Fig. 61</a>), of exceptional interest to +Americans, as having once belonged to George Washington, formed part of +the collection at Arlington House. It consists of a set of three vases, +presented to Washington by Mr. Samuel Vaughan, of London. Their value, +for our present purpose, is somewhat lessened by the fact that, though +made in India, the vases were painted in London.</p> + +<p>In Siam, a style common to that country with India is prevalent, and is +the result of imitating <i>cloisonné</i> enamel in porcelain. The practice +has had one result in both countries. It has led to a comparison of the +native porcelain with native work in metal, and the originality of the +decoration of the former has thus been substantiated and its source +explained.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_109" id="page_109">{109}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_62" id="fig_62"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg109_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg109_sml.jpg" width="333" height="382" alt="Fig. 62.—Group of Chinese Porcelain. (From the Avery +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 62.—Group of Chinese Porcelain. (From the Avery +Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V-b2" id="CHAPTER_V-b2"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><br /> +<small>CHINA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Art Different from that of Europe or America.—How it must be +Viewed.—Religion.—Legend.—Hoang-ti the Inventor of Pottery.—The +Leading Points of Religious System.—Personified +Principles.—Lao-tsen, Confucius, and Buddha.—Kuan-in.—Pousa or +Pou-tai.—Dragons.—Dog of Fo.—Ky-lin.—Sacred +Horse.—Fong-hoang.—Symbols.—Meaning of Colors and Shapes.</p></div> + +<p>A<small>S</small> we approach China, we must prepare ourselves for the consideration of +its ceramic products, by once and for all giving up the attempt to judge +them by European or American standards. Whether or not art may have +travelled to China eastward from the cradle of the human race, it +certainly crystallized in China into distinctive<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_110" id="page_110">{110}</a></span> forms. This fact must +be constantly kept in mind, if we would succeed in appreciating at its +true value the art of the Celestial Empire. As in criticising a book, it +is less essential to measure the difference between one’s own ideas and +those of the author, than to look at the subject from the author’s +stand-point, and to examine the result from the inside, so, in +estimating art, it is equally essential to enter into the artist’s +views, and to study not only the ideal he means to portray or the real +he tries to imitate, but also what he considers essential to imitation +and portrayal, and the intelligence to which he addresses himself.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_63" id="fig_63"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<a href="images/illpg111_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg111_sml.jpg" width="168" height="258" alt="Fig. 63.—Cheou-lao, God of Longevity." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 63.—Cheou-lao, God of Longevity.</span> +</div> + +<p>We have seen that the Egyptians honored the gods through their works. +The Chinese present us with a religion based, like that of the Greeks, +Scandinavians, and many other nations, upon hero-worship. We recede from +mankind backward to the time when heroes and gods are commingled, and +reach the horizon where humanity and divinity are one. It is claimed for +the Chinese that they are the only possessors of a correct, or at least +an exact, chronology, but even it does not substantiate the existence of +the first of human creatures, who is said to have lived well-nigh a +hundred millions of years before the Christian era. Fou-Hi was the first +man of whom we can take cognizance, and he lived B.C. 3468. Nearly eight +hundred years afterward, Hoang-ti invented pottery and was translated, +and the beginning of the manufacture may reasonably be fixed at that +date. He did many other useful things besides inventing pottery; but +what is now to be chiefly noted is that he was raised to the Chinese +heaven for his beneficence. Behind this simple and almost universal +hero-worship was a religion compounded of pantheism and a peculiar kind +of spiritualism. Chang-ti bears some resemblance to the Egyptian +concealed god Ammon, and those who choose may find similar counterparts +to the creative and productive principles of the Chinese theogony. These +were called the “yang” and the “yn,” and appear to be the active and +passive principles personified in Ti and Che, the presiding powers of +heaven and earth. In pottery, they frequently appear in connection with +the Pa-kwa, or eight diagrams of Fo or Buddha, a series of combinations +of three lines by which nature’s changes were represented. Thus on each +side of a square vase are the <i>yang</i> and <i>yn</i>, with one of the diagrams +above and one below. On another piece of porcelain the <i>yang</i> and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_111" id="page_111">{111}</a></span> <i>yn</i> +occupy the centre, round which, in a circle, the diagrams are arranged. +With such a foundation Chinese religion is divisible into three +component parts—that based upon the teachings of Lao-tseu, that of +Confucius, and Buddhism. Lao-tseu and the legend of his birth are +especially interesting to the student of Chinese ceramics. The story +goes that, after a pregnancy of eighty-one years his mother brought him +into the world, while she was a wanderer in the country. When born, his +hair was as white as that of an old man, and hence his name, Lao-tseu, +the old man-child. When he grew up, he became a recluse, and spent years +in the study of abstract religion, out of which studies grew the +“Tao-te-king,” an exposition of his views of religion and morality. His +followers deified him, and in course of time he was regarded as +identical with Chang-ti. In this form the potters represent him, and +also as the God of Longevity. He is called alternatively Lao-tseu and +Cheou-lao. As the God of Longevity he is represented (<a href="#fig_63">Fig. 63</a>) with long +white beard and lofty, conical, bald head. His face wears a broad smile, +and in his hand is the fruit of the fantao, a fabulous tree symbolical +of long life, because it was said to bloom only once in three thousand +years, and to bear fruit a thousand years afterward. As Chang-ti, the +supreme god, he is riding or leaning upon a deer, is dressed in yellow, +and around him are clusters of the immortalizing agaric, ling-tchy.</p> + +<p>Confucius, or Koung-tseu, who followed Lao-tseu, was a conservative +philosopher, who led his countrymen back to old forms and ancestral +hero-worship. He appears as the representative of Buddhism alternatively +with Fo or Buddha, and as such holds a roll of manuscript or a sceptre +in his hand.</p> + +<p>Kuan-in (<a href="#fig_64">Fig. 64</a>) was first taken to be the Chinese Venus. She is +represented in various attitudes—standing with downcast eyes, or +sitting, and holding either a child or a rosary.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_112" id="page_112">{112}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_64" id="fig_64"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 159px;"> +<a href="images/illpg112_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg112_sml.jpg" width="159" height="285" alt="Fig. 64.—Kuan-in. (S. P. Avery Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 64.—Kuan-in. (S. P. Avery Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Pousa, or Pou-tai, the God of Contentment, is also styled the potter’s +god. How he came to be the latter, or to be a god at all, is explained +by a good story. The emperor for the time being demanded porcelain, the +fabrication of which was represented to him as an impossibility. This +information only served to whet his appetite; and to gratify his +imperial whim, the workmen were oppressed by their overseers, and driven +by threats and blows to make all kinds of sacrifices and exertions to +reach the unattainable. At length one of them gave up the struggle, and +in despair threw himself into the furnace. When the contents of the kiln +were taken out, they were found to be all that the emperor desired, and +the rigor from which the potters had suffered was abated. The workmen +apparently concluded that such a result was due to some property unknown +to alchemy in the body of their comrade. Gratitude led them to respect +his memory, and in due course he became a hero and a god. Images of him +abound in the workshops of King-teh-chin. Full of sensuality and +good-humor, his face wears the laugh of contentment, and his heavy, +corpulent body is supported by the wineskin upon which he leans. Without +resorting to the explanation to be found in the story, one can readily +understand why such a god as Pou-tai should commend himself to the +slavish and impoverished potter.</p> + +<p>In every collection of Chinese ware will be seen certain forms made use +of for decorative purposes, and which have also a symbolical +significance requiring explanation. Without going into the question of +the origin of the wonderful dragons of the Celestials, their presence, +in various degrees of hideousness, on vases and elsewhere, cannot fail +to attract attention and suggest inquiry. They are many-shaped, as the +devils which beset the good St. Anthony. There are the Long, dragon of +heaven; the Kan, dragon of the mountain; Li, dragon of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_113" id="page_113">{113}</a></span> sea, and +many others, scaled, winged, horned, and hornless. Under the form of a +dragon many of the immortals are represented, and it only appears in our +mundane sphere on some great occasion, when, for instance, Hoang-ti was +called upon to join the powers above. As emblems, the dragons require +attention, since their significance varies with the number of their +claws. That with five claws is seen upon the imperial standard, and is +the emblem of the emperor and princes of the first and second class. The +four-clawed dragon is the emblem of princes of the third and fourth +rank. The Japanese dragon is a tripedal representative of the species. +Chinese princes of the fifth rank and mandarins have the four-clawed +serpent, Mang.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_65" id="fig_65"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 89px;"> +<a href="images/illpg113a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg113a_sml.jpg" width="89" height="96" alt="Fig. 65.—The Dog of Fo." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 65.—The Dog of Fo.</span> +</div> + +<p>Another figure very often seen upon Chinese vases, and now, alas! on +some European vases also, is the Dog of Fo (<a href="#fig_65">Fig. 65</a>). It frequently does +duty as a handle, but occasionally it forms an ornament, either by +itself or sporting with another of the species. In the latter cases its +lion-like appearance degenerates into a hideous ugliness thoroughly +Chinese, and illustrates the peculiar tendency of that people to bestow +upon their fantastic monsters a massive breadth of jaw and cavernous +oral capacity, such as we find in their dragons and in the Ky-lin next +to be noticed. The Dog of Fo is the Buddhic guardian of temples and +altars.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_66" id="fig_66"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;"> +<a href="images/illpg113b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg113b_sml.jpg" width="193" height="367" alt="Fig. 66.—Vase, surmounted by Ky-lin. Flowers in Relief. +(A. Belmont Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 66.—Vase, surmounted by Ky-lin. Flowers in Relief. +(A. Belmont Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Ky-lin (<a href="#fig_66">Fig. 66</a>) is one of the most forbidding chimeras ever chosen +as an omen of good. Its scaly body, its wide mouth fully armed with +formidable teeth, its<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_114" id="page_114">{114}</a></span> dragon-like head and hoofed feet, make up a +monster as horrible in aspect as it is gentle in disposition.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_67" id="fig_67"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 238px;"> +<a href="images/illpg114a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg114a_sml.jpg" width="238" height="225" alt="Fig. 67.—The Sacred Horse." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 67.—The Sacred Horse.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Sacred Horse (<a href="#fig_67">Fig. 67</a>) is preserved by the Chinese among their +symbols, because by the marks on the skin of a horse which suddenly rose +from the river, the philosopher Fo was inspired with his diagramic +solution of the methods of nature.</p> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_68" id="fig_68"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg114b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg114b_sml.jpg" width="330" height="195" alt="Fig. 68.—The Fong-hoang." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 68.—The Fong-hoang.</span> +</p> + +<p>The Fong-hoang (Figs. 68 and 69), the immortal bird, harbinger of good, +very often resembles a peacock on the wing. When represented in front, +its arching neck is turned to one side, and the long tail feathers are +fantastically drawn high over its body. Formerly it was the imperial +emblem; but on the adoption of the dragon it was relegated to the +empress, whose emblem it became.</p> + +<p>The symbols of longevity are the white stag, the axis deer, the bat, and +the crane; of filial piety, the stork; of happy marriage, the mandarin +duck. The months are represented as follows: January, tiger<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_115" id="page_115">{115}</a></span> February, +rabbit; March, dragon; April, serpent; May, horse; June, hare; July, +ape; August, hen; September, dog; October, wild-boar; November, rat; +December, ox.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_69" id="fig_69"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<a href="images/illpg115_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg115_sml.jpg" width="173" height="286" alt="Fig. 69.—Vase with Fong-hoang. (Robert Hoe, Jr., Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 69.—Vase with Fong-hoang. (Robert Hoe, Jr., Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In China, almost every usage is regulated by a specific rule; and we are +not astonished, therefore, to find that colors and shapes in porcelain +and pottery are distinctive of the rank of the possessor, and have, +besides, a symbolical signification. Thus one dynasty, the Tsin (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> +265), took blue as its imperial color; the Soui (581-618) took green; +the Thang (618-907) took white; the Ming, green; the Tai-thsing, yellow. +The colors thus frequently give a clue to the age of pieces. The first +dynasty began <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 2205; the twenty-first, or Ming, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1368; and the +twenty-second, or Tai-Thsing, in 1616.</p> + +<p>Apart from the dynastic significance of colors, they enter largely into +the complex system of Chinese symbolism. Thus the points of the compass +and the elements are represented as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td align="left">Red </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>Fire</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>South.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Black</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>Water</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>North.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Green</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>Wood</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">White</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>Metal</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>West.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The earth was figured by a square, fire by a circle, water by a dragon, +mountains by a deer.</p> + +<p>The form of a vase is also of value in determining its use. Besides the +complimentary manner already alluded to, in which vases were employed, +they were bestowed as rewards upon deserving public functionaries, and +passed between friends as tokens of good wishes. They also occupied a +prominent place in religious rites.</p> + +<p>We may now proceed to a division of Chinese wares into pottery and +porcelain.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_116" id="page_116">{116}</a></span></p> + +<h4>POTTERY.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">When First Made.—Céladon.—Crackle.—How Made.—Porcelain +Crackle.—Decorations on Crackle.—Household +Vessels.—Stone-ware.—Licouli.—Tower of +Nankin.—Pipe-clay.—Boccaro.—Colors and Decoration of +Pottery.—Colors on Crackle.</p></div> + +<p>A<small>LTHOUGH</small> we may not accept without question the statement that pottery +was first invented either by the Emperor Hoang-ti, or during his reign +by Kouen-ou, it may at least be taken for granted that pottery preceded +porcelain. To define the character of the earliest ware is not +unattended with difficulty. One fact which had a great influence upon +Chinese art may here be referred to. So soon as pottery was invented, it +was taken under government supervision. Subsequently, when porcelain was +discovered, the manufacture for many years made very little progress. It +was not until it came under imperial protection and patronage that it +rose to its greatest height. It will be seen hereafter that in +Continental Europe also the best works in ceramic art were, as a rule, +produced under the fostering care of the sovereign power.</p> + +<p>The oldest Chinese pottery is very hard, opaque, closely akin to +stone-ware, and covered with a partially translucent enamel. The latter +called Céladon, and made by mixing the colors with the glaze, varies +from the old, and now very rare, sea-green to a brown-gray. The term +<i>céladon</i> was originally restricted to the sea-green variety, but was +ultimately applied to all wares, of whatever color, made in the same +manner. The most ancient specimens are of the coarse body above referred +to. Occasionally they are decorated with incisions in the paste under +the glaze, or with studs and other reliefs, or with flowered designs +(<i>céladon fleuri</i>), and are called by the Chinese <i>Tchoui</i>. There is +also a céladon of a deeper green than that last referred to, which, with +that of the gray varieties, is very often covered with an inextricable +net-work of cracks. This is the kind known as crackle. The process which +the Chinese succeeded in bringing to the most exact precision in regard +to the size of the cracks is not thoroughly understood. Several theories +have been advanced to explain it. Examination shows that the paste or +body of the ware and the glaze differed in consistency, the one being +more or less expansive than the other. To perform the operation +successfully, the vessel is<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_117" id="page_117">{117}</a></span> while hot, plunged into cold water, or +brought suddenly into contact with cold air, when the glaze is at once +broken up into the much admired net-work of minute fissures. From this +it would appear that the desired effect is caused by the shrinkage of +the glaze on being suddenly exposed to cold. Another explanation is that +there are two layers of paste of different composition, and that the +cracks appear in the outer one. When the piece is glazed, the cracks are +covered over, and the surface made perfectly smooth, unless the cracks +are very coarse and large, in which case they are perceptible to the +touch. Through the cracks the fused paste or inner core appeared, and +made them more distinctly visible; or, to reach the same effect, ochre, +ink, or other coloring material was rubbed into the cracks. To produce +them with the absolute precision to which the Chinese attained, they +must have thoroughly studied the composition of the paste and glaze +employed, as we frequently find different kinds of crackle on the same +vase.</p> + +<p>Steatite was sometimes mixed with the glaze, and had the same effect as +a sudden immersion. It would naturally follow that no such ornamentation +could be applied to porcelain, the paste and glaze being too closely +allied in composition. To surmount this difficulty, the glaze was +combined with materials destructive of its close affinity with the +kaolinic paste. A simultaneous shrinkage being thus made impossible, the +glaze cracked. Although both Chinese and foreigners place a high value +upon good specimens of crackle, admiration of such a style of ornament +involves a decided perversion of taste. It is safe to say that nine +persons out of ten would, if left to exert their own uninfluenced +judgment, condemn a crackle vase as devoid of all pretension to +ornament. It is when we find that the deformity is the result of design, +that the piece is a curiosity of workmanship, and represents the +mechanical ingenuity of the potter, that it becomes an object of +interest and a desirable possession. Crackle-ware has been made by the +Chinese since the Song Dynasty, which extended from <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 960 to 1279, +and probably from a much earlier date. Ornamentation is sometimes laid +above the glaze. One very old style of decoration in relief upon the +crackle (<a href="#fig_70">Fig. 70</a>) consists of medallions and bands of a brown paste, of +which imitations, having lions’ heads holding rings in the centre of the +medallions, are abundant.</p> + +<p>Pottery is used by the Chinese in the making of household vessels<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_118" id="page_118">{118}</a></span> and +utensils of all kinds—as extensively, in fact, as by the Egyptians. +They have earthen-ware reservoirs and basins, lamps, cooking-pots, +water-filterers, teapots, and toys. Ornamental vases are also made of +earthen-ware, and some specimens show that the Chinese lavished upon +their comparatively humble wares—according to our ideas—ornamentation +as beautiful and elaborate as that upon porcelain.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_70" id="fig_70"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;"> +<a href="images/illpg118_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg118_sml.jpg" width="184" height="257" alt="Fig. 70.—Rice-colored Crackle, with Brown Zones. (S. P. +Avery Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 70.—Rice-colored Crackle, with Brown Zones. (S. P. +Avery Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Their stone-ware, covered with porcelain, presents us with some of their +most wonderful works. This ware is made into jars, seats, cisterns, and +many other utensils and objects. It is said to have been in attempting +to make plaques of this kind that Pousa or Pou-tai met with his tragic +end as before told. The plaques, Licou-li, or glazed tiles, are devoted +to the embellishment of imperial and religious edifices, and by the +brilliancy of their many colors, yellow, blue, green, red, and violet, +produce a dazzling and gorgeous effect. The famous porcelain tower of +Nankin (<a href="#fig_71">Fig. 71</a>), or, as it is alternatively called by the Chinese, +Tower of the Licou-li, or Poa-en-ssi, the Convent of Gratitude, was +covered with tiles of the above description. This building has been +repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. The original consisted of three +stories, and was erected <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 833. Having been demolished, it was +rebuilt <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 371-373. It was again destroyed, and again rebuilt by one +of the Ming emperors, who, after nineteen years’ work, finished it in +1431. Once more it was demolished during the insurrection of the +Taepings; and although travellers—including some Americans—have within +the past twenty years been fortunate enough to secure a few fragments as +relics (<a href="#fig_72">Fig. 72</a>), nothing now remains to mark its site. It was this last +tower which was known as the Convent of Gratitude. It consisted of nine +stories, and was three hundred and fifty-three feet in height. It was +covered with enamelled bricks of red, white, blue, brown, and green<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_119" id="page_119">{119}</a></span> +colors; but whether the previous towers were so decorated is not known, +so that the Tower of Nankin cannot be brought forward as proving the +architectural use of enamelled stone-ware at a very remote age.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_71" id="fig_71"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 209px;"> +<a href="images/illpg119a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg119a_sml.jpg" width="209" height="317" alt="Fig. 71.—Tower of Nankin." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 71.—Tower of Nankin.</span> +</div> + +<p>A material which is neither stone-ware nor porcelain, but resembles very +fine pipe-clay, is used in making opium pipes. The bowl is enamelled, +and decorated with flowers or other forms, and is not unfrequently +almost perfect as a work of art. The Chinese <i>boccaro</i> remains one of +the finest specimens of a <i>grès</i> known to ceramists, and far above any +of the stone-wares of Europe. Some specimens are as perfect in their +beauty as jewels. The paste is sometimes brown of a reddish tinge, +sometimes a gray faintly colored with yellow. It is made into single +pieces and services, occasionally of fantastic design. When covered with +colored enamels, the <i>boccaro</i> is at once so delicate and brilliant as +to be likened to nothing but a gem.</p> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_72" id="fig_72"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg119b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg119b_sml.jpg" width="391" height="141" alt="Fig. 72.—Enamelled Bricks from the Tower of Nankin. (N. +Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 72.—Enamelled Bricks from the Tower of Nankin. (N. +Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</p> + +<p>At a very early period the Chinese attained to that wonderful mastery of +the secrets of color which made them the envy of the artists<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_120" id="page_120">{120}</a></span> of all +subsequent time, and has led to the adoption of certain of their colors +as universal standards of beauty and excellence. Combined with the +certainty of their operations in crackle, their skill in color led to +many remarkable effects in wares, the precise nature of which cannot be +defined. Upon a rich golden crackle, white-and-blue figures are +occasionally imposed (<a href="#fig_73">Fig. 73</a>). In some cases the enamels used for this +super-ornamentation are so transparent that the cracks can be seen +through them. Possibly the most curious kind is that in which the vase +is encircled by bands of crackle, some coarse and irregular, alternating +with others fine and regular, and divided by stamped zones of brown +ferruginous paste. Both Japanese and Chinese place a very high value +upon the ancient specimens, the priority in point of time being accorded +to the light blue. Besides the colors already mentioned, turquoise-blue, +yellow, and a bright red are found upon crackle, to the first of which a +special value is attached. The fine crackle, called by the French +<i>truité</i>, is most frequently applied to vases of pale and olive-green +not otherwise decorated. One cannot look at the exquisite coloring of +some of the rare old pieces, without being led to the conclusion that +the Chinese placed a value upon their ceramic productions not more than +commensurate with the artistic skill developed among them.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_73" id="fig_73"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg120_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg120_sml.jpg" width="167" height="281" alt="Fig. 73.—Crackle Vase, with Crabs in Blue. 7 in. high. +(J. C. Rankle Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 73.—Crackle Vase, with Crabs in Blue. 7 in. high. +(J. C. Rankle Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_121" id="page_121">{121}</a></span></p> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_74" id="fig_74"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg121_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg121_sml.jpg" width="183" height="447" alt="Fig. 74.—Chinese Porcelain Lantern. (S. P. Avery Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 74.—Chinese Porcelain Lantern. (S. P. Avery Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">When Invented.—King-teh-chin.—All Classed as Hard, +Exceptions.—Old Porcelains.—Kouan-ki.—Blue-and-white.—Persian +Styles.—Turquoise and other Blues.—Leading Events of Ming +Dynasty.—Egg-shell.—Tai-thsing Dynasty.—Mandarin +Vases.—Families.—Old White.—Jade.—Purple and Violet.—Liver +Red.—Imperial Yellow.—Chinese Ideas of +Painting.—Soufflé.—Grains of Rice.—Articulated and Reticulated +Vases.—Cup of Tantalus.</p></div> + +<p>Porcelain having been invented in the province of Ho-nan, during the Han +Dynasty, between the years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 185 and <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 88, was manufactured for +upward of fifteen hundred years before it was generally<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_122" id="page_122">{122}</a></span> known in +Europe. For about five or six hundred years the industry made +comparatively little progress, but after <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 583 it advanced with great +rapidity. In that year the imperial patronage was bestowed upon +King-teh-chin, a city in the district of Fauling, and province of +Kiang-si. There were here at one time, in 1717, three thousand furnaces. +It is said by some recent authorities that all the kilns and potteries +were destroyed by the Taepings, and that the entire city was reduced to +ruins. According to the official catalogue of the Chinese department at +the Centennial Exhibition, the city must have been rebuilt. Both the +largest quantity and finest quality of porcelain are said still to be +made at the imperial potteries at King-teh-chin, and out of upward of +seventeen hundred and fifty pieces exhibited, all were from that city, +with the exception of ten from Ningpo, Nankin, and Pekin. Some of the +others, although painted at and sent from Canton, were manufactured at +King-teh-chin.</p> + +<p>All Chinese porcelain has been classed as hard. The only kind about +which any doubt has been entertained is the white, variously ornamented +in relief. To this ought, however, to be added certain rare but superb +specimens which come from China as well as from Persia. The process by +which they were manufactured is not known, but it seems clear that they +belong to the same family as the <i>pate tendre</i> of France, that is to +say, that their vitrification is due to an alkaline frit, and that the +glaze is also alkaline.</p> + +<p>Of the dynastic colors the azure-blue adopted by the Tcheou, in 945, is +the most celebrated. It was very highly valued, and after the secret of +making it passed out of sight, which it did at a very early date, it was +never rediscovered. It is known as Tch’aï porcelain, and in color +resembled the “blue of the sky after rain.” Under the Song Dynasty four +very valuable kinds of porcelain were made. The first of these was the +Jou-yao, a very fine blue, produced at Jou-tcheon, where crackle +porcelain was also made in great perfection; the second (1107-1117) was +the famous Kouan-yao, or porcelain for magistrates, of two shades of +blue, with a slightly reddish tint; the third takes its name from the +Tchang family of potters, and was pale blue and rice-colored crackle; +the fourth, the Ting-yao, was of different colors—red, white, brown, +and black, and was of great value. These, with the Tcheou blue, are the +five ancient qualities held in highest estimation.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_123" id="page_123">{123}</a></span></p> + +<p>There were many other kinds, too numerous to be here given in detail, +including the “porcelain of concealed color,” so called because designed +for imperial use, and others of varying tints of violet, brown, purple, +and blue. At King-teh-chin jade-colored porcelain was made before the +tenth century, and a hundred years later the entire empire was +interested in the manufacture. With a mere reference, in the mean time, +to the blue-and-white porcelain of the Youen Dynasty, we pass to that of +the Ming, to which some of the porcelain most highly prized by +collectors belongs. When, in 1369, a factory was started at +King-teh-chin to supply the imperial wants exclusively—an event not to +be confounded with the foundation of the King-teh-chin manufactory, +which took place during the Song Dynasty, three hundred and fifty years +previously—the vases of blue camaïeu, called Kouan-ki, or magistrate’s +vases, were made in that city. These valuable works were probably +intended to follow as nearly as possible the more ancient Tcheou +porcelain, which had reached so great a value that even fragments of it +were employed like precious stones. It will be observed that the earlier +magistrates’ porcelain was made under the Song, and the explanation is +given that the Ming Kouan-ki were so called to distinguish the porcelain +made at the royal factory from those made for vulgar use. It may be +added that the old turquoise blue was made from copper, and the sky-blue +from cobalt.</p> + +<p>The blue-and-white “Nankin” is a comparatively modern ware made at +King-teh-chin. It takes its name from the place of export. It is, in the +strict application of the term, not older than the beginning of the +sixteenth century, when the Chinese began to use imported cobalt; but as +now employed, it includes all Chinese porcelain with blue-and-white +decoration. The folly of such an unmeaning subdivision finds its reward +in the confusion of the student. The blue-and-white is not only the +oldest of all Chinese decoration in colors, but is found upon some of +the most interesting and valuable works.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_75" id="fig_75"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_76" id="fig_76"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 247px;"> +<a href="images/illpg124a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg124a_sml.jpg" width="247" height="56" alt="Fig. 75.—Pearl." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 75.—Pearl. + Fig. 76.—Sonorous Stone.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_77" id="fig_77"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_78" id="fig_78"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;"> +<a href="images/illpg124b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg124b_sml.jpg" width="172" height="73" alt="Fig. 77.—Tablet of Honor. +Fig. 78.—Sacred Axe." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 77.—Tablet of Honor. + Fig. 78.—Sacred Axe.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_79" id="fig_79"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_80" id="fig_80"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 189px;"> +<a href="images/illpg124c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg124c_sml.jpg" width="189" height="83" alt="Fig. 79.—Celosia. +Fig. 80.—Treasures of Writing." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 79.—Celosia. + Fig. 80.—Treasures of Writing.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_81" id="fig_81"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_82" id="fig_82"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<a href="images/illpg124d_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg124d_sml.jpg" width="154" height="77" alt="Fig. 81.—Outang. +Fig. 82.—A Shell." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 81.—Outang. + Fig. 82.—A Shell.</span> +</div> + +<p>The best pieces, whether ancient or modern, are distinguished by the +purity of the white and the clearness of the blue. To this class belong +the Kouan-ki already referred to as having been made soon after the +middle of the fourteenth century at King-teh-chin. These productions +frequently bear certain honorific marks, from which their destination +can be inferred. The leading symbols are eight in number;<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_124" id="page_124">{124}</a></span> and when, as +is very often the case, they have a ribbon attached, the pieces are +designed for sacred use. Thus the pearl (<a href="#fig_75">Fig. 75</a>) marks pieces destined +for poets or literati, and is the symbol of talent. It varies slightly +in form, being in some cases very small, with a conical top, and in +others resembling a flattened sphere. The “sonorous stone” (<a href="#fig_76">Fig. 76</a>) is +for judges or magistrates, and was hung above their door or at the +temple gates, to be struck by those seeking an audience. Pieces with +this mark were, therefore, exclusively for the use of judges. The Kouei, +or tablet of honor (<a href="#fig_77">Fig. 77</a>), is the symbol of office. It was given by +the emperor to his noble functionaries, who were required to hold it +when discharging the duties of their office, and during an audience. The +sacred axe (<a href="#fig_78">Fig. 78</a>) is the mark of warriors. The cockscomb (<a href="#fig_79">Fig. 79</a>) is +the symbol of longevity. The “sacred things” or “treasures of writing” +(<a href="#fig_80">Fig. 80</a>) are the emblems of the learned, and consist of paper, pencil +or brush, ink and pumice-stone. The outang (<a href="#fig_81">Fig. 81</a>) is a leaf, the +significance of which is not understood. It is frequently found on the +bottom of pieces. The meaning of the univalve shell (<a href="#fig_82">Fig. 82</a>) is also +unknown. These marks and many others are found variously disposed upon +blue-and-white porcelain. In the illustration (<a href="#fig_83">Fig. 83</a>) the pearl, the +sonorous stone, and the Kouei are seen in combination with others, and +the inference is that the piece was intended for a man of letters, of +noble rank, who also held the office of magistrate. The lace or +lambrequin decoration round the border is exceedingly<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">{125}</a></span> rich and fine, +and shows at once whence the artists of Rouen borrowed their favorite +design. In other pieces the honorific marks are introduced in the +design, or appear upon the neck of vases, or are so disposed as to +constitute the chief ornaments. The latter arrangement is exemplified in +a small vase, also in Mr. Runkle’s collection, where the symbols are +suspended one above another.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_83" id="fig_83"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;"> +<a href="images/illpg125a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg125a_sml.jpg" width="242" height="242" alt="Fig. 83.—Blue-and-white Plaque, with Honorific Marks. +(J. C. Runkle Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 83.—Blue-and-white Plaque, with Honorific Marks. +(J. C. Runkle Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>There is in Mr. Avery’s collection a Ming bowl, or cup of “the learned,” +which closely resembles one described by Jacquemart. The rim projects +slightly, and in panels reserved in the border are the honorific marks. +The author is represented seated at a table, deep in meditation, in the +very throes of composition. From his forehead issues a scroll which +expands into the semblance of a cloud, wherein are depicted by the +artist the scenes of the drama which the poet is composing. This method +of representing literary travail is in our time left to the +caricaturist; but it is, nevertheless, a vivid way of giving artistic +form to the thoughts passing in the brain of “the learned.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_84" id="fig_84"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;"> +<a href="images/illpg125b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg125b_sml.jpg" width="245" height="239" alt="Fig. 84.—Blue-and-white. Eight Chinese Celestials +standing on Clouds. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 84.—Blue-and-white. Eight Chinese Celestials +standing on Clouds. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The blue-and-white will<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_126" id="page_126">{126}</a></span> amply repay the most careful and critical +study. This is absolutely necessary if we would distinguish not only the +art which is Chinese, but the best of the Chinese—that emanating from +King-teh-tchin—from the works of other factories. The influence of the +imperial factory is felt throughout the empire. Its styles and methods +are copied and adopted, but imperial patronage, and the resources of a +factory carried on under the highest political auspices, make the work +of provincial imitators difficult. Then, again, the blue-and-white of +Japan is sometimes mistaken for that of China, and it must be confessed +that the difference is not always easily detected. Close observation, +however, shows that the white of the Japanese differs from the Chinese, +and that the blue is less soft. The white of Japanese pieces is purer, +and sometimes it is what we understand by the phrase “dead white;” that +is, it resembles chalk, and lacks clearness. As a consequence, the color +does not derive from the glaze the softness and transparency of the +Nankin blue, but appears to lie upon the surface in harder outline and +with less depth. Besides the Japanese, there are qualities of blue from +India, Persia, and other countries, which require careful examination to +prevent their being confounded with those of China.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_85" id="fig_85"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 139px;"> +<a href="images/illpg126_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg126_sml.jpg" width="139" height="335" alt="Fig. 85.—Blue-and-white Lancelle Vase, Ming Dynasty. (W. +L. Andrews Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 85.—Blue-and-white Lancelle Vase, Ming Dynasty. (W. +L. Andrews Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>An exceptional style of decorating blue-and-white Chinese porcelain is +that in which a light buff, varying at times to a clear brown, is +mingled with the blue. This is seen in bands surrounding the necks of +bottles and similarly shaped pieces, and is also occasionally mingled +with the blue on the necks of vases.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_86" id="fig_86"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<a href="images/illpg127_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg127_sml.jpg" width="166" height="332" alt="Fig. 86.—Blue-and-white Chinese. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 86.—Blue-and-white Chinese. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>As to the forms and styles of decoration of blue-and-white porcelain, +they are too varied to permit of classification. Some of the finest +shapes are to be found in this class, and also some of the most unique +and curious. Beakers, with gracefully expanding necks alternate<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">{127}</a></span> with +clumsy pieces without any claim to beauty of form, and these, again, +with such elegant shapes as the Lancelle (<a href="#fig_85">Fig. 85</a>). The decoration +includes every style known to Chinese art. On the Kouan-tse are dragons +writhing in tortuous folds among the clouds or in the water, and flowers +profusely scattered without any attempt at orderly disposal. On others +are historical scenes, <i>lang lizen</i>—the long young ladies of Dutch +traders—lace or lambrequin patterns, and many other designs. The +palm-leaf is very effectively used. In a beaker in Mr. Runkle’s +collection, the conical leaves are arranged round the body, whence they +rise toward the top and descend toward the bottom, and thereby give +emphasis to the shape as it expands to the lip and base. In such an +arrangement the taste of the Chinese artist is infallible. The +disposition of the decoration, which at first seems stiff and formal, is +not only in harmony with the shape of the beaker, but is the only one by +which its beauty of form could be fully brought out. When historical +incidents are the subjects of the painting, the execution of the figures +is admirable. It is in such pieces that we can best appreciate the +accuracy of the artist, and his admirable control of his brush. He +understands that a few judicious strokes may have a finer, and, by their +suggestiveness, a fuller, effect than crowded detail and the most +delicate shading. They show, further, that the art of decorating a vase +with human figures consists in judgment as much as in execution. Thus, +where the forms are distorted and the unity of the composition destroyed +by the shape of the vase and the disposition of the figures, not only is +the decoration unpleasing, but the artist fails in reaching the effect +aimed at. These are faults of which the Chinese artists are seldom +guilty, and their skill in overcoming the difficulties presented by the +curves<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">{128}</a></span> or angles of the object to be decorated can be better studied in +a collection of blue-and-white than among the porcelain of any other +family. When it is considered that only one color is employed, the +diversity of the results is wonderful. In many cases this is effected by +apparently varying the application of the pigment, and laying it on more +thickly in some places than in others. We have seen this exemplified on +a vase where the ornamentation was chiefly floral, and the flowers were +painted so thinly as to give the effect of a distinct and paler shade of +color. We have also seen pieces where the differences of shade were so +regular and striking as to leave little doubt that two distinct +qualities of blue were used.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_87" id="fig_87"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 271px;"> +<a href="images/illpg128_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg128_sml.jpg" width="271" height="318" alt="Fig. 87.—Blue-and-white Chinese, “Hawthorn” Pattern. (S. +P. Avery Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 87.—Blue-and-white Chinese, “Hawthorn” Pattern. (S. +P. Avery Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>When the Chinese artist condescends to adopt a regular pattern, his +attention is directed to relieving the monotony of repetition by +diversity of detail. In the vase (<a href="#fig_86">Fig. 86</a>) there are at least six +distinct styles of edging, and a slight change in the arrangement of the +same pattern on the body and neck gives all the variety of two distinct +designs.</p> + +<p>A well-known but rare pattern is that called Hawthorn (<a href="#fig_87">Fig. 87</a>) by +Europeans, on the <i>lucus a non lucendo</i> principle, since the so-called +“hawthorn” is the blossom of certain fruit-trees better known to the +Celestials. In this the blue is the ground-color, and in it the +decoration, consisting of sprigs of bud and blossom, is reserved. The +ground<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_129" id="page_129">{129}</a></span> is varied with dark blue lines, as if to simulate crackle, and +the sections are shaded so as to have the appearance of overlapping each +other. The irregular lines and changing tints not only relieve the +ground of monotony, but enrich the general effect, and give the blue +additional depth and transparency. The illustration gives a good idea of +the freedom with which the spray is disposed, and the good taste with +which its arrangement is adapted to the shape of the vase. The +decoration is generally applied to vases and pots of the shape given +above. Further examples are in the collections of Mr. Robert Hoe, Jr., +and Mr. W. L. Andrews. There are also many smaller pieces, such as +plates, narrow cylindrical beakers, and others, upon which it may be +seen. These are represented in the collections of Mr. Francis Robinson +and Mr. W. T. Walters. In such pieces as those last mentioned the ground +is less broken up by lines, and in some cases the white is reserved in a +ground of unbroken pale blue. In the second specimen (<a href="#fig_88">Fig. 88</a>) the white +blossom is used with a more sparing hand than in the others, and the eye +more readily appreciates the wonderfully beautiful shading of the +overlapping sections. The unevenness of surface is also more perceptible +to the touch, and, to use a familiar illustration, resembles the +overlapping of slates upon a roof.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_88" id="fig_88"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 243px;"> +<a href="images/illpg129_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg129_sml.jpg" width="243" height="282" alt="Fig. 88.—Blue-and-white “Hawthorn” Vase. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 88.—Blue-and-white “Hawthorn” Vase. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Although not belonging to the same family, we may here refer to a rare +vase (<a href="#fig_89">Fig. 89</a>), which supplies us with a remarkably fine specimen of a +kindred style of ornamentation. In this case the ground is black, and +the “hawthorn,” or plum-tree, sprays, with white flowers, are wreathed +gracefully over its surface. The green of the leaves would<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">{130}</a></span> lead us to +class it with the Green family. The piece is, however, exceptional, +since black is, as a rule, seldom introduced to any great extent in +decoration. To what fabric or age shall we attribute it? It is possibly +a specimen of the skill of Thang-kong, who lived between 1736 and 1795, +and was director of the Imperial works. Thang not only reproduced some +of the ancient colors, such as the dark-blue and red, but gave full sway +to his own inventive genius. Among his original works are a purple, a +black enamel, and a black enamel with white flowers, which suits the +description of the unique specimen referred to. It is, in any event, by +reason both of its graceful shape and decoration, deserving of +attention.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_89" id="fig_89"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 154px;"> +<a href="images/illpg130_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg130_sml.jpg" width="154" height="332" alt="Fig. 89.—Chinese Porcelain. White “Hawthorn” on Black. +(S. P. Avery Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 89.—Chinese Porcelain. White “Hawthorn” on Black. +(S. P. Avery Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>To return to the blue-and-white, there are specimens, generally plaques, +with flowers resembling asters, painted in blue (<a href="#fig_90">Fig. 90</a>). One has some +difficulty in bringing the formal arrangement of these flowers into +accord with Chinese art as we find it elsewhere. The flowers are +regularly disposed in the centre of the plaques, and repeated, in +smaller size, in a single row round the rim. It seems more than probable +that the style is borrowed or slightly modified, and one is strengthened +in such a supposition by the fact that it is seldom, if ever, found upon +pieces as pure in paste as the average Chinese porcelain. Possibly, with +the intention of following his model more closely, the Chinese artist +designedly resorted to an inferior body, such as might have reached +China from Persia.</p> + +<p>There are certain pieces of blue-and-white in which both Persian forms +and Persian styles of decoration have been followed, and these introduce +the general subject of Persian influence as felt in China. It first +manifested itself as far back as the Siouen-te period (1426) of the Ming +dynasty, and is further represented by pieces belonging to<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_131" id="page_131">{131}</a></span> the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The most easily recognized are +those in which the Persian form is adopted, although the paste alone +would lead one to ascribe them to China, as it is invariably finer than +anything known to have come from Persia. There is in Mr. Runkle’s +collection a ewer decorated with flowers in light-blue, resembling that +of Tch’aï porcelain, the famous “blue of the sky after rain.” Real +examples of this old blue must needs be rare, since the porcelain, +variously called Tch’aï, Tcheou, and Tchi-tsong, was, like the old +white, valued, even in fragments, as highly as jewels. A second from the +same collection is given on the following page (<a href="#fig_91">Fig. 91</a>). The panels are +black, the flower and border decoration are in pink, green, and yellow, +and show the variety and execution distinctive of Chinese work. There +are many pieces of the same class in which the artist has attempted to +follow the Persian styles more closely, but even a slight examination +can leave little doubt of their Chinese origin. In connection with the +blue-and-white decoration may be mentioned the vases of sea-green +céladon, in which panels of white are reserved. On these are figures of +men and animals, landscapes or flowers, in blue. A favorite form, and +one well suited to this style of decoration, is a square bottle or vase, +the sides of which enable the artist to paint the design in blue upon +the flat.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_90" id="fig_90"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 227px;"> +<a href="images/illpg131_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg131_sml.jpg" width="227" height="234" alt="Fig. 90.—Aster Decoration. Blue-and-white. (W. L. +Andrews Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 90.—Aster Decoration. Blue-and-white. (W. L. +Andrews Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Of the other blues which were used as ground colors, one of the most +famous is the turquoise obtained from copper. It has all the clear depth +of the stone from which it takes its name, a liquid transparency +elsewhere unequalled. It appears on a great variety of pieces—gods, +kylins, birds, dogs, and vases. The latter are very often graved in the +paste, after designs more or less ornate. In the specimen given (Fig. +92), which is very finely<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_132" id="page_132">{132}</a></span> crackled, the leaves are bound together by a +zone decorated with the Greek fret.</p> + +<p>The <i>lapis lazuli</i> blue has a deeper tint, and is usually decorated with +gold. It is used as a ground color, and fine specimens lead one to +question the appropriateness of the name, as the porcelain so decorated +has a brilliancy and depth far in advance of the comparatively dull +stone. The color is occasionally employed in Persian decoration, and +varies in shade.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_91" id="fig_91"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 254px;"> +<a href="images/illpg132_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg132_sml.jpg" width="254" height="374" alt="Fig. 91.—Chinese Porcelain. Persian Style. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 91.—Chinese Porcelain. Persian Style. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The mazarine blue is similarly treated, and is also effectively +heightened by a super-ornamentation of gold of different shades. There +are many other tints to which it is hard to give even a distinctive +name. They illustrate the extreme partiality of the Chinese for this +color, a partiality which has never wavered for at least sixteen +centuries. It has been the means of giving to the world a greater number +of beautiful works of art than would otherwise seem to be within the +reach of the most skilful manipulation and the most prolific fancy, when +restricted to a single color.</p> + +<p>The <i>soufflé</i> porcelain will be hereafter noticed, but in the mean time, +to prevent misapprehension, reference may be made to the <i>bleu fouetté</i>, +a style sometimes confounded with the <i>soufflé</i>. It is less deep in +shade than the <i>lapis lazuli</i>, and has a mottled appearance. It is<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_133" id="page_133">{133}</a></span> used +as a ground color, in which are sections of white, and on the latter are +brilliant designs in red, green, and gold. The effect is rich, and the +contrast between the panel painting and the more sombre ground color is +very striking. There are also blues splashed over with spots of red and +lilac, and many others, such as the “transmutation” or flashed glaze, +illustrative of the magical dexterity of the Chinese workman. What on +first sight seems the result of an accident in the kiln, will often +prove to be that of a carefully conducted operation and deliberate +intention.</p> + +<p>We may now glance briefly at the various fabrics of the Ming Dynasty, in +their chronological order.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_92" id="fig_92"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg133_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg133_sml.jpg" width="167" height="326" alt="Fig. 92.—Turquoise-blue Chinese Porcelain. Truité +Crackle. (S. P. Avery Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 92.—Turquoise-blue Chinese Porcelain. Truité +Crackle. (S. P. Avery Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The establishment of an imperial factory at King-teh-chin, as above +stated, marked the beginning of the Ming, during which (1368-1649) the +art rose to its highest level. After the blue Kouan-ki came vases and +vessels of various colors and styles of decoration. Between 1403 and +1424, egg-shell porcelain, so called from its remarkable thinness, was +first issued from King-teh-chin, and between 1465 and 1487 reached its +greatest excellence and fineness. It was made as thin as paper, and was +so favorably regarded by the emperors that they gave rewards to those +making the finest pieces. Its gauzy transparent tenuity is effected by +grinding it down after glazing. Vases, as well as cups, etc., were made +of egg-shell, which at a later date was painted in colors. The fifteenth +century saw the greatest triumphs of Chinese artists. From 1426 to 1435, +the Siouen-te period, very brilliant blue, red, white, and veined +crackle was made. Representations of crickets were a fashionable style +of ornamentation. Afterward, between 1465 and 1487, although the colors +deteriorated, the beauty of the ornamentation increased toward<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">{134}</a></span> its +artistic extreme. With the sixteenth century, we have seen that foreign +material for ornamentation began to be introduced; and although many +original artists continued to appear, others restricted themselves +almost exclusively to the imitation of ancient wares. Tcheou, who lived +between 1567 and 1619, took particular delight in puzzling collectors by +skilful counterfeits of the most famous, rare, and valuable old wares. +According to a story told by Julien, he imitated the ancient Ting white, +made from three to six hundred years before his time, so closely, that +he duped the most acute collectors. More than a century later, between +1735 and 1795, Thang-kong, already referred to, displayed great +imitative skill. It is, however, evident, and a matter of regret, that, +from the beginning of the eighteenth century, the ceramic art of China +declined. While the materials employed are still equal to the most +ancient, the ornamentation after that date became, as a rule, manifestly +inferior. To what extent a more intimate intercourse with foreigners and +the more extended demands of trade resulting therefrom may have +contributed to such a result, we need not now inquire. The greater +rapidity of execution necessitated by increasing orders from abroad, and +the influence of European models, had no doubt their effect. All the +best pieces were retained for native use, and only the inferior +qualities were exported. The estimation in which the Chinese hold the +rarer pieces is further illustrated by the fact that specimens which +have found their way to Europe have been sent back to China to be sold, +because there they would realize higher prices. Many of the better kinds +have never been seen in Europe; and when in addition to this it is +remembered that, while skilled in production, the Chinese were equally +clever in imitation with fraudulent intent, many other kinds are in all +likelihood really unknown beyond the bounds of the Celestial Empire.</p> + +<p>There are, besides the works of such an artist as Thang-kong, +exceptional pieces of the Tai-thsing Dynasty, especially those of the +Kien-long period, during which Thang-kong lived, that are in every way +admirable. One example of this period (<a href="#fig_93">Fig. 93</a>) has a ground color of +light green, overrun with a graceful floriated design graved in the +paste, and having reserved panels, in which are a landscape on one side +and a tree and bird on the other. In another the ground is a delicate +pink, and the figures are raised. Examples might be multiplied<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_135" id="page_135">{135}</a></span> to any +extent, which show that, however faulty the later specimens may be, +there is no lack of variety. The artists resorted to every style of +decoration within the reach of their skill, and some exceedingly +beautiful porcelain of various families will be found to belong to the +Kien-long period.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_93" id="fig_93"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;"> +<a href="images/illpg135_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg135_sml.jpg" width="180" height="332" alt="Fig. 93—Kien-long Green Porcelain Vase. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 93—Kien-long Green Porcelain Vase. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Tai-thsing Dynasty is also marked by the production of the vases +called “Mandarin,” usually, but in our opinion mistakenly, ascribed to +Japan. The history of China at this time is for our present purpose +valuable. So long as the two dynasties were at war, art was neglected; +and we therefore find that, for several years prior to the establishment +of the Tartar Dynasty, the manufactories gave out no works of note. When +the Tai-thsings were firmly seated on the throne the art received a new +impulse. While Khang-hi reigned (1661-1722), Thang-ing-siouen was +director of the imperial factory, and made two yellows, a green and +blue. He was succeeded in 1722 by Nien, who was equally successful, and +in 1736 was associated with the artist Thang-kong before mentioned. +After Kien-long, the fourth of the Tartar Dynasty, the art went rapidly +downward. It will be observed from these few facts that when the decline +of Chinese art is spoken of as beginning with the eighteenth century, +allowance must be made for the check experienced under Kien-long +(1736-1795). When he ascended the throne there were, according to M. +Julien, fifty-seven manufactories of porcelain in China, of which seven +besides that of King-teh-chin were in the province of Kiang-si. Whatever +condition art may have been in, there was plainly no stagnation in +production.</p> + +<p>And now as to the mandarin vases, which strictly reflect the history of +China: the word “mandarin” is applied to all the public<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">{136}</a></span> functionaries +of China, and, in the decoration of porcelain, includes all the figures +with toque and vest seen on the vases of this period. When the Tartar +Dynasty came in, one of the first imperial acts was to issue an order +that certain new customs should be adhered to, and old ones renounced. +Though politic, in tending to erase even the remembrance of the +dethroned Mings, the act was in certain particulars a cruelty to the +conservative Chinese. It involved in their eyes degradation to the level +of the victorious Tartar; and rather than conform to the order requiring +the head to be shaved, many were willing that it should be cut off. +Conformity came in time, and the pigtail was an accepted necessity. +Changes in costume were also gradually effected. Of these the most +marked features are the rolled-up cap or toque and the short coat. To +distinguish the nine orders of public officers, the most minute +regulations were issued. These affected chiefly the button on the toque, +the squares on the front and back of the coat, and the decoration of the +belt.</p> + +<p>The mandarin vases upon which these costumes are seen, are thick in the +paste and frequently uneven on the surface. The hexagonal form, as well +as the general features of the decoration, were followed and made +familiar to Europeans by the potters of Delft. The decoration is so +varied that the group is divided by Jacquemart into six sections. The +chief colors are pink, lilac, green, iron red, Indian ink, gold and +black. The painting is not executed after the usual Chinese fashion, and +the faces in particular are finished with a minute care suggestive of an +influence not felt before this period. What concerns us chiefly at +present is the reason given by Jacquemart for assigning the entire group +to Japanese workmanship. He says:</p> + +<p>“The special character of this costume marks out perfectly the group of +porcelain upon which it is to be found. It offers, besides, the +advantage of rendering incontestable the Japanese origin of these +porcelains. The artists of the Celestial Empire have never represented +mandarins in their lacquer-work, carved wood or ivories, vases, bronzes, +hard or soft stones; no authentic <i>nien-hao</i> piece has depicted anything +besides the heroes of ancient times and the subjects of ancient history. +It was left to neighboring nations, at the same time inquisitive and +commercial, to multiply upon the vases this execrated costume, imposed +only after a time by force.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_137" id="page_137">{137}</a></span>”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_94" id="fig_94"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg137_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg137_sml.jpg" width="297" height="289" alt="Fig. 94.—Chinese Ming Vases. White Ground. In +medallions, green and brown characters and figures. Darker part red and +white, with green flowers. (Geo. R. Hall Coll., Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 94.—Chinese Ming Vases. White Ground. In +medallions, green and brown characters and figures. Darker part red and +white, with green flowers. (Geo. R. Hall Coll., Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)</span> +</p> + +<p>This appears rather a slight reason for giving the entire group to +Japan. Let us look back to history. From the Wan-li period of the Ming +(1619) to the final fall of the dynasty in 1647, or from the irruption +of the Tartars in 1616 down to 1662, the Khang-hi period of the +Tai-thsings, we know of no porcelain having been made; but in that +period, as we have seen, the industry revived. It is then that we again +find a director at King-teh-chin, and seventy years later Thang-kong was +reviving the bright red and devising the gold ornamentation on black +which we find on the mandarin vases. Jacquemart suggests “some years” +after 1616 as the date when the Tartar costume was applied to vases. It +is probable that it was at least from fifty to seventy years after that +date, and that the best specimens belong to the Kien-long period, which +began in 1736. After 1662 the imperial factory was apparently as much +under the Emperor’s control as it had been under the Mings; in which +case he could, it is presumed, order such paintings and figures in such +costumes as he pleased. We know, further, that in 1698 two foreign +artists—an Italian and a Frenchman—<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">{138}</a></span>were at the palace giving the +Chinese several new ideas about art, especially, as we shall see, about +perspective. This may, in part, account for the miniature appearance of +the face paintings on the mandarin vases. There is, moreover, no +ostensible reason for assigning to the Japanese the origination of a +style of decoration at variance with everything else we know of the +early traditions of their art, although they followed it afterward. We +might rather look to India. We know, at least, that during the Kien-long +period the Chinese incurred and acknowledged certain debts to India, and +it is in the same country that we find the best miniature painting of +the East. Such a supposition would also account for the unusual type +presented by some of the mandarins with long pointed beards.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_95" id="fig_95"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 155px;"> +<a href="images/illpg138_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg138_sml.jpg" width="155" height="302" alt="Fig. 95.—Ming Vase. Historical Subject. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 95.—Ming Vase. Historical Subject. (J. C. Runkle +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>An apparently fanciful grouping of Chinese porcelain originated with +Albert Jacquemart and Edmond Le Blant. They divide it into four +families, the Archaic, the Chrysanthemo-Pæonian, the Green, and the +Rose: Céladon, Crackle, White, Blue, Turquoise-blue, Violet, Bronze, and +Lacquer are classed as exceptional. The Chrysanthemo-Pæonian is so +called from the prevalence of chrysanthemums and pæonies on the ground, +and the Green and Rose from the predominating colors. A large proportion +of the household ornaments of China, garden vases, and table-wares +belong to the first of these classes. Blues, red, and gold mingle with +each other, and are relieved by green, and sometimes black. Red and blue +grounds will be found with designs in white, green, and yellow; or a +rich gold will be overspread with green, pale buff, and white; or the +ground itself will be white, on which are designs in black, filled with +gorgeous flowers. These are the works of artists whose skill and +ingenuity are almost as limitless as their fancy. There is no law but +the harmony demanded by a florid taste, no aim but effect.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">{139}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_96" id="fig_96"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;"> +<a href="images/illpg139_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg139_sml.jpg" width="135" height="309" alt="Fig. 96.—Green Family. Ming Dynasty. (F. Robinson +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 96.—Green Family. Ming Dynasty. (F. Robinson +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Green was the imperial color under the Ming Dynasty (1368), and the +greater portion of the ornamentation of this family has either a +religious or a political significance. The bright copper-green lies +perfectly transparent upon the pure white paste. We have already seen +the eight immortals riding upon clouds, in a piece of blue-and-white, +and the design is repeatedly met upon pieces of the Green family. It is +here, in short, that we have the best opportunity of studying the +religious system and symbols of China. Dragons are represented with +diabolical ferocity; cranes, kylins, fong-hoangs, are intermingled with +floral designs, in which are asters and other flowers, and insects. On +the sacrificial cups of this family, dragons with forked tails climb the +handles, or hang head downward from the lip, while a hideous dragon-head +is introduced in the sides. From these grotesque and terrible figures we +turn to the pieces of a historical character. The scenes depicted are +chiefly taken from the early history of China, which was as prolific a +source of ideas to the Chinese artist as classical history and legend to +the poets of Europe. Vases of this character are also deserving of +study, as illustrating to a farther extent than was done in the +Introduction that aspect of the potter’s art in which it appears as the +handmaid and illuminator of history. The Chinese artist is rarely seen +to better advantage than when painting vases of this family. With a rich +palette comprising the prevailing green, blues of every shade, violet, +red, yellow, gold, and black, he produces effects of the most charming +beauty. When green is used as a ground color, as in the case of the +Kien-long vase referred to (<a href="#fig_93">Fig. 93</a>), either it covers the entire +surface, or reserves are left for the landscape or trees. In the former +case the fruit, flowers, and leaves lie upon the bright-green enamel. To +the pieces in which green is mingled with yellow and blue upon a white +ground, producing the effect of variegated marble, the Chinese give the +name of Ouan-lou-hoang.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_140" id="page_140">{140}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_97" id="fig_97"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 204px;"> +<a href="images/illpg140_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg140_sml.jpg" width="204" height="198" alt="Fig. 97.—Chinese Plate. Rose Family. Sixteenth Century +(?). (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 97.—Chinese Plate. Rose Family. Sixteenth Century +(?). (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Rose family (<a href="#fig_97">Fig. 97</a>) is distinguished by the prevalence of the +color to which it owes its name—a pale red applied over the glaze. It +comprises what may most emphatically be called the decorative porcelain +of China. The body is the perfection of Chinese paste, and the +decoration partakes to the full of the vast wealth of Chinese color. +With regard to form, this family represents the most perfect pieces in +the art of China. With the exception of the old white and the modern +decorated with blue, the Tho-tai-khi, “porcelain without embryo,” or +egg-shell, belongs almost exclusively to this family, which is admirably +represented in Mr. W. L. Andrews’s collection. In such pieces we fully +apprehend the beauty of the “rose-back” decoration. The ruby color is +laid upon the back of the edge or rim of plates and saucers, and shines +through the thin paste with the softness of the pink lining of a shell. +It would be impossible to specify all the methods of decorating the +egg-shell belonging to the Rose family. We see borders of pink and +raised white enamel, others traced as delicately as the finest lace, and +still others with reservations filled with bouquets. The decoration +sometimes takes the form of exquisite paintings of birds, insects, and +flowers; and when scenes with figures are introduced, they are of a +totally different character from the religious and historical subjects +found in the Green family. They are drawn in part from literature, and +in part from the home life of the people. There is in Mr. Avery’s +collection at the Metropolitan Museum, a plate having a rose border with +raised flowers, and other objects in reserved sections. In the centre is +a young girl surprised, as she walks the garden at night, by her lover, +who, having thrown his shoes in advance, is mounting the wall. M. +Jacquemart informs us that the incident is taken from the “Si-siang-ki,” +or, History of the Pavilion of the West, a lyric drama composed by +Wang-chi-fou about<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">{141}</a></span> <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1110. A frequent design is a home scene, in +which a lady sits near a table attended by two children, and with one or +two vases standing round. These glimpses of domestic life afford some +little insight into the usages of the people, the courtesies of society, +and the occupation and pastimes of the young. When the pieces are larger +in size, the subjects are taken from court life, and very rarely from +religion. When strong contrasts are resorted to—as by coloring the +inside green and the outside rose—the effect is no less pleasing. The +combinations are almost confusing in their multiplicity, and in the +essential differences of their character. One piece may have flowers and +various household articles (<a href="#fig_99">Fig. 99</a>) upon a white ground, or rose may +mingle with turquoise and maroon in the border. Nothing is too bold for +the Chinese artist, and no effect appears to be unattainable or untried. +He is equally at home painting on white enamel a delicate border, or +rivalling the rich hues of a gaudy butterfly in a life-like imitation of +the fluttering insect.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_98" id="fig_98"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 267px;"> +<a href="images/illpg141_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg141_sml.jpg" width="267" height="259" alt="Fig. 98.—Chinese Rose Family. (Robert Hoe, Jr., Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 98.—Chinese Rose Family. (Robert Hoe, Jr., Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Before leaving the Rose family, let us glance at a few of the pieces +ascribed to Japan, and which ought to be restored to China. To +illustrate the difficulty of assigning them, with positive certainty, to +either country, the plate given on page 143 may be referred to (Fig. +100). Mr. Andrews considers his piece Japanese, and his opinion is +supported by the fact that other specimens, also claimed for Japan, have +the same subject painted in the centre. When a photograph of the piece +was submitted to the Hon. Jushie Yoshida Kiyonari, the Japanese Minister +at Washington, he replied: “It seems to me certain that the subject, as +well as the style of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_142" id="page_142">{142}</a></span> painting, are strictly Chinese; and this much +I would say, if I had the piece in my possession, I could not but +consider it as a <i>good Chinese specimen</i>.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_99" id="fig_99"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg142_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg142_sml.jpg" width="307" height="196" alt="Fig. 99.—Chinese Bowl. Rich Decoration, chiefly Yellow +and Rose. Height, 11 in.; circumference, 5 ft. 8 in. (Mrs. John V. L. +Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 99.—Chinese Bowl. Rich Decoration, chiefly Yellow +and Rose. Height, 11 in.; circumference, 5 ft. 8 in. (Mrs. John V. L. +Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>When Jacquemart tries to find an origin for the Chinese Rose family, he +says: “Does it issue from the accidental discovery of the red of +Cassius? Is it contemporary with other porcelains? Does it come from a +particular centre? We think its creation is to be attributed to the wish +of imitating the admirable porcelain of Japan.” The same writer, in +treating of what he calls “artistic” porcelain of the Japanese Rose +family, says: “If we required to seek the cause of these modifications +and of the particular style of artistic porcelain, we should find it in +a desire of rivalling the Chinese porcelain of the Rose family.” In +other words, the Japanese Rose suggested the Chinese Rose, and the +Chinese Rose suggested the Japanese Rose—a stage at which the +discussion becomes neither lucid nor satisfactory.</p> + +<p>The circumstances leading to the confounding of Chinese and Japanese +porcelain arose chiefly from trade. The Japanese are said to have gone +to King-teh-chin, even in early times, to buy porcelain. According to +Duhalde, the Chinese repaid the compliment by loading their vessels with +Japanese porcelain on returning from that country. This is corroborated +by the missionaries at Pekin, who state that the people there highly +prized the Japanese porcelain, which was, in consequence, both rare and +dear. They even used it in preference to<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_143" id="page_143">{143}</a></span> their own in making presents +to the emperor and grandees. De Pere states that when the Emperor wished +to send a present of porcelain to Peter the Great, he chose that of +Japan, where, says the writer, the people surpass those of China in all +the arts and industries. We know, moreover, that the Japanese import +Chinese egg-shell for decoration, that the Chinese have borrowed the +designs of the Japanese, and that the Japanese have borrowed those of +China. The most skilful imitators in the world, living next door to each +other, complimented each other’s skill by mutual imitation.</p> + +<p>There are two chronological points that may help us to throw some light +into this confusion, which writers have succeeded in making twice +confounded.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_100" id="fig_100"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg143_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg143_sml.jpg" width="289" height="284" alt="Fig. 100.—Rose-back Egg-shell. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 100.—Rose-back Egg-shell. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>There can be no doubt that the porcelain of the Rose family was at its +best about the end of the fifteenth century and beginning of the +sixteenth. Jacquemart, therefore, argues that the Japanese imitations +would date from the first half of the sixteenth century, and the +vitreous enamelled pieces would go back, at least, to the fifteenth. He +labors under a very serious mistake, which evidently takes its<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">{144}</a></span> rise in +the assumption that the ware made by the Japanese in the seventh century +was translucent pottery, or that Kato-siro-ouye-mon, in the thirteenth +century, had acquired the art of making porcelain. We shall handle this +subject more in detail when treating of Japan; but meanwhile let it be +noted that the Japanese themselves call the thirteenth century ware +stone-ware, and that there is no reason for believing that porcelain was +made in Japan until near the middle of the sixteenth century, or about +the date assigned by Jacquemart to the so-called Japanese imitations of +the Rose family of China.</p> + +<p>If this be admitted, it must be supposed that Japan began by imitating +some of the choicest works of China, and those presenting the greatest +difficulty to a beginner not perfectly sure of his practice. The +necessary result of this, so far as M. Jacquemart is concerned, would be +to transfer what he calls artistic porcelain to China. In any event, it +is clear that all representatives of that family which can be ascribed +to a date earlier than the latter part of the sixteenth or the beginning +of the seventeenth century are Chinese. Many years must have elapsed +before the Japanese could, with Shonsui’s assistance, attain to such +perfection in working a new material that their ware could be mistaken +for that of their teachers.</p> + +<p>The difficulties of collectors are thus restricted to pieces which are +comparatively modern. Nothing is more natural than that, when the +manufacture was temporarily paralyzed in China by the disturbances +attending the change from the Ming to the Tartar dynasty, for several +years prior to 1662 the Japanese should have bestirred themselves to +supply the demand created by the regular trade in China. It is of this +period, and down to the beginning of the eighteenth century, that the +missionaries write when they speak of the demand for Japanese porcelain. +It must have been early in the eighteenth century, also, that the +imperial present of Japanese porcelain was sent to Russia. Japanese art +was rising as that of China declined; and so far from suggesting the +Rose decoration to China, the Japanese Rose was merely striving to take +its place, when the original was passing away. The Japanese found the +Chinese patronage valuable, and therefore they tried to please their +customers by perpetuating the styles of decoration with which they were +familiar. Their imitative skill makes the task of distinguishing the two +fabrics one of considerable<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">{145}</a></span> difficulty, even with the limitations in +point of time to which we have alluded. The distinctive characteristics +of Japanese porcelain will be referred to in their proper place under +Japan; but, in the mean time, it is evident that many of the supposed +Japanese pieces, with domestic scenes, or with fan-shaped reservations +in wide borders of geometrical patterns, and containing brilliantly +feathered birds, are Chinese.</p> + +<p>We have now glanced at the three leading families, even while disposed +to call in question the utility of the arrangement. A classification of +the above kind has the one great objection, that the exceptions are so +numerous as to leave the rule inapplicable to a vast number of the most +interesting specimens. And, further, no perfect arrangement is +practicable. The Chinese have always been imitators. The potters and +artists of the thirteenth century imitated those of the tenth; those of +the fourteenth imitated their predecessors of the thirteenth, and so on. +Any attempt at a chronological arrangement, with any pretensions to +absolute truth, is, for this and other reasons, out of the question. The +classification by families, besides its necessary deficiencies, gives no +assistance to one studying and trying to master the principles of +Chinese art. To such an one, therefore, the only course is to take every +specimen at its artistic worth. He may find a large proportion of +table-ware of the Chrysanthemo-pæonian family, but he will also find +much that is not of that family. He may find much of the Green family, +especially under the Ming Dynasty, with a political or a religious +significance, but he will also fail in discovering any such meaning in +many of its representatives. He will find chrysanthemums on members of +the Green family, and pæonies on members of the Rose. In short, the +better plan is, as we have said, to admire what is admirable, and to be +too curious neither about chronology nor the relationship of color. +Otherwise, in the latter case, he will come upon incongruities. The weak +and the beautiful will be placed side by side, as in the human family a +dwarf may be full brother to an Adonis.</p> + +<p>From what has been said it will be inferred that the Chinese held in the +highest admiration the beauty to be found in color alone. In producing +it, they stand at the head of the ceramic artists of the world. The old +white porcelain—that is, porcelain decorated with white, and not the +undecorated ware—is by some considered the most<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_146" id="page_146">{146}</a></span> ancient quality, and +is most carefully preserved by the Chinese. It was decorated with +designs either graved in the paste or painted in relief, or with figures +inserted between two laminæ of paste. In the latter case the design +remained invisible until the cup was filled with liquid. Others required +to be held up to the light before the design revealed itself. The best +white porcelain was made during the Song Dynasty (960-1278). Mention is +made of white porcelain manufactured for the Emperor during the Wei +Dynasty (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 220-264), and we have already seen that white was the +dynastic color of the Thang Dynasty (618-907), but little or nothing is +directly known of these fabrics. That of the Song Dynasty was the +Ting-yao, already referred to as one of the five great qualities of +ancient porcelain. A cup (<a href="#fig_101">Fig. 101</a>) of great beauty, very thin and +transparent, in the collection of Mr. J. C. Runkle, gives a good idea of +the old white. Its purity and brilliancy give a fine effect to the +decoration in relief. The latter consists of small sprays of blossoms +delicately moulded or carved, and showing through the clear glaze the +finest touches of the modeller or carver. This is one of the methods +followed in decorating the Ting porcelain with flowers, which were +either graved in the paste, applied in relief, or painted. The white of +the Yong-lo period (1403-1424) of the Ming Dynasty was also decorated +with engravings in the paste. Toward the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, +about 1380, a peculiar quality of white was made upon the same principle +as the egg-shell, <i>i. e.</i>, by grinding down the paste, by which means +the piece assumed an unctuous, shining appearance.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_101" id="fig_101"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;"> +<a href="images/illpg146_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg146_sml.jpg" width="146" height="141" alt="Fig. 101.—White Chinese Porcelain, with Blossom in +Relief. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 101.—White Chinese Porcelain, with Blossom in +Relief. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>With the white there naturally falls to be considered the porcelain +compared by writers and by the Chinese themselves with jade, the most +precious of stones in the eyes of the Orientals. It is likened in the +Li-ki, or Book of Rites, to the rainbow solidified and turned into +stone; and in another work occurs the passage, “When I meditate on that +wise man, his thoughts appear to me like the jade.” This applies to the +discourse of Confucius. The philosopher’s language is quaint<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_147" id="page_147">{147}</a></span> and +figurative: “It is not,” he says, “because the jade is rare that it is +valued, but because from all time the sages have compared virtue to +jade. In their eyes the polish and brilliant hues of jade represent +virtue and humanity. Its perfect compactness and extreme hardness +indicate exactness of statement; its angles or corners, which are not +incisive, however sharp they seem, are emblematic of justice; the +pearl-like jades suspended from the hat or the girdle, as if falling, +represent ceremony and politeness; the pure sound which it emits when +struck, and which suddenly stops, figures music; as it is impossible for +the ugly shades of color to obscure the handsome ones, or for the fine +colors to cover up the poor ones, so loyalty is prefigured; the cracks +which exist in the interior of the stone, and can be seen from the +outside, are figurative of sincerity; its iridescent lustre, similar to +that of the rainbow, is symbolic of the permanent; its wonderful +substance, extracted from mountains or from rivers, represents the +earth; when cut as knei or chon, without other embellishment, it +indicates virtue; and the high value attached to it by the whole world, +without exception, is figurative of truth.” It is further used +throughout Chinese literature as a simile for the highest qualities of +virtue and purity.</p> + +<p>The stone is called <i>yu</i> by the Chinese, and is obtained from Tai-thong, +in the province of Chenn-si, and in larger quantities from Khotan, where +an entire mountain is said to be composed of it. It has been held in the +highest estimation among the Chinese from ancient times, and +notwithstanding its extreme hardness, it is made into the most beautiful +and curious objects, such as vases, cups, incense-burners, flasks; and +even instruments of music.</p> + +<p>These facts will enable us to appreciate the comparison so often drawn +between porcelain and jade. Thus, the Thang white made by Ho is said to +have been “brilliant as jade,” and a contemporary was making vases of +artificial jade. Again, in the Song Dynasty, a red porcelain was made at +Ting-tcheou, decorated with flowers, graved, painted, or in relief, and +said to resemble “sculptured red jade.” Coming down to the Siouen-te +period of the Ming Dynasty (1426-1435), we again meet with cups “as +white and brilliant as jade,” with their surfaces slightly punctured. +These appear to have been imitated in the Wan-li period (1575-1619), +when beautiful cups of the whiteness of jade figure in the altar +services of the Emperor. The<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_148" id="page_148">{148}</a></span> same description will apply to the +porcelain of both periods. The glaze is likened to “a layer of congealed +fat,” and has a pure ivory-like appearance and a soft unctuous touch, +more nearly resembling that of French <i>pate tendre</i> than any other +modern ware. This feeling is heightened rather than diminished by the +slight roughness, or rather, irregularity of the surface, such as might +be caused by sinking minute grains in the glaze.</p> + +<p>Let us now see how far these comparisons with jade are warranted by the +stone itself. Let it first be noted that many travellers bring from +Canton a green and dark-green quality of chalcedony, under the +impression that the wily merchants have given them genuine jade. There +are also certain kinds of felspar, called nephrite, which have been +mistakenly called jade. The genuine <i>yu</i> varies in color from an ivory +white to a dark green. It is very hard, very heavy, and fine in grain. +Even after it is polished it has the appearance of wax, and the +impression made upon the eye is confirmed by the smooth, greasy touch. +The exceptional colors are red, black, orange, citron yellow, turquoise +and a deeper blue. The white variety called, <i>par excellence</i>, Oriental +jade, reflects a pure milky light nearly resembling that of the opal. +Japan and India supply a quality of white with the faintest possible +tinge of green. Another very beautiful variety is the “imperial jade,” +or emerald green, which is occasionally found mixed with white, like the +colors in agate.</p> + +<p>The value attached to jade was so great, that in China a special officer +was appointed to take charge of the jade used in the personal decoration +of the emperor, who wore several pieces attached to his girdle. Every +description of jewel was made of jade, including those worn in the hair.</p> + +<p>From these facts, and those previously narrated, it is evident that to +compare porcelain with jade is to compliment it in terms beyond which +Chinese language cannot go. Nothing higher or more laudatory can be said +of it, and we can thus form some idea of the extreme beauty of the +almost opalescent white porcelain of the Siouen-te and Wan-li periods. +The admiration of the Chinese for this stone in colors now unknown may +possibly also have inspired them to attempt its imitation in many of the +finest colors which claim our admiration. The passage quoted from +Confucius further suggests that even crackle may<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_149" id="page_149">{149}</a></span> have originated in +trying to reproduce in pottery and porcelain the cracked variety of +jade.</p> + +<p>Equal to the turquoise in purity is the violet obtained from the oxide +of manganese. Two artists (father and daughter) named Chou, made very +beautiful porcelain of this color during the Song Dynasty. Specimens are +now very rare, their brilliancy and richness leading collectors to grasp +with avidity at any opportunity of becoming possessors of a good +example.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_102" id="fig_102"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<a href="images/illpg149_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg149_sml.jpg" width="161" height="230" alt="Fig. 102.—Chinese Five-fingered Rosadon. Blood color, +shading from crimson to scarlet. Upper rim, cloudy white. (G. W. Wales +Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 102.—Chinese Five-fingered Rosadon. Blood color, +shading from crimson to scarlet. Upper rim, cloudy white. (G. W. Wales +Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The aubergine, or purple egg-plant violet, was also made under the Song, +and is one of the celebrated productions of Kiun, in the province of +Ho-nan. This is, however, inferior in beauty to the manganese violet. +There is a third tint, of great softness and beauty. The violet is often +used in conjunction with turquoise blue, as in a crackle teapot in the +Avery collection in the shape of the peach of longevity, in which the +body is violet, and the spout and decorating leaves, which are in +relief, are in turquoise blue. The colors are also found intermingled in +such groups as the Dogs of Fo sporting. Very curious effects are +produced by shading the violet on either hand to blue and red. In pieces +of this character the blue will be found on the base, and the color +changes as it ascends, becoming a rich violet on the body and red on the +top. The violet is treated in a manner precisely similar to the +turquoise, the pieces being frequently decorated with incised designs.</p> + +<p>The shaded violet specimens alluded to remind us of others, in a rich +liver-red, where the color becomes paler as it ascends. Thus, in the +five-fingered rosadon (<a href="#fig_102">Fig. 102</a>) the base is a deep crimson, which turns +to scarlet on the body, and finishes on the tips of the fingers in a +cloudy white. This color, like the aubergine violet, and a bright red +were found upon some of the works made at Kiun in the tenth century; nor +must we forget the pieces like “red jade” made at Ting-tcheon<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_150" id="page_150">{150}</a></span> about the +same period. It does not appear to have been used at King-teh-chin until +the Yong-lo period, early in the fifteenth century. The bright red was +reproduced by Thang-kong, the artist already mentioned, in the +eighteenth century. It is difficult to follow the Chinese in the +handling of colors so nearly akin, and yet differently treated, and +producing effects so varied. The liver-red often appears as a true +<i>céladon</i> upon pieces closely resembling in paste the hard opaque body +of the old sea-green. These have rarely any decoration, and resemble in +this respect many small objects, such as narrow-necked bottles, to which +a bright red lends a color that in vivid brilliancy and clearness +involuntarily recalls the comparison of the Ting porcelain with red +jade.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_103" id="fig_103"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 124px;"> +<a href="images/illpg150_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg150_sml.jpg" width="124" height="226" alt="Fig. 103.—Chinese Yellow; Green Decoration. (Sutton +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 103.—Chinese Yellow; Green Decoration. (Sutton +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Of the yellow called “Imperial,” from its being the color adopted by the +Tai-thsing Dynasty, little is known. The shades vary from a deep orange +to a light straw color, but that called Imperial is said to be the +citron yellow. Mr. Marryat says that he has seen genuine specimens in +only two collections—the late Mr. Beckford’s and the Japan palace at +Dresden. He adds, that imitations have been made at Canton and exported. +Mr. S. P. Avery, of New York, has a number of pieces of different +tints—chrome, citron, lemon, pale and deep yellow, some of which are +very curious in both form and decoration. The different shades are also +well illustrated in Mr. W. T. Walters’s collection.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_104" id="fig_104"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<a href="images/illpg151_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg151_sml.jpg" width="171" height="287" alt="Fig. 104.—Grains of Rice. (S. P. Avery Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 104.—Grains of Rice. (S. P. Avery Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Chinese have ideas of painting peculiar to themselves. They have +little regard for perspective, and in ancient times had none whatever. +Even so late as the seventeenth century perspective was at direct +variance with the rules guiding their art. We can, for example, see +vases—particularly those of the Ming Dynasty—in which the personages +in a scene appear to be piled directly one above another, or mount +stairs, like upright ladders, in order to reach other personages +evidently some distance off, but as much in the foreground of the +picture as those nearer at hand. Coming down less than half a century<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_151" id="page_151">{151}</a></span> +later, there is a change. In the Kien-long vase before given the view +recedes, and the far-off hills are partially shrouded in shadowy vapor, +which adds to the dimness of distance. The perspective is perfect. The +change is, no doubt, due to European intercourse. We may, therefore, in +cases of doubt derive from this feature a hint of the age of certain +pieces. But how account for the older usage? It is said that, when shown +the effect of perspective, the Chinese argued against it. There is not, +and cannot be, distance on a flat surface, they said; therefore +perspective is contrary to nature. They did not see that their art +should take cognizance of the delusions of vision, and represent things +as they <i>appear</i>, not as they <i>are</i>. To explain this farther, we have +only to look at the Chinese practice in decorating porcelain. The +painting is regarded as a purely mechanical process, and the same piece +may pass through seventy or eighty different hands, each artist +contributing his specialty to the general result, and knowing little or +nothing of the subject as a whole. Can we wonder, then, that he did not +learn to appreciate perspective, if he painted his figures without any +idea of their relation to each other or to the rest of the composition? +The most remarkable feature of the case is, that in this prejudice +against perspective, and supposed constancy to nature, the Chinese +artists take up an attitude altogether different from that in which they +usually appear. Everywhere they give a free rein to fancy. They are +perfectly unconscious of anomaly, or incongruity in, for instance, +painting a stag yellow or a horse green. They paint birds, butterflies, +flowers, in hues which nature never wore. Their taste for that harmony +of tints which is the perfection of surface decoration demands the +abnormal colors, and they never hesitate about using them. Their variety +is as wonderful as the wealth of their resources. One may turn<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_152" id="page_152">{152}</a></span> from a +vase, representing the exercise of the most fearless and riotous fancy, +to another in which the details are as realistic as the lizards of +Palissy. Or, again, a vase which looks as though it might have been cut +out of a precious stone, with no decoration but its inimitable color, +may stand side by side with another covered with flowers so tenderly +treated and delicately colored, that one is inclined to pronounce the +painstaking Celestial the prince of artists.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_105" id="fig_105"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 137px;"> +<a href="images/illpg152_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg152_sml.jpg" width="137" height="316" alt="Fig. 105.—Chinese Reticulated Vase. (S. P. Avery Coll., +N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 105.—Chinese Reticulated Vase. (S. P. Avery Coll., +N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Conceits in shape or design and victory over technical difficulties are +his delight. The <i>soufflé</i> decoration is characteristic. The color is +inserted in a tube having one end covered with fine gauze, and when +blown upon the piece to be decorated, falls in minute air-bells, which +break into little circles. Red and blue are thus applied upon a pale +grayish-blue, and the effect is beautiful and entirely unique. When, as +frequently happens, the bubbles do not break, the result is hardly less +attractive, the color running into the ground and giving it the +appearance of jasper.</p> + +<p>Another method of decorating porcelain, is that called “grains of rice +work” (<a href="#fig_104">Fig. 104</a>), and is of Persian origin. The design is cut through +the thin paste, and on the piece being dipped in the glaze, the latter +fills up or covers over the interstices, leaving the design distinctly +traceable and perfectly transparent.</p> + +<p>Among the curiosities of workmanship the most notable are the +reticulated and articulated vases and the “surprise hydraulique,” or Cup +of Tantalus. The outside of the reticulated vase (<a href="#fig_105">Fig. 105</a>) is +perforated in different patterns and covers the inner vase without +touching it, except at the neck and possibly also the bottom. Ornaments +are often attached to the outside of the open-work. More wonderful than +the vases are the services of the same kind, in which the outer and +inner parts come so closely together as to render the baking of the +pieces extremely difficult and uncertain.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_153" id="page_153">{153}</a></span></p> + +<p>The articulated, or jointed, vases represent a similar victory over the +difficulties of workmanship. The vase is cut into two sections, which, +although separate, cannot be taken apart.</p> + +<p>The “Cup of Tantalus” is so constructed that when raised to the lips the +expectant drinker finds himself deluged with the contents. It is a +Chinese practical joke, played by means of a syphon concealed in the +interior of the vessel. Our enumeration may conclude with this specimen +of manual dexterity.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_106" id="fig_106"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 254px;"> +<a href="images/illpg153_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg153_sml.jpg" width="254" height="274" alt="Fig. 106.—Oriental Porcelain. Brought to Albany by +Captain Dean about 1777. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 106.—Oriental Porcelain. Brought to Albany by +Captain Dean about 1777. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>To an American or European taking a wide view of the ceramics of the +Chinese, while it is evident that they have produced a vast amount of +very beautiful work, the question will no doubt present itself, whether +they do not sometimes confound ingenuity with genius, and value the +mechanical more highly than the artistic. That they were skilful and +rejoiced in exercising their skill is evident; but no one can look +without admiration upon their exquisite coloring and flower decoration. +If one could find anywhere a <i>complete</i> collection of Chinese pottery, +stone-ware, and porcelain, it would be found to contain nearly +everything admirable in ceramics, although occasionally hard to +appreciate or understand. It would be found to illustrate the entire art +history of a people patient, laborious, keen to observe, and swift to +imitate, and whom, curiously enough, many of us would rather hear from +through the china merchant or collector, than meet in more direct +intercourse.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">{154}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI-b2" id="CHAPTER_VI-b2"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /><br /> +<small>COREA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Geographical Position.—Successive Conquests.—Its Independent +Art.—Confused Opinions regarding it.—Its Porcelain.—Decoration.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_107" id="fig_107"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;"> +<a href="images/illpg154_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg154_sml.jpg" width="179" height="222" alt="Fig. 107.—Old Corean Earthen-ware Five-handled Jar. +Yellow on Green. (A. A. Vautine & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 107.—Old Corean Earthen-ware Five-handled Jar. +Yellow on Green. (A. A. Vautine & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>To the north-east of China, across the Yellow Sea, and adjoining the +Chinese province of Shengking, lies the peninsula of Corea. Situated +between China and Japan, it was alternately under the domination of its +more powerful neighbors, and has given, in its ceramic productions, +abundant evidences of their sway. At first its works were attributed to +Japan, from which country they were carried to Europe. Further inquiry +led to the discovery that Corea had an independent artistic existence, +and that, while borrowing from either side of it, it imparted to both +China and Japan the secrets it had mastered in the art of painting +porcelain. The confusion regarding Corean ceramics is entirely due to +the commercial intercourse between it and its neighbors, whose styles it +adopted and occasionally mingled. Its wares were also sent into their +markets. It long ago ceased to produce any kind of porcelain.</p> + +<p>Describing some specimens of Corean porcelain, Julliot, a dealer of the +last century, speaks of “the fine grain of its beautiful white paste, +the attractive lightness and softness of its dead red, the velvet of its +bright-green and dark sky-blue colors.” The decoration consists<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_155" id="page_155">{155}</a></span> of +conventional forms, either floral or animal. The peacock, pheasant, and +dragon are met with. The colors are limited to red, black, gold, and +pale shades of green and yellow, and the glaze is less vitreous than +either the Japanese or Chinese. The Coreans adapted the decoration to +the destination of the work. The pieces with Japanese ornamentation were +intended for the markets of Japan, those with Chinese for China. On some +of the pieces the styles are mixed, Chinese figures being accompanied by +Japanese marks, or <i>vice versa</i>. Many of the pieces display very fine +workmanship and simplicity of design. Finding their way to Europe in the +cargoes of Dutch traders, they were highly valued by collectors, and for +a long time served as models to both French and German artists. Their +simple style and the chaste employment of a few colors rendered them +peculiarly liable to kindle the emulation of unpracticed European +decorators.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_108" id="fig_108"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg155a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg155a_sml.jpg" width="368" height="212" alt="Fig. 108.—Corean Porcelain. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 108.—Corean Porcelain. (W. L. Andrews Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_109" id="fig_109"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;"> +<a href="images/illpg155b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg155b_sml.jpg" width="192" height="289" alt="Fig. 109.—Corean Porcelain; Persian Decoration." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 109.—Corean Porcelain; Persian Decoration.</span> +</div> + +<p class="clr"><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_156" id="page_156">{156}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_110" id="fig_110"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg156_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg156_sml.jpg" width="404" height="392" alt="Yebis. Shiou-ro. Bis-jamon. + +Benten. Tossi-toku. Daikoku. Hotei. + +Fig. 110.—Picnic of the Household Gods of Japan." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Yebis. + Shiou-ro. +Bis-jamon.<br /> +Benten. + Tossi-toku. + Daikoku. + Hotei.<br /> +Fig. 110.—Picnic of the Household Gods of Japan.</span> +</p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII-b2" id="CHAPTER_VII-b2"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /><br /> +<small>JAPAN.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">How to Study Japanese Art: Its Origin.—Its Revived +Independence.—Nomino-Soukoune.—Shirozayemon.—Raku.—When +Porcelain was First Made.—Shonsui.—Form of Government.—The +Gods.—Symbols.—“Land of Great Peace.”—Foreign +Relations.—General Features of Art.—Chinese and Japanese +Porcelains.</p></div> + +<p>O<small>N</small> coming to the land of Nippon, “source of the sun,” known to the +outside world as Japan, we must still keep in mind the warning with +which we entered China. Japanese art is of Chinese origin, but was +modified as it developed. It adapted itself to Japanese tastes,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_157" id="page_157">{157}</a></span> and to +the ideas of a people quick to imitate, but possessing a marked national +individuality upon which to modify their imitations. When Chinese art +began to fall under foreign influence and to renounce its own national +characteristics, the more conservative Japanese offered a greater +resistance to the overwhelming influx of ideas from abroad. That which +had been the strength of Chinese artists now became their weakness. +Foreign models gave them new subjects upon which to exercise their +marvellous mechanical skill and imitative dexterity, and their artistic +nationality was in a measure lost. The Japanese appeared doomed to a +similar fate. Western aggressiveness made its impression, and Europe +seemed to have led the extreme East captive. The death of an art +distinctively Japanese was predicted by some, and by others it was said +to have already taken place. These are the views of extremists. It is +just possible that the Japanese derived a hint of what their own +imitations were likely to be considered by the more fastidious +Europeans, from their own opinion of European imitations of the +decorations of China and Japan. For it must not be imagined that the +imitation was all perpetrated on one side. It is no unusual thing for +the frequenter of dealers’ emporiums to find a European vase surmounted +by the Dog of Fo, or decorated by birds nowhere visible except to the +imagination of a Celestial artist. Art cannot exist in slavery. The +European borrowed, and made himself ridiculous; the Japanese imitated, +and with servility found degradation. From his temporary aberration it +is to be hoped he will thoroughly rouse himself. The contact with Europe +which led him to follow after strange gods was not without its lessons. +In later times he has shown some capacity for studying and profiting by +them. It is the Japanese side of Japanese art that foreigners admire, +and not the produce of a foolish combination of the Oriental with the +European. It is idle, in view of what may be a lasting return to native +models, to bemoan their desertion. The Japanese have already shown a +capacity for appreciating their neighbors’ faults and their own merits +at a proper value. Comparison is leading them to adopt a standard of +criticism; and if they will only persist in cherishing their own good +traditions, and in giving play to their distinctively national genius, +it will certainly be better for their art, and probably for their +commerce also. At the Vienna Exhibition they made the discovery that the +imitation<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_158" id="page_158">{158}</a></span> of the European had better be abandoned. At Philadelphia they +gave proofs of an almost complete emancipation from foreign domination +in ceramic art. There is, moreover, abundant reason for the +entertainment of such a hope in the evident enlightenment pervading the +councils of the Mikado. The following is the language of a Japanese +writer, and it shows that the press reflects an intelligence which even +that of America or Great Britain cannot afford to contemn: “The +Americans and Europeans are enlightened people, and do not without cause +call us semi-civilized. But what is the meaning of civilization? It +surely is not limited to the possession of fine houses, fine dresses, +and to sumptuous living. It is not confined to a flourishing state of +its manufactures or machinery. It means an advance in knowledge and +politics, a reverence for religion, the proper estimation of good +character, and the observance of good customs.” The press which can +convey such truths as these is not likely to neglect the national +evidences of civilization furnished by the arts and manufactures. If it +will not allow its readers to look for the signs of civilization upon +the outside of foreign institutions, it is as little likely to overlook +the best elements at home, whether in religious reverence, good customs, +or in art.</p> + +<p>To begin with the rise of the art in Japan, although legend would carry +us back to the era of Oanamuchi-no-mikoto, and the inventor Oosei-tsumi, +long before history begins, we may content ourselves with a less hoary +antiquity. It is said that in the sixth century before Christ certain +kinds of pottery were ordered by the Emperor Jinmu for religious +purposes. The next five hundred years give no additional knowledge, but +in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 29 we learn that in the province of Id-soumi there lived a +certain worker in stone and pottery called Nomino-Soukoune. The custom +at that time was for slaves to be buried with their dead masters, +presumably that the latter might have some one to wait upon them in the +next world. When Nomino-Soukoune heard of the death of the Empress, he +quickly made some images of stone or earthen-ware, and, taking them to +the Emperor, induced him to bury them with the Empress as substitutes +for her favorite attendants. The cruel rite was thereafter abolished, +and the potter and sculptor, as a reward and distinction, was allowed to +take for his surname Haji, the artist in clay. Two years later, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 27, +a Corean<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_159" id="page_159">{159}</a></span> prince, a son of the King of Sin-sa, landed in “The Land of +Great Peace,” and settled in the province of Omi, where his followers +founded a potters’ guild. It is said that both Haji and the visitors +from Corea made porcelain. But this is extremely improbable, as it was +only about the same period that porcelain was invented in China, and all +the evidence goes to show that the knowledge of making a translucent +ware passed from China to Japan. It is, therefore, not at all likely +that a secret jealously guarded by the Chinese should at once have +passed to a neighboring country.</p> + +<p>After the above date the accounts open to us become slightly +contradictory. A maker of tiles is said to have come from Corea, about +the year 590, to Japan, to teach his business; that about sixty years +later the experiment of tiling a temple roof was first tried, and that +the pagoda of a temple in Yamato was built of brick. These assertions +point to a relatively backward state of ceramic art in Japan as compared +with China; and if tiles and bricks were still novelties in the former +country, we are quite prepared to hear that it was only in the year 724 +that the monk or priest Giyoki introduced the potters’ wheel. This same +individual apparently figures in another account, under the name Gyoguy, +as a Corean priest of Buddha, who spread the knowledge of making +“porcelain.” In the ninth century the number of factories had greatly +increased; but native skill does not appear to have developed to any +great extent, although an imperial official superintended the trade. +Toward the earlier part of the thirteenth century, Kato Shirozayemon, +not being content with the rude works he was turning out, called <i>Koutsi +fakata</i>, pieces with worn orifice, undertook the journey to China, in +the company of a priest named Fogen, to acquire, if possible, additional +skill. In this he was successful, and on his return settled at Seto, in +the province of Owari, now celebrated for its porcelain. Several authors +speak of the earlier wares of Japan as porcelain; and Jacquemart says +that Kato Shirozayemon returned with <i>all</i> the secrets of the art. The +question occurs, Is it likely, that, if Japan was at the beginning of +our era acquainted to any extent with making porcelain, it would, after +experimenting for twelve centuries, be so dependent upon Chinese +teaching as to make Kato Shiro’s journey necessary? The probability is +the other way. More than that, even the last named traveller cannot, +without question,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_160" id="page_160">{160}</a></span> be conceded to have mastered the secret of making +porcelain. The Japanese say that he only made stone-ware. Evidence to +the same effect is deducible from a Japanese custom. Tea was not +introduced from China until the beginning of the thirteenth century, +about the time of Kato Shiro’s journey. In or about 1450, the Shiogun, +or Tycoon, instituted the “Tea-parties” called <i>Cha-no-yu</i>. Toward the +end of the sixteenth century, under Hide-yoshi, the ceremonial was +improved. The guests drank out of a bowl of common pottery. These bowls +were sometimes imported from Siam and other countries, and vessels of +“raku” were made for the same purpose. This “raku” was a ware introduced +by a Corean called Ameya, about the beginning of the sixteenth century. +It is said that his descendants of the eleventh generation still pursue +the trade in Kioto. Raku is nothing more than a lead-glazed earthen-ware +(<a href="#fig_111">Fig. 111</a>); and if porcelain was known even at that late date, it is +hard to understand why the Tycoon should have honored Ameya with a gold +seal for introducing the comparatively coarse raku. It is equally hard +to understand why raku should have been preferred to porcelain for this +special ceremonial. The fact that raku bowls are still used at the +<i>Cha-no-yu</i> is probably to be credited to the regard for a custom +instituted by a Tycoon.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_111" id="fig_111"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 170px;"> +<a href="images/illpg160_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg160_sml.jpg" width="170" height="171" alt="Fig. 111.—Raku Bowl; Green and Gold. + +(A. A. Vantine & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 111.—Raku Bowl; Green and Gold. + +(A. A. Vantine & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It may, further, be pointed out that the existing samples of the ware +made by Giyoki, or Gyoguy, in the seventh or eighth century, and now in +the temple of Todaiji, Yamato, are said to be earthen-ware. Upon the +whole, it is most probable that the secrets acquired by Kato +Shirozayemon did not carry him farther than the making of stone-ware, +and that real porcelain was not made in Japan until between the years +1530 and 1540, or about fifty years prior to the date of the discovery +of artificial porcelain in Europe. About that time Goro-dayu Shonsui, a +native of Ise, went to China, and, on returning from a lengthened +investigation, settled in Hizen, and instituted the manufacture of +porcelain. So thoroughly had he mastered the processes of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_161" id="page_161">{161}</a></span> China, that +he succeeded in producing all the wares which to-day give Hizen its +pre-eminence, viz.: Sometsuki, porcelain decorated with blue paintings +under the glaze; crackle; céladon ware; red Akai ware; and “Nishikide” +porcelain, decorated with vitrifiable colors upon the glaze. Japan +incurred, however, still further debts to Corea. In 1592 a number of +Corean porcelain makers were taken to Japan, and their descendants still +live in Arita. About the same time the Prince of Satsuma invaded Corea, +and took several families engaged in the porcelain industry back with +him. To these settlers Japan is indebted for its well-known Satsuma +ware. Through all these different channels Japan derived its knowledge +of ceramic processes from China and Corea, and was enabled not only to +equal, but in many respects to surpass, both its teachers.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_112" id="fig_112"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 67px;"> +<a href="images/illpg161a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg161a_sml.jpg" width="67" height="79" alt="Fig. 112.—Kiri-mon." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 112.—Kiri-mon.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_113" id="fig_113"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 80px;"> +<a href="images/illpg161b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg161b_sml.jpg" width="64" height="69" alt="Fig. 113.—Guik-mon." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 113.—Guik-mon.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is unnecessary for our purpose to enter fully into an examination of +the government of Japan. The central power is the Mikado, descendant of +the gods, political and ecclesiastical head of the government. The +Tycoon was the executive head, but was expelled a few years ago. What is +here to be chiefly observed is, that in the Mikado centres the loyalty +of his people, a loyalty based upon tradition and sanctified by +religion. The Mikado’s arms are twofold, the (<a href="#fig_112">Fig. 112</a>) +Kiri-mon—official, and the (<a href="#fig_113">Fig. 113</a>) Guik-mon—personal, the former +being the flower and leaves of the <i>Paullownia imperialis</i>, the latter +that of the chrysanthemum. The Tycoon’s arms (<a href="#fig_114">Fig. 114</a>) consisted of +three mallow leaves.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_114" id="fig_114"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 68px;"> +<a href="images/illpg161c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg161c_sml.jpg" width="68" height="64" alt="Fig. 114.—Arms of the Tycoon." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 114.—Arms of the Tycoon.</span> +</div> + +<p>The religion of Japan, apart from its symbolism, has little appreciable +influence upon its pottery, possibly on account of the comparatively +late and rapid growth of the ceramic art. The original religion was +Kamism or Shintoism, the worship of ancestors. This is the religion +upheld by the Mikados. Upon it Buddhism was in-grafted, and supported by +the Tycoons. The two harmonized well, thanks to Japanese toleration, but +their combination presents many a curious puzzle. The Japanese cosmogony +is simple. Heaven and earth were evolved out of chaos, and then the +presence of controlling power being necessary, the gods came. At<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_162" id="page_162">{162}</a></span> first +there were only three, but afterward seven generations of gods and +goddesses succeeded each other, and from the last pair of these came +Sin-mon, the founder of Japan. The seven household gods concern us more +in looking at Japanese ceramics. These represent the physical wants of +the people, and correspond with the Chinese god of longevity and his +compeers. The first, Ben-zai-ten-njo, or Benten, is the Madonna of +Japan, the ideal matron; Quamon, queen of heaven, appears to be the +ideal of happiness; Yebis is a jovial marine god, the food provider, and +is generally represented with long legs, claws, drapery of marine +origin, and riding on a dolphin. Hotei, a portly, complacent deity, is +the very picture and god of contentment. A totally different being, +short, thick, and almost lost in his clothes and under the burden of his +wealth, is Daikoku, the god of riches. Shion-ro, with long beard, placid +face, and towering cranium, is the god of longevity. He leans upon a +staff, and is attended by either a tortoise or a stork. He is evidently +a relative of the Chinese Cheou-lao. Tossi-toku, with staff and fawn, is +the dispenser of knowledge. The last and least esteemed of the seven is +the strong, armor-clad Bis-ja-mon, god of glory. Who shall say that +there is not philosophy in a religion which thus holds up military glory +almost to contempt, and discriminates between riches and contentment? +Besides the gods here mentioned there is a host of demons which need not +be enumerated, and which, with the household deities, are met with under +the most fantastic forms and in the most ridiculous situations, for, +according to Japanese ideas, ridicule did not necessarily involve +impiety.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_115" id="fig_115"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a href="images/illpg162_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg162_sml.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="Fig. 115.—Japanese Porcelain Bowl. Diameter, 3 ft. 7 in. +(Corcoran Art Gallery.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 115.—Japanese Porcelain Bowl. Diameter, 3 ft. 7 in.<br /> +(Corcoran Art Gallery.)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_163" id="page_163">{163}</a></span></p> + +<p>The symbols of Japan are nearly all taken from China. The imperial +dragon, though having only three claws, is closely allied to the four +and five clawed dragons of China. The Ky-lin and Dog of Fo both +reappear, and the Fong-hoang, or Foo, again presents itself with added +elegance of form and supreme beauty of plumage. Another bird, resembling +an eagle, deserves its title of imperial from its majesty of gait and +expression, and seems in perfect keeping with its accompanying noble +emblems. The sacred tortoise has a long feathery and fan-like tail, and +appears in numberless compositions. The crane, turtle, pine, and bamboo +are the emblems of longevity.</p> + +<p>In view of all that Japan owes to China and Corea—a great part of its +religion, its knowledge of art processes, and its symbols, one would +expect to find little that is original in its ceramics. There is, on the +other hand, often visible a decided individuality and independence. +Japan absorbed and transmuted, while apparently engrossed in copying. +The process of assimilation, of bringing the foreign suggestion into +subjection to native principles, took time; but even while Japan was in +its pupilage, its national character was asserting itself. Its history +and position show alike the favorable conditions under which its art +grew up. After the aboriginal Ainos had been once subdued by their +Asiatic conquerors, history substantiates the claim of Japan to the +title of “The Land of Great Peace.” It is true that revolution has of +late years changed the form of government by the removal of the Tycoon; +but from the beginning of the historical period, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 660, to the civil +wars which preceded the establishment of the Tycoons nearly three +hundred years ago, there was no war of any consequence. After that +event, and down to the return of the executive authority into the hands +of the Mikado, there was another long peace. The Japanese, be it again +observed, cared little for their god of glory, Bis-ja-mon. Isolation and +freedom from the disturbing consequences of war gave the Japanese an +opportunity of cultivating the arts of peace with a constantly +increasing show of independence, even when the art was based upon a +foreign foundation.</p> + +<p>In viewing their earliest ceramic productions, there is some difficulty +in distinguishing them from those of China and Corea, and this +difficulty is increased when we find upon their vases scenes from the +court life of China, and a great deal of borrowed ornamentation. In<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_164" id="page_164">{164}</a></span> +both countries it is said that the ceramic art rose to its highest point +in the sixteenth century, and then, we are told, declined. This date +may, in the case of Japan, be safely advanced to the seventeenth or +eighteenth century. Japan was even then not independent of its teachers, +and suffered from the influences adverse to art which affected them. The +Portuguese were the first nation to trade with Japan, and were expelled +in 1637. The tolerant Japanese, who were willing to make room for any +religion containing the seeds of good, could brook neither intolerance +nor interference with their civil government. Portuguese intrigue +accordingly led to expulsion and the massacre of forty thousand converts +to Christianity.</p> + +<p>Specimens of “Christian” porcelain, made apparently by the Chinese for +the persecuted of Japan, are still in existence, and may be seen in many +American collections. After the Portuguese came the Dutch. Had the +latter restricted themselves to trading in porcelain, it would have been +better for Japanese art. Instead of doing so, they tried to imitate the +native wares, and, which was far worse, commissioned the native artists +to adopt European styles and to attempt to gratify the whims of European +taste and fashion. We cannot wonder that art declined, but are rather +led to be surprised that the decline was not more speedy and permanent.</p> + +<p>The points of difference between the porcelain of China and Japan may be +briefly stated after the general features of Japanese art have been +examined. It is to the American a peculiar art. It does not touch our +admiration like the Greek for the truthful working out of its ideal +forms, nor for the ideals themselves. It does not imbue us with a sense +of the mysterious like that of Egypt. We can all admire its wonderful +coloring and its perfection of finish; but besides these there is a +fascination in the exuberant fancy, richness of invention, and happy +blending of tints. The Japanese are true to nature, far more so than the +Chinese; but they do not copy nature in every detail. In their best work +we will often find that, with a peculiar delicacy, the artist merely +indicates what an American or European artist would feel it incumbent +upon him to represent. The former holds our attention by leaving it to +the imagination to make his work complete. This will suggest what is +actually the case—that, as a rule, form is secondary to color.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_165" id="page_165">{165}</a></span></p> + +<p>Japanese porcelain and pottery differ from those of China in the +following general respects: perspective is permissible in painting; as a +rule, there is greater simplicity of design, and the ornamentation is +more chaste and less profuse; and, as already noticed, nature is more +closely followed. To explain the greater purity and refinement of +Japanese art, there are three points to be noticed. While the Chinese +degraded art by degrading the artists, the best and noblest Japanese +were themselves artists. Princes are said to have engaged in +lacquer-work. The Chinese lowered ceramic art into a merely mechanical +pursuit, by dividing the different parts of the ornamentation among +several workmen. Artistic conception was almost lost sight of where +mechanical finish was thus painfully sought. The Japanese give us the +creations of individual men, who bring their own marvellous industrial +skill to the expression of their own ideas. The third advantage which +they possessed was that already incidentally referred to, viz., the +prevalence of hereditary occupations. It has been seen that descendants, +of the eleventh generation, of Coreans who settled in Japan as workers +in stone-ware are now engaged in the same pursuit. The transmission of +technical knowledge was thus amply provided for.</p> + +<p>Possessing such advantages and tendencies, the Japanese surpassed the +Chinese in several respects. That they do so to-day, the Centennial +Exhibition, even making a due allowance for the superior organization of +the Japanese section as a government representation, placed beyond all +question or cavil. This truth is one to which ceramists, undeceived by +the exaltation of China and the treatment of Japan as a mere offshoot, +should not be strangers. In lacquer-work the Japanese have always been +superior, and at the Exhibition one of the best specimens in the Chinese +section was from Japan. The lacquer was so laid on that the +ornamentation on the underlying porcelain disclosed itself, and animal +forms in red and gold decorated the lacquer. Similar acknowledgments of +the excellence of Japanese porcelain have been otherwise made. The +Chinese sometimes copy Japanese decoration. Further evidence is not +wanting, and has been referred to under China, of the rarity and high +value of Japanese porcelain in China.</p> + +<p>In any event, the time for servile imitation has passed with all that +was worth imitating. Instead of devoting themselves, as the Chinese<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">{166}</a></span> +have done for two hundred years, to vain attempts at rivalling the +attainments of their ancestors, the Japanese have shown an inclination +to return to their old and renounced standards as bases from which to +reach a new originality. They are, in one word, progressive in the best +sense. Instead of nineteenth century representations of the works of the +seventeenth, it may reasonably be hoped that the present day will +disclose an art at once national and its own.</p> + +<h4>POTTERY.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Geographical Distribution.—Classification.—Satsuma.—Difficult +Ware.—Saki Cups.—Imitations of +Satsuma.—Kioto.—Awata.—Awadji.—Banko.—Kiusiu.—Karatsu.—Suma.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_116" id="fig_116"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg166_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg166_sml.jpg" width="167" height="213" alt="Fig. 116.—Satsuma Vase. Dragon in Red and Gold. Height, +16½ in. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 116.—Satsuma Vase. Dragon in Red and Gold. Height, +16½ in. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The ceramic industry of Japan is chiefly, if not entirely, confined to +the southern half of the empire. A line drawn from Tokio (Yeddo) to Kaga +is its northern limit, and between that line and Satsuma, one of the two +most southerly provinces of the island of Kiusiu, the manufacture is +pretty evenly distributed. The great centres are Kiusiu, in which are +Hizen and Satsuma; Kioto, round which are clustered the prominent names +of Awadji, Hiogo, Idsumi, and Nara; Owari and Mino; Kaga, including +Kutani, Yamashiro, and in the adjoining province of Echizen, the village +of Ota; and, lastly, Tokio, including Yokohama. From these five centres +come nearly all the wares which have of late years become so familiar in +the American markets. These wares are now known exclusively by the name +of the place of manufacture or the inventor. Whatever rule may have been +followed in the past, it is now therefore evident, that hereafter +Japanese pottery and porcelain must be treated after a method precisely +similar to that followed in discussing the wares of France or of +England, where, instead of families, we have Sèvres, Limoges, Palissy, +Worcester, Derby, and Wedgwood.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_167" id="page_167">{167}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_117" id="fig_117"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;"> +<a href="images/illpg167_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg167_sml.jpg" width="192" height="322" alt="Fig. 117.—Satsuma Vase. (A. Belmont Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 117.—Satsuma Vase. (A. Belmont Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Japanese have an endless variety of earthen-ware made for household +use. Of this class some pieces are left unglazed, and others have a very +fusible plumbeous glaze, under which painted decorations are sometimes +to be seen. Of their semi-porcellaneous, highly refractory potteries, +the two best known in America are the Satsuma and Awata. The former +(<a href="#fig_116">Fig. 116</a>) is so called from the province of that name, in the south of +the island of Kiusiu, where it has been made at or near Kagoshima for +nearly three hundred years. The latter is made in one of the suburbs of +Kioto, in Central Japan. The clay is kaolinic, and the glaze felspathic, +but not of the purity of porcelain; and, as a consequence, they do not +fuse to the same extent. The body and glaze not being perfectly +homogeneous, the latter presents a fine net-work of cracks. The +beautiful and soft buff color of the Satsuma ware is its first +characteristic. The ornamentation generally consists of birds and +flowers delicately outlined and colored. The chrysanthemum, the pæonia, +pheasants, and peacocks are especially abundant. This ware is +extensively used in the making of tea-sets, charming alike in form and +color. So light are the pieces that it is difficult to persuade one’s +self that they are not porcelain. The shapes are quaint, and suggestive +of flower-cups and leaves. One style of decoration may be taken as +typical. The delicious creamy buff paste, covered with crackle glaze, is +sprinkled with gold, after a manner in which the Japanese have no +equals. On this rich but delicate ground are many-colored flowers, +birds, or insects, which harmonize admirably with the shape of the cups. +In America so much beauty could be possessed only by the rich. In Japan +almost any one may be its owner. A feature distinctive of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">{168}</a></span> Japanese art +is, that it attempts to reach every grade, high as well as low; and that +art, being valued for its own sake, and not purely for its commercial +value, is brought to the embellishment of the lowly object as well as of +the intrinsically rich.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_118" id="fig_118"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/illpg168_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg168_sml.jpg" width="186" height="256" alt="Fig. 118.—Satsuma Vase. Very Fine Crackle. Decoration: +leaves brown, veined with gold. Height, 15 in. (R. H. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 118.—Satsuma Vase. Very Fine Crackle. Decoration: +leaves brown, veined with gold. Height, 15 in. (R. H. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Another product of Satsuma is called “difficult ware,” from the extreme +nicety of the operation performed in making it. In this the body is +coarser than in that last mentioned. The ground is similarly prepared, +and upon it are laid in relief flowers and birds of fine porcellaneous +paste. The technical difficulties attending the production of such ware +are obvious. By what ingenuity does the Japanese artist overcome the +difference between decorating material and body? A precisely similar +style of decoration is employed on many household vessels of +earthen-ware or majolica. In these very fine effects are secured by the +choice of a sombre ground, from which the porcelain flowers and animals +stand out in clear and bold relief. The best Satsuma ware and crackle +are perfect marvels of color. The decoration bears a general resemblance +to that already described, but is finer. The cracks are scarcely +visible, the gold is more cloud-like and fleeting, and the floral +ornamentation is more tropically luxuriant. In the higher qualities of +crackle, the paste and glaze differ widely in composition, in order that +deeper and more distinct cracks may be produced; and tangled in the web +are wreaths of green, purple, crimson, and blue flowers mingled with +gold. A totally different style of decoration is seen on many +cylindrical vases, and shows that the Japanese artists have a clear +perception of the subtle harmony existing between form and ornament. In +these, to be in sympathy with the simple shape, the designs are bolder, +and the colors are laid on with a freer hand.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_169" id="page_169">{169}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_119" id="fig_119"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 121px;"> +<a href="images/illpg169_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg169_sml.jpg" width="121" height="281" alt="Fig. 119.—Satsuma Vase. Height, 7½ in. (J. W. Paige +Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 119.—Satsuma Vase. Height, 7½ in. (J. W. Paige +Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Satsuma paste varies in tint from buff to a cold and dark shade of +brown; but the decoration of the latter is, as a rule, decidedly +inferior. The shapes are manifold, and are generally characterized by +simplicity and elegance. When the potter turns to intricate designs, his +skill in manipulating the clay seems almost boundless. This feature is +more remarkable in the older pieces than in those of more recent date, +and is well illustrated in the vase on page 167 (<a href="#fig_117">Fig. 117</a>), where a +series of thin loose rings gives the piece an appearance altogether +unique. The vase from Mr. Robert H. Pruyn’s collection (<a href="#fig_118">Fig. 118</a>) is +presumably from the Prince’s workshop, and is an excellent example of +the refinement of Japanese taste. Full effect is given to the admirable +workmanship displayed in the basket-work moulding, which is relieved, +but not concealed, by the ivy decoration. A more prevalent style is +exemplified by the vase (<a href="#fig_119">Fig. 119</a>) in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. +The flowers appear to grow from the base to the neck, where a single +flower and a few green leaves are left to finish the bouquet. The piece +is a rare specimen both in regard to fineness of paste and the delicate +treatment of the flower decoration. It belongs to the large class which +is illustrative of the Japanese preference of flowers before figures, +and of the careful fidelity with which the former are treated. They lead +one to think that in the Japanese workshop the “Feast of Flowers” knew +no end.</p> + +<p>A singular example of Satsuma ware—so singular both in body and +ornamentation as almost inevitably to suggest a doubt of its coming from +the same workshop—is the Sutton vase (<a href="#fig_120">Fig. 120</a>). The decoration is in +high relief, and stands out strongly against the brown ground. There are +many fine examples of designs executed in relief. These assume the forms +of turtles, fishes, frogs, lizards, and crabs, carefully modelled and +truthfully colored. On pieces of a religious character the gods of the +Japanese pantheon<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_170" id="page_170">{170}</a></span> are moulded in bold relief. The same idea is +occasionally carried out to a fuller extent by moulding the piece itself +after a natural form. Thus we find trays shaped like leaves, cups like +lotus leaves, teapots like melons, and one remarkable specimen in the +form of an elephant, with a saddle brilliantly painted on grounds of red +and gold.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_120" id="fig_120"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 162px;"> +<a href="images/illpg170_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg170_sml.jpg" width="162" height="291" alt="Fig. 120.—Satsuma Faience. Buff and Gold; Decoration in +Relief. (J. F. Sutton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 120.—Satsuma Faience. Buff and Gold; Decoration in +Relief. (J. F. Sutton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The religious vessels are very often elaborately decorated. Incense jars +have figures of the gods; the turtle, symbolical of longevity; and +medallions of flowers surrounded by borders of green, crimson, and gold; +or we may find the gods Shiou-ro and Tossi-toku, of longevity and +wisdom, in a landscape; or combats between gods and demons; or a mixed +assemblage of priests and gods. When the figures of the gods are painted +on the inside, the value of the piece may be estimated by the delicacy +of the figure-painting. Hotei, the god of contentment, and Yebis, are +thus figured on the inside of bowls; and sometimes there are priests and +women; or gods and dragons may be seen on the inside and priests on the +outside. Satsuma ware is also found in round, oval, or leaf-like +plaques, on which are religious and other subjects.</p> + +<p>More frequently in Kaga or Kutani porcelain, but sometimes also in +Satsuma ware, will be found what are called “Saki” cups. Saki, or Sake, +is the chief alcoholic drink of Japan, and is made from rice. It is +drunk hot at meals from the cups known by its name. The size of these +pieces precludes excessive decoration, and the artist concentrates his +efforts upon fineness of execution and finish.</p> + +<p>Satsuma ware is imitated at Kioto, Yokohama, and elsewhere; and there is +little doubt that pieces from these and other centres make their +appearance in America under the adopted and better known name. There are +no safeguards against deception but the character of the dealer and the +good taste and judgment of the collector.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_171" id="page_171">{171}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_121" id="fig_121"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<a href="images/illpg171a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg171a_sml.jpg" width="189" height="227" alt="Fig. 121.—Kioto Faience Censer. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 121.—Kioto Faience Censer. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Kioto pottery is scarcely inferior to the Satsuma. In the specimen +given below (<a href="#fig_122">Fig. 122</a>) the creamy ground is covered with a kaleidoscopic +mingling of colors—yellow and purple chrysanthemums and cloudy masses +of gold—and in the foreground is a cock with brilliant plumage. Other +specimens are seen in Figs. 121 and 123.</p> + +<p>Awata ware is made at Kioto, and is of more recent origin than the +Satsuma, from which it differs chiefly in the more pronounced tint of +its prevailing yellow color. From the latter characteristic it has been +called “egg pottery.” In the older pieces the style of decoration is +entirely different from the Satsuma. The colors used were few in number +and neutral in tone. More recently the artists of Kioto have resorted to +imitations of Satsuma and porcelain decorations, and of European styles.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_122" id="fig_122"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illpg171b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg171b_sml.jpg" width="131" height="238" alt="Fig. 122.—Kioto Vase. Very Brilliant Colors. Height, 18 +in. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 122.—Kioto Vase. Very Brilliant Colors. Height, 18 +in. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Awadji, an island lying between Shikoku and Hiogo on the main-land, +produces a ware closely allied to the Satsuma. The glaze is similar, and +the kaolinic paste is made from ground granite found on the island. The +body-tint is an extremely soft yellow, the cracks are usually fine, and +the painting, outlined in black, is decided in character. From the same +place comes a strong stone-ware, either with a glaze containing oxide of +copper or covered with a slip. The cracks are few in number, and the +prevailing colors are green and russet.</p> + +<p>The above names, it will be observed, are taken from the places of +manufacture. The Banko-yaki is so called from the inventor,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_172" id="page_172">{172}</a></span> and is made +in the province of Ise. The paste is a strong, tough brown clay, on the +unglazed surface of which enamel painting is laid. Very curious +tea-sets, wonderfully light and thin, considering the quality of the +paste, are made of this material. They are finished by hand, and the +marks of the potter’s fingers are distinctly visible on the clay. These +sets are favorites with the tea-drinkers of Japan. The white clay of Ise +is also used for pieces which come in biscuit. When mingled with brown +clay, the result is a peculiar mottled ware which has been extensively +made within the past few years. The Banko tea-sets are sometimes moulded +into imitations of the lotus leaf.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_123" id="fig_123"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 170px;"> +<a href="images/illpg172a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg172a_sml.jpg" width="170" height="260" alt="Fig. 123.—Kioto Faience. Brown, Red, and Green on Buff. +(J. F. Sutton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 123.—Kioto Faience. Brown, Red, and Green on Buff. +(J. F. Sutton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_124" id="fig_124"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 112px;"> +<a href="images/illpg172b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg172b_sml.jpg" width="112" height="180" alt="Fig. 124.—Kiusiu Earthen-ware. Blue on Purple. Height, +15 in. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 124.—Kiusiu Earthen-ware. Blue on Purple. Height, +15 in. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The ware called “Kiusiu” takes its name from the island already +mentioned, but the exact place of its manufacture is not more +specifically stated. The illustration (<a href="#fig_124">Fig. 124</a>) exemplifies a large +division of this pottery, which has designs more or less intricate +graved in the paste, and painted purple or plum and turquoise blue. Some +of the finer pieces have floral and emblematic incisions, and upon the +mingled blue and plum are chrysanthemums and vines in lacquer.</p> + +<p>Karatsu is a town in the province of Hizen, and gives its name to a buff +ware, somewhat resembling in appearance the darker qualities of Satsuma. +It is finely crackled, and the designs are exceedingly varied. The +tenacity of the fine paste is exemplified in the reticulated vase (Fig. +125), in which frequent changes in the pattern lighten, by variety, the +sombre character of the piece. It will be observed that the inner +surface is also decorated, and we are thus<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">{173}</a></span> furnished with another of +the frequently recurring evidences of inexhaustible Oriental patience. +All the examples of this ware that we have seen are covered with very +minute cracks like those overspreading the Satsuma. The paintings on +tea-jars and incense-pots consist usually of flowers, insects, vines, or +bamboos sometimes arranged in panels or medallions.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_125" id="fig_125"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;"> +<a href="images/illpg173a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg173a_sml.jpg" width="139" height="309" alt="Fig. 125.—Karatsu Vase. Reticulated Buff Crackle. (J. F. +Sutton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 125.—Karatsu Vase. Reticulated Buff Crackle. (J. F. +Sutton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_126" id="fig_126"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;"> +<a href="images/illpg173b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg173b_sml.jpg" width="192" height="256" alt="Fig. 126.—Suma Earthen-ware. Blue Slate Color; Black, +Red, and Reddish-brown Decoration. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 126.—Suma Earthen-ware. Blue Slate Color; Black, +Red, and Reddish-brown Decoration. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is unnecessary to do more than enumerate the wares of Suma, or Soma, +Nara, Ota, Idsumi, and Kaga, or Kutani, some of which approach +translucent porcelain so nearly as to be entitled to be classed with it. +The specimen (<a href="#fig_126">Fig. 126</a>) is chosen for illustration for a very simple +reason. The body is a common coarse earthen-ware, manipulated with very +moderate skill, and the color is in no respect remarkable. But in the +disposal of the grape-vine decoration, and the drawing and attitude of +the bird, there is nothing more simple and tasteful to be seen on the +finest Hizen porcelain. In spite of the humble material, the artist +compels our admiration. It is the same wherever we turn. Art is for all, +the lowly as well as the rich, and embellishes every object, the humble +as well as the most costly.</p> + +<p>There are simple vessels, teapots, and cups of clay, thin as Banko ware, +and left unglazed, which for very oddity and perfection of workmanship +are worthy of a place in any collection. Mr. Sutton has two pieces of +this character. One is a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">{174}</a></span> teapot shaped like a partially folded leaf, +having its sides drawn together to form the spout. The lid is like an +elongated shell, and is thin and light as a leaf. The other is also a +teapot, and resembles a transverse section of the trunk of a tree. In +such cases the artist is lost sight of in the workman. The pieces have +neither grace of form nor beauty of color, but they attract us by the +evidences they present of human skill contending with difficulty for the +mere satisfaction of overcoming it. They are triumphs of dexterity and +curiosities of design, and, though rare, are thoroughly representative +of a large section of Japanese ceramic art. In its simplest as well as +its most beautiful forms, nature is the promptress of the Japanese +artist (<a href="#fig_127">Fig. 127</a>). We see it in such works as those last described +equally with the gorgeous flowers and drooping vine, and in it have the +key to the infinite variety of the art of Japan.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_127" id="fig_127"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 155px;"> +<a href="images/illpg174_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg174_sml.jpg" width="155" height="233" alt="Fig. 127.—Satsuma Vase. Decoration, Green and Red. +Height, 13 in. (Robert H. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 127.—Satsuma Vase. Decoration, Green and Red. +Height, 13 in. (Robert H. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Leading Differences between Japanese and Chinese.—Sometsuki +Blue.—Ware for Export.—Gosai, or Nishikide.—Arita, or +Hizen.—Families.—Decoration.—Modern +Hizen.—Seidji.—Kioto.—Eraku.—Kaga.—Portraiture.—Owari.—Lacquer.—Cloisonné.—Rose +Family.—Early Styles: Indian: Dutch Designs.—General +Characteristics of Japanese Art.</p></div> + +<p>In porcelain, even to a more marked degree than in pottery, the +peculiarities of Japanese art are noticeable. It brings before us, in +their greatest perfection, the careful attention to finish, the +harmonizing of the most minute detail with the general design, the +boundless variety of form, and the general tendency to subordinate the +latter to ornamentation and color. The porcelain is less capable of +resisting heat than that of the Chinese.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_128" id="fig_128"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg175_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg175_sml.jpg" width="420" height="339" alt="Fig. 128.—Japanese Porcelain Plaque. (W. L. Andrews +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 128.—Japanese Porcelain Plaque. (W. L. Andrews +Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>The leading differences between the porcelains of the two countries are +that the Japanese is of a purer white and finer quality, that<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_175" id="page_175">{175}</a></span> its glaze +has a bluish tint, that the Japanese forms are usually better, and that +the extravagancies of Chinese decoration are toned down. The chief kinds +of porcelain are the Hizen (also called Imari and Arita), the Owari, +Kioto, Mino, and Kaga. That made at all these places, except Kaga, +belongs chiefly to the kind called Blue Sometsuki, in which the body is +decorated before glazing with painting in blue derived from cobalt. This +is the leading ware for home consumption. Two of the largest and finest +specimens that ever reached America were the immense vases and basins +sent to the Centennial Exhibition. Reference has been made, under China, +to the difference between the blue-and-white of Nankin and that of +Japan, viz., that the white of the latter is purer and the blue less +transparent. This may be accounted for in part by the inferiority of the +cobaltiferous ore of Japan, a circumstance which has led to the +importation of Chinese material, and in part by the preparation of the +paste. After<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_176" id="page_176">{176}</a></span> being thrown or moulded, dried and turned, the piece is +covered with pure white clay, and then fired. The blue is afterward laid +upon the clay coating, and the piece is then glazed and fired a second +time. By the use of the <i>engobe</i>, the brilliancy of the blue is thought +to be enhanced, and the purity of the white must certainly be +heightened. The glaze is always felspathic, and is said to be less +vitreous than that of China. Like the Chinese, who made a specific ware +for the “Sea-devils”—a euphonious title under which all Europeans were +classed—the Japanese export from Hizen the same kind of porcelain as +that above described, but decorated with bright enamel colors on the +glaze, and specially designed for the foreign trade. The preparation and +application of the enamels have been described elsewhere. Paintings in +relief are produced by first laying on the parts to be colored a white +enamel of powdered glass and stone, and white-lead. This ware, once +called “Gosai,” and now “Nishikide,” is made at Arita, and was taken to +Nagasaki, and thence to the island of Desima, at the time when the old +Dutch traders had their settlement there. It is, therefore, this +porcelain that the Dutch first carried to Europe. That we may have a +clear view of the early condition of the industry, we must bear in mind +that it was in Hizen Shonsui put in practice the knowledge he had +acquired in China. It may, therefore, be expected that the older +specimens will show signs of Chinese teaching. That such is the case may +be inferred from the grouping usually resorted to in dividing Japanese +porcelain into Chrysanthemo-Pæonian and Rose families.</p> + +<p>The place of manufacture of many of the pieces belonging to the first of +these families is authenticated by the peculiar Japanese symbols, such +as the Imperial bird, the <i>guikmon</i>, the Imperial three-clawed dragon, +the crane, bamboo, and other emblems of longevity; and also occasionally +by the pieces being decorated with legendary subjects. One of the latter +is decorated in part with a water-fall, and a carp leaping upward. The +latter is a symbol borrowed from China. Mr. Griffis says of it: “The koi +(carp) leaping the water-fall is a symbol of aspiration and ambition, +and an augury of renown. The origin of the symbol is Chinese. In an old +book it is said that the sturgeon of the Yellow River make an ascent of +the stream in the third moon of each year, when those which succeed in +passing above the rapids<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">{177}</a></span> of the Lung Men become transformed into +(white) dragons.” The same writer relates that when Kiyomori was on his +way to view Kumano water-fall, a carp leaped out of the river upon the +deck of his state barge, and gave rise to much rejoicing as an +auspicious omen.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_129" id="fig_129"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<a href="images/illpg177a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg177a_sml.jpg" width="124" height="170" alt="Fig. 129.—Old Imari Porcelain. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 129.—Old Imari Porcelain. (A. A. Vantine & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_130" id="fig_130"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/illpg177b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg177b_sml.jpg" width="186" height="191" alt="Fig. 130.—Japanese Dish. Ground, Red and Blue; Figures, +Green and Gold. Diameter, 11 in. (Robert H. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 130.—Japanese Dish. Ground, Red and Blue; Figures, +Green and Gold. Diameter, 11 in. (Robert H. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The paste and glaze of the older examples of Hizen are inferior to the +Chinese, the former being thick and comparatively coarse, as we find it +in the accompanying specimen (<a href="#fig_129">Fig. 129</a>). Such are the early vases of the +Chrysanthemo-Pæonian family. They represent, apparently, the struggles +of workmen attempting to apply recently acquired knowledge to native +material: a further proof that when the Dutch opened their trade with +Japan the porcelain industry was still in its infancy. That the +manufacture improved with great rapidity is evident from such examples +as the dish (<a href="#fig_130">Fig. 130</a>), an admirable specimen of early Gosai, or +Nishikide. Only five colors were employed in its decoration: black for +the outlines; red, green, gold, and blue, as we find them on Mr. Pruyn’s +dish, where the design in green and gold is laid upon a ground of red +and blue.</p> + +<p>In modern times the porcelain of Hizen includes some of the best coming +from Japan. To it we owe those exquisite specimens of a double art, +trays and vessels of porcelain, decorated with flowers and birds in +raised enamels, encased in a cover of bamboo wicker-work.</p> + +<p>The rich beauty of the coloring of Hizen porcelain is indescribable. One +vase has birds and flowers freely disposed over its surface; another has +reserved panels with birds and chrysanthemums in relief, and a third has +birds and flowers on a ground of gold, and set in an open border. The +desire to imitate<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">{178}</a></span> objects in shape as well as color animates the +porcelain makers of Hizen equally with the potters of Satsuma. We find +bowls in the form of chrysanthemums, with the turtle, emblem of +longevity, on the cover. One of these is decorated with stripes of blue, +red, green, and yellow, and the favorite flowers and insects in enamel +colors. The rare and very handsome example of the striped style of +decoration here given (<a href="#fig_131">Fig. 131</a>) was obtained at the Lyons sale, and is +presumed to be Hizen. The ground is a rich, clear blue, and the cranes, +foam of the sea, and stripes on the neck are in white relief. One is +anxious to find the sentiment embodied in such admirable work; and it is +possible that the piece may originally have been meant to convey a wish +for long life—by its symbol, the crane—amidst the mutations of life, +symbolized by the foam of the ever-changing sea.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_131" id="fig_131"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 153px;"> +<a href="images/illpg178a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg178a_sml.jpg" width="153" height="226" alt="Fig. 131.—Hizen Vase. Blue Ground; White Decoration. +Height, 13½ in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 131.—Hizen Vase. Blue Ground; White Decoration. +Height, 13½ in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_132" id="fig_132"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;"> +<a href="images/illpg178b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg178b_sml.jpg" width="153" height="334" alt="Fig. 132.—Japanese Porcelain Vase. (H. C. Gibson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 132.—Japanese Porcelain Vase. (H. C. Gibson Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Another piece, about which nothing certain is known, is the vase (Fig. +132) from Mr. Gibson’s collection. It is a marvel of patient and skilful +labor, and tells its story, no doubt, if the means of reading it were +only within reach. The lattice of gold hangs as fine as gossamer over +the figures, with sufficient transparency to leave the inside scene +distinctly visible.</p> + +<p>To return to the modern pieces known to be Hizen, the bowls above +mentioned are supplemented by others shaped like pomegranates, and +profusely decorated, sometimes both inside and outside, with flowers, +insignia, and the imperial bird, or with vines and flowers in gold and +crimson. All<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_179" id="page_179">{179}</a></span> family relationship is forgotten in the boundless variety +of the designs. A charming illustration of the refined taste of the +porcelain manufacturers of Arita was shown at the Centennial Exhibition. +It consisted of a set of three small oviform vases of a very delicate +blue tint, and having white dragons for handles.</p> + +<p>The ware called Seidji is the Japanese <i>céladon</i>, and is decorated after +the style seen in China, <i>i. e.</i>, with designs graved in the paste. It +has been made in Hizen ever since Shonsui settled in that province (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> +1580).</p> + +<p>Leaving Arita, in the mean time, there are several other centres +demanding notice. The blue Sometsuki is also made in Owari and Kioto. +With the latter is associated a distinctive ware called Eraku, from its +inventor, in which gold decoration is laid upon a red ground. When +Indian-ink and the colors of the Nishikide are found on Kioto porcelain, +it resembles very closely that of Hizen. Green, blue, and gold are +frequently mingled. As in other Japanese centres, the tendency to seek +nature, either for suggestion or imitation, manifests itself at Kioto. +Vases with crabs and shells, moulded and painted from nature, remind us +of the “Palissy pottery, with raised fishes and fruit,” of which Sir R. +Alcock speaks.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_133" id="fig_133"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 237px;"> +<a href="images/illpg179_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg179_sml.jpg" width="237" height="214" alt="Fig. 133.—Kaga Ware. Decoration, Red and Gold. (A. A. +Vantine & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 133.—Kaga Ware. Decoration, Red and Gold. (A. A. +Vantine & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Somewhat similar to Eraku is the porcelain of Kaga. One quality (Fig. +133) of the latter has gold decorations on red or black grounds, mingled +with flowers or birds traced either in red or black, according to the +ground. On another quality the painting outlined in black is executed in +enamel colors, resembling those already described as in use at Arita. +The result is exceedingly rich. One specimen is described by Mr. Jarves +(“Art of Japan”), and is in the possession of Mr. Sutton, of New York. +On the outside are two men holding a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_180" id="page_180">{180}</a></span> conversation on the bank of a +stream. In the inside, in Chinese characters—adopted by the Japanese in +the third century—of the minutest size, is the following explanatory +legend: “Kutzen had already taken his leave, and was wandering by the +side of the river, in a sorrowful and dejected manner, when he met a +fisherman, who said, ‘Why do you come here? You are the chief retainer +of King Sâ.’ Then Kutzen replied, ‘The men of the world are all alike, +and as impure water, but I am pure; they are all drunk, but I am sober; +therefore I come here.’ Then the fisherman said, ‘An ancient sage has +said, that if we mix and associate with the men of the world, we shall +become as impure as they are; if they are all drunk, we shall be drunk +also, and drink the sediment of their drink; if they are dirty, we shall +be dirty also, and stir up the mud.’ Then Kutzen replied, ‘It is an +ancient saying, that when we dress our hair, we necessarily rub the dust +off our cap; when we bathe in hot water, we necessarily shake the dust +off our clothes; thus, when our hearts become pure, we shake off all +defilement. I would rather throw myself into the river, and become food +for the fishes, than to be defiled by thee!’ Then the fisherman went +away smiling, and, striking the gunwale of his boat, sang: ‘So, when the +waters of Soro are clean, I will wash my cap-strings; when the waters of +Soro are dirty, I will wash my feet.’”</p> + +<p>Another cup, also in Mr. Sutton’s collection, of a somewhat similar +shape, <i>i. e.</i>, narrow and high, has the inside almost entirely covered +with these minute characters. It is well-nigh impossible to trace with +the eye those near the bottom, and an estimate can thus be made of the +difficulty of forming them with the brush.</p> + +<p>The decoration particularly characteristic of Kaga porcelain is the +multiplication of portraits. Occasionally we find medallions of flowers +set in colored borders, or fishes on the inside of both vessel and +cover, and vines and flowers on the outside; but the style most +intimately associated with Kaga is the marvellously minute and highly +finished painting of a crowd of faces. We have seen whole tea-sets thus +covered with what were said to be portraits of the poets of the Mikado’s +empire, executed with the most perfect finish upon a ground of pure +gold. On the inside of one shallow dish there were no fewer than +sixty-five portraits, on a ground of gold, and on the outside was a +landscape set in flowers. A plaque of the same ware had eighty<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_181" id="page_181">{181}</a></span> figures, +on a gold ground, surrounding a medallion with flying birds. The +porcelain chosen for these curious and wonderful works is generally +thick and of inferior quality, but the effect of the red and gold +grounds, occasionally alternated with blue, is unquestionably rich.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_134" id="fig_134"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<a href="images/illpg181_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg181_sml.jpg" width="152" height="351" alt="Fig. 134.—Owari Porcelain, decorated at Yeddo. (Yoshida +Kiyonari Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 134.—Owari Porcelain, decorated at Yeddo. (Yoshida +Kiyonari Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>At Owari, the favorite colors would appear to be deep-blue and white, +the former being generally used as a ground, the latter for +ornamentation. The seat of the manufacture is Seto, a village near +Nagoya, the chief town of the province of Owari. Many of the heavy +vessels now manufactured at Seto have no artistic quality to recommend +them, but smaller specimens of great beauty may occasionally be met +with. A small vase, for example, has the base of deep blue, the body of +a paler shade, and the upper part deepening into a purplish tint. In +some cases the white decoration is in relief.</p> + +<p>The porcelain and pottery reaching us from Yeddo (<a href="#fig_134">Fig. 134</a>), or Tokio, +is largely composed of the different provincial products. They are taken +to that city to be decorated, and it is almost impossible in the great +majority of cases to specify the place of manufacture.</p> + +<p>Two remarkable methods of decorating porcelain bring us to lacquer-work +and cloisonné enamel. Lacquer is a sap or gum drawn by tapping from the +<i>Rhus vernicifera</i>, a tree cultivated for this special purpose +throughout the entire southern half of Japan. After settling, the +lacquer is mixed with certain coloring and hardening powders, and +strained. The black quality is made by exposing the viscous gum for a +few days to the open air, and then diluting it with water which has been +for some time mixed with iron filings. The greater part of the water is +then allowed to evaporate, and the process having been completed, the +lacquer is ready for use. The ornamentation consists either of +mother-of-pearl, ivory, or metal<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_182" id="page_182">{182}</a></span> sunk into the lacquer before it +hardens, or of painting. A pair of tall Arita vases (<a href="#fig_135">Fig. 135</a>) which +were exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition are examples of this work. +Cloisonné enamel on porcelain (Figs. 136 and 137) is to be regarded +chiefly as a curiosity of workmanship, and as an example of the +irresistible tendency discoverable in Japanese artists to cope with +mechanical difficulty, since the very same effects are produced with +greater ease upon a metal base. Fine metallic lines divide the surface +into spaces or cells shaped according to the details of the design, and +are fixed to the biscuit by means of a fusible glass. The compartments +are then filled with vitrifiable enamels. These adhere after firing, and +help in keeping the cells in position. The chief places of manufacture +are Owari, Kioto, Osaka, and Tokio.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_135" id="fig_135"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 121px;"> +<a href="images/illpg182a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg182a_sml.jpg" width="121" height="402" alt="Fig. 135.—Lacquer on Arita Porcelain. Height, 8 ft. 8 +in. (Corcoran Art Gallery.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 135.—Lacquer on Arita Porcelain. Height, 8 ft. 8 +in. (Corcoran Art Gallery.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_136" id="fig_136"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<a href="images/illpg182b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg182b_sml.jpg" width="133" height="213" alt="Fig. 136.—Tokio Cloisonné Enamel. (Sutton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 136.—Tokio Cloisonné Enamel. (Sutton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The system of classification which has hitherto been followed has been +adopted mainly in view of the modern manufactures of Japan. In looking +at its more ancient wares, the place of manufacture being, us a rule, +unknown, the method of assortment usually adopted is that based upon +general characteristics and marked features of resemblance.</p> + +<p>Following the Chinese parallel, there are, as we have said, +Chrysanthemo-Pæonian and Rose families, but no Green. The symbols, +whether consisting of flowers or animals, are the best and safest +indications of the origin of the piece. Many of the finest specimens +belong to the Rose family, and it may as well be stated at the outset +that, in spite of the most careful examination, it is sometimes +impossible to ascribe its representatives to a certain<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_183" id="page_183">{183}</a></span> origin, and to +discriminate between the works belonging to China and those of Japan. It +follows, that the finer pieces are at least equal to anything China has +produced. The Japanese used to say that human bones formed one of the +ingredients of the paste, and a meaning can easily be found for the +phrase in the vast amount of labor demanded by its preparation. +Specimens of the best qualities are as plentiful in Europe as in Japan: +perhaps they may become more so, should the revival now expected not +fulfil the hopes entertained regarding it.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_137" id="fig_137"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<a href="images/illpg183a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg183a_sml.jpg" width="133" height="212" alt="Fig. 137.—Owari Cloisonné Enamel. (Sutton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 137.—Owari Cloisonné Enamel. (Sutton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_138" id="fig_138"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 154px;"> +<a href="images/illpg183b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg183b_sml.jpg" width="154" height="218" alt="Fig. 138.—Japanese Vase. White, Red, Rose, and Green. +Blossoms on Left; White Enamel Raised. Height, 6½ in. (Robert H. Pruyn +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 138.—Japanese Vase. White, Red, Rose, and Green. +Blossoms on Left; White Enamel Raised. Height, 6½ in. (Robert H. Pruyn +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Jacquemart classes all the fine porcelain of Japan under the Rose +family, to which would, therefore, belong the vase (<a href="#fig_138">Fig. 138</a>) with white +enamel decoration in relief. The subdivision of the family into vitreous +and artistic porcelain, leads us to examine the grounds upon which it is +made. The distinction between the two classes is based upon the styles +of decoration. In both qualities the paste is very translucent, and the +colors are pure and clear. The decoration of the vitreous is sparing, +and of most careful execution, as though the artist were desirous of +giving full effect to the natural beauty of the ware in its unadorned +purity. Decorations of this kind gradually merge into more elaborate +designs, in which flowers are strewn in careless grace over the +opalescent paste, or animals are represented in gold and red. In the +artistic porcelain the decoration partakes more of the Chinese intricacy +and richness of color. Red, blue, green, yellow, and black mingle in +scenes in which appear birds, figures, and flowers surrounded by deep +and delicately shaded borders. It is inferred, from the gradually +increasing elaboration of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_184" id="page_184">{184}</a></span> the designs, that the vitreous preceded the +artistic, and that the latter, while tolerably distinct from the Chinese +Rose, is the result of Chinese influence.</p> + +<p>By reason of his faulty chronology, M. Jacquemart’s inference is open to +question, although in the present case he appears to have reached a +partial truth. The condition of both China and Japan, as it can be +gleaned from history, detracts somewhat from the probability of the +assumptions of the author mentioned. Europeans first landed in Japan in +1542—almost contemporaneously with the earliest manufacture of +porcelain—and, in 1549, the first missionaries followed. In about +thirty years (1581) one hundred and fifty thousand converts had been +made, and, in 1583, an embassy was sent to the Pope by the daimios of +Kiusiu. This is the Japanese embassy referred to by Mr. Marryat, as +having taken place in 1584, on which occasion statuettes of the Virgin +and Child, made by the Chinese for the Japanese Christians, were sent to +Europe. But foreign intrigue and sectarianism soon culminated, and, in +1587, Hideyoshi banished all foreign missionaries. The work of +proselytism was still carried on in private by the Jesuits, and, in +1596, a number of missionaries and converts were crucified at Nagasaki, +in Hizen. The history of the next forty years is a narrative of +desperate contention between the missionaries and converts on the one +side, and the government on the other. The drama may be said to close +with the massacre already referred to, which took place in 1637, when +thousands of Christians were put to the sword, and thousands more were +drowned in the harbor of Nagasaki.</p> + +<p>Mr. Marryat says that the interference of the missionaries with the +decoration of porcelain, by substituting scriptural subjects for the +“ancient orthodox native patterns which had existed from time +immemorial,” is supposed to have contributed to the massacre. In +connection with this subject the same author quotes from D’Entrecolles, +who states that a plate with a biblical subject was brought to him, and +that he was told this porcelain was formerly carried to Japan, but that +none had been made for sixteen or seventeen years; that apparently the +Christians of Japan had made use of this manufacture during the +persecution, but that discovery led to a stoppage of the traffic, and +that, in consequence, these works had been discontinued at +King-tehchin.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">{185}</a></span> Mr. Marryat then refers to the Chinese pieces sent with +the Japanese embassy to Europe. Assuming the statements in these +passages to be correct, it is well to bear in mind that they refer to +three distinct fabrics. To arrange them chronologically, the last +mentioned is the porcelain made by China for Japan, before its own +porcelain industry was well established, or before it had, at least, +been fully developed. This supports the statement that porcelain was not +made in Japan until shortly before the middle of the sixteenth century. +Otherwise, the question will at once occur, Why, if porcelain had been +made in Japan since the thirteenth century, should China be supplying it +with religious figures before any steps had been taken in Japan against +the new religion? The first of these measures, as we have seen, was the +decree of Hideyoshi, passed in 1587. The porcelain first referred to by +Mr. Marryat comes second in point of time, and is the porcelain assumed +to have been made in Japan, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, +for the Christian converts. The second is, chronologically, the last, +and is the porcelain made in China, about 1755, for the same people, +secretly adhering to their religion one hundred and twenty years after +the supposed extirpation of Christianity in Japan. Père d’Entrecolles +was attached to the King-teh-chin mission, about 1770.</p> + +<p>While the religious troubles above detailed were keeping Japan in a +continual ferment, China was disturbed by the incursion of the Tartars +and the usurpation of the Tai-thsing Dynasty.</p> + +<p>In Japan we have, therefore, an undisturbed period of not more than +fifty years (1540-1587) favorable to the development of that originality +which, according to Jacquemart, preceded the imitations of Chinese work. +Some singular evidence, which may be read, in one sense, to the same +general effect, has been brought together by Mr. B. Phillips, in the +<i>Art Journal</i>, in an article devoted to the Medicean porcelain in the +Castellani collection. He says that two Japanese experts examined the +specimen engraved (<a href="#fig_223">Fig. 223</a>), and pronounced the decoration Japanese. +The style they attributed to Shonsui, and said that it was in use toward +the middle and close of the sixteenth century. A piece made by Shonsui +bore out the statement, it having similar decorations, even to the +flutings, which had been shaded after the same method. If the Medicean +bowl be examined,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">{186}</a></span> simplicity will be found to be the most marked +characteristic of the decoration; and it is clear that it must have been +copied from some Japanese porcelain made not later than 1580.</p> + +<p>It may, therefore, be accepted as an incontestable fact, that there was +an essentially Japanese style of decoration, in the sixteenth century, +applied to the blue Sometsuki, the porcelain destined for the home +market. This leaves the question of precedence between the vitreous and +artistic porcelains of the Rose family practically unaffected. The +probabilities are all against M. Jacquemart’s, or any other unqualified, +theory of chronological sequence. The natural course is to proceed from +copying to originality. Japan had acquired the ceramic art from China. +Was it not likely to occupy its attention first with copying the simpler +styles of its experienced neighbor, while feeling after an equally +simple originality, such as the Italians copied in their turn? From the +first it may have had foreign taste to contend with, although very +little is said of a Portuguese trade in porcelain. Then came religious +troubles to delay the development of a national art, and, before they +were over, the dynastic war in China, causing a suspension of production +in that country, offered an inducement to supply a new market, and thus +again delayed the national development. One historical fact remains to +be added: In the “<i>Ambassades Mémorables</i>,” published at Amsterdam in +1680, we find allusion made to porcelain sent from the Dutch +trading-post at Deshima, which did not sell well, <i>because it had not +flowers enough upon it</i>. This clearly cannot refer to the “artistic” +porcelain of Jacquemart, with its rich borders and crowded flowers. The +only inference from all that can be said and legitimately assumed is, +that the Hizen porcelain of the beginning of the seventeenth century is +that which most nearly resembles the Chinese. To that period, therefore, +may chiefly be assigned those rich pieces of Japanese Rose which have +been confounded with the Chinese. When, afterward, the native taste for +simplicity was striving to reassert itself, it was again obstructed by +the demands of Dutch trade, and the requirements of such connoisseurs as +Wagenaar, who objected to a paucity of flowers. It follows that many +specimens of the vitreous class must have been subsequent to the +artistic. From the beginning of the history of Japanese porcelain +external influences were at war with native taste, and, in determining<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_187" id="page_187">{187}</a></span> +the sequence of styles, the only data open to consultation are the +events ostensibly giving rise to them—the demand creating the +supply—and the probable condition of the skill required to meet that +demand.</p> + +<p>The porcelain long called “Indian” belongs to the same period of +Japanese art, and was taken home in ship-loads by the Dutch monopolists +of the seventeenth century. The foreigners, not content with compelling, +by the influence of trade, a bending of Japanese styles to their taste, +supplied special designs. These were reproduced by the Japanese artists +with the most exact and faithful precision.</p> + +<p>A story is told by Captain French, of New York, that when in China some +years ago, he saw fit to increase his wardrobe to the extent of a new +coat. He had some difficulty with the native artist of the shears, and +ultimately decided to send him an old coat as a pattern. In due time the +new garment was finished, and so closely had the pattern been followed, +that the sleeves were adorned with a couple of patches which had been +applied to the old coat to prolong its natural term of service to the +end of a protracted voyage. The Japanese artists were equally +unreasoning in their adherence to designs supplied from Holland. They +laid them upon the porcelain in all their crudity and roughness, and +treated imperfections as the tailor did the patches—reproduced them +with the most serious and unwavering fidelity to their model. Contact +with foreign nations has never had any other than a bad effect upon +Japanese art, excepting, of course, its early intercourse with China. +The genius of the people has been diverted from its natural channel. Art +has been in a manner subjugated by commerce. Hence came gloomy +forebodings and threatened ruin. Whenever it had an opportunity of +seeking free expression it changed its character. Instead, therefore, of +classifying Japanese porcelain according to the families above +mentioned, a better method might be to divide it into two great groups, +the national and the commercial. A great part of the so-called artistic +porcelain of the Rose family will belong to the latter class. It can +only be distinguished from the Chinese by observing the points already +noticed: the paste, the glaze, the greater purity of the enamel colors, +the insignia, symbols, and flowers. Even these will fail at times, as +the Chinese, led away by the improvements effected by the Japanese in +imitating<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">{188}</a></span> their styles, did not hesitate to appropriate those of Japan; +while Japan, we are told, imports Chinese egg-shell for decoration.</p> + +<p>Apart from these doubtful pieces, we can see, in both the old and modern +porcelain of Japan, national characteristics struggling with many +difficulties to reach artistic expression. We find technical skill +handling the finest material, shaping it into graceful form, and +decorating it with carefully compounded colors of the greatest beauty. +The true history of Japanese art is the history of the art we have +called national; all else is but the prostitution of individual genius +to commerce. In the former we find simplicity and piety mingled with a +humor often quaintly clothed in clay. There is abundant material for +research, for study and close examination. The art of Japan has many +peculiarities, and will give an observer ideas of artistic beauty and +æsthetic taste which an American or European education would never +suggest. In it we find, above all things, a deep love and admiration of +nature. All this is contained in the lines of the Laureate of the +Potter, which are charged with the very essence of Japanese art:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“All the bright flowers that fill the land,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Ripple of waves on rock or sand,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The snow on Fusiyama’s cone,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The midnight heaven, so thickly sown<br /></span> +<span class="i1">With constellations of bright stars,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The leaves that rustle, the reeds that make<br /></span> +<span class="i1">A whisper by each stream and lake,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The saffron dawn, the sunset red,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Are painted on these lovely jars.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Again the skylark sings, again<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The stork, the heron, and the crane<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Float through the azure overhead,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The counterfeit and counterpart<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Of nature reproduced in art.”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_189" id="page_189">{189}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII-b2" id="CHAPTER_VIII-b2"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br /> +<small>PERSIA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Persia, and its Influence.—History.—Conquests.—Religious +Revolutions.—Zoroaster.—Mohammed.—Geographical +Position.—General View of Influences bearing upon +Art.—Decoration.—Flowers and Symbols.—Conventional +Styles.—Whence came the Monsters Appearing upon Wares.—Metallic +Lustre.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_139" id="fig_139"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg189_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg189_sml.jpg" width="296" height="288" alt="Fig. 139.—Persian Faience Plaque. (Robert Hoe, Jr., +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 139.—Persian Faience Plaque. (Robert Hoe, Jr., +Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>I<small>T</small> is unfortunate, considering the great importance of Persia in the +history of ceramic art, that it should have been a debatable ground to +travellers and ceramists. Of the extended influence of Persia upon +neighboring countries there can be no doubt. The Arabs acquired from +that people much of the knowledge which they subsequently brought to +Europe, and which will be treated of more fully as Saracenic and +Mauresque. Persia gave a language to the Mussulmans of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">{190}</a></span> India, and +supplied her with at least suggestions in the plastic art. Her art, in +fact, spread far beyond the wide bounds of that empire, which extended +from India on the east to the Mediterranean on the west, and from the +Black Sea and Caucasian range on the north to the Persian Gulf and +Arabian Sea. To have an exact knowledge of the problems with which we +have now to deal, the several great revolutions recorded in the history +of Persia may be briefly summarized. These changes were both religious +and political in character. Beginning with Cyrus the Great, we find the +empire as above described, about the year <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 559, when Media became +tributary to Persia, into which other kingdoms were afterward merged in +quick succession. The empire lasted until <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 331, when Alexander the +Great included Persia in his grand series of Asiatic conquests. On +Alexander’s death, when the tributaries of Macedonia were divided, +Seleucus Nicanor obtained Persia for his share; and the Grecian dynasty +lasted until the Parthians revolted, and met with such success that a +Parthian dynasty was founded which lasted for nearly five hundred years. +This brings us down to the year 229 of our era, when Artaxerxes headed a +revolt and laid the foundation of the second Persian empire. This is +known as the Sassanian Dynasty, which held the sovereignty until the +incursion of the Arabs, more than four hundred years later. Persian +independence was reasserted after the lapse of a second period of four +hundred years, and lasted until Genghis Khan and Tamerlane successively +brought it under Mogul domination. The succeeding wars with Afghans, +Turks, and Russians need not here be detailed.</p> + +<p>The two great religious revolutions were occasioned by the adoption of +the doctrines of Zoroaster and Mohammed. The first of these appears to +have suddenly emerged from the comparative obscurity of the court of +Bactria—a country situated upon the eastern confines of ancient +Persia—and to have led the Persians to renounce their gross idolatry. +The leading tenets of his creed were the existence of a supreme being, +eternity, and the contending principles Ormuzd and Ahriman, good +symbolized by light and evil by darkness. The never-ceasing contention +between these two opposite principles is often represented by a bull and +a lion in conflict. The cypress was Zoroaster’s emblem. This religion +took a deep hold upon the Persians, and the first serious shock which it +sustained was from the religion founded<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_191" id="page_191">{191}</a></span> by Mohammed in the wilds of +Arabia Petræa. Of the two Mussulman sects, Schiites and Sunnites, +created by the dissensions following upon the Prophet’s death, as to the +choice of a successor, the Persians preferred the former, and are +believers in Ali. The Turks, on the other hand, are Sunnites, believers +in the legitimate succession of Abubeker, Omar, and Osman. Propagandism +by the help of the sword being the privilege and virtue of the believers +in the Prophet, it is not astonishing that Turk and Persian should have +met in the argument of battle.</p> + +<p>Coming next to the geographical position of Persia, it intercepted, in +its ancient extent, all communication between East and West. The vast +extent of territory owning its sway, stretching nearly three thousand +miles east and west, and two thousand miles north and south, must needs +be traversed by travellers between Europe and the extreme East. Long +before navigators had found the ocean highway round the Cape, Persia +received all the traffic from India, China, and Japan passing through +the Persian Gulf to Europe.</p> + +<p>Let us now take in all that has here been stated, at one glance, and we +shall see clearly why Persian ceramic art has been viewed with doubt. +Overrun successively by Greeks, Parthians, Arabs, Moguls, and Turks; +widening and contracting its boundaries as the tide of conquest ebbed +and flowed; lending to India, and probably borrowing from it; taking +part, at one time, in the Zoroastrian worship of fire, and, at another, +in the Mohammedan praise of Allah; connected, through trade, with the +far East on the one hand and with Europe on the other, Persia was +pre-eminently a country to confuse the investigator by the mingled +types, symbols, and ideas which it derived alike from conqueror and +trader. One fact of peculiar interest remains to be added. When, in the +middle of the thirteenth century, Hulaku Khan came to Persia, he brought +among his Mogul followers a number of Chinese artisans. The Mogul +territory touched the western boundaries of China, so that it is quite +possible, that to the specimens of Chinese porcelain brought to Persia +by sea may have been added a number of Chinese artists and potters +arriving with the Moguls by land. In view of these facts it is not +difficult to account for the prevalence in Persia of imitations of the +Chinese, nor is it altogether incomprehensible that a question should +have been raised whether what is called Persian porcelain is not in +reality Chinese.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_192" id="page_192">{192}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_140" id="fig_140"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 226px;"> +<a href="images/illpg192a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg192a_sml.jpg" width="226" height="222" alt="Fig. 140.—Persian Plaque. Crimson Pæony in Centre; +Foliage and Ground in various Shades of Green. (Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 140.—Persian Plaque. Crimson Pæony in Centre; +Foliage and Ground in various Shades of Green. (Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Persian decoration is rich in flowers (<a href="#fig_140">Fig. 140</a>), for which that people +entertained a liking amounting almost to a passion. The tulip meant +love. Of the other symbolical forms found on pottery, the lion and bull +and the cypress have already been explained. The sun was the Zoroastrian +emblem of divinity, and the royal arms consisted of the lion couchant, +with its head turned toward the rising sun.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_141" id="fig_141"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;"> +<a href="images/illpg192b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg192b_sml.jpg" width="204" height="210" alt="Fig. 141.—Persian Plaque. Central Section, Blue; Side +Section, Green; Scroll-work, Brown. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 141.—Persian Plaque. Central Section, Blue; Side +Section, Green; Scroll-work, Brown. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The various styles of decoration may all be qualified by one +word—conventional. Although on the earlier pieces the human figure is +found, with the Mussulman sway it disappears, to make way for hybrid +monsters resembling the half-human beings of mythology—compounds of +women and birds, men with horns and tails, like the satyrs of Greece, +and numberless other supernatural monsters illustrative of the artists’ +compromise with the Mohammedan behest forbidding the representation of +the human form or of living beings. Even the greatly loved flowers +suffer in both tint and form from the artists of Persia. Colors were +used in a precisely similar spirit. Nature was sought for suggestion, +not for imitation. The question of color was decided solely with an eye +to effect; and if a violet horse should harmonize with its surroundings +better than a black, gray, sorrel, or bay, the fact that in<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">{193}</a></span> nature no +such color is found on horses was not held to be a legitimate objection +to its use. In Persia, therefore, we are presented with a peculiar phase +of art. Nature, being followed neither in form nor color, nor in the +suggestive manner of the Japanese, which finds the highest art in the +combination of resemblance and imagination, is relegated to the position +of a promptress, and not of a guide. In richness and harmonious blending +of arbitrary colors, the Persian artist realized his highest dream, and +never forgot that, no matter what natural object might enter into his +design, the ornamentation of pottery was surface decoration, and nothing +more.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding to the usual divisions hitherto observed, there is one +point demanding special attention, viz., the Persian <i>reflet +métallique</i>, or metallic lustre. The use of metallic-lustre pigments +was, as has been already stated, known in the Balearic Islands, and gave +the <i>original</i> majolica its distinctive appearance. Long before that +date the process was known to the Persians in connection with silicious +glaze. The metallic lustre has also been found on Arabian specimens. It +is in Persia, however, that we must, in all likelihood, look for its +origin. The date of its invention cannot be fixed with even an +approximation to precision. The probability is that it was never very +extensively used, and the specimens obtained are mostly fragmentary. +Many of these are from the ruins of Rhages, a city which stood about +seventy miles south of the Caspian Sea. Earthquake and conquest +successively laid this city in ruins, and each time that it was rebuilt +its limits became more contracted. It was finally destroyed during the +Mogul irruption under Hulaku Khan, in 1250, and it is from the ruins +beyond the city of that era that the above mentioned fragments have been +taken. In fixing the origin, therefore, of metallic lustre, the latest +date would be six hundred and twenty-seven years ago, the most remote +perhaps over two thousand. The metallic-lustre pigments were made use of +as late as the time of Shah Abbas, who reigned from 1555 to 1628, and +whom Jacquemart calls the “Louis XIV. of Iran.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_194" id="page_194">{194}</a></span>”</p> + +<h4>POTTERY.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Composition.—Caution in Looking at Specimens.—Wall-Tiles and +their Decoration.—Vases.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_142" id="fig_142"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 217px;"> +<a href="images/illpg194_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg194_sml.jpg" width="217" height="373" alt="Fig. 142.—Shrine of Imam Hussein, at Kerbela. Showing +the Use of Tiles in Persian Architecture." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 142.—Shrine of Imam Hussein, at Kerbela. Showing +the Use of Tiles in Persian Architecture.</span> +</div> + +<p>Chemical experiments have shown that in one kind of Persian paste there +is a large preponderance of silex, that when fired for a certain time +the result is a faience, and that a continued exposure to the kiln +reduces it to a partially translucent body resembling porcelain. Some of +the tiles show silica ranging about ninety per cent., and the remaining +fraction consisting of alumina and iron, lime, magnesia, and potash. By +comparison with the porcelain standard adopted in the table (Book I., +Chapter iii.), it will be seen that this paste differs in the greater +proportion of silica and in the presence of iron. It differs from +earthen-ware, on the other hand, by its containing magnesia and potash. +The faience of Persia must, therefore, be treated with extreme caution; +and the authorities must be consulted with care, since what one calls +pottery, another treats of as soft porcelain. Of that coming most nearly +to what we understand by the word “faience”—that is, a perfectly opaque +ware—some of the specimens are glazed, and others are covered with only +a thin lustre or varnish. Very fine examples are found in the wall-tiles +taken from the different mosques. The same style of ornament was +applied<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_195" id="page_195">{195}</a></span> to these and to vases, and its general character has already +been designated. Arabesques and flowers—some imitations of the natural +and others altogether conventional—are profusely spread upon both, with +a boundless wealth of rich color. The forms assumed by the various +vessels differ very widely from each other. Cups, open dishes with rims +of varying breadth, and a number of water-vessels illustrate certain +manners of the Persians. The color and ornamentation are distinctive. +The favorite ground colors were the blues of copper and cobalt, and +these alternate with red, and yellow tinged with red. The ornamentation +is very often white. The Mosque of Sultaneah has already been described +(see page 39). In others the colors are reversed, <i>i. e.</i>, white is used +for the ground and blue for the decoration. At times we see the Persian +love of the chase triumphing over the Mohammedan prohibition of the +employment of animal figures, by the introduction of hares or gazelles, +generally upon grounds of light shades of green and blue. Some of the +most remarkable plaques belong to the same period, and in both the +earlier and later examples the coloring is exceedingly rich and +effective. What the latter lose in simplicity they gain in brilliancy. +Some pieces, apparently of great age, have a close resemblance to the +céladon of China. The vases <i>a reflet métallique</i> are either blue, or +white with yellow ornamentation. The art of applying the lustre seems to +have disappeared about the middle of the seventeenth century. The tiles +of this kind date mostly from the time of the Mogul Dynasty. The larger +plaques measure sometimes six feet by eight feet; the smaller tiles +without inscriptions are star and cross shaped fitted together in a +mosaic.</p> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Had Persia a True Porcelain?—Classification, and the Difficulties +Attending It.—Decoration.—Classes Formed by Prevailing Color.</p></div> + +<p>Although the discussion was long maintained, whether or not Persia +produced a true kaolinic porcelain, there seems to be no real ground for +doubting that such was the case. That India produced porcelain we have +already seen, and it becomes a question whether the art was not +practised elsewhere in Central Asia. The evidence bearing upon<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_196" id="page_196">{196}</a></span> the +point clearly shows that Persia possessed the materials for making a +pure kaolinic porcelain. The presence of Chinese works and styles does +not affect the question. These may either have been the work of Persian +artists imitating Chinese models, or of Chinese artists working in +Persian material. The Persians call porcelain <i>tchini</i>, a name clearly +indicating that in one of the above ways they were indebted to the +Chinese.</p> + +<p>By reason of the qualities of the paste already noted, the +classification of Persian porcelain is a matter of some difficulty. The +analysis which could alone decide the class to which the specimens +belong is in a great measure wanting. It may be inferred that two +pieces, apparently distinct in composition, may be really identical, and +representative merely of the successive changes effected by firing upon +the silicious paste. The most ancient kind is not older than the +Mussulman incursion. When subjected to a great heat it melts like glass.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_143" id="fig_143"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 165px;"> +<a href="images/illpg196a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg196a_sml.jpg" width="165" height="218" alt="Fig. 143.—Persian Porcelain Wine Bottle. Decoration in +Blue. (Jacquemart Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 143.—Persian Porcelain Wine Bottle. Decoration in +Blue. (Jacquemart Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_144" id="fig_144"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<a href="images/illpg196b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg196b_sml.jpg" width="177" height="254" alt="Fig. 144.—Porcelain Narghili." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 144.—Porcelain Narghili.</span> +</div> + +<p>What is called “soft porcelain” is not, properly speaking, a distinct +variety. It differs from the others in decoration, but not to any +perceptible extent in composition. The paste is very translucent, and +the glaze even. The external decoration is frequently blue or a tint of +mixed brown and yellow, upon which appear flowers and arabesques (Fig. +143). Cups and basins are the shapes most frequently occurring, and the +first decorative feature is that the outside and inside are seldom +alike. The latter may<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_197" id="page_197">{197}</a></span> be white, with copper-lust re decoration, and the +outside may be in either of the two colors above mentioned. A style of +decoration very widely followed consists of a series of holes cut in the +paste round the rim of the basin or bowl, and filled in with the glaze. +This method was adopted at a very early period, and reappears in the +“grains of rice” work of China. A later specimen—probably not more than +two hundred years old—of Persian “soft” porcelain has its upper and +lower parts in blue and white, with lustred ornamentation.</p> + +<p>Persian natural porcelain, about which writers have disputed, and called +by the Persians <i>tchini</i>, is closely related to the Chinese. An entire +class is characterized by its decoration of incised lines and blue +painting under the glaze. The paste is somewhat coarse, and lacks +cohesion. As to the antiquity of this quality, all that can be said is +that it was produced a long time prior to the fifteenth century. Red and +gold are seldom employed with blue, but rather characterize a distinct +class. Green was much more indiscriminately employed, as, for example, +with blue, brown, red, and gold. The céladons are to be distinguished +from the Chinese, not by the color—for they show the beautiful old +green of their Chinese counterparts—but by the design and form. All +that remains to be added is, that, like every other people to whom the +higher secrets of ceramic art were open, the Persians attached a very +great value to the best works in both porcelain and pottery. The former +is, in their literature, constantly associated with gold and other +precious materials.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">{198}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="BOOK_III_EUROPE" id="BOOK_III_EUROPE"></a>BOOK III.—EUROPE.</h2> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I-b3" id="CHAPTER_I-b3"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> +<small>THE FOUNTAINS OF EUROPEAN ART.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Routes by which Art Travelled.—Their Point of +Convergence.—Cyprus: Its History.—The Successive Nations +Governing It.—The Strata of Ancient Civilization found within its +Shores.—The Discoveries of +Cesnola.—Larnaca.—Dali.—Athieno.—Curium.—Progress of Cypriote +Pottery.—Early Greek Art: Its Connection with Assyria and +Egypt.—Phœnician and Assyrian Art.—General Deductions.—Asia +Minor.—Oriental Art turning in various Streams to Greece.—What +Greece Rejected, Persia Seized upon.—Persia’s Contributions to +Ceramic Art.—History in Reference to its Art.—Effect of +Conquest.—What Persia Taught the Arabs.—Spread of Persian Art by +the Saracens.—Rhodes.—Damascus.—Progress of Saracenic Art.—The +North of Africa.—Metallic Lustre and Stanniferous +Enamel.—Hispano-Moresque.—Early Spain.—Persian Influence upon +Europe.</p></div> + +<p>W<small>E</small> now approach a point in our history which stands within sight both of +the wonders of early Greece and of the beginnings in the Middle Ages of +the best ceramic art of Europe. From Persia, as a centre, art travelled +north and west by many devious routes ere it touched the European +shores. But behind the Persian is the older civilization of Babylonia +and Assyria, to whose glories it succeeded. We are thus once more +brought back to Egypt and Egyptian influences. After spreading to the +east they extended northward, and in Greece are met by others transmuted +by a passage through Assyria and Phœnicia, but springing from the +same prolific source on the banks of the Nile. Persia, after acquiring +from Egypt’s eastern pupils her earliest knowledge, adapted the lessons +thus derived to her own ideas, and spread it across the tracts already +followed by others who had learned directly from her teachers. From both +the south and east these lines of original and derivative art converged +toward one point, the eastern shores and islands of the Mediterranean +and Greece. To show how difficult<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">{199}</a></span> it is to disentangle the web of +footprints, let us glance at Cyprus, as revealed to us by the +discoveries of General Luigi Palma di Cesnola (<a href="#fig_145">Fig. 145</a>), and described +in his work upon “Its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples.” The record +may be read by all who visit the Metropolitan Museum of New York. We +choose Cyprus because it was virtually the meeting-place of the East +with the West. Assyrian, Egyptian, Phœnician, and Greek influences +contend for the mastery.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_145" id="fig_145"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg199_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg199_sml.jpg" width="285" height="376" alt="Fig. 145.—General Luigi Palma di Cesnola." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 145.—General Luigi Palma di Cesnola.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_146" id="fig_146"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 267px;"> +<a href="images/illpg200_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg200_sml.jpg" width="267" height="357" alt="Fig. 146.—Phœnician Vase, with Figure. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 146.—Phœnician Vase, with Figure. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>There is no certainty as to the derivation of the first settlers. They +may have been either Phœnicians or Cilicians, and thus only another +branch of the great Semitic family to which the Phœnicians belonged. +Or colonists may have arrived from Cilicia and Phœnicia at about the +same time. There is less reason for believing that any settlers came +from Egypt, although the first historical conquest of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_200" id="page_200">{200}</a></span> island was +effected by the Egyptians. This event took place about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 1440, during +the reign of Thothmes III. How long it remained under Egyptian control +does not exactly appear, but it next passed into the hands of the +Tyrians at a date prior to <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 1000. It was next conquered by Sargon, +King of Assyria, and when, about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 600, Apries, King of Egypt, took +Sidon, he included Cyprus in his conquest. Amasis, the successor and +murderer of Apries, completed the work of the latter. The Cypriotes then +turned for deliverance to Cambyses of Persia, and Cyprus became a +dependency of the great eastern power. Again the island was shaken by +revolt, and the greater part of its people joined the Ionians in an +unsuccessful attempt to throw off the Persian yoke. The Athenians and +Lacedæmonians, after taking a portion of Cyprus (<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 477), abandoned +their conquests. Then came the rebellion of Evagoras, King of Salamis, +whose father had been dispossessed by the Persians, the result of which +was that Evagoras recovered his own kingdom, but the island still +remained tributary to Persia. It then fell under the control of +Alexander of Macedon, and was held by his generals for a few years after +his death. Ptolemy Lagus, or Soter, again brought Cyprus under Egyptian +rule, and lastly came the arms of all-conquering Rome. We need go no +farther. We stand in Cyprus,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_201" id="page_201">{201}</a></span> upon a battle-field crossed by the armies +of every nation of antiquity with any claim to warlike renown, and find +in it at once the theme of ancient poets and the prize of ancient +warriors. So far we may travel in the track of war, but the history of +art is affected less by the conquest of battle than by permanent +occupancy and the more peaceful conquest of colonization. Thus we find +Phœnician art leaving a deeper impress upon Cyprus than any other, +and one to be detected even amidst the confusion of Semitic and Hellenic +remains. This art developed, on the one hand, into something bearing a +semblance of an independent Cypriote character, and, on the other, into +a form more distinctively Greek. Phœnicia was the country in which +the Assyrian and Egyptian elements of decorative art were combined, and +being brought on the other side into contact with Greece, the history of +Greek art is thus continued backward into a remote antiquity.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_147" id="fig_147"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 123px;"> +<a href="images/illpg201a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg201a_sml.jpg" width="123" height="143" alt="Fig. 147.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 147.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_148" id="fig_148"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/illpg201b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg201b_sml.jpg" width="186" height="158" alt="Fig. 148.—Phœnician Vase, from Dali, with +Phœnician Inscription. (Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 148.—Phœnician Vase, from Dali, with +Phœnician Inscription. (Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The early Phœnician settlers located themselves chiefly on the +southern and eastern sides of the island; the Greeks chose the north and +west. Both were evidently actuated by the same motive, viz., to give the +preference to the localities nearest the land from which they had come. +The Phœnicians founded Paphos, Amathus, and Citium; the Greeks +founded Salamis, Curium, Neo-Paphos, and several other towns. Tencer and +Agapenor, two of the Greek heroes from the Trojan war, settled in +Cyprus, and the island is thus introduced into Grecian legend. As time +passed, the Greek and Phœnician elements underwent a more or less +complete amalgamation. The Greek language became the prevailing tongue, +and the Phœnician religion became the common creed. Aphrodite, who +sprung from the foam of the sea, and was wafted to the shore of Cyprus, +was the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_202" id="page_202">{202}</a></span> Tyrian Astarte, the Assyrian Mylitta. Her worship extended over +the whole island, and was engaged in with all the licentious impurity of +the Oriental original. Greece rose as Phœnicia declined, and her +people spread beyond the limits of their ancestral settlements. One +civilization rose upon the ruins of another, and died in its turn; and +Cesnola found them piled one upon another in strata, to be opened up and +read like the stony leaves of the geologist’s book.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_149" id="fig_149"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;"> +<a href="images/illpg202_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg202_sml.jpg" width="146" height="256" alt="Fig. 149.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 149.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>That this is literally the case can be very easily shown. General di +Cesnola began his excavations at Larnaca, on the southern shore of the +island, or near the ancient Citium, or Kittim, a Phœnician city. Near +this city have been found a number of terra-cotta statuettes, which +General Cesnola ascribes to the fourth century before our era. He thinks +they were imported from Greece. They were accompanied by others, poorly +executed, and some figures suggestive of Phœnicia and Egypt. It was +here that the vase, (<a href="#fig_150">Fig. 150</a>, was discovered. Crossing the Santa Croce +range, he found, at Dali, on the plain of Messaria, the necropolis of +the Phœnician city Idalium. He began his excavations among the +Phœnician tombs, and exhumed a great quantity of pottery of several +shapes. The vases are of light-colored clay, and are variously decorated +with geometric patterns and concentric circles in brown color. One of +them (<a href="#fig_148">Fig. 148</a>) has a Phœnician inscription, and all the others were +evidently Phœnician. Above the tier of tombs from which these were +taken, a second tier was discovered, of a different epoch, and +containing objects of a totally different character. Earthen-ware gave +place to glass in all the shapes found in Greek pottery, the amphora, +lekythos, krater, kylix, and others. Many were of a formation so +evidently late that the discoverer ascribes them to the Græco-Roman +period. Here then, was Greek and Phœnician work reposing in +juxtaposition. An explanation was found by returning to the Greek tomb +which had<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_203" id="page_203">{203}</a></span> been first opened, and under it was discovered the +continuation of those of the Phœnicians. The Greek Idalium had grown +upon the ruins of a Phœnician predecessor, and hidden under the ashes +of the one Cesnola found the necropolis of the other. On prosecuting his +researches in the latter, the type of pottery again altered, and the +decoration of concentric rings reappeared. At Alambra, west of Dali, he +found a number of small clay images—horsemen, warriors, chariots, a +representation of a procession, and vases of two kinds. He made +excavations in five burying-grounds, all apparently belonging to the +Phœnician Idalium; and from a mound in the same district he obtained +a collection which, from the combination of Egyptian and Assyrian forms +and decoration, may be assumed to contain some of the most ancient +relics of Phœnician art. Two green-glazed bowls have Egyptian +paintings, and the vases occasionally take the form of animals and +birds.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_150" id="fig_150"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg203_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg203_sml.jpg" width="372" height="263" alt="Fig. 150.—Assyro-Phœnician Vase, from Larnaca. +(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 150.—Assyro-Phœnician Vase, from Larnaca. +(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Striking eastward from Dali, the explorer reached Athieno, near the +ancient Golgoi, and there came upon a necropolis and an ancient temple +of Venus. The most remarkable fact concerning the statuary brought from +this locality is that the lines of nationality are so broad and well +defined. General Cesnola then determined to push his <span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_204" id="page_204">{204}</a></span>explorations +toward the East, and, after visiting Salamis, turned westward to Paphos, +Neo-Paphos, and then northward to Soli and other places on the northern +shore. Returning to the southern shore, a number of terra-cotta vases +and figures of the Phœnician type and Egyptian green-glazed vessels +were exhumed at Amathus. A statuette of Astarte and figures of Egyptian +deities were found almost together. Lastly, General Cesnola visited +Curium, a city said to have been founded by an Argive colony. There he +found pottery of the usual mixed types, including vases, terra-cotta +figures, and one large vase (<a href="#fig_151">Fig. 151</a>), so strongly marked with Greek +influences that he ascribes it to the earlier period of Greek art. Both +General Cesnola and Mr. A. S. Murray think that it may have been taken +to Curium from Greece. Its four handles, its great size, and its +elaborate decoration make it unequalled among the vast number of +Cypriote relics in the Metropolitan Museum.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_151" id="fig_151"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 239px;"> +<a href="images/illpg204_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg204_sml.jpg" width="239" height="459" alt="Fig. 151.—Greek Vase, from Curium. Height, 4 ft. 9 in. +(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 151.—Greek Vase, from Curium. Height, 4 ft. 9 in. +(Cesnola Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In constructing a theory of the progression of Cypriote pottery it is +necessary to examine closely the different styles of ornamentation. On +some we find Assyrian symbols and characteristic styles of decoration; +on others the figures are as evidently Egyptian. Thus the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_205" id="page_205">{205}</a></span> archaic vase +from Larnaca (<a href="#fig_150">Fig. 150</a>) is just such a work as might be expected from +the Phœnician founders of Kittim while still directly under the +domination of Assyrian ideas. The pattern between the animals is +distinctively Assyrian. In a similar manner the vase (<a href="#fig_146">Fig. 146</a>) is +decorated with an Egyptian figure, but in the subsidiary decoration—the +plaited pattern on the sides and the concentric circles arranged +vertically—there is nothing indicative of Egyptian influence. We see in +it the work of a potter who combined an Egyptian suggestion with a more +independent form of ornament. It has already been said that, of all the +nations of antiquity, the Phœnicians are most strongly marked by +influences emanating from Egypt, on the one hand, and from Assyria on +the other. To this people, therefore, we may attribute the two vases +last referred to.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_152" id="fig_152"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;"> +<a href="images/illpg205_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg205_sml.jpg" width="145" height="207" alt="Fig. 152.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 152.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is also necessary to bear in mind that, while certain symptoms of +independence on the part of Cypriote potters must be appreciated at +their full value, there are no evidences of the potter’s art ever having +developed among them to any great extent. It is possible that the +effeminate, voluptuous nature of the people prevented the attainment of +artistic superiority. It is also possible that their skill in working +metal may have distracted their attention from clay. In either event we +discover no well-defined gradation from the lower to the higher, such as +we find in Greece. Cyprus may have been still wrapped in slumber, while +Greece was striding forward in the full vigor of its young life. It may +have been following its ancient models, while Greece was turning from +the old to the new and original. It is difficult, therefore, to ascribe +with precision the Cypriote pottery to any given age. A rule by which to +determine such questions has been laid down in this way: vases painted +with linear designs are the most ancient; then follow those with animal +figures; lastly come those with human forms. Cypriote pottery makes the +application of such a rule extremely hazardous and difficult. How apply +it to the vase with vertical rings<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_206" id="page_206">{206}</a></span> and human form and head (<a href="#fig_146">Fig. 146</a>)? +The figure is Egyptian, and might, for that reason, carry us back to the +conquest by Thothmes III., were it not that it represents the latest +style of decoration according to the accepted rule, while the remainder +of the decoration belongs to the earliest.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_153" id="fig_153"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;"> +<a href="images/illpg206a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg206a_sml.jpg" width="245" height="177" alt="Fig. 153.—Phœnician Pottery, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 153.—Phœnician Pottery, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_154" id="fig_154"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<a href="images/illpg206b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg206b_sml.jpg" width="169" height="260" alt="Fig. 154.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 154.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The practice of ornamenting with concentric rings is an application to +pottery of a pattern borrowed from working in metal. Cyprus was famed +for its copper, and, from the legendary age downward, exported armor and +weapons of bronze. It is not singular, therefore, if on some of the +ruder relics of the potter we should find this ornament. In the curious +circle of vases (<a href="#fig_153">Fig. 153</a>) we see arranged round the base the concentric +rings, which were in time transformed into the Greek spiral. The same +pattern is exemplified in the specimen from Curium (<a href="#fig_154">Fig. 154</a>), from +which, and from several others in the Metropolitan Museum, it might +almost be inferred that the vessel had been shaped to suit the favorite +style of decoration. A cognate style, also having its origin in +metal-working, is that represented in the vase from Dali (<a href="#fig_148">Fig. 148</a>), +sufficiently authenticated by its Phœnician inscription. It belongs +to a very large class, which appears to extend from the earliest times +down to the beginning of purely Greek art. It will be observed that the +squares run both horizontally and perpendicularly, an arrangement<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_207" id="page_207">{207}</a></span> much +more noticeable in many other specimens. One of the earlier examples is +seen on the bird-shaped vase in the illustration (<a href="#fig_155">Fig. 155</a>. In what is +probably a much later vessel, a swan with circular body and triangular +wings makes its appearance. This is the rude attempt at decorating with +figures of an artist skilled only in geometrical designs. One point is +to be particularly noted before leaving these vases, viz., that in that +bearing the Phœnician inscription, the vertical lines or bands give +place to horizontal bands round the upper part of the body and neck. The +Greeks invariably make use of the horizontal band.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_155" id="fig_155"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg207_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg207_sml.jpg" width="438" height="318" alt="Fig. 155.—Phœnician Vases, found at Dali. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 155.—Phœnician Vases, found at Dali. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_156" id="fig_156"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_157" id="fig_157"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width:550px;"> +<a href="images/illpg208_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg208_sml.jpg" width="326" height="276" alt="Fig. 156.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.) +Fig. 157.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)" title="" /> +</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="text-align:center;margin-top:0.5em;border:none;"> +<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 156.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium.<br /> (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 157.—Phœnician Vase, from Curium.<br /> (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>The approach to Greek art is marked by the introduction of several new +features. In the vases from Curium (Figs. 149, 156, and 157), the lines +are horizontal, the shapes improve, and the spout, consisting of a woman +holding a pitcher, is indicative of a skill in moulding and an +originality in designing, having little in common with the ruder forms +from the same city. This is one of the ideas<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_208" id="page_208">{208}</a></span> which seems never to have +occurred to the modern potter, whose most fantastically turned and +severely shaped spouts contrast most unfavorably with the simple yet apt +design of his old Phœnician predecessor. The Phœnician vase with +animal figures from Dali (<a href="#fig_158">Fig. 158</a>), is the ancestor of a large class of +early Greek pottery similarly decorated. The shape and the encircling +horizontal bands recall early Greek work, and the animal forms point to +an Asiatic influence transmitted in part through Phœnicia, but +probably also through other channels, to Greece. The style is rare among +Cypriote vases. It is carried farther in the large vase from Curium +(<a href="#fig_151">Fig. 151</a>), which is remarkable as a combination of the Cypriote +rectilinear method of decoration, the earlier form of the Greek fret, +the Asiatic style of animal decoration, and the culmination of the +Cypriote rows of concentric rings found in the bands of spirals. This is +one of the most remarkable vases in the Cesnola collection, and also one +of the most important links between the art of Greece and those of +Phœnicia and the East. Even admitting it to have been made in Greece, +and thence taken to Curium, it is in perfect harmony with the +Phœnician vase last referred to, on the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_209" id="page_209">{209}</a></span> one hand, and with that +bearing the Phœnician inscription on the other.</p> + +<p>The Greek vase and cups from Dali (<a href="#fig_159">Fig. 159</a>) show a new motive in the +decoration. The spirals give place on the vase to a running scroll, +painted with a free hand; and in the kylix on the left, the concentric +circles become semicircles, festooned round the lip after the fashion of +lambrequins. In the kylix on the right, the rectilinear designs and +enclosed squares become the fret. It will be seen hereafter, when we +come to speak of Greece, how the forms of the kylix improve.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_158" id="fig_158"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 234px;"> +<a href="images/illpg209_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg209_sml.jpg" width="234" height="305" alt="Fig. 158.—Phœnician Vase, found at Dali. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 158.—Phœnician Vase, found at Dali. (Cesnola +Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>While we cannot assign an exact age to any of these works, we can see +how the beginnings of the art of Greece can be traced to a much more +remote antiquity than was previously apprehended. Mingling in the heroic +age with a people uniting in itself much of the civilization of Assyria +and Egypt, the Greeks were acquiring the knowledge which their own +artistic genius subsequently turned to such brilliant account. The +highway is complete from Greece to untold antiquity. We learn, +therefore, from the relics brought together by General Cesnola, that the +view taken of the devious course followed by ceramic art is correct. +Egypt gave instruction to all. In her is the spring of ancient art. The +Phœnicians studied under her Assyrian pupils, and the two branches, +from Phœnicia and Egypt, met in Greece, and there appeared in a new +form, more refined, and reflecting a higher ideality and a keener +sensitiveness to the subtlest lines of beauty. Di Cesnola has found in +Cyprus<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_210" id="page_210">{210}</a></span> their point of contact, and has disclosed to our eyes the +teacher and scholar sleeping in a common grave.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_159" id="fig_159"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg210_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg210_sml.jpg" width="353" height="236" alt="Fig. 159.—Greek Vase and Cups, found at Dali. Cesnola +Coll., (N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 159.—Greek Vase and Cups, found at Dali. Cesnola +Coll., (N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Should it be asked if in Cyprus alone we must look for the ceramic +remains of Phœnicia, the Land of Palms, the answer must be negative. +It is true that few relics have come down to us from the sites of her +domestic industries. But let us glance briefly at the history of that +wonderful country, wonderful alike in enterprise and in science. Ptolemy +Claudius, writing in the second century, says that Phœnicia extended +from Egypt on the south to the Eleutherus on the north, and eastward to +the confines of Syria; or, in other words, that to it belonged the +entire eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Like all other eastern +nations, it changed its boundaries as the successive waves of war swept +over it. First came the Persians, then the Greeks, and, lastly, the +Romans. When enjoying its independence, in an earlier age, it was the +disseminator of the knowledge which, to a great extent, it acquired in +Egypt. To Greece it gave its alphabet, the foundation of the literature +which has kindled the admiration of the scholars of all times. Its +navigators passed the Pillars of Hercules and reached the shores of +England. Phœnician colonies were founded all along the Mediterranean, +at Utica and Carthage on the south, and at Marseilles in Gaul. Here, +then, was a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_211" id="page_211">{211}</a></span> people gathering in from every side all that the world +could give of art and science, and spreading its knowledge with every +keel which, from the great ports of Tyre and Sidon, furrowed the +Mediterranean. As might be expected, therefore, the remains of its +ceramic art and the evidences of its influence are found in Cyprus, +Malta, Egypt, Carthage, Greece, Sicily, Rome, and Etruria.</p> + +<p>The ceramic remains found on the Phœnician coast are nearly all +referable to her later conquerors. One specimen is singular and +suggestive. It was found at Tyre, and is a polished cruse, with round +body, long neck, wide lips, and a handle joining the neck and body. It +resembles the Egyptian too closely to leave any doubt of the origin of +its style and manufacture. After our previous experiences we are quite +prepared to meet a mythical Phœnician worker in clay; but his +presence does not disturb our inferences. It merely pushes back to a +prehistoric age the date when the first of Phœnicia’s debts to Egypt +was incurred. Other examples, fragments with Phœnician inscriptions, +give further hints of the immediate well-spring of Grecian art. +Phœnician vases are found in Sicily. Egypt and Carthage teach the +same lesson, and illustrate the wide-reaching enterprise of the Tyrian +founders of Carthage.</p> + +<p>Turning northward from Phœnicia to Asia Minor, the evidences of +ceramic skill point to identically the same conclusion. Let us take the +older first. There, as in Cyprus, we meet with early traces of Hellenic +art. Across the Ægean sea, on the shores of Asia Minor, Greece again +touched the older arts of Assyria and Egypt. The coffins found in +Mesopotamia are after the Assyrian type. From Tarsus come terra-cotta +works ornamented with green, in a simple style, closely allied to the +Greek. At Rhodes has been found a vase or pitcher of turquoise blue, +ribbed perpendicularly, and crossed at intervals by horizontal bands. +Such specimens take us back again to Egypt. In short, the history of +Asia Minor, its existence successively under Scythians, Medes, and +Persians, while it was receiving the surplus population of Greece from +the west, would lead us to look for what we only found in part in +Cyprus, namely, native styles moulded by influences from east, west, and +south. These generalizations are offered as a substitute for a more +connected history, for the construction of which intelligibly the +materials are wanting. Enough has<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">{212}</a></span> been said to show that through many +different channels the arts of Egypt and the East set, in a long and +steady stream, toward Europe; that there, meeting with the rising +Hellenic civilization, they were transmuted and purified, and that from +the Hellenizing process emerged the admirable art now called Greek.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile it is to be noted that, so far, we have made allusion to only +one-half of the debt which Europe owes to the East. Greece rejected the +rich coloring and fantastic forms which reached her from the centre of +all that was most brilliant in ceramics—the land between the Tigris and +Euphrates. These were seized with avidity by Persia, the only survivor, +in our time, of the four great monarchies of the East. Bright colors and +gorgeous combinations were grateful to the eye revelling in the splendor +almost unconsciously associated with the word “Oriental.” To Persia, +therefore, we must look, not only as the great conservator of previous +skill, but as the medium of its development into a higher form. That +part of her inheritance from Assyria and Babylonia which concerns us +now, was the knowledge of processes, of the deft mingling of colors, the +production of tints, and the skilful application of enamels. We have +seen to what purpose this knowledge was cultivated, in so far as the +evidences found within her own borders can show. We have seen what may +here be especially recalled, enamels and metallic lustre applied to +pottery, with an almost bewildering brilliancy.</p> + +<p>We now approach the question of Persia’s contributions to the art. Can, +for example, none of the remains exhumed by Cesnola be claimed for +Persia? It appears not, at least not with certainty, although certain +plaques convey a hint of Persian workmanship. Whatever she left in +Cyprus, if anything, is hardly to be distinguished from the older works +of Assyria and Phœnicia. Had Persia, then, no originality, and where +beyond her own limits must we look for its distinctive impress. Let us +return for a moment to Persian history. We have already seen that the +country was occasionally overrun by surrounding nations, but the fact is +noticeable that when it could not resist, it absorbed its assailants. +Its nationality was preserved even in conquest. A similar capacity for +assimilation and independence is seen in its art. There can be no doubt +of its having drawn from Assyria and Babylonia. Its most ancient +architecture is sufficient to settle that point. But apart<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_213" id="page_213">{213}</a></span> from that, +and keeping in view the influence of Mohammedanism and the influx of +Chinese wares and possibly workmen in the sixteenth century, the art of +Persia is marked throughout its entire course by certain distinguishing +features which invasion could not obliterate. The artistic instinct was +strong in the people as a whole; and conquest retarded the progress of +art only to see it rise again in all its first vigor, to be spread far +and wide even by those who had for a time hindered its native growth. In +this way we can trace its advance to Asia Minor and Rhodes, through +Egypt, along the northern coast of Africa, and thence to different +points in Southern Europe.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_160" id="fig_160"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 181px;"> +<a href="images/illpg213a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg213a_sml.jpg" width="181" height="182" alt="Fig. 160.—Saracen Tile. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 160.—Saracen Tile. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_161" id="fig_161"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 234px;"> +<a href="images/illpg213b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg213b_sml.jpg" width="234" height="114" alt="Fig. 161.—Saracenic Tiles. Green and Dark-blue on White. +(Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 161.—Saracenic Tiles. Green and Dark-blue on White. +(Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The tracks we now follow are those of Eastern art in its second and more +modern progress toward the west. Persia was its real source. When the +Mohammedan Arabs overran Iran, they found art the handmaid to beauty and +luxury, to which they had been strangers. Essentially nomadic, the wild +fanatics from Arabia had given little attention to æsthetic culture. +They were captivated by what they found in Persia. If they modified it, +it was only to make it conformable to the behests of their religion. We +find, for example, a faience tile representing the sacred Temple of +Mecca, in two shades of blue, red, black, and pale-green, and with a +border of white and red. It is easy to imagine the caliphs of Bagdad +calling to their assistance the men whose works they had seen, to +complete the embellishment of their capital. The style called arabesque +is in all probability of Persian origin. In every collection of note are +examples of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_214" id="page_214">{214}</a></span> what is called Saracenic pottery. The Arabs were called +Saracens when they came to Europe, or met the arms of the Crusaders in +Palestine. Saracen pottery, therefore, is Persian modified by Arabian +taste or local style. And here, to save much trouble, and avoid the +confusion into which disputants over the wares of Damascus, Rhodes, +Cairo, and other localities might lead us, it may be as well, once for +all, to understand that at no place of which we have any knowledge were +the Saracens the first to introduce a rudimentary knowledge of pottery. +What they did was to bring with them certain distinctive styles; and +now, when all proofs of an earlier fabric are wanting, we may safely +take it for granted that it existed, and that the invaders and colonists +only superimposed a superior art. This should be borne in mind, because +it would be impossible to account for the abundant remains found on +certain sites by attributing them all to the Saracens. One of the first +things to which the Arabs turned their attention in each country to +which they carried their arms, was to raise mosques for the religions +observances attaching to their faith. The tomb of Mohammed, at Medina, +is covered with tiles so closely resembling those of Persia as to +suggest not only Persian inspiration, but Persian workmen. In Asia Minor +tiles belonging to the eleventh and twelfth centuries are abundant, of a +precisely similar character. History explains their presence there by +telling us that the Arabian or Saracenic conquerors sent for artists +from Persia to bring their skill to the embellishment of the new domain. +In this we have the key to much of the ceramic art of Asia Minor.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_162" id="fig_162"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 228px;"> +<a href="images/illpg214_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg214_sml.jpg" width="228" height="335" alt="Fig. 162.—Faience Jug, from Rhodes." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 162.—Faience Jug, from Rhodes.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">{215}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_163" id="fig_163"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 233px;"> +<a href="images/illpg215_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg215_sml.jpg" width="233" height="336" alt="Fig. 163.—Faience Jug, from Rhodes." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 163.—Faience Jug, from Rhodes.</span> +</div> + +<p>As to Rhodes and the origin of its faience (<a href="#fig_162">Fig. 162</a>), we are tolerably +certain that in Persia was the source of the skill there developed. +History and tradition point to the same conclusion. Legend says that a +vessel bound for Venice, and having some Persian potters on board, was +wrecked on the island, and that there a manufactory was founded (Fig. +163). Possibly on this tradition the conjecture was based that a Persian +colony had settled there. In any case, Rhodes was occupied by Persians +in the seventh century, and then by the Greeks. When the crusading fever +was at its height, the knights of St. John held the island until +expelled by the Turks. It was probably these knights who captured a +vessel laden with Persian pottery and artists, and compelled the latter +to found the manufacture at Rhodes. At the Musée de Cluny are specimens +of their work, plainly Persian, but adapted to the changed condition and +limited appliances of the potters. The Rhodian differs little from the +Persian. The colors are less brilliant, and the ornamentation in relief +is like that found on vases and tiles in Asia Minor. The predominating +colors are white and blue for grounds and red for designs. Similarly as +to Damascus, it is beyond reasonable doubt that potteries existed there. +Their ruins are said to have been found; and it is probable that, so far +from importing the wares, Damascus supplied orders from without. These +facts lead to the conclusion that Persian art was carried by the +Saracens or their Christian opponents to the same countries that +Egyptian and Assyrian art had reached centuries before.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">{216}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_164" id="fig_164"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width:176px;"> +<a href="images/illpg216_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg216_sml.jpg" width="176" height="272" alt="Fig. 164.—Maghreb Urn." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 164.—Maghreb Urn.</span> +</div> + +<p>Turning now to the south and west, we follow the line of Saracenic +conquest along the north coast of Africa until it reached the Atlantic +Ocean. Egypt first fell under Mussulman control, and the standard of +Islam was carried westward from the Nile. Thirteen hundred years after +Battus founded Cyrene, the Mussulman Keironan was built upon its ruins. +In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco the Saracenic works multiply. One +traveller in Tunisia describes a mosque with the walls overlaid with +tiles of many patterns. Another, crossing Algeria, visits the mosque at +Telemeen, and finds <i>azulejos</i> (from the Arabic for “varnished tile”) +equal to those of Granada, and tiling in blue, red, and yellow, again +compelling a comparison with the works of the Moors in Spain. The +brilliant domes and mosaic pavements of mosques and houses mark the +Saracenic progress. Besides these, many examples of urns and other +vessels of Saracenic fabrication have been found, colored in brown, +yellow, blue, and green, in styles not far removed from the Persian. +Viewed comprehensively, the pottery of Northern Africa (<a href="#fig_164">Fig. 164</a>) would +show pieces of local fabrication, and Persian styles and processes +modified by removal from their eastern centre. What concerns us chiefly +is that the Saracenic predominates. It is reasonable to suppose that the +invaders, in order to decorate the edifices which quickly gave +indication of their presence, sent for tiles to the seats of the +industry in the East. Afterward, when the Mussulman power had been +firmly established, factories were built, and a new industry rose among +the conquered people. Imitations are mingled with works showing a +developing originality. The Mussulman and Persian traditions become +modified, and the symbolical meaning of the animals painted on the +dishes and basins appears to have become obscure to the artists +employing them as decoration.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_217" id="page_217">{217}</a></span></p> + +<p>A great deal of the African pottery can only be taken as a basis for +conjecture. Its place of manufacture is unknown. Its style is peculiar +and its coloring unique. It is not impossible that European art was +paying the debt it had incurred to Southern teachers. Ceramic art +travelled with the Saracens wherever they went. How far that was may be +estimated from the fact that they conquered within eighty years as much +territory as it had taken Rome four hundred years to bring into +subjection. They crossed into Spain, Sicily, and Italy, and there +planted settlements. A great deal has been said of the <i>reflet à +métallique</i> and stanniferous enamel, and notably of the <i>discovery</i> of +the latter in Italy. Both came from the East, and reached Europe through +the Saracens. The employment of tin in producing a white opaque enamel +was, as we have seen, known to the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and +Assyrians. It does not appear to have been so highly esteemed as the +silicious glaze by means of which the Persians worked their greatest +ceramic wonders, but it was not forgotten. Fragmentary evidences of its +use by the Saracens are found in the places which they passed, and it +is, at least, more reasonable to suppose that through them the process +reached Europe, than that it was rediscovered there. One is almost +wearied with the endless conjectures on these matters. We find a certain +art in the East. We trace the different channels of communication with +Europe. We find Greece touching Asia Minor, trade binding Phœnicia +with every port in the Mediterranean, Etruria bringing to her own ports +the manufactures of Eastern experts, colonies settling in all manner of +places and coming from many sources. It has been plainly demonstrated +that the lines of intercourse cross and recross in a hundred different +ways and directions. When, therefore, we have it proved to a +demonstration that analogous knowledge was transmitted by certain +routes, it is hardly worth one’s while to discuss the European discovery +of a process which we know did not originate there, however much it may +have been improved.</p> + +<p>The art which we call Hispano-Moresque might, therefore, with equal +propriety, be called Persico-Spanish or Hispano-Saracenic. Spain was +twice overrun by Mohammedan conquerors. In the eighth century (711) the +Arabs subdued the Goths and founded the Caliphate of Cordova. It is both +singular and disappointing that no ceramic<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_218" id="page_218">{218}</a></span> relic of this period has +been found. The Spanish, even under the sway of Rome, had attained to a +comparative excellence in the art, and the productions resulting from +the union of original traditions with Arabian influences would have +formed an interesting link in our history. The Arabians remained for +about five hundred years, when, in 1235 the Moors overturned the Arab +rule, and founded the kingdom of Granada. The Moors succumbed, in their +turn, to Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492, and between these two dates, +1235 and 1492, was the golden era of the ceramic art of Spain.</p> + +<p>Meantime it is to be observed, as showing the possible and actual extent +of Persian influence:</p> + +<p><i>Firstly.</i>—That under the Moorish sway a colony of Persians existed in +Spain. This, according to Major R. Murdoch Smith, is attested by a +document recently brought to notice by a Spanish traveller in Persia, +assigning the town Rioja to the Persians as their place of residence.</p> + +<p><i>Secondly.</i>—That mosaic work has been found in Persia, composed of star +and cross shaped tiles of different colors fitted together, and that +similar tiles are made in Spain at the present time.</p> + +<p><i>Thirdly.</i>—That in Persia are found the prototypes of the Spanish style +of ornamenting vaults with hanging-work, like plaster stalactites.</p> + +<p><i>Fourthly.</i>—That, according to Piot, “numerous Persian faience plaques +and pieces of vases, resembling those of our own time, are found +encrusted in the white marble of a church in Naples.”</p> + +<p><i>Fifthly.</i>—That Mr. Drury C. Fortnum has found a specimen of Persian +ware in the church of St. Cecilia, at Pisa. The piece is clearly Persian +in style, black arabesques on a blue ground, similar to others found at +Rhages.</p> + +<p><i>Sixthly.</i>—That the Saracens overran Sicily in the ninth century, and +that a Moorish colony landed there some centuries later.</p> + +<p>The corollary deducible from these facts is clear, viz., that in Persian +art, as brought into Europe by the Moors, Arabs, or Saracens, and by the +Persians themselves, we must find the bridge upon which to cross from +the ancient arts of Assyria and Babylonia to those of Italy and Spain.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_219" id="page_219">{219}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II-b3" id="CHAPTER_II-b3"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> +<small>GREECE.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">General Character of Greek Ceramics.—Form and Color.—Borrowed +from Egypt and Phœnicia.—How Original.—<span class="smcap">Unbaked Clay</span>: Bricks +and Statues.—<span class="smcap">Terra-cotta</span>: Where +Used.—Tiles.—Models.—Vessels.—Pithos.—Amphora.—Pigments used +on Terra-cotta.—Rhyton.—<span class="smcap">Glazed Wares</span>: Quality of +Glaze.—Paste.—Enumeration and Description of Vessels.—Uses of +Vases.—Chronological Arrangement.—Methods of Making +Vessels.—Successive Styles of Ornamentation.—Figures.—Earliest +Style.—Archaic Style.—Human Figures.—“Old Style.”—Approach to +Best Art.—“Fine Style.”—“Florid Style.”—Decline.—Classification +according to Subjects Represented on Vases.—Reliefs and Statuettes +as Decoration.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_165" id="fig_165"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<a href="images/illpg219_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg219_sml.jpg" width="164" height="173" alt="Fig. 165.—Early Greek Aryballoi. Egypto-Phœnician +Style. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 165.—Early Greek Aryballoi. Egypto-Phœnician +Style. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>W<small>ERE</small> we to be guided solely by continuity in point of time and the +succession of ideas, our next subject would be the art of Spain and +Italy. We turn, in preference, to that of Greece. It claims the +precedence due to priority of date. It holds also a position of what +might be called isolation. Its general character has been indicated in +the Introduction. The severity and simplicity of the taste of the Greek, +and his indifference to effects in color, while permitting him to +receive suggestions from Egypt and the East, led him to disregard those +adjuncts of art which they held in highest esteem. To him beauty of form +was everything, color little or nothing. The former he brought to such +perfection that no advance has been made beyond the point he reached. +Greek form embodies all that can be said of grace and proportion. We may +imitate, but we can hardly hope to excel, what Greece accomplished in +her early bloom. We may find prototypes in Egypt for some of her vessels +(<a href="#fig_165">Fig. 165</a>), but still her art, the culmination<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_220" id="page_220">{220}</a></span> of all that was best in +preceding forms, is pre-eminently her own. We say this without +disparagement to those who were her teachers. To Egypt, in particular, +Greece turned, at a remote age, for instruction, and learned from +Phœnicia and the other nations with which trade brought her into +contact. In this connection the group (<a href="#fig_166">Fig. 166</a>) of vases from Athens +may be compared with the Phœnician from Cyprus. There are in the +decoration the same geometrical designs, the same vertical concentric +circles, the same animal figures which the Phœnicians drew from +Assyria. But after making every allowance for suggestions from abroad, +after conceding that Grecian art is the development of that which +preceded it, and that it occupies a well-defined place in progressive +history, we fail to find anywhere the equals of the best ceramic works +of Greece.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_166" id="fig_166"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg220_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg220_sml.jpg" width="306" height="166" alt="Fig. 166.—Primitive Vessels, from Athens and Argos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 166.—Primitive Vessels, from Athens and Argos.</span> +</p> + +<p>Taking them as a whole, they are divisible into unbaked; terra-cotta, or +burnt clay, without a glaze; and glazed. The Greeks employed unbaked +clay for bricks, statues, and several kinds of decoration. The former +were used for city walls and buildings. Terra-cotta was devoted to +similar purposes. It is not improbable that we may yet return, to a very +considerable extent, to the ancient employment of this material in +architecture. The Greeks made use of it for pillars, roofs, paving, +bricks, friezes, cornices, lamps, statues, flower-pots, and numberless +domestic and sepulchral vessels and ornaments. Bricks do not appear to +have been held in very high esteem in building, but the custom of +roofing with terra-cotta tiles was widely prevalent and of great +antiquity. These tiles were occasionally embellished with<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">{221}</a></span> painted +flowers, and designs in blue, red, and yellow. The terra-cotta figures +vary in color from red to bright yellow, and are soft in texture and +easily marked. Terra-cotta models were used in casting, and in the same +material were made copies of statues, like those in plaster of Paris of +our own time; and some painters were even accustomed to make terra-cotta +models of the figures they afterward painted. Of the specimens which +have come down to us a very great number consists of small statuettes of +the gods.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_167" id="fig_167"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg221_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg221_sml.jpg" width="293" height="447" alt="Fig. 167.—Greek Vase, from Apulia. (Louvre.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 167.—Greek Vase, from Apulia. (Louvre.)</span> +</p> + +<p>The vessels of terra-cotta are either domestic or sepulchral. The<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_222" id="page_222">{222}</a></span> +largest was the <i>pithos</i>, which, as we have seen, was large enough to +hold a man satisfied with such limited domestic conveniences as +Diogenes. There were also <i>amphoræ</i>, large vases, somewhat smaller than +the <i>pithoi</i>; <i>phialai</i>, or saucers, plates, pots, and jugs. Of these +the <i>amphora</i> occurs most frequently. Its name is derived from +<i>amphis</i>—on both sides, and <i>pherein</i>—to carry, and it is so called +because it had two handles, one on each side, to be grasped by the +person carrying it. It is easily recognized (see <a href="#fig_2">Fig. 2</a>) by its sharp +base—so made to be stuck in the ground—its oval body, its long neck, +and its generally heavy lip. The cover was conical, and sometimes the +base is surrounded by a ring of clay to keep it more easily in an +upright position. The height of the <i>amphora</i> ranged from three feet to +over six feet, and it was used for holding wine, water, oil, and for +storing figs and other edibles.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_168" id="fig_168"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 130px;"> +<a href="images/illpg222_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg222_sml.jpg" width="130" height="335" alt="Fig. 168.—Head of Minerva, with Figure of Nike. (Prime +Coll., N.Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 168.—Head of Minerva, with Figure of Nike. (Prime +Coll., N.Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Various pigments were applied to terra-cotta, including white, red, +green, and blue, the use of which, in painting statues and architectural +decorations, formed a distinct branch of art. Colors are also found on +sepulchral vases, some of which are further ornamented with applied +bas-reliefs; that is, made separately, and fixed to the vase before +drying. This practice was carried to such an extent as to represent a +combination of the arts of potter, painter, and sculptor (<a href="#fig_167">Fig. 167</a>). +Closely allied to the cinerary urns were the vases intended solely for +ornamental purposes. In one of extraordinary beauty, a large and finely +moulded head of Pallas Athene is seen surmounted by a full figure of +Victory. There are many of a similar character, representing female and +animal heads. The latter are found in the <i>rhyta</i>, or drinking cups. The +ornamental vases were often painted after being covered with a white +slip: evidently the case with the piece (<a href="#fig_168">Fig. 168</a>) in Dr. Prime’s +collection.</p> + +<p>Before treating of glazed vases we shall give the leading denominations<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_223" id="page_223">{223}</a></span> +of all vases glazed and unglazed, and then the styles of decoration of +the former as nearly as may be in their chronological order. They are +said to be glazed, although the glaze is so slight that, as Mr. Fortnum +says, “it leaves a barely appreciable effect upon the eye, beyond that +which might be produced by a mechanical polish.” It is altogether a very +inferior kind of glaze, and is supposed to have been made from an alkali +without any admixture of lead. The paste resembles terra-cotta, and +varies in density, being in some cases scratched with ease, in others +with difficulty. It can always be marked with iron. These facts are +worth noting, were it only that that art may be thoroughly appreciated +which, out of the poorest and commonest materials, has wrought forms of +the most wonderful beauty.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_169" id="fig_169"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;"> +<a href="images/illpg223a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg223a_sml.jpg" width="120" height="120" alt="Fig. 169.—Stamnos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 169.—Stamnos.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_170" id="fig_170"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 69px;"> +<a href="images/illpg223b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg223b_sml.jpg" width="69" height="82" alt="Fig. 170.—Askos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 170.—Askos.</span> +</div> + +<p>The chief names with which we shall have to deal are the pithos, +pithakne, stamnos, cheroulion, bikos, hyrche, lagynos, askos, amphorens, +kados, hydria, kalpis, krossos, skyphos, or kothon, rhyton, lekythos, +alabastros, krater, holmos, kelebe, oxybaphon, psykter, dinos, chytrai, +tripous, oinochoe, prochoos, aryballos, epichysis, kotylos, kyathos, +skaphe, kantharos, karchesion, kylix, phiale, kanoun, pinax, and diskos.</p> + +<p>The <i>pithos</i>, already described in part, was a large, open-mouthed cask +or jar of unglazed earthen-ware, which was used mainly for the +preservation of victuals and wines.</p> + +<p>The <i>pithakne</i> was a pithos of smaller size used for holding wine.</p> + +<p>The <i>stamnos</i> (<a href="#fig_169">Fig. 169</a>) was an open-mouthed jar with two handles, and a +body inclined to be oval, but of great rotundity, curving inward to a +comparatively narrow base. It held liquids. The <i>cheroulia</i> and <i>bikoi</i> +were modifications of the stamnos, the latter being used for holding +wine and solids.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_171" id="fig_171"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<a href="images/illpg223c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg223c_sml.jpg" width="137" height="83" alt="Fig. 171.—Skyphos, or Kothon." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 171.—Skyphos, or Kothon.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>hyrche</i> is not very well known, either in regard to its shape or +purpose, but appears to have had a narrow neck, and to have been used in +conveying goods a long distance. Its narrow neck is a tolerably sure +indication that it was not intended to be stationary.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_224" id="page_224">{224}</a></span></p> + +<p>The <i>lagynos</i> also appears to have had a very narrow neck, and to have +been of considerable size, varying according to circumstances.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_172" id="fig_172"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 272px;"> +<a href="images/illpg224a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg224a_sml.jpg" width="272" height="220" alt="Fig. 172.—Greek Rhyton." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 172.—Greek Rhyton.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>askos</i> (<a href="#fig_170">Fig. 170</a>), literally a wineskin, which it resembled in +shape, had an aperture and neck on one side, from which a handle passed +over a hollow on the body to the other side. Both the <i>askos</i> and +<i>stamnos</i> are frequently painted with red figures.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_173" id="fig_173"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;"> +<a href="images/illpg224b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg224b_sml.jpg" width="222" height="283" alt="Fig. 173.—Krater, with Volute Handles." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 173.—Krater, with Volute Handles.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>amphora</i>, already described in the form it commonly took, may be +called a general receptacle, although usually employed for holding +provisions and liquors. There were many different shapes, which varied +according to the district where made, and the special purpose for which +they were destined. The chief kinds are the Egyptian, Apulian, +Tyrrhenian, Panathenaic, Bacchic (<a href="#fig_186">Fig. 186</a>), and Nolan, the last +mentioned being the most perfectly finished, and unexcelled in +gracefulness of shape. They were decorated with either red or black +paintings.</p> + +<p>The <i>kados</i> is the first of the vessels for drawing liquids, of which +class the <i>hydria</i> (<a href="#fig_188">Fig. 188</a>) is the best known. Its name implies its +purpose as a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_225" id="page_225">{225}</a></span> water-pitcher. It had two small side handles, and one +larger one, somewhat similar to that of the modern ewer. The <i>kalpis</i> +(<a href="#fig_187">Fig. 187</a>) and krossos were modifications of the hydria.</p> + +<p>The <i>kothon</i> (<a href="#fig_171">Fig. 171</a>) is supposed to have been a drinking-cup.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_174" id="fig_174"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 118px;"> +<a href="images/illpg225a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg225a_sml.jpg" width="118" height="120" alt="Fig. 174.—Krater." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 174.—Krater.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>rhyton</i> (<a href="#fig_172">Fig. 172</a>) belongs to the later style of drinking-cups, and +its peculiarity is that it could not be set down except when empty. The +base is modelled after the head of a dog, goat, deer, or other animal, +and the neck or cup proper is either cylindrical or elongated and +sloped.</p> + +<p>The <i>lekythos</i> (<a href="#fig_305">Fig. 305</a>) was an oil-jar of an elongated shape, neck in +proportion, cup-like orifice, and one handle. It is decorated in all the +styles of Grecian art, and is generally about one foot in height. It was +sometimes made of metal or marble.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_175" id="fig_175"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 68px;"> +<a href="images/illpg225b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg225b_sml.jpg" width="68" height="82" alt="Fig. 175.—Holmos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 175.—Holmos.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>alabastros</i> was a diminutive lekythos, used for toilet unguents, +with two small ears by which to suspend it.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_176" id="fig_176"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;"> +<a href="images/illpg225c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg225c_sml.jpg" width="179" height="140" alt="Fig. 176.—Kelebe." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 176.—Kelebe.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>krater</i> (<a href="#fig_173">Figs. 173</a> and <a href="#fig_174">174</a>) was the vessel in which the Greeks +cooled and mixed their wine, of which it would hold about three gallons. +It is the later form of a class of vessels of which the <i>holmos</i> (Fig. +175), <i>kelebe</i> (<a href="#fig_176">Fig. 176</a>), and <i>oxybaphon</i> (<a href="#fig_177">Fig. 177</a>) are the earlier +representatives.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_177" id="fig_177"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 124px;"> +<a href="images/illpg225d_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg225d_sml.jpg" width="124" height="119" alt="Fig. 177.—Oxybaphon." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 177.—Oxybaphon.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>psykter</i>, or wine-cooler, was a double-walled vessel of the amphora +type, rotund in shape.</p> + +<p>The <i>dinos</i> was another form of the wine vessel, open-mouthed, round in +body and base, and allied to the krater.</p> + +<p>The <i>chytrai</i> were warming-pots with two handles. The <i>tripous</i>, or +three-footed pot, was employed in a similar manner.</p> + +<p>The <i>oinochoe</i>, in the shape most frequently<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">{226}</a></span> occurring, resembled a jug +with a lip either round or pinched in at the sides, and with a handle +rising above the orifice. The oinochoe was used in serving the guests +from the krater.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_178" id="fig_178"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 85px;"> +<a href="images/illpg226a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg226a_sml.jpg" width="85" height="133" alt="Fig. 178.—Prochoos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 178.—Prochoos.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>prochoos</i> (Figs. 178 and 179) was also a jug, either with or +without a handle, for either water or wine. The <i>olpe</i> (<a href="#fig_180">Fig. 180</a>) +belongs to the same class.</p> + +<p>The <i>aryballos</i> (<a href="#fig_165">Fig. 165</a>) was round or bladder-shaped and short-necked, +and bore a close resemblance to one of the toilet vases of the +Egyptians.</p> + +<p>The <i>arystichos</i> was also used for serving from the krater, a usage +which gave rise to several other shapes. Of the cups designed for the +same purpose, the <i>kotylos</i> may be mentioned, although its shape is +doubtful. The <i>kyathos</i> (<a href="#fig_181">Fig. 181</a>), or ladle, belongs to the same class.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_179" id="fig_179"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 57px;"> +<a href="images/illpg226b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg226b_sml.jpg" width="57" height="106" alt="Fig. 179.—Prochoos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 179.—Prochoos.</span> +</div> + +<p>The drinking-cups were of many shapes and assumed great elegance of +form. The several varieties cannot now be specified by description. The +<i>skyphos</i> was the generic name applied also to a few special shapes now +unknown. The <i>kantharos</i> (<a href="#fig_182">Fig. 182</a>) was wide, somewhat shallow, with two +handles rising well above the lip, and either with or without a stem.</p> + +<p>The <i>kylix</i> (<a href="#fig_183">Fig. 183</a>) was the cup most generally used, and varied in +shape. In the earliest specimens it has a long stem, two handles, and is +shallow and wide. The later forms are wider, and shorter in the stem, +which ultimately disappears entirely. The <i>phiale</i> was the religious +counterpart of the kylix.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_180" id="fig_180"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 71px;"> +<a href="images/illpg226c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg226c_sml.jpg" width="71" height="113" alt="Fig. 180.—Olpe." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 180.—Olpe.</span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>kanoun</i>, <i>diskos</i>, and <i>pinax</i> were for table use, the two latter +corresponding with our plates, with the exception that the diskos stood +upon a stem or foot.</p> + +<p>Of the vessels named those deserving closest attention, as most +frequently presenting themselves, are the kylix, oinochoe, krater, +aryballos, kyathos, lekythos, rhyton, hydria, amphora, and pithos. The +kylix is to be specially commended for its beauty of shape, and its +decoration with red figures exemplifies some of the best art of Greece.</p> + +<p>From the descriptions given of the various vessels, it will be seen<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_227" id="page_227">{227}</a></span> +that many of them were devoted to household use. Vases were also made as +toys for children, as prizes to victorious athletes, for holding the +viands and liquids placed beside the dead, and more recently for the +ashes of the dead. Among the exceptional uses of pottery by the Greeks +may be mentioned the giving of receipts on potsherds, the recording on +fragments of pottery of votes for ostracizing (from <i>ostrakon</i>, a +potsherd) a citizen, and for deciding the side to be taken by the +entrants for the game called <i>ostrakinon</i>. This last was decided by +“tossing up” a piece of pottery, and assigning a side to the player +according to its falling with the red or black side uppermost. Vases +were also made in honor of great men and authors, whose names are +inscribed on them. All the vases now in museums, numbering, according to +different estimates, from twenty to fifty thousand, were taken from the +tombs of Greece, Southern Italy, and Etruria. It was the custom to place +beside the dead the vessels necessary for the religious rites, the +favorite vases and prizes of the deceased; and in this way they have +been preserved to illustrate in our age the branch of Greek art to which +they belong. No precise age can be ascribed to any one specimen.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_181" id="fig_181"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"> +<a href="images/illpg227a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg227a_sml.jpg" width="210" height="242" alt="Fig. 181.—Kyathos" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 181.—Kyathos</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_182" id="fig_182"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 225px;"> +<a href="images/illpg227b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg227b_sml.jpg" width="225" height="242" alt="Fig. 182.—Kantharos." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 182.—Kantharos.</span> +</div> + +<p>The first glazed vases date probably from the ninth century before +Christ, and from the beginning of the third century<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_228" id="page_228">{228}</a></span> the art declined. +It had probably reached its highest point four hundred years before our +era.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_183" id="fig_183"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 286px;"> +<a href="images/illpg228a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg228a_sml.jpg" width="286" height="137" alt="Fig. 183.—Kylix. Black on Red. Female Faces and Feet +White. Naked Satyrs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 183.—Kylix. Black on Red. Female Faces and Feet +White. Naked Satyrs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metrop. Mus.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The earliest vases were made by hand, and even after glazing was +introduced that method was continued. It was also resorted to in making +the gigantic <i>pithoi</i>, which were too large to be turned on the wheel. +The finer vases were made on the wheel or moulded. After being moulded +they were dried and painted. There were two methods of painting. By the +first the figures were outlined and then filled in, leaving them black +on a red or pale ground. The vase was then glazed and fired. By the +second the figures were left untouched and of the color of the paste, by +painting the ground black. A color slightly different from that of the +body was employed for the finer lines of the figures. The vase was then +glazed and fired as before.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_184" id="fig_184"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<a href="images/illpg228b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg228b_sml.jpg" width="194" height="268" alt="Fig. 184.—Early Greek Oinochoe, showing Phœnician +Influences. About B.C. 700-500. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 184.—Early Greek Oinochoe, showing Phœnician +Influences. About B.C. 700-500. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. +Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>We now come to the successive styles of ornamentation. The natural order +would give the first place to the uncolored vases, the second to those +painted all over in black, the next to the different styles of figures. +In addition to what has been said in the Introduction, and to go more +deeply into details, the following points may be noted in regard to the +last of the above stages—the ornamentation by means of figures. These +first took<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">{229}</a></span> the form of simple belts of color drawn round the body of +the piece. A vase of a later but still very early period has the space +between the two zones passing round the widest part of the body filled +in with vertical designs, alternating with small rings, each containing +a cross (see <a href="#fig_166">Fig. 166</a>). When animal and floral decoration was first +attempted, the artist’s work was rude and the forms were unnatural. +White upon black grounds indicate the earliest style. Another very +ancient style has the figures, which are all those of animals, painted +in dark lines upon the pale red paste (<a href="#fig_184">Fig. 184</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="fig_185" id="fig_185"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 109px;"> +<a href="images/illpg229a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg229a_sml.jpg" width="109" height="149" alt="Fig. 185.—Greek Oinochoe. Painting, Black and Reddish +Brown. Height, 7½ in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Mus. of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 185.—Greek Oinochoe. Painting, Black and Reddish +Brown. Height, 7½ in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Mus. of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The vases of the next, or Archaic, group vary in color from a pale +yellow to a deep red, on which the figures are painted in a darker +color. One of its leading features is the profusion of flowers. The +presence of human forms, more or less skilfully drawn, may be taken as +the criterion by which to determine the later members of this group.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_186" id="fig_186"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 187px;"> +<a href="images/illpg229b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg229b_sml.jpg" width="187" height="261" alt="Fig. 186.—Bacchic Amphora. Black on Red Ground. Height, +15 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 186.—Bacchic Amphora. Black on Red Ground. Height, +15 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In the next style (<a href="#fig_186">Fig. 186</a>) human figures become more prominent in the +designs, and are perfectly black, with the exception of the flesh of +females, which is painted white or red. Many of the subjects are taken +from mythology and the heroic legends. This developed into the “old +style,” where the black appears greatly improved; and while the hands, +face, and exposed parts of the females are pure white, their eyes are +red. The drawing is still stiff and constrained, and where attempts at +perspective are made, they are eminently unskilful. White is also more +plentifully distributed, and is seen in the hair and beard of old men, +in horses, and in many accessories, for which red is also occasionally +employed. As<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_230" id="page_230">{230}</a></span> the art developed, red figures were more frequently +introduced among those in black; and we also find the artist entirely +obscuring the natural color of the paste by means of a white slip, or +coat, upon which he painted the black figures.</p> + +<p>As we approach the best art of Greece the colors are inverted. The +figures are drawn upon the paste of the red or yellow color of which +they appear, and the rest of the vase is painted black (<a href="#fig_187">Fig. 187</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="fig_187" id="fig_187"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 224px;"> +<a href="images/illpg230_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg230_sml.jpg" width="224" height="242" alt="Fig. 187.—Greek Kalpis. Red Figures on Black Ground. +(Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 187.—Greek Kalpis. Red Figures on Black Ground. +(Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The “fine style,” the culmination of Greek art, was a development of +that last described. The black ground, red figures, and white ornaments +show the highest point to which previous styles gradually led upward. +Drawing and composition are here at their best. The early stiffness has +given place to a fuller grace, and there is a nobility in the figures +and faces to which the earlier artists never attained. The limbs lose +their unnatural distortion, the muscles are less rigid—there is, in one +word, more life in the drawing. The accessories also gain by the greater +freedom of treatment. The drapery hangs more gracefully, its +straight-lined stiffness giving place to a more natural arrangement.</p> + +<p>In the later specimens of this style—so markedly different from the +earlier ones that they have been classed together as the florid +style—there is a more minute attention to finish, a greater elaboration +of dresses and other accessories, and a decided tendency toward finding +the ideal human form in that which is most graceful. Gold appears in the +ornamentation (<a href="#fig_188">Fig. 188</a>), and arabesques encircle the necks. Polychrome +vases were made at the same time, some of them showing the utmost +excellence of figure-drawing, and draperies of blue, green, or purple.</p> + +<p>When the art began to decline, taste and execution both deteriorated.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_231" id="page_231">{231}</a></span> +The figures lose their graceful proportions, and acquire a heavier +appearance. They are also more crowded, and the dresses become more +garish, until at last all refinement, both of conception and treatment, +was lost in coarseness and grotesque puerility. The amphora (<a href="#fig_189">Fig. 189</a>) +illustrates the decadence.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_188" id="fig_188"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;"> +<a href="images/illpg231a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg231a_sml.jpg" width="204" height="297" alt="Fig. 188.—Hydria. Black, with Gilt on Neck, and Red Rim +with Black Studs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 188.—Hydria. Black, with Gilt on Neck, and Red Rim +with Black Studs. (Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_189" id="fig_189"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;"> +<a href="images/illpg231b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg231b_sml.jpg" width="184" height="214" alt="Fig. 189.—Greek Amphora, with Columnar Handles. Red on +Black. From Canosa. Height, 20 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of +Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 189.—Greek Amphora, with Columnar Handles. Red on +Black. From Canosa. Height, 20 in. (Appleton Coll., Boston Museum of +Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The classification of vases by the subjects represented upon them is +unsatisfactory and confusing. Scenes are taken from mythology, heroic +legends, funeral ceremonies, from civil life, and from the gymnasium, +which permit neither of a chronological arrangement of the vases nor of +one based upon their position in the scale of art. A distinct group +might, without any loss of lucidity, be made of vases decorated with +subjects in relief, or with statuettes arranged upon the body and neck. +This was a union of sculpture and pottery occasionally embellished by +the painter’s art in the coloring of the drapery and subsidiary +ornaments. Color was also applied to sculptured reliefs. A vase now in +St. Petersburg is thus described: “It is a piece of very large size, +with three handles, and of the finest and most lustrous glaze. It is +ornamented at several heights with sculptured friezes in terra-cotta, +and gilded; but that which gives it its priceless value is a frieze of +figures from four to five inches<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_232" id="page_232">{232}</a></span> high, sculptured in bas-relief, with +the heads, feet, and hands gilded, and the vestments painted in bright +colors—blue, red, and green—in the finest Greek style imaginable. +Several heads from which the gilding has become detached show the +modelling, which is as fine and as finished as that of the finest +ancient cameo.” Cups or vases with two heads, one on each side, such as +Hercules and Omphale, illustrate the same branch of art. Such features +as these, beautifully modelled relievos, ideal heads, figure scenes in +which drawing and composition are almost above criticism, not less than +its elegance of shape, have made the Greek vase a model for all time. We +can trace Assyrian ideas in the decoration of some of the earlier vases, +and Egyptian influences may also occasionally be detected. We can even +find foreign models for a few of the Greek forms; but the Hellenizing +process has obliterated every antecedent, and the art which Greece gave +the world is as purely Grecian as if in every particular it were +indigenous to the soil of that favored land.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_233" id="page_233">{233}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III-b3" id="CHAPTER_III-b3"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> +<small>THE IBERIAN PENINSULA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spain</span>: Ancient Pottery.—Valencia the Most Ancient Centre.—The +Roman Period.—Arabs.—Valencia under the Moors.—Its +Decline.—Malaga the Most Ancient Moorish Settlement.—The Alhambra +Vase.—Influence of Christianity.—Majorca.—Azulejos.—Modern +Spain.—Porcelain.—Buen Retiro.—Moncloa.—Alcora.—<span class="smcap">Portugal</span>: +Vista Allegre.—Rato.—Caldas.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_190" id="fig_190"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<a href="images/illpg233_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg233_sml.jpg" width="166" height="245" alt="Fig. 190.—Hispano-Moresque Vase. End of 13th Century. +(S. Kensington Mus.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 190.—Hispano-Moresque Vase. End of 13th Century. +(S. Kensington Mus.)</span> +</div> + +<p>A <small>MERE</small> glance is all that is necessary to bestow upon the ancient +pottery of Spain before we resume the history of the Moorish +fabrications in that country. Valencia is the centre to which the +greatest antiquity must be accorded. Pliny alludes to Saguntum, now +called Murviedro, as having twelve hundred potteries, and Martial is not +stinted in his praises of their work. All the remains found there are of +the Roman period, and are classed under red Samian ware, and three other +groups, of which one was of a yellowish color and another of pale +terra-cotta. From that time we must make a great leap across the chasm +between the downfall of Roman civilization and the first Saracenic +occupation of the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century. Even then +there is little to guide research. Arabian azulejos have been met with, +and in 1239, four years after the Moorish kingdom of Granada had been +founded, a charter was granted by James I. of Aragon to the Saracen +potters of Xativa (San Felipe) relieving them from servitude on payment +yearly of one besant for each kiln. We have no means of identifying<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_234" id="page_234">{234}</a></span> the +early works of these Saracenic workmen, and it is not until 1517 that +they are referred to in literature as producing well-worked and +well-gilded faiences, more highly esteemed than any other of Spanish +manufacture. Several writers of the sixteenth century praise the +Valencian pottery, but in the beginning of the seventeenth century it +began to decline. Christian designs (<a href="#fig_191">Fig. 191</a>) take the place of +Moresque; and at the present day, according to Marryat, the +metallic-lustred wares of Manises, near Valencia, are made by an +innkeeper, who thus spends the time lying heavy on his hands by reason +of a lack of guests in his inn. In the olden time the pottery of Manises +was exchanged with Italy for that of Pisa, and was ordered by “the Pope, +cardinals and princes admiring that with simple earth such things can be +made.” Such is the difference between now and then.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_191" id="fig_191"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 226px;"> +<a href="images/illpg234_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg234_sml.jpg" width="226" height="224" alt="Fig. 191.—Spanish Majolica. Dark-blue and Brown Painting +on White. (J. W. Paige Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 191.—Spanish Majolica. Dark-blue and Brown Painting +on White. (J. W. Paige Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>From the style of the decoration it would appear that most of the +Valencian remains are to be attributed to the Christian period, <i>i. e.</i>, +after the thirteenth century. The general color is yellow with +mother-of-pearl lustre. St. Catherine and St. John were highly venerated +in Valencia, and this veneration appears in the frequency of their +representation, either actually, or by their emblems, or in invocations +and passages from the gospel of the fourth evangelist. The eagle—the +emblem of St. John—and the opening words of his gospel appear also, +however, on wares from Malaga and Majorca; and, further, the yellow +lustre was produced at Barcelona. It is, therefore, evidently unsafe to +ascribe, after an examination of general characteristics, individual +specimens to a specific source.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_192" id="fig_192"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<a href="images/illpg235_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg235_sml.jpg" width="184" height="364" alt="Fig. 192.—The Alhambra Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 192.—The Alhambra Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p>Of the Moresque pottery it is probable that Malaga was the most ancient +centre. Its golden pottery is spoken of as an article of export<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_235" id="page_235">{235}</a></span> as far +back as 1350. There also we are brought into contact with the famous and +beautiful vases of the Alhambra (<a href="#fig_192">Fig. 192</a>). The palace itself was built +by Mohammed-ben-Alhamar, the first Moorish king of Granada, in 1273, +with the intention, possibly of rivalling the richly decorated mosques +of the Mussulman Arabs. The Alhambra vase is the only survivor of three +of similar style found under the palace pavement. The others fell +victims to the Vandalism of memento or relic hunters. The one still in +existence is seven feet in circumference and four feet three inches in +height. It is supposed to belong to about the year 1320. It is made of +earthen-ware, and is decorated in three colors. The ground is white and +the decorations are a golden yellow lustre and blue. The vase is not +only a masterpiece of Moresque art, but a magnificent example of the +decorative genius of the Moors, which spent itself in devising quaint +combinations of lines and in a wealth of arabesque. There are many other +pieces which, from their metallic lustre and blue ornamentation, are +also credited to Malaga, and date from the middle of the fourteenth +century. It is unfortunate that this exquisite art soon deteriorated. As +we approach the Christian epoch we come upon the works of copyists +devoid of intelligence, in whose hands the decoration they strove to +follow loses its delicacy and meaning. The Valencian art with which we +are acquainted was thus rising as that of Malaga was gradually, sinking +out of sight. Faience was made at the latter place in the beginning of +the sixteenth century. For a time the Catholic conquerors under +Ferdinand tolerated the art. But intolerant zeal asserted itself, +Moorish customs were suppressed, and at length the Moorish settlers were +driven into exile.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">{236}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_193" id="fig_193"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 198px;"> +<a href="images/illpg236a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg236a_sml.jpg" width="198" height="190" alt="Fig. 193.—Hispano-Moresque Plaque in Frame. Diameter, 16 +in. Copper Color on White: Metallic Lustre. (Wales Coll., Boston Museum +of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 193.—Hispano-Moresque Plaque in Frame. Diameter, 16 +in. Copper Color on White: Metallic Lustre. (Wales Coll., Boston Museum +of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The third great centre of the ceramic art was at Ynca, in Majorca, the +largest of the Balearic group of islands. Majorca was conquered by James +I., in 1230, nine years before he took Valencia; and no Moresque +specimen now known can be ascribed to a period preceding that date. The +lustre of Majorca was very bright, and the ornamentation consisted +mainly of scrolls and flowers. The other islands of the group, Minorca +and Iviça, were also seats of the manufacture. We shall afterward see +how closely Majorca was connected by its commerce with Italy.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_194" id="fig_194"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<a href="images/illpg236b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg236b_sml.jpg" width="136" height="162" alt="Fig. 194.—Early Hispano-Moresque. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 194.—Early Hispano-Moresque. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)</span> +</div> + +<p>We have reserved the azulejos, or tiles (<a href="#fig_194">Fig. 194</a>), the best indicators +of the progress of Arabian art, for separate treatment. We find in the +tiles of the Alhambra, in the buildings of Seville and the Cuarto Real +of Granada (<a href="#fig_195">Fig. 195</a>), the products of the same skill which embellished +the edifices of Persia, Arabia, and the Maghreb. They are made of +light-colored clay, covered with a stanniferous enamel, upon which are +laid intricate designs in blue or golden lustre. The brilliant and +dazzling beauty they lent to the interior of the Alhambra, from +pavement, walls, and roof, can now only be imagined. So much did the +Spaniards admire the azulejos, that they were employed, not only for the +embellishment of public and royal edifices, but for the houses of the +wealthy. Their manufacture is continued in Valencia down to the present +day.</p> + +<p>From what has been said, the chronological sequence of the +Hispano-Moresque potteries may, in part, be inferred. The most ancient +is that resembling the Alhambra vase, decorated with blue and yellow +lustre. As we come later down, the lustre<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_237" id="page_237">{237}</a></span> assumes more of a golden hue, +and becomes exceedingly brilliant, as we find it at Valencia, when the +less dazzling wares of Malaga were falling into disfavor. The ruddier +copper lustres are the farthest removed from the early wares. They excel +in brightness, and show less restraint and chasteness of taste, and mark +the decline from those works which have given celebrity to +Hispano-Moresque pottery.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_195" id="fig_195"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 278px;"> +<a href="images/illpg237a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg237a_sml.jpg" width="278" height="256" alt="Fig. 195—Moorish Tile, from the Cuarto Real." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 195—Moorish Tile, from the Cuarto Real.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_196" id="fig_196"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illpg237b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg237b_sml.jpg" width="131" height="166" alt="Fig. 196.—Early Hispano-Moresque. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 196.—Early Hispano-Moresque. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Spain of our day retains not even a semblance of its former +greatness. What is best in its modern art, such as the terra-cotta of +Barcelona, contains no tradition of ancient times. At the Centennial +Exhibition, it was, as compared with leading European countries, poorly +represented. It may be assumed that Seville, famous for its azulejos +from the sixteenth century, and Valencia, which has an unwritten +continuous ceramic history from the Roman epoch to the present day, +would not send their inferior works to America. The former city was +represented by a pyramid of wares showing great diversity of design and +decoration. A large vase, best described as after the Alhambra type, was +of a yellow lustre, and surrounded by narrow gilt bands. There were also +a few smaller pieces of iridescent blue, green, and gold. A pair of +vases with floral decoration on a red ground and black base hardly +suggested relationship with the works exemplifying the exquisite taste +of ancient Spain.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">{238}</a></span></p> + +<p>The Valencian tiling was, as a rule, coarse and inartistic. On a series +of wall-pieces were figures of some of the apostles, and a landscape, +fairly drawn, but weak in color. The artist manifested an unfortunate +predilection for a shading of brownish purple, which enhanced neither +his figures nor landscapes. The old style of mosaic tiling was +represented by some specimens composed of small star-shaped and +elongated hexagonal tiles. There was no sign of the preservation of even +a tradition of Hispano-Moresque art. We may turn to Spanish history for +an explanation of this decadence, and find in the latter an illustration +of its history. Its art was essentially foreign; and when it fell +entirely into the hands of the Spanish, on the expulsion of the Moors by +the bigotry of Philip II., its doom was sealed. We read the history of +the ceramic art during its best days in Spain as an additional chapter +to the Saracenic and Maghrebrian, and as that of a branch which, by the +accident of location, and not from its having any element really +Spanish, came to be known as Hispano-Moresque.</p> + +<p>We nowhere find any literary evidence that the Persians who settled in +Spain exercised any practical influence upon its ceramics. Very likely +they did; and, further, it is not improbable that commerce may have +brought Spain into a closer connection with the East than is generally +suspected. The early Hispano-Moresque works are so clearly suggestive of +Eastern influence, that one is almost led at times to question their +right to the name conferred upon them. As if to give the half-shaped +doubt a more decided form, we remember also that as the art becomes more +purely Spanish it declines from its ancient beauty. We can only admire +and criticise the odd combinations of color and form; and while +indulging in conjectures as to the immediate fabrication of the pottery +under consideration, we must regard it as illustrative of the +development of an art of Oriental origin.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of artificial porcelain in Spain was instituted, about +1760, by Charles III., who took with him a number of workmen and artists +from Naples. This accounts for the similarity between the Spanish and +Neapolitan productions. The works were situated in the gardens of the +Buen Retiro at Madrid, and were kept strictly secluded from visitors. +The ware was of fine quality, and was said by some writers who had seen +specimens at the palace, to rival that of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_239" id="page_239">{239}</a></span> Sèvres. La China, as the +Royal Manufactory was called, was blown up by Lord Hill during the +Peninsular War, in 1812. A second manufactory was established at +Moncloa, near Madrid, in 1827. Mention is also made of a factory of +natural porcelain at Alcora, in 1756, but the reference must be accepted +with hesitation.</p> + +<p>Of the ceramics of Portugal very little is known; but that little is +sufficient to lead us to wish for more exact knowledge. In this matter, +Portugal has not yet, in fact, been appointed to any recognized place in +history. Her ceramic art has not been known to Europeans for more than +ten years, and to Americans for little more than one; and we have no +means of telling whence it was derived. Probably it came from Spain, as +we learn that the Portuguese use azulejos as extensively as the +Spaniards. We are further told that many of their imitations are +exceedingly clever. Of the truth of this we have had ample evidence. +None of the imitation Palissy ware exhibited at the Centennial was more +realistic and full of life than that of Portugal. Some majolica vases, +with coiled snake handles, were very creditable. The snake evidently +plays an important part in Portuguese ceramics, as we met with it +elsewhere, and notably as the handle of a fish-shaped dish. Very +remarkable were the unique and droll little figures of painted pottery, +sometimes grouped into a humorous scene, sometimes single, and +illustrative of the national costumes. The humor which the Portuguese +contrived to infuse into their art evidently lent the pottery section of +their department at the Centennial its greatest attraction; and combined +as it was with excellent modelling and colors, the nature of which we +can hardly specify, it excited our curiosity to learn what historical +background there may be to the art which now chooses such expression. A +natural porcelain factory at Vista Allegre, near Oporto, is mentioned, +and the faience fabrics of Rato and Caldas.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_240" id="page_240">{240}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV-b3" id="CHAPTER_IV-b3"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> +<small>ITALY.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Italian Art.—Whence Derived.—Greece and +Persia.—Divisions.—Ancient Roman and Etruscan.—Etruria and +Greece.—Questions Resulting from Discoveries at Vulci.—Early +Connection between Etruria and Greece.—Etruscan Art an Offshoot of +Greek.—Examples.—Best of Black Paste.—Why Etruscan Art +Declined.—Rome.—Nothing Original.—Its Debt to Etruria and +Greece.—Decline of its Art.—Unglazed Pottery and its +Divisions.—Glazed Pottery.—Samian +Ware.—Aretine.—Terra-cotta.—After Rome fell.—The +Renaissance.—Saracenic Influences.—Crusades.—Conquest of +Majorca.—Tin Enamel and Metallic Lustre.—Bacini at Pisa.—Lead +Glaze.—Majolica Made at Pesaro.—Sgraffiati.—Luca della +Robbia.—Sketch of his Life.—His Alleged Discovery.—What he +really Accomplished.—Where he Acquired the Secret of Enamel.—His +Works.—Bas-Reliefs.—Paintings on the Flat.—His +Successors.—Recapitulation of Beginnings of Italian +Majolica.—Chaffagiolo.—Siena.—Florence.—Pisa.—Pesaro.—Castel-Durante.—Urbino.—Gubbio +and Maestro Giorgio.—Faenza.—Forli, Rimini, and +Ravenna.—Venice.—Ferrara.—Deruta.—Naples.—Shape and +Color.—Modern Italy.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> ceramic art of Italy, beginning with the Roman and Etruscan, and +coming down to the Renaissance in the fifteenth century, is the +successor of those of Greece and the East, on the one hand, and of the +Saracenic and Hispano-Moresque on the other. There have been two +questions under discussion in reference to the latter period, viz., +Where did Italy acquire her knowledge of the use of stanniferous enamel? +and, Whence did she draw her skill in the application of metallic +lustre? We shall find, on examining the evidence, that the great works +of her artistic prime were the results of a derivative and not of an +original art. They are only original in so far as they indicate a point +in advance of Italy’s predecessors. We have said that Oriental art +culminated in Greece. Italy presents us with a later point of union +between two lines issuing from the East. We find subjects and forms +recalling at once the ideals of Greece and the rich mythological and +legendary sources from which were drawn the aids to her prolific +imagination. We also find that the Greek restraint in the use of colors +is thrown aside, and that Italy availed herself to the full of the +skilful<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_241" id="page_241">{241}</a></span> processes and methods of embellishment brought to her shores +from Persia, and by the Saracens and Moors from their settlements in +Africa and Spain.</p> + +<p>There are thus two great divisions of Italian pottery: the ancient Roman +and Etruscan, and that of the Renaissance. Between these two there is a +long period of darkness, extending from the last smouldering glow of the +art of Italy, after Constantine took the seat of the imperial power to +Byzantium, to the entrance of the Saracens into Europe.</p> + +<p>In considering the ancient epoch, one pertinent fact may be borne in +mind, viz., that the best remains of the art of Greece have been found +beyond its own borders, and that its history might be written from those +discovered in Italy alone. Dividing Italy into three sections, we shall +have Magna Græcia, Campania, and Etruria. Of these the latter has the +greater antiquity, in so far as its ceramic remains are concerned. Greek +colonies settled all along the southern part of the peninsula and in +Sicily, and such relics as are found there may, in the mean time, be +dismissed as corresponding in style with those of the same dates +produced in Greece.</p> + +<p>Although the same rule might be held in a less broad sense to apply to +Etruria, it is deserving of more lengthened consideration. When, in +1825, the great discoveries were made at Vulci, the learned world was +divided as to the places to which the vases should be credited. Some +maintained that they were made in Greece and imported; others, that they +were made in Etruria by Greek workmen; others, that they were really +Etruscan; others, that they were partly native and partly imported from +Greece; and still others, that many of them came from Magna Græcia and +Sicily. To reconcile these suppositions, without affecting the eastern +origin of Etruscan art, we are reminded that the Pelasgi—the name given +to the ancient inhabitants of Greece—founded Agyllos, on the coast of +Etruria. Bunsen places the first introduction of art into Etruria at +this remote period. We come next to the arrival of Demaratus in +Tarquinii, about the year <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 655. Demaratus was a wealthy Corinthian, +of the family of the Bacchiadæ. On the usurpation by Cypselus of the +government of Corinth, Demaratus fled, accompanied by all his family, +and, landing in the above named flourishing city, married an Etruscan +bride, and by her had a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_242" id="page_242">{242}</a></span> son, Lucumon, who afterward occupied the throne +of Rome under the name of Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of the +Romans and the first of the Tarquins. Demaratus was either accompanied +or followed by certain of the artists who had brought celebrity to +Corinth for its pottery, and thus the art of Greece, as it was at that +period, might have been introduced into Etruria. It must, however, be +admitted that the story of Demaratus is not as clear as might be wished, +the authorities differing as to his status in Corinth, and as to +Lucumon, who is considered by some as having been merely one of his +companions. The Tyrrheno-Pelasgians were driven from the sea-coast +probably in the sixth century before Christ. We would from these facts +be led to expect specimens of ceramic art, firstly, rude and indigenous; +secondly, showing signs of the same Oriental origin from which Greece +derived its first lessons; and thirdly, examples of pure Greek +fabrication mingled with Etruscan imitations. In regard to such a +collection as that found at Vulci, it may thus be assumed that there is +a modicum of truth in each of the suppositions above referred to. There +cannot, in any case, be any reason for calling in question the statement +that, in the main, Etruscan ceramic art was of Grecian birth. We are +speaking of the productions of 2300 years ago. Etruria was open to the +little world surrounding the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Its ships +brought enamelled bottles from Egypt, which its citizens set in gold and +placed in their tombs. It had maritime connections with Spain, +Phœnicia, and perhaps with England, and with the southern ports of +the Italian peninsula, and those of Sicily. It imported both potters and +their wares, and turned from its own ancient standards to a higher. +While the immigrant Greeks were making such wares as they had made at +home, the native Etruscan artists were imitating, clumsily and awkwardly +at times, but gradually improving and approaching their teachers more +nearly. Etruscan art, with the exception of the earlier specimens of +rude aboriginal skill, must, therefore, be studied as an offshoot of +that of Greece.</p> + +<p>The oldest examples, more distinctly indigenous than any of the +succeeding styles, are of a brownish color and rude shape, and are +decorated with bands and knobs or studs in relief. One peculiar shape +bears a resemblance to a miniature rustic cottage, and belongs to the +sepulchral class. Others, which are painted, recall the art of Greece<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">{243}</a></span> +in its first devotion to Phœnician or Egyptian models. They may, +therefore, be referred to the age when the Tyrrheno-Pelasgians still +held their settlements in Etruria, and are probably the work of these +settlers and of the aboriginal inhabitants who preceded them. When the +Etruscans overran the settlements of the Pelasgi, a red and black ware +was introduced, and soon afterward we are brought more directly into +contact with Grecian art by importations.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_197" id="fig_197"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 156px;"> +<a href="images/illpg243_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg243_sml.jpg" width="156" height="275" alt="Fig. 197.—Ancient Etruscan Vase. Height, 21 in. (J.J. +Dixwell Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 197.—Ancient Etruscan Vase. Height, 21 in. (J.J. +Dixwell Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The best Etruscan works are of black paste (<a href="#fig_197">Fig. 197</a>), toward which the +brown changed as it improved. The ornaments are incised flowers, and +bas-reliefs of animals and human faces, executed, designed, and arranged +in styles decidedly Oriental. On one found at Vulci are monsters like +the Egyptian sphinx, winged and woman-headed. It is probable that, of +the two styles of ornamentation, the incised is the more ancient, and +that the black ware, as a whole, belongs to between the seventh and +third centuries before Christ. The prevalence of Egyptian forms and +symbols in connection with this class, such as the scarabæus and ostrich +eggs painted with strange winged monsters, gives additional probability +to our estimate of their age, and shows how far Etruria availed herself +of the act of Psammetichus I. of Egypt, who, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 654, threw open the +ports of that country to foreign traders. Contemporaneous with these are +large vases of red ware corresponding with the Greek <i>pithoi</i>. The +decoration displays a knowledge of the art of Egypt and the East, +mingled with examples of that of Greece. The yellow ware is allied to +the Doric; and specimens of a still paler color, ornamented with Grecian +subjects, modified and adapted to Etruscan ideas, mark the close of the +art. It at no time attained to any very great excellence, and declined +early. Both of these facts are easily explained. In the wonderful +collection of Signor Alesandro Castellani are many beautiful<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">{244}</a></span> specimens +of Etruscan bronze, carved gems, and work in gold. These are ascribed to +the third, fourth, and fifth centuries before the Christian era; and it +is only natural to suppose that the delicate skill acquired in the +manipulation of such materials should have given rise to a distaste for +the humbler though more obedient clay. Many of the vases suggest the +transition from pottery to bronze in the evidence which their decoration +gives of having been imitated from metal.</p> + +<p>When we turn to Rome, little investigation is required to satisfy us +that there is no such thing as an independent Roman ceramic art. +Whatever Rome possessed was acquired from without, not developed from +within. One could expect no artistic sense to manifest itself among the +horde of refugees, outcasts, and criminals who surrounded Romulus in his +little castle on the Palatine hill. His successor, Numa Pompilius, in +aiming a blow at idolatry, may have also retarded the growth of art. He +forbade the use of images, and for one hundred and sixty years after his +death no statue appeared in the temples of Rome. This brings us down to +the Etruscan monarch, Tarquinius Priscus, who placed in the Roman +capitol a terra-cotta statue of Jupiter, by an Etruscan artist. Whatever +the Romans required they obtained from Etruria, until they found a new +source of supply in Magna Græcia. That they made very slow progress in +the arts may be inferred from one incident which happened nearly five +hundred years after Numa had issued his order against idolatry. While +the second Punic war was raging, the Roman consul, Marcellus, besieged +Syracuse, a Corinthian city in Sicily, and, after taking it, sent its +paintings and statues to Rome, in order that his countrymen might learn +from the art of Greece, and acquire a taste for such works. Syracuse +fell <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 212, and eleven years afterward the war was brought to an end. +It was by thus acquainting themselves with the beauty of Grecian art +that the Romans began to display a desire for the artistic embellishment +of their homes and capital. When their arms were directed against +Greece, and Athens fell under their assaults, in the first century +before Christ, Greek artists flocked to Rome, and for a time made it the +workshop in which they labored and the school in which they taught. But +with the sun itself its rays of golden light must disappear, though for +a time they gild the earth and clouds with their departing glory. Greece +was enslaved. Her ancient spirit was crushed. She had<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">{245}</a></span> taught the world +the lesson intrusted to her, and with political independence sank art +and literature, though not without leaving imperishable monuments +behind. As the tree withered, so did the branches; and the expatriated +Greeks in Rome and the long-subdued colonies of Magna Græcia, deriving +no longer any warmth from the centre from which they came, were quickly +lost to sight. There also, as in Etruria, richness took the place of +beauty. Gold, silver, and gems were more to the luxurious Romans of the +empire than ceramic art, and that which had embellished the palaces of +kings was left to the gods and the poor.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_198" id="fig_198"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<a href="images/illpg245a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg245a_sml.jpg" width="200" height="124" alt="Fig. 198.—Roman Terra-cotta Lamps." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 198.—Roman Terra-cotta Lamps.</span> +</div> + +<p>The different kinds of unglazed Roman ware may be divided, according to +the color of their pastes, into yellowish white, red, gray, and black. +The yellow paste was the coarsest, and was used for large pieces, such +as the <i>dolia</i> and <i>amphoræ</i>. The smaller pieces of this color are of a +better quality. Many of the household vessels were of red ware, such as +plates, bottles, and jars. Some of it, as, for example, the false +Samian, was dipped in a slip. The gray class comprises <i>amphoræ</i>, and +flat cooking-pans, and includes some specimens which have all the +characteristics of modern stone-ware. The black paste was largely +employed in making dishes and other table utensils, such as cups and +candle-sticks.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_199" id="fig_199"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 257px;"> +<a href="images/illpg245b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg245b_sml.jpg" width="257" height="146" alt="Fig. 199.—Roman Bowl of Samian Ware." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 199.—Roman Bowl of Samian Ware.</span> +</div> + +<p>The leading kinds of glazed pottery were the Aretine and red Samian +wares. The latter of these is the more celebrated (<a href="#fig_199">Fig. 199</a>). Its +prototype is to be found in the red ware of the Greek islands. The paste +is close and fine, and the glaze is clear and very thin. The similarity +in texture of all the specimens points to the conclusion that<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_246" id="page_246">{246}</a></span> they were +made in one place. The Samian ware has, like the legionary tiles, been +found wherever the arms of Rome were carried. Like the unglazed red +pottery, it was extensively used for table services, and may broadly be +said to have been the chief domestic ware of the Romans. The +ornamentation consists of mouldings in relief, incised rings, and +intaglio patterns.</p> + +<p>The Aretine ware is also red, and is very like the Samian in many +respects, but of a lighter shade, and more finely decorated, chiefly in +relief. There are also two kinds of black Roman ware, one of dark paste, +the other of red paste colored black. The ornamentation of the first is +generally very simple, while that of the latter, in some cases, +resembles the mouldings on red ware. Like the Samian, it is found over +the greater part of Europe.</p> + +<p>One of the most interesting branches of Roman ceramics—the various uses +of terra-cotta, we pass with a brief reference. The oldest statues are +terra-cotta, and of the same material are water spouts, window frames, +friezes, capitals, and pillars. Terra-cotta statues were made from the +early days, when Etruria was the centre from which Rome supplied itself, +down to the Empire, although in the interim the conquest of Magna Græcia +and Greece had rendered the beautiful Greek marbles and bronzes +accessible to the Romans. The architectural bas-reliefs were highly +esteemed by the Romans themselves, and show that the Greeks, both at +home and residing in Italy, applied themselves to this particular branch +of art with devotion and success. The subjects are generally Greek, and +are taken from both mythology and history. The gods of both greater and +lesser orders appear under many of the characters ascribed to them, and +the adventures of Ulysses and Achilles, the feats of Theseus, and the +labors of Hercules, are a never-failing treasury of effective subjects.</p> + +<p>The result of all our inquiries may be summed up in this contradiction, +that Roman ceramic art deserving of the name is Greek, and that the +potters who were Roman have left little beyond household wares to attest +their skill.</p> + +<p>With the fall of the Roman Empire the art, which had long been +declining, disappeared from view. Pottery must, no doubt, have been +produced. The household necessities of the people must have been +satisfied, even amidst internal disruption and barbarian invasions; but<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_247" id="page_247">{247}</a></span> +there is no evidence that anything worthy of being called an art was +kept alive. The revival of the ceramic art of Italy must be dated from +the time of Luca della Robbia, in the fifteenth century. To account for +the forms it took, an endeavor must be made to join it on to the +different branches which preceded it elsewhere. The only danger to be +incurred is that of being confused by the multiplicity and yet +substantial unity of its sources. Without repeating what has been said +in the chapter devoted to the fountains of European art, let it be +remembered that, in the year 827, the Saracens conquered Sicily, and +that they introduced into that island a manufacture similar to that +found in Spain. They embellished the mosque of Palermo with tiles like +those of the Alhambra, and these tiles were afterward imitated in works +produced in Sicily itself. Afterward, in the fourteenth century, Moorish +works were established at Calata Girone, or Caltagirone, in Sicily, and +some pieces attributed to them are decorated with copper lustre upon +stanniferous enamel. To this period belong the Siculo-Moresque vases in +the Castellani collection, which date from the fourteenth century +downward (<a href="#fig_201">Fig. 201</a>). It is observable that the metallic lustre does not +appear in the earlier pieces, which have an unmistakably Persian style +of decoration. One specimen will suffice, viz., an oval vase covered +with a silicious glaze, and decorated in blue and black, with gazelles +and inscriptions. Meanwhile Venice and other maritime cities on both +sides of the Italian peninsula were developing an extensive trade with +the East. The Crusaders had been converting the old battle-ground of the +Jews into the scene of another strife, in which Judaism was ignored. +Mohammed preached the gospel of the sword, and the Christians took up +the gauntlet thrown down by the Saracens. Is it not possible that by +these two courses—trade, and the movements of followers of the +Cross—some inklings of Persian art may have crept into Italy?</p> + +<p><a name="fig_200" id="fig_200"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;"> +<a href="images/illpg247_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg247_sml.jpg" width="140" height="182" alt="Fig. 200.—Siculo-Moresque Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 200.—Siculo-Moresque Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_248" id="page_248">{248}</a></span>The crusading spirit of the twelfth century was a most potent agency. +In 1113 the Pisans were roused to a sense of the wrongs suffered by +Christians from the piratical Saracens of Majorca. They set sail, and in +1115 the island was in their power; and their galleys returned home +freighted with the spoils of war. An extensive trade between the +Balearic Islands and Italy was maintained in the fourteenth century. +Looking at these facts, does it appear improbable that Moorish wares and +Moorish potters may have reached Italy from Majorca? Coming still later, +we find Moorish refugees from Spain flocking toward Italy in vast +numbers. Leaving the Saracens and Moors entirely out of the question, +the art of enamelling might have reached Italy from the Byzantine +Greeks.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_201" id="fig_201"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg248_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg248_sml.jpg" width="342" height="176" alt="Fig. 201.—Siculo-Moresque Vases. (Castellani Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 201.—Siculo-Moresque Vases. (Castellani Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>With all these facts before us, the bacini, or plates found incrusted in +the walls of the old churches of Pisa, need give us little trouble. Mr. +Fortnum found one Persian piece. Mr. Marryat thinks them of Moorish +origin. Mr. Fortnum is of the further opinion that many of the bacini, +both of Pisa and other Italian cities, are of native Italian +manufacture. Each specimen must be judged separately, and it may be +pointed out that with the highway of the sea open to the East and to the +Saracenic settlements in Africa and Spain, with Saracens already settled +in Sicily, and with the known early connection by commerce between Italy +and Spain, it is difficult to specify the route by which any special +ware or process <i>must</i> have reached Italy. We shall afterward see that +in Germany tin enamel was known in the thirteenth century. If it should +be asked, How did it get there? the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_249" id="page_249">{249}</a></span> question would illustrate a good +deal of idle speculation indulged in regarding its introduction into +Italy. The same rule will apply to the metallic lustre.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_202" id="fig_202"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg249_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg249_sml.jpg" width="316" height="253" alt="Fig. 202.—Sgraffiato of the 15th Century." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 202.—Sgraffiato of the 15th Century.</span> +</p> + +<p>The Italians used lead glaze on their pottery from a very early period. +According to Passeri, mezza-majolica covered with marzacotto was made at +Pesaro as early as the beginning of the fourteenth century. Sgraffiato +ware was made in a similar manner, and derived its name from the incised +ornaments which were cut into the white engobe or slip (with which the +ware was covered), so as to show the original color below the slip. In +the example here given (<a href="#fig_202">Fig. 202</a>) the incised decoration is combined +with figures and flowers in relief. But the brilliant importations from +Spain made a deep impression upon the public taste. The wares of Majorca +were those best and most generally known, and its name, as changed to +majolica, had been given to the entire class of lustred wares, although +the art of lustring was already known in Italy. It is well to +discriminate between the name and the article. It is quite possible that +the name of the best known type should come to be applied to the entire +class. Jacquemart finds the early wares of Pesaro very suggestive of +Persian influence. He concludes, also, that the art of applying the +metallic<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_250" id="page_250">{250}</a></span> lustre may have been communicated by Persian potters, or by +others who had learned it from them, to the eastern potteries of Italy. +We may conclude that, as the Majorca ware surpassed that of the early +Italian potteries, the potters of Italy endeavored to derive what +benefit they could from calling their own productions by the same name. +Metallic lustres were used before stanniferous enamel was adopted. The +invention of the latter in Italy has been generally ascribed to Luca +della Robbia, but there is every reason for believing that this is +incorrect. It is impossible to suppose that the Saracen and Moorish +potters in Italy were unacquainted with it. It is much more likely that, +being satisfied with the results of the processes to which they were +accustomed, and the beauty of lead glaze, they did not care to use it.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_203" id="fig_203"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 176px;"> +<a href="images/illpg250_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg250_sml.jpg" width="176" height="228" alt="Fig. 203.—Luca della Robbia." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 203.—Luca della Robbia.</span> +</div> + +<p>To tell what Robbia <i>did</i> accomplish we must glance at his personal +history. Luca della Robbia (<a href="#fig_203">Fig. 203</a>) was born at Florence in the year +1399 or 1400. At first he turned his attention to the business of a +goldsmith, but afterward aspired to sculpture. About 1438 his marble +bas-relief of “The Singing Boys” was placed in the Duomo of Florence, +and was so great a success that orders quickly multiplied. He had also +done some work in bronze, but neither chiselling nor casting was +sufficiently speedy. Statues must be copied from a clay model. The model +was his own; the copy was, in the general case, the work of an +assistant; and probably, even if he chiselled the marble himself, he +could not reproduce the effects so easily reached in the plastic clay.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_204" id="fig_204"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;"> +<a href="images/illpg251a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg251a_sml.jpg" width="275" height="283" alt="Fig. 204.—Holy Family. Medallion by Luca della Robbia. +(Hôtel Cluny, Paris)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 204.—Holy Family. Medallion by Luca della Robbia. +(Hôtel Cluny, Paris)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_205" id="fig_205"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 202px;"> +<a href="images/illpg251b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg251b_sml.jpg" width="202" height="245" alt="Fig. 205.—Luca della Robbia. Infant Saviour and Virgin. +(Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 205.—Luca della Robbia. Infant Saviour and Virgin. +(Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Luca was an enterprising artist, and it occurred to him that if he could +only dispense with the chiselling and casting, his art and profit would +both improve. But how could he make the clay as hard as bronze and as +white as marble? Remember that Luca was a sculptor, not a potter. +Whatever he did afterward, there can be no doubt that his attention was +first turned to statuary. He probably decided upon<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_251" id="page_251">{251}</a></span> applying to the men +who were accustomed to working in clay, to coloring it and glazing it, +to help him in his difficulty. He inquired, and learned that by dipping +his statuary in tin enamel and firing it, his object would be +accomplished. These considerations give his supposed discovery a new +aspect. If we consider that for centuries stanniferous enamel had been +in use by Eastern potters, and that the Saracens were perfectly familiar +with it, the secret is divested of all mystery. Luca probably acquired +his knowledge in one or other of the Italian potteries. What, then, are +we to credit to him? He must be admitted to have improved the enamel +after a series of experiments, and to have succeeded in bringing it to +the degree of fineness and opacity demanded by his purpose (<a href="#fig_204">Fig. 204</a>). +His first work was a bas-relief of the Resurrection, made about the year +1440, and still standing in the Cathedral of Florence. This piece is of +blue and white, the latter for the figures, the former for the ground. +He afterward introduced green and yellow, but these colors are very +sparingly used. His<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_252" id="page_252">{252}</a></span> best works are in and around Florence. Of a Madonna +in the circle above a chapel door, Ruskin, in his “Mornings in +Florence,” says: “Never pass near the market without looking at it; and +glance from the vegetables underneath to Luca’s leaves and lilies, that +you may see how honestly he was trying to make his clay like the garden +stuff.” The same colors are introduced in a bas-relief in the Castellani +collection, in which the Madonna kneels before the Infant Saviour, and +angels look down from above. The figures are white, the ground blue, and +green is introduced in the grass. Of the same class is the preceding +example (<a href="#fig_205">Fig. 205</a>) from Boston.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_206" id="fig_206"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 246px;"> +<a href="images/illpg252a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg252a_sml.jpg" width="246" height="253" alt="Fig. 206.—Medallion by Luca della Robbia. (South +Kensington Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 206.—Medallion by Luca della Robbia. (South +Kensington Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_207" id="fig_207"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 165px;"> +<a href="images/illpg252b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg252b_sml.jpg" width="165" height="228" alt="Fig. 207.—Andrea della Robbia. Holy Family. (Boston Mus. +of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 207.—Andrea della Robbia. Holy Family. (Boston Mus. +of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>While producing these works in enamelled earthen-ware, Robbia also +painted on the flat. Of this work there are twelve circular medallions +in the South Kensington Museum, and several specimens in Florence—a +tondo, some tiles, and a lunette. The medallions are enamelled, and the +paintings are allegorical representations of the months (<a href="#fig_206">Fig. 206</a>). +Vasari says in regard to the tiles: “For the bishop of Fiesole, in the +church of San Brancazio, he also made a marble tomb, on which are the +recumbent effigy of the bishop and three other half-length figures +besides; and on the pilasters of that work he painted, on the flat, +certain festoons<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_253" id="page_253">{253}</a></span> and clusters of fruit and foliage so skilfully and +naturally, that were they even painted in oil on panel, they could not +be more beautifully or forcibly rendered.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_208" id="fig_208"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg253a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg253a_sml.jpg" width="167" height="242" alt="Fig. 208.—Modern Imitation Robbia Ware. (Boston Museum +of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 208.—Modern Imitation Robbia Ware. (Boston Museum +of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_209" id="fig_209"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;"> +<a href="images/illpg253b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg253b_sml.jpg" width="101" height="261" alt="Fig. 209.—S. Sebastian, by Giorgio. (South Kensington +Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 209.—S. Sebastian, by Giorgio. (South Kensington +Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Luca died in 1481, leaving the full knowledge of the process he had +perfected to his nephew Andrea, who, however, was less successful than +his uncle. His art is less pure (<a href="#fig_207">Fig. 207</a>). He becomes elaborate where +Luca was simple, especially in his heavy borders of fruit. Andrea was +born in 1457, and died in 1528, and left the transmissible part of his +art to his four sons, Giovanni, Luca, Ambrosio, and Girolamo. Of these, +Girolamo became a monk, and one specimen of his work is said to be at +Siena. Giovanni’s works are signed, and cannot, therefore, lead to any +confusion. Luca, junior, settled in Rome, and Girolamo went to France, +where he executed several works. Luca, the elder, had also two +assistants, Agostino and Ottaviano, the former of whom displayed great +talent, and worked in Perugia. The special art was carried to Spain by +Nicoloso Francesco, of Pisa, who made some bas-reliefs for a church in +Seville. Of the other successors of Luca we need only refer to Maestro +Giorgio Andreoli, of Gubbio, who is said to have produced some pieces +after the Della Robbia type (<a href="#fig_209">Fig. 209</a>). The style finally passed away in +the earlier part of the sixteenth century. The demand for it appears to +have failed about that time. Stanniferous enamel continued to be used +here and there after Luca’s death, and after the lapse of some years +came gradually into general use. The oldest piece not of his style is +dated 1475. For the sake of lucidity it may also be here mentioned, that +the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_254" id="page_254">{254}</a></span> metallic lustre, for which the first pressure of public demand was +felt toward the close of the fourteenth century, passed into oblivion in +less than a hundred years, until revived in more modern times.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_210" id="fig_210"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg254a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg254a_sml.jpg" width="167" height="230" alt="Fig. 210.—Chaffagiolo Pitcher. (South Kensington +Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 210.—Chaffagiolo Pitcher. (South Kensington +Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Besides that of perfecting a special process, to Luca della Robbia must +be assigned the credit of paving the way to the revival which culminated +in the products of Gubbio. The distinction between mezza-majolica and +majolica must not be forgotten, viz., that the former name was +originally applied to wares covered with a white slip, then painted, +lead-glazed, and lustred, and the latter to tin-enamelled ware similarly +lustred. The latter was thus the highest representative of the +combination of two processes, both of Oriental origin. The application +of metallic lustre was Persian. Stanniferous enamel was successively +Egyptian, Babylonian, and Saracenic—the Saracens undoubtedly acquiring +a knowledge of it in Persia, where the beautiful silicious glaze kept it +in subordination. The Moors in Spain brought it more freely into use in +decoration, and with Luca della Robbia, who perfected the process still +farther, raised it from the desuetude into which it had fallen in Italy, +where, however, it was already known to Saracenic settlers and their +pupils.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_211" id="fig_211"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<a href="images/illpg254b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg254b_sml.jpg" width="144" height="259" alt="Fig. 211.—Siena Vase. (South Kensington Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 211.—Siena Vase. (South Kensington Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>With this recapitulation of the beginnings of real Italian majolica, we +may now continue our history. The impetus Italian ceramic art received +from foreign contact, and from the knowledge acquired by trade, was kept +up by the wisdom and devotion to the cause of art manifested by several +of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_255" id="page_255">{255}</a></span> ducal houses. From Pesaro, under the house of Sforza, from +Urbino, under that of Montefeltro, and from Florence and Chaffagiolo, +under the Medicis, and from other centres, the art spread over all +Italy. It is, therefore, by inquiries at these places that our +investigations must be continued. Leaving out of view the questions as +to the priority of Chaffagiolo to Faenza and Pesaro’s precedence in +metallic lustring, we may begin with Tuscany.</p> + +<p>The leading Tuscan towns were Chaffagiolo, Florence, Siena, and Pisa. +The first of these produced the earliest Tuscan majolica. Its leading +features are a thick dark blue, made from cobalt; a bright orange and +yellow; a fine clear green, red, brown, and purple. Before the artists +of Chaffagiolo had awakened to the spirit of the Renaissance, they +issued some works enamelled on one side, with central designs of a +Gothic character, and borders of orange, white, and blue. In the +fifteenth century a marked improvement was made, but it was not until +the beginning of the sixteenth century that the best Chaffagiolo ware +was made. Their colors then become more brilliant, and are more daringly +handled. Some of these pieces are dated 1507 and 1509. Metallic lustres +were used about the same period. Later, the brilliancy of the enamels is +toned down, and the execution of the designs is more careful and +refined. Chaffagiolo continued to make majolica to the end of the +sixteenth century. The pieces frequently show heraldic designs (Fig. +210) and mottoes, the letters S. P. Q. F. (the senate and people of +Florence), and the letters P. S. sometimes with I. and sometimes +without.</p> + +<p>The works made at Siena (<a href="#fig_211">Fig. 211</a>) are in many cases undistinguishable +from those of Chaffagiolo. An artist named Benedetto produced at Siena +some very fine pieces.</p> + +<p>The majolica of Florence, if such were ever made, is now unknown. Lazari +states that an artist was brought by the Grand Duke Francesco Maria to +decorate Florentine vases; but assuming the truth of the statement, his +works are now either destroyed or lost among those ascribed to other +places. We have already learned something of Pisa as fitting out a +Balearic crusade and exchanging pottery with Spain. Probably the wares +it exported came from other parts of Tuscany, although it had a majolica +manufactory of its own. The Pisan decoration closely resembles that of +Urbino.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_256" id="page_256">{256}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_212" id="fig_212"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg256_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg256_sml.jpg" width="333" height="331" alt="Fig. 212—The Sforza Dish. Pesaro." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 212—The Sforza Dish. Pesaro.</span> +</p> + +<p>In the Duchy of Urbino, Pesaro, Castel-Durante, Urbino, and Gubbio are +the leading centres, and absorb a large share of the interest +surrounding the pottery of Italy. When the Sforza family acquired the +lordship of Pesaro, they instituted pottery works there, and in 1486 and +1508 passed edicts against the importation of earthen-ware into Pesaro. +The first of these protective measures was granted by Giovanni Sforza +and Camilla, his father’s widow, and was commemorated by a dish called +the Sforza dish, a very wonderful specimen of majolica (<a href="#fig_212">Fig. 212</a>). The +centre is occupied by portraits of the granters of the edict, shaded +with blue on an indigo ground, and having gold and ruby lustred hair, +dresses, and head-dresses. A scroll representing the edict forms a white +back-ground to the faces, and is finished with ruby lustre. The borders +are blue, with ruby and gold lustre. Under the house of Sforza the +manufacture of mezza-majolica improved, and in 1500 fine, or +tin-enamelled, majolica was introduced. Up to 1530 it steadily improved, +and in that year the wife of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_257" id="page_257">{257}</a></span> reigning Duke of Urbino, who had +succeeded the Sforza lords of Pesaro, erected a palace near Pesaro. From +1540 to 1568, under Duke Guidobaldo II., the art continued to rise, +until it reached its highest point of perfection. The duke first +employed Battisto Franco, an eminent Venetian artist, and Raffaelle del +Borgo. Girolamo Lanfranco and Giacomo Lanfranco were also employed as +artists at Pesaro. After 1560 the art began to decline.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_213" id="fig_213"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;"> +<a href="images/illpg257_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg257_sml.jpg" width="191" height="381" alt="Fig. 213—Pesaro Vase. (John Taylor Johnston Coll., N. Y. +Metrop. Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 213—Pesaro Vase. (John Taylor Johnston Coll., N. Y. +Metrop. Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The earliest Pesarese works very closely resemble the Persian, and are +the best indications to be found of the presence of an art brought +directly from Iran to Italy. These are lustred and painted in green and +blue. At Pesaro we first meet with pieces showing the portraits and love +mottoes by which the lovers of the day celebrated the beauty of their +mistresses and gave lasting tokens of their passion. If we seek peculiar +features in this majolica, we shall find them in the strong execution +and finely blended tints of the early pieces, and in the yellow of the +<i>madreperla</i> lustre combined with blue. As the art rose under the second +Guidobaldo, historical scenes after the great masters present +themselves, taken from both profane and sacred history—the brave +Horatius defending the bridge at Rome against the army of Lars Porsenna, +Samson, Brennus, Mutius Scævola, Judith, and other characters. In 1567 +the Giacomo Lanfranco already mentioned applied real gold to majolica, +and several of his pieces thus decorated are still in existence.</p> + +<p>Castel-Durante appears to have produced faience as early as 1361, but +none of its pottery can be recognized until we come down to 1508, after +which the specimens multiply.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_258" id="page_258">{258}</a></span> With the year 1580 the art passed its +meridian, and declined steadily for nearly two hundred years. The +characteristic decoration consists of scrolls with fantastic chimerical +terminations. The colors are at first a dull green upon blue, and about +1550 lustrous rich yellows appear, and led to the decline thirty years +later.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_214" id="fig_214"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"> +<a href="images/illpg258a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg258a_sml.jpg" width="233" height="229" alt="Fig. 214.—Castel-Durante Portrait Plaque. (South +Kensington Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 214.—Castel-Durante Portrait Plaque. (South +Kensington Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_215" id="fig_215"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;"> +<a href="images/illpg258b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg258b_sml.jpg" width="240" height="239" alt="Fig. 215.—Castel-Durante Dish. (Castellani Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 215.—Castel-Durante Dish. (Castellani Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The city of Urbino was the great centre at once of majolica painting and +of the ducal patronage, which gave the entire duchy its pre-eminence. +From 1477, when Garducci was working in a comparatively humble way, down +to 1530, the history of Urbino hardly demands notice. Its highest glory +came with Francesco Xanto (<a href="#fig_216">Fig. 216</a>), whose broad and generally true +drawing and masterly composition mark him as one of the great artists of +the Renaissance. His subjects are taken from the Latin classical and the +later Italian poets, and from Raffaelle. Living at the time when the +demand for metallic lustre was at its height, he applies it with a +boldness and effectiveness in harmony with his brilliant coloring. All +his works are signed. From him we turn to the equally illustrious +Fontana family—Guido, Camillo, and Orazio, the latter of whom<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">{259}</a></span> is +specially deserving of study. He attained to a higher mechanical +excellence than any of his predecessors, his best works dating from +after 1540, when Xanto’s career was closing; and his paintings are in +consequence characterized by a softness of color and a fineness of glaze +which leave him without a peer. Few pieces by the Fontana family are +signed. Their most famous works are the vases for the Spezieria, ordered +by the Duke Guidobaldo II., and painted from designs by Raffaelle +Battista Franco, Michael Angelo, Giulio Romano, and others. Nicola da +Urbino and Francesco Durantino are among the other artists who +contributed to the fame of Urbino.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_216" id="fig_216"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg259_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg259_sml.jpg" width="371" height="373" alt="Fig. 216.—Urbino Plate, by Xanto. Scene, the Storming of +Goleta. (Marryat Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 216.—Urbino Plate, by Xanto. Scene, the Storming of +Goleta. (Marryat Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_217" id="fig_217"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 228px;"> +<a href="images/illpg260_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg260_sml.jpg" width="228" height="380" alt="Fig. 217.—Urbino Vase. Figure of Justice with Sword. +(Castellani Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 217.—Urbino Vase. Figure of Justice with Sword. +(Castellani Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The lustres of Gubbio (<a href="#fig_219">Fig. 219</a>) are inseparably associated with the one +great name of Giorgio Andreoli, or, as he is usually called, Maestro +Giorgio. He was a native of Pavia, and was originally a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_260" id="page_260">{260}</a></span> sculptor; and +after he went to Gubbio, in 1498, executed some works in the Della +Robbia style (<a href="#fig_209">Fig. 209</a>). A piece dated 1489, and signed “Don Giorgio,” +is ascribed to him while he was still at Pavia, but the first piece +characteristic of the master, signed and lustred, is dated 1519, and the +last 1541. We have said that Xanto of Urbino lustred his own pieces, but +the matter is not free from doubt. Maestro Giorgio certainly was master +of the art of lustring, and the brilliancy of his ruby reds, copper, and +mother-of-pearl is unrivalled. But the statement of many writers that +artists at other places sent their works to Gubbio to be lustred, and +allowed Giorgio to affix his name to them, is too repulsive to be +accepted without protest or reservation. One can hardly imagine a more +unworthy course than that ascribed to Giorgio, of laying aside his +proper artistic functions and becoming merely a decorator with lustres, +“indifferent,” as Marryat says, “by whose hands they were executed or +from what fabric they proceeded.” It is in this capacity of decorator +that the otherwise finished paintings of Xanto and others are said to +have been sent to him to be enriched with lustre. The earlier Gubbio +wares generally have a pale-blue ground, with grotesques and scrolls +terminating in animals’ heads, and mingled occasionally with cherubs’ +heads. The grounds afterward became more brilliant, and the designs +include mottoes and busts in celebration either of the great men of the +time or of its fair ladies. It is to be noted that Giorgio<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_261" id="page_261">{261}</a></span> lived before +the accession of Guidobaldo II., and consequently did not partake of the +benefits enjoyed by the Fontana family at Urbino.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_218" id="fig_218"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<a href="images/illpg261a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg261a_sml.jpg" width="194" height="284" alt="Fig. 218.—Urbino Pilgrim’s Bottle. (South Kensington +Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 218.—Urbino Pilgrim’s Bottle. (South Kensington +Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_219" id="fig_219"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 215px;"> +<a href="images/illpg261b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg261b_sml.jpg" width="215" height="248" alt="Fig. 219.—Lustred Gubbio Vase, of about A.D. 1500. +(South Kensington Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 219.—Lustred Gubbio Vase, of about A.D. 1500. +(South Kensington Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>From the Duchy of Urbino we may turn to Faenza. It has already been +referred to as supplying an etymology for the word faience. Ganzoni, +writing in 1485, speaks of the whiteness and polish of the Faenza +majolica, and Lazari praises its soft tints and good drawing, which +manifested themselves after the first quarter of the sixteenth century. +The earlier fabrics bear strong evidences of Oriental influences, and, +as seen in the Castellani collection, would carry us back to a very +early stage of the art. The glaze is either lead or litharge, and some +of the designs consist of geometrical combinations in manganese and +copper. Other primitive pieces are of a very pale blue or white, +changing at times to a blue border surrounding heads with beards +terminating in acanthus leaves and scrolls attached. A slight +examination of these pieces shows that the strength of the artists of +this period lay in the accessories, and that they were weak and +uncertain in their attempts at figure-drawing. The pieces ascribed to +Casa Pirota, of which Signor Castellani has some notable examples, are +those in which we discover the point of Lazari’s encomiums. These date +from 1525 downward, and show the excellence<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_262" id="page_262">{262}</a></span> of drawing and brightness +of decoration which gave the Faentine majolica its celebrity. The +borders frequently consist of grotesques in shaded white on pale or dark +blue or gray grounds. Dishes with chiaroscuro arabesques on grounds of +blue, surrounding figures, busts, or heraldic designs, represent a +prevailing Faentine style. A plate belonging to Signor Castellani has a +blue ground in the centre, on which a coat-of-arms is laid in yellow, +and the broad border of pale gray finishes with a rim of green and +yellow. An exceptional piece is described as black with white reserved +arabesques. Forli, Rimini, and Ravenna may be dismissed briefly. Forli +produced pottery at least as early as 1396; but it was not until the +sixteenth century that it made any majolica which we can recognize, and +even then it might easily be confounded with the productions of +Chaffagiolo and Faenza. The Rimini majolica is chiefly remarkable for +its wonderful glaze.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_220" id="fig_220"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 241px;"> +<a href="images/illpg262_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg262_sml.jpg" width="241" height="240" alt="Fig. 220.—Plateau by Giorgio. (South Kensington +Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 220.—Plateau by Giorgio. (South Kensington +Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Venice had majolica factories at least as early as 1520, and probably +half a century before that date. The earlier wares are illustrated by +certain pieces of faience pavement. Of the sixteenth century the +earliest specimens are dated 1540 and 1543, and of this period the +designs are chiefly in blue and white, sometimes soft and undecided. The +ware is thin and hard, and the rims of plates are frequently decorated +with fruit and flowers in relief. Scrolls on a deep blue ground, and oak +leaves on pale blue, are also met with.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_221" id="fig_221"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg263_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg263_sml.jpg" width="386" height="376" alt="Fig. 221.—Faenza Fruit Dish." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 221.—Faenza Fruit Dish.</span> +</p> + +<p>With Ferrara, Deruta, and Naples we may conclude our enumeration. +Ferrara was an offshoot of Faenza, whence we find Fra Melchiorre coming +in 1495, Biagio in 1501, Antonio in 1522, and Catto in 1528. The artist +Camillo who painted vases, the Dossi brothers<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_263" id="page_263">{263}</a></span> who designed, “El Frate,” +Grosso, and Zaffarino are among those who gave Ferrara its reputation. +It is probably to the Dossis that the grotesques on a white ground are +to be attributed. Deruta takes us back to Robbia, whose pupil, Agostino +di Antonio di Duccio, went to Perugia in 1461, and thence certainly +influenced the Deruta school. With such teaching Deruta produced, early +in the sixteenth century, majolica of a very high order of merit, with +blue grounds and yellow lustred cherubs’ heads in relief, and +arabesques. Within such borders are white enamelled inner circles, with +scrolls mingled with birds and chimeras, surrounding a raised centre of +deep blue bearing a bust or head. Several pieces subsequent to 1544 are +signed “El Frate,” and are, as a whole, weak and unpleasing, although +some others are strong and beautiful. As a rule, the artists of Deruta +appear to have been<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_264" id="page_264">{264}</a></span> the direct opposites of those of early Faenza, <i>i. +e.</i>, they expend their resources upon their principal figures, and make +the details entirely secondary. The earliest Deruta vases are conical, +and decorated in lustre and white enamel with blue. Naples and Castelli +are both surrounded with more or less mystery, although evidence is not +wanting that the latter at least produced excellent majolica. With the +end of the sixteenth century appear some large vases of Naples, painted +in dark colors with religious subjects.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_222" id="fig_222"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg264_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg264_sml.jpg" width="299" height="297" alt="Fig. 222.—Deruta Dish. (South Kensington Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 222.—Deruta Dish. (South Kensington Museum.)</span> +</p> + +<p>The shapes which engaged so much of our attention in Greece, are in +Italy too manifold and varied for classification. We are in presence of +an entirely new order of things, when we find artists expending their +best efforts upon decoration with enamels, lustres, arabesques, +grotesques, and wonderful scrolls turning in their sweeping folds round +all manner of impossible monsters, of a plain, broad-bordered dish, with +no pretension to form. When the Italian artists concede something to +shape, they frequently become wilful, embellishing a vase reminding us +of Greece with serpent handles, or running off into<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_265" id="page_265">{265}</a></span> elaborate inkstands +or quaint table wares. In the Italy of the Renaissance we are in the +presence of the triumph of decoration, and it is upon decoration that +we, in common with all inquirers, must concentrate attention, thankful +if at times we detect a harmony between the gracefulness of a vase and +the beauty of its brilliant colors.</p> + +<p>Possibly it may be reserved for the United Italy of the nineteenth +century to turn back to the earlier pages in her ceramic history, and, +having filled herself with the spirit of the potters of Magna Græcia and +Apulia, to pass down to the brilliancy of the sixteenth century, and, +with both in full view, to execute something worthy of the later prime +of her unity. Endless repetitions of the famous fabrics of the +Renaissance have led her into spiritless imitation and boundless fraud. +Some of the pieces displayed at the Centennial Exhibition were by no +means destitute of merit. Faenza can still produce good drawing and +effective coloring, and Della Robbia ware is still manufactured with +tin-enamelled figures, which look considerably better than whitewashed +terra-cotta. But let us imagine the energy and skill devoted to +imitation with intent to deceive, and the painstaking labor of honest +men who make no attempt to rise above the rank of copyists, to be +together thrown into an endeavor to reach a new originality. Might not +Italy be raised from the rank of a country resting upon a brilliant past +into that of one working in the present to reach an equally brilliant +future?</p> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Florence and Earliest Artificial Porcelain.—Theory of Japanese +Teaching.—La Doccia.—Venice, and the Question of its First Making +European Porcelain.—Le Nove.—Capo di Monte.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_223" id="fig_223"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 242px;"> +<a href="images/illpg266a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg266a_sml.jpg" width="242" height="111" alt="Fig. 223.—Medicean Porcelain (Castellani Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 223.—Medicean Porcelain (Castellani Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_224" id="fig_224"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;"> +<a href="images/illpg266b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg266b_sml.jpg" width="240" height="235" alt="Fig. 224.—Design at Bottom of Bowl, Fig. 223." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 224.—Design at Bottom of Bowl, Fig. 223.</span> +</div> + +<p>To Italy and to the family of the Medici, as we have seen, belongs the +honor of making the first artificial European porcelain of which any +specimens have come down to our time. The result of recent researches +has been to throw much light upon the interesting discovery made at +Florence. Dr. Foresi, of that city, was the first whose attention was +drawn to the matter. He collected several pieces of porcelain, evidently +of European manufacture; and his curiosity having been aroused as to +their origin, he found that the Grand Duke<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_266" id="page_266">{266}</a></span> Francis I. had a private +factory in the Boboli gardens, that there experiments had been made with +a view to discovering the composition of porcelain, and that success had +been attained. The marks on the pieces are the letter F. and a dome, the +arms of the Medici, and on one, the arms, the letters F. M. M. E. D. +II.—the initials of Franciscus Medici Magnus Etruriæ Dux Secundus—the +letter F. and the dome. The latter of these were clearly the initial +letter of Florence or of Francis, and the dome of the city’s magnificent +cathedral. A fine specimen of the Florentine porcelain was brought to +America in the Castellani collection (<a href="#fig_223">Fig. 223</a>). It is a fluted dish, +with the figure of St. Mark and the lion painted in blue on the bottom +(<a href="#fig_224">Fig. 224</a>). Under the lion’s paw is a volume bearing the letters G. and +P., supposed to be the artist’s initials, and on the reverse are the +letter F. and the dome. In the same collection is a plate, also +decorated in the Japanese style, light blue and white, and having the +dome and letter on the under side. There are not thirty pieces of this +ware known. In connection with the fact that the decoration, as we +pointed out when speaking of this ware under Japan, is undoubtedly +Japanese, an interesting question has been raised by Mr. B. Phillips. He +expresses the belief that the presence of Japanese—composing the +embassy to the Pope—in Italy may have had a direct influence, not only +on the ornamentation but on the manufacture of the Medicean porcelain. +He then says:<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_267" id="page_267">{267}</a></span> “That these Japanese nobles visited the Grand Duke in +Florence cannot be doubted. Now, as to the Medicean porcelain, we have +been careful not to use the word ‘discovery’ in connection with its +early manufacture in Florence. We are strongly of the opinion that the +method of selecting and preparing the material from which porcelain had +to be made was derived directly from the Japanese. If the decoration, as +we believe has been undoubtedly proved, was taken from the Japanese, +might not the method of making porcelain have been derived from the same +source?” That Italy may have full credit for the Grand Duke’s success, +it may be pointed out that there are two objections to the above theory.</p> + +<p>It is nowhere stated that the Japanese were acquainted with any other +than natural kaolinic porcelain, and it is exceedingly improbable that +the members of an embassy had any knowledge of the combination of +materials in an artificial paste. The Medicean was not a pure kaolinic +porcelain, but “a composite paste having for basis quartz and a vitreous +frit, with a small quantity of the kaolin of Vicenza.” In the second +place, the embassy did not leave Japan until 1583, and only reached +Italy in 1585. “In 1581,” says Jacquemart, “the experiments of the Grand +Duke had produced their fruits, and he already sent presents of his +translucent pottery to the other sovereigns of Europe.” The porcelain +was, therefore, made before the Japanese arrived in Italy.</p> + +<p>Were anything further needed to preserve for Italy the exclusive credit +of one of the greatest contributions to ceramic art, it may be found in +the styles of decoration of the Medicean porcelain. These are divisible +into two classes: the Oriental and the Italian. The latter resembles +that of faience, and consists chiefly of grotesques. Such are the pieces +upon which appear the arms of the Medicean family, for whose use they +were reserved. The specimens with Oriental decoration were gifts made to +spread abroad the renown of the Grand Duke’s laboratory. Such a purpose +could certainly not have been fulfilled with inferior works, and this +class, to which the Castellani porcelain belongs, may be taken as +representing the best Medicean paste. In this view the fabric was at its +highest before the Japanese left their own country, as we have seen that +pieces of this character were being sent over Europe in 1581.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_268" id="page_268">{268}</a></span></p> + +<p>The probability is that the Grand Duke, or Bernardo Buontalenti, who +really made the discovery, arrived at it by independent investigations +prompted by Oriental porcelain, and that the latter and the finer +specimens of majolica suggested the decoration.</p> + +<p>About one hundred and fifty years later, or in 1735, the Marquis Carlo +Ginori established a manufactory at La Doccia, near Florence. The +enterprise of the founder was so great, manifesting itself in the +introduction of the chemist Wandelein as director, and the importation +of material from China, that in a few years the Doccia porcelain had +become famous. The earlier pieces bear a close resemblance to the +Chinese. The artists of Doccia excelled in modelling, and many of their +groups are beautifully executed. It is unfortunate that from an early +period of the existence of the workshop its artists should have engaged +in imitation. After following Chinese models they turned to Sèvres, and +then to Capo di Monte. More lately, Doccia has won an unenviable +notoriety by its spurious imitation of old majolica and the wares of +Luca della Robbia. Early in the last century Doccia became possessed of +some of the moulds of Capo di Monte, and as the Doccia mark does not +appear upon the pieces made from them, a wide opening was offered for +fraud. It is worth noting, however, that it is by its copies and +imitations that the Doccia manufactory reached its greatest financial +success. The success of the counterfeit has destroyed the genuine, and +the artistic is overshadowed by the commercial.</p> + +<p>In Venetia, porcelain was made at Venice and Le Nove. The history of the +manufacture in Venice is somewhat obscure. Early in the sixteenth +century—and, therefore, before the Medicean ware was +produced—experiments, the success of which cannot now be measured, were +made by a Venetian artist. He seems, after making a few pieces, to have +relinquished the enterprise for lack of support and patronage. His story +is thus told: “There was an old potter in Venice about 1504-1519, whose +name is unknown, of whom, in fact, we know nothing except from a few +notes discovered by the Marquis Campori among the relics of the Duke +Alphonso I. of Ferrara, but whose name ought to be blazoned in gold as +the first European who made porcelain. In 1504 the Duke was in Venice, +and his book of expenses shows an item of two liri and a fraction, paid +for a piece of porcelain.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_269" id="page_269">{269}</a></span> Fifteen years afterward his ambassador in +Venice wrote him a letter, sending with it a plate and bowl of +porcelain, from the ‘master,’ from whom the Duke had ordered them. And +the ambassador goes on to say that the master declined to take more, as +his experiments cost him too much time and money; and, further, he +declines to accept an invitation of the Duke to remove to Ferrara and +make porcelain there, pleading that he is too old, and does not want to +leave Venice. Enthusiastic collectors imagine that a few specimens to +which they can assign no other origin are works of the old Venetian, but +there is no satisfactory evidence that any of his work remains.” In the +absence of any relics of this ancient Venetian to substantiate his claim +to the invention of a true porcelain, the honor will probably continue +to be ascribed to Florence. However this may be, the existence of +Venetian specimens with decoration suggestive of seventeenth century +styles, would indicate that the industry was at least kept alive, and +that there were several predecessors to the manufactory founded by +Francesco Vezzi early in the eighteenth century. Some very beautiful +works are attributed to the Casa Vezzi. In or about 1765 another +manufactory was established by Geminiano Cozzi, and from it were turned +out table-sets, groups, statuettes, and vases. The establishment at Le +Nove, founded in 1752 by Pasquale Antonibon, produced majolica, +terraglia—a mixed composition of pottery and porcelain—and artificial +porcelain. Of the latter (<a href="#fig_225">Fig. 225</a>) some magnificent examples have been +preserved.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_225" id="fig_225"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 157px;"> +<a href="images/illpg269_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg269_sml.jpg" width="157" height="339" alt="Fig. 225.—Nove Porcelain Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 225.—Nove Porcelain Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p>The most famous Italian porcelain is that of Capo di Monte. This +manufactory was founded in 1736 by Charles III., whom we have already +seen introducing the art into Madrid, after he left Naples to mount the +throne of Spain. The founder does not appear to have<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_270" id="page_270">{270}</a></span> been indebted to +any extent whatever to the discoveries made at Meissen, but to have set +on foot a perfectly independent and national industry. The king +frequently worked in the factory, and under his guidance and the favor +of his consort, Queen Amelia of Saxony, its products rapidly improved +after the first essays, which closely followed the Japanese. The Capo di +Monte forms assume a distinctive character. Her artists turned to the +sea, as became citizens of the Queen of the Sea, and there found +inspiration. They took the shells of the Mediterranean for their models, +and by combining them with coral and sea-plants, and coloring all after +nature, produced some of their most beautiful works. A very handsome +ewer is thus composed, the body representing an ingenious combination of +shells set in a foot of coral, a branch of which climbs up the side, +and, arching to the lip, forms the handle. A basin is similarly +designed, and is dotted with smaller shells. Or again, a salt-cellar is +modelled after a boat steered by a youth. These examples will suffice to +show that not the least merit of the artists of Capo di Monte is their +originality. The table services present us with some of the finest +porcelain made in Europe. The paste is fine and transparent, and many of +the pieces are as thin and light as the egg-shell of China.</p> + +<p>When Charles III. set out for Spain, he took a number of the artists +with him, and left to his successor in Naples the work of maintaining +the industry. In this Ferdinand was not successful, and Capo di Monte +rapidly sank, and disappeared altogether in 1821.</p> + +<p>The porcelain made at all the places named was artificial. The only +Italian manufactory of natural porcelain was that of Vineuf, near Turin, +which began to work toward the end of last century. The body contains +magnesia. The workshop was founded by Dr. Gioanetti.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_271" id="page_271">{271}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_226" id="fig_226"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg271_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg271_sml.jpg" width="385" height="433" alt="Fig. 226.—Old Sèvres Biscuit. Judgment of Paris. (August +Belmont Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 226.—Old Sèvres Biscuit. Judgment of Paris. (August +Belmont Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V-b3" id="CHAPTER_V-b3"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><br /> +<small>FRANCE.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Prospect on approaching France.—Present and Past.—The Ancient +Celts.—Under the Romans.—Middle Ages.—Poitou, Beauvais, and +Hesdin.—Italian Influence.—A National Art.—Bernard Palissy, +Barbizet, Pull, and Avisseau.—Henri Deux +Ware.—Rouen.—Nevers.—Moustiers.—Marseilles.—Strasburg.—Limoges.—Haviland’s +New +Process.—Examples.—Bourg-la-Reine.—Laurin.—Deck.—Colinot.—Creil.—Montereau.—Longwy.—Parville.—Gien.—Sarreguemines.—Niederviller.—Luneville.—Nancy.—St. +Clement.—St. Amand.—Paris.—Sceaux.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>URNING</small> as we leave Italy we seem to look back across a wide, unbroken +plain, from the midst of which rises a mountain range, its summits<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_272" id="page_272">{272}</a></span> +glowing with the rays of the setting sun behind us. It is thus we revert +across comparative barrenness to the Renaissance, beyond which, and +hidden, lie the earlier glories of Etruria and Græco-Italy. As we turn +to France the sun is in front of us, striking full upon a height still +cloud-capt and unrevealed, and bathing the intervening undulating +landscape in the fulness of its undimmed splendor. With France the +present sheds lustre, life, and light upon a long past beginning with +pre-Roman Gallia, and extending through Roman domination, the darkness +of the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance to the present time.</p> + +<p>The early pottery of Gallia has been variously viewed, but there seems +no reason for withholding from the ancient Celtic potters the credit of +having adopted a high and pure standard of art before the Roman power +was established. It has even been questioned, in the light of a full +knowledge of the subject, if the Romans did not, by the introduction of +new models, retard the growth of native skill and destroy an art +superior to their own. Judging from the examples still remaining, it is +at least unquestionable that the Celts had, at a very early date, +arrived at ideas of simplicity and elegance of form far in advance of +those entertained by contemporary nations. These works, moreover, give +no indication of foreign influence, and probably represent the last +stage of native art, before it was disturbed by the entrance of the +invader. The ornamentation is chaste almost to severity, and although in +some instances it shows a community of style with the early German +pottery, it is generally independent and distinctive. We do not assign +an age to these pieces, but it appears probable that they were preceded +by a ruder pottery also referable to the ancient Celts. The earlier +remains, supposed to belong to the pre-Roman era, have been found in the +North, and are of a very primitive character, evidently made entirely by +hand, without the assistance of either mould or wheel. The paste is +dark-colored and coarse. There is also a class equally rude, in so far +as the composition is concerned, but giving in the shapes a suggestion +of Roman influence. Red Roman ware has been found in every part of Gaul, +and a furnace was discovered in Auvergne. At Bordeaux red, black, white, +and yellow Roman pottery has been exhumed, and several localities are +indicated at which potteries existed.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_273" id="page_273">{273}</a></span></p> + +<p>As we approach the Middle Ages, and begin to detect evidences in France +of a knowledge of processes with which we are already familiar, and to +question ourselves as to their special origin, it may be well to keep +the following facts in view: firstly, that Marseilles was founded by a +Phœnician colony; secondly, that pottery of the South of France, +after the Arabs had spread over the States of Barbary, so closely +resembled the Arabian as to suggest at once communication with the North +of Africa; thirdly, that France was open to the same influences of +trade, intercourse, and immigration which had so powerful an effect upon +Italy. Let us allude to one point, the probable transmission of +lead-glaze from Greece to Rome, and thus to the Gauls, for an +illustration of the untraceable route by which knowledge was spread, and +for an explanation of the phenomenon so often witnessed of a certain +product revealing itself in the most incomprehensible manner at a point +far removed from the accepted centre of works of its class.</p> + +<p>In the twelfth century Oriental ideas in France begin to supersede those +of Gothic inspiration, and Christianity and chivalry together operate a +decided change in ceramic ornamentation. Processes gradually improved. +At Poitou, in the thirteenth century, green-glazed conical urns were +made, and Beauvais had already reached celebrity. More interesting is +the fact that, at Hesdin, Jehan de Voleur was, toward the close of the +fourteenth century, acquainted with stanniferous enamel. In France, +therefore, as in Italy, this secret was known long prior to the supposed +discovery by Luca della Robbia. It is, however, to Italy that France is +indebted for the access of spirit infused into its ceramic art in the +sixteenth century. Italy supplied models to the French potters, who had +been busying themselves with ornamentation of Gothic origin and +Christian devices and legends. And, further, Italian artists flocked to +France between the close of the fifteenth and the latter part of the +sixteenth century, and settled at Lyons, Amboise, Nantes, and elsewhere. +After a time the Italian taste they represented and their technical +skill were turned into a channel more thoroughly French, and to the +building up of an art purely national.</p> + +<p>Among those who assisted in this great work no name is more eminent than +that of Bernard Palissy (<a href="#fig_227">Fig. 227</a>). We have already characterized his +life as the great romance in the history of ceramics, and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_274" id="page_274">{274}</a></span> certainly it +reads more like a romance than sober fact. Let us look at it a little in +detail. His father was a humble artisan, and the honor of his birthplace +is ascribed to La Chapelle Biron, between the years 1506 and 1510. His +education was of the most limited kind, including merely reading and +writing; and at an early age he began professional life as a worker in +glass, a combination of the glazier and painter. His artistic instincts +were thus kindled; and besides acquainting himself with drawing, +painting, modelling, and geometry, he studied the Italian masters, +copied their works, and devoted part of his time to literature. +Thereafter, to add to his stock of knowledge and widen his experience, +he began to travel, and visited Germany, Flanders, and the several +provinces of his native country. As he travelled, he worked as surveyor +and glass-painter, and studied chemistry and natural history. It is with +some astonishment that we find this man, unknown to the world at large +except as a potter, investigating the subjects upon which the noble +science of geology was afterward built, and theorizing upon the +elasticity and power of steam.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_227" id="fig_227"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg274_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg274_sml.jpg" width="262" height="315" alt="Fig. 227.—Bernard Palissy. (From a Painting in the Hôtel +Cluny, Paris.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 227.—Bernard Palissy. (From a Painting in the Hôtel +Cluny, Paris.)</span> +</p> + +<p>He finished his travels in 1539, settled at Saintes, married, and +devoted himself to his original profession and to land-measuring. A few +years later he saw the beautiful enamelled earthen cup—whether +Oriental, German, or white Ferrarese need not concern us—which turned +the entire course of his life. He wished to imitate the enamel<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_275" id="page_275">{275}</a></span> without +knowing anything of its composition, and embarked upon the long series +of experiments which led him, through numberless trials, to eminence and +fame. He presents at this period one of the most curious figures +possibly in all history, that of a man apparently bent upon shutting out +all benefit that might have been derived from the experience of others, +literally “groping in the dark,” as he says of himself, and determined +to make up for lack of technical knowledge by assiduous experiment. He +ground, built furnaces and fired them, tried the potter’s oven of +Chapelle-des-pots—all to no purpose. Having accepted a surveying +mission he returned with treasury replenished and ardor unabated.</p> + +<p>Surely, no man ever knocked with such pertinacity at the door of +knowledge. He met his first success by trying a glass-maker’s furnace. +One of the pieces came out “white and polished.” This was food to live +upon, and he began to build a furnace of his own, doing all the work +himself—three masons in one. At length it was finished, and the first +attempt ended in failure. He tried again, becoming poorer and poorer, so +that he could not buy wood for his furnace. In his strait, he took the +tree-props from his garden, his furniture, and house-flooring for fuel. +“My shirt had not been dry for more than a month; and also, to console +me, they laughed at me, and even those who ought to have helped me went +crying about the town that I was burning my floor, and by these means +made me lose my credit; and they thought me mad.” He was evidently in a +bad way when he dropped into wearing a wet shirt for a month, and +thinking that any one ought to have helped him. After a short rest, he +turned his attention to the preparation of a new furnace.</p> + +<p>To carry out this new plan, he was compelled to mortgage his credit by +employing a potter to assist him. His assistant he kept in food by the +friendly offices of a tavern-keeper, who seems not to have shared in the +madness theory. After six months he felt himself obliged to pay off his +help, and did so—in clothes, part of his own scanty wardrobe. Still he +was not to be beaten. He finished his furnace single-handed, put in his +pieces, and started the fire; but still the gods were inexorable. The +pebbles in the mortar used in building the furnace cracked under the +heat and flew in splinters, sticking in the glaze of his pieces, and +spoiling them. Remorselessly, he broke them<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_276" id="page_276">{276}</a></span> all, declining even to give +his importunate creditors a single specimen in part payment of his +debts. One can imagine the storm such conduct raised, and to make +matters worse, “I met with nothing in my house but reproaches, and +received maledictions instead of consolation.” The ashes spoiled his +next batch, and when he resorted to seggars the unequally distributed +heat marred the enamels. He was now, however, too near victory to be +altogether discouraged, and finally, after fifteen or sixteen years of +unheard-of struggle and misery, this indomitable genius produced the +long-sought enamel, and the secret of his well-known rustic pottery was +discovered.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_228" id="fig_228"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 252px;"> +<a href="images/illpg276_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg276_sml.jpg" width="252" height="249" alt="Fig. 228.—Palissy Dish. (Rothschild Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 228.—Palissy Dish. (Rothschild Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Fame and patronage came with success, but Palissy’s troubles were by no +means ended. Having embraced Protestantism, he fell under the edict of +1559, saw his workshop destroyed, and was only saved from death by the +intervention of the king. Under the protection of Queen Catherine de +Medici, he first went to Rochelle, but was afterward summoned to Paris, +and there, in a workshop erected in the garden of the Tuileries, +produced some of his best works. Saved by court influence from the +massacre of St. Bartholomew, he afterward, in 1588, fell into the hands +of the Leaguers, and in the following year, at the age of eighty, died +in the Bastille.</p> + +<p>His first success was the production of the white enamel, which appears +to have engrossed his entire attention. His second attainment was a +jasper glaze, the examples of which show a mixture of brown, white, and +blue, and which he deemed only worthy of using as a means of temporary +subsistence. His third and most famous achievement was the <i>Rustiques +figulines</i> (<a href="#fig_228">Fig. 228</a>), with which<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_277" id="page_277">{277}</a></span> his name is most intimately +associated. These are known by imitations almost everywhere, and consist +of variously shaped dishes and vases ornamented with shells, frogs, +lizards, snakes, fish of several varieties, and leaves (<a href="#fig_229">Fig. 229</a>). He +was succeeded by certain members of his family, upon whose death his +specialty was lost. At the Centennial Exhibition several imitations were +shown in the French, Swedish, and Portuguese departments. Of these the +best were those of M. Barbizet (<a href="#fig_230">Fig. 230</a>), of Paris, the son of an +artist who is said to have rediscovered Palissy’s method, some fifty +years ago, and who introduced his father’s discovery into commerce in +1850. Pull, of Paris, and Avisseau, of Tours, are also modern imitators +who have been very successful in approaching their model. Pull began to +produce his imitations in 1856, and has even deceived connoisseurs. One +of his pieces has been sold at as high a figure as £240. Mr. Walters, of +Baltimore, has an excellent example by the elder Avisseau. With the +exception of the works of Avisseau, Pull, and Barbizet, the imitations +of Palissy ware are neither skilful nor in any way attractive; as +independent works of art, accomplished on the suggestion supplied by +him, they are hardly deserving of serious consideration.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_229" id="fig_229"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 221px;"> +<a href="images/illpg277_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg277_sml.jpg" width="221" height="271" alt="Fig. 229.—Pitcher by Palissy. (Rothschild Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 229.—Pitcher by Palissy. (Rothschild Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>What is to be admired or condemned in Palissy as a man requires no +mention; the admirable in him as a potter has been already pointed out +(see Introduction, page 42). Passing now from his <i>rustiques figulines</i>, +we find him, after his settlement in Paris, carrying his peculiar style +into works of a totally different general character. In one piece a +figure representing Charity is surrounded by a rustic frame, and a +Magdalen kneels in another among shells and plants. In these, as in his +rustic pottery, the figures are admirably executed<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_278" id="page_278">{278}</a></span> and the coloring +vigorous. His palette was limited to a few colors, of which yellow, +blue, and gray were the chief, although sometimes we find him +introducing violet, green, and brown. Some tiles are attributed to him, +but the statuettes formerly ascribed to him are now generally conceded +to be the works of other hands. His vases, basins, and dishes are +extremely varied, and are decorated with subjects taken from +contemporary life and from history. A very remarkable vase now in the +Louvre is blue, with yellow ornaments in relief, and not less +characteristic are his large oval cisterns, with masques, foliage, +fruit, and shells for ornaments. One of these (<a href="#fig_231">Fig. 231</a>) is a perfect +marvel of soft and harmonious coloring. The heads are white; the drapery +white, with yellow fringe, and in its heavier folds blue; the fruit and +feathers white, gray, red, yellow, and blue; the ground gray in tone, +and composed of blue, maroon, and green. In two specimens of dishes the +ground is white, upon which reptiles lie in strong relief. None of his +pieces are signed.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_230" id="fig_230"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg278_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg278_sml.jpg" width="331" height="233" alt="Fig. 230.—Barbizet’s “Palissy Ware.” (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 230.—Barbizet’s “Palissy Ware.” (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</p> + +<p>One would imagine the idea to be prevalent that Palissy executed nothing +but <i>Rustiques figulines</i>, if we are to judge from the tendency of +imitators to produce pieces of that character, and from the prevailing +taste of collectors, who appear to demand lizards and fish as essential +to the correct imitation of the master. Having given as full<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_279" id="page_279">{279}</a></span> a view of +his great works as may be necessary to appreciate their variety and +beauty, let us revert once more to the fact that Palissy was original in +two respects: firstly, in his methods; secondly, in his adoption of +natural objects as models. He deliberately shut out all influences which +might consciously or unconsciously have affected his aim; and as a +consequence, although tin enamel and reliefs were in vogue all over +France, he emerged from his obscurity, and lived through the period of +his eminence without being affected by either German or Italian ideas or +processes. He must be accepted as the exponent of an art emphatically +French. His imitators have used his moulds, and his pupils have followed +his styles; but even when possessing the secrets and skill, copyists +seldom catch the intelligence of their master, and thus we find that on +his death his art declined.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_231" id="fig_231"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg279_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg279_sml.jpg" width="367" height="156" alt="Fig. 231.—Palissy Cistern." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 231.—Palissy Cistern.</span> +</p> + +<p>While Palissy was still in early manhood, the famous and wonderful Henri +Deux ware, or Faience d’Oiron, had been made. There are only sixty-seven +pieces in existence; and the mystery which for a long time enveloped its +manufacture, its rarity, and its beauty, have both surrounded it with a +peculiar interest and rendered specimens almost fabulously valuable. At +a sale in 1865, no less a sum than $5500 was given for a biberon. This +ware was made about 1530, by a potter named François Cherpentier, and +Jehan Bernart, secretary and librarian, both in the service of Hélène de +Hangest, widow of Artus Gouffier, Sieur de Boisy. How this lady came to +acquire a taste for ceramics, it is not, in view of what heretics call +China-mania, hard to imagine. In any case, she built for Cherpentier and +Bernart a workshop<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_280" id="page_280">{280}</a></span> and furnace near the château of Oiron, and there the +admirable Henri Deux ware was made. After the death of Hélène de +Hangest, in 1537, Bernart appears to have continued his labors under the +superintendence of her son. This faience, therefore, which has created +more curiosity—the place of its manufacture was not known until +1862—than any other, and been more lavishly praised, owes its existence +to the whim or enthusiasm of a woman.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_232" id="fig_232"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;"> +<a href="images/illpg280a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg280a_sml.jpg" width="146" height="329" alt="Fig. 232.—Henri Deux Ewer." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 232.—Henri Deux Ewer.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_233" id="fig_233"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"> +<a href="images/illpg280b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg280b_sml.jpg" width="178" height="337" alt="Fig. 233.—Biberon. Henri Deux Ware. (Malcolm Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 233.—Biberon. Henri Deux Ware. (Malcolm Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is an entirely exceptional ware. The paste is a pipe-clay, pure, +fine, and white. Upon the first or inner layer, a second layer of a +still finer and whiter clay was laid, in which the design was engraved. +Colored pastes were then used for filling in the cavities, and the +surface was then made level. So closely did the work resemble niello in +metal that the name “Faience à Niellure” was given to the ware (Fig. +233). On the earlier works arabesques in zones, initials, and heraldic +designs were thus engraved, chiefly in black, brown, and red. The zones +are also frequently yellow, and the borders brown. A further +ornamentation consists of frogs, shells, lizards, and wreaths in relief. +After the death of Hélène de Hangest the decoration assumed an +architectural character, and soon afterward the colors lost their +beauty, the forms their elegance, and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_281" id="page_281">{281}</a></span> the art, as a whole, degenerated. +For a period of about twenty years the faience was made which puzzled +ceramists for over three centuries. Copies of this ware, by Minton of +England, are in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and in the collections +of Mr. Walters, of Baltimore, and Mr. W. L. Andrews, New York.</p> + +<p>Having referred to the specialties of Saintes and Oiron, we now turn to +the other centres of French ceramics, grouping all its porcelain +together in a separate section. Beauvais, Poitou, and Hesdin have been +already alluded to incidentally. Of the remaining seats of the faience +manufactory in France, a few are selected for their importance as +producing styles more or less distinctive, such as Rouen, Nevers, +Moustiers, and Limoges.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_234" id="fig_234"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 231px;"> +<a href="images/illpg281_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg281_sml.jpg" width="231" height="289" alt="Fig. 234.—Rouen Cup. Lambrequin Decoration." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 234.—Rouen Cup. Lambrequin Decoration.</span> +</div> + +<p>Rouen may be taken as representing independent Norman art. Marreot +Abaquesne was engaged there in enamelling from 1535, and two tile +pictures from the château of Ecouen, dated 1542, are still in existence, +representing, in blue, green, yellow, and white, Mutius Scævola and +Marcus Curtius. Abaquesne worked until 1557, and after that date the +manufacture of tiles was continued by others. In 1646 Nicolas Poirel, +Sieur de Grandval, obtained a privilege or patent for making faience, +and immediately transferred it to Edme Poterat, already established in +the business in Saint-Sever. To this potter is, in all probability, due +the most distinctive styles of decoration practised at Rouen, those +resembling lambrequins and lace (<a href="#fig_234">Fig. 234</a>.) These are modifications of +the Oriental type. In 1673 another patent was granted to Louis Poterat, +a son of the former, for the making of “porcelain similar to that of +China, and of violet faience painted with white and blue and other +colors, in the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_282" id="page_282">{282}</a></span> manner of that of Holland.” After the expiry, about +1700, of Poirel’s patent, manufactories multiplied rapidly, and reached +an aggregate of eighteen, from which some estimate may be formed of the +number of artists and potters engaged at Rouen.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_235" id="fig_235"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"> +<a href="images/illpg282_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg282_sml.jpg" width="233" height="231" alt="Fig. 235.—Rouen Faience. Decoration, à la corne. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 235.—Rouen Faience. Decoration, à la corne. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., N. Y. Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>As to the successive styles, there is no doubt that designers drew +largely from the works of the gold and silver smith. Flowers in wreaths +and bouquets surround landscapes painted on white. Then came the senior +Poterat’s adaptation of Oriental designs in the lace and cognate styles +already mentioned, at first in blue camaïeu, and afterward mingled with +red. Equally well known is the brilliant decoration <i>à la corne</i> (Fig. +235), in which many-hued flowers issue from a cornucopia, and dazzling +insects fill in the interstices between the flowers. All these styles +have been imitated both throughout France and in other countries. No +faience of the eighteenth century was more rich and artistic than that +of Rouen. Many of the pieces are of large size and highly ornate in +character.</p> + +<p>To Nevers it has been usual to accord the honor of being the earliest +producer of enamelled pottery in France, but without good reason. The +evidence appears to be rather in favor of Rouen. When Louis Gonzaga +became Duke of Nevers, he sent for a number of Italian artists, and from +that date, about 1565, the production of faience at Nevers took its +rise. In 1578 the brothers Conrade came from Albissola, near Genoa, and, +settling at Nevers, were patronized by the ducal family. Their works +date from 1602, and it was not until thirty years later that a second +manufactory was established. The influence of the Conrades upon the art +is very doubtful, notwithstanding the monopoly they appear to have +enjoyed. One thing may be accepted<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_283" id="page_283">{283}</a></span> as certain, that there existed a +Nivernais style prior to that introduced by them. Louis Gonzaga, the +patron, as we have seen, of ceramic art, died in 1595; and as the +Conrades did not establish themselves until 1608, although they had been +working for a few years previously, we have a period of forty-three +years to account for, dating from the accession of Gonzaga, during +thirty of which that prince was alive. The Nivernais styles may, +therefore, be divided into the Franco-Urbino prior to the Conrade, the +Italo-Chinese which existed under them, the Italo-Nivernais, and the +Franco-Nivernais. The Franco-Urbino is marked by a predominance of blue +and yellow, by violet tracings, a yellowish flesh tint, a peculiar +copper-green, and a scarcity of red. A favorite form of vase handle is +the dragon, and the sea is represented in lines of wavy blue. The styles +of Persia, Japan, and China began to manifest themselves under the +Conrades, and continued down to near the middle of the eighteenth +century. We have, after the Persian, blue grounds with white and yellow +ornamentation, and white grounds with polychrome and blue decoration. At +the same time we find minglings of Italian and Oriental designs. After +1640, however, the traces of Italian influence become less distinct. The +Italian school is disappearing, foreign artists are giving place to +natives, and down to the end of the eighteenth century there are obvious +traces of the styles of Rouen and Moustiers. From that time Nevers +declined.</p> + +<p>Moustiers has only been known for a few years, but facts have been +discovered which prove it to have held a highly important place in +ceramic art. Situated in the Lower Alps, its works were long attributed +to other places, although its geographical position near Marseilles and +Italy would naturally point to it as one of the most favored centres of +Provençal art. It is chiefly known by the productions of the Clerissy +family and of Joseph Olery. Pierre Clerissy’s works extended from 1686 +to 1728, and to this period some of the finest specimens belong. The +pieces are generally large oval or round dishes, with hunting or +scriptural scenes as central decorations, and borders either of flowers +or masks and fabulous monsters and arabesques. The paintings are in +blue, upon a very pure white enamel. In the succeeding styles the centre +scenes after Tempesta were abandoned. One piece has in the centre a +small medallion representing Diana, the huntress, equipped for the chase +and accompanied by her dogs. Surrounding<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_284" id="page_284">{284}</a></span> it are arabesques, grotesque +figures, heads, busts, and amorini, and for an outer border there is a +narrow edging of the lace-like pattern of Rouen. Olery (<a href="#fig_236">Fig. 236</a>) seems +to have abandoned entirely the styles of Clerissy. He enriched his +palette with violet, green, brown, and yellow, and revelled in floral +decoration. Heavy wreaths of flowers surrounding a series of medallions, +with bouquets between, form a deep border for scenes from mythology and +the classics.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_236" id="fig_236"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg284_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg284_sml.jpg" width="327" height="332" alt="Fig. 236.—Moustiers Faience Dish. By Olery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 236.—Moustiers Faience Dish. By Olery.</span> +</p> + +<p>Intercourse afterward obliterated the lines between distinctive styles. +Olery went to Spain, and probably acquired there his taste for +polychrome decoration (<a href="#fig_237">Fig. 237</a>). Spanish artists accompanied him on his +return, and worked, no doubt, in the light of their national traditions; +and toward the end of the century it is impossible to recognize the +styles of either individual artists or schools. Clerissy’s workshop was +continued after his death by his partner, Joseph Fouque, whose family +retains it to the present day.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_285" id="page_285">{285}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_237" id="fig_237"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg285_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg285_sml.jpg" width="342" height="272" alt="Fig. 237.—Moustiers Dish. Polychrome." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 237.—Moustiers Dish. Polychrome.</span> +</p> + +<p>Allied to Moustiers, as representing the art of Southern France, is +Marseilles, a city in every way favorably situated for the prosecution +of the faience industry. Of its earlier works, dating as far back as the +fifteenth century, nothing is known; but toward the end of the +seventeenth century a workshop was founded, in which was made an +authenticated faience. The distinguishing feature of the decoration is +the combination of violet from manganese with cobalt blue. The style +bears a general resemblance to that of Moustiers, and it is probable +that the works of the two factories are frequently confounded. About +1750 the Marseilles faience was exported in immense quantities; and from +that date, when the name of Honoré Savy appears in the list of potters, +polychrome decoration became more prevalent. Savy was, in 1777, on the +visit of the future Louis XVIII., authorized to call his workshop +“Manufacture de Monsieur, Frère du Roi,” and is said to have then +adopted the <i>fleur-de-lis</i> as his mark. The mark alone cannot, however, +be accepted as indicating with absolute certainty a work of Savy. The +same potter is said to have invented a particular green; but it appears +to have been common to the other potters of Marseilles, as it is found +upon pieces by Joseph Gaspard<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_286" id="page_286">{286}</a></span> Robert and Mme. Perrin. Robert ranks next +to Savy in faience, and was making porcelain at the time of the royal +visit.</p> + +<p>In Strasburg we find the origin of a style of faience painting which, +although displaying unquestionable excellence of workmanship, was +carried to such an extent that the suitableness of the decoration to the +earthen-ware body was completely lost sight of. Reference is made to the +porcelain style, by which decoration more properly reserved for +porcelain was applied to faience. The Strasburg paste is of comparative +fineness, the glaze is excellent, and the colors brilliant. The first +factory was established by Charles François Hannong in 1709. In 1721 +Hannong associated himself with a German potter from Anspach, named +Wackenfield, and in 1724 started a second workshop at Haguenau. The +latter ultimately fell to Balthasar Hannong, a son of Charles; and the +Strasburg establishment was carried on by another son, Paul Antoine. The +latter worked industriously, and brought the establishment up to a very +high position. On his death, in 1760, it was carried on by his son +Pierre Antoine, who transferred it to Joseph Adam, his brother, and in +1780 the production ceased. The best period was that between 1740 and +1760, when Paul Antoine was proprietor.</p> + +<p>The places mentioned, Nevers, Rouen, Moustiers, Marseilles, and +Strasburg, are the centres from which emanated the leading old styles of +decoration. An exact classification is impossible, since, as Marseilles +faience often bears a striking resemblance to that of Moustiers, the +works of Strasburg, on the other hand, are closely related to those from +Marseilles. After them comes a centre, more interesting because very +recently arriving at eminence, from which has emanated a style different +from that of any of its predecessors.</p> + +<p>Limoges is as yet scarcely known in the history of pottery, although +there is a probability, almost amounting to a certainty, that it will +hereafter be accepted as one of the leading representatives of the +ceramic art of France in our day. We find, in 1737, a decree granted in +favor of Sieur Massie, empowering him to establish a workshop of faience +at Limoges. The discovery of kaolin at St. Yrieix appears to have +directed the attention of potters from faience to porcelain. One piece +of the Massie period, dated 1741, is now in Limoges. A border, +resembling those of Moustiers, surrounds the figure<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_287" id="page_287">{287}</a></span> of Justice +enthroned and holding the sword and scales. Religion, Truth, and Law +attend her, and Crime is crushed under her foot. Other equally +remarkable pieces may be in existence, but Limoges nowhere appears in +the records as producing any faience of importance or of a very high +order of art.</p> + +<p>Within the past few years the aspect of affairs has changed, and the +Havilands of New York have made for Limoges—in conjunction with +Auteuil, near Paris, where much of the moulding and decorating is +executed—a place in the history of pottery as lofty as that which it +occupies in the history of enamelling. Notwithstanding all that has been +said of Saracenic and Italian decoration, we believe that it was +reserved for Haviland to show the real decorative capacity of faience, +and to demonstrate the possible harmony between decoration and its +excipient. For a long time Limoges was known solely as a seat of the +porcelain industry. It was in this way that Americans first became +familiar with its name. When the time came for Haviland to turn his +attention to faience the change above referred to set in. He did more +than merely institute a revival of an obscure industry. While Montagnon +of Nevers was following closely in the track of his predecessors, and +other manufacturers, both French and Italian, were busy with imitations +of dead styles, Haviland set a gigantic task before himself, and it is +to the credit of Americans that they have been among the readiest to +appreciate his works and to encourage his efforts. His faience is +remarkable by reason of its combining three very important +qualities—novelty of process, originality of decoration, and the +strength of drawing and color which are most perfectly in keeping with +the material on which they appear.</p> + +<p>We have already pointed out the difficulties with which artists on clay +have contended. The action of the fire made the result, in so far as the +coloring is concerned, always more or less of a problem. Too much or too +little heat changed the entire aspect of the piece. Although, therefore, +we find in Italy and elsewhere great painters furnishing designs for the +decoration of pottery, we seldom find them actually engaged upon the +ware itself. Artists naturally prefer the medium which preserves their +individuality of touch and finish. This personality the fire destroyed. +All that was distinctive of the individual palette and brush vanished +under the heat. What the exact nature<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_288" id="page_288">{288}</a></span> of the Havilands’ new process and +the composition of their palette may be we have not the means of +discovering. We know, however, that the painting is laid upon the clay +before it is fired, that the piece is then glazed, and is afterward +baked for between twenty and thirty hours. Body, glaze, and colors are +therefore subjected to the fire together. The glaze is alkaline, and is +similar in its general character to that used on <i>pate tendre</i> +porcelain. We need not inquire into the preparation of the colors. It is +claimed that the possession of the latter brings the result of any +operation within such bounds that it can be calculated with a reasonable +approach to certainty. Let it be fully understood what this implies. It +means that with palette practically unlimited, any artist can apply +himself to the decoration of earthen-ware, and find his work emerging +from the furnace stamped as clearly with the individuality of his design +and execution as if he had applied it to a painting upon a panel or +canvas.</p> + +<p>Among the artists engaged upon the Haviland faience are M. and Mme. +Bracquemond, MM. Lindeneher, Noel, Chaplet, Damousse, Lafond, and +Delaplanche. With Messrs. Chaplet, Laurin, and Lafond, the new +enamelling process may be said to have accidentally originated at +Bourg-la-Reine in 1873, and M. Bracquemond was the first to appreciate +its value and to bring it under the notice of the Messrs. Haviland. The +latter at once saw its merit, and by farther experiment and the use of +the resources at their command, brought it to perfection. The works of +their artists have made America as familiar with their faience as it +formerly was with their porcelain. The process having been discovered, +the second step was the adoption of a style. Here we meet with a +peculiarity of the ware. We speak of schools of painting, and our +language implies a limitation, a peculiarity of <i>technique</i>. All artists +who follow nature closely must needs belong to the same school. Their +success in the reproduction of natural effects is a bond of union, which +brings them together across the boundaries of special methods of +treatment. Each of Havilands’ artists may have his specialty, but we +find no broad dividing lines. Their subjects are taken from nature or +from imagination, which is only a wider field based upon the natural. +The sympathy between them lies in the new sense of the capabilities of +their art. The brush is wielded with a stronger hand, and the designs +appear bolder, at times</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_290" id="page_290">{290}</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_291" id="page_291">{291}</a></span><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_289" id="page_289">{289}</a></span> almost reckless. There is no striving after +what might be called “prettiness of style.” Where we have been +accustomed to restraint we find largeness and liberty. There are no +longer minute divisions of surfaces to be covered in detail with +graceful precision, but designs of full artistic completeness and strong +simplicity. Color is applied with a commensurate boldness, which carries +the conviction that here at last we find a decoration suited to its +basis of earthen-ware.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_238" id="fig_238"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg290_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg290_sml.jpg" width="400" height="620" alt="Fig. 238.—Memorial Vase. Haviland Faience. (Smithsonian +Institute.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 238.—Memorial Vase. Haviland Faience. (Smithsonian +Institute.)</span> +</p> + +<p>A recent visitor to the workshop of Haviland & Co., near Paris, where +much of their faience is painted, thus describes what he saw: “While in +Paris, I studied the way in which the vases are painted, and was +surprised to find what an amount of care is expended upon them. They +demand more exact treatment than China or English faience. The artist +works as if the material were canvas. A bouquet of flowers, for +instance, is minutely painted, and the shades of the grounds are all +carefully studied. Nothing is left to chance. During the process of +firing everything fuses, and it is then that the appearance of boldness +is produced. If a vase were painted, as on a cursory examination it +appears to be, with a bold brush and careless hand, the result would be +a mere daub of no value. The peculiar talent of the artists consists in +producing an effect of boldness and carelessness with a great deal of +work and a close imitation of nature. Could all the work actually +bestowed upon one of these vases, and as it can be seen before firing, +be seen after firing, the faience of Limoges would resemble that of +England or any other pottery which is painted on the glaze. But the +process is different, and after the firing the detail of the work melts +away, leaving behind that fascinating harmony of colors which has never +before been produced on any pottery. Nothing has as yet been invented to +replace work and care; and when anything you may see presents something +pleasing, be certain that both have been lavished upon it. No writing or +music seems so easy to imitate as that which cannot be imitated; and it +is the part of a good author to conceal the method he employs.”</p> + +<p>There are now in the Smithsonian Institute at Washington three pieces of +Haviland faience which may be taken as exemplifying much of what has +been said. These are the Memorial Vases (<a href="#fig_238">Fig. 238</a>) and Bracquemond’s +tile-piece allegorizing Human Progress. Let us take the vases first. +They are the joint productions of MM. Bracquemond,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_292" id="page_292">{292}</a></span> designer, and +Delaplanche, sculptor, and are intended to commemorate the Centennial of +American Independence. The broad and easily understood conception is +intensely American, and was, in fact, due to American inspiration. They +fitly stand in the capital, not only as lasting memorials of the +hundredth anniversary of America’s entrance into the great commonwealth +of nations, but as a congratulatory compliment from the ceramic artists +of France.</p> + +<p>Viewed in the light of history and of historical usage, they both +acquire a fresh interest, and are better understood. They are +exceptions, in the idea they represent, to the myriad ornamental vases +which load our cabinets and shelves. We have already seen that, from the +most ancient days of Egypt downward, vases were employed for the +conveyance of religious sentiments. The Chinese followed the same +course, and joined with it the custom of using pottery as a reward, or +for the purpose of conferring a mark of imperial distinction upon +officers deserving well of the state. Vases were also made the media +between friends for the conveyance of compliments or congratulations. We +might, in this connection, revert once more to the Greeks, who carried +the Oriental practice still farther. By that people vases were, as we +have seen, used as prizes, as wedding presents, as pledges of love or +friendship, the legends they bear enabling us at this distant day to +listen to the whisperings of passions which burned and died over two +thousand years ago. We also find such commemorative vases as that which +bears the legend, “The beautiful horse, twice conqueror at the Pythian +games.” On many others are inscribed the names of the great men of +antiquity, its kings and its poets. Some of these belong to times +posterior to those in which the persons they were intended to honor +lived, and may, therefore, be called commemorative in the same manner as +statues. Throughout the Middle Ages we find the same usage more widely +prevalent. When, therefore, the artists of France decided upon +commemorating the American Centennial, they had, as a precedent for +making a memorial distinctive of their art, the usage of the potters of +all countries back to the most remote times.</p> + +<p>In regard to design and decoration, these vases will bear consideration +in detail. There is one very large class of Greek vases which represent +what we have called the union of pottery and sculpture. In one we have +the helmeted head of Pallas Athene surmounted by<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_293" id="page_293">{293}</a></span> a figure of Nike, or +Victory. On others are Tritons bearing Nereïds, Medusa’s head, pennate +figures, and the winged steeds of Aurora. The artist had no thought of +utility to hamper him in designing accessories. It is said that M. +Bracquemond, while in the Louvre, was attracted by one of the Grecian +vases of this class found in Apulia (see <a href="#fig_167">Fig. 167</a>). The style is full of +grandeur and pomp. The form of the vase would be heavy and clumsy were +its outline unrelieved by the decorating figures. On the neck stands a +divinity in graceful drapery. Lower down, on the sides, are two +statuettes of deities, and on either side of Minerva’s head surmounted +by Nike in front are two Tritons, with their horse-feet pawing the air. +This vase suggested to M. Bracquemond a design for the Memorial Vases in +Washington. All that he thus derived, however, was merely a suggestion.</p> + +<p>The details of the design may be gathered from a description of the +vases themselves. One is intended to represent the year in which the +United States won independence; the other the hundredth anniversary of +that event. Between them is a whole century of history. The vase “1776” +rises from a base consisting of greenish, foamy waves, lashing angrily +against rocks surmounted by a circlet of cannon modelled after the +ordnance of Revolutionary times. In this we have the whole story of the +struggle for independence, and of the turmoil and confusion of the +strife. It is worth noting that this symbolical use of the wave +ornamentation is strictly classical. When the potters of Greece sought a +symbol of caprice and mutation, they could find none more expressive +than the foam-crested waves of the sea. From the cannon the body of the +vase swells gracefully outward, and attains its widest girth near the +top, where it curves rapidly inward to the upper rim. The orifice is +closed by a star-covered dome of blue, from either side of which spring +statuettes of Fame and Victory. On a pedestal on the rim in front stands +a bust of Washington, modelled by Houdon, after one formerly owned by +Lafayette, and now in the Louvre.</p> + +<p>The ornamentation on the body is simple and expressive. Green fronds +cross each other above the cannon, and smaller branches and stars are +sprinkled over the whole surface. On the front is the American eagle +with outstretched wings, with the national colors on either side. Above +it, and immediately under the bust of Washington,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_294" id="page_294">{294}</a></span> in small gilt +letters, are the names of the signers of the Declaration of +Independence.</p> + +<p>The base of the Centennial vase, “1876,” symbolizes peace and prosperity +by means of fruit, cereals, and the implements of husbandry. Above the +eagle, in place of the names of the signers of the Declaration, are +those of the Presidents, from Washington to Grant, and the surmounting +bust represents Columbia. In other respects the two vases are alike. The +story they tell is plain, and for every observer to read. Out of the +struggle of a hundred years ago have come liberty, peace, and +prosperity. The designer was exposed to dangers which he has coped with +successfully. He has achieved something grateful to American patriotism +without throwing originality aside. The American flag, the eagle, +Washington, and the Goddess of Liberty, compose a group which, but for +their artistic combination, might have been viewed with the indifference +begotten of familiarity. As they stand, it becomes hard to conceive how +otherwise, in equally intelligible language, a great historical event +could have been commemorated in the everlasting record supplied by clay. +They are records, and not mere ornaments. They mirror the first century +of America’s life as a nation. They tell all or nearly all that history +can tell of the passage from the struggle of 1776 to the prosperity of +1876.</p> + +<p>The story of their formation is interesting, that of one applying to +both. The body was modelled by M. Renard, chief modeller at Sèvres. He +worked incessantly on the inside for thirty-four hours without resting +more than a few minutes at a time, in order that his work might be +finished before the clay lost any of its plasticity by the evaporation +of the moisture. When this operation was completed the body was allowed +to dry for fifteen days. A kiln was then built round it, its great +size—the vases are twelve feet high, and the largest ever made in +Europe—rendering removal impossible. It was fired for eight days at a +low temperature, and then for three days at a high degree of heat, and +the result of the stupendous work was in every way successful. The +furnace required eight days to cool. If anything more is needed to +enable us to estimate the immense labor involved in such a work, it may +be summed up in this, that these vases demanded thirteen months’ work of +some of the ablest artists and potters of France.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_295" id="page_295">{295}</a></span></p> + +<p>It is difficult to criticise them apart from the sentiment they embody, +and which invests them with a never-fading interest. It was, however, a +touch of genius to get away from immediate usage to a style of +ornamentation with which the artists of Magna Græcia and Apulia +embellished their vases. It is the style best suited to their enormous +size. The enamel is applied only to the ornamentation, the body, busts, +and statuettes being all left unglazed and showing the natural color of +the clay. Every detail is made expressive, while the strictest +simplicity is retained. The size of the work forbade minute +ornamentation of a symbolical character, and there is thus a harmony +between the entire work and the details. The colors are brilliant, and +the general effect, though sombre, is imposing and fine. They will be +viewed hereafter with increasing interest, as marking the revival of an +old complimentary usage under particularly gratifying conditions; and +the grandeur and beauty of the art they represent is not likely to be +forgotten in the contemplation of the sentiment they express.</p> + +<p>We turn to the tile-piece in which, upon nearly a thousand tiles, M. +Bracquemond presents his allegory of Human Progress, with a mingled +feeling of dislike and attraction. It also stands in the Smithsonian +Institute. The repellent influence is first experienced, and arises, +probably, from an apparent absurdity of design and the peculiar +coloring. A figure of gigantic size occupies the centre, trampling fire +underfoot, and having a greenish bronze statuette in the right hand and +a vase in the other. On the left are the chimneys and smoke of a +factory, and on the opposite side is a railway train. A flash of +lightning strikes in from the right, and above the central figure is the +recumbent form of a woman partially enveloped in cloud. The picture, as +we have said, is allegorical, and represents the genius of man utilizing +the waters of the rebellious stream and storm, the fires of the volcano +and lightning, and making them subservient to progress. As it is more +closely studied, its true place in art is better understood, and we +ultimately accept the piece as an indication of the possibilities of M. +Bracquemond’s art. We feel that another stage has been passed on the way +toward the perfect union of the potter’s and painter’s skill, and toward +the picture “permanent as the Pyramids” of which Ruskin writes.</p> + +<p>Many of the other tile-pieces, panels, and plaques (<a href="#fig_239">Fig. 239</a>) from<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_296" id="page_296">{296}</a></span> +Limoges and Auteuil are more absolutely excellent. On a circular plaque +appears a draped female head, in which the flesh tint, clear and ruddy, +is simply wonderful. The delicacy which it lacks is found on two panels, +perfect rural pictures, with single female figures. These pieces +illustrate the fineness of landscape effect and the nicety of touch to +which the artist in possession of Haviland’s palette can attain. The +trees stand out well against the sky, its blue slightly shaded with +cloudy gray; and if we turn from these to the figure-drawing, the +arrangement of the drapery, even the finish of the embroidery, we feel +that we are in presence of an art of the decorative and artistic +capacity of which we are only catching the first glimpses.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_239" id="fig_239"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg296_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg296_sml.jpg" width="329" height="351" alt="Fig. 239—Haviland Faience. (H. Havemeyer Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 239—Haviland Faience. (H. Havemeyer Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>If we pass now to the vases of this ware, we are struck by the +originality of their shapes, the freedom of their designs, and the +remarkable depth and beauty of their coloring. There is nowhere visible<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_297" id="page_297">{297}</a></span> +any symptom of the nervous feeling after a doubtful result +characteristic of an artist without confidence in himself and his +process. Everything indicates strength, assurance, and power; and if +there is weakness anywhere, it is evidently the result of a boldness +which is over-hasty or too careless of finish and detail. We find no +precedent for the decoration. It is as far removed as possible from all +that is associated with China or Japan, from the majolica of Italy, +Spain, or Berlin, from the stone-ware of England, or the faience of +Sweden. The forms of the vases are of boundless variety, and suggest +originality by their very multiplicity. One would carry us back to the +pottery of ancient Gaul before it had felt the heavy hand of Rome. +Another recalls the Anglo-Saxon vases of England. A third would lead us, +in searching for a precedent, to the clumsy, rotund urns of ancient +Germany. These would all be equally fanciful, no doubt; and in that +suspicion one is confirmed by the exquisite forms of a small <i>pichet</i>, a +quaint card-receiver, and a vase rising to its slightly out-turned lip +as gracefully as the cup of a flower.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_240" id="fig_240"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<a href="images/illpg297a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg297a_sml.jpg" width="162" height="254" alt="Fig. 240.—Haviland Faience. (G. W. Gibson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 240.—Haviland Faience. (G. W. Gibson Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_241" id="fig_241"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;"> +<a href="images/illpg297b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg297b_sml.jpg" width="160" height="391" alt="Fig. 241.—Haviland Faience. (Whitelaw Reid Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 241.—Haviland Faience. (Whitelaw Reid Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_242" id="fig_242"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg298_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg298_sml.jpg" width="303" height="484" alt="Fig. 242.—Luna Vase. Haviland Faience. (Mrs. William H. +Dannat Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 242.—Luna Vase. Haviland Faience. (Mrs. William H. +Dannat Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>We may take a few examples in order to illustrate the decoration. It +consists of painting on the surface, of carved figures in unglazed +relief, and of forms glazed and attached to the surface. Of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_298" id="page_298">{298}</a></span> the first +of these the choice is wide. On some appear hunting dogs full of life +and action and in many attitudes. On another is a Cupid with full-drawn +bow, rosy and chubby, and evidently bent upon dealing a fatal wound. On +a third is a nymph and satyr (<a href="#fig_241">Fig. 241</a>). A fourth shows us a barn-yard +pair, a duck and drake, the latter preening himself in the sun, under +which his many-hued plumage glitters<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_299" id="page_299">{299}</a></span> with a lustre almost iridescent. +On a fifth a gayly feathered open-throated songster appears to be +warbling his even-song upon a tiny spray. Flowers are painted with all +the splendor of nature, and cling round the forms with gracefully +sweeping stem. One in particular is made attractive simply by its color, +a mottled gray, into the depths of which we look as into the clouds +hanging over the couch of the sun in the early mornings of summer. Its +beauty is in its suggestiveness, which strikes us again in many of the +flower-wreathed vases where there are openings of green, into which one +can look as into a forest glade. The mind creates what the eye cannot +see, and the glade is peopled with beings whose forms are never caught. +This is, no doubt, an example of fancy helping out the artist, but the +artist is none the less fortunate and skilful who can thus induce the +fancy to take wing. He leaves her room to take flight, and the vase he +has decorated with a simple flower becomes a poem suggesting far more +than it tells.</p> + +<p>Of the vases showing unglazed carvings in bas-relief there is a single +pair, sufficient for illustration. On one is represented Phœbus, the +golden-haired god of day, and on the other the triform goddess Luna. +Phœbus stands with bow drawn full to the shoulder, just as we picture +him in Homer. It will be remembered that when Lyrnessus was taken by the +Greeks and the spoils divided, Chryseis, the wife of the king of the +captured place, and daughter of Chryses, one of the priests of Apollo, +fell to the share of Agamemnon. Her father sought her restoration from +the “king of men,” and on his request being refused, asked aid from the +god he served. We here have Apollo in the attitude of returning an +answer to his suppliant priest.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“Bent was his bow, the Grecian hearts to wound,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Fierce, as he moved, his silver shafts resound;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Breathing revenge, a sudden night he spread,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And gloomy darkness rolled around his head.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The fleet in view, he twang’d his deadly bow,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And, hissing, fly the feather’d fates below.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">On mules and dogs the infection first began,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man.”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>On the companion vase (<a href="#fig_242">Fig. 242</a>) is the figure of the goddess of night, +Luna, Diana, or Hecate, in her character of Luna, with the crescent +under her feet, and throwing back a mantle from her graceful<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_300" id="page_300">{300}</a></span> form. In +both vases the beauty of the conception is skilfully carried out in the +execution. The figures are admirably modelled, and, being of a light +paste and left unglazed, stand out in bold relief against the ground. +The daring of the latter innovation is amply justified by the result.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_243" id="fig_243"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg300_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg300_sml.jpg" width="321" height="464" alt="Fig. 243.—Faience Vase. (Mrs. Colonel T. Scott Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 243.—Faience Vase. (Mrs. Colonel T. Scott Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Of the third class of vases with glazed ornaments applied to the body +there are many fine specimens. One of the most charming (<a href="#fig_243">Fig. 243</a>) is +wreathed by flower sprays twined naturally and gracefully<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_301" id="page_301">{301}</a></span> round the +body. The flower is in full bloom, and its large leaves are spread out +above it and below. For handles there are snakes turning in their +changeless coil round the flower stem. On another the handles consist of +butterflies beautifully moulded and colored, and placed as though they +might have been transformed into clay as they alighted on the vase. +Another, of small size and quaintly rotund form, has a mass of leaves +and flowers in relief clustering round the body. A pitcher with a soft +gray ground is lightly overrun with an ivy branch, which twines itself +round the neck and handle as naturally as the plant creeps up and winds +itself round the stem of a tree.</p> + +<p>Can anything be more simple than the suggestions to which these +creations are due? Do we need to be reminded of the fable which explains +how Callimachus was inspired to produce the Corinthian capital? We are +told that he was walking in the country, and as he travelled he came to +the grave of a child, upon which, in a basket, some relative—its +mother, probably—had placed the customary offering of food. To keep off +the birds and small animals, a tile had been laid upon the basket. In +course of time an acanthus appeared; and as it grew, its stalk was +pressed back by the tile and turned round spirally under its edge. +Nothing more was needed. Callimachus found in the little basket on the +flower-grown grave a suggestion for the order of architecture which has +never been surpassed to this day. We have similarly, in the faience +vases of Haviland now under consideration, constant hints of inspiration +drawn from the simplest forms of nature. A branch falls upon a vase and +becomes its ornament. A butterfly hangs for a moment on fluttering wing +and drops from its flight, and it too becomes an ornament. The workman +leaves his unfinished work at night, and when he returns at day-break, +finds that a lizard or an asp has crept upon the still slimy vase to +bask itself in the first rays of the morning sun. It darts out of sight, +but it has left an idea which appears in the decoration; and on the spot +from which it glided when disturbed a snake displays its spiral +convolutions.</p> + +<p>Where but in nature shall we see anything suggestive of such decoration? +We do not find it in Japan, for the symbolical and semi-imaginative, +semi-realistic style of the extreme East has nothing in common with this +naturalism. As little do we find it among the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_302" id="page_302">{302}</a></span> brilliant colors and +fantastic forms of Persia. If we come nearer home, to Italy, even to the +French centres we have already visited, there is nothing in their +classical scenes and floral wreaths and bouquets to prepare us to find +in Limoges their orderly successor. In a word, the style is original. +There is no crowding of tints for the sake of their rich beauty. A +single flower lying on a ground of one prevailing tone is sufficient +ornamentation for a vase; or a handful of flowers may be scattered upon +the surface in tumbled profusion, or woven into a wreath. Haviland has +entered upon a hitherto undiscovered path, and let us pray that he may +never be tempted to try the porcelain decoration which threatened to +ruin faience, nor to give us anything more meretricious than the beauty +of a garden flower or of the many other admirably conceived forms which +he has endowed with life.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_244" id="fig_244"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 147px;"> +<a href="images/illpg302_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg302_sml.jpg" width="147" height="348" alt="Fig. 244.—Haviland Faience. (Miss Clara Louise Kellogg +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 244.—Haviland Faience. (Miss Clara Louise Kellogg +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The best pieces have been chosen for commendation and to illustrate the +highest results to be expected from the new process. It is +unquestionable, however, that there are many pieces of this faience +which could be disposed of without seeking words for the expression of +enthusiastic praise. This gives those desiring specimens every +opportunity for the exercise of a judicious discrimination. In some +pieces the simultaneous melting of the color and glaze has resulted in a +haziness of outline and confusion of colors by no means characteristic +of the better examples. On others with figure decoration the drawing has +been completely destroyed, and the figure left in obscurity. These +inferior pieces are useful, however, for showing how careful must be the +work which produces the bold effects securing our admiration.</p> + +<p>When Haviland took up the process discovered by MM. Chaplet, Laurin, and +Lafond, at Bourg-la-Reine, he secured the services of two<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_303" id="page_303">{303}</a></span> of these +artists. The third, M. Laurin, carried out the process at the place of +its discovery. Many of this artist’s works come to us bearing his mark +and the name of the factory, Bourg-la-Reine, in full. Like that of +Haviland, his work is occasionally irregular; but, as a rule, it is +entitled to very high commendation. The flower decoration is extremely +beautiful, and when laid upon a soft ground, such as the gray, which +Laurin produces to perfection, is entitled to nearly all the praise +bestowed upon the corresponding works from Haviland’s factory. The +Bourg-la-Reine faience is chiefly painted on the flat, and the leading +decoration consists of flower and figure painting. We meet with many +well-selected subjects and much strong and realistic treatment. On one +vase appear an eagle and a serpent on an excellent ground of gray and +blue, the former of which is also employed with fine effect in a variety +of flower pieces.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_245" id="fig_245"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;"> +<a href="images/illpg303a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg303a_sml.jpg" width="195" height="300" alt="Fig. 245.—Bourg-la-Reine Faience. (G. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 245.—Bourg-la-Reine Faience. (G. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_246" id="fig_246"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 249px;"> +<a href="images/illpg303b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg303b_sml.jpg" width="249" height="252" alt="Fig. 246.—Bourg-la-Reine Plaque. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 246.—Bourg-la-Reine Plaque. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>A very common mistake is made regarding this faience. It is often +confounded with that of Haviland, although the differences between the +two fabrics are obvious. In the first place, the marks can be consulted. +That of Limoges<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_304" id="page_304">{304}</a></span> is stamped “H. & Co.”—or, Haviland & Co.—with or +without the place of manufacture. The artist’s mark also is generally +attached. The Bourg-la-Reine is marked either with the name “Laurin” or +“B.-la-R.,” or with both. In the second place, the alkaline glaze of the +Haviland faience gives the paintings, especially of flowers, a life-like +appearance peculiar to itself. It is a mistake to suppose that the +processes of decoration are identical in every particular. In one +respect only they are alike. In both, the colors are laid upon the +unbaked clay. In the mixing of the colors and in the glaze they are +distinct. Laurin’s decoration is harder in outline than the Limoges, and +never possesses the mingled softness and strength which constitute the +great charm of the latter.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_247" id="fig_247"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 138px;"> +<a href="images/illpg304_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg304_sml.jpg" width="138" height="331" alt="Fig. 247.—Deck Faience. (Corcoran Art Gallery.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 247.—Deck Faience. (Corcoran Art Gallery.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Of the early history of Bourg-la-Reine little of general interest is +known. It appears that Jullien and Jacques of Mennecy founded a workshop +there about the year 1773. Jullien died in 1774, and was succeeded by +his son, who resigned his share in the business to Jacques. When Jacques +died, in 1799, his son, C. S. Jacques, continued the fabrication. At a +later period fine white faience was made. It is upon Laurin alone that, +in this country, the reputation of the place depends.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_248" id="fig_248"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;"> +<a href="images/illpg305a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg305a_sml.jpg" width="127" height="266" alt="Fig. 248.—Deck Bottle. (Gilman Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 248.—Deck Bottle. (Gilman Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_249" id="fig_249"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg305b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg305b_sml.jpg" width="363" height="221" alt="Fig. 249.—Deck Vase. (Gilman Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 249.—Deck Vase. (Gilman Collamore.)</span> +</p> + +<p>The name of Deck, of Paris, brings before us much that is beautiful in +the recent ceramics of France. For a long time, in fact, his name was +supposed to represent nearly all that was excellent in the color and +decoration of European pottery. Having enriched his palette with a +wealth of colors which made him the envy of his cotemporaries, he turned +his attention to reviving Oriental styles in hues rivalling those of the +East. He was first attracted to Persia, and with marvellous skill +applied his rich enamel colors to the reproduction of the faience of +that country. In other cases he is manifestly inspired by Japanese<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_305" id="page_305">{305}</a></span> art. +His technical skill enables him to reach widely varied effects, and +since to this are added truthful drawing and a fine taste in the +assortment of tints, we can easily understand his eminence in the art. +Specimens of his best work are comparatively rare in this country. The +faience vase from the Corcoran Art Gallery (<a href="#fig_247">Fig. 247</a>) is characteristic, +and is an excellent example of M. Deck’s coloring. The ground is a soft +yellow or buff, and the plumage of the pheasant is brilliant and rich. +The blue tints are especially fine, and the glaze, which is judged to be +alkaline, gives the coloring that peculiar softness which is found in +the greatest perfection on <i>pate tendre</i>. There is considerable doubt as +to the body used by Deck. It varies very much in different pieces, +approaching in some cases the hardness and compactness of porcelain. Of +this character is the bottle, Fig. 248. The ground color of this +specimen is a clear blue, and in it the white blossoms appear in thick +clusters. A vase and plaque, with a somewhat similar, but possibly even +a finer body, are shown at page 325 (Figs. 280 and 281). That given here +(<a href="#fig_249">Fig. 249</a>), singular alike in form and color, has a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_306" id="page_306">{306}</a></span> ground of undecided +shades of brown and yellow. Deck’s violet is soft and rich, approaching +at times the velvety violet of China.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_250" id="fig_250"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 169px;"> +<a href="images/illpg306a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg306a_sml.jpg" width="169" height="347" alt="Fig. 250.—Colinot Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 250.—Colinot Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The other names most familiar to Americans are those of Colinot, +Parville, Longwy, Creil, Sarreguemines, and Montereau. Their products +illustrate the taste for Oriental styles which sprung up a few years +ago, and to the gratification of which much of the ingenuity of French +makers has been devoted. Colinot, of Paris, has employed with great +skill colored enamels in the imitation of Japanese work. On one +cylindrical vase (<a href="#fig_250">Fig. 250</a>) he has laid in strong relief, upon a +dark-buff ground, flowers and leaves exactly after the models supplied +by Satsuma and Kioto. On other specimens the decoration is outlined upon +a white ground, and filled in with enamel colors. The method is +productive of a clear hardness of outline, but the results are seldom +unpleasing and often very attractive. Colinot has succeeded in obtaining +several excellent colors. The vase (<a href="#fig_251">Fig. 251</a>) is a rich purple, on which +the flowers are laid in white and green. The treatment is similar to +that of Deck, but the ground is less brilliant and clear. Colinot also +acquired considerable reputation by his faience with colored +stanniferous enamel. We give an example (<a href="#fig_252">Fig. 252</a>) of his treatment of +large pieces. The ground is a pale blue, and the medallions are +admirably painted. The color is subdued throughout.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_251" id="fig_251"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<a href="images/illpg306b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg306b_sml.jpg" width="124" height="240" alt="Fig. 251.—Colinot Vase. (Gilman Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 251.—Colinot Vase. (Gilman Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_307" id="page_307">{307}</a></span>The Creil workshop was established some time during the eighteenth +century, probably about 1780, by a number of English potters. Its +earliest works appear to have consisted chiefly of services of a +semi-porcelaneous paste. The Worcester method of transfer-printing and +then painting the design in colors was adopted, and successfully +handled. The founders transferred the establishment to Le Bœuf, +Milliet & Co. and De St. Criq & Co. Porcelain was made until 1860, after +which the production was restricted to English faience. The paste +cannot, however, be distinctly qualified, as it varies from the original +semi-porcelain to cream-colored ware. The latter has a wide reputation, +both for its quality and its decoration under the glaze.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_252" id="fig_252"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<a href="images/illpg307_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg307_sml.jpg" width="159" height="318" alt="Fig. 252.—Colinot Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 252.—Colinot Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Montereau establishment was, like that of Creil, founded by +Englishmen. Letters patent were granted on March 15th, 1775, to Clark, +Shaw & Co., to make English faience and queen’s-ware. The firm started +under very favorable auspices, receiving an annual allowance of 1200 +francs for ten years, probably for the purpose of naturalizing the +industry. Its wares helped to overturn the manufacture of French +faience, and were imitated at several places, including Toulouse and +Sarreguemines. In 1790 there were two establishments at Montereau. As at +Creil, M. De St. Criq, in 1810, acquired the right of protection, and in +1829 assigned it to Lebœuf & Thebaut.</p> + +<p>At Longwy the manufacture of faience was begun about forty years ago, +when M. Huart de Northcomb was proprietor of a workshop. Its name is now +found upon many excellent specimens of faience with colored stanniferous +enamel. In the bottle and tray (<a href="#fig_253">Fig. 253</a>) a rich effect is produced by +the employment of two shades of blue in the scaly ground. The oval +medallions and other ornamentation are yellow, with leaves and flowers +in green and pink. It is one of the best examples we have seen from this +factory, which is one of the largest of its kind in France. The pitcher +(Fig.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_308" id="page_308">{308}</a></span> 254) has a ground of undecided very pale yellow, and the leaves, +flowers, and birds are variously colored. Our third specimen, an oval +plaque (<a href="#fig_255">Fig. 255</a>), has, in its design and the brilliancy of its +coloring, a decidedly Oriental appearance. In the other examples the +ground is broken up by a crackle more or less open and irregular; but in +the plaque the white enamel is veined with fine and regular darkly +colored cracks, which bring the ground to a soft and pleasing gray. The +flowers are red and pink, and the foliage green, turning at times to +blue. The bird is brightly plumaged with blue and other colors. In this +as in the other pieces, the ground alone is crackled, and the decoration +has the appearance of being graved in the enamel and then filled in with +the requisite colors.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_253" id="fig_253"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg308a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg308a_sml.jpg" width="372" height="248" alt="Fig. 253—Longwy Faience. (Gilman Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 253—Longwy Faience. (Gilman Collamore.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_254" id="fig_254"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 136px;"> +<a href="images/illpg308b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg308b_sml.jpg" width="136" height="251" alt="Fig. 254.—Longwy Faience. Crackle. (G. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 254.—Longwy Faience. Crackle. (G. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Parville, of Paris, makes enamelled faience of the same general +description; and the vase chosen to represent it (<a href="#fig_256">Fig. 256</a>) deserves +attention both for the peculiarity of its form and for the illustration +it gives of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_309" id="page_309">{309}</a></span> a French modification of the Persian style of decorating. +The ground is a dull and sombre shade of dark-blue, upon which the +ornamentation is laid in light-blue, white, red, and two shades of +yellow.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_255" id="fig_255"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"> +<a href="images/illpg309a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg309a_sml.jpg" width="210" height="242" alt="Fig. 255.—Longwy Faience. Crackle. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 255.—Longwy Faience. Crackle. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_256" id="fig_256"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 112px;"> +<a href="images/illpg309b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg309b_sml.jpg" width="112" height="282" alt="Fig. 256.—Parville Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 256.—Parville Faience. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Gien faience, like those of Creil and Montereau, belongs to the class of +ware with a colorless plumbiferous glaze, and its decoration is often +remarkable both in design and color. In the vase with which we represent +this faience (<a href="#fig_257">Fig. 257</a>) the design is outlined on the biscuit, and the +colors are then applied. The earlier products of Gien are said to be +imitations of the styles of Marseilles. A more artistic faience, +resembling the Gien, is made by M. Elysse at Blois, in the old Italian +styles of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.</p> + +<p>The Sarreguemines factory was founded in 1770, by Paul Utzchneider, and +is now carried on under the firm of Utzchneider & Co. It turns out both +faience and porcelain. Figures and groups in porcelain biscuit and +artificial porcelain are made. The factory is also known by a fine white +stone-ware. In the fine faience of Sarreguemines, certain works may be +found which are, in many respects, the most extraordinary of the present +time. Imitations of jasper, marble, granite, and porphyry, are produced +of the most beautiful description, and other pieces resemble the +jasper-ware of Wedgwood, with white decoration on a blue ground. The +vase (<a href="#fig_258">Fig. 258</a>) can hardly be described in words. Among the varied +contents of Mr. Collamore’s collection, it is perfectly<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_310" id="page_310">{310}</a></span> unique. The +ground is a deep and brilliant black, upon which the decoration is laid +in white, gold, and blue, dotted with drops of jewel-like enamels. The +handles are blue and gold. The design can be distinctly followed in the +engraving, but even a colored plate could hardly do justice to the +enamels, or give an idea of the general effect.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_257" id="fig_257"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 121px;"> +<a href="images/illpg310a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg310a_sml.jpg" width="121" height="276" alt="Fig. 257.—Gien Faience. (Davis Collamore Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 257.—Gien Faience. (Davis Collamore Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Niederviller has made faience in the Strasburg style since at least the +beginning of the eighteenth century, and about 1760 was producing pieces +with delicate flower paintings. It was then under the patronage of Baron +de Beyerlé, and afterward of Count Custine, under whose proprietorship +the porcelain style was farther developed. A curious specimen is given +by Jacquemart, in which the ground of the plate is painted to imitate +wood, and in the centre is a reservation simulating a sheet of white +paper with a landscape in pink. In 1768 the Baron de Beyerlé was making +a good quality of porcelain from German material. Under Count Custine, +François Lanfrey was engaged as manager. Charles Sauvage, or Lemire, +made small figures and groups in biscuit, and Cyfflé also executed some +of his works at Niederviller.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_258" id="fig_258"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<a href="images/illpg310b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg310b_sml.jpg" width="154" height="254" alt="Fig. 258—Sarreguemines Faience. (G. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 258—Sarreguemines Faience. (G. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The name of this artist, Paul Louis Cyfflé, is, however, more intimately +associated with Luneville. The faience workshop of Luneville was founded +about 1729, by Jacques Chambrette. In 1778 it was acquired by Keller & +Guérin. The styles of Nevers and Strasburg were both successfully +followed. It was here that Cyfflé made his statuettes of fine “terre de +Lorraine.”</p> + +<p>In the same district are the factories<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_311" id="page_311">{311}</a></span> of Nancy and St. Clement. The +former produced faience in 1774, and a peculiar kind of biscuit which +takes its name from the place. The factory was founded by Nicolas +Lelong. Very little is known of the St. Clement works, though they are +said to have been in operation in 1750. In 1835 they were under the +directorship of M. Aubry. Both Luneville and St. Clement have been more +recently known by their stanniferous faience.</p> + +<p>St. Amand holds an important position in the history of French art. It +is one of the places, including Lille, Dunkirk, Valenciennes, and the +other faience-producing towns of Flanders, which enabled France to +domesticate, in a measure, the manufacture of ware resembling that of +Delft. The paste of these faiences is identical with that used in the +great Dutch establishment, with which they very soon came into +competition. The history of St. Amand extends from 1740 down to the +Revolution. It was founded by Pierre Joseph Fauquez, was continued by +his son, Pierre François Joseph, until 1773, and by his grandson, Jean +Baptiste Joseph, until the Revolution. The earlier style of decoration +is based upon that of Rouen; the second is after that of Strasburg. One +of the distinguishing features of this faience is the use of white +enamel in relief upon the glaze, which is faintly tinged with blue.</p> + +<p>Having already touched upon a few of the leading names of modern Paris, +there yet remains to be said something of its previous history. The +relics discovered within the city belong to every period, from the Roman +downward; and it may therefore be said that the metropolitan potters +have been as busy, comparatively speaking, in the past as they are +to-day. Faience was made from the beginning of the seventeenth century, +and Réverend was, in 1664, making imitations of Delft, “thin, with a +white enamel, with clear polychrome colors, often excessively pure.” +This is M. Jacquemart’s description. Notwithstanding the privilege +accorded to Réverend, many other workshops appear to have made faience +throughout the whole of the eighteenth century, and it is generally +impossible to tell them from the wares of Rouen and elsewhere, which +they imitated.</p> + +<p>Artistic faience was made at Sceaux for about forty-five years previous +to 1795, by Chapelle and Glot successively. Gros-Caillou, St. Denis, +Vincennes, St. Cloud, and Sèvres were all more or less engaged<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_312" id="page_312">{312}</a></span> in the +manufacture of faience. We find Pierre Antoine Hannong, from Strasburg, +at Vincennes in 1767, but he met with little success.</p> + +<p>There are many other places at which faience was made, some, like +Nantes, Bordeaux, and Orleans, of importance, and others of which little +is known besides their names. A list of them would add nothing to our +real knowledge of French art, which has been chiefly influenced by the +styles of which we have most fully treated. To the accounts of them has +been added all that could be learned regarding Limoges, Creil, +Sarreguemines, and a few Parisian and other workshops especially +interesting to the collectors of the present day.</p> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Efforts to Make Porcelain.—First Artificial Porcelain.—St. +Cloud.—Lille.—Paris.—Chantilly,—Mennecy.—Vincennes.—Sèvres.—Natural, +or Hard, Porcelain.—Discovery of Kaolin.—Various +Factories.—Limoges.—Deck.—Regnault.—Solon.—Pate +Changeante.—Pate-sur-Pate.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_259" id="fig_259"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 133px;"> +<a href="images/illpg312_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg312_sml.jpg" width="133" height="92" alt="Fig. 259.—St. Cloud Porcelain Salt-cellar. (Jacquemart +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 259.—St. Cloud Porcelain Salt-cellar. (Jacquemart +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>We have already seen that the discovery of artificial porcelain preceded +that of natural, or kaolinic, porcelain. In treating of the faience of +Rouen, we quoted, from the letters patent granted to Louis Poterat on +the 31st of October, 1673, a passage to show that he meditated the +production of porcelain similar to the Chinese. A privilege was also +granted to Claude Réverend, of Paris, in 1664, which bears that he +possessed the secret of making a “counterfeit porcelain, as fine and +finer than that which comes from the East Indies.” All that Réverend +achieved was a very fine faience; and Poterat, having met with success +as a maker of faience, probably renounced the prosecution of the search +for porcelain, although he may be said to have arrived at or very near +success. The first French artificial, or soft, porcelain known to +commerce was that made by the Chicanneau family at St. Cloud in 1695 +(<a href="#fig_259">Fig. 259</a>). It is first noticed by Martin Lister, a traveller, in 1698. +Henry Trou, having married the widow of Pierre Chicanneau, became head +of the manufactory of St. Cloud; and a family quarrel having taken +place, Marie<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_313" id="page_313">{313}</a></span> Moreau, widow of one of the Chicanneaus, established +herself in Paris. The earliest marks of St. Cloud porcelain are the sun +and the letters S. C. and T., the former dating from 1702 to 1715, the +latter from 1715 to 1730. The sun was the device of Louis XIV., and the +letters afterward used were the initials of St. Cloud and Trou. The +paste was close and white, and the glaze uneven. The decoration soon +became varied in character, some pieces, with birds and flowers in +relief, resembling the Chinese, and others of French patterns in blue, +with arabesques or lace borders.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_260" id="fig_260"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg313_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg313_sml.jpg" width="295" height="169" alt="Fig. 260.—Vincennes Porcelain Cooler. (Duke de Martina +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 260.—Vincennes Porcelain Cooler. (Duke de Martina +Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>The attempts of Poterat and Réverend, and the more perfect success of +Chicanneau, indicate the prevalence of the desire to solve the mystery +of Chinese porcelain. Experiments were being conducted almost +everywhere, and the success of the potters of St. Cloud gave a new zest +to the search. A manufactory was founded at Lille in 1711; at Paris, by +the offshoot of the St. Cloud family, in 1722; and at Chantilly in 1725, +where the porcelain of Corea was taken as a model. Ten years later +Barbin was established at Mennecy, and in 1739 the philosopher Réaumur, +led away by the universal search, arrived at a devitrified glass, which +went under the name of “Réaumur’s porcelain,” though in no sense +deserving such a name. With 1740 we reach the establishment of the royal +manufactory at Vincennes (<a href="#fig_260">Fig. 260</a>).</p> + +<p>Two brothers named Dubois, formerly of St. Cloud, offered to sell their +secret to the Intendant of Finance, and were given the necessary means +to carry on the production at Vincennes. These men did not<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_314" id="page_314">{314}</a></span> fulfil their +promise, and were succeeded by one of their workmen, named Gravant. The +celebrated Madame de Pompadour used her influence with the king to +induce him to favor an enterprise the success of which would make France +independent of Saxony. The result was that the manufacture quickly rose +to eminence. Chemists, artists, and goldsmiths were engaged in designing +and decorating. Flowers were modelled and painted in a style so closely +resembling the natural that the king is said, upon one occasion, to have +mistaken the artificial for the real. In 1753, the position of manager +was given to Eloi Brichard. Louis XV. took a third of the capital upon +himself, and the name of “The Royal Porcelain Manufactory of France” was +conferred upon the establishment. The workshops at Vincennes became too +small, and in 1756 a removal was made to a new building erected +specially for the purpose at Sèvres.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_261" id="fig_261"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> +<a href="images/illpg314_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg314_sml.jpg" width="200" height="349" alt="Fig. 261.—Old Sèvres Pate Tendre. (August Belmont +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 261.—Old Sèvres Pate Tendre. (August Belmont +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_262" id="fig_262"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;"> +<a href="images/illpg315a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg315a_sml.jpg" width="141" height="212" alt="Fig. 262.—Old Jewelled Sèvres Pate Tendre. Cup diameter, +2½ in.; Saucer circumference, 18 in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 262.—Old Jewelled Sèvres Pate Tendre. Cup diameter, +2½ in.; Saucer circumference, 18 in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_263" id="fig_263"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg315b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg315b_sml.jpg" width="396" height="327" alt="Fig. 263.—Jewelled Sèvres. (H. C. Gibson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 263.—Jewelled Sèvres. (H. C. Gibson Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>The imitations which had annoyed Adam, the director who preceded +Brichard, continued under the administration of the latter. The king +then took the entire establishment into his own hands, and appointed M. +Boileau director. Such was an eighteenth century toy of royalty. The +king, accompanied by the Pompadour, paid regular visits to Sèvres, which +was well worthy of being a royal possession. Everything that art could +suggest in the form of gardens and groves had been done to embellish it. +Even a private chase was provided for the artists, where, in hunting the +boar and stag, they relieved the labors of the studio. Never, possibly, +were artists so favored by patronage and place, and the productions of +Sèvres were worthy of the sunshine in which it<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_315" id="page_315">{315}</a></span> basked. Its flowers and +vases admit of no classification. Figures were also made in biscuit (see +Fig. 226). Chemists vied with each other in the invention of colors, and +the <i>bleu de roi</i>, Hellot’s turquoise blue (1752), the Pompadour pink +(1757), violet, greens, yellow, and iron-red followed each other in +rapid succession, and were employed with dazzling effect. Special +mention need only be made of the jewelled porcelain (Figs. 262 and 263) +on a <i>bleu de roi</i> ground. The successive directors after Boileau were: +Parent, 1773-1779; Regnier, 1779-1793; Commissioners, with Chanou and +afterward Salmon, Ettlinger, and Meyer, jointly as inspectors, down to +1800; Brongniart, 1800-1847; and then MM. Ebelman, Regnault, and Robert +in succession. The specimen<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_316" id="page_316">{316}</a></span> here given (<a href="#fig_264">Fig. 264</a>) is one of a pair +dated 1772 and 1781 respectively, which formerly belonged to Louis XVI. +On his request they were sold by Governor Morris, in order to raise +money, and were bought by Dr. Hosack, of New York. The scene in the +medallion represents Louis XVI. in his cabinet, and the nurse bringing +in the newly born Dauphin.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_264" id="fig_264"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 198px;"> +<a href="images/illpg316_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg316_sml.jpg" width="198" height="353" alt="Fig. 264.—Sèvres Pate Tendre (1772-1781). Bleu de Roi +Ground. (Mrs. C. B. Hosack Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 264.—Sèvres Pate Tendre (1772-1781). Bleu de Roi +Ground. (Mrs. C. B. Hosack Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Meantime the paste was still artificial, and the researches for a +natural, or hard, porcelain were not relaxed. In 1769 the discovery of +kaolin and petuntse at St. Yrieix, near Limoges, led to the introduction +of hard paste into Sèvres. In 1804 M. Brongniart decided to abandon the +manufacture of artificial porcelain, and soon afterward regretted having +taken such a step. In 1847 M. Ebelman, Brongniart’s pupil and successor, +decided to revive the <i>pate tendre</i>, and for four years made use of a +body which had been prepared by Brongniart forty-five years previously. +The clay, instead of being thrown away, as Brongniart thought, had been +stored throughout the long period of its neglect, and both saved the new +director any trouble in experimenting, and supplied a standard for the +future. The production of soft paste has been continued, but the +quantity is inconsiderable. Mr. Walters, of Baltimore, has in his +collection a valuable <i>pate tendre</i> vase dated 1860.</p> + +<p>To give in detail the events which led to the introduction of natural +porcelain into the royal factory, we must turn back to the year 1721, +when Wackenfeld was attempting to utilize at Strasburg the knowledge he +had brought from Germany. Hannong was engaged<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_317" id="page_317">{317}</a></span> in the same enterprise; +and his son, Paul Antoine, after endeavoring in vain to carry on the +production in competition with the artificial porcelain of the royal +factory, and engaging in fruitless negotiations with Director Boileau, +at last retired to Frankenthal. His son afterward took the Strasburg +works in hand, but failed. All this porcelain was made from imported +material. That of Paul Antoine resembles in decoration the works of +Meissen, and his son followed both the Saxon and Sèvres styles.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_265" id="fig_265"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 155px;"> +<a href="images/illpg317a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg317a_sml.jpg" width="155" height="263" alt="Fig. 265.—Charlotte Corday Vase; Sèvres Porcelain, +Mounted. Red and Gold. (White House.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 265.—Charlotte Corday Vase; Sèvres Porcelain, +Mounted. Red and Gold. (White House.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1758 an event happened of the first importance to the making of a +true French natural porcelain. This was the discovery by the Count de +Brancas Lauraguais of an inferior quality of kaolin near Alençon. The +specimens of the ware in which it was used show a coarse body, and +decoration after the Chinese and Japanese types. Shortly afterward +Gérault, or to give his name in full, Charles Claude Gérault Daranbert, +the proprietor of a faience establishment at Orleans, engaged in the +manufacture of porcelain. A privilege had been granted to the Orleans +workshop, in 1755, to make a white faience, and the making of porcelain +appears to have begun about 1764, on the acquisition by Gérault of a +kaolin mine at St. Yrieix-la-Perche. In 1765 Guettard, chemist in the +establishment of the Duke of Orleans at Bagnolet, came upon the kaolin +deposit at Alençon originally discovered by the Count Lauraguais. Within +a few years, also, Robert was making porcelain at Marseilles.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_266" id="fig_266"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 113px;"> +<a href="images/illpg317b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg317b_sml.jpg" width="113" height="255" alt="Fig. 266.—Old Sèvres, Mounted in Metal. Dark-blue +Ground. Height, 9½ in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 266.—Old Sèvres, Mounted in Metal. Dark-blue +Ground. Height, 9½ in. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The next events of importance are Madame Darnet’s discovery of kaolin at +St. Yrieix, and Macquer’s experiments with it at Sèvres. As at<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_318" id="page_318">{318}</a></span> +Strasburg, the mistake was made at Sèvres of mixing the kaolin and +petuntse in the wrong proportions, and the result of the excess of +felspar was a very translucent glassy body. The first pieces and those +of artificial paste were so nearly alike that, to distinguish the +former, they were marked with the well known double L and crown. They +may also be known by the color being laid upon the glaze. In the soft +paste the colors appear to be sunk in the glaze. When Brongniart, in +1804, stopped the production of <i>pate tendre</i>, the works of the royal +factory began to assume the forms and to be decorated in the styles with +which the world has been familiar for the last seventy years. “The +largest pieces,” says Jacquemart, “were undertaken, and sculpture and +painting united to enrich gigantic vases. Plaques of forty-six by +thirty-six inches were given to distinguished artists, who reproduced in +unalterable colors the frescoes of Raffaelle, the masterpieces of +Vandyke, Titian, and of the modern school.” Of modern Sèvres we give one +example (<a href="#fig_268">Fig. 268</a>), to which some interest attaches as belonging to a +service presented by the French Government to Miss M. F. Curtis, +distributor of funds sent from Boston for the relief of sufferers by the +war with Germany in 1870-1871.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_267" id="fig_267"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 142px;"> +<a href="images/illpg318a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg318a_sml.jpg" width="142" height="208" alt="Fig. 267.—Franklin Vase. Sèvres. Blue and Gold. +Inscription on Vase, “Vue de la Maison de Franklin à Passy.” (White +House.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 267.—Franklin Vase. Sèvres. Blue and Gold. +Inscription on Vase, “Vue de la Maison de Franklin à Passy.” (White +House.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_268" id="fig_268"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg318b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg318b_sml.jpg" width="298" height="164" alt="Fig. 268.—Sèvres Porcelain Tea-Set. (Curtis Coll., +Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 268.—Sèvres Porcelain Tea-Set. (Curtis Coll., +Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_319" id="page_319">{319}</a></span></p> + +<p>To give an idea of the value of the Sèvres porcelain, it may be +mentioned that Napoleon, following an example set by Louis XV., sent to +the King of Etruria a vase worth about sixty thousand dollars. Tea-sets +worth $1000, vases at $1500 and $5000, are mentioned as being in the +royal collection in England.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_269" id="fig_269"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 262px;"> +<a href="images/illpg319a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg319a_sml.jpg" width="262" height="199" alt="Fig. 269.—Washington’s “Cincinnati” Sèvres." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 269.—Washington’s “Cincinnati” Sèvres.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_270" id="fig_270"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 279px;"> +<a href="images/illpg319b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg319b_sml.jpg" width="279" height="179" alt="Fig. 270.—Mrs. Washington’s Sèvres Tea-Service." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 270.—Mrs. Washington’s Sèvres Tea-Service.</span> +</div> + +<p>There are several specimens of Sèvres porcelain, formerly preserved at +Arlington House, and now in the Patent Office at Washington, to which a +historical interest attaches. There are, firstly, some pieces of the +“Cincinnati China” (<a href="#fig_269">Fig. 269</a>) presented to George Washington by the +French officers who fought in the continental army. They are white, with +deep-blue bands of leaves and scroll-work, and have on the bottoms or +sides the figure of Fame holding in her left hand the Order of the +Cincinnati. There are, secondly, several remnants of the set presented +at the same time, and by the same gentlemen, to Mrs. Washington (Fig. +270). The rim of each piece is surrounded by a chain of thirteen links, +in each of which is the name of one of the original States. In the +centre of each plate and saucer, and on the side of each of the other +pieces, is the monogram of Martha Washington, surrounded by a green +wreath of laurel and olive leaves. A golden<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_320" id="page_320">{320}</a></span> aureole surrounds the +wreath, beneath which is a ribbon scroll with the motto, <i>Decus et +tutamen ab illo</i>. The colors are at once delicate and brilliant, and the +painting admirable.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_271" id="fig_271"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"> +<a href="images/illpg320a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg320a_sml.jpg" width="233" height="171" alt="Fig. 271.—Limoges Porcelain. Cup and Saucer. Painted by +Pallandre. (S. S. Conant Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 271.—Limoges Porcelain. Cup and Saucer. Painted by +Pallandre. (S. S. Conant Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Manufactories rapidly sprung up in other French towns—at Niederviller, +where German kaolin was used; at several places in Paris; at Bordeaux, +Clignancourt, Lille, Valenciennes, Vincennes, Limoges, and elsewhere. +Fauquez made porcelain at Valenciennes in 1785, and the works were taken +by Lamoninary in 1787. Hannong was employed at Vincennes in 1786, and +marked his pieces with two pipes crossed, with or without the letter H. +The industry was afterward protected by the Duke of Chartres, when the +monogram L. P. was adopted as the mark.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_272" id="fig_272"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;"> +<a href="images/illpg320b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg320b_sml.jpg" width="242" height="238" alt="Fig. 272.—Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by +Pallandre." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 272.—Limoges Porcelain Plate. Painted by +Pallandre.</span> +</div> + +<p>The porcelain of Limoges is probably better known in this country than +any other, through the enterprise of the makers, whose works in faience +have already arrested our attention. The proximity of Limoges to St. +Yrieix would alone lead us to view it as an important centre. After the +discovery of kaolin, the brothers Grellet, Massié, and Fourniera +established a porcelain workshop in 1773. The mark C. D. occurs on many +remarkable works. In 1784 the manufactory was absorbed by Sèvres, +Gabriel Grellet acting as director.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_321" id="page_321">{321}</a></span> The paste was then very pure and +white, but deteriorated; and Alluaud succeeded Grellet in 1788. Another +change was made in 1793, and the works were again carried on as a +private enterprise in the hands of MM. Joubert and Cancate. In 1794 the +convent at Limoges was converted into a manufactory, and another rose in +1798, in the hands of the elder Alluaud, who was succeeded by his son. +Though highly commendable in purity of glaze and compactness and +whiteness of paste, his porcelain was inferior in decoration. The next +we hear of Limoges is through David Haviland, of New York, who went from +this country to Limoges upward of forty years ago. His firm worked +steadily in the manufacture of porcelain, chiefly of a domestic +character, before they conjoined it with that of faience.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_273" id="fig_273"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 288px;"> +<a href="images/illpg321a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg321a_sml.jpg" width="288" height="294" alt="Fig. 273.—Limoges Porcelain. (Mrs. Colonel T. Scott +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 273.—Limoges Porcelain. (Mrs. Colonel T. Scott +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_274" id="fig_274"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 241px;"> +<a href="images/illpg321b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg321b_sml.jpg" width="241" height="236" alt="Fig. 274.—Limoges Porcelain. (Gen. A. J. Meyers Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 274.—Limoges Porcelain. (Gen. A. J. Meyers Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>At the present time Haviland & Co. make a domestic ware of exceptional +purity and of great<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_322" id="page_322">{322}</a></span> beauty of design. One set is modelled after and +decorated with the water-lily, and others are of equal simplicity and +beauty. The rule in these and in more strictly ornamental pieces is, to +follow a chaste and refined style, marked by a limited use of color. The +rule we laid down for the decoration of porcelain—that it should never +be loaded with colors less beautiful than its own glaze—is here more +closely followed than anywhere else occurring to us. Here, for example, +is a set of plates painted with different scenes, such as a snow-storm, +morning, night, before a shower, during a shower, and other similar +subjects. The details are not wrought in with obtrusive precision. +Something is left to imagination, and the effect of every view is +perfect. They are painted by M. Bracquemond.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_275" id="fig_275"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 227px;"> +<a href="images/illpg322a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg322a_sml.jpg" width="227" height="216" alt="Fig. 275.—Limoges Porcelain. (Whitelaw Reid Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 275.—Limoges Porcelain. (Whitelaw Reid Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_276" id="fig_276"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<a href="images/illpg322b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg322b_sml.jpg" width="154" height="350" alt="Fig. 276.—Limoges Pate Tendre. (H. J. Jewitt Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 276.—Limoges Pate Tendre. (H. J. Jewitt Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>We nowhere find a better successor to the “egg-shell” of China than in +the delicate, pure, and fragile specimens of thin porcelain from +Limoges. This is an exceptional fabric, but there is elsewhere to be +seen enough to substantiate the excellence of French porcelain for +domestic use, in point of both beauty and strength. We have seen certain +small coffee-cups so finely wrought, exquisitely modelled, and chastely +colored, that when not in use they might serve as ornaments. The point +to which painting on porcelain has been brought is further illustrated +by a series of dessert<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_323" id="page_323">{323}</a></span> plates ornamented with different kinds of +fruit—grapes, peaches, and other varieties. The supreme delicacy with +which the requisite tints are here applied is admirable. On others are +different kinds of seaweed and other marine objects, in which the artist +has caught the natural hues with wonderful precision. The porcelain +vases are, as a rule, small in size. No attempt, so far as we are aware, +has been made to follow the gigantic works of Sèvres, Meissen, and +Berlin, and we do not regret the fact. The works with which we are +presented show great skill in the colors obtained, and the shapes are +simple and sometimes severe. The domestic porcelain of Limoges deserves +careful study for the sake of the refined taste which it invariably +reflects.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_277" id="fig_277"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg323_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg323_sml.jpg" width="382" height="178" alt="Fig. 277.—Dinner-set in Limoges Pate Tendre." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 277.—Dinner-set in Limoges Pate Tendre.</span> +</p> + +<p>The most highly artistic pieces are in <i>pate tendre</i>, or artificial +paste. Considering the difficulty of manipulating the body and its +liability to sink in the furnace, many of the old Sèvres pieces must be +regarded as marvels of workmanship. We look with a similar interest upon +the examples coming to us from Limoges. It has the honor of having +produced the only complete dinner-set ever made of this ware (<a href="#fig_277">Fig. 277</a>). +Its beauty is parallel with its value, which we hardly dare estimate. +Beautifully modelled and plumaged birds form the dish handles, and a +simple accessory decoration on the body reveals to perfection the +peculiar appearance presented by <i>pate tendre</i> of having the colors sunk +in the soft and creamy glaze.</p> + +<p>Haviland & Co. have attained an exceptional success in colors. A +complete toilet-set of <i>pate tendre</i> is turquoise blue of great richness +and transparent depth. The modelling corresponds with an<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_324" id="page_324">{324}</a></span> achievement in +color which has been the despair of ceramic artists for centuries. Deck +is the only French maker who, before the Havilands, approached the old +turquoise of China. The art has long been lost in the East. Deck’s +pieces, however, are apt to craze or crack in irregular breaks, and this +was thought to be unavoidable until Haviland made crackle closely +resembling in color the rare old Chinese. Of the same material are two +recumbent Psyches (<a href="#fig_278">Fig. 278</a>), one in blue, the other in pink. In no more +poetic form do we remember to have met the winged nymph who turned +against Cupid the darts with which he was wont to afflict humanity. A +set of three graceful vases (<a href="#fig_279">Fig. 279</a>) with reticulated necks, and each +supported on a tripod of goats’ feet, is painted in blue, gold, and +pink. The forms are graceful and the coloring refined. The paintings of +Poitevin and Du Liege on these and other pieces are characterized by the +most exquisite delicacy. M. Pallandre, the Parisian flower-painter, has +also lent to the porcelain of Haviland & Co. the beauty conferred by his +dexterous brush.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_278" id="fig_278"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg324a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg324a_sml.jpg" width="402" height="175" alt="Fig. 278.—Psyche, in Blue Pate Tendre." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 278.—Psyche, in Blue Pate Tendre.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_279" id="fig_279"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 177px;"> +<a href="images/illpg324b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg324b_sml.jpg" width="177" height="344" alt="Fig. 279.—Pate-tendre Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 279.—Pate-tendre Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_325" id="page_325">{325}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_280" id="fig_280"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 219px;"> +<a href="images/illpg325a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg325a_sml.jpg" width="219" height="285" alt="Fig. 280.—Deck Vase. (G. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 280.—Deck Vase. (G. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>An excellent domestic ware, also made at Limoges, is largely imported by +the manufacturers, Charles Field Haviland & Co., of New York. The +greater portion of it is undecorated; but lately the makers have been +turning their attention to decoration, and artistic work of considerable +merit now comes from their establishment.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_281" id="fig_281"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 239px;"> +<a href="images/illpg325b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg325b_sml.jpg" width="239" height="231" alt="Fig. 281.—Deck Plaque. (G. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 281.—Deck Plaque. (G. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Before leaving France, the names of Deck, Solon, and Regnault may be +allowed to stay our progress. The Messrs. Deck, of Paris, have, as we +have seen, made a special study of color, and were the first, or among +the first, to revive Oriental decoration. Their Persian ware, or +imitation of the old art of Persia, is characterized by much of the +beauty of the original. Their blue, as we have seen, is especially +commendable, and enabled them to compete with the enterprising imitators +of England, the Mintons, who have for several years been in possession +of a blue very little inferior to the turquoise. It is to be regretted +that Deck was not represented at the Centennial Exhibition, where, by +the richness of his palette, he would have had an opportunity of +extending his reputation in America.</p> + +<p>M. Regnault, who succeeded M. Ebelman in the directorate of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_326" id="page_326">{326}</a></span> Sèvres, was +the inventor, while at the Sèvres manufactory, of <i>pate changeante</i>. The +ware appears, during the day, like gray céladon, and at night, under +artificial light, changes to a beautiful pink, whence its name.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_282" id="fig_282"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 181px;"> +<a href="images/illpg326_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg326_sml.jpg" width="181" height="178" alt="Fig. 282.—Minton Porcelain. Pate-sur-pate, by Solon. +(Wales Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 282.—Minton Porcelain. Pate-sur-pate, by Solon. +(Wales Coll., Boston Museum of Fine Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The name of M. Solon recalls at once the peculiar style of decoration +called “<i>Pate-sur-pate</i>,” or paste upon paste. The process has been long +known in China, and was first attempted in Europe by M. Ebelman at +Sèvres about thirty years ago. The experiments were successful, and some +very fine works were issued. The process was taken to England from +Sèvres by M. Solon, who was engaged a few years ago by the Messrs. +Minton (<a href="#fig_282">Fig. 282</a>). In Mr. A. B. Daniells’s collection at the Centennial +Exhibition, some examples of <i>pate-sur-pate</i> by M. Solon attracted +general attention. There were two pairs of vases of a pure Greek shape, +with a body of a rich bronze or chocolate color. On this, in white +relief, were figures symbolizing Fire and Water, and a group of the +Graces accompanied by Cupid in a race. The forms were exquisitely drawn, +and were half revealed by the semi-transparent drapery. More usual +grounds are a dark green and a grayish tint, either of which has a soft +effect. A second specimen is given at Fig. 352.</p> + +<p>This method of treatment consists in applying to the surface to be +decorated white liquid porcelain as a pigment. The application is +repeated until the necessary relief is obtained, when the figures are +finished by carving or scraping. Repeated firings are necessary before +glazing, and the decoration, which is opaque while wet, becomes more or +less transparent, according to the thickness of the pigment. The process +is one of the nicest and most difficult in the entire range of ceramic +art, as a mistake once made cannot be remedied, and the glaze has a +tendency to destroy the fine outlines of the figures.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_327" id="page_327">{327}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI-b3" id="CHAPTER_VI-b3"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /><br /> +<small>GERMANY AND CENTRAL EUROPE.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Early Pottery.—Lake Dwellers.—Early German.—Peculiar +Shapes.—How Peasants Account for Relics.—Roman Epoch.—Tin +Enamel.—Leipsic.—Breslau.—Nuremberg.—The +Hirschvogels.—Villengen.—Höchst.—Marburg.—Bavaria.—Switzerland.—Belgium.—Delft.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> early pottery of Germany and Central Europe dates from the Stone Age +down to the Roman incursion, when the types change, and the evidences of +more perfect mechanical appliances become apparent. The Lake Dwellers, +who built their huts on piles in the lakes of Switzerland, have +commemorated themselves by hand-wrought vessels, to the embellishment of +which a decoration of the rudest kind was brought. Remains have been +found throughout Germany, of which some are hand-made, while others are +evidently thrown upon the wheel. These are both pre-Roman and +contemporaneous with the Roman occupation. The paste varies from a +friable clay to a hard, ringing stone-ware. Vases of a great variety of +shape have been found along with cups, plates, saucers, and jars. Some +of the vases are divided, like boxes, into compartments. The ornaments +are paintings, mouldings, and incised lines. The painting consists of +parallel lines of red, yellow, and black. Some of the smaller pieces +were apparently used as toys. Others, of a sepulchral character, are +thought to resemble the huts of the lacustrine dwellers. One found at +Achersleben has a tall, conical cover, like a high-thatched roof, and +the orifice in front is covered with a plate having a ring in the +centre, through which a pin being passed fastened it on the outside. The +orifice was in this way closed after the ashes of the dead had been +introduced (<a href="#fig_283">Fig. 283</a>). These and similar remains have been found in +various parts of Germany, and have given rise to many superstitious +stories among the peasantry. By some they are said to be the natural<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_328" id="page_328">{328}</a></span> +produce of the soil. Others ascribe them to the all-powerful fairies. +Others consider them possessed of wonderful preservative properties. As +to the art they represent, we are convinced here, as we are in a +parallel manner, though more forcibly amidst the remains belonging to +ancient Gaul, that the Romans were not the first to inspire the Teutonic +population with a desire for the expression of artistic ideas. We find +both an awakening sensitiveness to the graces of form, and a growing +appreciation of the possible beauty of surface decoration.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_283" id="fig_283"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg328_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg328_sml.jpg" width="324" height="221" alt="Fig. 283.—Ancient German Hut-shaped Vases." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 283.—Ancient German Hut-shaped Vases.</span> +</p> + +<p>With the Romans we find pottery both made on the spots where they +settled and imported from the seats of the ceramic industry in Italy. +These display the usual Roman characteristics, and need not be here +considered. Crossing the Dark Ages, we find, in the thirteenth century, +Germany in possession of processes for the presence of which—so far +removed from their accepted centres and from the regular routes by which +they travelled—it might be hard to account if it were absolutely +necessary to travel by the regular route. We have seen this already in +the case of early France. We see it again in Germany. Possibly the +Romans may have taught their barbarian subjects something about glazing. +Possibly some wanderer to Palestine and the East or to the Saracenic +settlements in the South of Europe, or some stranger from these “foreign +parts,” may have initiated the German potters in the higher secrets of +the art.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_329" id="page_329">{329}</a></span></p> + +<p>In any event, Germany was making enamelled faience at least two +centuries before Luca della Robbia had perfected his process in Italy. A +potter of Schelestadt, in Alsace, is said by the Germans to have +discovered tin enamel. Even his name is now forgotten, although his +death is said to have occurred in 1283. At Leipsic is a glazed frieze, +dated 1207, and at Breslau, in 1230, architectural reliefs of great +excellence were produced. Two hundred years later, in 1441, Veit +Hirschvogel was using stanniferous enamel. At Strehla, in 1565, the +potters were so well skilled in the working of terra-cotta, that they +had made a pulpit of that material. One is almost led by these facts to +question if Germany did not lead both Italy and France, and to regret +that the history of German ceramics has not been more fully opened up to +us. One danger let us guard against, for the sake of securing the +intelligent understanding of Germany, incompatible with either +partiality or prejudice. We need not confound conservative tastes with a +“very slow march of ideas.” One rather loves to find an artist so +impressed with what is good in his own art, that he is in no haste to +leave it in order to catch the first whiff of foreign inspiration. Ideas +evidently circulated at a tolerably high rate of speed in a country +where the enamelled friezes and monumental bas-reliefs of Leipsic and +Breslau existed in the beginning of the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>To Leipsic, therefore, Germany is indebted for its first enamelled ware. +The friezes above mentioned consisted of tiles with <i>alto-relievo</i> heads +of Christ and the Apostles. The enamel is dark green. What occurs to us +at once is that no art ever <i>began</i> with such works, and that in them we +have the successful results of long experiment.</p> + +<p>Breslau is made famous by a large work of the same century, representing +Henry IV. of Silesia, who died in 1290. The monarch lies stretched upon +a tomb surrounded by twenty-one bas-reliefs.</p> + +<p>The Hirschvogels of Nuremberg have thrown a lustre upon their birthplace +by their faience decorated with enamelled reliefs. The founder of the +family, Veit Hirschvogel, was born in 1441, and died in 1525; and one of +his sons, Augustine, has left some very artistic works in the prevailing +style of ornamentation, with medallions and decorations in relief. One +vase has green dragon handles (<a href="#fig_284">Fig. 284</a>); and the fact that this style +existed in Nuremberg at the time when Palissy was travelling in Germany, +has led to the supposition that he<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_330" id="page_330">{330}</a></span> may have acquired the rudiments of +his art under Hirschvogel. The same city was deservedly celebrated for +its tiles ornamented with bas-reliefs, generally of the deep green +distinctive of the greater proportion of German pottery. The style was +at a later period carried to a greater extent, as we find upon different +vessels several animal forms in high relief, and even the vessels +themselves modelled after the animals of the country.</p> + +<p>At Villingen, in the Black Forest, Hans Kraut, who died in 1590, carried +the same branch of art to great perfection, his tiles and bas-reliefs +marking him as a successful and talented disciple of the school of +Nuremberg.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_284" id="fig_284"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 157px;"> +<a href="images/illpg330_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg330_sml.jpg" width="157" height="245" alt="Fig. 284.—German Enamelled “Surprise” Vase. By +Hirschvogel." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 284.—German Enamelled “Surprise” Vase. By +Hirschvogel.</span> +</div> + +<p>Höchst and Marburg were both important seats of the industry, and at the +former we find a vase having its neck ornamented with white reliefs, +like the cameos of Wedgwood. During the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries the industry was established in many places throughout +Germany, and styles of western and southern origin make their +appearance. The faience of Anspach, Bavaria, follows the style of Rouen, +and at Nuremberg, in the eighteenth century, the early Faentine style is +making itself felt. The Bavarian towns of Göggingen and Baireuth both +produced pieces of great beauty and refinement. On some from the former +appear bouquets, birds, and arabesques, and one from the latter is +ornamented—with what delicacy of effect may be imagined—with a figure +and medallion surrounded by blue arabesques laid upon the white enamel. +Before the middle of the eighteenth century Nuremberg had instituted its +modern style, blue arabesque borders on a bluish glaze surrounding +centre-pieces of fruit, etc.</p> + +<h5>SWITZERLAND.</h5> + +<p>In Switzerland we know Zürich, Schaffhausen, Winterthur, and one or two +other places. Of these, Winterthur is probably the more<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_331" id="page_331">{331}</a></span> ancient, pieces +occurring dated 1678 and 1689. The styles are akin to the +Italian—deep-bordered dishes with regularly arranged groups of fruit or +flowers, or blue arabesques running round the margin. Escutcheons or +fortified castles form the centre decoration. Precision and stiff, +scrupulous care characterize the drawing.</p> + +<h5>BELGIUM.</h5> + +<p>Belgium, in at least two of the seats of its ceramic wares, has been +closely allied with France. From Antwerp, the great centre of Belgian +art, issued majolica of Italian styles in blue and yellow, violet and +green, and another quality after the Oriental porcelain patterns. Toward +the middle of the seventeenth century, if not earlier, Antwerp was in +close relations with France. Tournay was of French origin in so far as +its faience is concerned, and it was not until its workshop passed into +the hands of Peterynck, of Lille, that it rose to eminence. The pieces +attributed to it show a compound of Rouennais, Flemish, and Chinese +decoration. Brussels had carried the art in 1761 to such a height, that +its faience was said to be preferable to that of Delft and Rouen, with +which it is possible it may sometimes be confounded by collectors. At +Tervueren, near the capital, some pieces still in existence were made +which are decorated with wreaths and bouquets and armorial bearings +executed in colors of moderate purity.</p> + +<h5>HOLLAND.</h5> + +<p><a name="fig_285" id="fig_285"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;"> +<a href="images/illpg331_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg331_sml.jpg" width="135" height="243" alt="Fig. 285.—Delft Blue-and-white. Eighteenth Century. +Chinese Style. Height, 17½ in. (Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 285.—Delft Blue-and-white. Eighteenth Century. +Chinese Style. Height, 17½ in. (Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>For our present purpose, all Holland may be said to be comprised in the +single town of Delft. Its works date from 1310, and may be divided into +two eras, that preceding the making of “porcelain,” and that during and +after the fabrication miscalled by that name. The Delft faience is thin +and hard, and was decorated with landscapes and scenes by the best +painters of the time. It was made into<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_332" id="page_332">{332}</a></span> tiles, large plaques, baskets, +vases, statuettes, and many other forms. Toward the end of the sixteenth +and beginning of the seventeenth centuries, when the Dutch were laying +the foundation of their trade with Japan, the fine quality of faience, +which has never been equalled by any other country, began to be +produced. We find this imitation of Oriental porcelain officially +recognized in 1614, and for a hundred and fifty years it was currently +referred to as porcelain. In reality it was a fine faience, modelled and +decorated after the peculiar forms and patterns with which their trade +with Japan had made the Dutch almost exclusively familiar. The paste, +which consisted chiefly of the clay of Bruyelle, near Tournay, was +skilfully mixed with sand and carefully manipulated. The sand made it +hard, and gave it a capacity for being wrought into thin pieces suitable +for table services. The bluish enamel was perfectly smooth and even; and +the decoration, chiefly in blue and iron-red, after the Oriental +designs, imparted to it much of the appearance of Japanese porcelain.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_286" id="fig_286"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 264px;"> +<a href="images/illpg332_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg332_sml.jpg" width="264" height="318" alt="Fig. 286.—Delft Blue-and-white. Eighteenth Century. +Size, 21 in. by 18 in. (Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 286.—Delft Blue-and-white. Eighteenth Century. +Size, 21 in. by 18 in. (Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is not to be wondered at that, as the processes were perfected, the +reputation of Delft increased, and its commerce grew in proportion, and +that no symptoms of decay manifest themselves until toward the end of +the seventeenth century. The genius of both potters and painters ran +riot among curious forms and decorations. One author mentions dinner +services with dish covers resembling in form and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_333" id="page_333">{333}</a></span> color the birds to be +served in them; a spice cupboard resembling a Chinese Mandarin, and +other curiosities. Another strange form was that of a violin, one of +which is painted in blue camaïeu, with figures engaged in a dance, and +musicians.</p> + +<h4>STONE-WARE.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Countess Jacqueline.—Teylingen.—Graybeards.—Fine +Stone-ware.—Grès de Flandre.—Creussen.</p></div> + +<p>This ware, distinguished, as we have seen, by its vitrified fracture, +although long known in the East, does not appear in Europe until between +the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. When it was first made in France +has not been ascertained with sufficient exactness, and to Germany the +credit of instituting the fabrication has generally been accorded. We +find it throughout the provinces on the Rhine at a very early period, +and it probably passed down the Rhine to Holland and thence to England.</p> + +<p>The name of the beautiful and unfortunate Jacqueline of Bavaria, +Countess of Hainault and Holland, is connected with the making of +stone-ware by a very curious tradition. Jacqueline was the daughter of +William IV., Count of Hainault and Holland, at whose request she married +John, Duke of Brabant. This was the beginning of her troubles. A jealous +and disappointed suitor, John of Bavaria, Bishop of Liege, marched +against Holland, and having compelled the countess to nominate him as +her successor, bribed her husband to transfer to him the management of +her estates for a term of years. The countess, having good reason to be +disgusted with men in general, and with her husband and quondam suitor +in particular, fled to England after appealing in vain to Rome for a +divorce. In England her beauty captivated the Duke of Gloucester, who +espoused her cause as a preliminary to espousing herself. The duke +marched against her husband of Brabant, who, assisted by his cousin of +Burgundy, defeated the invader. Gloucester deserted Jacqueline, fled to +England, and took a less involved bride. The countess in the mean time +was imprisoned; but she escaped, and on the death, in 1425, of the +prelate of Liege, resumed her rightful position. Then she was relieved +by death of her husband,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_334" id="page_334">{334}</a></span> and was again involved in war by the Duke of +Burgundy, whom she was forced to declare her heir. A second marriage +into which she entered so enraged Philip—who, by-the-way, is known in +history as, <i>par excellence</i>, “The Good”—that he arrested her husband, +and would have executed him, had not Jacqueline handed over her coveted +property to “The Good,” and in 1433 retired to the privacy of the Castle +of Teylingen. Three years afterward she died, at the age of thirty-six.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_287" id="fig_287"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 197px;"> +<a href="images/illpg334a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg334a_sml.jpg" width="197" height="320" alt="Fig. 287.—Graybeard. Brown German Stone-ware." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 287.—Graybeard. Brown German Stone-ware.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_288" id="fig_288"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<a href="images/illpg334b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg334b_sml.jpg" width="133" height="247" alt="Fig. 288.—German Graybeard, found in England." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 288.—German Graybeard, found in England.</span> +</div> + +<p>From what we can make out, the countess was twice an occupant of +Teylingen, once in 1424, on escaping from imprisonment at Ghent, and the +second time, as above mentioned, in 1433. On both these occasions she +appears to have occupied herself with the superintendence of the +stone-ware works, and even with fashioning the vessels with her own +dainty hands. After they were made, we are told—although it is +altogether incredible—that the flagons were thrown into the Rhine, +either as mementos of her imprisonment, or “that they might in +after-ages be deemed works of antiquity.” Providing for posterity in +that peculiar manner does not commend itself to one’s reason, as in any +way in keeping with the career of the Countess Jacqueline. There was a +custom in Paris for patriotic citizens to assemble in the gardens +adjoining the Seine, and there to relieve themselves by toasting and +singing and flinging the empty flasks into<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_335" id="page_335">{335}</a></span> the river. These have been +found, with the legend “<i>Vive le Roi!</i>” inscribed on them, after the +fashion of the Moyenage potters. The Germans had a similar manner of +keeping the toast from future impurity by throwing away the vessels in +which it was drunk. Probably in this way the “Vrouw Jacoba’s Kannetjes” +found their way into the Rhine and the moat of Teylingen. It is easy to +imagine the potters toasting their lovely co-worker and superintendent, +and, in the excess of their admiration and loyalty, tossing away the +flagons, that they might never be drained to a less worthy toast. The +story is attractive enough, and it is almost a pity that the pots which +have been found are not of a high artistic rank. None of them is +ornamented.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_289" id="fig_289"></a></p> + +<p><a name="fig_290" id="fig_290"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg335_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg335_sml.jpg" width="404" height="305" alt="Fig. 289.—Fine German Stone-ware. +Fig. 290.—Fine German Stone-ware." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 289.—Fine German Stone-ware. + Fig. 290.—Fine German Stone-ware.</span> +</p> + +<p>To the “common stone-ware” belong the pots called Graybeards (<a href="#fig_287">Fig. 287</a>), +from the bearded heads moulded on the necks. Many of these, though well +formed, are rudely ornamented, and are of a very coarse composition +(<a href="#fig_288">Fig. 288</a>). The finer ware, which was made after the beginning of the +sixteenth century, is divisible into two classes, the older belonging +exclusively to the sixteenth century, and of a gray<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_336" id="page_336">{336}</a></span> white or pale +yellow, the other of a bluish and gray tint, made down to the present +time. This is the ware commonly called <i>Grès de Flandre</i>, although, so +far as we know, Flanders never produced any, and the ware so designated +is a purely German fabrication. The canettes, or tall cups, of a nearly +cylindrical shape, sloping slightly inward toward the top, and belonging +to the first class of yellowish white stone-ware, are of very elegant +form, and are beautifully ornamented with reliefs, made from moulds of +wood and admirably executed. The subjects are sometimes scriptural, +sometimes heraldic.</p> + +<p>To the second class of blue and gray stone-ware with salt glaze belong +some of the best specimens of the art (Figs. 289 and 290). They date +from 1500 to 1620, after which came the decline. The Bavarian town of +Creussen made a peculiar stone-ware ornamented with colored reliefs. Of +this we have samples in the “Apostle” mugs, so called from the reliefs +surrounding them, and in a series of jugs with hunting scenes. These +belong to the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>The Böttcher stone-ware will be noticed under porcelain, to the +invention of which in Germany it was the first step.</p> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Böttcher.—His First Productions.—Meissen +Porcelain.—Decoration.—Best Days of Meissen.—Its +Decline.—Vienna.—Höchst.—Fürstenburg.—Höxter.—Frankenthal.—Nymphenburg.—Berlin.—Holland.—Weesp.—Loosdrecht.—The +Hague.—Switzerland.—Zürich.—Nyon.</p></div> + +<p>It will always be the distinguishing honor of Germany that the Saxon +Böttger, or Böttcher, was the discoverer, for Europe, of a true kaolinic +natural porcelain. The circumstances have already been detailed (see p. +52). While Böttcher was prosecuting his experiments in 1708, he had the +furnace filled with trial pieces, which were fired for several days +before a piece was withdrawn. A teapot was at length taken out and +thrown into cold water. It was not porcelain, however, but a red +stone-ware, very hard, and with a metallic ring when struck. It was +called “red porcelain,” probably to suit the wishes of the experimenter +and of his royal patron. A teapot of this ware has been sold in England +for sixteen pounds sterling. A very good example of it is now in the +possession of Mr. Davis Collamore,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_337" id="page_337">{337}</a></span> of New York (<a href="#fig_291">Fig. 291</a>), who was +fortunate enough to pick it up in one of his European tours in quest of +rare “bits.” It is undecorated, and shows admirably the rusty red color +of Böttcher’s experimental stone-ware. Others of his early essays are +almost black in color and are painted in relief. Several pieces are in +the Metropolitan Museum.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_291" id="fig_291"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"> +<a href="images/illpg337a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg337a_sml.jpg" width="178" height="187" alt="Fig. 291.—Böttcher Stone-ware. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 291.—Böttcher Stone-ware. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_292" id="fig_292"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 202px;"> +<a href="images/illpg337b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg337b_sml.jpg" width="202" height="330" alt="Fig. 292.—Meissen Porcelain. Blue Festoon, Pink Rosette. +1709-1726. (F. Robinson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 292.—Meissen Porcelain. Blue Festoon, Pink Rosette. +1709-1726. (F. Robinson Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Whenever the kaolin of Aue was discovered, Böttcher, on his first +attempt, succeeded in making natural porcelain. Though Meissen, where a +workshop was erected without delay after the discovery, was kept like a +prison or fortress, and every precaution observed to insure secrecy, +although every man connected with the works was under oath to keep +silence in regard to anything he might see or discover, the precautions +were all in vain. The knowledge oozed out, and in a very few years +Meissen had several rivals. White ware was made down to 1718. The Nankin +blue was the first colored ware imitated, and after 1718 other colors +were introduced. Böttcher died in 1719, and was succeeded in the +directorate by Horoldt (<a href="#fig_293">Fig. 293</a>), who carried out several great +improvements, and mingled the previous exclusively Oriental designs with +some of a more purely European character. Heavy gilt borders surrounded +figures, flowers, or the royal arms. In 1731, while the king himself was +director, Kandler,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_338" id="page_338">{338}</a></span> a sculptor, introduced, as an ornamentation for +vases, flower wreaths in relief, and afterward attempted figures with +great success. From 1725 to 1745 Lindenir, or Linderer, was painting the +beautiful insects and birds which were his specialty. Then came, also +during Kandler’s time, the exquisite paintings by European artists which +brought the Chinese style effectually to a close. The brightest days of +Meissen’s history were those from 1731 to 1756, before Frederick the +Great robbed it, for the enrichment of Berlin, of men, moulds, models, +and clay. Peace came too late to restore Meissen to its pre-eminence, as +it now had rivals both at home and abroad in France and England.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_293" id="fig_293"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 178px;"> +<a href="images/illpg338_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg338_sml.jpg" width="178" height="284" alt="Fig. 293.—Dresden Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 293.—Dresden Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_294" id="fig_294"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 201px;"> +<a href="images/illpg339_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg339_sml.jpg" width="201" height="424" alt="Fig. 294.—Old Dresden Porcelain. (L. Double Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 294.—Old Dresden Porcelain. (L. Double Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The successive directors after Horoldt were the king, Augustus II., from +1731 to 1733; Count Brühl from 1733; the count’s widow from 1763; the +king, Augustus III., from 1778; Count Marcolini from 1796 to 1814; +Bengrath Oppal from 1814 to 1833. The factory was, for the second time, +plundered in 1759, and although it subsequently attained to a high +position, it never reached its former prosperity. A marked change in +style is noticeable during the last quarter of the eighteenth century. +The forms and ornaments both assume more of a classical character. This +style, borrowed most likely from France, was adopted by Marcolini, and +entirely superseded its predecessors. The manufacture was now in its +decline. Meissen had lost its prestige, and gradually sank in +importance. From about fifty years ago the decoration became coarse and +the works no longer paid expenses, and at the present time Dresden ware +is a decidedly inferior fabrication. According to Jacquemart, the +manufactory is busy counterfeiting its own old productions and its old +marks. In comparing Dresden with its former self, its present position +relative to other factories must not be lost sight of. It still gives<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_339" id="page_339">{339}</a></span> +to commerce many works which are valuable either for their historical +associations or for their intrinsic merit. The candelabrum here given +(<a href="#fig_297">Fig. 297</a>) represents a style of work once very much in vogue at +Dresden. It was Kandler who, while superintending the modelling +department under Augustus II., between 1731 and 1733, introduced the +beautifully fashioned flowers in relief, of which some idea may be +formed from our specimen. Another, and a very curious work, is still +reproduced, and specimens can occasionally be picked up in this country. +Reference is made to the figures “Count Brühl’s Tailor” and “his Wife.” +The originals of these pieces were made by Kandler in 1760, under the +count’s directorate. With all his profligacy, Count Brühl was a good +deal of a wit, and having been repeatedly requested by his tailor to +accord him permission to look through the manufactory, at length +consented. The tailor presented himself at the works in due time, and +was there, to give him an appetite for farther exploration, presented +with the two figures referred to. In one he saw himself astride of a +he-goat, brandishing his professional shears and carrying the other +appurtenances of his business on his back, while the goat carries his +“goose” in its mouth. The other figure was that of his wife, with a baby +in her arms, sitting upon a she-goat. The discomfited tailor saw no more +of the porcelain manufactory. The many elegant forms and styles of +Dresden are too numerous to be detailed. They embrace vases, +candlesticks,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_340" id="page_340">{340}</a></span> snuff-boxes, butterflies, flowers, clock-cases, and +animal figures. The miniature paintings on some of the smaller pieces +are exquisitely finished and wonderfully tinted.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_295" id="fig_295"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;"> +<a href="images/illpg340a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg340a_sml.jpg" width="148" height="284" alt="Fig. 295.—Early Meissen. (A. Belmont Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 295.—Early Meissen. (A. Belmont Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_296" id="fig_296"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;"> +<a href="images/illpg340b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg340b_sml.jpg" width="195" height="275" alt="Fig. 296.—Dresden Cup and Saucer. Marcolini Period, +1796. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 296.—Dresden Cup and Saucer. Marcolini Period, +1796. (J. C. Runkle Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The annals of the last century contain many curious stories of runaway +workmen selling their secrets, and of the steps taken to keep down +opposition and to acquire a knowledge of the manufacture by any means +that offered. A runaway from Meissen led to the establishment at Vienna +of a factory in 1720. After twenty years it rose to considerable +eminence, although in both paste and glaze it is inferior to Dresden. +Its raised gold decorations have brought it in modern times a certain +celebrity. It came to an end during the directorate of Alexander Lowe, +who was appointed in 1856. Some excellent specimens are in the +collections of Mr. Walters, of Baltimore, and Mr. Gibson, of +Philadelphia. From Vienna the secret spread to Höchst, whither it was +conveyed by a workman named Ringler. Ringler was in the habit of +carrying with him written notes regarding the manufacture. His +fellow-workmen at Höchst made him drunk, copied his notes, and offered +the secret thus obtained for sale at other centres. One of these +runaways founded the workshop of Fürstenburg. A few of the Fürstenburg +workmen attempted to establish a manufactory at Neuhaus, but, on +discovery, were sent out of Brunswick. Another Fürstenburger,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_341" id="page_341">{341}</a></span> a flower +painter, tried to start the industry at Höxter, whither he had fled, but +failed, and was followed in the endeavor by one of the defrauders of +poor Ringler. This man’s name was Becker, and he succeeded in Höxter, +after fruitlessly hawking his secret through Belgium, Holland, and +France. He was bought up by the offer of a pension, and his competition +was thus brought to an end. When Ringler awoke to a full realization of +the consequences of his folly at Höchst, he went to Frankenthal, +Bavaria, where the factory founded by Hannong, of Strasburg, made +porcelain in 1755. This existed down to 1800. In the mean time, however, +Ringler had left, as we find him first at Neudeck-Nymphenburg, in +Bavaria, and then, in 1758, founding a factory at Ludwigsburg, +Würtemberg, which was worked until 1821. The porcelain made here was of +excellent quality, and the figure pieces were admirably modelled. After +this we hear no more of Ringler. In this way the industry spread over +the whole of Central Europe—to Anspach, Baireuth, Baden, to +Hesse-Cassel, Darmstadt, and Thuringia, each new workshop becoming the +centre for a number of offshoots.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_297" id="fig_297"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<a href="images/illpg341a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg341a_sml.jpg" width="187" height="327" alt="Fig. 297.—Recent Dresden Porcelain Candelabrum. (D. +Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 297.—Recent Dresden Porcelain Candelabrum. (D. +Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_298" id="fig_298"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 138px;"> +<a href="images/illpg341b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg341b_sml.jpg" width="138" height="171" alt="Fig. 298.—Berlin Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 298.—Berlin Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Berlin obtained a knowledge of porcelain by the purchase of one of the +copies of the indiscreet Ringler’s notes, and the industry was founded +in 1750. Let us bear in mind how Frederick carried off workmen, artists, +tools, and material from Meissen, and it is not difficult to understand +the rise of Berlin. The works were taken by the Crown in 1763,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_342" id="page_342">{342}</a></span> and were +very soon yielding a handsome income. Berlin has been compared with +Dresden in its best days, and its works are certainly of a high order. +The Berlin rose-color is peculiar to the royal factory. At the +Centennial Exhibition the Königlich Preussische Porzellan-manufactur of +Berlin was almost the sole representative of the porcelain industry of +Germany. The majority of the pieces were of an ornamental character, +large vases and plaques. A mere list of them will show in what the +workmen are now busying themselves. There were a Victoria vase with a +picture of Aurora, after Guido Reni; Germania vase with pictures of +Germania cultivating the arts and sciences, and Prussia the shield and +protectress of the empire, after Von Heyden; Crater vase with “Triumphal +Procession of King Wine,” after Schrödter; Crater vase with picture of +Helios, after Schinkel; vases in Neogrec style with paintings after +Bendemann; Victoria vase with “Music,” after Klöber; Urbino vases, +amphora vases, and several sets in the Persian, Chinese, and Japanese +styles. All these pieces were of large size, the largest about six feet +in height. Besides these there were candelabra, pictures on china +enamel, table services, busts, and some beautiful specimens in biscuit. +The collection probably represented very fairly the extent of the art +practised at Berlin, and the best work of the Germany of to-day. In +every case there were to be found great richness and admirable handling +of colors, but it requires time to become accustomed to the German +styles of drawing. Many of the figures painted on the surface, even +those showing the utmost delicacy of tint, were hardly entitled to be +described as graceful. Others were absolutely clumsy.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_299" id="fig_299"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 205px;"> +<a href="images/illpg342_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg342_sml.jpg" width="205" height="337" alt="Fig. 299.—Berlin Porcelain Vase. (A. Belmont Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 299.—Berlin Porcelain Vase. (A. Belmont Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_343" id="page_343">{343}</a></span></p> + +<p>The vase from Mr. August Belmont’s collection (<a href="#fig_299">Fig. 299</a>) is in both form +and color a good example of the art workmanship of Berlin. The ground +color is a soft and beautiful shade of green; and the handles, base, +neck, and frame of the medallion are in gold. The portrait in the latter +is that of the Queen of Prussia, the mother of William, the present +Emperor of Germany, and is said to be a very correct likeness.</p> + +<h5>HOLLAND.</h5> + +<p>The first natural porcelain factory in Holland was founded in 1764, at +Weesp, near the capital. It was closed in 1771. In the following year +the business was recommenced at Loosdrecht, near Utrecht, and was +carried on there, and after 1782 at Amstel, with moderate success until +the beginning of the present century. Several other establishments, +notably one in 1778 at the Hague, rose, and in a few years fell. The +entire history of porcelain in the country may be comprised in +twenty-five years, from 1760 to 1785.</p> + +<p>In Belgium there was, in 1791, a factory of natural paste at Brussels.</p> + +<h5>SWITZERLAND.</h5> + +<p>Switzerland owed its first workshop at Zürich to one of Ringler’s +workmen from Höchst. It was carried on for five years, until 1768, and +the productions are after the German style. Imitations of the French +style of Sèvres came for a time from Nyon, where a Frenchman established +a workshop.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_344" id="page_344">{344}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII-b3" id="CHAPTER_VII-b3"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /><br /> +<small>RUSSIA, DENMARK, AND SCANDINAVIA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Scandinavian Pottery allied to Teutonic.—Hand-shaped +Vessels.—Primitive Kiln.—The Eighteenth Century.—St. Petersburg: +Its Porcelain.—Moscow.—Rorstrand.—Marieberg.—Modern Swedish +Faience.—Denmark.—Kiel.—Copenhagen.—Imitations of +Greek.—Copenhagen Porcelain.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> prehistoric pottery of the Scandinavians is, in its general +character, allied to the Teutonic. It is curious to find Brongniart +describing methods of shaping vessels by hand and burning them in a +hole, with hay for fuel, as being still practised in Scandinavia, which +it is quite probable have been transmitted from generation to generation +for untold centuries. A dark-gray, calcareous, coarse paste and +herring-bone decoration are met with in the vessels of the Stone Age. +Others apparently of the same age were thrown on the wheel. The +hut-shaped urn also occurs, and rare specimens are surmounted by a +cover.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_300" id="fig_300"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 136px;"> +<a href="images/illpg344_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg344_sml.jpg" width="136" height="207" alt="Fig. 300.—Russian Faience. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 300.—Russian Faience. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>From these ancient times we may descend at once to the eighteenth +century. In 1700 Peter the Great established some Delft potters at St. +Petersburg, and a private workshop is mentioned as existing at Revel, +but little is known of either. Peter the Great was also desirous of +founding the porcelain industry within his dominions, but does not +appear to have made any farther progress than bringing together a +collection of Chinese porcelain with Russian decoration. In 1756 +Elizabeth established a workshop near the capital, and some years later +it was enlarged by Catherine II. About sixty years ago a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_345" id="page_345">{345}</a></span> number of +Sèvres artists were imported, and from that time down to the present a +very superior natural porcelain has been made. In 1756 an establishment, +also for making natural porcelain, was founded near Moscow. The royal +works made no contribution to the Centennial Exhibition, but some +porcelain was exhibited of fine translucent paste and most extravagant +price. Single cups and saucers, of fine body, but not characterized +either by remarkable elegance of shape or beauty of decoration, were +offered for $20. Some small plaques of majolica were also exhibited, of +careful workmanship and tasteful ornamentation. The St. Petersburg +porcelain made at the royal works is so high in price that it is said to +be bought only for the Court. The Russian faience (<a href="#fig_300">Fig. 300</a>) of the +present time is decorated in styles altogether peculiar. It illustrates +the ardent desire manifested for some years past throughout Russia to +rear a distinctively Muscovite school of art. Natural porcelain has been +made at Korzec, in Poland, since 1723.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_301" id="fig_301"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 232px;"> +<a href="images/illpg345_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg345_sml.jpg" width="232" height="551" alt="Fig. 301.—Swedish Faience Stove. (Wm. Astor Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 301.—Swedish Faience Stove. (Wm. Astor Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The first Swedish faience factory was established<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_346" id="page_346">{346}</a></span> at Rorstrand in 1727, +and is still running; and in 1750 a second enterprise was set on foot at +Marieberg, also in the neighborhood of Stockholm. The earlier Rorstrand +wares resemble those of Delft. The decorations are in some cases +delicate and well designed. More lately Sweden has produced a great +variety of very beautiful faience. At the Centennial Exhibition we had +an opportunity of making acquaintance with the Stockholm potters through +works not less surprising than artistic. The imitations of Palissy’s +<i>Rustiques figulines</i> may be passed over. The most interesting pieces +were of what was called “black northern faience,” the paste of which is +a skilfully manipulated fine dark-brown clay. Many of the tea-sets and +vases might easily have been mistaken for porcelain. A peculiar and very +effective ornamentation consisted of blue, gilt, red, and white floral +designs, the white enamel having a charming pearly appearance, and the +blue studs resembling turquoises. One of the best specimens of this +faience was a fireplace (<a href="#fig_301">Fig. 301</a>) elaborately decorated with pale-blue +and green, of delicate shades mingled with gilt. In both design and +color this work was of itself sufficient to establish the character of +Swedish ceramic art. It was accompanied by a pair of gigantic candelabra +(<a href="#fig_302">Fig. 302</a>) of a similar style. A quaintly formed vase was surrounded by +medallions illustrative of the life of the old Vikings, from the time +when the boy played with his father’s sword to that when the war-worn +hero was laid in his grave. The design was excellent in conception and +execution.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_302" id="fig_302"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;"> +<a href="images/illpg346_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg346_sml.jpg" width="146" height="406" alt="Fig. 302.—Swedish Faience Candelabrum. (Wm. Astor +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 302.—Swedish Faience Candelabrum. (Wm. Astor +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is not improbable that the Swedish works may be involved in some such +confusion as that which surrounded the early wares of Delft. Thus we +find, in 1729, Rorstrand invested with the monopoly of making porcelain +of delft, <i>i. e.</i>, faience. In 1735 the privilege included<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_347" id="page_347">{347}</a></span> <i>fayence +fine et pate dure</i>, and in 1759 Dr. Ehrenrich was privileged to make +porcelain and faience at Marieberg. Some of the Marieberg wares are in +excellent taste, showing exquisitely modelled flowers and fruit in +relief. It is singular that when, in 1780, the stock at Marieberg was +sold off, some of it was disposed of in London under the name of delft. +The works at Rorstrand closed in 1788. A kind of faience having a +resemblance to the Swedish is manufactured near Christiania, in Norway +(<a href="#fig_303">Fig. 303</a>). It is made into table services, and the decoration partakes +largely of the classical character so widely prevalent in the North.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_303" id="fig_303"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg347_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg347_sml.jpg" width="391" height="260" alt="Fig. 303.—Norwegian Faience, Schwarzenhorn. (W. B. +Dickerman Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 303.—Norwegian Faience, Schwarzenhorn. (W. B. +Dickerman Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Denmark was first known by the productions of Kiel, of which the thin +paste is carefully prepared, and the paintings are highly commendable. +The Greek imitations by Madame Ipsen, of Copenhagen, have been an +agreeable surprise to Americans. Greek vases are imitated at this +establishment with equal fidelity and beauty. The world appears never to +tire of these forms, and the amateurs of America are to-day busily +engaged in attempting to follow the potters of Denmark, England, Brazil, +and we know not of what other countries. The widow Ipsen’s works are +certainly well executed; and standing among them at the Centennial +Exhibition, it was hard to realize that<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_348" id="page_348">{348}</a></span> one was under the flag of +Denmark. There were many there which we might have addressed, with +Keats:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“What leaf-fringed legend haunts about your shape<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Of deities or mortals, or of both,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">In Tempe or the vales of Arcady?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">What men or gods are these?”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="nind">Both form and ornamentation were as purely Greek as those of any pottery +unearthed by the antiquary. The biga, quadriga, scenes from the Iliad +and mythology, appear just as they do on the works of the master potters +of antiquity.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_304" id="fig_304"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 177px;"> +<a href="images/illpg348_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg348_sml.jpg" width="177" height="255" alt="Fig. 304.—Ipsen Terra-cotta. (Ovington Bros. Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 304.—Ipsen Terra-cotta. (Ovington Bros. Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>What has been said of the Ipsen factory might be applied with equal +truth to the terra-cotta works of Wendrich & Sons, also of Copenhagen. +Greek vessels of every description, and illustrating both ancient Greek +and modern Danish styles of decoration, bear their name, and can be +fully studied in such a collection as that of Mr. T. Schmidt, at the +Danish Consulate, New York. The Danish imitators, in rivalling each +other, have left most, if not all, of their competitors far behind, and +the fact leads us to consider at greater length the circumstances which +led a people apparently so distantly removed from the Greeks in genius, +to follow them in this particular branch of art.</p> + +<p>First among these was the weighty influence everywhere felt of the +greatest of Danish artists, the sculptor Thorvaldsen. In him we have an +instance of a single man turning, in a measure, the current of thought +of an entire people. The titles of his works show the subjects which +touch his artistic sympathy. Instead of the Scandinavian Odin, Thor, +Baldur, Sigurd, Freia, Brunhild, or Gudrun, we have Apollo, Mercury, +Venus, Hebe, Ganymede, and the heroes of the Iliad. Thorvaldsen was +fascinated by the classic art of Greece, and it obliterated<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_349" id="page_349">{349}</a></span> from his +memory the mythology and legends of the North. While he gave us Hebe, it +was reserved for his pupil and successor, Bissen, to give us the more +truly national Valkyrie.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_305" id="fig_305"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 97px;"> +<a href="images/illpg349a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg349a_sml.jpg" width="97" height="262" alt="Fig. 305.—Ipsen Terra-cotta Lekythos. (Ovington Bros. +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 305.—Ipsen Terra-cotta Lekythos. (Ovington Bros. +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_306" id="fig_306"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 242px;"> +<a href="images/illpg349b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg349b_sml.jpg" width="242" height="200" alt="Fig. 306.—Danish Terra-cotta. (Ovington Bros. Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 306.—Danish Terra-cotta. (Ovington Bros. Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>A second reason may have been the possession of a fine pale-buff clay +admirably adapted for imitating the antiques of Greece. “In texture,” +says Boutell, “it is so fine that it is capable of producing bas-relief +medallions not larger than cameo gems, in which the figures have the +sharpness of the gems themselves, with a surface of exquisite and +silk-like softness.” On the one hand was the material, on the other the +Thorvaldsen museum presenting “the noblest models for using it with the +happiest effect.” The way to antiquity having thus been opened up, the +Danish potters widened the range of their art, and found in Etruria and +Egypt abundant models for imitation. Our classification must be of the +most general character. Forms are reproduced with the most perfect +fidelity, and the natural color of the buff clay changes through tints +of warm brown and red to black, according to the original. The +ornamentation is exceedingly varied. On some of the vases are subjects, +taken from the pottery of Greece, painted in red upon a black ground, or +in black upon buff, as we find them in Greece. These comprise the first +class, and are in the strictest sense reproductions of the antique. In +others, while the accessory decoration is Greek, the subjects are taken +from the sculptures or bas-reliefs of Thorvaldsen or Flaxman. The +“Triumph of Neptune” of the latter, and the many works of the former, +being purely classical<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_350" id="page_350">{350}</a></span> in conception and feeling, are in perfect +harmony with the motive animating the artists of Denmark. There is a +third class, in which the leading designs are essentially modern, and no +strict rule is followed in accessory decoration. Thus, an amphora after +the Greek, in form and accessories, has a central design taken from +Thorvaldsen’s bas-relief “Autumn.” Egyptian amphoræ and other +black-glazed vases are painted with naturally tinted bouquets of +flowers, and thus in form and ground-color alone suggest the antique. At +times the several styles are mingled. The colors most extensively used +are red of several shades, gold, blue, white, buff, and black.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_307" id="fig_307"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 203px;"> +<a href="images/illpg350_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg350_sml.jpg" width="203" height="261" alt="Fig. 307—Wendrich Terra-cotta. (T. Schmidt Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 307—Wendrich Terra-cotta. (T. Schmidt Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Leaving the southern antique, the Danish potters have also reproduced +the prehistoric vessels of their native land in several simple and +elegant forms. The originals were found in the tombs of the ancient +Danes, and supply their descendants with an opportunity of perpetuating +an art essentially Norse. The national side of Danish art is also seen +in many of the terra-cotta statuettes and medallions. We pass over the +copies of Thorvaldsen’s classical sculptures in order to reach the +comical figures, full of humor, character, and feeling, of the elfish +Nisser of the old Norsemen. The statuettes of these elves, and many +quaint little figures of peasants, fishermen, and the like, are very +attractive, both intrinsically and as reflections of Danish old-time +superstition and Danish life. One of the Nisser appears upon the top of +a flower-stand, and we meet with them again in the paintings upon +porcelain.</p> + +<p>A warm, satisfying quietude and an elevation of tone pervade these works +in terra-cotta, which, added to their artistic merits, commend them to +the student of household decoration, and insure a welcome from all who +can appreciate their mingled softness and chaste dignity.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_351" id="page_351">{351}</a></span></p> + +<p>Taking Danish porcelain as a whole, it is both of good quality and +tastefully decorated. The paste is pure, fine in texture, and carefully +worked. In thin pieces, which approach very nearly the egg-shell of the +East, the body is extremely translucent, and the glaze is smooth, hard, +and even. This quality comes in fluted services, decorated under the +glaze with delicate patterns, generally floral, in blue camaïeu. In +thicker pieces greater strength is gained without any sacrifice of +quality. Styles of decoration more peculiarly European occur in great +variety, and illustrate the Danish artist’s capacity for handling the +richer colors of the porcelain painter’s palette. Flowers, birds, +insects, and landscapes are seen in medallions edged with gold; and +cupids or Nisser, as grotesque as those in terra-cotta, are represented +in every conceivable attitude. The flower pieces are drawn with feeling, +and the coloring follows that of nature as closely as the medium will +allow. In the figure pieces the attitudes are, as a rule, expressive, +and suggestive of life and motion. Many of Thorvaldsen’s works, and some +of those of Bissen and Jerichau, have been reproduced in biscuit +statuettes and bas-relief medallions. While lacking the warmth of +terra-cotta, the porcelain biscuit is sharp in outline and soft in +color.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_308" id="fig_308"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<a href="images/illpg351_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg351_sml.jpg" width="151" height="269" alt="Fig. 308.—Copenhagen Porcelain. White, Shaded with Blue. +(Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 308.—Copenhagen Porcelain. White, Shaded with Blue. +(Mrs. John V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Porcelain was made at Copenhagen (<a href="#fig_308">Fig. 308</a>) in 1760, where a Frenchman +named Fournier established a workshop. In 1772 another establishment was +founded, or that of Fournier was revived, by the Minister of Justice, +Muller, assisted by a fugitive from Fürstenburg, named Von Lang. In 1775 +it was taken into the hands of the Government, and is now called the +Royal Porcelain Works. Many ornamental pieces and works in biscuit are +issued of different decrees of merit.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_352" id="page_352">{352}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII-b3" id="CHAPTER_VIII-b3"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br /> +<small>GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Continuity of History.—Early British Urns.—Scottish +Relics.—Irish Urns.—Roman Conquest.—Caistor Ware.—Anglo-Roman +Ware.—Saxon Period.—After the Norman Conquest.—Tiles.—Dutch +Potteries in England.—English +Delft.—Stone-ware.—Sandwich.—Staffordshire Potteries.—Early +Products.—The Tofts.—Salt Glaze.—Broadwell and the Elers +Family.—Use of Calcined Flint.—Wedgwood.—His Life.—Jasper +Ware.—Queen’s Ware.—The Portland Vase.—Basaltes.—Wedgwood’s +Removal to Etruria.—His Death.—Minton & Co.—Their Imitations of +the Oriental.—Pate Changeante.—Pate-sur-Pate.—Cloisonné Enamel +on Porcelain.—Other Reproductions.—Their Majolica.—Their +Artists.—Minton, Hollins & Co.—Lambeth.—Doulton +Ware.—Terra-cotta and Stone-ware.—George +Tinworth.—Fulham.—Bristol.—Leeds.—Liverpool.—Lowestoft.—Yarmouth.—Nottingham.—Shropshire.—Yorkshire.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> ceramic history of the British Isles is invested with a peculiar +interest by reason of its nearly perfect continuity from the early +Celtic works to the Romano-British wares, the early Saxon, the Norman +mediæval imitations of Saracenic tiling, the lead-glazed wares of the +sixteenth century, the stone-ware of the same period, the pottery of +Staffordshire and Wedgwood, the first appearance of English porcelain, +and so on, downward, to the works of Minton, Doulton, and others at the +present time. In no other country do we find material for an equally +lucid illustration of the regular advance of the art from the primitive +and rude to the elaborate, beautiful, and skilful. England supplies us +with a wonderful and in every way admirable picture of the efficacy of +persistent skilled endeavor in contending with technical difficulty.</p> + +<p>From the old tumuli, or barrows, have been exhumed urns in which were +held the cinerary remains of the dead (<a href="#fig_309">Fig. 309</a>). The differences +existing among them are such, in regard to both composition, shape, and +ornament, that they evidently belong to different periods and to +different branches or tribes of the early British population. They have +been found all over England, from the Channel<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_353" id="page_353">{353}</a></span> Islands to +Northumberland. They are sun-dried and hand-made, and have wide +orifices, often expanding gradually from a comparatively narrow base to +the lip. They are pale in color, either yellow or gray, and the +ornamentation consists of zigzags, frets, and studs.</p> + +<p>In Scotland the general character of the remains is the same as that of +the English. The appearance of a number of them suggests, however, the +use of the wheel. They have been exhumed in every part of Scotland, from +the Tweed to the Orkney Islands.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_309" id="fig_309"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg353_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg353_sml.jpg" width="321" height="294" alt="Fig. 309.—Group of Ancient British Vases." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 309.—Group of Ancient British Vases.</span> +</p> + +<p>The Irish urns are somewhat in advance of those found in England and +Scotland. The red paste shows that considerable care was bestowed upon +its preparation, and the entire body is very often covered with +ornaments of lines and zigzags. As in the case of the English and +Scotch, we are indebted for the preservation of these relics of the +Irish Celts to a usage which our researches have shown to be almost +universal, that of employing urns in connection with the interment of +the dead. Cremation was not resorted to in every instance. The Celts put +the ashes in the urns, or covered them by<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_354" id="page_354">{354}</a></span> inverting the urns over the +spot where the ashes were laid, or placed their sepulchral vases round +the unburnt remains.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_310" id="fig_310"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/illpg354a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg354a_sml.jpg" width="186" height="224" alt="Fig. 310.—Celtic Urn." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 310.—Celtic Urn.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_311" id="fig_311"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<a href="images/illpg354b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg354b_sml.jpg" width="152" height="230" alt="Fig. 311.—Celtic Pottery, found in Staffordshire." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 311.—Celtic Pottery, found in Staffordshire.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the first century before Christ the tide of Roman conquest passed the +white cliffs of Albion, and a new element was introduced into its +ceramics. There, as elsewhere, the Romans made and imported the ware, of +which examples have been brought to light all over the old Roman Empire, +from England to Jerusalem. The extent to which the manufacture was +carried in England may be estimated from one fact stated by Dr. Birch, +that the Roman potteries have been traced for twenty miles along the +gravel banks of the Nen, in Northamptonshire. Caistor, in the same +county, is an exceptionally interesting locality, as both early Celtic +wares and the remains of a Roman kiln have been found there. Under the +Romans it must have been an important seat of the manufacture, as its +productions have been unearthed at several places on the Continent—in +France and the Low Countries. The Caistor ware is very often ornamented +with unusual skill and taste by means of reliefs. The Roman Samian ware +is found in many sections of England, whither it was probably imported. +Some of the specimens belonging to the latter part of the Roman period, +and to be classed as Anglo-Roman, are of a thin black paste, carefully +wrought and totally devoid of ornament. After the arrival of the Saxons +the pottery was more closely allied to the Teutonic found in Germany +(<a href="#fig_314">Fig. 314</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="fig_312" id="fig_312"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<a href="images/illpg355a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg355a_sml.jpg" width="150" height="151" alt="Fig. 312.—Romano-British Ware." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 312.—Romano-British Ware.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_313" id="fig_313"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg355b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg355b_sml.jpg" width="356" height="168" alt="Fig. 313.—Romano-British Upchurch Ware." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 313.—Romano-British Upchurch Ware.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_314" id="fig_314"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;"> +<a href="images/illpg356a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg356a_sml.jpg" width="195" height="198" alt="Fig. 314.—Saxon Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 314.—Saxon Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p>The urns are black, hand-made, and stamped with a variety of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_355" id="page_355">{355}</a></span> decorative +designs. The shapes are heavy, and the appliances for firing were +apparently of a rude kind. Of the Anglo-Saxon period few relics have +been discovered, and little is in consequence known. One fragment of the +eleventh century, or possibly earlier, is described by Mr. Marryat as +“of a yellow color, coarsely made and unglazed.” It seems probable that +the disturbances attendant upon the Norman invasion in 1066 distracted +the popular attention from the plastic art, as the next evidences of its +pursuit belong chiefly to the thirteenth century. These are the tiles +employed in paving the ecclesiastical edifices of the day. In the +greater number the patterns are inlaid, or filled in with white paste, +and the whole then glazed yellow. To this class belong the thirteenth +century tiles from Chertsey Abbey, in Surrey, and those of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries from Malmesbury Abbey and Malvern. +Those from Chertsey are peculiarly elaborate. One has a scene +representing a king and a female harper, surrounded by a circular +border, the whole forming the inside of a square richly ornamented in +the corners and on the sides. The Malvern tiles are also very +elaborately decorated with designs of an apparently heraldic character. +Another style of tile decoration, followed from the thirteenth to the +eighteenth century, consisted of mouldings in relief. The glaze is green +or brown.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_356" id="page_356">{356}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_315" id="fig_315"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg356b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg356b_sml.jpg" width="405" height="250" alt="Fig. 315.—Anglo-Norman Vases." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 315.—Anglo-Norman Vases.</span> +</p> + +<p>In others the patterns are incised, but not filled in. A very good +example of this style is to be seen in Crauden’s chapel at Ely. The +fourth style of decoration was upon the <i>pate-sur-pate</i> principle—a +white paste being employed as a pigment upon the body of the tile, after +which the piece was glazed. The introduction of tiling for pavements and +walls was evidently in a great measure due to English intercourse with +Spain and the East. Toward the close of the eleventh century, while +England had not yet recovered from the first shock of the Norman +invasion, Peter the Hermit was carrying from land to land the +anti-Saracenic Gospel of the Sword, which led to the First Crusade. +Fifty years later, in 1147, the Second Crusade was organized, while +England was still groaning under the oppression of her rulers. In the +first quarter of the twelfth century the Saxon chronicler says: “God +sees the wretched people most unjustly<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_357" id="page_357">{357}</a></span> oppressed: first they are +despoiled of their possessions, then butchered.” Under Stephen, “Men +said openly that Christ and his saints were asleep.” Clearly this was no +time either for joining in crusades or cultivating art. When, in 1189, +the Third Crusade was arranged, Richard the Lion-hearted was one of the +three sovereigns who joined in the ineffectual enterprise. With his +followers may have been brought back the incentives to art cultivation +which make their effects apparent in the next century. The government +was, in the mean time, taking the form which it assumed before the end +of the thirteenth century, and which it has retained ever since. +Political and art history here run exactly parallel. Given disorder and +despairing apathy, and art is unknown. But let order take the place of +chaos, and constitutional rule that of despotism, and the discarded arts +again blossom into flower. Eastern influences manifested themselves in +England almost contemporaneously with the revival of the ceramic art. On +one specimen from Ely, a scriptural subject—Eve offering the apple to +Adam, while a human-headed serpent coils itself round the tree—is +surrounded by several designs of clearly Saracenic or Moorish +inspiration.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_316" id="fig_316"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illpg357a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg357a_sml.jpg" width="131" height="132" alt="Fig. 316.—Old Tile from Salisbury. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 316.—Old Tile from Salisbury. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_317" id="fig_317"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 136px;"> +<a href="images/illpg357b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg357b_sml.jpg" width="136" height="134" alt="Fig. 317.—Old Tile from Milton Abbey. (Boston Household +Art Rooms.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 317.—Old Tile from Milton Abbey. (Boston Household +Art Rooms.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_318" id="fig_318"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;"> +<a href="images/illpg357c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg357c_sml.jpg" width="135" height="136" alt="Fig. 318.—Old Tile from Chester. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 318.—Old Tile from Chester. (Boston Household Art +Rooms.)</span> +</div> + +<p>For at least four centuries tiles formed the staple production of the +potters of England. The annals indicate a popular indifference to the +domestic use of earthen-ware, which contrasts strongly with more +southern preferences. In the reign of Edward I. a chance cargo from +Spain, containing some plates and other household table-wares, reached +England, but failed to affect the national use of wooden trenchers, +leathern jugs, and metal. Lead-glazed pottery was, however, made as +early as the fourteenth century, though<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_358" id="page_358">{358}</a></span> not to a great extent. The +specimens which have been preserved are generally coarse in texture, and +are covered with green or yellow glaze. A ewer of the thirteenth or +fourteenth century is rudely designed to represent a mounted knight. +Other examples of the same period are jugs, of which some are +inartistically formed, while others are not devoid of a certain +gracefulness of shape. Costrels, or costrils (elongated bottles which +answered the purpose of the modern flask), occur of a red paste with red +and white glaze. A candlestick with white studs for ornaments has been +found of the same red color.</p> + +<p>As we pass to the later works of English potters, we become conscious of +the difficulty of following our usual plan of dividing them into +pottery, stone-ware with vitrified fracture, and porcelain. The +treatment of the name of Wedgwood alone would make such an arrangement +undesirable, as tending to break the continuity of our narrative. +Stone-ware and earthen-ware will therefore be considered together.</p> + +<p>The making of both enamelled pottery and stone-ware appears to have been +an imported industry. Dutch potters are said to have settled at both +Lambeth and Fulham in the seventeenth century, and to have there +originated the manufacture of what was called “Delft,” after the name of +the seat of the industry in Holland. White wine-pots of this ware date +from about the middle of the seventeenth century. Plates, oval and round +dishes, mugs and cups, of the same ware appear in various collections, +some with figures in relief, others with paintings in brown, blue, +yellow, and green, and others with medallions or mottoes. They generally +date from between 1650 and 1690. Delft was also made in Liverpool and in +Staffordshire.</p> + +<p>The first mention of stone-ware occurs in 1581, in the petition of a +certain William Simpson, for “full power and onlie licence to provyde, +transport, and bring into this realm, drinking stone pottes” made at +Cologne and transported into England by a dealer living in +Aix-la-Chapelle. As a reason why his prayer should be granted, Simpson +stated that he would, “as much as in him lieth, drawe the making of such +like pottes into some decayed town within this realm, whereby many +hundred poore men may be sett a work.” Whether he found some decayed +town suitable for the carrying out of his philanthropic intent does not +appear; but in 1588 a Delft potter was<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_359" id="page_359">{359}</a></span> carrying on his business at +Sandwich. Lambeth, Fulham, and the Staffordshire potteries appear among +the later producers of stone-ware.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_319" id="fig_319"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;"> +<a href="images/illpg359a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg359a_sml.jpg" width="224" height="211" alt="Fig. 319.—Posset-pot. Staffordshire. Fifteenth century. +(Bateman Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 319.—Posset-pot. Staffordshire. Fifteenth century. +(Bateman Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_320" id="fig_320"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 225px;"> +<a href="images/illpg359b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg359b_sml.jpg" width="225" height="223" alt="Fig. 320.—Staffordshire Tyg, or Drinking-cup." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 320.—Staffordshire Tyg, or Drinking-cup.</span> +</div> + +<p>The leading English centres are the Staffordshire Potteries, including +Tunstall, Burslem, Hanley, the Fentons, and other towns comprising +Stoke-upon-Trent, Lambeth, Fulham, Liverpool, Leeds, Lowestoft, Bristol, +Yarmouth, and Nottingham. Of these the place of honor must be accorded +to Staffordshire. It has been associated with the ceramic art ever since +the Roman invasion; and the name of a family in the district +(Tellwright) is adduced as a proof that under the Saxons the advantages +of the locality for the making of pottery were fully recognized. The +name is a corruption of tile-wright, or potter. Many interesting facts +relating to English pottery in general, and to that of Staffordshire in +particular, are brought together by Mr. Marryat, whose able work +deserves the study of all desirous of following the gradual development +of the art in England. Early specimens of Staffordshire ware are the +butter-pots of the period, and the tall vessels (<a href="#fig_320">Fig. 320</a>) called +“Tygs.” About 1650, Thomas and Ralph Toft and Thomas Sans were making +round dishes with some pretensions to an ornamental character. The year +1680 was made memorable by the discovery of salt glaze. The story goes<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_360" id="page_360">{360}</a></span> +that a servant of Mr. Joseph Yates, occupant of Stanley Farm, near +Palmer’s Pottery, Bagnall, was boiling salt in water preparatory to +using it in curing pork. An earthen pot was used as a pan, and the +servant having left it for a time, the water boiled over, and would also +appear to have all boiled away, since the pan became red hot. When it +cooled it was found to be covered with what was afterward known as salt +glaze. The hint was quickly taken by the potters in the neighborhood, +and the process soon became common. The Burslem makers adopted it in +1690, and called the salt-glazed ware “Crouch-ware.” Five years earlier, +Mr. Thomas Miles was making stone-ware at Shelton, and the district +production from about that time increased very rapidly.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_321" id="fig_321"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 226px;"> +<a href="images/illpg360a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg360a_sml.jpg" width="226" height="164" alt="Fig. 321.—Teapot. Elers Ware." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 321.—Teapot. Elers Ware.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_322" id="fig_322"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;"> +<a href="images/illpg360b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg360b_sml.jpg" width="224" height="218" alt="Fig. 322.—Medallion of Wedgwood, by Flaxman. On Monument +in Stoke Parish Church." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 322.—Medallion of Wedgwood, by Flaxman. On Monument +in Stoke Parish Church.</span> +</div> + +<p>At Bradwell, in 1690, the Elers brothers, from Nuremberg, who had +crossed with the Prince of Orange, set up one of the first +establishments worked upon a regular mercantile basis. It had been for +some time the object of both native and Dutch potters to imitate the red +ware of China, and the Elers were the first to reach approximate +success. Having discovered a bed of red clay, they set about working it +in conjunction with gray stone-ware, with which they produced very fine +reliefs (<a href="#fig_321">Fig. 321</a>). Notwithstanding the strictest watchfulness, and the +employment of semi-idiotic workmen, their secret was stolen by one +Astbury,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_361" id="page_361">{361}</a></span> who for several years feigned idiocy in order to be allowed to +work in their place, and in that way secure possession of their methods. +The competition then became so great in their neighborhood that in +twenty years they closed their establishment. Their reliefs were +remarkably sharp in outline, and the paste was of fine quality.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_323" id="fig_323"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/illpg361_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg361_sml.jpg" width="260" height="322" alt="Fig. 323.—Cameo Medallion, by Flaxman. Mrs. Siddons as +Lady Macbeth." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 323.—Cameo Medallion, by Flaxman. Mrs. Siddons as +Lady Macbeth.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is curious to find that to another accident the Staffordshire potters +were indebted for the discovery of the value of calcined flint mixed in +the paste. A son of the above named Astbury was riding through Dunstable +in 1720, when he noticed symptoms of disorder in his horse’s eyes. The +hostler at the inn where he stopped undertook to cure the animal by +burning some flint and blowing the powder thus produced into the horse’s +eyes. Astbury saw the dust, and it at once occurred to him that it might +be useful in his business. From calcined flint, sand, and pipe-clay +colored by means of oxides, were made the wares called “Agate” and +“Tortoise-shell.” Then followed the adoption of plaster of Paris moulds +and a more general resort to mouldings in bas-relief.</p> + +<p>We now approach the era made illustrious by the name of Mr. Josiah +Wedgwood (<a href="#fig_322">Fig. 322</a>), the greatest of English potters, of whom it has +been said, in the most unqualified terms: “With him the ceramic art +received its highest development in ancient or modern times; for while +greater beauty of decoration in painting characterized other wares, he +produced the noblest artistic results of the moulding<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_362" id="page_362">{362}</a></span> in clay.” However +much others may be led by individual preference to qualify this +encomium, there is no doubt that Wedgwood ranks among the highest names +known in the history of English ceramic art. Born at Burslem, in +Staffordshire, in 1730, of a family which had been engaged in the making +of pottery for many years, Josiah enjoyed in early life none of the +educational advantages which might have developed in him the promise of +his future brilliant career. It is highly probable that his schooling +did not carry him farther than reading and writing, and at the age of +eleven we find him engaged as a thrower in his brother’s workshop. Then +came sickness in the worst of all its forms, smallpox, which left him so +lame that amputation of one leg became necessary, and ended his career +at the wheel. It is possible that, in current phraseology, this +misfortune may have been a blessing in disguise. He at once turned his +attention to the production of ornamental pottery and the imitation of +precious stones, mixing variously compounded clays with oxides, and +otherwise experimenting.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_324" id="fig_324"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 219px;"> +<a href="images/illpg362_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg362_sml.jpg" width="219" height="382" alt="Fig. 324.—Black Basaltes. (Meyer Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 324.—Black Basaltes. (Meyer Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_325" id="fig_325"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 203px;"> +<a href="images/illpg363a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg363a_sml.jpg" width="203" height="333" alt="Fig. 325.—Black and White Jasper. (Barlow Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 325.—Black and White Jasper. (Barlow Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_326" id="fig_326"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 211px;"> +<a href="images/illpg363b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg363b_sml.jpg" width="211" height="208" alt="Fig. 326.—Early Wedgwood. Blue; Moulded. (W. S. Ward +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 326.—Early Wedgwood. Blue; Moulded. (W. S. Ward +Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The idea must have got abroad that he had talent, as, at the age of +twenty-two, we find him in partnership with a Mr. Harrison, and then, in +1754, with Mr. Thomas Wheildon, of Fenton. This gentleman lacked his +partner’s enterprise, and in 1759 Wedgwood was in business for himself, +at Burslem, at first in a small way, then in a larger, and again in a +still larger manufactory. In the last he made<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_363" id="page_363">{363}</a></span> the ware called +“Queen’s-ware”—a cream-colored fabric of very delicate color, composed +of white clay mixed with flint, and brilliantly glazed. It derived its +name from a specimen service having been accepted by Queen Charlotte. +His fortune was now practically guaranteed, and his career an assured +success. Court patronage made him the fashion in England, and we also +find him engaged in an export business. Prosperity did not rob him of +any of his early enterprise, but rather acted upon him as an incentive +to farther and greater exertion. He continued studying, investigating, +and experimenting, and with the assistance of his partner, Mr. Bentley, +pushed his business in all directions. Several kinds of earthen-ware and +stone-ware were produced by him (<a href="#fig_326">Fig. 326</a>), and after effecting various +improvements upon his table ware, he turned his attention to those +imitations of the antique, and of cameos, intaglios, and seals, with +which his name is indissolubly associated. With these are to be classed +his fifty copies of the Barberini, or Portland vase (<a href="#fig_327">Fig. 327</a>). The +original is glass in two strata—dark blue and opaque white—and is an +example of Roman work of the second or third century. It was bought by +the Duke of Portland for £1029.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_364" id="page_364">{364}</a></span></p> + +<p>These works admit of no classification. Some are earthen-ware, others +stone-ware, and others are of such a composition that they may be most +correctly classed with porcelain. The name “Basaltes” was given to a +series of imitations of Egyptian styles in black biscuit, with reliefs +in white and red (Figs. 324 and 325). More charming than these is the +jasper or onyx ware from the blue or soft green ground of which the +white busts (<a href="#fig_328">Fig. 328</a>), figures, and flowers stand out in the most +exquisite relief. The biscuit is a porcelaneous stone-ware, colored all +through by means of oxides. Wedgwood made in all more than two thousand +copies of antique gems.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_327" id="fig_327"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 230px;"> +<a href="images/illpg364_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg364_sml.jpg" width="230" height="308" alt="Fig. 327.—The Barberini, or Portland Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 327.—The Barberini, or Portland Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1771 Wedgwood removed from Burslem to Etruria, a village which he +erected in proximity to his works, and for the accommodation of his +workmen. There he also built for himself a handsome residence, which he +occupied until his death, in 1795, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. +His decorated cream-colored ware had, in the mean time, become known all +over Europe, in India, and in this country. In 1775 he made a service +for the Empress Catherine II. of Russia, undervalued at fifteen thousand +dollars. We close our brief sketch of his remarkable career by noting +that the success of the Etruria of his foundation was based upon +commerce, and not upon royal patronage; that his humblest works are +marked by a thoroughness and fitness parallel with the artistic +qualities of his higher pieces; and that excellence of workmanship was +in all cases his primary aim. One of his contemporaries and successors +was Mr. Enoch Wood, who established a workshop at Burslem in 1770, and +was succeeded by Messrs. Caldwell & Wood.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_365" id="page_365">{365}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_328" id="fig_328"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/illpg365a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg365a_sml.jpg" width="186" height="325" alt="Fig. 328.—Wedgwood Jasper-ware. (John W. Britton Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 328.—Wedgwood Jasper-ware. (John W. Britton Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The later products of the Wedgwood factory are hardly less varied than +those of its founder’s lifetime. The jasper-ware is still produced, and +although some of the pieces lack the exquisite finish of the original, +others show little, if any, inferiority. The plate of blue jasper, with +white decoration, given in the illustration (<a href="#fig_330">Fig. 330</a>), is a remarkably +fine example of recent work. The Wedgwood majolica is, both in regard to +color and the modelling of the ornaments and figures, unsurpassed by any +similar ware of the present time. Of this the vase (<a href="#fig_331">Fig. 331</a>) is an +excellent illustration. The body is a clear deep blue.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_329" id="fig_329"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 166px;"> +<a href="images/illpg365b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg365b_sml.jpg" width="166" height="186" alt="Fig. 329.—Recent Wedgwood Earthen-ware. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 329.—Recent Wedgwood Earthen-ware. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In our time the Staffordshire Potteries maintain their old repute. One +well-known name is that of Minton. It occurs in three firms, all located +in the Potteries: Minton & Co.; Minton, Hollins & Co., of +Stoke-upon-Trent; and Mr. Robert Minton Taylor, of Fenton. The +establishment of Minton & Co. was founded while Wedgwood was still +alive, by Mr. Thomas Minton, in 1791. The founder of the firm had been +successively an employé of Mr. Thomas Turner, of Caughley, and of Spode, +before, in 1788, he went to Stoke, and there bought land and built a +house and factory. In 1790 he took Spode’s manager, Mr. Joseph Paulson, +into partnership, and in 1793 assumed a second partner, Mr. Pownall. The +latter retired in 1800, and Paulson died in 1809, after which, for a +number of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_366" id="page_366">{366}</a></span> years, Thomas Minton carried on the works alone. Previous to +1798 the factory made nothing but earthen-ware, the greater portion of +which was decorated in blue and white, after the type supplied by the +porcelain of Nankin.</p> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_330" id="fig_330"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg366_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg366_sml.jpg" width="305" height="301" alt="Fig. 330.—Modern Wedgwood Jasper. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 330.—Modern Wedgwood Jasper. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</p> + +<p>In 1817 Herbert Minton, a younger son of Thomas, was taken in as partner +by his father, and although he practically retired from the business +between 1823 and 1836, he succeeded to it in the latter year on the +death of the founder. He went into partnership first with Mr. John +Boyle, who subsequently joined the Wedgwoods, and secondly with Michael +Daintry Hollins. At the time of his death, in 1858, he had two partners, +Hollins and Colin Minton Campbell. At that time fifteen hands were +employed in the factory. Herbert had directed his attention to the wide +range of works which have since given the name of Minton a world-wide +reputation. These were earthen-ware, artificial porcelain, natural +porcelain, parian, encaustic tiles, azulejos, mosaics, Della Robbia +ware, Palissy ware, and majolica. The Mintons divide with Copeland the +honor of first making parian. Both firms exhibited it at the London +Exhibition of 1851, and the jury to which<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_367" id="page_367">{367}</a></span> the question of priority was +referred could not decide between them. To continue the history of the +firm, Colin Minton Campbell dissolved his partnership with Hollins in +1868, and now carries on the business in connection with his cousins, +Thomas, William, and Herbert Minton, the great-grandsons of the founder.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_331" id="fig_331"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<a href="images/illpg367_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg367_sml.jpg" width="147" height="369" alt="Fig. 331.—Wedgwood Majolica. (Horace Russell Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 331.—Wedgwood Majolica. (Horace Russell Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The firm now ranks with the first of English manufacturers. Their +enterprise has traversed a field as wide as that into which Wedgwood +entered, and their success has been very great. In the pursuit of the +commercial they have not neglected the artistic. It is said of Wedgwood +that he copied and imitated everything worth imitating. Minton & Co. +have followed a similar course, though in a different direction. +Twenty-five years ago we find them attempting to make natural porcelain, +but the enterprise was abandoned. When the taste for Oriental styles +revived, they were among the first to succeed in gratifying the public +whim. In doing so they produced specimens of color highly praiseworthy, +and of a beauty vividly recalling that of the Oriental originals. Their +Persian ware and <i>pate changeante</i> have both excited the admiration of +connoisseurs. The Mintons have also been successful in reproducing with +wonderful fidelity the <i>cloisonné</i> enamel of China and Japan, using a +porcelain base. Here, as in the Persian ware, their turquoise blue is +very effective, and the decoration in enamels reflects faithfully the +tone of Oriental ornament. Leaving the East, Minton & Co. have been no +less fortunate in imitating the Italian Grafitto ware of the fifteenth +century, and the famous inlaid Henri Deux ware of France. Several +specimens of the latter were exhibited by Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Son at +the Centennial Exhibition, and included a teapot, a pitcher, and a pair +of candlesticks, all of pale yellow<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_368" id="page_368">{368}</a></span> body inlaid with red. Examples are +in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and in the collections of Mr. Walters +and Mr. W. L. Andrews. A mere reference must suffice for their majolica +(<a href="#fig_334">Fig. 334</a>), which is rather an independent product than an imitation of +the majolica of Italy. It is peculiar both in composition and in the +colors employed in its decoration, and is fired at a very high +temperature. Mr. Herbert Minton was the first to copy the azulejos of +Spain. The above are only a few of the achievements which might be +adduced to show how Minton & Co. have boldly essayed to duplicate the +choicest products of ceramic art. One is forcibly reminded by them of +the Chinese workman’s delight in contending with technical difficulty +for the mere sake of surmounting it. Among their artists are Mr. Solon, +W. S. Stevens, Charles Toft, H. Darling, J. Leese, M. Mussill, Kirby, +Mellor Slater, F. Fuller, and H. Protat.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_332" id="fig_332"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 204px;"> +<a href="images/illpg368_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg368_sml.jpg" width="204" height="246" alt="Fig. 332.—Minton Stone-ware. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 332.—Minton Stone-ware. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The firm of Minton, Hollins & Co., of Stoke-upon-Trent, was founded by +Michael Daintry Hollins, on the dissolution of his partnership with +Colin Minton Campbell in 1868. He built extensive works, and began to +make majolica and encaustic tiles, slabs, panels, and other similar +wares. The firm now produces an almost endless variety of tiles. At the +Centennial Exhibition this firm was represented by some pieces of great +brilliancy of color and very careful drawing. In one scene two finely +plumaged wading-birds appeared among the water-lilies in a brook. The +soft gray of the feathers tipped with bright blue, and the green of the +reeds and other plants, were thrown out well by the dark-brown +background. On some smaller pieces birds of tropically gay plumage were +painted upon a sombre chocolate ground. On others were flowers and +butterflies upon a pale ground. The style of treatment is purely +Oriental. Drawing and color are<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_369" id="page_369">{369}</a></span> paramount. The ground is merely +intended for contrast with, or the heightening of, the superimposed +decoration. Some beautiful heads of dogs, lions, and asses were +marvellous examples of animal portraiture, and illustrated the capacity +of tiling for the reception of that style of decoration. In them was +seen the work of an artist who fully understood that, given the +requisite mastery of color, a tile may be employed as a more lasting +substitute for canvas. It is also worth noting that whenever tiles are +used for covering a large surface, and each one is treated as a unit, +the result is an artistic blunder. The eye wearies with monotonous +repetition, and no minuteness of finish in the single tile can relieve +the bewildering effect of the mass. Minton, Hollins & Co. have been +fortunate in designing fire-places of tiling, with side paintings of +birds and flowers, and larger scenes above the mantel, of a character in +keeping with their place in a household.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_333" id="fig_333"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg369_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg369_sml.jpg" width="357" height="355" alt="Fig. 333.—Minton Plaque, by Mussill. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 333.—Minton Plaque, by Mussill. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_370" id="page_370">{370}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_334" id="fig_334"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"> +<a href="images/illpg370_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg370_sml.jpg" width="180" height="399" alt="Fig. 334—Minton’s Prometheus Vase. (Corcoran Art +Gallery.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 334—Minton’s Prometheus Vase. (Corcoran Art +Gallery.)</span> +</div> + +<p>From the Trent we pass to Lambeth, near London. It was here that in 1640 +the Dutch makers of stone-ware and delft settled. At one time there were +twenty different establishments, but on the rise of Staffordshire their +number decreased under the weight of competition. Some of the early +Lambeth ware is very skilfully painted, the tiles with a blue ground +being especially commendable. At the present time Lambeth is best known +by its Doulton ware and Lambeth faience. The Doulton or Lambeth pottery +was founded by Mr. John Doulton, who was born at Lambeth in 1793. He +served an apprenticeship with White of Fulham, and in 1815 associated +Mr. John Watts with himself in establishing the present pottery. Mr. +Watts died in 1858, and Mr. Doulton in 1873, and the business is now in +the hands of Messrs. Henry and James D. Doulton, sons of the founder. In +1870 they first issued an artistic ware, and in 1872 turned out the +first specimen of what they have called “Lambeth faience.” The “Doulton +ware” may, without detracting from the originality of much of the +decoration, be described as a revival in both composition and style of +the German stone-ware, miscalled <i>Grès de Flandre</i>. Like other +stone-wares the body is highly silicious, close in texture, and very +brittle. The necessary firing takes several days to accomplish, and the +glaze is made by throwing salt into the kiln, according to the process +discovered, as we have seen, in Staffordshire, and long practised at +Lambeth. The body-tints are the result of washing the pieces in a +preparation of oxides, varied according to the shade desired. The +ornamentation is fourfold. It consists either of incrustations, +indented<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_371" id="page_371">{371}</a></span> designs, incised figures or scenes, or colors. These methods +are occasionally combined. The Lambeth faience is a finer ware, and is +decorated under the glaze with paintings of flowers, landscapes, +portraits, and figures. The Messrs. Doultons’ artists are all taken from +the ranks of pupils in the Lambeth School of Art. Among them are Miss +Hannah B. Barlow, a very skilful animal painter, Mr. Arthur Barlow, Mr. +Frank A. Butler, Mrs. Sparkes, and Mr. George Tinworth.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_335" id="fig_335"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<a href="images/illpg371a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg371a_sml.jpg" width="147" height="315" alt="Fig. 335.—Doulton Ware. (W. B. Dickerman Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 335.—Doulton Ware. (W. B. Dickerman Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_336" id="fig_336"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 211px;"> +<a href="images/illpg371b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg371b_sml.jpg" width="211" height="239" alt="Fig. 336.—Doulton Ware. (W. B. Dickerman Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 336.—Doulton Ware. (W. B. Dickerman Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>A great deal of the Doulton ware very closely resembles the <i>Grès de +Flandre</i> in its decoration, but even to these specimens is to be +accorded the originality resulting from a modified development of the +fundamental style. A larger experience may lead to something more +perfectly original. The present tendency appears to be toward an excess +of ornament, in some instances not a single square inch being left +uncovered. Studs and bosses are affixed in bands, are led over the +surface in floriated designs, and give the arched handles a peculiar +serrated appearance. A very ingenious design consists of incised broad +leaves overlapping each other, and becoming more sharply pointed and +elongated as they rise up the neck to the lip. Studs are then laid in +vertical bands from top to bottom, the lines converging as the leaves +become smaller. In many cases, however, the reliefs destroy the outline, +and mar the beauty of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_372" id="page_372">{372}</a></span> a host of otherwise admirable shapes. In the +matter of form, the Messrs. Doulton, in fact, leave little to be +desired. Many of their vases display a pure, classical gracefulness, and +others are possessed of a quaintness and novelty almost equally +attractive. Canettes, goblets, and small covered jars decorated with +plain or ornamental bands, and dotted with flower-like studs, are to be +classed among the best examples of the more characteristic or +distinctive style of Lambeth decoration.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_337" id="fig_337"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 213px;"> +<a href="images/illpg372_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg372_sml.jpg" width="213" height="211" alt="Fig. 337.—Lambeth Faience." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 337.—Lambeth Faience.</span> +</div> + +<p>The plaques and tiles of Lambeth faience deserve separate notice. Some +of the smaller pieces illustrate the capacity of the ware for +portraiture. The drawing is invariably careful, and the coloring is +applied with both taste and delicacy. The colors will probably be +improved in time, and become more decided without losing anything in +softness. The pieces we have seen inspire us with this hope, and that +here again experience may lead to greater excellence. A large +tile-piece, by Mrs. Sparkes, representing the departure of the Pilgrim +Fathers, and painted upon two hundred and fifty-two tiles of Lambeth +faience, was exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition. The lady-artist is +deserving of all praise for her composition and drawing. The perspective +was very well managed, and the figures were brought out in strong relief +against a sky glowing with the rays of the setting sun.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_338" id="fig_338"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<a href="images/illpg373a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg373a_sml.jpg" width="137" height="209" alt="Fig. 338.—Lambeth Faience. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 338.—Lambeth Faience. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Messrs. Doulton have achieved some wonderful results in the +combination of terra-cotta with their stone-ware. At the Centennial +Exhibition they had a brown terra-cotta fireplace and mirror-frame, with +tiled panels and hearth and terra-cotta fender. In another mantel-piece, +of oak, a set of tiles in the panels showed admirably designed and +executed illustrations of scenes and characters from Shakspeare. In +these and other similar works a great deal of taste and ingenuity was +shown in the combination of material. A magnificent example<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_373" id="page_373">{373}</a></span> of the +union of terra-cotta with Doulton ware is now in the Smithsonian +Institute at Washington (<a href="#fig_340">Fig. 340</a>). It is a pulpit of red and light buff +terra-cotta with ornaments of blue stone-ware. The balusters on the +stairs leading up to the pulpit are Doulton ware ornamented with bands +of terra-cotta. Under the base of the balustrade, and round the pulpit +under the panels in front and on the sides, are bands of Doulton ware. A +similar band surrounds the alcoves or panels. The latter are by Mr. +George Tinworth, of London, and illustrate scenes in the life of Christ, +from the offering in the Temple of “a pair of turtle-doves or two young +pigeons” to the ascension. Of this artist’s execution, also, are the +panels in a baptismal font which accompanies the pulpit. These and other +similar works are so deeply sunk that they have the appearance of groups +of figures separately modelled and placed in the recess rather than of +mouldings in relief. They are in every way admirable. The expression and +attitudes of some of the faces and figures are marvellously life-like +and forcible.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_339" id="fig_339"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 129px;"> +<a href="images/illpg373b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg373b_sml.jpg" width="129" height="269" alt="Fig. 339.—Lambeth Faience. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 339.—Lambeth Faience. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Fulham owes the beginnings of its pottery to the Dutch. In 1684 Mr. John +Dwight was making stone-ware, earthen-ware, statues, and porcelain. The +latter was very soon discontinued. The production of other wares was +carried on by descendants of the founder.</p> + +<p>The history of Bristol pottery is said to go back to the commencement of +the thirteenth century, but its first piece with a date is five hundred +years later. It is delft-ware, and is dated 1703. A German, named Wrede, +or Reed, is said to have made stone-ware about the same period. +Otherwise Bristol is unimportant in so far as earthen-ware is +concerned.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_374" id="page_374">{374}</a></span></p> + +<p>Leeds is one of the towns which, toward the close of the last century, +were adopted as fields for a pottery enterprise. It did an extensive +trade with the Continent in a cream-colored ware.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_340" id="fig_340"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg374_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg374_sml.jpg" width="411" height="352" alt="Fig. 340.—Terra-cotta Pulpit. (Smithsonian Institute.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 340.—Terra-cotta Pulpit. (Smithsonian Institute.)</span> +</p> + +<p>Liverpool begins its history, in 1716, with the manufacture of delft. +The first event of any importance is the invention by Mr. John Sadler, +in 1753, of a method of printing upon earthen-ware. Wedgwood was in the +habit of sending Queen’s-ware to Sadler to be printed. In 1752 Mr. +Richard Chaffers set up an earthen-ware establishment, but soon turned +his attention to porcelain, which he succeeded in making after +discovering the necessary material in Devonshire. On his death the +enterprise came to an end. The next name of distinction is that of +Pennington, who, about 1760, made delft bowls and vases, some of which +were painted by an artist named Robinson. Pennington ultimately returned +to Worcester. In 1794<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_375" id="page_375">{375}</a></span> the “Herculaneum Pottery” was opened at +Birkenhead, and was worked until 1841.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_341" id="fig_341"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<a href="images/illpg375a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg375a_sml.jpg" width="132" height="237" alt="Fig. 341.—Lambeth Faience. (Dr. H. G. Piffard Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 341.—Lambeth Faience. (Dr. H. G. Piffard Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Herolin Luson made an ineffectual attempt to establish a pottery at +Lowestoft in 1756. His failure is to be attributed to the infidelity of +his workmen, who were induced by the London manufacturers to spoil the +ware. Notwithstanding the opposition which led competitors to resort to +similarly unworthy devices, Walker, Brown, Aldred, and Rickman founded a +workshop within a year of Luson’s failure, and by taking the necessary +precautions against treachery, placed it upon a permanent basis. It made +ware of every grade. The Lowestoft earthen-ware was usually decorated +with blue, and occasionally with red. The early porcelain was painted in +the same colors, and the later pieces were ornamented with flowers. The +latter are artistically drawn and colored, and equal the best work found +on English porcelain. Plain Chinese ware was imported and decorated at +Lowestoft; but the production ceased about the year 1830.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_342" id="fig_342"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 138px;"> +<a href="images/illpg375b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg375b_sml.jpg" width="138" height="244" alt="Fig. 342.—Lowestoft Pottery. (F. Robinson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 342.—Lowestoft Pottery. (F. Robinson Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>It is questionable if ware of any kind was ever made at Yarmouth, +although it is certain that a decorating establishment and kiln existed +there probably about 1752. It is more than possible that this workshop +was in part supplied with Lowestoft biscuit.</p> + +<p>Nottingham manufactured pottery from about 1650, and the business was +continued for at least a century. The precise period at which it came to +an end is not known.</p> + +<p>The Shropshire factories were offshoots of those of Staffordshire. The +Brosely establishment was founded by Mr. Richard Thursfield, of Stoke, +in 1713, and passed from his family into the hands of the Roses of +Colebrookdale<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_376" id="page_376">{376}</a></span> about 1799. A black stone-ware decorated with gilt or +with reliefs was the chief product.</p> + +<p>Mr. Francis Place, of the Manor-house, York, made fine pottery or +stone-ware in the latter part of the seventeenth century. The well-known +“Rockingham ware” took its name from a brown pottery made upon the +estate of the Marquis of Rockingham, at Swinton, in Yorkshire. The +production originated in 1757, and the enterprise was subsequently +carried on by Mr. William Malpass (1765); Mr. Thomas Bingley (1778); +Messrs. John and William Bramfield (1807-1842), when the works stopped. +The brown teapots of this factory were at one time very fashionable in +England. Of these and other works each had its specialty of decoration +or composition, but to detail them in full would only complicate a +sketch in which it is intended to give merely salient points, on a +comprehensive plan.</p> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Plymouth Hard +Porcelain.—Cookworthy.—Bow.—Chelsea.—Derby.—Worcester.—Minton.—Pate-sur-Pate.—Spode.—Copeland.—Bristol.—Tunstall.—Caughley.—Nantgarrow.—Swansea.—Colebrookdale.—Pinxton.—Shelton.—Belleek.—General +Character of Manufacture in Great Britain.</p></div> + +<p>It may be as well to premise that the porcelain now made in England all +belongs to the soft, or, according to our classification, the artificial +class. Its composition has already been described. The leading seats of +the industry are Bow, Chelsea, Derby, Plymouth, Bristol, Worcester, and +a few workshops in the midland counties and Wales.</p> + +<p>With the possible exceptions of Lowestoft and Bristol, Plymouth stands +alone as the only place in England at which a manufactory of hard, or +natural, porcelain ever existed (<a href="#fig_343">Fig. 343</a>). This distinction is due to +the enterprise of William Cookworthy, who was born near Plymouth, in +1705. Cookworthy was a chemist and druggist, and was led into his +porcelain venture by the discovery of kaolin and petuntse near Helstone, +in 1755. Five years later his manufactory was running at Coxside, but +meeting with no adequate commercial support, he sold his patents, in +1772, to Richard Champion, of Bristol. The production then ceased. +Cookworthy’s first attempts were not encouraging,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_377" id="page_377">{377}</a></span> but perseverance +brought a certain measure of success, and his later works are of fine +quality. He procured a Sèvres painter, and also employed Bone, the +enameller and artist, and by their help turned out many valuable +services and pieces richly ornamented after the prevailing Oriental +styles, with birds, flowers, and insects.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_343" id="fig_343"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;"> +<a href="images/illpg377a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg377a_sml.jpg" width="141" height="215" alt="Fig. 343.—Plymouth Hard Porcelain Coffee-pot." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 343.—Plymouth Hard Porcelain Coffee-pot.</span> +</div> + +<p>Before Cookworthy embarked in his porcelain enterprise at Plymouth, +artificial porcelain was made at Stratford-le-Bow and Chelsea. The +beginnings of the industry at neither place have ever been +satisfactorily freed from obscurity, and it is not known to which the +priority belongs. Thomas Frye, an Essex artist, superintended the works +at Bow for some time, and is said to have been the first who succeeded +in making English porcelain. He died in 1762. Probably the Bow and +Chelsea works both started about twenty years before that date. It is +certain that both stopped after less than fifty years existence. The +porcelain made at Stratford-le-Bow, and designated “Bow china,” is of +coarse paste, and is often found decorated with a bee either painted or +embossed (<a href="#fig_344">Fig. 344</a>). The painting of flowers and scenes is not of a high +order, but the reliefs are frequently effective and well executed. The +Bow artists also made figure groups.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_344" id="fig_344"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;"> +<a href="images/illpg377b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg377b_sml.jpg" width="192" height="312" alt="Fig. 344—Bow cream-jug." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 344—Bow cream-jug.</span> +</div> + +<p>The decoration of early Chelsea porcelain closely followed the Chinese, +which it was intended to rival. The business there did not attain<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_378" id="page_378">{378}</a></span> to +any eminence, nor did the art rise to a noticeable height, until the +works were patronized by the Court of George II and supported by the +Duke of Cumberland. Between 1750 and 1765, Chelsea porcelain most +closely approached its great Continental rivals (<a href="#fig_345">Fig. 345</a>). After 1750 +the manufacture could hardly be called an English enterprise, since +material and workmen were both imported from Germany. The management +also was in the hands of a foreigner named Spremont. The articles +produced included all the forms of Sèvres and Dresden, table services, +candlesticks, figures, vases, and the numberless designs among which the +inventive ingenuity of Continental artists was exercised. In 1784 the +works stopped. The Chelsea paste was extremely soft, and the glaze was +vitreous and liable to crack. The colors were superb, and included some +of the choicest found on Sèvres porcelain, besides at least one other, a +claret color, peculiar to Chelsea. Very high prices have been obtained +for this porcelain at auctions, more than a thousand dollars having been +given for a pair of vases. In design, workmanship, color, and +decoration, there are pieces of Chelsea porcelain unexcelled by any +other establishment, either English or foreign.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_345" id="fig_345"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 207px;"> +<a href="images/illpg378a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg378a_sml.jpg" width="207" height="326" alt="Fig. 345.—Chelsea Porcelain Vase." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 345.—Chelsea Porcelain Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_346" id="fig_346"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<a href="images/illpg378b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg378b_sml.jpg" width="159" height="195" alt="Fig. 346.—Derby Porcelain. Third Duesbury Period. (F. +Robinson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 346.—Derby Porcelain. Third Duesbury Period. (F. +Robinson Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Duesbury, who purchased the Chelsea works in 1769 and finally +transferred them to Derby, had been making porcelain in the latter place +since 1750.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_379" id="page_379">{379}</a></span> He had also bought and transferred the Bow works, and +carried on a most extensive business, taking the place in public +estimation of the two establishments he had consolidated. The elder +Duesbury died about the year 1788, and the subsequent proprietorship is +not very clear. He appears, however, to have been succeeded by his son, +who died in 1798, and the works then fell to the third Duesbury, who +carried them on in conjunction with Michael Kean until they were +acquired by Robert Bloor in 1815. Bloor kept them until he died in 1849, +and then Locker & Co. held them until 1859, when they were assumed by +Stephenson & Hancock, of which firm Mr. Hancock, the surviving partner, +came into sole possession in 1866. The ware was called Chelsea-Derby +from 1769 to 1773, when it received the name of Crown-Derby, a crown +having been added to the mark after a visit of the king and queen. The +Derby paste was very fine and translucent, and in the production of +biscuit figures it was unrivalled. The best of the old Derby colors was +a beautiful bright blue.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_347" id="fig_347"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 202px;"> +<a href="images/illpg379a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg379a_sml.jpg" width="202" height="285" alt="Fig. 347.—Bloor-Derby Porcelain. (F. Robinson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 347.—Bloor-Derby Porcelain. (F. Robinson Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_348" id="fig_348"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg379b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg379b_sml.jpg" width="357" height="138" alt="Fig. 348.—Old Worcester Porcelain. (Robert Hoe, Jun., +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 348.—Old Worcester Porcelain. (Robert Hoe, Jun., +Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_349" id="fig_349"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 209px;"> +<a href="images/illpg380a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg380a_sml.jpg" width="209" height="209" alt="Fig. 349.—Worcester Porcelain. (G. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 349.—Worcester Porcelain. (G. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_350" id="fig_350"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<a href="images/illpg380b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg380b_sml.jpg" width="161" height="160" alt="Fig. 350.—Worcester Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 350.—Worcester Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Worcester works were founded in 1751, by a company headed<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_380" id="page_380">{380}</a></span> by Dr. +Wall. To this gentleman has been ascribed the invention of printing on +porcelain, which we have already found in use on pottery in Liverpool in +1753. The matter is involved in doubt, as the process was in vogue at +Battersea about the same period, and it is improbable that it was +simultaneously invented at three different establishments so far apart. +However this may be, Dr. Wall availed himself of the invention, and +handled it with great skill and precision. Steatite obtained from +Cornwall was first used by the company in 1770, and in 1783 the Messrs. +Flight bought up the original establishment, which had found competitors +in the Chamberlains, who had commenced business as decorators in 1786. +In 1788 the works were visited by King George III., who became a patron +of Flight, and were afterward called the Royal Worcester Porcelain +Works. One of the Flights died in 1791, and a partnership was formed by +the survivor with Martin Barr in 1793. The concern was carried on under +the firm of Flight & Barr until 1807, when it became Barr, Flight & +Barr, Jun., and in 1829 another change was made to Flight, Barr & Barr. +It retained that form until 1840, when an amalgamation was effected with +the Chamberlains. In 1862 a joint-stock company was formed, under which +Mr. R. W. Binns, the author of a history of Worcester potting, acted as +superintendent of the artistic department. It is estimated that at +present upward of four hundred workmen are employed in the Worcester +establishment, which is made all the more interesting by reason of its +being one of the few survivors of the old<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_381" id="page_381">{381}</a></span> English works. Every effort +is made to bring the porcelain to perfection, and the body and +decoration are both very fine. The Worcester paste does not appear at +first to have equalled that of some other English centres, but its +yellowish tinge made it very well suited for the brilliant color +demanded by the Oriental styles of decoration. The process of transfer +printing is said to have been perfected by Josiah Holdship, who was +assisted by his brother Richard in engraving the plates. Robert Hancock +was also an engraver in the factory. Some rare specimens of transfer +printing are found painted with colors and gold, by which means good +imitations of Dresden were made. This success led to the adoption of the +Dresden mark, a practice to which the Worcester manufacturers seem to +have been too much addicted, as the marks of several of the leading +workshops are found upon their wares. At the present time the Worcester +factory is turning out a great deal of excellent work. The table ware, +of which an example is given (<a href="#fig_351">Fig. 351</a>), is generally tastefully and +often brilliantly decorated. The colors in the specimen given are +yellow, red, blue, green, and gold, very judiciously combined, and have +a warm and rich effect. The portrait plaque (<a href="#fig_349">Fig. 349</a>) is by A. Handley, +and is executed in flat colors. The flesh-tint is especially soft and +refined. It is a highly satisfactory example of its class.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_351" id="fig_351"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg381_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg381_sml.jpg" width="385" height="184" alt="Fig. 351.—Worcester Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 351.—Worcester Porcelain. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</p> + +<p>A work widely differing from either of the above is the basket vase +(<a href="#fig_350">Fig. 350</a>), with rustic handles and feet, and decorated with leafy +branches in relief. The only color used is a pale shade of blue,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_382" id="page_382">{382}</a></span> which +deepens in the interstices of the wicker-work. These examples have been +chosen not for any exceptional qualities, but for the purpose of +illustrating the average products of a factory which ranks among the +first in England.</p> + +<p>The Mintons, although devoting themselves chiefly to stone-ware and +earthen-ware, made porcelain at an early period of their history. This +occurred in 1798, when a semi-translucent porcelain of inferior quality +was made. The production ceased in 1811, and was taken up subsequently +by Herbert Minton. Their <i>pate-sur-pate</i> has been noticed under France, +but we here give a superb specimen of their decoration in that style by +Mr. Solon (<a href="#fig_352">Fig. 352</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="fig_352" id="fig_352"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg382_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg382_sml.jpg" width="216" height="296" alt="Fig. 352. Pate-sur-pate, by Solon. (H.C. Gibson Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 352. Pate-sur-pate, by Solon. (H.C. Gibson Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Another famous firm working at Stoke-upon-Trent is that of the +Copelands. It was founded in 1780 by the first Josiah Spode, who +established himself in the works which had been occupied by Banks & +Turner. He appears to have been chiefly engaged in the manufacture of +blue printed willow-ware, and imitations of the more famous works of +Wedgwood, especially his cream and jasper wares. He died in 1797, and +his son and namesake carried on the business, and first turned his +attention to porcelain about the beginning of the present century. The +body he used was of great purity, and the ware was chiefly decorated +with gold and flowers after the fashion of his day. In this venture he +was very successful, and devoted every energy to pushing his enterprise. +In 1805 he achieved another triumph by what he described as “a sort of +fine ware, called opaque porcelain,” which was extensively consumed on +the Continent, to the great detriment of the makers of French faience. +In 1806 the honor was<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_383" id="page_383">{383}</a></span> conferred upon him of being appointed potter to +the Prince of Wales, and in 1827 he died, after amassing a large +fortune. The firm consisted for some time of Josiah Spode, William +Spode, and William Copeland, and in 1833 the concern was bought by a son +of the latter, William Taylor Copeland. He was joined by Mr. Garrett in +1843, and the firm consisted of Copeland and Garrett until 1847, when +Mr. Copeland again became sole proprietor, and continued so until 1867, +when he was joined by his sons. The works are now carried on under the +firm of Copeland & Sons, and have attained to great dimensions, covering +about twelve acres of ground, and giving employment to about nine +hundred operatives.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_353" id="fig_353"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 197px;"> +<a href="images/illpg383_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg383_sml.jpg" width="197" height="332" alt="Fig. 353.—Copeland Vase. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 353.—Copeland Vase. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Abraham, art director of the Copeland works, has furnished much of +the above information, and of that which follows regarding the wares of +both Spode and Copeland. According to Mr. Abraham, one of Spode’s most +celebrated wares was the stone china already referred to, an opaque or +nearly opaque compact body of a blue-gray tint resembling Oriental +china. It was fired at a much higher temperature than earthen-ware, and +in reproducing it at the present time it is fired in the porcelain kiln. +It was decorated by Spode in various ways, the qualities most highly +prized being the “old Japans” and oven blues of different shades. +Spode’s stone china and ivory bodies are exceptionally well adapted for +treatment in which oven blue is employed.</p> + +<p>This stone china has never been entirely out of use, but for a long time +it did not receive the attention it deserved, and has only been recently +revived. When receiving least attention its manufacture was restricted +to matching sets, the possessors of which were so<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_384" id="page_384">{384}</a></span> sensible of its high +qualities as a table ware, that they were desirous of making up +deficiencies in their services whenever practicable. The name of +Copeland is now well known wherever commerce has carried the ceramic +wares of England. Some of the most artistically designed and finely +decorated pieces found in the collections of the present time are from +this workshop. The Copelands have rivalled the most prominent houses of +England, we might say of Europe, both in the many-sidedness of their +enterprise and in its results. The best artists and modellers are +employed, and the products may be compared with any in Europe. What may +be considered a specialty of the Copelands is the employment of royal +blue upon porcelain, both in arbitrary designs and in landscape and +figure painting. They have it so perfectly under control that the most +delicate tints and the greatest depths of which the color is capable are +produced at will, without the overflowing of the color on the one hand, +or on the other the harshness and poverty of tone so common in works +decorated in this blue.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_354" id="fig_354"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;"> +<a href="images/illpg384a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg384a_sml.jpg" width="174" height="310" alt="Fig. 354.—Copeland Parian." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 354.—Copeland Parian.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_355" id="fig_355"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<a href="images/illpg384b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg384b_sml.jpg" width="130" height="301" alt="Fig. 355.—Copeland Parian." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 355.—Copeland Parian.</span> +</div> + +<p>A great deal of the Copeland jewelled ware is exceedingly beautiful. We +have chosen one specimen as being exceptional, both in its design and +decoration (<a href="#fig_353">Fig. 353</a>), and it would certainly be difficult to lavish +upon it too much praise. The base is gilt, the body is of two shades of +blue, and the gracefully expanding neck pale brown dotted with brown of +a darker<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_385" id="page_385">{385}</a></span> tint. The handles consist of golden butterflies resplendent +with jewels. The effect is rich, but harmonious and charming, and the +piece may be regarded as one of the most favorable illustrations of what +the English artists of our time can accomplish.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_356" id="fig_356"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 223px;"> +<a href="images/illpg385_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg385_sml.jpg" width="223" height="362" alt="Fig. 356.—Copeland Reticulated Porcelain. (W. B. +Dickerman Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 356.—Copeland Reticulated Porcelain. (W. B. +Dickerman Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In approaching the Copeland parian (Figs. 354 and 355), we find +ourselves among some of the finest works in that material yet given to +the world. An enumeration of the artists regularly or specially engaged +in this department would include many of the highest names in the +profession. This branch of art has developed rapidly, partly on account +of the rivalry between manufacturers, but chiefly by reason of the +welcome everywhere extended to the works issued. Among the subjects +chosen by the Copelands, many, possibly the greater number, are +ideals—such personifications as those of Music and Poetry. It could not +be expected that all these would be of equal merit, and fault may +occasionally be found with attitudes and proportions; but they are, as a +whole, admirably executed.</p> + +<p>Yet another branch of art in which the Copelands have been eminently +successful is represented by the perforated or reticulated ware of which +the Chinese supply the types. The potting difficulties and risk in +making this double surface ware are greater or less according to the +intricacy and delicacy of the perforations. In the cup and saucer here +given (<a href="#fig_356">Fig. 356</a>) the manipulation and firing were exceptionally delicate +and hazardous, far more so than in<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_386" id="page_386">{386}</a></span> the case of the honey-comb +perforation. Held up to the light, the inner surface appears to be as +thin as egg-shell; and it seems a perfect marvel that, when the heat has +softened the body, the upper surface does not sink down upon that below. +Where plugs can be used to keep them apart, or where the perforated +surface is strongly arched, or where the article can be placed upright, +the danger is manifestly less than in such a piece as the saucer, with +its pointed leaf-work bending downward rather than arching. It is also +necessarily placed flat in the kiln. Many pieces of the same kind have +been made by the Copelands.</p> + +<p>We have already seen that Cookworthy sold his patent to Mr. R. Champion, +of Bristol. It appears, however, that he retained an interest in it +after Champion started his manufactory in that city until the year 1773, +when he relinquished his right on payment of a royalty. The Bristol +workshop was founded a few years previously, but no natural porcelain +was put upon the market until that date. The fact that Champion was, in +1776, making artificial porcelain indicates that he very soon found his +hard porcelain venture would not be remunerative. He was, according to +one authority, associated with a company of Bristol gentlemen in his +enterprise, and it appears to be certain that when he applied for the +extension of his patent he did not stand alone. In 1781 or 1782 he +resigned his right to a company of Staffordshire potters, and was +appointed Paymaster of the Forces, under his friend Mr. Edmund Burke. He +died in 1787, at Camden, South Carolina. The Bristol china is chiefly +valuable by reason of its rarity. The decoration is after Continental +and Chinese styles, and the paste is inferior.</p> + +<p>The company which purchased Champion’s patent continued to make natural +paste until 1810, first at Tunstall and afterward at Shelton. It was +called “New Hall china.” Artificial porcelain was made until 1825.</p> + +<p>When, in 1807, the Bramelds acquired the Swinton works, they conjoined +the manufacture of Rockingham and fine pottery with porcelain of +excellent quality. They endeavored to make a ware of the finest sort in +both body and decoration, but fell into financial difficulties in 1826, +and, although assisted by Earl Fitzwilliam, finally succumbed, as we +have already seen, in 1842.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_387" id="page_387">{387}</a></span></p> + +<p>Caughley is the earliest and most important of the Shropshire +porcelains. The workshop would be deserving of remembrance were it only +for one reason—that it was here Mr. Thomas Turner originated, in 1780, +the willow pattern. The manufacture of porcelain at Caughley was +inaugurated soon after the middle of the eighteenth century. Turner took +the management about 1780, although he had been interested in the works +for some years previously. He effected great improvements, introduced +printing, raised the quality of the ware, and engaged the most skilful +decorators. He also made white ware for other decorating establishments, +especially those of Worcester. The Caughley works were, in 1799, +amalgamated with those of Colebrookdale.</p> + +<p>A factory was founded at Nantgarrow in 1813, by Walker & Beely, or +Billingsley, and was carried on, in conjunction with Mr. W. Young, until +1828, when it was bought by Mr. John Rose, of Colebrookdale.</p> + +<p>The “Cambrian Pottery” of Swansea was founded in 1750, and began to make +“opaque china” in 1790, and from 1814 to 1819 was making porcelain. +Young and Billingsley, the Nantgarrow artists, both appear to have been +employed at Swansea, by Mr. Dillwyn, who had bought the works in 1802. +In 1820 they passed into the possession of Mr. Rose, of Colebrookdale.</p> + +<p>At this place, or Coalport, as it is alternatively called, the Caughley, +Nantgarrow, and Swansea factories were thus consolidated in the hands of +Mr. John Rose, a pupil of Turner of Caughley, and a man of great +enterprise. He took with him the best artists of the works successively +absorbed, and it is here that we again meet Walker and Billingsley as +superintendents. The present proprietor is Mr. W. F. Rose. The Messrs. +Daniell, of London, are among the leading supporters of the factory, and +have incited Mr. Rose to some of his most successful experiments in +color. Of these the Dubarry rose, one of the most famous and beautiful +colors of Sèvres, is probably the most important.</p> + +<p>Billingsley worked first at Derby, then successively at Pinxton, +Mansfield, Worcester, Nantgarrow, Swansea, and Coalport. He died at the +last mentioned place in 1828.</p> + +<p>The Pinxton factory here mentioned was established in 1795, by Mr. John +Coke, who transferred it to Billingsley, from whom it passed to Mr. +Cutts. It was closed in 1812.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_388" id="page_388">{388}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_357" id="fig_357"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 224px;"> +<a href="images/illpg388a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg388a_sml.jpg" width="224" height="224" alt="Fig. 357.—English Porcelain. Brown, Westhead, Moore & +Co. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 357.—English Porcelain. Brown, Westhead, Moore & +Co. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Brief mention has already been made of Tunstall and Shelton. The latter +place is less known in America, in connection with the working of the +Champion patent, than by the names of Ridgway and Brown, Westhead, Moore +& Co. (<a href="#fig_357">Fig. 357</a>). Job Ridgway was a Shelton potter in the latter part of +the last century, and was, in 1814, succeeded by his sons John and +William, who were followed by the above firm. The porcelain of both +firms is well known in this country. With Shelton, although there are or +have been many other factories in England, we close our sketch of that +country.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_358" id="fig_358"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 197px;"> +<a href="images/illpg388b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg388b_sml.jpg" width="197" height="239" alt="Fig. 358.—Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 358.—Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>A peculiar ware from Belleek, Lough Erne, Fermanagh County, Ireland, has +made its appearance in America within the past ten years, and has been +received with considerable favor both here and in Canada. It is +carefully and artistically wrought into ornamental pieces and services. +Its chief peculiarity is an iridescent glaze of a silvery, lustrous +appearance. In the specimen (<a href="#fig_358">Fig. 358</a>) the pedestal is unglazed, and its +dead white contrasts admirably with the lustrous flowers, base, and top. +The ware is obtained from a combination of clays found in the +neighborhood from which it takes its name. It is a true porcelain and +very translucent, and in thin lustred pieces rivals the egg-shell of the +far East. It is equally beautiful in biscuit or glazed.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_389" id="page_389">{389}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_359" id="fig_359"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 244px;"> +<a href="images/illpg389a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg389a_sml.jpg" width="244" height="109" alt="Fig. 359.—Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 359.—Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Several original designs appear among the table services of this ware, +which are rendered very attractive by the peculiar glaze. Exceedingly +beautiful imitations of shells (<a href="#fig_359">Fig. 359</a>) are made of Belleek ware, a +purpose for which it is especially suited by reason of the similarity +the glazed surface presents to the inside pearly lining of a shell (Fig. +360). A ware somewhat similar in appearance is made in England and +France, where an artificial metallic glaze is employed to produce the +<i>madreperla</i> lustre.</p> + +<p class="clr"><a name="fig_360" id="fig_360"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg389b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg389b_sml.jpg" width="302" height="334" alt="Fig. 360.—Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 360.—Belleek Porcelain. (Tiffany & Co.)</span> +</p> + +<p>The ceramics of England are of special interest to the American reader. +In many of our old homes are to be found samples of English pottery and +porcelain brought to this country long before Revolutionary<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_390" id="page_390">{390}</a></span> times. Many +of them are, like heirlooms, passed on from generation to generation, +the remnants being all the more highly prized as they become fewer in +number. A great deal of the earthen-ware and porcelain used here within +the last century has come from the centres of which we have been +treating. To the student of the art, also, England has an interest all +its own. The workmen of England have, from the earliest times, shown +that moral as well as mental capacity for coping with mechanical and +scientific difficulties which marks the typical English character. +Wedgwood was a remarkable instance of a man who, with materials usually +considered of inferior quality for artistic embellishment, steadily +aimed at producing works which should be, and actually were, the best of +their kind. So it is with the Mintons and Doultons of our day. They +surround themselves with the best artists they can find, and have taught +England, which was still disposed to reserve its warmest admiration for +works executed in the long-coveted and only recently possessed +porcelain, to forget the medium in the art it conveys.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_391" id="page_391">{391}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_361" id="fig_361"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg391_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg391_sml.jpg" width="424" height="375" alt="Fig. 361.—Tile-piece, by F. T. Vance." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 361.—Tile-piece, by F. T. Vance.</span> +</p> + +<h2><a name="BOOK_IV_AMERICA" id="BOOK_IV_AMERICA"></a>BOOK IV.—AMERICA.</h2> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I-b4" id="CHAPTER_I-b4"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> +<small>SOUTH AMERICA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Antiquity of American People.—Scope of Inquiry.—<span class="smcap">Peru</span>: Its Old +Inhabitants.—Course of Ceramic Art.—Doubts regarding Origin of +Peruvian Civilization.—Periods.—The Incas.—Pizarro.—Geological +Evidence of Antiquity.—Unbaked Bricks.—Pachacamac.—Its +Graves.—Opposite Types.—Effect of Religion.—Symbols.—Forms of +Pottery.—Water-Vessels.—Human Forms.—Leading Features of +Decoration.—Colors Employed.—Processes.—Customs Learned from +Pottery.—<span class="smcap">Brazil</span>: Ancient Specimens.—Modern Ware.—Bricks and +Tiles.—Talhas.—Moringues and other Water-Vessels.—Colombia.</p></div> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> ceramics of America bring us into a field hitherto unexplored, and +showing few footprints of the investigators who have been led to its +borders. We are here confronted by a state of things to which we have +hitherto been strangers. As creatures belonging to the New World we have +been taught to look with a respect in which America has no share upon +the aged civilizations of Egypt, Assyria, and China. Their ancient +inhabitants were the patriarchs of the world, the pioneers of +civilization; we are the latter-day heirs to the arts and sciences of +which they laid the foundations. The present citizens of those lands are +the children of æons, we the mushroom growth of centuries. Research has +already partially succeeded in endowing America with so much of the +venerable as can be conferred by age. Such notions as those above +referred to are being rapidly dissipated. We have long known that the +hemisphere we inhabit was styled new, not because its geological +formation is of later growth than those of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_392" id="page_392">{392}</a></span> the Old World, nor because +its inhabitants are the after-math of the world’s population, but +because five hundred years ago it was new to the navigators of the East. +We now know that, from Lake Superior to Peru and Chili we can traverse +the sites of old settlements and find the vestiges of peoples who lived +we cannot tell how many hundred or thousand years ago. In the history of +ceramic art America in no way differs from Europe or Asia. We can begin +with the sun-dried bricks of the Peruvians, or Mound-builders, and end +with the porcelain of Greenpoint. As Europe loosed its hold upon the +earlier arts of Greece and Rome, was dismembered, and was for centuries +plunged in darkness by the incursions and dispersal of barbarians, and +then, as it revived, developed a new artistic sense and greater +strength, so America passed through a precisely similar ordeal.</p> + +<p>Two thousand years ago—possibly many more—art and civilization existed +here, and continued to expand until Europeans came and checked their +farther growth. America is not even singular in this, that a broad chasm +divides the old from the new.</p> + +<p>There are thus two great periods which we shall be called upon to +consider. There is, first, the ancient, when the aboriginal people were +building curious and wonderful monuments of their presence, and +modelling the quaint vessels now found in our museums. There is, then, +the second period, limited to little more than half a century, in which +art wears a modern guise, when the products of American potteries become +a recognized item in the industry of the country, and the manufacture is +substantially founded upon a broad commercial basis. Our inquiry will +not, therefore, be entirely confined to a recent past and a present +chiefly remarkable for the promise that it contains. We shall, in a +hasty review, turn back across the centuries intervening between the +present time and the advent of Europeans with Columbus, Cortez, and +Pizarro, across the barbarism of the Indian period, across even the +earlier times, when the Aztecs in the North, and the Peruvians under the +Incas in the South, were cultivating their peculiar forms of +civilization, to a more remote past occupied by those elder children of +Time, to whose heritage these peoples appear to have succeeded. +Afterward will come the indulgence of the characteristic tendency of the +nineteenth-century American, who is more addicted to looking to the +future than to the past. In the mean time, we must<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_393" id="page_393">{393}</a></span> try to accustom +ourselves to the fact that, for the purposes of a continuous history, +the potters of our own time are the successors of those who deposited +their urns in the mounds of the Mississippi valley and in the tombs of +Peru.</p> + +<p>It will probably be both the only historically consequent and the most +lucid method to treat the different countries from south to north. We +begin with Peru. We need not go into the theories, mostly fanciful, by +which an origin and genealogy are found for the ancient inhabitants of +America. We cannot even undertake to solve the question whether the New +World may not be the Old.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_362" id="fig_362"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg393_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg393_sml.jpg" width="392" height="173" alt="Fig. 362.—Peruvian Water-vessels." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 362.—Peruvian Water-vessels.</span> +</p> + +<p>The evidence in support of America’s having been the resting-place of +the lost tribes of Israel, of its having been visited from the Pacific +by Malays, from the Atlantic by Phœnicians, of the truth of the old +legend of Atlantis, a land which lay beyond the Pillars of Hercules, is +in great part composed of inferences from assumptions. Reason would +point to Behring Strait as the point at which the first inhabitants +entered, but even that supposition may account for nothing more remote +than the arrival of the Indians of North America. Or, to find a +genealogy for the same people, we might adopt Mr. Griffis’s very +plausible theory of a Japanese descent, based upon the fact that “for +twenty centuries past Japanese fishing-boats and junks, caught in the +easterly gales and typhoons, have been swept into the Kuro Shiwo, and +carried to America.” It is more pertinent to our purpose to find that, +amidst a civilization which bears a stamp of originality, ceramic art +followed the course it had taken in Europe, Africa, and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_394" id="page_394">{394}</a></span> Asia. +Similarity in forms, even in symbols, may argue nothing more than a +mysterious identity in the workings of humanity toward artistic and +religious expression. They cannot, without other evidence, be held to +prove an identity of origin. This preliminary observation is made that +we may not fall into the baseless theorizing which is the bane of +science. External resemblances have, before this day, sadly misled +scientists, with whom possibilities have become probabilities, and +probabilities have unconsciously passed into assumed facts.</p> + +<p>Let us take the parallel supplied by the search for the primitive tongue +before language became the subject-matter of a science. For centuries +the idea was entertained that the honor of priority was to be accorded +to the Hebrew. In the sixteenth century Goropius, of Antwerp, proved, +beyond a peradventure, that the language of Paradise was Dutch. Erro +advocated the claims of Basque; and about a century after Goropius had +settled the question, it was gravely recorded in the minutes of the +Chapter of Pampeluna, that, though it could not be asserted with +confidence that Basque was the primitive language of mankind, yet “it +was impossible to bring forward any reasons or rational objection to +this proposition, that it was the only language spoken by Adam and Eve +in Paradise.” Assume the positive, and leave it to objectors to prove +the negative! Science came afterward, and found that not fanciful verbal +resemblances, but similarity of grammatical construction, was the test +of radical affinity, and all the above fine theories were exploded. The +rule will hold good with pottery. If two potters at two places far +remote from each other, possibly as far removed in point of time, should +produce similar forms, it would be rash at once to conclude that they +were inspired by the same idea or followed the same model. The adoption +of such a course would amount to a resuscitation of the extinct +philological rule of comparing the words in different tongues to +demonstrate relationship. We shall find a point for this caution as we +proceed.</p> + +<p>When Peruvian civilization began we have no means of ascertaining. +Repeated changes have swept over it. It rose and fell, and rose and fell +again, at epochs only partly within our ken. Of the overwhelming +antiquity claimed for it some of the facts brought together by Mr. J. D. +Baldwin may give an idea. Montesinos, a Spaniard, who believed Peru to +be the Ophir of Solomon, dates its ancient history<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_395" id="page_395">{395}</a></span> from the year <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> +2500. His first period extends down to the first or second century of +our era, when the ancient kingdom was broken up into fragments, and +shorn of its earlier glory. Then came a long interval of confusion, +strife, and internecine struggle, which ended with the advent of +Inca-Rocca, the first of the Incas. The Incas had extended their sway +over the old limits of Peru, when Pizarro came, in 1531, and with his +Spanish followers swept everything back into chaos. A greedy lust for +gold was the sole impulse of the treacherous and brutal invaders. +Perfectly dead to every sense of honor, stained with the reddest hues of +crime, too rapacious to withhold their hands from the commission of any +brutality, too crassly ignorant to care for knowledge, the Spanish +buccaneers turned Peruvian progress back in its course, and struck such +a blow at the vitality of the country that it has never recovered.</p> + +<p>It will at once be thought that <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 2500 is a very remote date at which +to begin the history of a country in the New World, but let us see what +countenance science lends to such a chronology. Professor Orton says: +“Geology and archæology are combining to prove that Sorata and +Chimborazo have looked down upon a civilization far more ancient than +that of the Incas, and perhaps coeval with the flint flakes of Cornwall +and the shell mounds of Denmark. On the shores of Lake Titicaca are +extensive ruins which antedate the advent of Manco Capac (the second of +Montesinos’ oldest dynasty of kings), and may be as venerable as the +lake-dwellings of Geneva.” Mr. James S. Wilson, in 1860, found “ancient, +or fossil, pottery” on the coast of Ecuador. To help in assigning it an +age, the fact is all-important that it was found <i>below</i> a marine +deposit several feet in thickness. This pottery, then, was made; the +land was submerged at a rate almost incalculably slow; it was covered +with a marine deposit; the land was then upheaved to its former level, +again at a very slow rate, and seventeen years ago, the pottery came to +light, like a fossil taken from the rocks, to tell us that at an age so +remote that it is hard even for imagination to reach it, the Peruvians +were accustomed to working in clay. Compared with this people the Incas +are creatures of yesterday, and the earliest date of Montesinos is +hardly mediæval. The difficulty is to assign an exact, or even an +approximate, date to the ceramic remains we possess. Many of them belong +to an era preceding<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_396" id="page_396">{396}</a></span> that of the Incas, but no more precise language can +be employed in specifying their age. The conditions, moreover, are such +that an erroneous deduction might easily be made. The great road from +Quito to Chili, for instance, is built chiefly of stone. The same +material was used for the inns along its course, and for many other +buildings. This road must, at least in part, be ascribed to a period +anterior to that of the Incas. At a later date, when the least ancient +part of Pachacamac, the ruined city of the Incas, near Lima, was built, +sun-dried bricks appear as the chief building material. Pachacamac was +originally built by the natives of the coast, and among its ruins are +those of one of their temples, composed of adobes painted red. The Inca +Mamacuna on the same site is composed of the same material. This is a +reversal of previous experience. We have hitherto associated unbaked +bricks with the earliest attempts of the potter. If we argue from +Asiatic or European usage, the most ancient Peruvians would appear as +primitive settlers ignorant of art, which we have already seen they were +not.</p> + +<p>The best articles of pottery have been taken from the tombs. The +connection of moulded clay with the burial of the dead was thus +universal. We have seen the Egyptian mummy surrounded by vases and jars, +urns holding or covering the ashes of the ancient British dead, the +hut-shaped urn of the Teuton, the remains of the Roman legionary +deposited in an <i>olla</i> covered by tiles or bricks, and the <i>tuguria</i> of +Etruria; and here, in Peru, is a precisely similar custom regulating the +burial rite.</p> + +<p>At Pachacamac Mr. Squier found three strata of mummies. Most of these +were taken from little vaults of adobes, roofed with sticks and rushes. +In one of them he found, lying beside the dead family, the implements of +the husband’s business as fisherman, the wife’s domestic articles, +including a primitive spindle, a girl’s work-box under her body, small +contrivances of hollowed bone for cosmetics, and between her feet the +dried body of a pet parrot. An infant’s body had a rattle beside it. +“Besides the bodies there were a number of utensils, and other articles +in the vault; among them half a dozen earthen jars, pans, and pots of +various sizes and ordinary form (<a href="#fig_363">Fig. 363</a>). One or two were still +incrusted with the soot of the fires over which they had been used. +Every one contained something. One was filled with<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_397" id="page_397">{397}</a></span> ground-nuts, +familiar to us as peanuts; another with maize, etc., all except the +latter in a carbonized state.” Probably the nuts and maize were +deposited for the use of the deceased in the future, and the supposition +helps to increase the illusion that we are away from Peru, and back +among the graves of Ancient Egypt. To this superstition, common, as we +have seen, to nearly all peoples, we are therefore indebted, not only +for our knowledge of Peruvian pottery, but for much of our information +regarding the people themselves. No other place could have equalled the +grave in safety for the preservation of the records which have been +passed from its secrecy into our hands. The imaginary wants of a future +state led the poor and the Inca to be laid in their respective vaults +with the articles they had used here, and which they were supposed to +stand in equal need of hereafter. “Every Inca,” says Mr. Ewbank, “had +his cooking utensils in his cemetery; not only his gold and silver ware, +but, observes the native historian, ‘the plates and dishes of his +kitchen.’” The favorable conditions of soil and climate under which they +were interred increase the difficulty of telling their age by +examination merely. They might from their appearance have been buried +for generations or for ages. It is, however, evident, from the character +of the deposits and the assumed wants they anticipated—corn, +cooking-vessels, toys, pets, fishing-lines, spindles—that the Peruvians +shared the belief held by Christians, that here they were strangers and +sojourners. They prepared for the next life by taking all their movables +with them, as if merely changing their place of abode.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_363" id="fig_363"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 208px;"> +<a href="images/illpg397_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg397_sml.jpg" width="208" height="138" alt="Fig. 363.—Pottery from Pachacamac." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 363.—Pottery from Pachacamac.</span> +</div> + +<p>The tombs being thus the great receptacles of Peruvian antiquities, what +do we find to be the general character of the art represented in the +pottery? The same that is found in the architecture or statuary of the +country, viz., the greatest possible disparity in both design and +workmanship. On one hand are creations of art, the conception of an +artist carried out by an artist’s hand; on the other are the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_398" id="page_398">{398}</a></span> most +outrageous concessions to an idolatrous barbarism. In a similar manner, +earthen-ware vessels of diametrically opposite types are found side by +side in the same tomb. To perplex us still farther, French writers have +advanced the theory that for a very long period art in South America +gradually but surely declined. They state that from a primitive +simplicity and purity of style it sank step by step into barbarism.</p> + +<p>This may or may not be true, but in any case the two sets of facts may +be thus explained. We have seen that in Egypt religion set a limit to +art. Practically the matter resolved itself into this, that the +potter-artist could rise above neither the god he worshipped nor the +sacred symbol he revered. Priestcraft is necessarily conservative. +Change and improvement involve a departure from the old, and the ancient +gods might be left behind and their shrines deserted, were art to rise +above the delineation of the artistic abominations which were encased in +sacred tradition as the symbols of deity. The image cannot change any +more than the god. In Egypt nearly every form of life—bird, beast, and +plant—was monopolized by its religious system and petrified into a +traditional form. It is possible that a similar influence was at work in +Peru. The rude forms may really have been what we have styled them, +“concessions to an idolatrous barbarism.”</p> + +<p>It is necessary in the case of Peru, as in that of China or Egypt, to +make an attempt to discover the essentials of its religion, that we may +understand its ceramic art. With Peru, however, we must in part work +backward, by first constructing a system from what we find upon pottery. +Mr. Squier gives much valuable information on this point. “To them,” he +says, referring to the sacred vessels of pottery devoted to religious +and mortuary services, “in default of other probable or possible means +of recording a religious symbolism, we must look for all the scanty +illustrations we are ever likely to obtain of the religious ideas and +conceptions of their makers.” Pachacamac took its name from the chief +divinity of the people prior to the coming of the Incas, and means, “He +who animates the universe,” “The creator of the world.” The idea of a +supreme being may thus be inferred to have been the foundation of a +system which, like many other ancient religions, resorted to symbols, +and thence by an easy transition assumed in popular practice the form of +idolatry. We thus<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_399" id="page_399">{399}</a></span> find that when the Inca Yupanqui invaded the Chimus, +he called upon them to renounce their worship of fishes and animals, and +turn to that of the sun. There is no reason for believing that the creed +of the Incas was superior to that of the Chimus. It appears rather that, +in broadly condemning that people for their worship of animals, the Inca +mistook the use of symbols for the adoration of the animals so used. Our +researches in Egypt and elsewhere would lead us to the conclusion that +if the worship of animals existed anywhere, it resulted from a +misapprehension by the ignorant of the purpose of symbolizing by living +things the attributes of a higher power. As in Egypt, so in Peru the +religion may be said to have been dual. On the one hand is the worship +of a supreme power, and the personification of visible agencies in air, +earth, and water. On the other is a lower form, an idolatry bordering +upon fetichism. Under the higher form water is personified, and the god +thus constructed is accompanied by befitting symbols of his domain—the +turtle, fish, or crab; the earth is personified, and has as symbols the +serpent and lizard; the air is also personified, and the figure carries +in his hand a spear, as representing the thunder-bolt, his symbol. Mr. +Squier gives an engraving of a design upon a Chimu vase, in which the +powers of earth and sea are arrayed in combat. The latter is armed with +the claws and shell of a crab, hence assumed to be his symbol. The +former bears on his front a serpent’s head, wields a horned serpent in +one hand, and has two similarly horned reptiles hanging at his back: +hence the serpent is accepted as his symbol. Probably coeval with a form +of belief which sought such expression, was another under which images +were resorted to, and set up as the recipients of the worship originally +directed to a higher power. It is not impossible that the worship of a +supreme being, and of his attributes and symbols, may have been +coexistent among the same people. On the contrary, such actually appears +to have been the case; and if the highest form of belief existed along +with the lowest form of expression, it is not hard, as already pointed +out, to find a reason for the coexistence of the highest and lowest +forms of art.</p> + +<p>As to the French theory of a long-continued decline of Peruvian art, if +we assume its truth, it may be explained in the light of Peruvian +history. The supposition has reference, apparently, to the earliest<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_400" id="page_400">{400}</a></span> +Peruvian elevation, prior to the dismemberment of the empire. Before the +coming of the Incas art must have suffered from the civil discord, and +under the Incas its recovery was probably hindered by the wars which +extended down to the Spanish conquest. After Pizarro—a second death.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_364" id="fig_364"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;"> +<a href="images/illpg400a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg400a_sml.jpg" width="195" height="175" alt="Fig. 364.—Peruvian Water-jar. (Smithsonian Institution, +5341.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 364.—Peruvian Water-jar. (Smithsonian Institution, +5341.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Let us now examine some of the forms of Peruvian pottery. It would be +impossible to classify or enumerate them all. Nature and religion +contributed decorations and forms. The beings of earth, sea, and +air—men, fishes (<a href="#fig_364">Fig. 364</a>), animals, and plants (<a href="#fig_365">Fig. 365</a>)—were +modelled in clay, and decorations were drawn from the same sources and +from the customs of the people. The only classification of a +comprehensive character is that into coast and inland. The former of +these divisions comprises the greater part of the specimens now +existing, including, of course, all from Pachacamac, Huacho, Santa, and +Truxillo, or Chimu. The latter includes all that comes from Cuzco (Fig. +367) and other places in the interior.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_365" id="fig_365"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;"> +<a href="images/illpg400b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg400b_sml.jpg" width="115" height="162" alt="Fig. 365.—Peruvian Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 365.—Peruvian Pottery.</span> +</div> + +<p>Visitors to the Centennial Exhibition may remember to have seen a large +array of vases and household utensils sent from Lima. In the collection +of Mr. W. B. Colville were several clay idols, belonging to the period +before the advent of the Incas. Some of these were wrapped in cloth, and +none possessed any claims to artistic finish or design. A similar image +was exhibited by Brown University, in the Rhode Island section. All were +mere caricatures of the human form. Along with them, in the space +allotted to Lima, were several hundreds of quaintly shaped water-vessels +and bottles. In some of these were to be found those compound typical +forms distinctively American. In others appeared forms which at once +recalled the Egyptian. Of the latter the most remarkable were<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_401" id="page_401">{401}</a></span> the +double or twin bottles joined together by bands at the neck and base, +after a fashion observed in Egypt and also in Mexico. It is unnecessary +to conclude from this fact that Egypt had an ancient connection with +Peru. Sometimes on one of the bottles a head was placed as a cover to +the orifice, others had both necks plain and open.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_366" id="fig_366"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 202px;"> +<a href="images/illpg401a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg401a_sml.jpg" width="202" height="227" alt="Fig. 366.—Peruvian Drinking-vessel. Stag and Doe." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 366.—Peruvian Drinking-vessel. Stag and Doe.</span> +</div> + +<p>The more characteristic forms belonged to the class comprising the +water-vessels. Of these the favorite form appeared to be what might be +described as a pot-bellied graybeard ornamented with a rude semblance of +the human face, hands, and feet. It was made of all sizes. Another might +be taken as the prototype of the modern round-bodied glass water-bottle, +or carafe. A third had the arched syphon handle characteristic of an +entire class; and on the body, under the span of the arch, was the +figure of an animal, too rudely modelled for us to give it a name. On a +small proportion of those mentioned weak and undecided colors were +applied in a primitive style of decoration, and in others the +ornamentation consisted of lines and dots or studs.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_367" id="fig_367"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg401b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg401b_sml.jpg" width="348" height="171" alt="Fig. 367.—Vases from Cuzco." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 367.—Vases from Cuzco.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_402" id="page_402">{402}</a></span></p> + +<p>The Peruvian potters bestowed a large share of their inventive talent +upon water-vessels, and the reason is not difficult to find. According +to its present limits, Peru extends from the third to the twenty-first +degree south latitude. In the sixteenth century it included the entire +territory now divided into Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Chili. The +country in which its remains are found extended over two thousand miles +south of the equator. In some parts of this vast territory rain +occasionally falls, in others never. In this fact we see the necessity +for ample means of slaking thirst. The quaint forms are largely due to +the dread of small creeping animals finding their way into the jars or +flagons. The latter were, therefore, made in the comparatively intricate +shapes already described, and in others still more complex and more +highly ornamental.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_368" id="fig_368"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> +<a href="images/illpg402_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg402_sml.jpg" width="150" height="242" alt="Fig. 368.—Coiled Water-vessel. Peru. (Smithsonian +Institution, 1403.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 368.—Coiled Water-vessel. Peru. (Smithsonian +Institution, 1403.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The largest class comprises those with the bifurcate spout, which serves +at the same time for a handle. This is found attached to vessels of +every conceivable form. The simplest shape is that seen in the specimen +from the Smithsonian Institution (<a href="#fig_368">Fig. 368</a>), the body of which, however, +is somewhat peculiar, by reason of its rising from the base in a coil of +spiral folds. Several modifications of this style are seen in the +engraving (<a href="#fig_369">Fig. 369</a>). The presence of this spout in any of its forms is +of special interest as distinctive of pottery from the coast +settlements. Its modifications include a vast number of interesting +examples more or less artistic. From the single vessel with bifurcate +spout we may pass to others in which there are two openings joined +together by a handle. Higher than these are the vases, in which, with +only one orifice, the body is double.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_369" id="fig_369"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg403a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg403a_sml.jpg" width="295" height="158" alt="Fig. 369.—Ancient Peruvian Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 369.—Ancient Peruvian Pottery.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_370" id="fig_370"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg403b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg403b_sml.jpg" width="404" height="208" alt="Fig. 370.—Peruvian Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 370.—Peruvian Pottery.</span> +</p> + +<p>In one the receptacle for the water consists of a series of four +chambers, with pointed bases arranged in a circle, and joined together +(<a href="#fig_370">Fig. 370</a>). The handle is the arch, with spout on the top. In some the +vessel assumes the form of a fish, with a handle on the ridge of<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_403" id="page_403">{403}</a></span> the +back, or of an animal with semi-human face. The twin shape is +exceedingly varied. A very fine specimen has the bottles with round, +flattened bodies, and one of them surmounted by a diminutive human +figure holding a cross on the right shoulder, while from the left the +handle crosses to the tall, slightly tapering neck of the twin bottle. +The flat sides of the bottles are decorated with studs and zigzags, +which might be construed into serpentine forms. A bird sitting in the +cavity of one neck sometimes takes the place of the heads already +alluded to. In some of the double bottles the communication is through +the handle. In others it is effected by joining the bodies together, as +in the curious specimen (<a href="#fig_371">Fig. 371</a>), in which the rudely modelled +kneeling figure of a man eating and drinking is joined to<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_404" id="page_404">{404}</a></span> the twin +compartment at the back by the passage-way between the two sections. +There are many other varieties; but the most remarkable specimens are +those in which an attempt is made to simulate the human head and form. +The former is carved in coarse lines covering the entire expanse of a +heavily formed vase, the handles of which, low down on the body, +represent the ears. Even lower than this, and parallel with the most +primitive <i>bessa</i> of Egypt, are other wide-mouthed jars of a type +altogether different, designed to serve a purpose entirely distinct from +those last considered. From these as a base we can rise to what we must +regard as the <i>chefs-d'œuvre</i> of ancient American art.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_371" id="fig_371"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 252px;"> +<a href="images/illpg404a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg404a_sml.jpg" width="252" height="178" alt="Fig. 371.—Peruvian Water-vessel. (Smithsonian Inst., +1399.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 371.—Peruvian Water-vessel. (Smithsonian Inst., +1399.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_372" id="fig_372"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 197px;"> +<a href="images/illpg404b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg404b_sml.jpg" width="197" height="253" alt="Fig. 372.—Greek Drinking-cup." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 372.—Greek Drinking-cup.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is curious to observe, en passant, a similarity of usage between Peru +and Greece (Figs. 372 and 373) in selecting the human head as the model +of a drinking-cup; but let us observe the Peruvian type. In one (Fig. +373) the head is thrown back, and from the forehead to the crown passes +the syphon handle. To balance this backward weight the face is thrust +forward, and the expression is affected by the position. We see that the +artist has made allowance for this in the lines round the mouth and the +slightly parted lips. A faint suspicion of weakness is thus left upon +the countenance. Taking it in profile, one almost wonders where the +artist found a model for the large but well-formed nose and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_405" id="page_405">{405}</a></span> strong +underjaw. Even finer is another head (<a href="#fig_374">Fig. 374</a>), covered with a +close-fitting cap falling in heavy flaps behind. In this the face is, we +would say, of the best Saxon type, full of strength, vigor, and +determination. Not a weak line can be found. With it before us, all +wonder as to the civilization of ancient Peru is at an end. Apart +altogether from the workmanship, there are moral qualities traceable in +the model which convince us that with such men civilization was a +condition of life; not a labor, but a necessity. The face wears the +placid, self-confident, powerful expression of one born to be a ruler of +men. That the artist has caught such a look of strength in repose may +imply either his mastery of portraiture or his familiarity with a high +type of manhood.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_373" id="fig_373"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg405a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg405a_sml.jpg" width="216" height="258" alt="Fig. 373.—Peruvian Drinking-vessel." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 373.—Peruvian Drinking-vessel.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_374" id="fig_374"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<a href="images/illpg405b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg405b_sml.jpg" width="161" height="228" alt="Fig. 374.—Peruvian Water-vessel." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 374.—Peruvian Water-vessel.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_375" id="fig_375"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 82px;"> +<a href="images/illpg406_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg406_sml.jpg" width="82" height="128" alt="Fig. 375.—Head of Ruminhauy." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 375.—Head of Ruminhauy.</span> +</div> + +<p>Belonging to a lower order of the same class is that given in the +engraving (<a href="#fig_375">Fig. 375</a>), the head of a man whose whole history is written +in indelible lines in his face. The head is that of Ruminhauy, or +Rumminaui, a Peruvian cacique. The piece is from the collection of +Senhor Barboza, Rio de Janeiro, and originally belonged to General +Alvares, “the last Spanish political chief and commandant of the +province of Cuzco.” Mr. Ewbank saw it at Rio, and gives a description of +it, and a sketch of the monster whose features are thus preserved. The +piece is of reddish clay, modelled by hand, nine inches in height, and +with an internal depth of six inches. Everything indicates<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_406" id="page_406">{406}</a></span> that the +work is a likeness. Little peculiarities, such as the want of a tooth +and a scar on the cheek, cannot be explained upon any other hypothesis. +The piece is comparatively recent. When, in 1531, Pizarro entered Peru +at Tumbez, the Inca, Huayna Capac, had divided his kingdom between his +two sons, Huascar and Atahualpa, between whom a struggle ensued for the +sole power, and resulted in the death of Huascar. Atahualpa was +afterward seized by Pizarro, and, under circumstances of gross treachery +and brutality, was put to death. It was then that Ruminhauy comes upon +the scene in the history of Garcilasso de la Vega. Scheming to succeed +Atahualpa, he invited his brother and children to a banquet, and, after +making them drunk, murdered them. With the skin of Atahualpa’s brother +he covered a drum, and left the scalp hanging to it. His next atrocity +was the burying alive of a number of women, young and old. “Thus,” says +Garcilasso, as quoted by Mr. Ewbank, “did this barbarous tyrant discover +more inhuman cruelty and relentless bowels by this murder committed on +poor silly women, who knew nothing but how to spin and weave, than by +his bloody treachery practised on stout soldiers and martial men. And +what farther aggravates his crime was, that he was there present to see +the execution of his detestable sentence, being more pleased with the +objects of his cruelty, and his eyes more delighted with the sad and +dismal sight of so many perishing virgins, than with any other prospect. +* * * Thus ended these poor virgins, dying only for a little feigned +laughter, which transported the tyrant beyond his senses. But this +villany passed not unpunished; for, after many other outrages he had +committed during the time of his rebellion against the Spaniards, and +after some skirmishes with Sebastian Belalcaçar (who was sent to +suppress him), and after he had found by experience that he was neither +able to resist the Spaniards, nor yet, by reason of his detestable +cruelties, to live among the Indians, he was forced to retire with his +family to the mountains of <i>Antis</i>, where he suffered the fate of other +tyrannical usurpers, and then most miserably perished.” These details, +beside giving a ghastly kind of interest to the object engraved, enable +us to form an opinion of the artist’s ability. Aside from the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_407" id="page_407">{407}</a></span> +possibility that the piece has preserved the actual features of the +monster, it certainly gives expression to all the bad qualities with +which the historian has clothed Ruminhauy, and contrasts strongly with +those given above, and with that (<a href="#fig_376">Fig. 376</a>) from the Smithsonian +Institution.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_376" id="fig_376"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 176px;"> +<a href="images/illpg407a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg407a_sml.jpg" width="176" height="234" alt="Fig. 376.—Peruvian Water-vessel." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 376.—Peruvian Water-vessel.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_377" id="fig_377"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 206px;"> +<a href="images/illpg407b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg407b_sml.jpg" width="206" height="243" alt="Fig. 377—Peruvian Water-vessel. (Smithsonian +Institution, 7242.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 377—Peruvian Water-vessel. (Smithsonian +Institution, 7242.)</span> +</div> + +<p>After these individual examples a few of the leading points of Peruvian +decoration and technique must be noticed. We have seen that in forms the +leading tendency was toward the reproduction of the natural object. +Mingled as the high is with the low, the ultimate aim appears to have +been the excellence contained in similitude. In decoration we find +designs with which old-world experience has made us more or less +familiar. The vessels on which they appear illustrate the tendency not +toward a purely ornamental art, but toward the artistic embellishment of +the useful. Like all other nations, the Peruvians rose from use to +beauty, and having devised the shape best subserving the useful object, +they then attempted its ornamentation. In doing so they resorted to +decoration closely allied with the European and Asiatic. Their fret is +the same as that distinguished by the name “Grecian,” although it +originally came from Asia. Their scrolls also occasionally bear a close +resemblance to the European. The faces already referred to are either +incised, engraved, or laid upon the surface. Those engraved leave the +impression of having been cut into a body made<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_408" id="page_408">{408}</a></span> sufficiently thick to +permit of the successful application of such a method of decoration. +They have no appearance whatever of having been made from a mould. Of +the same general character is the drinking-vessel (<a href="#fig_377">Fig. 377</a>). The +design, the import of which it is difficult to determine, is graved in a +panel covering the greater part of one side of the piece. Other pieces +have the figures similarly graved upon panels studded with dots, for the +evident purpose of heightening the relief. On one of this class is a +long-billed bird, and on another, which is here given (<a href="#fig_378">Fig. 378</a>), the +design consists of a nondescript animal. A singular resemblance to a +Chinese habit is discoverable in the employment of monkey forms, either +for handles or otherwise, where the Chinese used those of lizards. On +one of the double-bellied bottles common to Peru, China, and Japan, we +find two monkeys clinging to the upper sphere, as if supporting it.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_378" id="fig_378"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<a href="images/illpg408a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg408a_sml.jpg" width="159" height="168" alt="Fig. 378.—Peruvian Pitcher. (Smithsonian Institution.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 378.—Peruvian Pitcher. (Smithsonian Institution.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The chief colors employed were red, black, and brown. It appears +probable that they were mineral colors fixed by firing, since we cannot +otherwise account for their preservation. The Chilians are said (Hartt) +to have baked their pottery in holes dug in the hill-sides, and to have +applied to it a sort of varnish made of mineral earth. It is worth +noting, however, that the Peruvians possessed vegetable dyes of which we +have no practical knowledge. All the wonderful colors used for dyeing +cloth, which preserved their original hue and brilliancy after ages of +exposure or burial in the tombs, are vegetable. The lasting quality +alone does not, therefore, compel the conclusion that the colors on +pottery are mineral.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_379" id="fig_379"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 204px;"> +<a href="images/illpg408b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg408b_sml.jpg" width="204" height="178" alt="Fig. 379.—The Caballito, from Chimu." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 379.—The Caballito, from Chimu.</span> +</div> + +<p>The consideration of the uses of these colors, and of several other<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_409" id="page_409">{409}</a></span> +kinds of decoration, may be combined with that of the customs and tastes +of the Peruvians as reflected in their clay records. Travellers reaching +Peru from the sea tell of encountering, as they neared the shore, +numbers of the natives paddling their <i>caballitos</i>. These quaint +apologies for boats are merely bundles of reeds tied together, across +which the boatman strides, and rows, Indian fashion, with a +double-bladed paddle. The prow is turned up in front. So crazy a craft +would seem to be among the things least calculated to inspire the potter +with an idea. It did, however, prove suggestive (<a href="#fig_379">Fig. 379</a>), and the +<i>caballito</i> has been found in clay on the sites of different coast +settlements.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_380" id="fig_380"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 207px;"> +<a href="images/illpg409a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg409a_sml.jpg" width="207" height="101" alt="Fig. 380.—Trumpet. Baked Clay." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 380.—Trumpet. Baked Clay.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_381" id="fig_381"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 209px;"> +<a href="images/illpg409b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg409b_sml.jpg" width="209" height="267" alt="Fig. 381.—Tambourine Player." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 381.—Tambourine Player.</span> +</div> + +<p>We also learn from their ceramic decorations that the Peruvians of Chimu +lived in buildings of a single story with slanting roof, and having a +hole in the gable for light or ventilation. That they had a taste for +music is placed beyond dispute by their vessels and instruments of clay +(<a href="#fig_380">Fig. 380</a>). Some of their ruder devices are very singular. Mr. Ewbank +mentions a whistle formed in the body of a small bird of baked clay. The +relic, he says, was very old, and the head missing. “The tone was shrill +and clear, and was pleasantly modified by partially or wholly closing +with the finger an opening in the breast.” The water-vessels are also +sometimes so constructed that the handle passes from the spout on one +side to a similar projection on the other, on which is a bird or +animal’s head. The air rushing through a hole left in the latter, as the +vessel is being filled or<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_410" id="page_410">{410}</a></span> emptied, frequently causes a sound resembling +that peculiar to the bird or animal. To this class of “whistling jars” +belongs the double vessel (<a href="#fig_371">Fig. 371</a>) representing a man at lunch. +Musicians and musical instruments are painted upon vases, and, as in the +cut (<a href="#fig_381">Fig. 381</a>), the vessel itself may be a representation of a musician.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_382" id="fig_382"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 143px;"> +<a href="images/illpg410a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg410a_sml.jpg" width="143" height="204" alt="Fig. 382.—Black-ware. Peruvian. (Smithsonian Inst., +1701.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 382.—Black-ware. Peruvian. (Smithsonian Inst., +1701.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_383" id="fig_383"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<a href="images/illpg410b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg410b_sml.jpg" width="173" height="184" alt="Fig. 383.—Peruvian Cup, found at Arequipa. (Smithsonian +Inst., 1812.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 383.—Peruvian Cup, found at Arequipa. (Smithsonian +Inst., 1812.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_384" id="fig_384"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg411a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg411a_sml.jpg" width="301" height="187" alt="Fig. 384.—Peruvian Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 384.—Peruvian Pottery.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_385" id="fig_385"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg411b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg411b_sml.jpg" width="359" height="229" alt="Fig. 385.—Peruvian Vessels." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 385.—Peruvian Vessels.</span> +</p> + +<p>The decorations hitherto observed have consisted of gravings in the +paste, dots, and colors. The black-ware jar (<a href="#fig_382">Fig. 382</a>) is a farther +exemplification of the first of these methods. The head and the ears of +corn which divide the surface into four sections have all been +apparently carved in an originally thick body. By cutting it down the +ears are left in high relief. The specimen is evidently very old. The +vessels decorated with paintings are generally of a totally different +artistic order, although a few, such as the cup here given (<a href="#fig_383">Fig. 383</a>), +combine painting with a rude attempt at modelling. The handle consists +of a monkey with its forepaws, or hands, resting upon the edge of the +cup. It was taken from a grave at Arequipa, eleven feet below the +surface of the soil, and was brought to this country and presented to +the Smithsonian Institution by United States Consul Eckel, Talcahuana, +Chili. The decoration is dark brown on a creamy ground. Similar to it, +but having the mitred head of an Inca on the handle, is the cup on the +left of the adjoining cut (<a href="#fig_384">Fig. 384</a>). The other vessels, with the +exception possibly of the lower one, have been used as pans or boilers, +the largest showing marks of the fire, and all being destitute of +ornament with the exception of the painted stopper of the largest +specimen. It thus appears the Peruvians used earthen-ware for culinary +purposes, and several vessels of this kind are elaborately<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_411" id="page_411">{411}</a></span> painted in +black and red on the yellow ground. In the illustration (<a href="#fig_385">Fig. 385</a>) Nos. +1 and 3 are of this class. They were apparently designed either to be +suspended above an open fire, or to rest in a stove-cover perforated for +their reception. To serve the purpose of a lid hollow stoppers, like No. +4, were used. The lower part of the vessels is undecorated. The +flat-bottomed pitcher and bowl, Nos. 2 and 5, are especially worthy of +attention for their decoration. The light red body of the former is +covered with a dark chocolate ground-color, in which the design appears +in white—a mingling of the star, circle, and chain<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_412" id="page_412">{412}</a></span> pattern. Other +varieties are seen in the pieces (<a href="#fig_386">Fig. 386</a>) from Senhor Barboza’s +collection. On the left is a caldron, flat-bottomed and with side rings. +The greater part of its ornamentation has been worn away. The remaining +three pieces are supposed to have been used for carrying liquids, and +that on the right has, besides the rings on the body, perforated ears +immediately below the lip. The decoration of the small round-bottomed +pichet consists of incised lines. The long-necked bottle is ornamented +in colors, in regard to the arrangement of which the piece may be taken +as representing a large class of vessels in which the +decoration—consisting of squares, the larger containing the smaller—is +arranged vertically. The art is of the same order as the geometrical +designs and concentric circles of Phœnicia and early Greece. We find +it again in the shallow ladles (<a href="#fig_387">Fig. 387</a>), notably in that on the right, +which was found near St. Sebastian, Cuzco, in 1820.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_386" id="fig_386"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg412a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg412a_sml.jpg" width="352" height="111" alt="Fig. 386.—Peruvian Pottery. (Senhor Barboza Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 386.—Peruvian Pottery. (Senhor Barboza Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_387" id="fig_387"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg412b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg412b_sml.jpg" width="313" height="129" alt="Fig. 387.—Peruvian Pottery. (Barboza Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 387.—Peruvian Pottery. (Barboza Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>On these pieces yellow is combined with the red, white, brown, and black +we have hitherto met. A yet richer palette was brought to the decoration +of the flat circular bottle (<a href="#fig_388">Fig. 388</a>), the upper part of which is +painted upon the red paste in black, white, green, and purple lines.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_413" id="page_413">{413}</a></span></p> + +<p>As to the processes to which the Peruvians resorted, Marryat quotes a +passage from Southey’s “History of Brazil” which gives a little light. +“The Tupinambas,” he says, “were in many respects an improved race. The +women were skilful potters. They dried their vessels in the sun, then +inverted them, and covered them with dry bark, to which they set fire, +and thus baked them sufficiently. Many of the American tribes carried +this art to great perfection. There are some who bury their dead in jars +large enough to receive them erect.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_388" id="fig_388"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg413_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg413_sml.jpg" width="391" height="132" alt="Fig. 388.—Peruvian Pottery. (Barboza Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 388.—Peruvian Pottery. (Barboza Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>“The Tupinambas, by means of some white liquid, glazed the inside of +their vessels so well, that it is said that the potters in France could +not do it better. The outside was generally finished with less care. +Those, however, in which they kept their food were frequently painted in +scrolls and flourishes, intricately intertwisted and nicely executed, +but after no pattern; nor could they copy what they had once produced. +This earthen-ware was in common use; and De Lery observes that in this +respect the savages were better furnished than those persons in his own +country who fed from trenchers and wooden bowls.” Other Indian tribes +used water-colors after burning, and also a vegetable varnish. How far +these customs extended we cannot define by geographical limits. It shows +the tendency of this people, already remarked in the Peruvians, to +making beauty subservient to use. An inside glaze in connection with a +rough exterior is something rarely to be found elsewhere. That the +Peruvians used moulds is almost certain. Mr. Hartt is of the opinion +that many of their vessels were moulded in two parts and then luted +together, and that some of the moulds were made from natural objects. He +also suggests that the mould was sometimes made from a pattern vessel, +and then baked.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_414" id="page_414">{414}</a></span></p> + +<p>To conclude as to Peru, its ceramics may yet be more fully and +systematically studied. At present it is instructive to remark how, on +the assumption of its art being original and not derivative, it sought +expression in ways so nearly identical with those of the Old World. A +theory of chronology cannot, in the present condition of our knowledge, +be constructed. The works passed in review evidently belong to epochs +far apart from each other, and probably to different branches of the +people inhabiting Peru. Some of the specimens are undoubtedly very old, +and others, including the painted wares, cannot be ascribed to a very +remote era. The head of Ruminhauy cannot be referred to a more distant +date than the middle of the sixteenth century, and the modern work, +though inferior to that we have noticed, is too closely allied to it, in +composition and the style of decoration, for us to feel justified in +according to much of the older painted pottery a greater age than two or +three hundred years.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_389" id="fig_389"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg414a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg414a_sml.jpg" width="216" height="83" alt="Fig. 389.—Brazilian Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 389.—Brazilian Pottery.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_390" id="fig_390"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;"> +<a href="images/illpg414b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg414b_sml.jpg" width="222" height="255" alt="Fig. 390—Brazilian Coroados Chief, in Funeral Urn." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 390—Brazilian Coroados Chief, in Funeral Urn.</span> +</div> + +<p>Of modern Brazil we would expect much, if we take its ruler, the +indefatigable and enlightened Dom Pedro, as a representative of his +people. Our knowledge is extremely meagre. In an otherwise admirable +section at the Centennial Exhibition, the pottery was of little +consequence. The best works were unglazed terra-cottas, Greek in form, +and decorated with Greek subjects. There were also some vases of red +clay representing native Brazilian forms decorated with reliefs, +medallions, and faces, in light-brown clay. In others the colors<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_415" id="page_415">{415}</a></span> were +reversed, the light brown clay forming the body and the red the +ornaments. Some of the better specimens are now in the Smithsonian +Institute, at Washington.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_391" id="fig_391"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg415_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg415_sml.jpg" width="296" height="275" alt="Fig. 391.—Modern Brazilian Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 391.—Modern Brazilian Pottery.</span> +</p> + +<p>Of the ancient Brazilian pottery Mr. Thomas Ewbank describes a basin +(<a href="#fig_389">Fig. 389</a>) in the Rio Museum. It is made presumably by hand, as no marks +of the wheel are observable, of a grayish yellow clay imperfectly +burned, covered with a light and poor kind of glazing, and is overrun by +minute cracks. It is colored inside and out with red, yellow, and brown. +The outside was black with smoke, and suggests that the vessel may have +been used as a pot or caldron. The decoration consists of a dark-red +band just below the rim, and a tangled mass of lines and dots. Some of +the tribes, and among them the Coroados of the Parahiba River, used +earthen jars for the reception of the mummies of their chiefs (Fig. +390). Mr. Ewbank also gives some interesting details regarding the +making and quality of modern Brazilian pottery. On one estate which he +visited he found a number of female slaves engaged in making bricks and +tiles. The native Brazilian gives no encouragement to foreign trade, +preferring the pottery of his own country as better suited to the +domestic usages<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_416" id="page_416">{416}</a></span> among which he lives. Water-vessels form the staple of +the industry, entire cargoes sometimes consisting of <i>talhas</i> and +<i>moringues</i>, for holding water and drinking. The large centre piece in +the illustration (<a href="#fig_391">Fig. 391</a>) is a <i>talha</i>, and may be seen in almost any +Brazilian house. It will hold from ten to fifteen gallons. The four +vases in the engraving, two on either side of the talha, are varieties +of the same vessel. Of the drinking-vessels the most common is that +called the “monkey” (<a href="#fig_392">Fig. 392</a>, <i>a</i>). Although it holds from a gallon and +a half to two gallons and a half, it is used without the intervention of +a tumbler, the smaller spout being applied to the lips. In the same +engraving, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>e</i> are table moringues, as are those at +<i>i</i>, <i>i</i>. The decanter, <i>h</i>, is common porous earthen-ware, admirably +suited for keeping its contents cool. The ewer and basin, <i>f</i> and <i>g</i>, +are highly colored earthen-ware from Bahia, and between them stands an +Indian moringue of ingenious construction. It is filled from the bottom +by means of the tube marked by a dotted line. The cup-like vessel at <i>k</i> +is one of the ordinary kind of censers.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_392" id="fig_392"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg416_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg416_sml.jpg" width="326" height="301" alt="Fig. 392.—Modern Brazilian Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 392.—Modern Brazilian Pottery.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_417" id="page_417">{417}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_393" id="fig_393"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg417_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg417_sml.jpg" width="216" height="127" alt="Fig. 393.—Corrugated Ware. Colombia. (Smithsonian +Institution, 15,352.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 393.—Corrugated Ware. Colombia. (Smithsonian +Institution, 15,352.)</span> +</div> + +<p>To show that the Peruvians did not necessarily use mineral colors for +their pottery, Mr. W. H. Edwards’s description of the processes he found +among the wild tribes on the Amazon may be referred to. Their colors +were of the simplest kind: indigo blue, black from the juice of the +mandioca, green from another plant, and red and yellow from clays. A +small kind of palm was made into a brush to apply the pigments. The +designs consisted of squares, circles, and rudely drawn figures. A +resinous gum was rubbed over the vessels after they had been warmed, and +answered all the purposes of a glaze.</p> + +<p>Before leaving the South American continent attention may be directed to +a single specimen from Colombia. It is (<a href="#fig_393">Fig. 393</a>) an unpainted bowl of +corrugated ware, and is of importance to the present inquiry, as +belonging, apparently, to a class of pottery of which examples have been +found in many parts of the North American continent. These will be +treated of hereafter.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_418" id="page_418">{418}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II-b4" id="CHAPTER_II-b4"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> +<small>CENTRAL AMERICA.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Connection with Peru.—Nicaragua.—Ometepec.—Modern +Potters.—Guatemala.—Ancient Cities.—Who Built +Them.—Copan.—Quirigua.—Palenque.—Mitla.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_394" id="fig_394"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 225px;"> +<a href="images/illpg418_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg418_sml.jpg" width="225" height="205" alt="Fig. 394.—Red-ware Vase. Ometepec. (Smithsonian +Institution, 28,914.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 394.—Red-ware Vase. Ometepec. (Smithsonian +Institution, 28,914.)</span> +</div> + +<p>P<small>ASSING</small> the Isthmus we reach the archaeological wonderland comprising +Central America and Mexico. It is not improbable that there was an early +connection between the ancient occupants of these regions and the South +Americans. As they appear to us in their architectural remains, however, +there is little beyond the grandeur common to their undertakings to +suggest affinity. At the time of the Conquest the natives of the Isthmus +had undoubtedly relations with Peru. It was there that Balboa and the +more successful Pizarro first heard anything definite of that country. +On Pizarro’s second attempt to reach the rumored land of gold, he met +one of the Peruvian <i>balsas</i> laden with textile fabrics, silver mirrors, +vases, and general merchandise. It is curious to find Mr. Squier +describing the same primitive craft in the Gulf of Guayaquil, more than +three hundred and fifty years later. These rafts could hardly have been +used for distant voyages, but were apparently the means of carrying on a +coast trade between Peru and the north. The inhabitants of the Isthmus +had a tolerably<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_419" id="page_419">{419}</a></span> intimate acquaintance with Peru, and Balboa, according +to Mr. Baldwin, gained clear information in regard to that country from +natives who had evidently seen it. From this it may be inferred that the +intercourse between the two peoples was sufficiently close to account +for any similarity between the pottery belonging to Central America and +that of Peru.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_395" id="fig_395"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> +<a href="images/illpg419a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg419a_sml.jpg" width="175" height="203" alt="Fig. 395.—Nicaraguan Vase. Ometepec. (Smithsonian +Institution, 28,436.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 395.—Nicaraguan Vase. Ometepec. (Smithsonian +Institution, 28,436.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_396" id="fig_396"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 221px;"> +<a href="images/illpg419b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg419b_sml.jpg" width="221" height="136" alt="Fig. 396.—Painted Tripod. Ometepec. (Smithsonian +Institution, 28,479.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 396.—Painted Tripod. Ometepec. (Smithsonian +Institution, 28,479.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Passing northward through Costa Rica, where many specimens have been +found, we reach Nicaragua. Dr. J. F. Bransford, U. S. N., exhumed from +the graves on Ometepec Island, in Lake Nicaragua, a number of very +interesting relics, which are now in the Smithsonian Institution. They +are especially worthy of study as having been discovered in different +deposits marked by successive layers of volcanic matter. One of the +oldest (<a href="#fig_394">Fig. 394</a>) was taken from a grave below the low-water level of +the lake. Making due allowance for the fact that the lake lies in a +region dotted in every direction with volcanoes, the grave and its +contents must still possess a very respectable antiquity. Generally the +old burying-grounds occupy elevated sites. The design resembles the +double cross, and is graved in the paste. A similar style of decoration +appears on another vase (<a href="#fig_395">Fig. 395</a>) from the same district. The red clay +is covered with a creamy enamel, overrun with incised lines. These are +carried round the body in two bands of three lines each, and are +otherwise disposed over the surface without any apparent method in the +arrangement. The colors found upon many of the Peruvian vessels, red, +creamy buff, and black, are seen upon the tripod (Fig.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_420" id="page_420">{420}</a></span> 396), also from +Ometepec. Whatever may have been the purpose for which this vessel was +employed, its use was not confined to Ometepec. At Gueguetenango, in +Guatemala, Mr. Stephens found one of polished ware of the same general +design. It was taken from a vault containing bones, under a +religious—probably a sacrificial—pyramidal structure. The specimen +from Ometepec was found in a grave.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_397" id="fig_397"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg420a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg420a_sml.jpg" width="344" height="134" alt="Fig. 397.—Burial Urns from Ometepec." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 397.—Burial Urns from Ometepec.</span> +</p> + +<p>The urns of the ancient Nicaraguans are generally of one shape (Fig. +397), and have been found containing both ashes and unburned bones. +Terra-cotta vessels of all kinds, some of them painted, have been dug up +both within and beyond the bounds of the cemeteries. They occasionally +take the form of men (<a href="#fig_398">Fig. 398</a>) and animals.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_398" id="fig_398"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 201px;"> +<a href="images/illpg420b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg420b_sml.jpg" width="201" height="241" alt="Fig. 398.—Terra-cotta from Ometepec—¼ size." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 398.—Terra-cotta from Ometepec—¼ size.</span> +</div> + +<p>The present inhabitants are skilful potters. They follow methods of +decorating practically identical with those of the Brazilians, and such +as they have been acquainted with for at least three centuries. The +wheel is unknown among them. Colors and a kind of glaze are both brought +into requisition.</p> + +<p>The old inhabitants of Guatemala have left clay idols and urns. One of +the former, from Santa Cruz del Quiche, and here given in front and +profile (<a href="#fig_399">Fig. 399</a>), is<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_421" id="page_421">{421}</a></span> hollow, very hard and smooth. It is said to be +the image of Cabuahuil, one of the old deities of the country. From the +same district come the terra-cotta heads (<a href="#fig_400">Fig. 400</a>), one of which—that +on the left—is hollow, and the other is solid. They are well polished +and extremely hard.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_399" id="fig_399"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg421a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg421a_sml.jpg" width="370" height="296" alt="Profile of Figure. + +Fig. 399.—Terra-cotta Hollow Figure, from Santa Cruz del Quiche, +Guatemala." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption"><span style="margin-left: 50%;">Profile of Figure.</span><br /> +Fig. 399.—Terra-cotta Hollow Figure, from Santa Cruz del Quiche, +Guatemala.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_400" id="fig_400"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg421b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg421b_sml.jpg" width="254" height="102" alt="Fig. 400.—Terra-cotta Heads, from Santa Cruz del Quiche, +Guatemala." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 400.—Terra-cotta Heads, from Santa Cruz del Quiche, +Guatemala.</span> +</p> + +<p>Resembling the burial urns of Ometepec is one taken from a mound at +Gueguetenango (<a href="#fig_401">Fig. 401</a>). The chief differences are the handle and a +decoration in relief on the unpolished surface. It was accompanied by a +vase or cup (<a href="#fig_402">Fig. 402</a>) of polished ware tastefully decorated with bands +and a graved design.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_401" id="fig_401"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg422a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg422a_sml.jpg" width="281" height="157" alt="Fig. 401.—Vase found at Gueguetenango, Guatemala." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 401.—Vase found at Gueguetenango, Guatemala.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_402" id="fig_402"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 111px;"> +<a href="images/illpg422b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg422b_sml.jpg" width="111" height="155" alt="Fig. 402.—Vase found in a Mound at Gueguetenango, +Guatemala." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 402.—Vase found in a Mound at Gueguetenango, +Guatemala.</span> +</div> + +<p>Over this entire region, extending from Nicaragua to Mexico, and only +partially explored, there are evidences of successive changes having +taken place between<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_422" id="page_422">{422}</a></span> the Spanish conquest and a remote antiquity. As in +Peru, dates are purely conjectural. Epochs are marked by broad +divisions, such as make it clear that the changes which took place were +deeply felt. History, properly so called, gives us but little aid. We +are told of a time when the Chichimecs inhabited the country—a rude, +ignorant people, classed as aboriginal. The name Chichimecs is applied +to all savage tribes. They may have been either the original inhabitants +of the country, or wanderers from the Peruvian centre of civilization, +from which they had been separated so long that they had relapsed into +barbarism, or detached portions of the original settlers who travelled +from the north to the south. In any event, civilization came to Central +America with the Colhuas, who introduced the arts and industries, and +left the grandest monuments to be found in that strange land. Who were +the Colhuas? and whence did they come? No positive answer can be +returned to these questions, and that is selected which appears most +reasonable, viz., that they came by sea from the northern parts of South +America. Tradition points in this direction. After the Colhuas the +Toltecs arrived, and reduced their predecessors to subjection at a +suppositious epoch, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 1000. For some reason or other, possibly on +account of both internal disorganization and attack from without, the +Toltec power is said to have decayed a few centuries<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_423" id="page_423">{423}</a></span> before the Aztecs +appear on the scene. Several hundred years later (1519) Cortez arrived, +and the results marking Pizarro’s conquest of Peru followed in Mexico. +That the Aztecs were a people of great intelligence cannot reasonably be +doubted; that they equalled their Toltec or Colhuan predecessors may be +questioned. All the evidence goes to show that they went upward from the +South, where they had existed as a semi-civilized tribe, and that, on +reaching the seat of the Toltecs, they subjugated them, and availed +themselves, to the best of their ability, of all the knowledge and +attainments with which conquest brought them in contact. The beginnings +of Central American civilization are buried in an antiquity which even +to the Aztecs was remote. To measure it, we must bear in mind that +forests grow upon the ruins of cities which were as inaccessible to the +Aztecs as they are to the modern explorer, and that the science and art +of which they are the monuments must have required many centuries to +develop.</p> + +<p>We have already glanced at a few of the ancient settlements on the +Pacific slope. The remains found among the ruins of Yucatan and the +entire sweep of country between the Sierra Madre and the Gulf and +Caribbean Sea were also taken from the tombs. They are usually of a red +paste, and present an endless variety of form and, if those found +together are contemporaneous, an equally wide range of taste. Of the +leading cities it is necessary to mention only Quirigua, Copan, and +Palenque. Of these the first named is considered the most ancient, and +Palenque the most modern. Copan is situated in the western part of +Honduras, and many urns of the prevailing red color have been taken from +the recesses of its arched tombs. At Palenque and Mitla a +silico-alkaline glaze covers some of the specimens of gray earthen-ware. +The shapes include grotesque images of deities and priests, and rudely +modelled snakes and other animals. Found at places far apart, and +presenting widely varying characteristics, these potteries admit of no +classification, either by date or character.</p> + +<p>In Central Mexico bricks were used alternatively with stone for facing +the gigantic pyramidal mounds which there abound. The Tlascalans, who +aided Cortez in his war upon Montezuma, burned their bricks.</p> + +<p>At Palenque, farther to the south, the ceramic remains are of a higher +artistic order. At the risk of invading the domain of architecture,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_424" id="page_424">{424}</a></span> we +may mention the stucco or plaster figures with which the buildings were +embellished. In other places were statuettes, one of which is described +as “made of baked clay, very hard, and the surface smooth, as if coated +with enamel.” At Mitla we again meet with the phenomenon which we found +so strange in Peru—the association of two entirely different orders of +art, the most magnificent architecture and exquisite inlaid decoration +with rude paintings of the figures of idols. The knowledge of coloring +materials is nowhere better illustrated than in Yucatan, where red, +yellow, blue, green, and brown appear in the wall-paintings. We find the +pottery of Nicaragua compared with that of Mexico and Peru, but far more +enthusiastic language was employed by the Spaniards in regard to what +they saw. Cortez, in 1520, compared the pottery of Tlascala with the +best of Spanish manufacture, and Herrera finds in Faenza ware the best +parallel with that of Chulula.</p> + +<p>Should farther explorations be made of the cities buried by the forests +which have sprung up around the ruins we have indicated, a more +connected history of the ceramics of the entire region may be written. +At present one is liable to be lost in conjecture, and to launch into +speculations such as that which very plausibly attributes to Central +America a civilization the most ancient in the world.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_425" id="page_425">{425}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III-b4" id="CHAPTER_III-b4"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> +<small>THE MOUND-BUILDERS.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Who were they?—Their supposed Central American Origin.—The place +they occupy in the present History.—Recent Discoveries.—Pottery +of the Lower Mississippi.—Deduction from Comparison with Peruvian.</p></div> + +<p><a name="fig_403" id="fig_403"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg425_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg425_sml.jpg" width="292" height="143" alt="Fig. 403.—Mound-builders’ Vases, from Southern Missouri. +Centre piece, height, 9 inches. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 403.—Mound-builders’ Vases, from Southern Missouri. +Centre piece, height, 9 inches. (Mrs. J. V. L. Pruyn Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p>I<small>N</small> the central part of the North American continent, along the valleys +of the Mississippi and the Ohio, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great +Lakes, the land was, in a very remote age, settled by a people akin to +those of Mexico and Central America. Their name is now unknown, and to +designate them they are, from the great mounds of earth which they have +left, called “Mound-builders.” Whence they came or whither they went is +unknown. It is conjectured that they are the same people whom we have +called Toltecs; that therefore they passed up from the south, and then, +in course of ages, deserted their northern settlements on the incursion +from the north-west of the Asiatic tribes known as North American +Indians. It is surmised that they were then in part absorbed by the +invaders of their lands, and that they in part sought refuge in the +south, whence they had<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_426" id="page_426">{426}</a></span> issued centuries before. Their long absence had +given them all the appearance of a distinct people. The evidence in +favor of these several surmises may be condensed into the following +form:—</p> + +<p>That the mounds of North America were intended apparently for both +religious and defensive purposes, and are practically identical with +those of Central America;</p> + +<p>That their most populous settlements were in the southern part of the +Mississippi valley, whence they passed upward until they reached and +overspread the valley of the Ohio;</p> + +<p>That, according to old books and traditions, the Toltecs reached Central +America from the north-east;</p> + +<p>That the reason given for the Toltecs deserting their settlements in the +north-east, designated Huehue-Tlapalan, was the successive attacks of +Chichimecs. We have already seen that the name Chichimecs was applied to +all barbarians, and would in this case point to the North American +Indians.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_404" id="fig_404"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 92px;"> +<a href="images/illpg426a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg426a_sml.jpg" width="92" height="122" alt="Fig. 404.—Mound-builders’ Vase. (Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 404.—Mound-builders’ Vase. (Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The question is an important one, since in the above view the +Mound-builders would, as we shall hereafter see, form the link +connecting the ancient people of South and Central America with the +pottery-making Indians of our own time in New Mexico, Colorado, and +Arizona.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_405" id="fig_405"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<a href="images/illpg426b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg426b_sml.jpg" width="185" height="160" alt="Fig. 405.—Missouri Mound-builders’ Vase. (Smithsonian +Institution, 27,939.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 405.—Missouri Mound-builders’ Vase. (Smithsonian +Institution, 27,939.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Now and again new discoveries are made which act as stimuli to fresh +researches. A few months ago a terra-cotta tablet covered with written +characters was reported to have been brought to light in Stoddard +County, Missouri. It was said to bear the appearance of having been +impressed with its undecipherable characters while the clay was still +damp, to have then been hardened and glazed. A hint is all that is +needed to originate speculation. We can turn to the terra-cotta tablets +of Assyria and ask if there is<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_427" id="page_427">{427}</a></span> no connection between them and this +Missouri relic, and if the partially submerged continent in mid-Atlantic +of old writers is really mythical. Such a hint was dropped at the time +of the discovery. It might possibly be better to compare the tablet with +some of the inscriptions of Central America. It concerns us more at +present to find that the Mound-builders used sun-dried bricks in rearing +their giant structures. In the Lower Mississippi and along the Gulf +these bricks appear to have been generally employed to strengthen the +embankments. One in Mississippi is described as having a supporting wall +of “sun-dried brick two feet thick, filled with grass, rushes, and +leaves.” On some appears the impress of human hands. As to their +pottery, it may be said in general terms to compare well with that of +the South Americans. In the Peabody Museum at Harvard, an extensive +collection has been brought together. Some of the vases are admirably +finished, and of good design. Others are quaintly designed, but somewhat +rudely worked, and would appear to indicate that fictile art had little +attraction for that people. We have seen numberless specimens showing a +partiality even in the humblest vessels for imitations of animal and +human forms. Examples of this and other kinds are given in the preceding +illustrations.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_406" id="fig_406"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<a href="images/illpg427a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg427a_sml.jpg" width="78" height="110" alt="Fig. 406.—Mound-builders’ Jar. (Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 406.—Mound-builders’ Jar. (Boston Museum of Fine +Arts.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_407" id="fig_407"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg427b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg427b_sml.jpg" width="339" height="176" alt="Fig. 407.—Mound-builders’ Vases." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 407.—Mound-builders’ Vases.</span> +</p> + +<p>From a comparison of the pottery of the Mound-builders with that<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_428" id="page_428">{428}</a></span> of +South and Central America, the conclusion will be inevitably reached +that the view already taken of the migrations of the former people is +correct. Between the ruder works of the two peoples there is often a +striking and close resemblance. To this class belongs a great deal of +the pottery of the Mound-builders to be seen in collections. Among them +we find nothing equal to the best Peruvian art; but in the details of +decoration and the tendency of the potter toward certain typical forms, +specimens may be discovered such as we might expect from a nation +composed of emigrants, and far removed from the centre where the +rudiments of their art were acquired.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_429" id="page_429">{429}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV-b4" id="CHAPTER_IV-b4"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> +<small>INDIAN POTTERY.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Successors of the Mound-builders.—Opinion of Professor +Marsh.—Pueblos descended from the Mound-builders.—Natchez and +Mandan Tribes.—Pueblos of Colorado, etc.—Pottery found at El +Moro.—Zuni.—Further Discoveries.—Immense Quantities of +Fragmentary Pottery.—Corrugated Pottery of Colorado.—Painted +Pottery.—Moquis of Tegua.—Modern Pueblos.—Trade in +Pottery.—Resemblances between Potteries of South, Central, and +North America.—Indian Pottery from Illinois.—Louisiana, and how +Pottery made.—New Jersey Indians.—Tennessee.—Maryland.—Other +Indian Tribes.</p></div> + +<p>A<small>FTER</small> the Mound-builders came the Indians. A distinction must be +observed between the real North American Indians and those tribes in New +Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona, of whose pottery specimens belonging to +the present day have been obtained. It is clear that whether or not the +Mound-builders and Toltecs were the same people, the former had no +affinity of race with the Indians. They were undoubtedly an American +race, while the Indians were as undoubtedly Asiatic, for whom no +ancestry can with any show of reason be traced to the Mound-builders. +Were the resemblance between the Indians and the nomadic tribes of +Siberia beyond Behring Strait to be set aside as proving nothing, we +should yet have the tradition common to many tribes pointing to a +north-western source, to fall back upon in disposing of the question of +the origin of the red man. We may, therefore, leave him out of farther +present consideration, and turn to the successors of the Mound-builders.</p> + +<p>Professor O. C. Marsh in a recent lecture touched upon this point, and +at the same time hinted at a possible community of race among all the +ancient peoples of America. “On the Columbia River,” he said, “I have +found evidence of the former existence of inhabitants much superior to +the Indians at present there, and of which no tradition remains. Among +many stone carvings which I saw, there were a<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_430" id="page_430">{430}</a></span> number of heads which so +strongly resemble those of apes that the likeness at once suggests +itself. Whence came these sculptures, and by whom were they made? +Another fact that has interested me very much is the strong resemblance +between the skulls of the typical Mound-builders of the Mississippi +valley and those of the Pueblo Indians. I had long been familiar with +the former, and when I recently saw the latter, it required the positive +assurance of a friend who had himself collected them in New Mexico to +convince me that they were not from the mounds. In a large collection of +Mound-builders’ pottery, over a thousand specimens which I have recently +examined with some care, I found many pieces of elaborate workmanship so +nearly like the ancient water-jars from Peru, that no one could fairly +doubt that some intercourse had taken place between the widely separated +people that made them.”</p> + +<p>According to this view the Mound-builders would have a relationship with +the Peruvians on the one hand, and with the Pueblos on the other. When +the Mound-builders retreated from their upper settlements, they +maintained for some years their occupancy of territory along the lower +Mississippi, before finally retiring toward the south. It is hardly +possible that they disappeared <i>en masse</i> before the invaders, or that +those lingering behind the main body should have been utterly +exterminated. It would be difficult in that case to account for such +exceptional Indian tribes as the Natchez and Mandan. Both tribes were +skilful workers in clay. The Natchez, at the time when the West was +first opened up by Europeans, over three hundred years ago, were making +pottery comparable with that of Europe. They found the requisite clay on +the banks of the Mississippi, and were acquainted with the use of color. +The Mandans employed earthen-ware in their households, almost as +extensively as any modern people. They baked pots in such a way that +they were as capable of resisting the action of heat as the metal +utensils of the present day. These were hung over the fire for purposes +of cooking and numberless other articles of earthen-ware were seen in +their lodges. The Mandans were making pottery on the upper Missouri +forty-five years ago, and probably continued doing so until a late date.</p> + +<p>The Pueblos of New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona present us with another +problem, which can only be solved by one of two suppositions,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_431" id="page_431">{431}</a></span> either +that they are the descendants of emigrants from Central America who +degenerated through contact and association with Indians, or that they +represent a remnant of the Mound-builders who sought in the west the +security which the main body of their countrymen found in the south. We +shall find additional reason hereafter for believing that if there was +no extensive amalgamation of the races, the Indians at least borrowed +some of the customs of their predecessors. If it be well understood that +the ancient occupants of the territory extending from the mouth of the +Mississippi northward and westward to Arizona had a common origin, and +that their victorious barbarian successors were in certain districts +modified by absorption, such facts as a similarity between the pottery +of Louisiana or Illinois and Colorado need not be received with either +hesitation or bewilderment. And, besides, the historical necessity for +ascribing it to a specific age is thereby materially lessened.</p> + +<p>The Pueblos, or Village Indians, of New Mexico and Arizona have left +many interesting pieces of earthen-ware, and many others of the present +time come from the same section. There is abundant proof that this +entire district was inhabited at a very ancient date, and the relics of +successive degrees of civilization are found in the ruins. El Moro, in +New Mexico, was visited by Lieutenant Simpson in 1849, and afterward by +Lieutenant Whipple. Pottery was found painted in zones and wavy lines, +and occasionally highly polished. Following the same parallel westward, +Lieutenant Whipple discovered other ruins to which no age could be +ascribed, although some were clearly more ancient than others, +indicating that the region must have been inhabited throughout a long +series of years. More pottery was collected, brightly colored, and +painted after patterns resembling those noticed at El Moro. The +paintings occasionally assumed the forms of animals and insects. Still +farther to the west, at Zuni, and at places beyond it in the same +direction, the examples of the ceramic work of the early inhabitants +multiplied. Sun-dried bricks were found to have been employed in +building, and in addition to painted pottery, an older indented kind was +met with.</p> + +<p>An extended exploration of the same region, but somewhat farther north, +was made in 1875, under the auspices of the United States Geological and +Geographical Survey of the Territories. Mr. W. H.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_432" id="page_432">{432}</a></span> Holmes and Mr. W. H. +Jackson subsequently presented notices of the results of their +examinations of the ancient ruins within an area of six thousand square +miles, chiefly in Colorado, but partially also in New Mexico, Arizona, +and Utah. Their joint evidence regarding the immense quantities of +fragmentary pottery seen in the course of their explorations must create +great astonishment. In speaking of the ruins of a village in New Mexico, +situated on the Rio de la Plata, about twenty-five miles above its +junction with the San Juan, Mr. Holmes says, “The soil was literally +full of fragments of painted and ornamented pottery.” Near the same +locality, and while riding through a desert-like district, he observed +“fragments of pottery strewed around,” and “on the high dry table-lands, +on all sides, fragments of pottery were picked up.” Writing of the +Montezuma cañon in Utah, Mr. Jackson says, “As the valley widened it was +dotted in many places with mounds thickly strewed over with the +ever-accompanying ceramic handiwork of the ancient people in whose +footsteps we are following, and occurring so frequently and of such +extent as to excite astonishment at the numbers this narrow valley +supported.” The same writer says, “All who have ever visited this +region, which extends from the Rio Grande to the Colorado and southward +to the Gila, have been impressed with the vast quantities of shattered +pottery scattered over the whole land, sometimes where not even a ruin +now remains, its more enduring nature enabling it to long outlive all +other specimens of their handiwork.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_408" id="fig_408"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 207px;"> +<a href="images/illpg432_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg432_sml.jpg" width="207" height="221" alt="Fig. 408.—Ancient Corrugated Pottery of Colorado." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 408.—Ancient Corrugated Pottery of Colorado.</span> +</div> + +<p>The presence of such immense quantities of fragmentary pottery can +possibly be explained upon the hypothesis that the vessels were liable +to fracture when exposed to the fire, and that those cracking under the +heat were thrown away when taken out of the primitive and open kiln.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_433" id="page_433">{433}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_409" id="fig_409"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 94px;"> +<a href="images/illpg433a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg433a_sml.jpg" width="94" height="82" alt="Fig. 409—Fragment showing Manner of Making Corrugated +Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 409—Fragment showing Manner of Making Corrugated +Pottery.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_410" id="fig_410"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 227px;"> +<a href="images/illpg433b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg433b_sml.jpg" width="227" height="235" alt="Fig. 410.—Ancient Corrugated Pottery, from Utah." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 410.—Ancient Corrugated Pottery, from Utah.</span> +</div> + +<p>The specimens obtained, both fragmentary and entire, give abundant +opportunity for studying the processes and decoration of these old-time +potters. As illustrating the fertility of their talent for shaping and +ornamenting their wares, Mr. Holmes observes that on one occasion, when +encamped in the Mancos Cañon, he found, within a space of ten feet +square, fragments of fifty-five different vessels, and adds that, “in +shape these vessels have been so varied that few forms known to +civilized art could not be found.” The clay varies according to +locality, in some cases being of an apparently fine quality mixed with +sand and shells, and in others coarse and more friable. All this old +pottery was made by hand, and fired, although no remains of kilns have +been discovered.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_411" id="fig_411"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 70px;"> +<a href="images/illpg433c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg433c_sml.jpg" width="70" height="158" alt="Fig. 411.—Handle of Twisted Clay." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 411.—Handle of Twisted Clay.</span> +</div> + +<p>The smaller pieces, such as cups and jars, are usually covered with a +peculiar thin, hard, and smooth glaze or enamel, and then painted. The +larger pieces, which apparently answered the purpose of the Egyptian +amphora, present a rough, corrugated surface, are seldom glazed and +never painted. A specimen of the latter class, found among the <i>débris</i> +in one of the cliff-houses of the Mancos in Colorado, is given in the +illustration (<a href="#fig_408">Fig. 408</a>). Its rough exterior is to be attributed to the +process of making. The potter began by drawing the clay into strips, and +then commencing at the bottom, wound the strips spirally and pressed +each layer down upon that below it, indenting the outside with a stick +or with his thumb. The illustration (<a href="#fig_409">Fig. 409</a>) may serve to elucidate +the method of construction. The inside<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_434" id="page_434">{434}</a></span> is perfectly smooth, and so well +are the strips worked together, that they show no division on fracture. +An attempt was made at decoration or variety, by running the strips a +few times round without indenting them and by attaching scrolls or +spirals immediately below the neck. All the pottery of this description +is ancient. A jar of similar construction to the above, but of a better +shape, was found in Epsom Creek, Utah (<a href="#fig_410">Fig. 410</a>). The fragment of a +handle (<a href="#fig_411">Fig. 411</a>) would appear to indicate that the ancients were +familiar with the well-known cable pattern of modern porcelain +manufacturers. It is made by twisting together three rolls of clay. A +ladle (<a href="#fig_412">Fig. 412</a>) and what seems to have been a pipe (<a href="#fig_413">Fig. 413</a>) will tend +to show farther the extent of the resources of the aboriginal potters of +the west.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_412" id="fig_412"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 95px;"> +<a href="images/illpg434a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg434a_sml.jpg" width="95" height="38" alt="Fig. 412.—Pottery Ladle." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 412.—Pottery Ladle.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_413" id="fig_413"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg434b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg434b_sml.jpg" width="167" height="62" alt="Fig. 413.—Clay Pipe." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 413.—Clay Pipe.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_414" id="fig_414"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illpg434c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg434c_sml.jpg" width="131" height="178" alt="Fig. 414.—Painted Mug." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 414.—Painted Mug.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_415" id="fig_415"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<a href="images/illpg434d_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg434d_sml.jpg" width="132" height="159" alt="Fig. 415.—Pitcher, from a Grave on the San Juan." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 415.—Pitcher, from a Grave on the San Juan.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_416" id="fig_416"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 84px;"> +<a href="images/illpg435a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg435a_sml.jpg" width="84" height="85" alt="Fig. 416.—Small Jug, from Ruins on the De Chelly." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 416.—Small Jug, from Ruins on the De Chelly.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_417" id="fig_417"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg435b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg435b_sml.jpg" width="383" height="138" alt="Fig. 417.—(Entire)." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 417.—(Entire). +Fig. 418.—(Restored). +Fig. 419.—(Restored). +Fig. 420.—(Fragment).</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_421" id="fig_421"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg435c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg435c_sml.jpg" width="387" height="95" alt="Fig. 421.—(Extended to show Pattern)." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 421.—(Extended to show Pattern).</span> +</p> + +<p>In the specimens of their painted pottery we have the best means of +judging their art. The painting is generally black laid upon the white +enamel or glaze; and however the color was obtained, it was very +durable. Although the fragments, as we have seen, have lain on the +ground exposed to the action of the weather for at least several +centuries, the color, in very few cases, shows any symptom of decay. In +one piece the white ground has actually worn away, leaving the black +decoration in relief. The designs show a vast amount of ingenuity on the +part of the artists. They are nearly all modifications of the fret and +scrolls. A very common style (<a href="#fig_414">Fig. 414</a>) consists of a series of enclosed +squares, the alternate borders being composed of crossed lines and +straight lines, and having undecorated bands between. A remarkably fine +specimen (<a href="#fig_415">Fig. 415</a>), both<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_435" id="page_435">{435}</a></span> in shape and the simplicity of its +decoration, was taken from a grave on the banks of the San Juan, near +the mouth of the Mancos. Its excellent form, and the throwing of the +classical fret round the widest part of the body, bear witness to an +artistic sentiment of considerable refinement. The artists of the time +appear to have chiefly directed their attention to tasteful combinations +of lines in triangular, rectangular, and other odd forms, in which the +two latter are united or conjoined with straight bands of color. A fine +specimen (<a href="#fig_416">Fig. 416</a>) was found in a heap of rubbish at a cave ruin on the +De Chelly. Its perfectly rotund form argues a skill in manipulating the +clay which one can hardly conceive possible without the assistance of +the wheel. For the purpose of farther illustrating the decorations and +shapes, a few fragments are presented in a restored and extended form +(Figs. 417-420). In nearly every case the decoration is on the inside of +the vessel, sometimes covering the entire surface, but more frequently +taking the form of a band round the lip; when it appears on the outside, +it generally consists of a narrower band (<a href="#fig_422">Fig. 422</a>). It will be observed +that, so far, we have not met<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_436" id="page_436">{436}</a></span> with a single attempt at decoration by +painting animal or floral forms. Mr. W. H. Jackson says that only one +fragment has been found exemplifying such a style (<a href="#fig_423">Fig. 423</a>). It was +found in the upper cañon of the Montezuma, and has the figure painted on +the inside. A rudely modelled frog on the outside of a fragment of a cup +(<a href="#fig_424">Fig. 424</a>) is from the same district. In this case the ornamentation is +in relief on the outside.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_422" id="fig_422"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 124px;"> +<a href="images/illpg436a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg436a_sml.jpg" width="124" height="38" alt="Fig. 422.—Outside Decoration of Ancient Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 422.—Outside Decoration of Ancient Pottery.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_423" id="fig_423"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 86px;"> +<a href="images/illpg436b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg436b_sml.jpg" width="86" height="97" alt="Fig. 423.—Fragment of Pottery, with Painting of Animal." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 423.—Fragment of Pottery, with Painting of Animal.</span> +</div> + +<p>It would be interesting to inquire if the modern Moquis of Tegua are the +degenerate descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the cave-dwellings +and cliff houses of the valleys of the San Juan and its tributaries. The +probabilities are in favor of such a supposition, just as the +semi-civilized dwellers in modern Zuni are the descendants of the old +Pueblos. There are evidences of decay scattered throughout the entire +region.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_424" id="fig_424"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 87px;"> +<a href="images/illpg436c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg436c_sml.jpg" width="87" height="87" alt="Fig. 424.—Fragment of Pottery, with Frog in Relief." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 424.—Fragment of Pottery, with Frog in Relief.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_425" id="fig_425"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<a href="images/illpg436d_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg436d_sml.jpg" width="152" height="126" alt="Fig. 425.—Painted Water-vessel, found at Tegua." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 425.—Painted Water-vessel, found at Tegua.</span> +</div> + +<p>In architecture the inhabitants of the present day are certainly +inferior to their old-time predecessors, and in the ceramic art there is +a similar decadence. A very peculiar and altogether exceptional piece +(<a href="#fig_425">Fig. 425</a>) was found by Mr. W. H. Jackson among the Moquis of Tegua, +about which its possessors could give him no information. He concluded +that it had been made at Zuni by the Pueblos, and a color of probability +is lent to this supposition by the fact, previously noted, that the +Pueblos of Zuni make use of insect and animal forms in decorating their +pottery. The specimen mentioned is evidently of modern manufacture. The +upper part is white, the lower red, and the figures are red and black. +More nearly resembling, although far inferior to, the ancient works is a +piece (<a href="#fig_426">Fig. 426</a>) made by the Moquis of Tegua. The decoration is after +the ancient type, but more crowded and complicated, and covers both the +inside and the outside of the vessel. It is a fair example of the modern +work, of which two<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_437" id="page_437">{437}</a></span> further examples are given (Figs. 427 and 428).</p> + +<p><a name="fig_426" id="fig_426"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<a href="images/illpg437a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg437a_sml.jpg" width="128" height="85" alt="Fig. 426.—Pottery of the Moquis." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 426.—Pottery of the Moquis.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_427" id="fig_427"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 196px;"> +<a href="images/illpg437b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg437b_sml.jpg" width="196" height="165" alt="Fig. 427.—Modern Pottery, from Zuni. (United States +Geological Survey.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 427.—Modern Pottery, from Zuni. (United States +Geological Survey.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The modern Pueblos are exceptional both for the comparative excellence +of their work, and by reason of the fact that they make pottery for the +purposes of trade, as well as for their own use. This appears from +Gregg’s work, published about twenty-five years ago, entitled “Commerce +of the Prairies.” The author says: “They manufacture, according to their +aboriginal art, both for their own consumption and for the purpose of +traffic, a species of earthen-ware not much inferior to the coarse +pottery of our common potters. The pots made of this material stand fire +remarkably well, and are the universal substitutes for all the purposes +of cookery, even among the Mexicans, for the iron castings of this +country, which are utterly unknown there. Rude as this crockery is, it +nevertheless evinces a great deal of skill, considering that it is made +entirely without lathe or any kind of machinery. It is often fancifully +painted with colored earths and the juice of a plant called <i>guaco</i>, +which brightens by burning.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_428" id="fig_428"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<a href="images/illpg437c_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg437c_sml.jpg" width="161" height="202" alt="Fig. 428.—Modern Moqui Pottery, from Zuni. (United +States Geological Survey.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 428.—Modern Moqui Pottery, from Zuni. (United +States Geological Survey.)</span> +</div> + +<p>To revert for a moment to Professor Marsh’s remarks, there appears to be +abundant reason for considering a great proportion of the old pottery of +America as belonging to one class, and that the old inhabitants were +originally of one race. The corrugated ware which we first found in +Colombia reappears among the Pueblo Indians, and has also been found in +Utah. The Indians made it in New Jersey, Pennsylvania,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_438" id="page_438">{438}</a></span> Delaware, +Georgia, Florida, and District of Columbia, having probably acquired the +art from their predecessors. Professor Rau says it was widely known in +North America, and Mr. Hartt shows the wide spread of the practice of +coiling throughout South America. The latter states upon authority that +the tribes on the Araguaya River all coil, using the hand, water, and a +bamboo trowel. The same process is found among the tribes of the Orinoco +section. The red and dark brown painted ware we have traced from Peru to +Nicaragua, and thence to the Moqui settlements. The Moquis of Arizona +make great numbers of the shallow ladles with short handles terminating +in animals’ heads, similar to those of Peru. We have seen the Brazilians +and Moquis both using vegetable colors on pottery, and it is probably +only our ignorance of Peruvian and Central American methods which +hinders our tracing these processes back to antiquity. It is difficult +upon any other hypothesis than that of a community of race to explain +these facts. We have said that the Moquis may be descendants of +Mound-builders seeking safety in the west. They may also have come +directly from the south, and having passed the country lying between the +Gulf of Mexico and the Sierra Madre, have reached the Colorado River, +along the upper affluents of which their settlements extend.</p> + +<p>An interesting discovery was made some years ago by Mr. Charles Rau on +the Cahokia Creek in Illinois, in the rich alluvial strip of land known +as the “American Bottom.” He there found the place where pottery had +been made by some former inhabitants, and saw the clay-pit, and the +heaps of shells to be ground or broken and mixed with the clay. The +vessels were all round-bottomed, and do not appear to have differed much +in shape from those of the San Juan Valley. The painting deserves +particular notice. It was laid upon the outside so as to cover it, and +sometimes on both sides, and in either black, dark brown, or a beautiful +red, only one color being used on each article. “It is evident that the +coloring preceded the process of baking, and the surfaces thus coated +are smooth and shining, the paint replacing to a certain extent the +enamel produced by glazing.” Covering the entire surface with one color +does not suggest much ingenuity, but on the pieces where incised lines +and indentations form the decoration, there are fuller evidences of +artistic feeling. The lines were either<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_439" id="page_439">{439}</a></span> drawn straight round the +vessels, or formed zigzags or figures of greater or less simplicity. +Without insisting upon any relationship between the potters of the +Cahokia and the Mound-builders, Mr. Rau believes the pottery he found to +be equal to that taken from the mounds of the Mississippi valley. Some +of the unpainted vessels were made in basket moulds, and other remains, +such as the fragment of a toy canoe, show that modelling was practised +to some extent. The age of this pottery is left to conjecture.</p> + +<p>The same writer quotes from Dumont, who wrote about a century and a +quarter ago, a description of the method of making earthen-ware adopted +by the inhabitants of the large tract of country then called Louisiana. +The passage is here given in full: “After having amassed the proper kind +of clay and carefully cleaned it, the Indian women take shells which +they pound and reduce to a fine powder; they mix this powder with the +clay, and having poured some water on the mass, they knead it with their +hands and feet, and make it into a paste, of which they form rolls six +or seven feet long and of a thickness suitable to their purpose. If they +intend to fashion a plate or a vase, they take hold of one of these +rolls by the end, and fixing here with the thumb of the left hand the +centre of the vessel they are about to make, they turn the roll with +astonishing quickness around this centre, describing a spiral line; now +and then they dip their fingers into water and smooth with the right +hand the inner and outer surface of the vase they intend to fashion, +which would become ruffled or undulated without that manipulation. In +this manner they make all sorts of earthen vessels, plates, dishes, +bowls, pots, and jars, some of which hold from forty to fifty pints. The +burning of this pottery does not cause them much trouble. Having dried +it in the shade, they kindle a large fire, and when they have a +sufficient quantity of embers, they clean a space in the middle, where +they deposit their vessels and cover them with charcoal. Thus they bake +their earthen-ware, which can now be exposed to the fire, and possesses +as much durability as ours. Its solidity is doubtless to be attributed +to the pulverized shells which the women mix with the clay.” It will be +observed that this is practically the same method of construction +described by Messrs. Jackson and Holmes as existing in the San Juan +valley.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_440" id="page_440">{440}</a></span></p> + +<p>In a valuable paper upon “The Stone Age in New Jersey,” by Dr. C. C. +Abbott, of Trenton, and published in the report of the Smithsonian +Institution for 1875, much interesting information is given of the +Indian pottery of that State. Dr. Abbott describes a small round vase +with flaring rim, decorated before firing with lines roughly made with a +pointed stick. He then gives a caution which it is well to bear in mind +when examining the pottery comprehensively styled Indian. The vase is in +size similar to those found in western mounds, but less carefully +ornamented. Difference in decoration is not, however, always a safe test +to apply in order to distinguish the pottery of the Mound-builders from +that of the Indians. “In gracefulness of outline the New Jersey vase is +the equal of that of the Mound-builders, while we have seen a drawing of +a large vase found in Vermont which exceeds in elaborateness of detail +any figured by Messrs. Squier and Davis. The Mound-builders were never +inhabitants of what is now known as New Jersey nor of the State of +Vermont, but pottery is sometimes found in these sections the equals in +some instances of the pottery of the west in style of decoration, while +in all cases it is as hard and durable.” A pipe, the bowl of which +slopes outward and with the underside of the stem flattened, is also +described by Dr. Abbott. It is made of fine yellow clay. A fragment of +another pipe with a quadrangular bowl was made of the paste generally +used by the Indians, a mixture of clay, mica, and shells. Some of the +fragments of pottery are curiously marked with dots and lines. In one +case a spear of grass had been employed to make bead-like studs in rows +on the surface.</p> + +<p>A discovery was made a few years ago in Tennessee, by which we learn +something of the Indian processes (Dr. J. F. Wright on “Antiquities of +Tennessee,” Smithsonian Report, 1874). It consisted of an excavation six +or eight feet in diameter, and four or five feet deep, and was +apparently a kiln or oven for baking pottery. Unwrought clay, charcoal, +fragments of pottery, and pieces of bark more or less charred were found +among the sand in the excavation. The pottery was peculiarly marked on +the <i>inside</i>, and investigation led to the conclusion that the vessels +had been moulded round an interior core of beech bark, the corrugations +of which corresponded exactly with the impressions on the pottery. The +Maryland Indians (Paper by O. N.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_441" id="page_441">{441}</a></span> Bryan, Smithsonian Report, 1874) are +thought to have baked some of their pottery in nets.</p> + +<p>Many others of the Indian tribes practised the fictile art, very few, so +far as is known, being entirely ignorant of it. Moulding in clay was +not, however, a practice likely to commend itself or to offer any +attractions to the nomadic red man, and it fell into desuetude, whenever +the introduction of metal utensils rendered its continued pursuit not +absolutely necessary. Some of the tribes which followed the buffalo +possibly never engaged in it, but left the practice to their +corn-raising brethren (Dr. W. E. Doyle on “Indian Forts and Dwellings,” +Smithsonian Report, 1876). The exceptional tribes of New Mexico and +Arizona, which cannot, as already pointed out, be identified with the +North American Indians, are chief among the few which still continue to +make pottery. We have seen that they adhere in a great measure to the +ancient shapes and primitive decorative patterns. The fact of chief +importance in connection with the old potters of the West and the +processes to which they resorted is their employment of a glaze. It is +considered by Dr. Emil Bessels as the most striking peculiarity of the +pottery found near the ruins. It is regular, very hard, sometimes opaque +and whitish, at others transparent and tinged with blue. Neither this +glaze nor the colors have been accurately analyzed, but of the latter +the reddish-brown and brown are undoubtedly mineral, derived from iron +and manganese. The black was probably an organic substance, such as +charcoal made into a pigment by being mixed with fine clay.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_442" id="page_442">{442}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V-b4" id="CHAPTER_V-b4"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><br /> +<small>UNITED STATES.</small></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">The Future of America.—Obstacles in the Way of +Progress.—Commercial Conditions Illustrated by Tariff.—Expense of +Artistic Work.—Lack of Public Support.—American +Marks.—Misrepresentation of American Wares.—Materials.—Early Use +in England by Wedgwood, etc.—Cookworthy and a Virginian.—Native +Use of Clay.—New Jersey.—Value of Clay Deposit +Illustrated.—American Kaolin.—Vague Use of +Word.—Analysis.—Opinions of American Deposits.</p></div> + +<p>W<small>E</small> now approach the potters and artists of the present day. That there +is a brilliant future in store for the ceramic art of America may be +inferred from the rapidity with which it has been pushed forward to the +stage it has already reached. With a limitless wealth of material at his +command, and gifted with enterprise, originality, and taste, the +American artist can look confidently forward to taking his place beside +the best the world has produced.</p> + +<p>And here it may be profitable to consider some of the obstacles in his +way. The first of these is commercial. With a high protective tariff the +home manufacturer is barely enabled to compete with the foreign producer +in plain domestic wares. The import duty does not cover the greater +expense of working in this country. Statistics show that in the items of +labor and material the American manufacturer, as compared with the +European, labors under a disadvantage of about one hundred per cent. In +works of art this disadvantage is vastly increased. The makers of the +tariff draw a distinction of only ten per cent. between white granite +and decorated porcelain, or, in other words, they give the makers of +artistic porcelain protection greater by twenty-five per cent. than that +accorded the makers of granite. A distinction to the extent of five per +cent. is drawn in the tariff between undecorated and decorated porcelain +and parian. Art work, therefore, is benefited to the extent of one-ninth +more than plain goods of the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_443" id="page_443">{443}</a></span> same material. It need not be pointed out +that art is thus protected less than workmanship, since the +proportionate cost of artistic work, as compared with skilled and +unskilled labor, is far greater here than in Europe. As a consequence, +there is little to induce manufacturers to turn to art unless some +profit can be drawn from the reputation which it brings. It is not +intended to discuss here the question of protection <i>versus</i> free trade. +The tariff is merely brought forward to illustrate the difficulty of +rearing up something worthy of being called an American art. To +demonstrate this by example, here (<a href="#fig_429">Fig. 429</a>) is a porcelain plate made +at Greenpoint on a challenge. It is a copy of a plate now in the +possession of Mr. George Such, of South Amboy, by whom it was purchased +at the sale of the effects of Louis Philippe. The original is from +Sèvres, and is decorated chiefly in gold. The Greenpoint copy was made +in order to test the question whether it were altogether unreasonable to +entertain the hope that American decoration might not—at some future +day, of course—equal that of Sèvres. Those who saw both had some +difficulty in distinguishing the original from the copy, and in some +instances could not do so without examining the ware as well as the +decoration. The copy is a remarkably fine specimen of decorative art, +and would lead us to entertain great expectations regarding the work of +the artist when his skill is devoted to original designs.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_429" id="fig_429"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<a href="images/illpg443_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg443_sml.jpg" width="189" height="191" alt="Fig. 429.—Greenpoint Porcelain. Sèvres Decoration." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 429.—Greenpoint Porcelain. Sèvres Decoration.</span> +</div> + +<p>The challenge made was, therefore, fully answered. Should it be asked +why, under these circumstances, similar work should not be done +regularly, the answer is simple. The existing state of the market, in so +far as the demand for American artistic work is concerned, is such that +prices will barely bring back the actual cost of production. Toward +lessening that cost the efforts of manufacturers must be directed; and +in connection with this subject a remark may be quoted, made by +President T. C. Smith at the Convention of the Potters’ Association:<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_444" id="page_444">{444}</a></span> +“Foreign clays can be put down in New York tide-water cheaper than you +can buy Pennsylvania clays, by about fifteen per cent.”</p> + +<p>The great expense attending the production of works of art is not, +however, the only drawback with which the American manufacturer has to +contend. It may, in fact, be said that the impediments to the rapid +advancement of ceramic art in America have not yet been touched upon. +They consist of neither the lack of capital, enterprise, experience, nor +skill.</p> + +<p>It is a singular fact that while native manufacture advances with rapid +strides, and finds on all sides a public ready to give it a hearty +reception, native art must force its way to recognition. Its first +honors must be won abroad. It must bear a foreign stamp to be accepted +at all in the home of its birth. The cause of this is not far to find. +The American market is a good market, and is so regarded by the world at +large. Foreign artists send their works to it, and are sure of a +welcome. Competition by a native superior is thereby made difficult; by +an equal almost impossible; by an inferior, an absurdity. The foreign +competitor comes branded as a genius, and home critics hesitate about +issuing a verdict in favor of a countryman. They appear to have a lack +of confidence in their own judgment, and would rather endorse or modify +another’s opinion, than take the responsibility of issuing an +independent one of their own. Patrons suffer from a similar diffidence. +On the one hand they see certainty, on the other uncertainty. On this +side is the work of one who has won the praise of all Europe; on the +other, nothing but that of one who makes a direct appeal to their own +discrimination.</p> + +<p>Under such conditions it is difficult for an art to struggle into +existence. French art is to a Frenchman the finest and best the world +ever saw. Englishmen support English art because it is their own. They +are satisfied with it, if all the universe should wonder what it is they +nurse and cherish. It is good to them, and that is enough. If their own +opinion should change, it will then have become a curiosity, and +therefore doubly worthy of their care. American art may be good, even +equal to the best, but unfortunately it is American. Receiving no +notice, the artist loses even the benefit of criticism, and concludes +that his own people compliment themselves by believing that no work of +art can be produced among them.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_445" id="page_445">{445}</a></span></p> + +<p>This may appear overdrawn, but the facts are eloquent. It has been said +that, as a rule, Americans take a pride in their own manufactures. That +of pottery is an exception. Almost anywhere granite-ware can be seen +bearing as a mark the royal arms of England, with the motto in full—in +this case very appropriately—<i>honi soit qui mal y pense</i>. It is a +curious mark for an American potter, or at first sight seems so. The +ware may have been made at Trenton, or anywhere else in America, and the +explanation is simple. The dealers will not buy it without that mark, +and first suggested its use as they would order a certain style of +decoration. Inquiry among the dealers brings out the whole truth. Their +customers look for the English mark, and finding it, are satisfied. +After this we need not inquire if the English granite-ware is superior +to the American. There is no question of superiority or inferiority, but +only one of the potency of a name.</p> + +<p>Again, in the matter of porcelain, that made and decorated in this +country is sold every day for French, German, or English. It is, in +fact, “all things unto all men,” according to the requirements of the +purchaser and the ingenuity of the dealer. In some cases it is bought +plain, and decorated, after it leaves the factory, in the various +foreign styles. No objection is ever made to its appearance, its finish, +purity, durability, or decoration, only it has the misfortune to be +American, and its parentage must be concealed at all hazards, and even +in spite of the manufacturer’s mark. Here, again, there is no question +of quality, but only one of the effect of a name.</p> + +<p>To discuss the objectionable part of misrepresentation is away from the +present purpose, and the deduction from these facts is the only thing +now requiring to be made. They argue that upon their merits there are +wares produced in America which, if made anywhere else, would cope with +the corresponding qualities now imported.</p> + +<p>For artistic works the struggle is still harder. In their case the test +is not practical, but critical. They demand taste, and not use, to be +appreciated; and, as a consequence, very rarely receive the recognition +to which they are entitled. Art grows slowly, and, especially in a +country so largely interested in commerce as America, is long in +reaching its maturity. Looking at it aright, there is all the more +reason why, when it makes its appearance, it should be received with<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_446" id="page_446">{446}</a></span> +warmth and treated with deferential respect, in order that its growth +may be hastened and not retarded. America is, in this respect, an +exception to the nations of the earth. The question may be looked at +from various points of view. The patriotic course would certainly be to +encourage, and not by neglect to stifle, a budding art. If the art be +poor, it stands in all the greater need of encouragement, in order that, +for America’s sake, it may rise to an equality with that of other +countries.</p> + +<p>In France, Germany, Prussia, Russia, Italy, China, and England, the +ceramic art received the support of governments and wealthy patrons, and +the result has been recorded. In America such support is neither given +nor required. What is chiefly needed is appreciation. In the Republic +the people are the rulers and patrons. In their hands are both power and +wealth, to be used in the rearing of art, surely with as much +discrimination and judgment as in the monarchies of Europe and the +Orient. We might say from another stand-point that the earliest works in +any branch of the arts are those of the highest value in the future. +They reveal to the historian the foundations of the eminence from which +he views the past, and that eminence America will undoubtedly attain. +The skill now being developed, and the taste now being cultivated, are +the legacy of the present generation to the next, and future attainments +will be but the interest of present struggle and endeavor.</p> + +<p>These considerations, however, are, in a certain sense, extraneous. The +American artist and artist-manufacturer demand no exceptionally +favorable position, nor that their works shall be viewed in any other +than a fairly critical and commercial light. Prejudice in art is the end +of criticism; prejudice in commerce is suicidal.</p> + +<p>The materials for making every kind of ware are found in different parts +of the country, and the industry is for that reason well distributed. As +early as 1766 American clays were imported into England, captains on +their return voyages often taking samples from the Carolinas, Georgia, +and Florida. Many of these reached Wedgwood, who, in allusion to one of +them, says, “It will require some peculiar management to avoid the +difficulties attending the use of it.” He elsewhere avows his +willingness to make all necessary experiments with American clays. These +trials turned out well, as we find him<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_447" id="page_447">{447}</a></span> making arrangements for a +regular supply from Ayor, in the country of the Cherokees, about three +hundred miles from Charleston. He desired a monopoly by patent or +parliamentary grant, but ultimately sent out an agent, of whom we learn +nothing more, except that he began his journey to the Cherokee deposit. +In October, 1768, a cargo of Carolina clay reached Liverpool, and the +trade became general both in the Cherokee and Pensacola clays, Wedgwood +apparently giving the preference to the latter. What use he made of it +is not precisely stated. More interesting is the fact that America +contributed to Cookworthy’s invention of natural porcelain in England in +1760. It is said that an American showed Cookworthy, in 1745, specimens +of both kaolin and petuntse found in Virginia, and samples of the ware +made from them. Cookworthy’s own account of it is slightly different, +inasmuch as lie only mentions having seen specimens of the manufactured +china. He says: “I had lately with me the person who has discovered the +china earth. He had with him several samples of the china ware, which I +think were equal to the Asiatic. It was found on the back of Virginia, +where he was in the quest of mines; and having read Du Halde, he +discovered both the petuntse and the kaolin. It is this latter earth +which he says is essential to the success of the manufacture. He is gone +for a cargo of it, having bought from the Indians the whole country +where it rises.” Mr. Cookworthy was not favorably impressed by the +gentleman from Virginia, of whom no more is heard. Nor does it appear +that he returned to England with the cargo, which he thought he could +land there at about sixty-five dollars per ton. There is one purely +American feature of the story, and that is the purchase from the Indians +of “the whole country where it rises.”</p> + +<p>The final practical effect of Mr. Cookworthy’s association with this +American was the foundation of the English porcelain industry. The +acknowledgment is thus made in the catalogue of the Museum of Practical +Geology: “The great advance of the porcelain manufacture in England is +due to the discovery of the kaolin of Cornwall by William Cookworthy, of +Plymouth, about 1755. He apparently had his attention directed to the +subject by an American, who showed him samples of china-stone and kaolin +from Virginia, in 1745.” One hundred and thirty-two years later, the +country from which the suggestion<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_448" id="page_448">{448}</a></span> came is importing kaolin from that +which received and acted upon it.</p> + +<p>New Jersey is the only State of the clay deposits of which we know much +historically or have any precise information. The facts here presented +are gleaned from a report issued by the State Geological Survey, and +will give an idea of the value of our native clays. It is stated, on the +authority of Mr. Samuel Dally, of Woodbridge, that the clay there was +known to the soldiers before and during the Revolution, and that, when +stationed at Perth Amboy, they called it <i>fuller’s-earth</i>, and used it +for cleaning their buckskin breeches. In 1800 the South Amboy clay was +dug for making stone-ware, and after 1812 the use of New Jersey clays +for fire-bricks and other refractory materials began. Soon after 1816, +Mr. Price was shipping fire-clay from Woodbridge to Boston, to be used +in making fire-bricks. About 1820, Mr. Jacob Felt, of Boston, bought +fifty tons of Woodbridge clay from Jeremiah Dally, at twenty-five cents +per ton, and so started a regular trade, which was maintained for many +years. The Woodbridge deposit is very rich, and is now extensively +worked, the clay being suitable for different purposes. It can be used +as fire and pipe clay, or for white-ware, and also meets the +requirements of paper-makers. In 1835 the same clay was in use by Howell +& Bros., Philadelphia, for satining wall-paper. Gordon, in his Gazetteer +(1833), speaks of a discovery of extensive beds of white pipe-clay +between Woodbridge and Amboy; but even in 1840 its extent and uses were +not fully known. Coming down to 1855, we find clay for fifty millions of +fire-bricks being taken from the pits at Woodbridge, Perth Amboy, and +South Amboy; 2000 tons for the paper-makers; 2000 tons for making alum, +and a large quantity for fine pottery. In 1868 the aggregate production +had doubled. In 1874 265,000 tons of fire-clay were dug, and brought, at +an estimated average price of $3 50 per ton, $927,000; 20,000 tons of +South Amboy stone-ware clay, at $4 per ton, brought $80,000. These +figures are sufficient for the formation of an opinion of the worth of a +good clay deposit.</p> + +<p>With regard to the materials to be obtained in this country, it may be +premised that, from a vague use of words having an otherwise definite +meaning, it has been difficult to obtain satisfactory information upon +some of the most interesting points. The following extract is<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_449" id="page_449">{449}</a></span> taken +from a report upon the pottery industry, by the secretary of the United +States Pottery Association to the Industrial Directory for 1876: “The +clay, or kaolin, mines of the United States have been wonderfully +developed the past few years. Rich and inexhaustible beds of fine kaolin +are now being worked in the following States: Delaware—three extensive +deposits; Pennsylvania—three very fine mines are worked, and the whole +of Chester County abounds with as fine a deposit as England can boast; +Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana can boast of rich deposits also now +being worked; New Jersey abounds in ball-clay, common white-ware clay, +and all kinds of fire and retort clays; while Maine, Connecticut, and +Maryland furnish felspar in abundance, and Pennsylvania and Maryland +endless quantities of quartz or silica. Every section of the country, +from the Rocky Mountains to the State of Maine, has raw material in +great variety, as yet unimproved.” In view of these statements, it may +appear singular that the Union Porcelain Works at Greenpoint are +consuming large quantities of imported kaolin. To explain this, we must +believe the word kaolin in the above extract to be applied to the native +clay as found, and before it is freed from any impurity. This belief is +supported by M. Ch. de Bussy, one of the French members of the +International Jury at the Centennial Exhibition. In his report he says: +“Les matières premières pour la poterie sont abondantes aux États-Unis. +Des dépôts de kaolin sont exploités dans un grand nombre d’États, +principalement dans ceux de New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, +Illinois, Georgia. Plusieurs des matières désignées sous le nom de +<i>kaolin</i> ne sont pas toutefois le produit de la décomposition du +feldspath <i>in situ</i>; ce ne sont à proprement parler, que des argiles +blanches qui ne peuvent servir à la fabrication de la porcelaine que par +leur association à du feldspath et du quartz.” He then goes on to say +that the kaolin is not prepared with sufficient care, and that for that +reason the Greenpoint factory uses for its table porcelain a great deal +of English kaolin.</p> + +<p>Another reason is that the English clay can always be depended upon, and +that the native, for lack of proper preparation, cannot. The general +conclusions of M. Ch. de Bussy are confirmed by investigations made +here. The above mentioned report by the Geological Survey, embracing all +or the greater number of the clays of the State<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_450" id="page_450">{450}</a></span> of New Jersey, gives +much valuable information, and farther substantiates our view. The +following table has been compiled from the data there given, for the +purpose of comparing the imported kaolin with the New Jersey clays, and +thus arriving at the truth upon this point:</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">Cornwall,<br /> +England.</td> +<td align="center">Cornwall.</td><td align="center">Standard<br /> +Kaolin.</td><td align="center"> Redruth,<br /> +Cornwall.</td><td align="center"> Perth<br /> +Amboy.</td><td align="center"> Staten<br /> +Island.</td><td align="center">Washington.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Silica</td><td align="right"> 46.32</td><td align="right"> 46.29</td><td align="right"> 46.00</td><td align="right"> 28.40</td><td align="right"> 77.10</td><td align="right"> 92.70</td><td align="right"> 99.40</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alumina</td><td align="right"> 39.74</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right"> 40.00</td><td align="right"> 24.11</td><td align="right"> 17.10</td><td align="right"> 5.70</td><td align="right"> 7.80</td></tr> +<tr><td>Water</td><td align="right"> 12.67</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right"> 13.00</td><td align="right"> 7.90</td><td align="right"> 4.50</td><td align="right"> 0.70</td><td align="right"> 2.60</td></tr> +<tr><td>Potash</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right"> 0.96</td><td align="right"> 1.30</td><td align="right"> 0.35</td><td align="right">....</td></tr> +<tr><td>Line</td><td align="right"> 0.36</td><td align="right"> 0.50</td><td align="right"> 0.33</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td></tr> +<tr><td>Magnesia</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right"> 0.33</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td></tr> +<tr><td>Iron</td><td align="right"> 0.27</td><td align="right"> 0.27</td><td align="right"> 0.33</td><td align="right"> 0.79</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td></tr> +<tr><td>Titanic Acid</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right"> 0.20</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sand</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right"> 37.80</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td><td align="right">....</td></tr> +<tr style="font-weight:bold;"><td align="right"> </td> +<td align="center"> 1</td><td align="center"> 2</td> +<td align="center"> 3</td><td align="center"> 4</td> +<td align="center"> 5</td><td align="center"> 6</td> +<td align="center"> 7</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left" colspan="8" + style="border:0;">No. 4.—This clay is used with others to give toughness to vessels +to be exposed to sudden changes of temperature.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left" colspan="8" + style="border:0;">Nos. 5, 6, and 7.—In these the silica and sand are added together, +and the alumina includes the iron.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>In the selected clays of New Jersey the great preponderance of silica at +once attracts attention, and is to be attributed to the admixture of +sand, which averages about seventy-five per cent. of the mass. Whenever +the silica is present in a greater amount than the standard percentage +given in the table, and particularly when it appears in the form of +sand, the clay becomes less fit for making fine ware. The body is +proportionately coarser. The Jersey clay, therefore, although locally +dignified with the name of kaolin, cannot be used by the manufacturer of +porcelain.</p> + +<p>The deposit has been made under less favorable circumstances than that +of south-western England. There nature has to a great extent performed +the washing process, by carrying the decomposed felspar along a valley +and dropping the impurities and coarser ingredients by the way. The +artificial process is simply the counterpart of that of nature. In New +Jersey the clay and quartz-sand are in some places deposited together, +and are then miscalled <i>felspar</i>; in others they have been partially +assorted, the fine particles being deposited in one bed, the quartz-sand +in another. An analysis of three specimens<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_451" id="page_451">{451}</a></span> of this “felspar” shows the +following ingredients, the decrease of sand and increase of alumina +being especially noteworthy:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="" +style="font-size:0.9em;"> +<tr><td>Silicic Acid and Quartz-sand</td><td align="right">75.88</td><td align="right">74.00</td><td align="right">77.40</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alumina</td><td align="right">18.95</td><td align="right">17.55</td><td align="right">16.07</td></tr> +<tr><td>Water</td><td align="right">4.90</td><td align="right">6.30</td><td align="right">4.30</td></tr> +<tr><td>Iron</td><td align="right">0.49</td><td align="right">0.54</td><td align="right">0.53</td></tr> +<tr><td>Magnesia</td><td align="right">.....</td><td align="right">.....</td><td align="right">0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td>Potash</td><td align="right">0.15</td><td align="right">0.12</td><td align="right">0.15</td></tr> +<tr><td>Soda</td><td align="right">0.21</td><td align="right">0.21</td><td align="right">.....</td></tr> +<tr><td>Titanic Acid</td><td align="right">.....</td><td align="right">0.90</td><td align="right">.....</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right" class="bt">100.58</td> +<td align="right" class="bt">99.62</td> +<td align="right" class="bt">98.70</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These tables will explain the language of the report, that the New +Jersey “kaolins” are “simply mica-bearing sands,” and that the felspar +“is more properly a kaolin.” “The so-called kaolin is a micaceous sand, +consisting of fine-grained white quartz-sand, mixed with a small and +varying percentage of white mica, in small flakes or scales, and a very +little white clay.” In other words, there is no New Jersey clay entitled +to the distinctive name of kaolin, and the inveterate misapplication of +the word illustrates the difficulty to be encountered by the inquirer +into this matter. M. de Bussy, for example, in the passage quoted, falls +very naturally into the error of classing New Jersey with the “large +number of States in which deposits of kaolin are found.” His mistake, +and the confusion of terms which led to it, makes it all the more +desirable that something definite should be known of the deposits in +other States.</p> + +<p>As to the deposits of Pennsylvania and the West, there appears to be +considerable difference of opinion, but the existence of clay for making +every kind of ware, from drain-pipes to porcelain vases, is beyond all +doubt. A partial analysis of Georgia kaolin showed that in the leading +ingredients of silica and alumina it approached very nearly the standard +given in the table. The whole question appears to be one of analysis, +preparation, and experiment, so that when the manufacturers buy clay for +a special purpose, they can depend absolutely upon what they obtain.</p> + +<p>Mr. T. C. Smith, of Greenpoint, is so confident of the richness of this +country, that he believes kaolin of the best quality exists in +abundance, and that it will in course of time be an article of export.</p> + +<p>At the Centennial Exhibition, Mr. Laughlin, of East Liverpool,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_452" id="page_452">{452}</a></span> Ohio, +appeared as one of the representatives of Western enterprise. He thinks +the varieties of clay in America outnumber those of all the rest of the +world. At East Liverpool all the varieties are used. A new clay found in +Missouri, and expected to be very valuable, has recently been added to +the list. It gives the paste a peculiar softness of color, and lends +additional beauty to the manufactured ware. Mr. Laughlin said nothing of +exporting clays, but thought it highly probable that European capital +would be brought into this country to work the inexhaustible materials +which it contains for every kind of ware. What are wanted to render +these kaolinic treasures available are the enterprise, skill, and +capital to prepare and compound them. It is, at least, suggested that +this is the greater part of the difficulty, and that if the peculiar +qualities of each deposit were more precisely known, if the crude +material were skilfully cleaned, and experiments were systematically +conducted for the purpose of discovering the combinations necessary for +making a true and regular porcelain clay, there would be no necessity +for going away from home for any ingredient of the requisite porcelain +paste. This supposition is borne out by the fact that a few years ago a +number of American potters attempted to make porcelain with kaolin +brought from the South, and in every instance failed. Others have since +met with success more or less complete. Böttcher did not succeed on his +first attempt, and, in fact, it was not until several years after his +death that the best Dresden ware was made. In a similar manner, +experiment alone can enable American potters to avail themselves of the +undoubted wealth of their own country. Meantime, it is noteworthy that +the deposits of all kinds now being worked are of sufficient value to +maintain a number of mills for levigating, drying, and grinding. Several +are on the Susquehanna, in Maryland; at East Liverpool, Ohio; at Fort +Ann, New York; on the Connecticut River; and at Trenton, New Jersey.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_453" id="page_453">{453}</a></span></p> + +<h4>POTTERY.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Dependence upon England.—Wedgwood’s Fears of American +Competition.—Norwich.—Hartford.—Stonington.—Norwalk.—Herbertsville.—Sayreville.—South +Amboy.—Philadelphia.—Baltimore.—Jersey City.—Bennington.—New +York City Pottery.—Trenton.—Present Extent of Industry.—Trenton +Ivory +Porcelain.—Terra-cotta.—Beverly.—Chelsea.—Portland.—Cambridge.</p></div> + +<p>The few known incidents in the development of the art may be stated as +nearly as possible in chronological order; and, to keep the thread of +the narrative unbroken, reference may at the same time be made to the +early and unsuccessful attempts at establishing the manufacture of +porcelain in conjunction with that of pottery. During the eighteenth +century the records open to our inspection, especially the journals of +the day, make occasional references to imported wares, chiefly of +English manufacture. Mr. Marryat, in treating of English pottery, refers +to the popular indifference in England to the advantages of crockery +over pewter dishes and wooden trenchers. He then says, “The introduction +of stone-ware in the sixteenth century, and of Oriental porcelain in its +imitation delft-ware shortly afterward, and, lastly, the Staffordshire +earthen-ware, gradually expelled pewter dishes and plates, though it is +but recently they have been entirely dismissed.” Popular usage in +America followed a parallel course, and there are many places at which +the substitution of crockery for wood and metal was made within the +memory of persons now living. Mr. J. F. Watson, in his “Annals of +Philadelphia,” describing the furniture of a room of presumably about a +century ago, gives some interesting particulars in regard to this +subject. “One corner,” he says, “was occupied by a beaufet, which was a +corner closet with a glass door, in which all the china of the family +and the plate were intended to be displayed for ornament as well as use. +A conspicuous article in the collection was always a great china +punch-bowl, which furnished a frequent and grateful beverage; for wine +drinking was then much less in vogue. China teacups and saucers were +about half their present size; and china teapots and coffee-pots with +silver nozzles were a mark of superior finery. The sham of plated ware +was not then known, and all who showed a silver service had the massive +metal too. This occurred in the wealthy families, in little coffee and<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_454" id="page_454">{454}</a></span> +tea pots; and a silver tankard for good sugared toddy was above vulgar +entertainment. Where we now use earthen-ware, they then used delft-ware, +imported from England; and instead of queen’s-ware (then unknown) pewter +plates and porringers, made to shine along a dresser, were universal. +Some, and especially the country people, ate their meals from wooden +trenchers.” This passage may be taken as affording a faithful view of +American usage in regard to the different points upon which it touches, +not in Pennsylvania alone, of which Mr. Watson is more particularly +treating, but throughout the country. China was still an article of +luxury, in which only the rich could indulge. We are, therefore, +prepared to find that it was not until the close of the last century, +and after the Revolutionary troubles, that crockery assumed any +importance as an article of commerce between England and the United +States. For a long time prior to that period it is reasonable to suppose +that America had been able to satisfy the home demand for all the +coarser wares, and also for bricks; but at the close of the eighteenth +century the manufacture had made little or no progress. It had not +advanced beyond the production of bricks, tiles, and certain kinds of +coarse stone-ware and pottery. It is, to say the least, amusing to find +Wedgwood, in 1765, expressing fears for England’s earthen-ware trade +with America, on account of the establishment of some “new Pottworks in +South Carolina.” “They have,” he said, “every material there, equal if +not superior to our own, for carrying on that manufacture;” and on these +and other grounds he asked if something could not be done to protect the +home manufacture!</p> + +<p>Miss Meteyard, Wedgwood’s biographer, relates that in 1766 a Mr. +Bartlem, a Staffordshire potter, emigrated to South Carolina, and having +induced several workmen to join him, began his trade in that State. He +failed there, as he had done in England, and a similar fate befell an +enterprise which had for its object the establishment of china works in +Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p>Previous to 1796 both earthen and stone ware were made by Mr. Charles +Lathrop at Norwich, Connecticut; and in 1789 Mr. Samuel Dennis made an +unsuccessful application for State aid in founding a stone pottery in +Connecticut, at which he promised to make ware resembling the +Staffordshire queen’s-ware. The industry was also pursued at Hartford by +Isaac Hanford, at Stonington by Adam States,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_455" id="page_455">{455}</a></span> and at Norwalk. Shortly +afterward, or in the first decade of the present century, ware of an +apparently higher class began to be made in the Eastern States, and +although large quantities continued to be imported from England, the +native wares rapidly improved in quality and increased in quantity.</p> + +<p>About the year 1800, Van Wickle’s stone-ware factory was in operation at +Old Bridge, now Herbertsville, New Jersey. The clay used was obtained +from Morgan’s Bank at South Amboy. Two years later a similar factory, +using the same material, was started by the Prices at Roundabout, now +Sayreville, on the Raritan. In 1833 J. R. Watson, of Perth Amboy, +established a factory of fire-brick, and was working it regularly three +years later.</p> + +<p>The workshop now carried on by Mr. Richard C. Ramey at Philadelphia is +one of the oldest stone-ware factories in America. It turns out a good +quality of fire-brick and ware for chemical purposes. A few other +Philadelphia firms may here be noticed. Harvey & Adamson make a strong +and durable quality of stone-ware, with a hard vitreous glaze (<i>grès +cérames</i>), and artistic terra-cotta. Jeffords & Co., of the same city, +manufacture an excellent grade of fine stone-ware for household +purposes, and table wares. The pieces have usually mouldings in relief, +and are colored brown or yellow on the outside and white inside. The +latter is apparently produced by making use of an <i>engobe</i> of very white +clay. Galloway & Graiff make earthen-ware of various kinds, including +terra-cotta in Greek shapes. Moorhead & Wilson have very extensive clay +works at Spring Mills, and manufacture terra-cotta for building +purposes. They also make terra-cotta vases, after the antique, for +decorators.</p> + +<p>At Baltimore good qualities of common earthen-ware and salt-glazed +stone-ware are made by Perrine & Co.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_430" id="fig_430"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 221px;"> +<a href="images/illpg456_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg456_sml.jpg" width="221" height="239" alt="Fig. 430—Jersey City Earthen-ware Pitcher." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 430—Jersey City Earthen-ware Pitcher.</span> +</div> + +<p>About 1825 a factory of natural porcelain was founded by a number of +Frenchmen in Jersey City. We have a specimen of this porcelain, made in +1826—a small bowl, with excellent body and glaze, and decorated with a +gold band round the outside of the rim. The venture did not prove a +success, and the production ceased within a year or two. In 1829 the +works were assumed by David Henderson & Co., and carried on under the +firm of the American Pottery Company. It was here that the throwing and +turning of earthen-ware upon the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_456" id="page_456">{456}</a></span> English principle was first performed +in America, by William and James Taylor. This was also the first +successful attempt to compete with England, and was made in connection +with the manufacture of a yellow ware. Three years later, or in 1832, +the same potters were making a cream-colored ware chiefly from imported +materials. To the decoration of a white ware the English process of +printing was successfully brought, and a brown earthen-ware, made about +the same date, was variously ornamented with reliefs and colored +enamels. Three specimens of the latter are in the Metropolitan Museum. +One consists of a water-pitcher modelled by Daniel Greatbatch (Fig. +430), with the handle in shape of a hound, and a hunting scene in +relief, and belongs to the earlier period of the factory. About 1845 a +change appears to have taken place in the proprietorship, as we then +find the company consisting of Messrs. William Rhodes (whom we shall +meet again in Trenton), Strong, and M’Gerron. The firm made white +granite and cream-colored ware until 1854. At that time the pressure of +foreign competition was so great that they could not gain a foothold in +the regular trade. Their wares were chiefly sold by peddlers and +itinerant dealers, who were in the habit of going to the factory with +wagons, when they knew that a kiln was to be drawn, and carting off the +goods before they were trimmed. Rhodes resigned in 1854, and went to +Vermont; and the remaining partners sold out, in 1855, to Rouse, Turner, +Duncan & Henry, of whom Messrs. Rouse & Turner are now carrying on the +establishment. The popularity occasionally reached by a single form was, +perhaps, never better exemplified than by the brown pitcher above +mentioned. It is made down to the present time, and has become so +identified with the factory, that, when wishing to send a memento to +his<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_457" id="page_457">{457}</a></span> friend Mr. John Haslem, of the Derby Works in England, Mr. Rouse +thought he could not do better than send him one of these pitchers, of a +size larger than ordinary. The present firm have not used any imported +clay for the past fifteen years. They now obtain spar from Connecticut, +flint from Lantern Hill, Connecticut, China clay from South Carolina, +and other clays from New Jersey. The staple of the factory is +granite-ware, for which a peculiar ivory-colored glaze has recently been +adopted. Parian is also made. The Jersey City biscuit is extensively +consumed by decorators, and some new and very handsome shapes have been +designed for this special branch of trade (see <a href="#fig_457">Fig. 457</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="fig_431" id="fig_431"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<a href="images/illpg457_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg457_sml.jpg" width="136" height="353" alt="Fig. 431.—Porcelain Statuette, New York City Pottery." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 431.—Porcelain Statuette, New York City Pottery.</span> +</div> + +<p>Messrs. Lyman, Fenton & Co. embarked, in 1847, in an enterprise at +Bennington, Vermont, which promised to be a commercial success. They +made both pottery and artificial porcelain. The enamel upon certain +specimens of the former in the Metropolitan Museum, and belonging to the +Trumbull-Prime collection, is of a notably good quality. The works +stopped, after running for about twelve years.</p> + +<p>The oldest establishment in New York is the Hudson River Pottery, in +West Twelfth Street. It was founded in 1838, and is now carried on under +the firm of William A. Macquoid & Co. The only products, until within a +year ago, were stone-ware and glazed earthen-ware. At that time the +demand by decorators for terra-cotta in the choicest antique forms led +the firm to add it to their list of productions. The experiment was +successful. The paste is fine and well worked.</p> + +<p>The “Manhattan Pottery” of Stewart & Co., in West Eighteenth Street, New +York, is engaged chiefly in the production of drain-pipes and +terra-cotta. The former are glazed with “Albany slip,” obtained from the +bed of the Hudson at Albany, which<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_458" id="page_458">{458}</a></span> renders them perfectly impervious to +the action of acids.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_432" id="fig_432"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 239px;"> +<a href="images/illpg458a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg458a_sml.jpg" width="239" height="238" alt="Fig. 432.—Iron-stone China Plaque." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 432.—Iron-stone China Plaque.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_433" id="fig_433"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<a href="images/illpg458b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg458b_sml.jpg" width="129" height="216" alt="Fig. 433.—New York City Pottery. + +Lambeth style." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 433.—New York City Pottery. + +Lambeth style.</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. James Carr, of the New York City Pottery, after working for some +time with the American Pottery Company, in Jersey City, went, in 1852, +to South Amboy, and founded an establishment for making yellow, +Rockingham, and cream-colored ware. Twenty-two years ago he removed to +his present premises in West Thirteenth Street, New York. Mr. Carr makes +use of six or seven different bodies, all composed of American +materials. Some time ago he made a few pieces, including a tea-service +and two statuettes (<a href="#fig_431">Fig. 431</a>) of artificial porcelain, using bone and +kaolin from Chester County, Pennsylvania. The table-pieces are decorated +with festoons of flowers, in pink and green, and a rim of blue and gold. +The statuettes are well modelled and very tastefully colored. The staple +product of the factory is stone china, which is largely sought in +biscuit by decorators. The quality is probably as fine as it is possible +to make stone china, and styles of decoration are followed which are +rarely found on a similar body. Dinner-services are decorated with all +the care usually reserved for porcelain, and many ornamental pieces, +including a series of circular plaques, show admirable taste and +workmanship (<a href="#fig_432">Fig. 432</a>). A third quality of ware is called “Semi-china,” +and is nearly as translucent as porcelain. It is made from American +kaolin clay, with a large admixture of felspar. It is decorated in +styles<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_459" id="page_459">{459}</a></span> similar to those found upon the iron-stone china. Mr. Carr also +makes statuettes and busts in terra-cotta, of a warm, rich tint, and in +a fine, partially translucent parian. Besides these, the works produce +cream-colored ware and majolica. The latter is made into a great variety +of forms—jars, pedestals, seats, boxes, and cups, the leading colors of +which are a clear deep blue, yellow, and green.</p> + +<p>Some of the colors found upon iron-stone china pieces are remarkably +good, notably a fine mazarine blue and a brilliant black. Artistic work +of all kinds is receiving attention. Mr. Carr has made many experiments, +and continues making them with unremitting ardor (<a href="#fig_433">Fig. 433</a>). Beginning +to work at a time when the mechanical difficulties in the way of success +seemed insuperable, he gradually extended his efforts as these +difficulties disappeared, and is now reaching toward the higher forms of +the art. The story of his life is the history of modern American +pottery.</p> + +<p>The history of Trenton is interesting from the enormous development of +the manufacture in that city within a very short space of time. The +business was begun in 1852, by the firm of Taylor & Speeler. Taylor is +said to have made the first porous cup at Jersey City, for Professor +Morse’s experiments. This honor is also claimed for the Robertsons of +Chelsea, Massachusetts. But leaving that question in the mean time, it +would appear that the Taylor here spoken of is the same whom we have +seen at work as a thrower with the American Pottery Company. The Trenton +firm made yellow and Rockingham ware, with which they were successful +from the first. They also attempted porcelain and parian; but these +wares, though of fine quality, were not received with such favor as to +make their production a commercial success. This resulted, in all +probability, from the difficulties attending the manufacture. Since +their day the business has almost entirely turned toward another class +of white goods, the granite-ware in common use, and for a long time no +attempts to manufacture porcelain were made except in the way of +experiment. This was done by nearly every firm in the business.</p> + +<p>Taylor & Speeler were making white granite in 1856, but only to a +limited extent, and in connection with yellow-ware and Rockingham. A +medal was awarded them for the manufacture of superior pottery. This +honor was conferred in 1856, by the Franklin Institute<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_460" id="page_460">{460}</a></span> of the State of +Pennsylvania. The medal is now in Mr. Taylor’s possession. As a memento +of the skill shown in the early days of American pottery it will bear +description. It is made of silver, and has on one side the inscription, +“Reward of skill and industry to Taylor, Speeler & Bloor, Trenton, New +Jersey, for china, granite, and earthen ware, 1856.” On the obverse is a +likeness of Benjamin Franklin, and the words “Franklin Institute of the +State of Pennsylvania, 1824.” To Mr. Taylor, the senior partner of the +firm, the credit is due of first firing a kiln with anthracite coal.</p> + +<p>The factory is now called the Trenton Pottery Works. Mr. Bloor joined +the original firm of Taylor & Speeler in 1854, and retired in 1859. Soon +afterward Mr. Speeler sold out to John F. Houdayer, and in 1870 the firm +consisted of Mr. Taylor and John Goodwin. A year later Mr. Goodwin was +bought out by his son, James H. Goodwin, and Isaac Davis, the latter of +whom soon afterward acquired Goodwin’s share, and in 1875 became sole +proprietor by purchasing Mr. Taylor’s interest. Mr. Davis, like several +others of the older Trenton potters, is an Englishman, and the fact is +noteworthy, in view of the opposition to goods of American manufacture. +It shows how blind was the prejudice which, there being no question of +the excellence of American materials, will not concede to an Englishman +in America the skill and ability of the same Englishman in England. Mr. +Davis went to Trenton from Staffordshire in 1862, worked first with +William Young & Sons, formed a copartnership with George Lawton, upon a +capital of $300, joined the Glasgow Pottery Company, and then, as we +have seen, bought an interest in the firm of Taylor & Goodwin.</p> + +<p>The first to make cream-colored ware for the market were William Young & +Sons, Astbury & Millington, who comprised the firm which, in 1853, laid +the foundation of an industry which has since attained to enormous +dimensions. They had large orders for strawberry bowls from a trucker +near Rocky Hill, and these they fired in Taylor & Speeler’s yellow-ware +kiln. The business, although greatly increased, has not changed its +character, and is at the present time carried on by William Young’s +sons.</p> + +<p>Of the original partners Astbury formed a copartnership with Mr. +Maddock, and the present firm is Astbury & Maddock, of which the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_461" id="page_461">{461}</a></span> latter +is the only surviving partner. Its chief product is sanitary and +druggists’ ware, and experiments are also made with American +kaolins—those of Missouri, Pennsylvania, and other States—with a view +to the manufacture of a true American porcelain. Decorating and printing +are now receiving a considerable amount of attention. Mr. Millington, +also of the old firm, resigned, and founded the pottery now bearing his +name.</p> + +<p>The first pottery fitted up for the exclusive manufacture of white +granite and cream-colored ware was that of Rhodes & Yates, in 1859, at +the present City pottery, on Perry Street. This Mr. Rhodes is the same +one who was partner in the Jersey City pottery. On going to Vermont, in +1854, he established the manufacture of white-ware, and remained there +until the fall of 1859, when he joined Mr. Yates in a new enterprise in +Trenton. The previous history of the City pottery is a story of +continuous changes. At one time it was occupied by William Young & Sons, +who were making porcelain hardware trimmings. In 1853 it was purchased +by Mr. Charles Hattersley, and in 1856 passed into the possession of Mr. +Yates, who leased it to James and Thomas Lynch. For two years they +occupied it as a drain-pipe factory, and in 1859 it was assumed by Mr. +Yates, in partnership with Mr. Rhodes. In putting granite and +cream-colored ware upon the market, the firm had many obstacles to +overcome. Chief among them was the all-prevailing prejudice of dealers +and consumers in favor of imported goods. Success, however, came in +course of time. An entrance was forced into the market, and other firms +which rapidly sprung into existence seconded their efforts in securing +for Trenton a remunerative recognition in the white-ware trade. Meantime +several changes took place in the firm of Rhodes & Yates. Mr. Higginson +became leading partner, and in 1865 the firm was Yates & Titus, which +was changed, in 1870, to Yates, Bennett & Allen, and in the fall of 1875 +to the City Pottery Company, of which Mr. Yates and Mr. John Rhodes—a +son of William Rhodes—are two of the partners. The period of seven +years between Taylor & Speeler’s venture and that of Rhodes & Yates may +be called the infancy of the Trenton manufacture. Since that time the +production has increased year by year, and Trenton well deserves the +title conferred upon it of “The Staffordshire of America.” Its annual +productive capacity is about<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_462" id="page_462">{462}</a></span> two and a half millions, and during 1876 +the actual production was about $1,750,000. There are, in all, nineteen +potteries in the city, and several decorating establishments. To +illustrate what is now being done, and to indicate the new channels +which the industry is seeking, a few of the leading factories may be +referred to.</p> + +<p>The Etruria Pottery Company is now working the factory built, in 1863, +by Messrs. William Bloor, Joseph Ott, and Thomas Booth. Mr. Booth +retired in 1864, and was succeeded by G. S. Burroughs, who, in 1865, +withdrew and made way for J. Hart Brewer. In 1871 Mr. Bloor retired, and +the firm of Ott & Brewer remained in possession until January, 1878, +when the Etruria Pottery Company was organized. Until 1876 the staple +products of the factory were white granite and cream-colored ware. Its +ivory porcelain and parian will be noticed hereafter.</p> + +<p>The Glasgow Pottery of John Moses & Company sends out an immense +quantity of white granite and cream-colored ware, and experiments are +also conducted, chiefly with Pennsylvania kaolin, with a view to making +porcelain. That now regularly made is called semi-porcelain, and many +trial pieces have a pure translucent body and excellent glaze.</p> + +<p>The firm of Coxon & Co. was founded, in 1863, by Mr. Charles Coxon, and +is now composed of his widow, J. G. Forman, and S. M. Alpaugh. Mr. Coxon +began with cream-colored ware, and conjoined it with white granite +toward the end of 1863. Since that time the firm has produced both +qualities.</p> + +<p>One of the later establishments is the Mercer Pottery, built in 1868, of +which Mr. James Moses is sole proprietor. Besides the common grades of +earthen-ware, stone china and semi-porcelain are made and decorated. +There is a decided tendency here toward the production of a finer +quality of ware, and of styles of decoration possessed of artistic +merit.</p> + +<p>At the Arsenal Pottery Mr. Joseph Mayer manufactures Rockingham and +brown stone-ware, and is in the possession of a number of excellent +designs. Of the remaining Trenton potteries—the East Trenton Pottery +Company, the American Crockery Company, Joseph H. Moore’s, the Greenwood +Pottery Company, and the Millham—it is unnecessary to give details. +Within the past two or three years all<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_463" id="page_463">{463}</a></span> have been turning their +attention to work of a more or less artistic character, some directing +their efforts more particularly to decorating, and others to the +perfecting of a body which shall enable them to compete with the +manufacturers of porcelain. In the latter respect the Greenwood company +has met with gratifying success, and has given their ware the name of +“American China.”</p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the history of modern American art and +manufacture does not extend much beyond a century. Progress has been +rapid, and the trade has developed with gigantic strides.</p> + +<p>It is estimated that there are in all seven hundred and seventy-seven +pottery establishments in the United States, including those for all +kinds of ware, from terra-cotta to porcelain. All, or nearly all, these +have sprung up within twenty-five years, and many of them since the +Civil War. The productive capacity of some of the leading centres may be +judged from the number of kilns they require. At Trenton there are +fifty-seven kilns; at East Liverpool, forty-six; at Cincinnati, twelve; +at Flushing and Greenpoint, Long Island, eleven; at Pittsburg six; or +there are at sixteen seats of the industry, and excluding terra-cotta +manufactories, one hundred and seventy kilns. The capital invested by +the forty firms, members of the Potters’ Association, is upward of four +millions, an amount vastly increased by the remaining seven hundred and +thirty odd establishments throughout the country. White granite-ware, an +abomination in point of art, but eminently useful, is made at other +places in this country besides Trenton in great abundance. The only +manufactory of white granite and cream-colored ware in the Eastern +States is that of the New England Pottery Company at East Boston. It was +established in 1854.</p> + +<p>A display was made at the Centennial Exhibition of what was called +“Ivory Porcelain,” from the Etruria Pottery of Ott & Brewer, Trenton. It +has a hard, semi-translucent body, and clear, smooth boracic glaze. It +bears a close resemblance to Mr. Carr’s semi-china, and is substantially +the same ware that is now receiving attention from many of the other +Trenton potters. It may be said to mark the first stage on the way to a +true American porcelain. By exhibiting it at the Centennial Exhibition, +Ott & Brewer were really the first to draw the public attention to this +new departure in American manufacture.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_464" id="page_464">{464}</a></span> Its distinctive name is taken +from its soft, ivory-like tint. The advantages claimed for it are, that +while it answers all the purposes of china, its manufacture is less +expensive, and permits its being put upon the market at a much lower +price; that it equals the average china in point of both utility and +appearance; and that its consistency is such that it can be made into +more graceful or less clumsy shapes than granite. Experience alone can +dispose of these claims. It is fired, like granite-ware, hard in the +biscuit and soft in the gloss-kiln, from which it would appear that the +glaze and paste are not homogeneous, as in natural porcelain. +Practically, however, this new ware represents a great and substantial +improvement in the manufacture of a general domestic article. All the +component ingredients of both paste and glaze are found in America.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_434" id="fig_434"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg464_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg464_sml.jpg" width="167" height="445" alt="Fig. 434.—Parian Vase. Etruria Pottery Company." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 434.—Parian Vase. Etruria Pottery Company.</span> +</div> + +<p>At Ott & Brewer’s, also, are to be discovered the first glimmerings of +what may be called an art, in the studio of Mr. Isaac Broome, an +American artist of considerable repute and skill. Mr. Broome devoted +himself to both painting and sculpture before turning his attention to +ceramic art. Some years ago he established a terra-cotta workshop in +Pittsburg; but the locality was unfavorable, and the enterprise was +abandoned. A similar venture in New York city also failed.</p> + +<p>Several months prior to the Centennial Exhibition he was employed by +Messrs. Ott & Brewer to design and model certain works in parian. These +were exhibited at Philadelphia, and were very favorably received. The +improved kiln previously described (see page<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_465" id="page_465">{465}</a></span> 79) was built after his +plans, and under his personal direction for firing the works turned out +of his studio. Of these one of the best was suggested by Mr. J. Hart +Brewer, and consists of (<a href="#fig_434">Fig. 434</a>) a pair of vases in parian designed to +illustrate the national game of base-ball. Great variety of detail is +attained without detriment to a certain severity of outline. From a +narrow base the body contracts quickly to its smallest girth, and thence +expands gradually to the top. Round the foot of each vase, and standing +on the supporting pedestal, are arranged three figures of base-ball +players, modelled after a thoroughly American ideal of physical beauty, +embodying muscular activity rather than ponderous strength. The +attitudes are very well chosen, and invest the figures with an +appearance of life and vigorous action. A series of clubs belted round +with a strap ornaments the stem of the vases, and some exquisitely +wrought leaves and berries are woven round the top. The orifice is +covered by a cupola or dome, composed of a segment of a base-ball, upon +which stands an eagle. These vases are the work of a genuine artist, who +has surrounded a general design of great merit with many finely executed +and suggestive details.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_435" id="fig_435"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<a href="images/illpg465a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg465a_sml.jpg" width="189" height="351" alt="Fig. 435.—Pastoral Vase. Etruria Pottery Co." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 435.—Pastoral Vase. Etruria Pottery Co.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_436" id="fig_436"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"> +<a href="images/illpg465b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg465b_sml.jpg" width="164" height="205" alt="Fig. 436.—Faun’s Head Bracket. Etruria Pottery Company." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 436.—Faun’s Head Bracket. Etruria Pottery Company.</span> +</div> + +<p>The same artist’s “rustic,” or “Pastoral,” vases (<a href="#fig_435">Fig. 435</a>) illustrate a +different order of ideas. Here the surface is covered with mouldings in +relief, composing<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_466" id="page_466">{466}</a></span> a design partly suggested by mythology, partly +original. It carries us back to the golden age of the poets. A female +figure, which might be that of Flora or Proserpina, dances to a satyr +who plays a musical instrument. The details are all in perfect +harmony—the dancing goats, the grape-vines, the leaves, rustic +wood-work, and goat’s-head handles. A tasteful finish is given to the +decoration by a fluting running round the upper part of the neck to the +lip. To produce a good effect, work of this kind, all in relief and +uncolored, demands the nicest finish, and a design which shall lean +neither toward scantiness on the one hand, nor overloaded ornamentation +on the other. In both respects Mr. Broome has been fortunate. The +decoration relieves without destroying the fine outline of the vase.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_437" id="fig_437"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> +<a href="images/illpg466_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg466_sml.jpg" width="167" height="279" alt="Fig. 437.—Parian Vase. Etruria Pottery Company." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 437.—Parian Vase. Etruria Pottery Company.</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Broome’s “Fashion” vases (<a href="#fig_437">Fig. 437</a>) are embellished with some very +fine illustrations of the fashions of a century ago and also of the +present time. Of these the shapes are exceedingly quaint and uncommon, +and the figures in low relief are very highly finished.</p> + +<p>Besides these, Mr. Broome has modelled a great number of the heads and +busts which have always been the staple of workers in parian. Some are +original, others are reproductions from the antique. To the former class +belongs an ideal Cleopatra (<a href="#fig_438">Fig. 438</a>). The artist has chosen a full and +sensuous type of beauty, vastly different from that adopted by recent +painters who have ventured to portray upon canvas the charms which +melted the stern Cæsar and enslaved Antony. Somehow one associates the +style of beauty represented in Mr. Broome’s bust rather generally with +the land of Egypt than specially with the conquests of Cleopatra. This +may result from a familiarity with less truthful conceptions, and in +that view implies a decided merit. The artist has in details followed +history as closely<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_467" id="page_467">{467}</a></span> as it seems possible for him to have done, and has +wisely preferred study and research to giving his imagination a free +rein. Imagination, or an American model, might have led him to present a +higher type of beauty, but neither would have led him to produce a +distinctively Egyptian Cleopatra. Accepting his ideal, it is worked out +with unmistakable talent, and with the most painstaking attention to +workmanship.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to particularize farther. The Etruria Pottery Company +have made a good beginning, and in directing the efforts of their +artists it is to be hoped that they may not allow the commercial success +of copies of the antique to divert attention from such works as those +described. The paste employed is fine, compact, and hard, and assumes in +some pieces the clear and polished appearance of marble. Its precise +composition is not known. The paste is, as in the usual case, poured in +a fluid state into plaster moulds, which absorb the superfluous water. +Oxides are used to vary the color of the casts, and a number of tints of +great delicacy and beauty have been secured.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_438" id="fig_438"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<a href="images/illpg467_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg467_sml.jpg" width="187" height="263" alt="Fig. 438.—Cleopatra, in Parian." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 438.—Cleopatra, in Parian.</span> +</div> + +<p>American terra-cotta must be briefly dismissed. At the Centennial +Exhibition an extensive assortment was shown from works situated in many +parts of the country. One or two makers displayed an utterly misguided +taste in attempting something original. Others appeared to confine +themselves to the well-known Apollo Belvederes, Niobes, and other +antique subjects. Garden vases and ornaments were meritorious as a +class; but whatever artistic work may be produced in some quarters, in +others art is only budding, and will take some time before it blooms +into flower. Some excellent work in terra-cotta is executed in +Philadelphia and New York, and has been referred to above. Of the +hundreds of other<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_468" id="page_468">{468}</a></span> factories throughout the country few have done +anything distinctive. One or two might possibly be mentioned, such as +the Halm Art Pottery Company, of Sandy Hill, New York, which are +gradually drawing away from the commonplace, and may be expected, sooner +or later, to possess an artistic individuality. Among Eastern workshops +may be mentioned those of Beverly, Portland, North Cambridge, and +Chelsea, Massachusetts. A great deal of the red terra-cotta of Beverly +is consumed by decorative artists and students. The Portland terra-cotta +is well known both for excellence of body and beauty of shape. The paste +is unusually fine and close in texture, and is excellent under the +brush. The North Cambridge establishment also turns out ware of a high +quality. The designing department is evidently under skilful and +competent supervision, and the forms have an antique grace which never +loses its charm. As in the case of Beverly, the products of both these +workshops are well adapted to the purposes of the decorator.</p> + +<p>Chelsea demands a larger share of our attention for styles of work in +terra-cotta unique among American products. The establishment is at +present carried on by Robertson & Sons, under the name of the “Chelsea +Keramic Art Works.” The firm consists of J. Robertson and his two sons, +A. W. Robertson and Hugh C. Robertson. The workshop was founded on 1st +June, 1868, by A. W. Robertson, for the production of English +brown-ware. He was joined by his brother, and the chief wares made at +that time were fancy flower-pots. J. Robertson was admitted to the firm +by his sons on 1st June, 1872, and affords a good instance of the wide +experience it is possible to compress into one lifetime. Mr. Robertson +was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and first worked in the Fife pottery, +at Dysart, where his father was head workman. He there acquired a +knowledge of modelling and mould-making, and at the age of sixteen was +engaged by the Watsons of Prestonpans, Mid-Lothian, then the leading +fine-ware factory in Scotland. He next tried the North of England, and +worked as modeller and mould-maker at several factories, gaining +experience and proficiency, and ultimately took the management of a +small red-ware pottery, where he introduced both white and printed ware, +“smeared black” and “lustred” ware. On leaving, he tried manufacturing +on his own account for a time, and then accepted the position of +superintendent<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_469" id="page_469">{469}</a></span> of a black-ware factory at North Shields. He arrived in +America in 1853, and worked first in a factory at South River; then with +Mr. J. Carr, at South Amboy, and afterward at Thirteenth Street, New +York; next with Speeler, Taylor & Bloor, at Trenton; and lastly as +manager of the East Boston pottery. His next step was to join his sons +at Chelsea, each of whom has had a more or less varied career, and is +expert in at least one branch of the business. Since the establishment +was opened, a great many experimental pieces have been made of different +materials, sizes, and shapes. What are known as porous cones were made +some time ago for chemical purposes, and are of so open a body that the +breath can be drawn through them with ease. We have already seen that +Jersey City claims this discovery. The credit is probably due to both, +as they appear to have arrived at the same result by independent +courses. Work of a more purely artistic character was tried about eight +years ago, but, commercially speaking, without success. A second attempt +was made in 1873, and the production has been continued down to the +present time. The artists and collectors of Boston soon discovered +certain qualities in the Chelsea potters and their works deserving +recognition. They may possibly have reached the conviction that Chelsea +is to be numbered among the places where artists value their work solely +according to its truth, excellence, and beauty. Without affecting to +disregard commercial considerations, they succeed in giving their art +the precedence. It is not, therefore, a matter of surprise either that +they should have convinced a section of the public that Chelsea can do +noble service in the cause of American art, or that many excellent works +should bear its mark. Allusion may first, however, be made to certain +matters with which the Robertsons allow their attention to be diverted +from more serious pursuits. They have been inspired by Doulton’s +treatment of stone-ware to make certain small pieces of fine +earthen-ware of a gray color faintly tinged with blue, and very +brilliantly glazed. The decoration consists of incised designs. The +pieces do not bear a very close resemblance to Doulton ware, but are in +themselves decidedly attractive. The Robertsons, having mastered the +fundamental secret of the Haviland process, viz., of applying the colors +upon the unbaked clay, have, in the second place, brought out a few +pieces after the style of the Limoges faience. Their success here is +limited<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_470" id="page_470">{470}</a></span> by a palette which must be considerably enriched before the +effects of the French ware are reached.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_439" id="fig_439"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"> +<a href="images/illpg470a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg470a_sml.jpg" width="233" height="156" alt="Fig. 439.—Chelsea (Robertson) Terra-cotta." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 439.—Chelsea (Robertson) Terra-cotta.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_440" id="fig_440"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 296px;"> +<a href="images/illpg470b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg470b_sml.jpg" width="296" height="143" alt="Fig. 440.—Chelsea (Robertson) Terra-cotta." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 440.—Chelsea (Robertson) Terra-cotta.</span> +</div> + +<p>The best Chelsea works are in red and white unglazed earthen-ware. Of +these we give two illustrations (Figs. 439 and 440). Some of the forms +are original, and others are after the Greek, Italian, and other types. +The decoration consists of designs graved in the paste, of mouldings in +relief, and of carvings in relief. The application of moulded ornaments +to the surface has been practised in all ages, and the Chelsea work does +not demand special comment, although many of the designs are attractive +and simple. The carving in relief belongs to a different order of work. +Instead of being moulded, the ornamentation of leaves or flowers is +carved out of clay laid upon the surface of the vase while still moist +from the hands of the thrower. The effect is similar to that obtained by +mouldings, but the work is finer, the details more highly finished, and +the outlines sharper and clearer. Of the designs in these and the pieces +decorated with mouldings, the best are those in which leaves either lie +across the vase or form a calyx from which it rises upward. The absence +of color allows the attention to rest solely upon the fidelity with +which every detail is rendered. If this be the quality of work with +which the Robertsons tested American taste eight years ago, it is not +easy to understand why they did not succeed.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_471" id="page_471">{471}</a></span></p> + +<h4>PORCELAIN.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">Philadelphia.—William Ellis Tucker.—Bennington.—Jersey +City.—Greenpoint.—Decorating Establishments.—Metal and +Porcelain.</p></div> + +<p>The history of American porcelain is necessarily brief. The impetus +toward the higher branches of the art, emanating from Europe, in due +time reached these shores. It affected the rapidly developing enterprise +of the citizen of the young Republic, and touched his faith in the vast +and varied resources of his country. Previous to the achievement of +independence, however, and during the early colonial intercourse with +England, an incident occasionally transpired not without interest in our +narrative. When Mr. Richard Chaffers died in Liverpool, and his +porcelain establishment was closed, many of his workmen came to this +country. In 1771 it was reported in England that a large china +manufactory was established in Philadelphia, where “better china cups +and saucers are made than at Bow or Stratford.” It may astonish many who +are not acquainted with anything in American ceramics beyond the +competitive spirit which rules the business, to find that more than a +century ago it had left England behind in the race!</p> + +<p><a name="fig_441" id="fig_441"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<a href="images/illpg471_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg471_sml.jpg" width="126" height="153" alt="Fig. 441.—Philadelphia Natural Porcelain. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 441.—Philadelphia Natural Porcelain. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>There appears to be no longer any doubt of the existence of a porcelain +factory in Philadelphia about the year 1770, and that, therefore, the +report alluded to above was “founded on fact.” Advertisements have been +discovered which go far toward settling the question. They promise work +equal to that of Bow, and are therefore in all probability the basis of +the rumor above mentioned, which was current in England a year later. +How long the works were carried on is not known.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_442" id="fig_442"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 125px;"> +<a href="images/illpg472a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg472a_sml.jpg" width="125" height="134" alt="Fig. 442.—Philadelphia Natural Porcelain. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 442.—Philadelphia Natural Porcelain. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The next porcelain venture was made in the same city, between 1816 and +1830, by William Ellis Tucker. Tucker began as a decorator, and, after a +series of experiments, made first a non-translucent ware of good +quality, and then natural porcelain (Figs. 441 and 442).<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_472" id="page_472">{472}</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig_443" id="fig_443"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 157px;"> +<a href="images/illpg472b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg472b_sml.jpg" width="157" height="161" alt="Fig. 443.—Bennington Artificial Porcelain. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 443.—Bennington Artificial Porcelain. +(Trumbull-Prime Coll., New York Metropolitan Museum.)</span> +</div> + +<p>His works were originally situated behind his father’s china store in +Market Street, and afterward at the corner of Market, Schuylkill, and +Front streets. One serious impediment to success was a treacherous +workman, who did all he could to frustrate his employer’s design. His +first experiment was to cut the handles off the pieces when placing them +in the kiln. His next was to wash the seggars with felspar, which melted +in the kiln and fastened the wares to the bottom of the seggars. When +Tucker first made porcelain for the market is not recorded, but in 1827 +he was honored with a silver medal by the Franklin Institute of the +State of Pennsylvania. Some time prior to Tucker’s death, in 1832, Judge +Hemphill had been admitted as partner, and subsequently carried on the +factory, in connection with Thomas Tucker, a brother of the founder, for +a few years. He then sold out. Thomas took the works in hand alone in +1837, and kept them running for about a year, when the production +ceased. The products of the factory were chiefly table wares. The paste +and glaze were both excellent, but the form and decoration would not +permit of competition with imported china. The workshop went down for +want of public support, and also on account of the alleged impossibility +of securing the services of skilled artists. We have already seen that +Lyman & Fenton conjoined the making of artificial porcelain (<a href="#fig_443">Fig. 443</a>) +with that of pottery at Bennington, Vermont. This factory is chiefly +remarkable as the first from which figures in biscuit were turned out. +We have also noticed the Jersey City enterprise of Henderson & Co. +Several attempts to produce porcelain were made at Greenpoint, Long +Island. In 1848, Mr. Charles Cartalege met with some success in the +manufacture of knobs and buttons, but in no table ware. Altogether it is +probable<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_473" id="page_473">{473}</a></span> that about a dozen different establishments were founded for +the purpose of inaugurating the manufacture of a native porcelain. They +generally succeeded in making a few pieces, and then stopped for lack of +patronage. The honor of first establishing the industry upon a +successful basis, and of turning out a commercial ware, is to be +ascribed to Mr. Thomas C. Smith, of the Union Porcelain Works, +Greenpoint.</p> + +<p>Mr. Smith is an American, whose ancestors arrived in the Eastern States +about one hundred and fifty years ago. He was brought up as a mechanic, +and first went into the porcelain manufacture in 1857, under a company +composed of a number of Germans who had started the business about three +years previously. At this time several small kilns existed in +Greenpoint, like that of Cartalege, for the purpose of making door-knobs +and other hardware trimmings. The paste then used was compounded upon +the principle of the English artificial paste, and contained a large +proportion of burned bones or phosphate of lime. This was the +composition used by the Germans with whom Mr. Smith connected himself. +These Germans, through dishonesty and want of knowledge of the business, +soon brought the concern into trouble, from which Mr. Smith tried to +extricate it by acting as manager for a time, but the derangement and +prostration of trade, caused by the outbreak of the Civil War, compelled +the company to wind up its affairs. Mr. Smith, being the largest +creditor, became the purchaser, his intention being to bring the +porcelain enterprise to an end, and make the property available for some +other purpose. Meantime he went abroad. At the time when the second +battle of Bull Run was fought he was in France, and it was there the +idea grew upon him that there was a good opportunity for establishing +the porcelain business in his native country. So complete was the change +in the formation of his plans, that he immediately turned his attention +to making such inquiries as might subserve his purpose, among the great +workshops of France and England. When he returned home, his intention of +abandoning the manufacture of porcelain disappeared, and he decided to +embark anew. The experiments which followed were attended with much +anxiety. Up to November, 1863, the old bone body had been retained; but +in 1864 Mr. Smith stopped using it, and directed his attention solely to +the production of a natural kaolinic<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_474" id="page_474">{474}</a></span> porcelain like that of China or +Meissen. His experiments extended over about two years. The first pieces +were uneven and the vitrification was incomplete. This arose from an +ignorance of the correct composition required for success. Farther +trials were more encouraging, and in 1865 he succeeded in making a plain +white-ware, which he could place upon the market. Mr. Smith prides +himself upon one fact, that, unlike any one of the European +establishments, from that of Florence downward, he succeeded without aid +either from a wealthy patron or from government.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_444" id="fig_444"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg474_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg474_sml.jpg" width="293" height="379" alt="Fig. 444.—Century Vase. Greenpoint Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 444.—Century Vase. Greenpoint Porcelain.</span> +</p> + +<p>In 1866 he first began to decorate, with one English and one German +artist. By availing himself of odd fragments of information, he not only +improved his decoration, but discovered some European usages, the +prevalence of which he had not suspected. One of these<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_475" id="page_475">{475}</a></span> was that Dresden +ware was sent in large quantities to England to be decorated, and was +afterward returned to Dresden and sold as Meissen ware. On one occasion +he bought in Europe a Meissen porcelain cup decorated with blue, red, +and gold. On returning home, he broke the cup, and put one of the pieces +in his porcelain furnace, to see if the colors would stand the heat to +which his own were exposed. When it was withdrawn the red had +disappeared, a thin, almost imperceptible line was all that was left of +the gilt, and the blue had run into streaks and blotches. This little +experiment taught him that he was contending with difficulties, in +firing his colors, which European makers had not thought it necessary to +meet. That he has succeeded is marked by the extension of his works, +which cover about an acre of ground, and give employment to about one +hundred and seventy people. All his porcelain is decorated by his own +artists. Mr. Karl Müller is the chief designer and modeller, and brings +a long experience as a sculptor to bear upon his studies in clay. He is +a German, whose art education was mainly acquired in Paris under the +tuition of the ablest artists of Europe. His predilection for the +potter’s art led him to associate himself with Mr. Smith. Before doing +so, in 1874, he modelled three terra-cotta figures of base-ball players, +in different attitudes suggestive of athletic activity.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_445" id="fig_445"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 254px;"> +<a href="images/illpg475_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg475_sml.jpg" width="254" height="374" alt="Fig. 445.—“Kéramos” Vase. Greenpoint Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 445.—“Kéramos” Vase. Greenpoint Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_446" id="fig_446"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/illpg476_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg476_sml.jpg" width="216" height="272" alt="Fig. 446.—Greenpoint Biscuit Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 446.—Greenpoint Biscuit Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p>The ingredients of Greenpoint porcelain are the kaolins of Cornwall,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_476" id="page_476">{476}</a></span> +Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Georgia; felspar from Maine and Connecticut; +and quartz, also from Connecticut. These are compounded according to the +purpose for which the paste is to be used. In that for table ware the +proportions are: kaolin, 37; felspar, 33; quartz, 30. For the glaze: +felspar, 15; lime, 15; kaolin, 12; quartz and broken porcelain, 58. The +paste made into hardware trimmings contains a greater proportion of +American kaolin than that for table ware. As to the merits of the latter +it is thus spoken of by M. Ch. de Bussy, from whose official report we +have already quoted: “The porcelain of Greenpoint is second to none in +quality of paste and hardness of glaze. Most of the articles are heavy, +and may be compared in form with that which in French commerce is known +as <i>limonade</i>: we have, however, seen thinner pieces, such as tea and +coffee cups, well made, and which would figure honorably among the +productions of Europe (bien fabriquées, et qui pourraient figurer +honorablement parmi les productions d’Europe).” Mr. Karl Müller’s first +work of art was a “Century Vase” (<a href="#fig_444">Fig. 444</a>), designed by Mr. Smith for +the Centennial Exhibition. Bison heads form the handles; medallions +decorate the front and back, and below them is a belt of gold with small +bison, walrus, ram, and other animal heads arranged at intervals. The +base is surrounded by a series of medallions or panels, representing, in +white relief, Indians, a soldier of the Revolutionary era, the Tea Scene +in Boston Harbor, and other historical incidents. The body is painted in +blue, red, and gold. The artistic character of the vase can be +sufficiently studied in the engraving. The decoration, it will be +observed, consists in part of paintings on the flat, and in part of the +reliefs already mentioned, which give a meaning to the distinctive +title, “Century<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_477" id="page_477">{477}</a></span> Vase,” chosen for the piece. It illustrates the +national progress of a century.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_447" id="fig_447"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 268px;"> +<a href="images/illpg477_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg477_sml.jpg" width="268" height="361" alt="Fig. 447.—“Song of the Shirt.” Greenpoint Biscuit +Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 447.—“Song of the Shirt.” Greenpoint Biscuit +Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p>When Mr. Longfellow wrote his poem “Kéramos,” it is hardly probable that +he contemplated the possibility of supplying a subject to the art of +which he sang. The poet wrote of the potter, and the potter has +illustrated his song. The poem had no sooner appeared than it was made +the groundwork of an illustrative vase (<a href="#fig_445">Fig. 445</a>). As in the “Century +Vase” history is represented by periods and leading events, so in the +“Kéramos” vase the history of ceramic art is represented by the leading +contributions to its continuous progress. In panels on the base the +potters of all ages are seen at work—Egyptian, Greek, and modern. Above +these, on the body, are reliefs illustrative of the pottery of Peru, +Italy, France, Spain, England, and other countries. As we turn it round, +the advance of ceramic art is seen as in a diorama, and amidst the +various scenes appears in relief the bust of the poet whose song +inspired the work. The form of the vase is singular, simple, and severe, +but well suited to the artist’s treatment of his subject. Its rigidity +is considerably softened by the quaint, projecting feet and the figures +they support, and by the decoration surrounding the flaring top.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_448" id="fig_448"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;"> +<a href="images/illpg478_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg478_sml.jpg" width="146" height="300" alt="Fig. 448.—Greenpoint Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 448.—Greenpoint Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p>Among the other productions of Greenpoint is a series of statuettes,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_478" id="page_478">{478}</a></span> +groups, and animal figures, which were first made in a non-translucent +hard clay, of a light but warm brown or buff, and afterward in porcelain +biscuit. The material first used is dense and non-vitrifying, more +nearly resembling terra-cotta than parian. It is well suited to the +production of statuettes and groups, in the modelling of which +unmistakable talent and originality are displayed. We can in this +department, better perhaps than in any other, appreciate the spirit +permeating the designing-room at the Union Works. The rule appears to be +to study the antique, but instead of copying or reproducing the works of +the ancients, to follow their example in choosing subjects from the +every-day life of the artist’s own time. We nowhere see a copy of +ancient statuary or feel a breath of borrowed inspiration. Every subject +is taken from modern literature, or from life in America in the +nineteenth century. One piece (<a href="#fig_447">Fig. 447</a>) has under it the words “Stitch! +stitch! stitch!” and presents us with a softened illustration of Hood’s +poem. We say “softened,” because the artist has preferred—wisely or not +we will not now determine—to tone down the unutterable misery of the +picture, in which the “woman sat in unwomanly rags, plying her needle +and thread.” The unspoken weariness and mingled longing and resignation +are here, but the squalor and wretched poverty are rather suggested by +the broken box upon which the needle-woman sits, than forced upon our +notice. If we accept what was evidently the artist’s working canon, that +the literal realization of human wretchedness has no place in art, then +we must also accept the work as a fitting counterpart to that of the +poet. In any case the conception is praiseworthy, and the execution +skilful. Another group was suggested by Poe’s “Raven:”</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Shall be lifted—<i>nevermore</i>!”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_479" id="page_479">{479}</a></span></p> + +<p>The bust of Pallas stands, with the raven on its shoulder, upon a +pedestal, in front of which lies a veiled figure. The piece is, we have +said, suggested by the poem, of which it is in no sense a literal +interpretation. A third group consists of a nude boy and dog, and tells +its little story truthfully and forcibly. The attitudes and modelling +are alike excellent.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_449" id="fig_449"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg479a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg479a_sml.jpg" width="293" height="297" alt="Fig. 449.—Greenpoint Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 449.—Greenpoint Porcelain.</span> +</p> + +<p><a name="fig_450" id="fig_450"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;"> +<a href="images/illpg479b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg479b_sml.jpg" width="251" height="146" alt="Fig. 450.—Greenpoint Porcelain. (E. Bierstadt Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 450.—Greenpoint Porcelain. (E. Bierstadt Coll.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Other pieces, such as a procession of frogs and turtles with shouldered +“pitcher-plants,” illustrate the humorous side of the artist’s genius +(<a href="#fig_448">Fig. 448</a>). The subject appears to be a favorite one, as we find it +variously treated in porcelain also. The other statuettes particularly +deserving of notice are a stone-mason, two firemen—one of the old +<i>regime</i> and one of the new—<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_480" id="page_480">{480}</a></span>and a bust of Forrest as William Tell. +These specimens will suffice, with what was said above, to indicate the +direction in which this branch of art at Greenpoint is being extended.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_451" id="fig_451"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;"> +<a href="images/illpg480a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg480a_sml.jpg" width="174" height="242" alt="Fig. 451.—Poets’ Pitcher. Greenpoint Biscuit Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 451.—Poets’ Pitcher. Greenpoint Biscuit Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p>There has yet to be considered the staple product of the Union Works, +viz., its household porcelain. The paste is, as we have seen, of good +quality, and the manufactured ware is strong and serviceable. One of the +great obstacles in the way of the success of other enterprises—the lack +of skilled artists—Mr. Smith has overcome, and now employs a number of +decorators whose work augurs well for the continued prosperity of the +establishment. We have seen one set (<a href="#fig_449">Fig. 449</a>), composed of a circular +tray, sugar-bowl, milk-pitcher, and teacups, which is entirely +praiseworthy in both design and workmanship. The prevailing color is +lavender, into which are wrought, in the form of birds and flowers, +delicate tints of blue and yellow. The effect of the whole is soft and +pleasing, and is heightened by the graceful design of the pieces, and +the fine translucent body upon which the decoration is laid.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_452" id="fig_452"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 223px;"> +<a href="images/illpg480b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg480b_sml.jpg" width="223" height="222" alt="Fig. 452.—Greenpoint Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 452.—Greenpoint Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p>We cannot here point to any style as being particularly distinctive of +the workshop. The taste of the decorators is broad and catholic.</p> + +<p>White reliefs are occasionally used with fine effect in the +ornamentation of pitchers and cups. One of the latter shows white +figures in relief upon pale grounds.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_481" id="page_481">{481}</a></span></p> + +<p>The cup is of a very graceful shape, and a miniature Columbia supported +by an eagle forms the handle. A pitcher in biscuit (<a href="#fig_451">Fig. 451</a>) is +surrounded by heads of distinguished poets in relief. In this case also +the shape is excellent, and the mouldings, including the subsidiary +decoration, are admirably finished.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_453" id="fig_453"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;"> +<a href="images/illpg481a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg481a_sml.jpg" width="182" height="181" alt="Fig. 453.—Greenpoint Porcelain. View of Memorial Hall." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 453.—Greenpoint Porcelain. View of Memorial Hall.</span> +</div> + +<p>The painting upon some of the plates is deserving of particular notice. +They can only be referred to individually, as we have seen that no +leading style has been adopted under which they could be treated of +collectively. There is no uniformity either in the merit of the designs +or decorations. One has for centre-piece a view of Memorial Hall (Fig. +453), and, set in a rim of deep crimson, oval medallions with similar +views. The drawing is very careful, and the colors well assorted. On +another style a flower or a fern covers the bottom and falls upon the +rim, which has no other decoration. Others have views of a windmill +(<a href="#fig_455">Fig. 455</a>), a cottage embowered in foliage painted in monochrome, or +fruit. In some we find delicacy, and in others the work of a brush +unaccustomed to search for subtleties of tint or the more refined +expression of which color is capable. Fortunately the latter are the +exception and the former the rule.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_454" id="fig_454"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 244px;"> +<a href="images/illpg481b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg481b_sml.jpg" width="244" height="239" alt="Fig. 454.—Greenpoint Porcelain." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 454.—Greenpoint Porcelain.</span> +</div> + +<p>To examine the methods of the artists of Greenpoint, the plate (Fig. +452) may be referred to. The flowers forming its decoration<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_482" id="page_482">{482}</a></span> may be +found by almost any country roadside. Gathered as they grew, they were +taken to the decorating-room, and were there transferred to porcelain. +Apart altogether from the artistic result, there is a principle in such +a manner of seeking designs deserving of attention. We have seen that in +Japan the secret of the infinite variety of art lies in the close +sympathy between the artist and nature. He turns to his promptress on +all occasions for inspiration and suggestion. It must be so everywhere. +The boundless wealth of form and color found in nature confers an +equally boundless variety upon the art in which it is reflected. The +conventional is limited by human ingenuity: the natural has no limit.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_455" id="fig_455"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 236px;"> +<a href="images/illpg482a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg482a_sml.jpg" width="236" height="234" alt="Fig. 455.—Greenpoint Porcelain. Painted by J. M. +Falconer." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 455.—Greenpoint Porcelain. Painted by J. M. +Falconer.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_456" id="fig_456"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<a href="images/illpg482b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg482b_sml.jpg" width="174" height="177" alt="Fig. 456.—English Porcelain. Decorated by Mrs. Hoyt. (D. +Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 456.—English Porcelain. Decorated by Mrs. Hoyt. (D. +Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>As a final example of table ware let us instance a plate (<a href="#fig_454">Fig. 454</a>) +decorated in gold, blue, red, green, yellow, and pink, so sparingly that +only a close examination brings out the real richness of the coloring. +In the first place, the decoration lies entirely upon the rim, with the +exception of two circles of gold and blue. The design consists of +crossed branches painted in blue and gold, with insects and brightly +feathered birds. The effect is exceedingly soft, the delicacy of the +colors being as pleasing to the eye as it is satisfactory in point of +taste. The mark of the Greenpoint porcelain is an eagle’s head with the +letter S—the manufacturer’s initial—through the beak.</p> + +<p>Besides the manufacturers and the<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_483" id="page_483">{483}</a></span> artists employed in their +establishments, many persons make a business of decorating earthen-ware +and porcelain, and within the past few years many more have been +attracted to this branch of art. It is regularly taught by two New York +institutions, the Decorative Art Society and the Ladies’ Art +Association, and has many devotees both in the East and West. Much of +the work executed by these artists is highly creditable; and there is a +great deal that never reaches the public eye, which is marked by both +delicacy and originality.</p> + +<p>One of the regular professional establishments is that of Warrin & +Lycett, of New York. The example here given (<a href="#fig_457">Fig. 457</a>) is Jersey City +earthen-ware, and was painted by Mr. Warrin, who has had an experience +of about fifteen years as a decorator. The colors are bright, and are +very happily blended. The ground is a shade of light green, and the +flowers are painted in their natural colors. At this workshop success +was reached some time ago in a very delicate operation, that of +transferring photographs to porcelain.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_457" id="fig_457"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;"> +<a href="images/illpg483_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg483_sml.jpg" width="222" height="330" alt="Fig. 457.—Jersey City Earthen-ware. Decorated by +Warrin." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 457.—Jersey City Earthen-ware. Decorated by +Warrin.</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. John Bennett, formerly the Director of the Faience Department of the +Doulton factory at Lambeth, has within the past year settled in New +York, and is now turning out decorated faience after the styles seen in +the English original. He uses imported Lambeth biscuit, and has erected +a kiln in connection with his studio for firing the decoration. It is +his intention, in course of time, to use American clays, in order to +obviate the necessity of importing biscuit, and at the same time to +obtain new shapes made after his own designs. Among his best ground +colors are pale yellow, pale blue,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_484" id="page_484">{484}</a></span> and a rich brown tinged with red. +The latter is very effectively used with leaves and flowers drawn over +the piece in shades of green and yellow. All Bennett’s pieces have an +even and brilliant glaze. After what has been said of Lambeth faience, +no attempt need here be made to characterize the art represented by this +ware. It will be, as indeed it deserves to be, admired; and America +ought to be congratulated upon the acquisition of so good a +representative of the Lambeth school of decorators.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_458" id="fig_458"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 247px;"> +<a href="images/illpg484a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg484a_sml.jpg" width="247" height="254" alt="Fig. 458.—Bennett Faience. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 458.—Bennett Faience. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The tile-piece at the opening of the book devoted to America (page 391) +was painted by Mr. F. T. Vance, of New York. The drawing is excellent, +and the design is original and decidedly meritorious. The arrangement of +the figures gives a life to this and other pieces by the same artist +entirely lacking in the styles of tile-painting, which consist of a +repetition on each tile of the same design, or of varied but independent +designs.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_459" id="fig_459"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 247px;"> +<a href="images/illpg484b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg484b_sml.jpg" width="247" height="248" alt="Fig. 459.—Bennett Faience. (D. Collamore.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 459.—Bennett Faience. (D. Collamore.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_460" id="fig_460"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;"> +<a href="images/illpg485a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg485a_sml.jpg" width="182" height="183" alt="Fig. 460.—Lambeth Faience. Decorated by Bennett." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 460.—Lambeth Faience. Decorated by Bennett.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_461" id="fig_461"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 239px;"> +<a href="images/illpg485b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg485b_sml.jpg" width="239" height="239" alt="Fig. 461.—Plate Painted by Mr. John M. Falconer." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 461.—Plate Painted by Mr. John M. Falconer.</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. John M. Falconer, of Brooklyn, is an artist who has devoted himself +very successfully to ceramic<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_485" id="page_485">{485}</a></span> decoration. Some of his designs on +Greenpoint porcelain (see <a href="#fig_455">Fig. 455</a>) are very pleasing, and the coloring +is chaste and well handled. A more ambitious work is that given below +(<a href="#fig_461">Fig. 461</a>), an appropriate wedding-gift to an artist’s daughter. The +distance toward which the bride and groom are walking is rose-hued, and +the church-spire and foliage partake of the effect. Roses are strewn +along the path. A heavy knotted white sash forms a curtain and encloses +the scene. Above, in a lunette of dark blue bordered with white pearls, +is a golden-haired Cupid holding a box of wedding-cake, with the names +of the lady and gentleman on the lid. The border of the plate is a deep +flat pink, with a narrow outer line of white. The plate is remarkable +both as a work of art and for the delicate manner in which, as a gift, +it conveys the congratulations and good wishes of the giver. Some of his +works, besides the one above alluded to, are in the possession of Mr. T. +C. Smith; and others, both in camaïeu and polychrome, are entitled and +owned as follows: “Independence Hall,” Rev. Morgan Dix, D.D.; “The Old +Clothing Store, Boston,” Mrs. C. F. Blake; “Albert Durer’s House,” and +“The Oldest House in St. Louis, Missouri,” Charles Brown, Troy, New +York; “Shakspeare’s House,” Edward Green, New York; “A Smoke Fancy,” +“Autumn, Montclair,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_486" id="page_486">{486}</a></span> New Jersey,” “Church at West Point,” “Moonlit +Lake,” Aaron Vail, Jr., Troy, New York; “Crescent Moon,” John Gale, +Esq.; “Killearn Manse, Scotland,” Hon. M. B. Macleay, New York; “The Old +Tower, Newport,” Mrs. S. P. Avery; “Across the Water,” F. A. Bridgman, +Paris; “At Montreal,” George H. Boughton, London; “At Wilmington, North +Carolina,” Mrs. J. P. Whitehead, Newark, New Jersey; “Old Castle, +Sunset,” Alfred Jones, Yonkers, New York; “The Philosopher,” Rev. L. L. +Noble, Annandale, New York; “Moonlight,” Charles Parsons, Montclair, New +Jersey; landscape, and a set of two blue and one yellow vases, Hon. +George B. Warren, Jr., Troy, New York. Mr. Falconer has the advantages +of a cultivated taste and well-trained skill to help him win such a +reputation as might induce him to substitute, even to a greater extent +than at present, porcelain or pottery for the more perishable canvas.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_462" id="fig_462"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 221px;"> +<a href="images/illpg486a_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg486a_sml.jpg" width="221" height="244" alt="Fig. 462.—Limoges Porcelain and Silver. (Reed & Barton, +N. Y.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 462.—Limoges Porcelain and Silver. (Reed & Barton, +N. Y.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig_463" id="fig_463"></a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;"> +<a href="images/illpg486b_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg486b_sml.jpg" width="214" height="293" alt="Fig. 463.—Copeland Porcelain and Silver. (Reed & Barton, +N. Y.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 463.—Copeland Porcelain and Silver. (Reed & Barton, +N. Y.)</span> +</div> + +<p>There remains to be noticed an artistic combination in which, although +it has long been practised in Europe, American workmen have recently +succeeded in producing exceptionally fine effects. Reference is made to +the combination of metal and porcelain.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_487" id="page_487">{487}</a></span> We have seen with pleasure +slender and exquisitely wrought stands of silver and gold, in which +delicately painted French porcelain dishes and basins are converted into +card-receivers, flower-stands, and fruit-dishes. A great deal of taste +can be displayed in the selection of colors to suit the metal, as well +as in the deeper harmony which reproduces in silver or gold the flower +stems on the porcelain. Chinese porcelain, in rich colors—green, pink, +and blue—is similarly treated. Pieces of the Green family are +tastefully set in silver and gold, the mouldings on the bands of metal +corresponding with the painted borders of the porcelain.</p> + +<p>From such specimens of a double art we turn to others less rich, but +scarcely less attractive. Faience vases are mounted in bronze and +brightly burnished brass, and derive a new character from the +association. Works of this class show that, while it is possible to +define the limits of the field peculiar to ceramic art, its place in +household decoration cannot be specified with equal precision. Already +it has entered into effective alliances with the arts of the +silversmith, goldsmith, the workers in the baser metals, of the +enameller, the carver, and the cabinet-maker. In these several relations +it is not now intended to follow it farther. They would lead to the +consideration of many arts essentially distinct, and as foreign to each +other as to that whose history has led us from the sun-dried bricks of +Egypt to the porcelain of Greenpoint.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_464" id="fig_464"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/illpg487_lg.jpg"> +<img class="enlargeimage" +src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" +alt="enlarge-image" +title="enlarge-image" +width="18" +height="14" /> +</a><br /><img src="images/illpg487_sml.jpg" width="192" height="185" alt="Fig. 464.—Worcester Porcelain and Silver. (J. W. Britton +Coll.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 464.—Worcester Porcelain and Silver. (J. W. Britton +Coll.)</span> +</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_488" id="page_488">{488}</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_489" id="page_489">{489}</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h3> + +<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>, +<a href="#B">B</a>, +<a href="#C">C</a>, +<a href="#D">D</a>, +<a href="#E">E</a>, +<a href="#F">F</a>, +<a href="#G">G</a>, +<a href="#H">H</a>, +<a href="#I">I</a>, +<a href="#J">J</a>, +<a href="#K">K</a>, +<a href="#L">L</a>, +<a href="#M">M</a>, +<a href="#N">N</a>, +<a href="#O">O</a>, +<a href="#P">P</a>, +<a href="#Q">Q</a>, +<a href="#R">R</a>, +<a href="#S">S</a>, +<a href="#T">T</a>, +<a href="#U">U</a>, +<a href="#V">V</a>, +<a href="#W">W</a>, +<a href="#X">X</a>, +<a href="#Y">Y</a>, +<a href="#Z">Z</a></p> + +<p class="nind"> +<a name="A" id="A"></a>A<small>BAQUESNE</small>, Marreot, <a href="#page_281">281</a>.<br /> + +Abraham, Copeland’s director, <a href="#page_383">383</a>.<br /> + +Abubeker, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> + +Adam, director at Vincennes, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.<br /> + +Adobes, <a href="#page_396">396</a>.<br /> + +Africa, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Agapenor, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.<br /> + +“Agate” ware, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.<br /> + +Agostino, assistant of Luca della Robbia, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.<br /> + +Agyllos, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Ahriman, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Ainos, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +Akai, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> + +Alabastros, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Alambra, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> + +Albany slip, <a href="#page_457">457</a>.<br /> + +Alcora, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Alençon, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<br /> + +Alexander the Great, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +Algeria, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> + +Alhambra, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>.<br /> + +Ali, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> + +Alluaud, director at Limoges, <a href="#page_321">321</a>.<br /> + +Amasis, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +Amathus, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> + +Amazon, tribes on, <a href="#page_417">417</a>.<br /> + +Ambrosio, son of Andrea della Robbia, <a href="#page_253">253</a>.<br /> + +America, <a href="#page_391">391-487</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>see</i> South America, Central America, Mound-builders, Indians, United States).</span><br /> + +American china, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +American clays, <a href="#page_446">446</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +American Crockery Company, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +American Pottery Company, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Ameya, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Ammon, <a href="#page_085">85</a>.<br /> + +Amphora,—æ, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> + +Amstel, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> + +Andrea della Robbia, <a href="#page_253">253</a>.<br /> + +Anglo-Roman pottery, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> + +Anglo-Saxon pottery, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> + +Anspach, faience, <a href="#page_330">330</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> + +Antonio, artist at Ferrara and Faenza, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Antwerp, majolica, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.<br /> + +Aphrodite, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.<br /> + +Apostle mugs, <a href="#page_336">336</a>.<br /> + +Apries, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +Apulia, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.<br /> + +Arabesque, origin of, <a href="#page_213">213</a>.<br /> + +Arabs, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, et seq., <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> + +Araguaya Indians, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.<br /> + +Archaic Greek vases, <a href="#page_229">229</a>.<br /> + +Arequipa, <a href="#page_410">410</a>.<br /> + +Aretine ware, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.<br /> + +Arita, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.<br /> + +Arizona, <a href="#page_429">429</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Arsenal Pottery, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Artaxerxes, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Articulated vase, <a href="#page_153">153</a>.<br /> + +<a name="Artificial_porcelain" id="Artificial_porcelain"></a>Artificial porcelain, invented in Europe, <a href="#page_052">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, and meaning of term <a href="#page_057">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difficulty of its manufacture, <a href="#page_081">81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinese, <a href="#page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish, <a href="#page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#page_457">457</a>, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_471">471</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.</span><br /> + +Aryballos, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Arystichos, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Asia Minor, <a href="#page_211">211</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> + +Askos, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> + +Assyria, —n, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_063">63-65</a>, <a href="#page_097">97-102</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_426">426</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.</span><br /> + +Astarte, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> + +Astbury, English potter, <a href="#page_360">360</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses calcined flint, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.</span><br /> + +Astbury & Maddock, Trenton, <a href="#page_460">460</a>.<br /> + +Aster decoration, <a href="#page_130">130</a>.<br /> + +Athieno, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> + +Aubry, M., director at St. Clement, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Aue, kaolin of, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>.<br /> + +Augustus II., director at Meissen, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> + +Augustus III., director at Meissen, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> + +Auteuil, Haviland’s workshop at, <a href="#page_287">287</a>.<br /> + +Avisseau of Tours, <a href="#page_277">277</a>.<br /> + +Awadji, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.<br /> + +Awata, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.<br /> + +Aztecs, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br /> + +Azulejos, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minton’s, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a>.</span><br /> + +<br /> +<a name="B" id="B"></a>B<small>ABEL</small>, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.<br /> + +Babylon, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_490" id="page_490">{490}</a></span><br /> + +Babylonia, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_098">98</a>.<br /> + +Bacchus, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.<br /> + +Baden, porcelain of, <a href="#page_340">340</a>.<br /> + +Bahia, <a href="#page_416">416</a>.<br /> + +Bagnall, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.<br /> + +Baireuth, <a href="#page_330">330</a>; porcelain, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Balboa, <a href="#page_418">418</a>.<br /> + +Balearic Islands, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>see</i> Majorca, Minorca, Iviça).</span><br /> + +Baltimore, Maryland, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Banko-yaki, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.<br /> + +Banks & Turner, <a href="#page_382">382</a>.<br /> + +Barberini Vase, <a href="#page_363">363</a>.<br /> + +Barbin of Mennecy, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> + +Barbizet of Paris, <a href="#page_277">277</a>.<br /> + +Barcelona, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>.<br /> + +Barlow, Arthur, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> + +Barlow, Hannah B., <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> + +Barr, Martin, Worcester, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> + +Bartlem, potter in South Carolina, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Basaltes, Wedgwood’s, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> + +Battersea, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> + +Battisto Franco, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br /> + +Battus, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> + +Beauvais, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> + +Becker, workman at Höxter, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Belgium, <a href="#page_331">331</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</span><br /> + +Belleek, Ireland, porcelain of, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Benedetto, artist at Siena, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> + +Bengrath Oppal, director at Meissen, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> + +Bennett, John, New York, <a href="#page_483">483</a>.<br /> + +Bennington, Vermont, <a href="#page_457">457</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.</span><br /> + +Benten, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> + +Berlin, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br /> + +Bernardo Buontalenti, inventor of Medicean porcelain, <a href="#page_268">268</a>.<br /> + +Bernart, Jehan, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.<br /> + +Beverly, Massachusetts, <a href="#page_468">468</a>.<br /> + +Beyerlé, Baron de, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Biagio, artist at Faenza and Ferrara, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Bikos, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.<br /> + +Billingsley, or Beely, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Bingley, Thomas, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Binns, R. W., director at Worcester, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> + +Birkenhead, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Biscuit, meaning of, <a href="#page_053">53</a>.<br /> + +Bis-ja-mon, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +Bissen, Danish sculptor, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> + +Bleu fouetté, <a href="#page_132">132</a>.<br /> + +Blois faience, <a href="#page_308">308</a>.<br /> + +Bloor, Ott & Booth, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Bloor, Robert, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Bloor, Trenton potter, <a href="#page_460">460</a>.<br /> + +Blue-and-white porcelain of China, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Japan, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.</span><br /> + +Blue of the sky after rain, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>.<br /> + +Blunger, <a href="#page_067">67</a>.<br /> + +Boccaro, <a href="#page_119">119</a>.<br /> + +Boileau, director at Sèvres, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.<br /> + +Bone, enameller (Plymouth), <a href="#page_377">377</a>.<br /> + +Bordeaux, <a href="#page_312">312</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> + +Böttcher, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_452">452</a>.<br /> + +Bourg-la-Reine, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>.<br /> + +Bow china, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_471">471</a>.<br /> + +Boyle, John, partner of Minton, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> + +Bracquemond, M. and Mme., <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> + +Bradwell stone-ware, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.<br /> + +Bramelds of Swinton, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.<br /> + +Bramfield, J. and W., <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Brazil, <a href="#page_413">413</a>, <a href="#page_414">414-417</a>.<br /> + +Breslau, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.<br /> + +Brewer, J. Hart, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>, <a href="#page_465">465</a>.<br /> + +Brichard, Eloi, director at Vincennes, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.<br /> + +Bricks, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_098">98</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, etc.<br /> + +Brick stamp, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.<br /> + +Bristol pottery, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.</span><br /> + +Britain, Great, and Ireland, <a href="#page_352">352-390</a>.<br /> + +Brongniart, director at Sèvres, his classification, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> + +Broome, Isaac, Trenton artist, <a href="#page_464">464</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Brosely pottery, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Brown, Westhead, Moore & Company, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.<br /> + +Brühl, Count, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a>.<br /> + +Brussels, <a href="#page_331">331</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</span><br /> + +Buddha, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Buddhism, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> + +Buen Retiro, <a href="#page_238">238</a>.<br /> + +Bunsen, <a href="#page_085">85</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Burroughs, G. S., Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Burslem, <a href="#page_360">360</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wedgwood at, <a href="#page_362">362</a>.</span><br /> + +Butler, Frank A., <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> + +Byzantium, —ine, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="C" id="C"></a>C<small>uaballito</small>, Peruvian, <a href="#page_409">409</a>.<br /> + +Cabuahuil, <a href="#page_421">421</a>.<br /> + +Cairo, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.<br /> + +Caistor ware, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> + +Caldas, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Caldwell & Wood, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> + +Callimachus and the Corinthian order, <a href="#page_301">301</a>.<br /> + +Caltagirone, <a href="#page_247">247</a>.<br /> + +Camaïeu, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>.<br /> + +Cambrian Pottery, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Cambridge, Massachusetts, <a href="#page_468">468</a>.<br /> + +Cambyses, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +Camillo, artist at Ferrara, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Campania, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Campbell, Colin Minton, <a href="#page_360">360</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a>.<br /> + +Capo di Monte, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a>.<br /> + +Carolina, clays, <a href="#page_440">440</a>, <a href="#page_447">447</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works in, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.</span><br /> + +Carr, James, New York, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +Cartalege, Charles, Greenpoint, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.<br /> + +Casa Pirota, <a href="#page_261">261</a>.<br /> + +Castel-Durante, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br /> + +Castellani collection, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a>.<br /> + +Castelli, <a href="#page_264">264</a>.<br /> + +Catto, artist at Faenza and Ferrara, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Caughley, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Céladon, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>.<br /> + +Celts, —ic, <a href="#page_274">274</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Irish, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.</span><br /> + +Central America, <a href="#page_418">418-424</a>.<br /> + +Ceramic art, its origin, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">etymology of “ceramic,” <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general view of, <i>see</i> Introduction;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its struggles in America, <a href="#page_444">444</a>, <i>et seq.</i><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_491" id="page_491">{491}</a></span></span><br /> + +Cesnola, General L. P., <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Chaffagiolo, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> + +Chaffers, Richard, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, <a href="#page_471">471</a>.<br /> + +Chamberlains of Worcester, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> + +Chambrette, Jacques, Luneville, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Champion, Richard, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.<br /> + +Chang-ti, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Chanon, Commissioner at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> + +Cha-no-yu, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Chantilly, porcelain of, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> + +Chapelle of Sceaux, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Chaplet, artist, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>.<br /> + +Chelsea-Derby, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Chelsea (England) porcelain, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Chelsea (Massachusetts), <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <a href="#page_468">468</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Cheou-lao, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> + +Cherokee, clay, <a href="#page_447">447</a>.<br /> + +Cheroulion, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.<br /> + +Cherpentier, François, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.<br /> + +Chertsey, tiles, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> + +Chicanneau, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> + +Chichimecs, <a href="#page_422">422</a>, <a href="#page_426">426</a>.<br /> + +Chili, —ans, <a href="#page_402">402</a>, <a href="#page_408">408</a>.<br /> + +Chimu, —s, <a href="#page_399">399</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href="#page_408">408</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a>.<br /> + +China, —ese, general history, <a href="#page_109">109-153</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legend, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain in Egypt, <a href="#page_025">25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Persia, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general reference, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, et passim, to <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_306">306</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a>, <a href="#page_408">408</a>.</span><br /> + +Christ, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.<br /> + +Christiania, faience of, <a href="#page_347">347</a>.<br /> + +“Christian” porcelain, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>.<br /> + +Chrysanthemo-Pæonian family, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>.<br /> + +Chulula, <a href="#page_424">424</a>.<br /> + +Chytrai, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Cincinnati, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +Citium, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>.<br /> + +City Pottery, Trenton, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.<br /> + +Clark, Shaw & Co., of Montereau, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<br /> + +Classification, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Clay, composition of, <a href="#page_061">61</a>.<br /> + +Clays, American, <a href="#page_446">446</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Clerissy family at Moustiers, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.<br /> + +Clignancourt, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> + +Cloisonné, enamel, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minton’s, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.</span><br /> + +Coast pottery of Peru, <a href="#page_400">400</a>.<br /> + +Cobalt, blue, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.<br /> + +Cockscomb, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Coke, John, Pinxton, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Colebrookdale Pottery, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Colhuas, <a href="#page_422">422</a>.<br /> + +Colinot of Paris, <a href="#page_306">306</a>.<br /> + +Colombia, <a href="#page_417">417</a>, <a href="#page_437">437</a>.<br /> + +Colorado, <a href="#page_429">429</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Color, its place in Greek art, <a href="#page_036">36</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Oriental art, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how obtained, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</span><br /> + +Composition of wares and glazes, <a href="#page_059">59</a>.<br /> + +Concealed color, porcelain of, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.<br /> + +Cones, Egyptian, <a href="#page_030">30</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>.<br /> + +Confucius, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Connecticut felspar, <a href="#page_449">449</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone-ware made in, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.</span><br /> + +Conrade Brothers, artists at Nevers, <a href="#page_282">282</a>.<br /> + +Constantine, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Convent of Gratitude, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br /> + +Cookworthy, William, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_447">447</a>.<br /> + +Copan, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br /> + +Copeland parian, <a href="#page_366">366</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain and silver, <a href="#page_486">486</a>.</span><br /> + +Copenhagen faience, <a href="#page_347">347</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.</span><br /> + +Cordova, <a href="#page_217">217</a>.<br /> + +Corea, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> + +Corean, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br /> + +Corinth, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> + +Cornwall kaolin, preparation of, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analyses, <a href="#page_450">450</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used at Greenpoint, <a href="#page_449">449</a>, <a href="#page_475">475</a>.</span><br /> + +Coroados of Brazil, <a href="#page_415">415</a>.<br /> + +Corrugated ware, from Colombia, <a href="#page_417">417</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from the West, <a href="#page_433">433</a>, <a href="#page_437">437</a>, <a href="#page_438">438</a>, <a href="#page_439">439</a>.</span><br /> + +Cortez, <a href="#page_423">423</a>, <a href="#page_424">424</a>.<br /> + +Costa Rica, <a href="#page_419">419</a>.<br /> + +Coxon & Co., Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Coxside porcelain, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Cozzi, Geminiano, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<br /> + +Crackle, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.<br /> + +Crauden’s chapel tiles, <a href="#page_356">356</a>.<br /> + +Cream-colored ware, Wedgwood’s, <a href="#page_363">363</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#page_456">456</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Creil faience, <a href="#page_306">306</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> + +Creussen stone-ware, <a href="#page_336">336</a>.<br /> + +“Crouch-ware,” <a href="#page_360">360</a>.<br /> + +Crown-Derby, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Crusaders, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.<br /> + +Cuarto Real, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.<br /> + +Cup of Tantalus, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>.<br /> + +Cup of the learned, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> + +Curium, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>.<br /> + +Custine, Count, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Customs illustrated by pottery, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>see</i> also different countries—Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, etc.).</span><br /> + +Cutts of Pinxton, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Cuzco, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href="#page_412">412</a>.<br /> + +Cyfflé, Paul Louis, Luneville and Niederviller, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Cyprus, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>.<br /> + +Cypselus, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Cyrene, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> + +Cyrus, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="D" id="D"></a>D<small>AIKOKOU</small>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> + +Dali, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.<br /> + +Damascus, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> + +Damousse, artist, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> + +Danaus, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Darmstadt, porcelain of, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Darnet, Mme., <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<br /> + +Davis, Isaac, Trenton, <a href="#page_460">460</a>.<br /> + +Deck, faience of, <a href="#page_304">304</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.</span><br /> + +Decoration, best styles of, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.<br /> + +Decorative Art Society, <a href="#page_483">483</a>.<br /> + +Delaplanche, artist, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>.<br /> + +Delaware, Indian pottery, <a href="#page_438">438</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaolin, <a href="#page_449">449</a>.</span><br /> + +Delft, <a href="#page_136">136</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_492" id="page_492">{492}</a></span></span><br /> + +Della Robbia ware, imitation, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>see</i> Luca, Andrea).</span><br /> + +Demaratus, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> + +Denmark, <a href="#page_347">347-351</a>.<br /> + +Dennis, S., Connecticut potter, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Derby porcelain, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Deruta, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.<br /> + +Desima, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a>.<br /> + +De St. Criq & Company, at Creil, <a href="#page_307">307</a>; at Montereau, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<br /> + +Difficult ware, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.<br /> + +Dillwyn, Swansea, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Dinos, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Diogenes, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>.<br /> + +Diskos, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +District of Columbia, Indian pottery, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.<br /> + +Doccia, La, <a href="#page_268">268</a>.<br /> + +Dog of Fo, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +Dossi Brothers, artists at Ferrara, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Doulton ware, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of John Doulton, <a href="#page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">artists, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">terra cotta, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imitation, <a href="#page_469">469</a>.</span><br /> + +Dragons, Chinese, <a href="#page_112">112</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Japanese, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> + +Dresden, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ware imitated, <a href="#page_381">381</a>, <a href="#page_475">475</a>.</span><br /> + +Dubarry, or Pompadour Rose, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Dubois Brothers, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> + +Duesbury family, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Du Liege, porcelain painter, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.<br /> + +Dunkirk, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Durantino, Francesco, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.<br /> + +Dutch in Japan, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br /> + +Dynastic colors of China, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Dwight, Dr., first English porcelain, <a href="#page_052">52</a>.<br /> + +Dwight, John, potter at Fulham, <a href="#page_373">373</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="E" id="E"></a>E<small>AST</small> B<small>OSTON</small>, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +East Liverpool, <a href="#page_451">451</a>, <a href="#page_452">452</a>, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +East Trenton Pottery Company, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Ebelman, director at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> + +Ecouen, château of, <a href="#page_281">281</a>.<br /> + +Egg pottery, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.<br /> + +Egg-shell porcelain, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.</span><br /> + +Egypt, —ian, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, legend, <a href="#page_021">21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinese porcelain in, <a href="#page_025">25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs illustrated by pottery, <a href="#page_029">29-31</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">glaze, <a href="#page_063">63-65</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symbols, <a href="#page_085">85</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Cyprus, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Etruria, <a href="#page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">processes, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history and general reference, <a href="#page_082">82-96</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_098">98</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> + +Elers Brothers, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.<br /> + +“El Frate,” artist at Ferrara, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.<br /> + +El Moro, <a href="#page_431">431</a>.<br /> + +Ely tiles, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.<br /> + +Enamel, <a href="#page_063">63-65</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>See</i> <a href="#Stanniferous">Stanniferous</a>.)</span><br /> + +Encaustic tiles, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> + +England, first porcelain made in, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tiles, <a href="#page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lead-glazed pottery, <a href="#page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delft, <a href="#page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">her debt to America, <a href="#page_447">447</a>.</span><br /> + +English marks in America, <a href="#page_445">445</a>.<br /> + +English porcelain, composition, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Eraku, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.<br /> + +Etruria, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wedgwood’s, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.</span><br /> + +Etruria Pottery Company, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Etruscan, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">black, red, and yellow ware, <a href="#page_243">243</a>.</span><br /> + +Ettlinger, commissioner at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> + +Europe, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br /> + +European art, its fountains, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br /> + +Evagoras, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="F" id="F"></a>F<small>AENZA</small>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_424">424</a>.<br /> + +Faience defined, <a href="#page_049">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">à niellure, <a href="#page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">à la corne, <a href="#page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> + +Falconer, John M., artist, <a href="#page_484">484</a>, <a href="#page_485">485</a>.<br /> + +Families of Chinese porcelain, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br /> + +Fauquez family, St. Amand, <a href="#page_311">311</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Valenciennes, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> + +Ferrara, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +“Fine style,” Greek, <a href="#page_230">230</a>.<br /> + +Flanders, faience of, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>See</i> <a href="#Gres_de_Flandre">Grès de Flandre</a>.)</span><br /> + +Flashed glaze, <a href="#page_133">133</a>.<br /> + +Flights of Worcester, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> + +Florence, porcelain invented at, <a href="#page_052">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its majolica, <a href="#page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_265">265</a>.</span><br /> + +“Florid style,” Greek, <a href="#page_230">230</a>.<br /> + +Florida, Indian pottery, <a href="#page_438">438</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clay, <a href="#page_446">446</a>.</span><br /> + +Flushing, Long Island, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +Fo, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>.<br /> + +Fogen, <a href="#page_159">159</a>.<br /> + +Fong-hoang, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +Fontana family, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> + +Fontenoy vase, <a href="#page_023">23</a>.<br /> + +Forli, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Fou-hi, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> + +Fouque, Joseph, <a href="#page_284">284</a>.<br /> + +Fournier, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> + +Fourniera of Limoges, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> + +France, <a href="#page_271">271-326</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient, <a href="#page_271">271-273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, composition of, <a href="#page_060">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Francesco Durantino, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.<br /> + +Francesco Maria, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> + +Francesco Vezzi, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<br /> + +Francesco Xanto, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> + +Francis I., <a href="#page_266">266</a>.<br /> + +Frankenthal, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Frye, Thomas, artist at Bow, <a href="#page_377">377</a>.<br /> + +Fulham settled by Dutch, <a href="#page_358">358</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone-ware, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>.</span><br /> + +Furnaces, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Fürstenburg, porcelain of, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="G" id="G"></a>G<small>ALLIENUS</small>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>.<br /> + +Galloway & Graiff, Philadelphia, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Garducci, artist at Urbino, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> + +Garrett, partner of Copeland, <a href="#page_383">383</a>.<br /> + +Gaul, <a href="#page_272">272</a>.<br /> + +Gelanor, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Geminiano Cozzi, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<br /> + +Genghis Khan, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Georgia, Indian pottery, <a href="#page_438">438</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clay, <a href="#page_446">446</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kaolin, <a href="#page_451">451</a>.</span><br /> + +Gérault Daraubert, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_493" id="page_493">{493}</a></span><br /> + +Germany, pottery of, <a href="#page_327">327-330</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone-ware, <a href="#page_333">333-336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, composition of, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_336">336-342</a>.</span><br /> + +Gien faience, <a href="#page_309">309</a>.<br /> + +Ginori, Marquis Carlo, <a href="#page_268">268</a>.<br /> + +Gioanetti, Dr., founds factory at Vineuf, <a href="#page_270">270</a>.<br /> + +Giorgio Andreoli, imitator of Luca della Robbia, <a href="#page_253">253</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">artist at Gubbio, <a href="#page_259">259</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Giovanni, son of Andrea della Robbia, <a href="#page_253">253</a>.<br /> + +Girolamo, son of Andrea della Robbia, <a href="#page_253">253</a>.<br /> + +Giyoki, or Gyoguy, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Glasgow Pottery Company, <a href="#page_460">460</a>, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Glaze, porcelain, <a href="#page_060">60</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">artificial porcelain, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pottery, <a href="#page_063">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</span><br /> + +Glazing, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.<br /> + +Glot of Sceaux, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Göggingen, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Golgoi, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> + +Goodwin, John, Trenton, <a href="#page_460">460</a>.<br /> + +Gosai, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>.<br /> + +Goths, <a href="#page_217">217</a>.<br /> + +Græco-Egyptian, <a href="#page_091">91</a>.<br /> + +Graffiti, <a href="#page_249">249</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minton’s, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.</span><br /> + +“Grains of rice” work, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>.<br /> + +Granada, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.<br /> + +Granite-ware, <a href="#page_456">456</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Gravant, director at Vincennes, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.<br /> + +Graybeards stone-ware, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.<br /> + +Greatbatch, D., modeller, at Jersey City, <a href="#page_456">456</a>.<br /> + +Greece,—eek, legend as to origin of pottery, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_022">22</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquests defined, <a href="#page_024">24</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs illustrated by pottery, <a href="#page_026">26-28</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting, <a href="#page_032">32-34</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_228">228-232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">whence derived, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_209">209-212</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">glaze, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moulding and modelling, <a href="#page_068">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wheel, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">furnaces, <a href="#page_074">74-76</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Cyprus, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of Greek art, <a href="#page_198">198-212</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general history, <a href="#page_219">219-232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sun-dried pottery, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">terra-cotta, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">styles, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence in Italy, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in France, <a href="#page_292">292</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in Denmark, <a href="#page_347">347-350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in Brazil, <a href="#page_414">414</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in United States, <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <i>et seq.</i> <i>passim</i>, <a href="#page_467">467</a>, <a href="#page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general reference, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href="#page_404">404</a>, <a href="#page_477">477</a>.</span><br /> + +Green family, China, <a href="#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> + +Greenpoint porcelain, <a href="#page_443">443</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imported kaolin, <a href="#page_449">449</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kilns, <a href="#page_463">463</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#page_472">472</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ingredients, <a href="#page_475">475</a>, <a href="#page_476">476</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">biscuit, <a href="#page_478">478</a>.</span><br /> + +Greenwood Pottery Company, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Grellet Brothers of Limoges, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> + +<a name="Gres_de_Flandre" id="Gres_de_Flandre"></a>Grès de Flandre, <a href="#page_336">336</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revived by Doulton, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.</span><br /> + +Gros-Caillou, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Grosso, artist at Ferrara, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.<br /> + +Guatemala, <a href="#page_420">420</a>.<br /> + +Gubbio, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.<br /> + +Gueguetenango, <a href="#page_420">420</a>, <a href="#page_421">421</a>.<br /> + +Guettard, chemist at Bagnolet, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<br /> + +Guidobaldo II., <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>.<br /> + +Guik-mon, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="H" id="H"></a>H<small>AGUE</small>, the, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> + +Haguenau, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> + +Haji, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>.<br /> + +Halm Art Pottery Company, New York, <a href="#page_468">468</a>.<br /> + +Hancock, R., engraver, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.<br /> + +Handley, A., artist at Worcester, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.<br /> + +Hanford, Isaac, potter at Hartford, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Hangest, Hélène de, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.<br /> + +Hannong, Charles François, potter at Strasburg, <a href="#page_286">286</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">family, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> + +Hard porcelain. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Natural">Natural</a>.)<br /> + +Harrison, partner of Wedgwood, <a href="#page_362">362</a>.<br /> + +Hartford, Connecticut, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Harvey & Adamson, Philadelphia, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Hattersley, Charles, Trenton, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.<br /> + +Haviland, Charles Field, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> + +Havilands, of New York and Limoges, <a href="#page_287">287</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their faience and process, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their artists, <a href="#page_288">288</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examples, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mark, <a href="#page_304">304</a>; porcelain, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">faience imitated, <a href="#page_469">469</a>.</span><br /> + +Hawthorn pattern, Chinese, <a href="#page_128">128</a>; black, <a href="#page_129">129</a>.<br /> + +Helstone china clay, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Hemphill, Judge, Philadelphia, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.<br /> + +Henderson & Co., D., Jersey City, <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.<br /> + +Henri Deux ware, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minton’s, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.</span><br /> + +Herbertsville, New Jersey, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Herculaneum pottery, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Hermann, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.<br /> + +Hesdin, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> + +Hesse-Cassel, porcelain of, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Hide-yoshi, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Hindoos, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.<br /> + +Hirschvogel, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.<br /> + +Hispano-Moresque, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>.<br /> + +History illustrated by pottery, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> + +Hizen, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.<br /> + +Hoang-ti, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Höchst, faience, <a href="#page_330">330</a>; porcelain, <a href="#page_340">340</a>.<br /> + +Holland, faience, <a href="#page_331">331-333</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</span><br /> + +Holmos, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Holdship, Josiah, Worcester, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.<br /> + +Hollins, Michael Daintry, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a>.<br /> + +Homer, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.<br /> + +Ho-nan, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.<br /> + +Honduras, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br /> + +Honorific marks, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.<br /> + +Horoldt, director at Meissen, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> + +Hotei, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> + +Houdayer, John F., Trenton, <a href="#page_460">460</a>.<br /> + +Höxter, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Hudson River Pottery, New York, <a href="#page_457">457</a>.<br /> + +Hulaku, Khan, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>.<br /> + +Hydria, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> + +Hyrche, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="I" id="I"></a>I<small>BERIAN</small> peninsula, <a href="#page_233">233-239</a>.<br /> + +Ibis mummy pots, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br /> + +Idalium, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> + +Illinois, ancient, <a href="#page_431">431</a>, <a href="#page_438">438</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kaolin, <a href="#page_449">449</a>.</span><br /> + +Imari, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br /> + +Inachus, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Incas of Peru, <a href="#page_395">395</a>.<br /> + +India, <a href="#page_105">105-108</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br /> + +“Indian” porcelain, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_494" id="page_494">{494}</a></span><br /> + +Indiana kaolin, <a href="#page_449">449</a>.<br /> + +<a name="Indians_North_American" id="Indians_North_American"></a>Indians, North American, <a href="#page_425">425</a>, <a href="#page_429">429-441</a>.<br /> + +Inland pottery of Peru, <a href="#page_400">400</a>.<br /> + +Ipsen, Mme., <a href="#page_347">347</a>.<br /> + +Ireland, ancient, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.<br /> + +Iron-stone china, <a href="#page_458">458</a>.<br /> + +Irving, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.<br /> + +Ise, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> + +Israelites, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_088">88</a>.<br /> + +Italy: potter’s wheel, <a href="#page_073">73</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">furnaces, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#page_240">240-270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general character of its art, <a href="#page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence in France, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.</span><br /> + +Iviça, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.<br /> + +“Ivory porcelain,” <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="J" id="J"></a>J<small>ACQUELINE</small>, Countess, <a href="#page_333">333</a>.<br /> + +Jacques, manufacturer at Bourg-la-Reine, <a href="#page_304">304</a>.<br /> + +Jade, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> + +Jade-colored porcelain, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.<br /> + +Jasper-ware, Wedgwood’s, <a href="#page_364">364</a>, <a href="#page_365">365</a>.<br /> + +Jeffords & Co., Philadelphia, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Jehan de Voleur, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> + +Jehovah, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Jerichau, Danish sculptor, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> + +Jersey City, New Jersey, <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decorated earthen-ware, <a href="#page_483">483</a>.</span><br /> + +Jewelled porcelain, Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Copeland’s, <a href="#page_384">384</a>.</span><br /> + +Jinmu, <a href="#page_158">158</a>.<br /> + +Joubert & Cancate, makers of porcelain, Limoges, <a href="#page_321">321</a>.<br /> + +Jou-yao, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.<br /> + +Judæa, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br /> + +Jullien, manufacturer at Bourg-la-Reine, <a href="#page_304">304</a>.<br /> + +Jupiter, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="K" id="K"></a>K<small>ADOS</small>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> + +Kaga, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Kagoshima, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.<br /> + +Kalpis, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Kami,—ism, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> + +Kandler, artist at Meissen, <a href="#page_337">337-339</a>.<br /> + +Kanoun, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Kantharos, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Kaolin, <a href="#page_051">51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovered in Saxony, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#page_053">53</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Yrieix, <a href="#page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alençon, <a href="#page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">etymology, <a href="#page_059">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">composition, <a href="#page_059">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how prepared, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#page_447">447</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Karatsu, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> + +Kato Shirozayemon, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Kato-siro-ouye-mon, <i>ibid.</i><br /> + +Kean, Michael, partner of Duesbury, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Keironan, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> + +Kelebe, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Keller & Guérin, Luneville, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Keramos, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>.<br /> + +Kiel, <a href="#page_347">347</a>.<br /> + +Kien-long, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br /> + +Kilns, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in America, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.</span><br /> + +King-teh-chin, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> + +Kioto, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.<br /> + +Kiri-mon, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> + +Kiusiu, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> + +Korzec, porcelain of, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> + +Kothon, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Kotylos, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Kouan-yao, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>.<br /> + +Kouei, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Kouen-ou, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Koung-tseu, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Koutsi fakata, <a href="#page_159">159</a>.<br /> + +Krater, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Kraut, Hans, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Krossos, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Kuan-in, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Kutani, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.<br /> + +Kyathos, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Kylin, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +Kylix, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="L" id="L"></a>L<small>A</small> C<small>HINA</small>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Lacquer, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> + +Ladies’ Art Association, <a href="#page_483">483</a>.<br /> + +Lafond, artist, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>.<br /> + +Lagynos, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> + +Lake dwellers, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_395">395</a>.<br /> + +Lambeth settled by Dutch, <a href="#page_358">358</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone-ware, <a href="#page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">faience, <a href="#page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">school of art, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">artists, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_483">483</a>.</span><br /> + +Lambrequin decoration, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Lamoninary, Valenciennes, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> + +Lancelle, <a href="#page_127">127</a>.<br /> + +Lang lizen, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> + +Land of Great Peace, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +Lanfranco Brothers, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br /> + +Lanfrey, François, manager at Niederviller, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Lao-tseu, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Lapis-lazuli blue, <a href="#page_132">132</a>.<br /> + +Larnaca, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a>.<br /> + +Lathrop, Charles, potter at Norwich, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Laughlin, Mr., East Liverpool, <a href="#page_451">451</a>, <a href="#page_452">452</a>.<br /> + +Lauragais, Count de Brancas, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<br /> + +Laurin, artist, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>.<br /> + +Learned, cup of the, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> + +Lebœuf and Thebaut, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<br /> + +Lebœuf, Milliet & Co., of Creil, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<br /> + +Leeds pottery, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.<br /> + +Leipsic, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.<br /> + +Lekythos, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Lelong, Nicholas, founds Nancy, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Lemire, artist at Niederviller, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Levigating mills, <a href="#page_452">452</a>.<br /> + +Licou-li, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br /> + +Lille faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> +Limoges faience, <a href="#page_286">286</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imitated, <a href="#page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with metal, <a href="#page_486">486</a>.</span><br /> + +Lindeneher, artist, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> + +Lindenir, painter at Meissen, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> + +Literature enriched by figures, <a href="#page_031">31</a>.<br /> + +Liverpool delft, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> + +Locker & Co., Derby, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Longevity, god of, <a href="#page_111">111</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symbols, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> + +Longwy faience, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_495" id="page_495">{495}</a></span><br /> + +Loosdrecht, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> + +Lotus as a symbol, <a href="#page_085">85</a>.<br /> + +Louisiana, ancient, <a href="#page_431">431</a>, <a href="#page_439">439</a>.<br /> + +Lowe, Alexander, director at Vienna, <a href="#page_340">340</a>.<br /> + +Lowestoft pottery, <a href="#page_375">375</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.</span><br /> + +Luca della Robbia, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of his life, <a href="#page_250">250</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his works, <a href="#page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the younger Luca, <a href="#page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">successors and imitators, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.</span><br /> + +Lucumon, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> + +Ludwigsburg, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Luneville, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Luson, Herolin, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Lyman, Fenton & Co., <a href="#page_457">457</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.<br /> + +Lynch, J. and T., Trenton, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="M" id="M"></a>M<small>ACQUOID</small> & Co., W. A., New York, <a href="#page_457">457</a>.<br /> + +Madrid, <a href="#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Magistrates’ porcelain, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.<br /> + +Magna Græcia, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.<br /> + +Maine felspar, <a href="#page_449">449</a>.<br /> + +Majolica, defined, <a href="#page_049">49-51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how painted, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imported into Italy, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earliest Italian, <a href="#page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wedgwood, <a href="#page_365">365</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minton, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carr, <a href="#page_459">459</a>.</span><br /> + +Majorca, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a>.<br /> + +Malaga, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.<br /> + +Malmesbury tiles, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> + +Malpass, William, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Malvern tiles, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> + +Mancos, <a href="#page_433">433</a>.<br /> + +Mandan Indians, <a href="#page_430">430</a>.<br /> + +Mandarin vases, <a href="#page_135">135</a>.<br /> + +Manhattan Pottery, <a href="#page_457">457</a>.<br /> + +Manises, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> + +Manor-house, York, pottery, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Manufacture, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Marburg, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Marcolini, Count, director at Meissen, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> + +Marieberg, faience of, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>.<br /> + +Marreot Abaquesne, <a href="#page_281">281</a>.<br /> + +Marseilles, founded by Phœnicians, <a href="#page_273">273</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">faience, <a href="#page_285">285</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.</span><br /> + +Maryland Indians, <a href="#page_440">440</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">felspar and quartz, <a href="#page_449">449</a>.</span><br /> + +Massie, Sieur, potter at Limoges, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> + +Mayer, Joseph, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Mazarine blue, <a href="#page_132">132</a>.<br /> + +Mecca, Temple of, <a href="#page_213">213</a>.<br /> + +Medicean porcelain, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Meissen, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_475">475</a>.<br /> + +Melchiorre, Fra, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Mennecy, porcelain of, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> + +Mercer Pottery, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Mercury, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Mesopotamia, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> + +<a name="Metallic_lustre" id="Metallic_lustre"></a>Metallic lustre, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how applied, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.</span><br /> + +Mexico, <a href="#page_418">418</a>, <a href="#page_421">421</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Meyer, commissioner at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> + +Mezza-majolica, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.<br /> + +Mikado, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +Miles, Thomas, stone-ware maker, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.<br /> + +Millham Pottery, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Millington, Mr., Trenton, <a href="#page_460">460</a>, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.<br /> + +Ming dynasty, porcelain of, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, <i>et passim.</i><br /> + +Mino, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br /> + +Minorca, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.<br /> + +Minton & Co., Henri Deux ware, <a href="#page_281">281</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pate-sur-pate, <a href="#page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of firm, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_382">382</a>.</span><br /> + +Minton, Herbert, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, et seq.<br /> + +Minton, Hollins & Co., <a href="#page_368">368</a>.<br /> + +Minton, Thomas, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> + +Mississippi, <a href="#page_425">425</a>, <a href="#page_426">426</a>, <a href="#page_427">427</a>, <a href="#page_430">430</a>, <a href="#page_439">439</a>.<br /> + +Missouri, ancient pottery, <a href="#page_425">425</a>, <a href="#page_426">426</a>, <a href="#page_427">427</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian, <a href="#page_430">430</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kaolin, <a href="#page_449">449</a>, <a href="#page_450">450</a>.</span><br /> + +Mitla, <a href="#page_423">423</a>, <a href="#page_424">424</a>.<br /> + +Moguls in Persia, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>.<br /> + +Mohammed, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>; tomb of, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>.<br /> + +Mohammed-ben-Alhamar, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.<br /> + +Moore, Joseph H., Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Moncloa, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +“Monkey,” Brazilian, <a href="#page_416">416</a>.<br /> + +Montereau faience, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<br /> + +Montesinos, Spanish historian, <a href="#page_394">394</a>.<br /> + +Montezuma, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br /> + +Moorhead & Wilson, Spring Mills, Pennsylvania, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Moors,—ish, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Moquis, <a href="#page_436">436</a>, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.<br /> + +Moreau, Marie, porcelain-maker, Paris, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> + +Moresque, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> + +Moringues, <a href="#page_416">416</a>.<br /> + +Morocco, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> + +Moscow, porcelain of, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> + +Moses, James, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Moses, John, & Co., Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Moulding, <a href="#page_068">68</a>.<br /> + +Mound-builders, <a href="#page_425">425-428</a>, <a href="#page_438">438</a>, <a href="#page_439">439</a>, <a href="#page_440">440</a>.<br /> + +Moustiers, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.<br /> + +Muller, Danish minister, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> + +Müller, Karl, Greenpoint, <a href="#page_475">475</a>, <a href="#page_476">476</a>.<br /> + +Mummy figures, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.<br /> + +Murviedro, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.<br /> + +Mylitta, <a href="#page_202">202</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="N" id="N"></a>N<small>AGASAKI</small>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>.<br /> + +Nagoya, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> + +Nancy faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Nankin blue, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br /> + +Nankin, tower of, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br /> + +Nantes, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> + +Nantgarrow, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Naples, <a href="#page_238">238</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">majolica, <a href="#page_264">264</a>.</span><br /> + +Natchez Indians, <a href="#page_430">430</a>.<br /> + +<a name="Natural" id="Natural"></a>Natural porcelain, its ingredients, <a href="#page_051">51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invented in Europe, <a href="#page_052">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of term, <a href="#page_057">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis, <a href="#page_060">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assyrian, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian, <a href="#page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinese, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corean, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Japanese, <a href="#page_159">159-161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian, <a href="#page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dutch, <a href="#page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russian, <a href="#page_344">344</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Danish, <a href="#page_351">351</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Irish, <a href="#page_388">388</a>,<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_496" id="page_496">{496}</a></span> <a href="#page_389">389</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#page_443">443</a>, <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_471">471</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Neo-Paphos, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> + +Neudeck-Nymphenburg, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Neuhaus, <a href="#page_340">340</a>.<br /> + +Nevers, <a href="#page_282">282</a>.<br /> + +New England Pottery Co., <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +Newhall china, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.<br /> + +New Jersey, Indian pottery, <a href="#page_437">437</a>, <a href="#page_440">440</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clays, <a href="#page_448">448</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analyzed, <a href="#page_450">450</a>, <a href="#page_451">451</a>.</span><br /> + +New Mexico, <a href="#page_429">429</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +New York, <a href="#page_457">457-459</a>.<br /> + +Nicaragua, <a href="#page_419">419</a>, <a href="#page_421">421</a>, <a href="#page_424">424</a>, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.<br /> + +Nicola da Urbino, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.<br /> + +Nicoloso Francesco, artist of Robbia school, <a href="#page_253">253</a>.<br /> + +Niederviller faience, <a href="#page_310">310</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> + +Nile, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> + +Nishikide, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>.<br /> + +Nisser, Danish, <a href="#page_350">350</a>.<br /> + +Noel, artist, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> + +Nomino-Soukoune, <a href="#page_158">158</a>.<br /> + +Normans in England, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> + +North American Indians. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians_North_American">Indians, North American</a>.)<br /> + +Northamptonshire, ancient, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> + +Northcomb, Huart de, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<br /> + +“Northern faience,” <a href="#page_346">346</a>.<br /> + +Norwalk, Connecticut, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Norwich, Connecticut, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Nottingham, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Nove, Le, porcelain, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<br /> + +Num, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Numa Pompilius, <a href="#page_244">244</a>.<br /> + +Nuremberg, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Nyon, porcelain of, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="O" id="O"></a>O<small>ANAMUCHI</small>-<small>NO-MIKOTO</small>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>.<br /> + +Oinochoe, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Oiron, faienced, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.<br /> + +Old Bridge, New Jersey, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +“Old style,” Greek, <a href="#page_229">229</a>.<br /> + +Olery, Joseph, artist at Moustiers, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.<br /> + +Olpe, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Omar, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> + +Ometepec Island, <a href="#page_419">419</a>, <a href="#page_420">420</a>, <a href="#page_421">421</a>.<br /> + +Onyx-ware, Wedgwood’s, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> + +Oosei-tsumi, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>.<br /> + +Opium-pipes, <a href="#page_119">119</a>.<br /> + +Oporto, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Oppal, Bengrath, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> + +Oriental art, its leading features, <a href="#page_037">37</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of color, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conventional forms, <a href="#page_038">38</a>.</span><br /> + +Orinoco, tribes of the, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.<br /> + +Orleans faience, <a href="#page_312">312</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.</span><br /> + +Ormuzd, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Osiris, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Osman, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> + +Ostrakinon, <a href="#page_227">227</a>.<br /> + +Ott & Brewer, Trenton, <a href="#page_462">462</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Ottaviano, assistant of Luca della Robbia, <a href="#page_253">253</a>.<br /> + +Ouan-lou-hoang, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> + +Outang, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Owari, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> + +Oxides, <a href="#page_065">65</a>.<br /> + +Oxybaphon, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="P" id="P"></a>P<small>ACHACAMAC</small>, <a href="#page_396">396</a>.<br /> + +Pa-kwa, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> + +Palenque, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br /> + +Palermo, <a href="#page_247">247</a>.<br /> + +Palestine, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>.<br /> + +Palissy, Bernard, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imitation ware, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of his life, <a href="#page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imitators, <a href="#page_277">277</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.</span><br /> + +Pallandre, flower-painter, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.<br /> + +Pallas Athene, <a href="#page_222">222</a>.<br /> + +Palmer’s pottery, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.<br /> + +Pandora, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Paphos, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> + +Parent, director at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> + +Parian, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minton’s, <a href="#page_366">366</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Copeland’s, <a href="#page_385">385</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#page_457">457</a>, <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <a href="#page_464">464</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Paris faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>see</i> also Deck, Colinot, Parville, Barbizet, Pull, Haviland);</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> + +Parville of Paris, <a href="#page_308">308</a>.<br /> + +Pasquale, Antonibon, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<br /> + +Pate changeante, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.<br /> + +Pate dure, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>See</i> <a href="#Natural">Natural porcelain</a>.)</span><br /> + +Pate-sur-pate, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.<br /> + +Pate tendre, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>See</i> <a href="#Artificial_porcelain">Artificial porcelain.</a>)</span><br /> + +Paullownia imperialis, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> + +Paulson, Joseph, <a href="#page_365">365</a>.<br /> + +Pearl, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Pectoral tablets, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.<br /> + +Pelasgi, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> + +Pennington, Liverpool potter, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.<br /> + +Pennsylvania, Indian pottery, <a href="#page_437">437</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kaolin, <a href="#page_449">449</a>, <a href="#page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">china works in, <a href="#page_454">454</a>, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.</span><br /> + +Pensacola clay, <a href="#page_447">447</a>.<br /> + +Perrin, Mme., Marseilles, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> + +Perrine & Co., Baltimore, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Persia,—n, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_189">189-197</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in China, <a href="#page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a> (fig. 240), <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.</span><br /> + +Perspective in Chinese art, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> + +Perth Amboy clay, <a href="#page_448">448</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analyzed, <a href="#page_450">450</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fire-brick factory, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.</span><br /> + +Peru, <a href="#page_393">393</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its history, <a href="#page_394">394</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pottery, <a href="#page_395">395</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religion, <a href="#page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms, <a href="#page_400">400</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decoration, <a href="#page_407">407</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colors, <a href="#page_408">408</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs, <a href="#page_409">409</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">processes, <a href="#page_413">413</a>, <a href="#page_418">418</a>, <a href="#page_428">428</a>, <a href="#page_430">430</a>, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.</span><br /> + +Perugia, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.<br /> + +Pesaro, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br /> + +Peterynck of Lille at Tournay, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.<br /> + +Petuntse, <a href="#page_051">51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its composition, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>.</span><br /> + +Phiale, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Philadelphia stone-ware, etc., <a href="#page_455">455</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">terra-cotta, <a href="#page_467">467</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_471">471</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.</span><br /> + +Phœnicia,—ns, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Gaul, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.</span><br /> + +Piccolpasso, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.<br /> + +Pinax, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_497" id="page_497">{497}</a></span><br /> + +Pinxton, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Pirota, Casa, <a href="#page_261">261</a>.<br /> + +Pisa, —ns, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">majolica, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.</span><br /> + +Pithakne, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.<br /> + +Pithos, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>.<br /> + +Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +Pizarro, <a href="#page_395">395</a>, <a href="#page_418">418</a>.<br /> + +Place, Francis, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Plumbiferous glaze, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>.<br /> + +Plymouth, porcelain of, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> + +Poa-en-ssi, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br /> + +Poirel, Nicolas, <a href="#page_281">281</a>.<br /> + +Poitevin, artist, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.<br /> + +Poitou, old pottery, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> + +Poland, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> + +Pompadour, Madame de, <a href="#page_314">314</a>; Rose, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Porcelain, word misapplied, <a href="#page_048">48</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition and etymology, <a href="#page_051">51</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invented in China, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduction into Europe, <a href="#page_051">51</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invention in Europe, <a href="#page_052">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">composition, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#page_092">92</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assyrian, <a href="#page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian, <a href="#page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinese <a href="#page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">without embryo, <a href="#page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invented in Japan, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, etc;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain and metal, <a href="#page_486">486</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>see</i> also <a href="#Artificial_porcelain">artificial</a>, <a href="#Natural">natural</a>, and different countries).</span><br /> + +Porous ware, <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <a href="#page_469">469</a>.<br /> + +Portland vase, <a href="#page_363">363</a>.<br /> + +Portugal, —uese, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Poterat, Edme, <a href="#page_281">281</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his son Louis, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> + +Potters’ Association, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +Potter’s wheel, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, et seq.<br /> + +Pottery, etymology and meaning, <a href="#page_049">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">composition of different kinds, <a href="#page_062">62</a>.</span><br /> + +Pou-tai, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br /> + +Prices, potters in New Jersey, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Printing on faience at Creil, <a href="#page_307">307</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Liverpool, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on porcelain at Worcester, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Battersea, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.</span><br /> + +Prochoos, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Prometheus, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Psykter, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Ptolemy Claudius, <a href="#page_210">210</a>.<br /> + +Ptolemy Lagus, or Soter, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +Pueblo Indians, <a href="#page_430">430</a>, <a href="#page_431">431</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Pug-mill, <a href="#page_067">67</a>.<br /> + +Pull of Paris, <a href="#page_277">277</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="Q" id="Q"></a>Q<small>UAMON</small>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> + +Queen’s-ware, Wedgwood’s, <a href="#page_363">363</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made in Connecticut, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.</span><br /> + +Quintilius Varus, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.<br /> + +Quirigua, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="R" id="R"></a>R<small>AFFAELLE</small> <small>DEL</small> B<small>ORGO</small>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br /> + +Raku, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Ramey, R. C., Philadelphia, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Rato, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Ravenna, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Réaumur makes “porcelain,” <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> + +Reed, Bristol potter, <a href="#page_373">373</a>.<br /> + +Reflet métallique. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Metallic_lustre">Metallic lustre</a>.)<br /> + +Regnault, director at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> + +Regnier, director at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> + +Religion and art, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_398">398</a> (<i>see</i> under each country).<br /> + +Renard, M., modeller at Sèvres, <a href="#page_294">294</a>.<br /> + +Reticulated porcelain, Chinese, <a href="#page_152">152</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Copeland’s, <a href="#page_385">385</a>.</span><br /> + +Revel, <a href="#page_344">344</a>.<br /> + +Réverend, Claude, made “counterfeit porcelain,” <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> + +Rhages, <a href="#page_193">193</a>.<br /> + +Rhodes, <a href="#page_211">211</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> + +Rhodes, William, potter at Jersey City, <a href="#page_456">456</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Vermont, <a href="#page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Trenton, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.</span><br /> +Rhodes & Yates, Trenton, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.<br /> + +Rhyton, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Ridgway, Job, potter at Shelton, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.<br /> + +Rimini, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> + +Ringler, workman at Vienna, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Robert, director at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> + +Robert, Joseph Gaspard, artist at Marseilles, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<br /> + +Robertsons of Chelsea, Massachusetts, <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <a href="#page_468">468</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Robinson, Liverpool, artist, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.<br /> + +Rockingham ware, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <a href="#page_462">462</a>.<br /> + +Rome, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Roman, —s, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unglazed ware, <a href="#page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Gaul, <a href="#page_272">272</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> + +Romulus, <a href="#page_244">244</a>.<br /> + +Rorstrand faience, <a href="#page_346">346</a>.<br /> + +Rose-back decoration, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br /> + +Rose family (Chinese and Japanese), <a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Roses of Colebrookdale, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Rouen, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Roundabout, New Jersey, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Rouse & Turner, Jersey City, <a href="#page_456">456</a>, <a href="#page_457">457</a>.<br /> + +Ruminhauy, Peruvian cacique, <a href="#page_405">405</a>, <a href="#page_414">414</a>.<br /> + +Russia, <a href="#page_344">344</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> + +Rustiques figulines, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="S" id="S"></a>S<small>ACRED</small> axe, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Sacred horse, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.<br /> + +“Sacred things,” <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Sadler, John, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.<br /> + +Saguntum, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.<br /> + +St. Amand faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +St. Clement faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +St. Cloud, <a href="#page_052">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> + +St. Denis faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +St. John, Knights of, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> + +St. Petersburg, <a href="#page_344">344</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> + +St. Yrieix, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<br /> + +Saki or Sake, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.<br /> + +Salamis, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> + +Salmon, commissioner at Sèvres, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> + +Salt glaze, <a href="#page_081">81</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovered in England, <a href="#page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used at Lambeth, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.</span><br /> + +Samian ware, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> + +Sandwich, delft pottery of, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.<br /> + +Sandy Hill, New York, <a href="#page_468">468</a>.<br /> + +San Felipe, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.<br /> + +Sans, Thomas, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.<span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_498" id="page_498">{498}</a></span><br /> + +Santa Cruz del Quiche, <a href="#page_420">420</a>, <a href="#page_421">421</a>.<br /> + +Saracens,—ic, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> + +Sargon, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +Sarreguemines faience, <a href="#page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> + +Sassanian dynasty, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Satsuma, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_167">167-170</a>.<br /> + +Sauvage, Charles, Niederviller, artist, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> + +Savy, Honoré, potter at Marseilles, <a href="#page_285">285</a>.<br /> + +Saxons, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> + +Sayreville, New Jersey, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Scandinavians, ancient, <a href="#page_344">344</a>.<br /> + +Scarabæus, <a href="#page_085">85</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as signet, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.</span><br /> + +Sceaux faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> + +Schaffhausen, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Schelestadt, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.<br /> + +Schiites, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> + +Schist, <a href="#page_095">95</a>.<br /> + +Schnorr, John, <a href="#page_052">52</a>.<br /> + +Scotland, ancient remains, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.<br /> + +Seggars, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.<br /> + +Seidji, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.<br /> + +Seleucus Nicanor, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Semi-china, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_463">463</a>.<br /> + +Seto, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> + +Seville, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>.<br /> + +Sèvres: old paste analyzed, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how porcelain is made, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Royal factory at, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">copied at Strasburg, <a href="#page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of, <a href="#page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pate changeante, pate-sur-pate, <a href="#page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imitated in Switzerland, <a href="#page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">artists in Russia, <a href="#page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imitated in Chelsea, <a href="#page_378">378</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coalport, <a href="#page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">copied in America, <a href="#page_443">443</a>.</span><br /> + +Sforza family, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>.<br /> + +Sgraffiato, <a href="#page_249">249</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Minton’s, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.</span><br /> + +Shelton, stone-ware, <a href="#page_360">360</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.</span><br /> + +Shintoism, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> + +Shiogun, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Shiou-ro, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.<br /> + +Shonsui, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>.<br /> + +Shropshire, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Siam, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.<br /> + +Sicily, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>.<br /> + +Siculo-Moresque, <a href="#page_247">247</a>.<br /> + +Sidon, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> + +Siena, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> + +Silicious glaze, <a href="#page_064">64</a>.<br /> + +Simpson, William, English potter, <a href="#page_358">358</a>.<br /> + +Skyphos, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> + +Smith, T. C., of Greenpoint, <a href="#page_443">443</a>, <a href="#page_451">451</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of, <a href="#page_473">473</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Soft porcelain. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Artificial_porcelain">artificial</a>.)<br /> + +Soli, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> + +Solon, M., <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.<br /> + +Sometsuki, <a href="#page_161">161</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blue Sometsuki, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> + +Sonorous stone, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Soufflé, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>.<br /> + +South Amboy, New Jersey, clay, <a href="#page_448">448</a>, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +South America, <a href="#page_391">391</a>.<br /> + +Spain, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_233">233-239</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>.<br /> + +Spaniards in Peru, <a href="#page_395">395</a>.<br /> + +Sparkes, Mrs., Lambeth artist, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br /> + +Spode, Josiah, <a href="#page_382">382</a>.<br /> + +Spring Mills, Pennsylvania, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Staffordshire, Delft, <a href="#page_358">358</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone-ware, <a href="#page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general history, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Stamnos, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> + +Stamps for bricks, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.<br /> + +<a name="Stanniferous" id="Stanniferous"></a>Stanniferous enamel, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">résumé of history, <a href="#page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.</span><br /> + +States, Adam, potter at Stonington, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Stephenson & Hancock, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.<br /> + +Stewart & Co., New York, <a href="#page_457">457</a>.<br /> + +Stoke-upon-Trent, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>.<br /> + +Stone china, Copeland’s, <a href="#page_387">387</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carr’s, <a href="#page_458">458</a>.</span><br /> + +Stonington, Connecticut, early pottery of, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.<br /> + +Stone-ware, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, <a href="#page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English, <a href="#page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#page_454">454</a>, <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> + +Strasburg, faience, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_316">316</a>.</span><br /> + +Stratford-le-Bow, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_471">471</a>.<br /> + +Strehla, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.<br /> + +Sultaneah, mosque of, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>.<br /> + +Suma, <a href="#page_173">173</a>.<br /> + +Sun as a symbol, <a href="#page_086">86</a>.<br /> + +<a name="Sun-dried_clay" id="Sun-dried_clay"></a>Sun-dried clay, <a href="#page_074">74</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#page_088">88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assyrian, <a href="#page_098">98</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peruvian, <a href="#page_396">396</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mound-builders', <a href="#page_427">427</a>; Pueblo, <a href="#page_431">431</a>.</span><br /> + +Sunnites, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> + +Surprise hydraulique, <a href="#page_152">152</a>.<br /> + +Swansea, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Sweden, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Swinton, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.<br /> + +Switzerland, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</span><br /> + +<br /> +<a name="T" id="T"></a>T<small>ABLET</small> of honor, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Tai-thsing, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>.<br /> + +Talhas, <a href="#page_416">416</a>.<br /> + +Tamerlane, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Tao-te-king, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Tarquinii, <a href="#page_241">241</a>.<br /> + +Tarquinius Priscus, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>.<br /> + +Tarsus, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> + +Taylor & Speeler, Trenton, <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <a href="#page_460">460</a>.<br /> + +Taylor, William & James, potters, Jersey City, <a href="#page_456">456</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Trenton, <a href="#page_459">459</a>.</span><br /> + +Tch’aï, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>.<br /> + +Tchang, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.<br /> + +Tcheou, <a href="#page_134">134</a>.<br /> + +Tcheou blue, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>.<br /> + +Tchini, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>.<br /> + +Tchoui, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Tea-parties, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> + +Technology, <a href="#page_048">48</a>.<br /> + +Tegua, <a href="#page_436">436</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Tellwrights of Staffordshire, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.<br /> + +Tennessee Indians, <a href="#page_440">440</a>.<br /> + +Terra-cotta, <a href="#page_064">64</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#page_088">88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assyrian and Babylonian, <a href="#page_100">100-102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian, <a href="#page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phœnician, Greek, etc., Book III., Cap. I., <i>passim</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Danish, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doulton’s, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, ancient, <a href="#page_426">426</a>; modern, <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <a href="#page_457">457</a>, <a href="#page_467">467</a>, <i>et seq.</i><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_499" id="page_499">{499}</a></span></span><br /> + +Tervueren, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.<br /> + +Teucer, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.<br /> + +Teylingen, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.<br /> + +Thang-kong, <a href="#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>.<br /> + +Tho-tai-khi, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br /> + +Thoth, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Thothmes III., <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>.<br /> + +Thorvaldsen, <a href="#page_348">348</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Throwing, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br /> + +Thuringia, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> + +Thursfield, Richard, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Tin enamel. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Stanniferous">Stanniferous</a>.)<br /> + +Ting-yao, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>.<br /> + +Tinworth, George, Lambeth artist, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plaques by, <a href="#page_373">373</a>.</span><br /> + +Tlascalans, <a href="#page_423">423</a>, <a href="#page_424">424</a>.<br /> + +Toft, T. and R., English potters, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.<br /> + +Tokio, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> + +Toltecs, <a href="#page_422">422</a>, <a href="#page_425">425</a>, <a href="#page_426">426</a>, <a href="#page_429">429</a>.<br /> + +Tortoise-shell ware, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.<br /> + +Tossi-toku, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.<br /> + +Tournay, faience of, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.<br /> + +Transmutation, <a href="#page_133">133</a>.<br /> + +“Treasures of writing,” <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Trenton, New Jersey, <a href="#page_459">459-467</a>.<br /> + +Trenton Pottery Works, <a href="#page_460">460</a>.<br /> + +Tripous, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> + +Trou, Henry, of St. Cloud, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> + +Truité, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br /> + +Tucker, Thomas, Philadelphia, <a href="#page_472">472</a>.<br /> + +Tucker, William E., Philadelphia, <a href="#page_471">471</a>.<br /> + +Tunisia, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> + +Tunstall porcelain, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.<br /> + +Tupinambas, <a href="#page_413">413</a>.<br /> + +Turner, Thomas, Caughley, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Turquoise blue, how made, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minton’s, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.</span><br /> + +Tuscany, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> + +Tycoon, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.<br /> + +“Tygs,” <a href="#page_359">359</a>.<br /> + +Tyre, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> + +Tyrians, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> + +Tyrrheno-Pelasgians, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="U" id="U"></a>U<small>LYSSE</small> of Blois, <a href="#page_309">309</a>.<br /> + +Unbaked pottery. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Sun-dried_clay">Sun-dried clay</a>.)<br /> + +United States, <a href="#page_442">442-487</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">materials, <a href="#page_446">446-452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pottery, <a href="#page_453">453-470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, etc., <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <a href="#page_457">457</a>, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_459">459</a>, <a href="#page_461">461-463</a>, <a href="#page_471">471-487</a>.</span><br /> + +Univalve shell, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Urbino, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> + +Utah, <a href="#page_432">432</a>, <a href="#page_437">437</a>.<br /> + +Utzchneider & Co., <a href="#page_309">309</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="V" id="V"></a>V<small>ALENCIA</small>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>.<br /> + +Valenciennes, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> + +Vance, F. T., artist, <a href="#page_391">391</a>, <a href="#page_484">484</a>.<br /> + +Van Wickle, stone-ware manufacturer, <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Varus, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.<br /> + +Venice, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">majolica, <a href="#page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> + +Venus, temple of, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> + +Vezzi, Francesco, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<br /> + +Vienna porcelain, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_340">340</a>.<br /> + +Villingen, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Vincennes faience, <a href="#page_311">311</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">porcelain, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> + +Vineuf, <a href="#page_270">270</a>.<br /> + +Violet, Chinese, <a href="#page_149">149</a>.<br /> + +Virginia clay, <a href="#page_447">447</a>.<br /> + +Vista Allegre, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> + +Voleur, Jehan de, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> + +Von Lang, workman at Copenhagen, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> + +Vulcan, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> + +Vulci, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="W" id="W"></a>W<small>ACKENFIELD</small>, potter at Strasburg, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a>.<br /> + +Wagenaar, <a href="#page_186">186</a>.<br /> + +Walker & Beely, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Walker, Brown, Aldred & Rickman, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Wall, Dr., <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> + +Wandelein, director at La Doccia, <a href="#page_268">268</a>.<br /> + +Warrin & Lycett, decorators, <a href="#page_483">483</a>.<br /> + +Washington, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Sèvres, <a href="#page_319">319</a>.</span><br /> + +Water-vessels, Peruvian, <a href="#page_401">401</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Watson, J. R., <a href="#page_455">455</a>.<br /> + +Watts, John, partner of Doulton, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> + +Wedgwood, imitation jasper-ware of, <a href="#page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cameos of, <a href="#page_330">330</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life of, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">using American clays, <a href="#page_446">446</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fear of America, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.</span><br /> + +Weesp, porcelain factory, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> + +Wendrich & Son’s terra-cotta, <a href="#page_348">348</a>.<br /> + +Wheildon, T., partner of Wedgwood, <a href="#page_362">362</a>.<br /> + +Whistling jars, Peruvian, <a href="#page_409">409</a>, <a href="#page_410">410</a>.<br /> + +White, Chinese, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>.<br /> + +Willow-ware, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Winterthur, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> + +Wood, Enoch, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> + +Woodbridge, New Jersey, clay, <a href="#page_448">448</a>.<br /> + +Worcester porcelain, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and silver, <a href="#page_487">487</a>.</span><br /> +Wrede, Bristol potter, <a href="#page_373">373</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="X" id="X"></a>X<small>ANTO</small>, Francesco, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>.<br /> + +Xativa, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="Y" id="Y"></a>Y<small>ANG</small>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> + +Yarmouth, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<br /> + +Yebis, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> + +Yeddo, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> + +Yellow, imperial, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> + +Yn, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> + +Ynca, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.<br /> + +Young, William, Nantgarrow, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> + +Young, William, & Sons, Trenton, <a href="#page_460">460</a>, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.<br /> + +Yu, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.<br /> + +Yucatan, <a href="#page_423">423</a>, <a href="#page_424">424</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +<a name="Z" id="Z"></a>Z<small>AFFARINO</small>, artist at Ferrara, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.<br /> + +Zoroaster, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> + +Zuni, <a href="#page_431">431</a>, <a href="#page_436">436</a>, <i>et seq.</i><br /> + +Zürich, <a href="#page_330">330</a>; porcelain, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="cb">THE END.</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_500" id="page_500">{500}</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_501" id="page_501">{501}</a></span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="cb">VALUABLE AND INTERESTING WORKS<br /><br /> +<small>FOR</small><br /><br /> +STUDENTS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN ART.</p> + +<p><big><big>☞</big></big> <span class="smcap">Harper & Brothers</span> <i>will send either of the above works by mail +(excepting the larger works, whose weight excludes them from the mail), +postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the +price</i>.</p> + +<p class="c">————</p> + +<p><big><big>☞</big></big> <i>For a full list of works published by</i> <span class="smcap">Harper & Brothers</span>, <i>see</i> +<span class="smcap">Harper’s New and Enlarged Catalogue</span>, <i>332 pp., 8vo, with a</i> <span class="smcap">Complete +Analytical Index</span>, <i>and a</i> <span class="smcap">Visitors’ Guide to their Establishment</span>, +<i>giving an interesting description of the buildings in which their +business is carried on, and of the various processes in the manufacture +of their books. Sent by mail on receipt of Nine Cents.</i></p> + +<p class="c">————</p> + +<p class="nindb">Pottery and Porcelain of all Times and Nations.</p> + +<p>With Tables of Factory and Artists’ Marks, for the Use of +Collectors. By <span class="smcap">William C. Prime</span>, LL.D. Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, +Uncut Edges and Gilt Tops, $7 00; Half Calf, $9 25. (In a Box.)</p> + +<p class="nindb">The Ceramic Art.</p> + +<p>A Compendium of the History and Manufacture of Pottery and +Porcelain. By <span class="smcap">Jennie J. Young</span>. 8vo, Cloth. (<i>Just Ready.</i>)</p> + +<p class="nindb">The China Hunters Club.</p> + +<p>By the Youngest Member. Illustrated. Post 8vo, Cloth, $1 75.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Art Education Applied to Industry.</p> + +<p>By <span class="smcap">Geo. Ward Nichols</span>. Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, Illuminated and +Gilt, $4 00.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Contemporary Art in Europe.</p> + +<p>By <span class="smcap">S. G. W. Benjamin</span>. Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, +Illuminated and Gilt, $3 50; Half Calf, $5 75.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Art Decoration Applied to Furniture.</p> + +<p>By <span class="smcap">Harriet Prescott Spofford</span>. With Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $4 +00; Half Calf, $6 25.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Cyprus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples.</p> + +<p>A Narrative of Researches and Excavations during Ten Years’ +Residence in that Island. By General <span class="smcap">Louis Palma di Cesnola</span>, Mem. +of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin; Hon. Mem. of the Royal +Society of Literature, London, &c. With Portrait, Maps, and 400 +Illustrations. Third Edition. 8vo, Cloth, Gilt Tops and Uncut +Edges, $7 50.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Caricature and other Comic Art.</p> + +<p>In all Times and Many Lands. By <span class="smcap">James Parton</span>. With 203 +Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, Gilt Tops and Uncut Edges, $5 00.</p> + +<p><span class="pgnumb"><a name="page_502" id="page_502">{502}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nindb">Ancient Egyptians.</p> + +<p>A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians. Revised and Abridged +from his larger Work. By Sir <span class="smcap">J. Gardner Wilkinson</span>, D.C.L., F.R.S., +&c. With 500 Illustrations. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Peru.</p> + +<p>Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas. By <span class="smcap">E. +G. Squier</span>, M.A., F.S.A., late U. S. Commissioner to Peru; Author of +“The States of Central America,” “Nicaragua: its People, Scenery, +Monuments, Resources, Condition, and Proposed Canal,” &c. With Map +and 258 Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.</p> + +<p class="nindb">The Mikado’s Empire.</p> + +<p>Book I. History of Japan, from 660 B.C. to 1872 A.D. Book II. +Personal Experiences, Observations, and Studies in Japan, +1870-1874. By <span class="smcap">William Elliot Griffis</span>, A.M., late of the Imperial +University of Tōkiō, Japan. Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, +Cloth, $4 00.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Bible Lands.</p> + +<p>Their Modern Customs and Manners Illustrative of Scripture. By the +Rev. <span class="smcap">Henry J. Van-Lennep</span>, D.D. Illustrated with upward of 350 Wood +Engravings and Two Colored Maps. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00; Sheep, $6 00; +Half Morocco, $8 00.</p> + +<p class="nindb">A Hand-Book of Pottery Painting.</p> + +<p>By <span class="smcap">John C. L. Sparkes</span>. 32mo, Paper. (<i>In Press.</i>)</p> + +<p class="nindb">Ancient America.</p> + +<p>In Notes on American Archæology. By <span class="smcap">John D. Baldwin</span>, A.M. With +Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Fresh Discoveries at Nineveh and Babylon.</p> + +<p>Fresh Discoveries at Nineveh and Babylon; with Travels in Armenia, +Kurdistan, and the Desert: being the Result of a Second Expedition, +undertaken for the Trustees of the British Museum. By <span class="smcap">Austen Henry +Layard</span>, M.P. With all the Maps and Illustrations in the English +Edition. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00; Half Calf, $6 25.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Nineveh.</p> + +<p>A Popular Account of the Discoveries at Nineveh. By <span class="smcap">Austen Henry +Layard</span>, M.P. Abridged by him from his larger Work. Numerous +Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1 75.</p> + +<p class="nindb">Carthage and Her Remains.</p> + +<p>Being an Account of the Excavations and Researches on the Site of +the Phœnician Metropolis, in Africa and other Adjacent Places. +Conducted under the Auspices of Her Majesty’s Government. By Dr. <span class="smcap">N. +Davis</span>, F.R.G.S. Profusely Illustrated with Maps, Wood-cuts, +Chromo-Lithographs, &c., &c. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00; Half Calf, $6 25.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43221 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/43221-h/images/colophon.jpg b/43221-h/images/colophon.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..31b59ce --- /dev/null +++ b/43221-h/images/colophon.jpg diff --git a/43221-h/images/cover.jpg b/43221-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f51a536 --- /dev/null +++ b/43221-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/43221-h/images/enlarge-image.jpg b/43221-h/images/enlarge-image.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..675e080 --- /dev/null +++ b/43221-h/images/enlarge-image.jpg diff --git a/43221-h/images/illpg023_lg.jpg b/43221-h/images/illpg023_lg.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f42c811 --- /dev/null +++ b/43221-h/images/illpg023_lg.jpg diff --git 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