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diff --git a/43200-0.txt b/43200-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fe00aa --- /dev/null +++ b/43200-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20299 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43200 *** + +[Transcriber's Note: + +Italicized text indicated by underscores. + +12-3/4 represents whole and fractional parts of numbers.] + + + + + CORNELL + + NATURE-STUDY LEAFLETS + + BEING A SELECTION, WITH REVISION, FROM THE + TEACHERS' LEAFLETS, HOME NATURE-STUDY + LESSONS, JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLIES AND + OTHER PUBLICATIONS FROM THE COLLEGE OF + AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y., + 1896-1904 + + STATE OF NEW YORK--DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE + + NATURE-STUDY BULLETIN NO. 1 + + [Illustration] + + ALBANY + J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS + 1904 + + + + + LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. + + + COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, + CORNELL UNIVERSITY, + ITHACA, N. Y. + + Hon. C. A. WIETING, + _Commissioner of Agriculture_, + Albany, N. Y.: + +SIR.--I submit herewith as a part of the Annual Report of 1903 a number +of the nature-study publications for reprinting. Most of these +publications are out of print and the call for them still continues. +These publications have practically all arisen under your supervision, +and under the directorship of Professor I. P. Roberts. + +Nature-study work should begin in the primary grades. It is a +fundamental educational process, because it begins with the concrete and +simple, develops the power of observation, relates the child to its +environment, develops sympathy for the common and the near-at-hand. By +the time the child has arrived at the fifth or sixth grade he should be +well prepared for specific work in the modern environmental geography, +in the industries, or in other exacter common-life subjects. +Nature-study is a necessary foundation for the best work in biology, +physiography and agriculture. Since it is content work, it is also +equally important as a preparation in all expression work, as in +English, number and reading. In most present-day rural schools it may +well continue through the eighth grade; and, if well taught, it may even +take the place very profitably of some of the "science" of some of the +higher schools. Its particular sphere, however, in a well-developed +school, is below the sixth grade, possibly below the fifth. But even if +the term nature-study ceases at the fifth or sixth grade, the +nature-study method will persist throughout the school course,--the +method of dealing first-hand and in their natural setting with objects, +phenomena and affairs, and of proceeding from the simple and undissected +to the complex and remote. + +The reader should bear in mind that the College of Agriculture has no +organic connection with the public school system of New York State, and +that its nature-study work is a propaganda. From first to last the +College has been fortunate in having the sympathy, aid, and approval of +the State Department of Public Instruction, and now of the new Education +Department. The time is now near at hand when nature-study will be +adequately recognized in the school system of the State, and then the +nature-study work of the College of Agriculture may take new form. + +In these reprinted leaflets the reader will find many methods of +presentation of a great variety of subject-matter. A wide range has +purposely been included, in the hope that any interested teacher may +find at least one or two leaflets that will be suggestive in his own +work. Our own ideas as to what is a valuable leaflet have changed +greatly since the work was begun; and it is to be expected that they +will continue to change with the progress of the work and the +development of the schools. It would be an interesting review if we were +to summarize our own experiences with our own work. The leaflet that is +most praised by the critics may be the least useful in practice. The +greatest danger is that of making the work too complete, too rigid and +too formidable. + +L. H. BAILEY, + +_Director College of Agriculture._ + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PART I. TEACHERS' LEAFLETS. + + Leaflet. Page. + + The Schoolhouse 9 + L. H. Bailey. + + I. What is Nature-Study? 11 + L. H. Bailey. + + II. The Nature-Study Movement 21 + L. H. Bailey. + + III. An Appeal to the Teachers of New York State 31 + L. H. Bailey. + + IV. What Is Agricultural Education? 45 + L. H. Bailey. + + V. Suggestions for Nature Study Work 55 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + VI. A Summer Shower 81 + Ralph S. Tarr. + + VII. A Snow Storm 93 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + VIII. A Handful of Soil: What It Is 99 + Ralph S. Tarr. + + IX. A Handful of Soil: What It Does 115 + L. A. Clinton. + + X. The Brook 125 + J. O. Martin. Introduction by L. H. Bailey. + + XI. Insect Life of a Brook 135 + Mary Rogers Miller. + + XII. Life in an Aquarium 141 + Mary Rogers Miller. + + XIII. A Study of Fishes 157 + H. D. Reed. + + XIV. The Opening of a Cocoon 167 + Mary Rogers Miller. + + XV. A Talk about Spiders 171 + John Henry Comstock. + + XVI. Life History of the Toad 185 + Simon Henry Gage. + + XVII. Life in a Terrarium 207 + Alice I. Kent. + + XVIII. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects 213 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XIX. Some Tent-Makers 227 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XX. Mosquitoes 237 + Mary Rogers Miller. + + XXI. The Ways of the Ant 243 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XXII. The Birds and I 253 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXIII. The Early Birds 261 + Louis Agassiz Fuertes. + + XXIV. The Woodpeckers 269 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XXV. The Chickadee 279 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XXVI. The White-Breasted Nuthatch 283 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XXVII. About Crows 287 + Mary Rogers Miller. + + XXVIII. How a Squash Plant Gets Out of the Seed 291 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXIX. How the Trees Look in Winter 297 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXX. One Way of Drawing Trees in Their Winter Aspects 307 + Charles W. Furlong. + + XXXI. Four Apple Twigs 317 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXXII. The Burst of Spring 327 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXXIII. Evergreens and How They Shed Their Leaves 333 + H. P. Gould. + + XXXIV. The Clovers and Their Kin 349 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XXXV. How Plants Live Together 361 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXXVI. Planting a Plant 367 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXXVII. Cuttings and Cuttings 369 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXXVIII. A Children's Garden 379 + L. H. Bailey. + + XXXIX. A Hill of Potatoes 385 + I. P. Roberts. + + XL. The Hepatica 391 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XLI. Jack-in-the-Pulpit 395 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XLII. Indian Corn 397 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XLIII. The Ripened Corn 401 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XLIV. The Uses of Food Stored in Seeds 409 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XLV. The Life History of a Beet 415 + Mary Rogers Miller. + + XLVI. Pruning 417 + Mary Rogers Miller. + + XLVII. Study of a Tree 423 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XLVIII. The Maple in February 431 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + XLIX. The Red Squirrel or Chickaree 435 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + L. Improvement of School Grounds 437 + John W. Spencer. + + + PART II. CHILDREN'S LEAFLETS. + + The Child's Realm 451 + L. H. Bailey. + + LI. A Snow Storm 453 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LII. A Plant at School 455 + L. H. Bailey. + + LIII. An Apple Twig and an Apple 467 + L. H. Bailey. + + LIV. Twigs in Late Winter 473 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LV. Pruning 475 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LVI. The Hepatica 477 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LVII. Jack-in-the-Pulpit 479 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LVIII. Dandelion 481 + Alice G. McCloskey and L. H. Bailey. + + LIX. Maple Trees in Autumn 483 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LX. A Corn Stalk 485 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXI. In the Corn Fields 487 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXII. The Alfalfa Plant 489 + L. H. Bailey and John W. Spencer. + + LXIII. The Red Squirrel 495 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXIV. Robin 499 + L. H. Bailey. + + LXV. Crows 501 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXVI. A Friendly Little Chickadee 503 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXVII. The Family of Woodpeckers 505 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXVIII. Deserted Birds' Nests 515 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXIX. The Poultry Yard: Some Thanksgiving Lessons 517 + Alice G. McCloskey and James E. Rice. + + LXX. Little Hermit Brother 529 + Anna Botsford Comstock. + + LXXI. A Home for Friendly Little Neighbors 537 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXXII. Moths and Butterflies 545 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXXIII. The Paper Makers 551 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXXIV. Some Carpenter Ants and Their Kin 555 + Alice G. McCloskey. + + LXXV. A Garden All Your Own 559 + John W. Spencer. + + LXXVI. The Gardens and the School Grounds 569 + John W. Spencer. + + LXXVII. Something for Young Farmers 573 + John W. Spencer. + + LXXVIII. Bulbs 577 + John W. Spencer. + + LXXIX. A Talk About Bulbs by the Gardener 581 + C. E. Hunn. + + LXXX. Horses 589 + Alice G. McCloskey and I. P. Roberts. + + + + +PART I. + +TEACHERS' LEAFLETS. + + +PUBLICATIONS DESIGNED TO AID THE TEACHER WITH SUBJECT-MATTER, TO +INDICATE THE POINT OF VIEW, AND TO SUGGEST A METHOD OF PRESENTATION. + + + + +THE SCHOOL HOUSE. + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +In the rural districts, the school must become a social and intellectual +centre. It must stand in close relationship with the life and activities +of its community. It must not be an institution apart, exotic to the +common-day lives; it must teach the common things and put the pupil into +sympathetic touch with his own environment. Then every school house will +have a voice, and will say: + + I teach + + The earth and soil + To them that toil, + The hill and fen + To common men + That live right here; + + The plants that grow, + The winds that blow, + The streams that run + In rain and sun + Throughout the year; + + And then I lead, + Thro' wood and mead, + Thro' mold and sod, + Out unto God + With love and cheer. + + I teach! + + + + +LEAFLET I. + +WHAT IS NATURE-STUDY?[1] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[1] Paragraphs adapted from Teachers' Leaflet, No. 6, May 1, 1897, and +from subsequent publications. + +[Illustration] + +Nature-study, as a process, is seeing the things that one looks at, and +the drawing of proper conclusions from what one sees. Its purpose is to +educate the child in terms of his environment, to the end that his life +may be fuller and richer. Nature-study is not the study of a science, as +of botany, entomology, geology, and the like. That is, it takes the +things at hand and endeavors to understand them, without reference +primarily to the systematic order or relationships of the objects. It is +informal, as are the objects which one sees. It is entirely divorced +from mere definitions, or from formal explanations in books. It is +therefore supremely natural. It trains the eye and the mind to see and +to comprehend the common things of life; and the result is not directly +the acquiring of science but the establishing of a living sympathy with +everything that is. + +The proper objects of nature-study are the things that one oftenest +meets. Stones, flowers, twigs, birds, insects, are good and common +subjects. The child, or even the high school pupil, is first interested +in things that do not need to be analyzed or changed into unusual forms +or problems. Therefore, problems of chemistry and of physics are for the +most part unsuited to early lessons in nature-study. Moving things, as +birds, insects and mammals, interest children most and therefore seem to +be the proper objects for nature-study; but it is often difficult to +secure such specimens when wanted, especially in liberal quantity, and +still more difficult to see the objects in perfectly natural conditions. +Plants are more easily had, and are therefore usually more practicable +for the purpose, although animals and minerals should by no means be +excluded. + +If the objects to be studied are informal, the methods of teaching +should be the same. If nature-study were made a stated part of a rigid +curriculum, its purpose might be defeated. One difficulty with our +present school methods is the necessary formality of the courses and the +hours. Tasks are set, and tasks are always hard. The best way to teach +nature-study is, with no hard and fast course laid out, to bring in some +object that may be at hand and to set the pupils to looking at it. The +pupils do the work,--they see the thing and explain its structure and +its meaning. The exercise should not be long, not to exceed fifteen +minutes perhaps, and, above all things, the pupil should never look upon +it as a "recitation," nor as a means of preparing for "examination." It +may come as a rest exercise, whenever the pupils become listless. Ten +minutes a day, for one term, of a short, sharp, and spicy observation +lesson on plants, for example, is worth more than a whole text-book of +botany. + +The teacher should studiously avoid definitions, and the setting of +patterns. The old idea of the model flower is a pernicious one, because +it does not exist in nature. The model flower, the complete leaf, and +the like, are inferences, and pupils should always begin with things and +phenomena, and not with abstract ideas. In other words, the ideas should +be suggested by the things, and not the things by the ideas. "Here is a +drawing of a model flower," the old method says; "go and find the +nearest approach to it." "Go and find me a flower," is the true method, +"and let us see what it is." + +Every child, and every grown person too, for that matter, is interested +in nature-study, for it is the natural way of acquiring knowledge. The +only difficulty lies in the teaching, for very few teachers have had +experience in this informal method of drawing out the observing and +reasoning powers of the pupil without the use of text-books. The teacher +must first of all feel in natural objects the living interest which it +is desired the pupils shall acquire. If the enthusiasm is not catching, +better let such teaching alone. + +Primarily, nature-study, as the writer conceives it, is not knowledge. +He would avoid the leaflet that gives nothing but information. +Nature-study is not "method." Of necessity each teacher will develop a +method; but this method is the need of the teacher, not of the subject. + +Nature-study is not to be taught for the purpose of making the youth a +specialist or a scientist. Now and then a pupil will desire to pursue a +science for the sake of the science, and he should be encouraged. But +every pupil may be taught to be interested in plants and birds and +insects and running brooks, and thereby his life will be the stronger. +The crop of scientists will take care of itself. + +It is said that nature-study teaching is not thorough and therefore is +undesirable. Much that is good in teaching has been sacrificed for what +we call "thoroughness,"--which in many cases means only a perfunctory +drill in mere facts. One cannot teach a pupil to be really interested in +any natural object or phenomenon until the pupil sees accurately and +reasons correctly. Accuracy is a prime requisite in any good +nature-study teaching, for accuracy is truth and it develops power. It +is better that a pupil see twenty things accurately, and see them +himself, than that he be confined to one thing so long that he detests +it. Different subjects demand different methods of teaching. The method +of mathematics cannot be applied to dandelions and polliwogs. + +The first essential in nature-study is actually to see the thing or the +phenomenon. It is positive, direct, discriminating, accurate +observation. The second essential is to understand why the thing is so, +or what it means. The third essential is the desire to know more, and +this comes of itself and thereby is unlike much other effort of the +schoolroom. The final result should be the development of a keen +personal interest in every natural object and phenomenon. + +Real nature-study cannot pass away. We are children of nature, and we +have never appreciated the fact so much as we do now. But the more +closely we come into touch with nature, the less do we proclaim the fact +abroad. We may hear less about it, but that will be because we are +living nearer to it and have ceased to feel the necessity of advertising +it. + +Much that is called nature-study is only diluted and sugar-coated +science. This will pass. Some of it is mere sentimentalism. This also +will pass. With the changes, the term nature-study may fall into disuse; +but the name matters little so long as we hold to the essence. + +All new things must be unduly emphasized, else they cannot gain a +foothold in competition with things that are established. For a day, +some new movement is announced in the daily papers, and then, because we +do not see the head lines, we think that the movement is dead; but +usually when things are heralded they have only just appeared. So long +as the sun shines and the fields are green, we shall need to go to +nature for our inspiration and our respite; and our need is the greater +with every increasing complexity of our lives. + +All this means that the teacher will need helps. He will need to inform +himself before he attempts to inform the pupil. It is not necessary that +he become a scientist in order to do this. He goes as far as he knows, +and then says to the pupil that he cannot answer the questions that he +cannot. This at once raises him in the estimation of the pupil, for the +pupil is convinced of his truthfulness, and is made to feel--but how +seldom is the sensation!--that knowledge is not the peculiar property of +the teacher but is the right of any one who seeks it. Nature-study sets +the pupil to investigating for himself. The teacher never needs to +apologize for nature. He is teaching merely because he is an older and +more experienced pupil than his pupil is. This is the spirit of the +teacher in the universities to-day. The best teacher is the one whose +pupils the farthest outrun him. + +In order to help the teacher in the rural schools of New York, we have +conceived of a series of leaflets explaining how the common objects can +be made interesting to children. Whilst these are intended for the +teacher, there is no harm in giving them to the pupil; but the leaflets +should never be used as texts from which to make recitations. Now and +then, take the children for a ramble in the woods or fields, or go to +the brook or lake. Call their attention to the interesting things that +you meet--whether you yourself understand them or not--in order to teach +them to see and to find some point of sympathy; for every one of them +will some day need the solace and the rest which this nature-love can +give them. It is not the mere information that is valuable; that may be +had by asking someone wiser than they, but the inquiring and sympathetic +spirit is one's own. + +The pupils will find their regular lessons easier to acquire for this +respite of ten minutes with a leaf or an insect, and the school-going +will come to be less perfunctory. If you must teach drawing, set the +picture in a leaflet before the pupils for study, and then substitute +the object. If you must teach composition, let the pupils write on what +they have seen. After a time, give ten minutes now and then to asking +the children what they saw on their way to school. + +Now, why is the College of Agriculture at Cornell University interesting +itself in this work? It is trying to help the farmer, and it begins with +the most teachable point--the child. The district school cannot teach +technical professional agriculture any more than it can teach law or +engineering or any other profession or trade, but it can interest the +child in nature and in rural problems, and thereby join his sympathies +to the country at the same time that his mind is trained to efficient +thinking. The child will teach the parent. The coming generation will +see the result. In the interest of humanity and country, we ask for +help. + +How to make the rural school more efficient is one of the most difficult +problems before our educators, but the problem is larger than mere +courses of study. Social and economic questions are at the bottom of the +difficulty, and these questions may be beyond the reach of the educator. +A correspondent wrote us the other day that an old teacher in a rural +school, who was receiving $20 a month, was underbid 50 cents by one of +no experience, and the younger teacher was engaged for $19.50, thus +saving the district for the three months' term the sum of $1.50. This is +an extreme case, but it illustrates one of the rural school problems. + +One of the difficulties with the rural district school is the fact that +the teachers tend to move to the villages and cities, where there is +opportunity to associate with other teachers, where there are libraries, +and where the wages are sometimes better. This movement is likely to +leave the district school in the hands of younger teachers, and changes +are very frequent. To all this there are many exceptions. Many teachers +appreciate the advantages of living in the country. There they find +compensations for the lack of association. They may reside at home. Some +of the best work in our nature-study movement has come from the rural +schools. We shall make a special effort to reach the country schools. +Yet it is a fact that new movements usually take root in the city +schools and gradually spread to the smaller places. This is not the +fault of the country teacher; it comes largely from the fact that his +time is occupied by so many various duties and that the rural schools do +not have the advantage of the personal supervision which the city +schools have. + + +_Retrospect and Prospect after five years' work._[2] + +[2] From Bull. 206, Sixth Report of Extension Work, 1902. + +To create a larger public sentiment in favor of agriculture, to increase +the farmer's respect for his own business,--these are the controlling +purposes in the general movement that we are carrying forward under the +title of nature-study. It is not by teaching agriculture directly that +this movement can be started. The common schools in New York will not +teach agriculture to any extent for the present, and the movement, if it +is to arouse a public sentiment, must reach beyond the actual farmers +themselves. The agricultural status is much more than an affair of mere +farming. The first undertaking, as we conceive the problem, is to awaken +an interest in the things with which the farmer lives and has to do, for +a man is happy only when he is in sympathy with his environment. To +teach observation of common things, therefore, has been the fundamental +purpose. A name for the movement was necessary. We did not wish to +invent a new name or phrase, as it would require too much effort in +explanation. Therefore, we chose the current and significant phrase +"nature-study," which, while it covers many methods and practices, +stands everywhere for the opening of the mind directly to the common +phenomena of nature. + +We have not tried to develop a system of nature-study nor to make a +contribution to the pedagogics of the subject. We have merely +endeavored, as best we could, to reach a certain specific result,--the +enlarging of the agricultural horizon. We have had no pedagogical +theories, or, if we have, they have been modified or upset by the actual +conditions that have presented themselves. Neither do we contend that +our own methods and means have always been the best. We are learning. +Yet we are sure that the general results justify all the effort. + +Theoretical pedagogical ideals can be applied by the good teacher who +comes into personal relations with the children, and they are almost +certain to work out well. These ideals cannot always be applied, +however, with persons who are to be reached by means of correspondence +and in a great variety of conditions, and particularly when many of the +subjects lie outside the customary work of the schools. + +Likewise, the subjects selected for our nature-study work must be +governed by conditions and not wholly by ideals. We are sometimes asked +why we do not take up topics more distinctly agricultural or economic. +The answer is that we take subjects that teachers will use. We would +like, for example, to give more attention to insect subjects, but it is +difficult to induce teachers to work with them. If distinctly +agricultural topics alone were used, the movement would have very little +following and influence. Moreover, it is not our purpose to teach +technical agriculture in the common schools, but to inculcate the habit +of observing, to suggest work that has distinct application to the +conditions in which the child lives, to inspire enthusiasm for country +life, to aid in home-making, and to encourage a general movement towards +the soil. These matters cannot be forced. In every effort by every +member of the extension staff, the betterment of agricultural conditions +has been the guiding impulse, however remote from that purpose it may +have seemed to the casual observer. + +We have found by long experience that it is unwise to give too much +condensed subject-matter. The individual teacher can give subject-matter +in detail because personal knowledge and enthusiasm can be applied. But +in general correspondence and propagandist work this cannot be done. +With the Junior Naturalist, for example, the first impulse is to inspire +enthusiasm for some bit of work which we hope to take up. This +enthusiasm is inspired largely by the organization of clubs and by the +personal correspondence that is conducted between the Bureau and these +clubs and their members. It is the desire, however, to follow up this +general movement with instruction in definite subject-matter with the +teacher. Therefore, a course in Home Nature-study was formally +established under the general direction of Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller. It +was designed to carry on the experiment for one year, in order to +determine whether such a course would be productive of good results and +to discover the best means of prosecuting it. These experimental results +were very gratifying. Nearly 2,000 New York teachers are now regularly +enrolled in the Course, the larger part of whom are outside the +metropolitan and distinctly urban conditions. Every effort is made to +reach the rural teacher. + +In order that the work may reach the children, it must be greatly +popularized and the children must be met on their own ground. The +complete or ideal leaflet may have little influence. For example, I +prepared a leaflet on "A Children's Garden" which several people were +kind enough to praise. However, very little direct result was secured +from the use of this leaflet until "Uncle John" began to popularize it +and to make appeals to teachers and children by means of personal talks, +letters and circulars. So far as possible, his appeal to children was +made in their own phrase. The movement for the children's garden has now +taken definite shape, and the result is that more than 26,000 children +in New York State are raising plants during the present year. Another +illustration of this kind may be taken from the effort to improve the +rural school grounds. I wrote a bulletin on "The Improvement of Rural +School Grounds," but the tangible results were very few. Now, however, +through the work of "Uncle John" with the teachers and the children, a +distinct movement has begun for the cleaning and improving of the school +grounds of the State. This movement is yet in its infancy, but several +hundred schools are now in process of renovation, largely through the +efforts of the children. + +The idea of organizing children into clubs for the study of plants and +animals, and other outdoor subjects, originated, so far as our work is +concerned, with Mr. John W. Spencer himself an actual, practical farmer. +His character as "Uncle John" has done much to supply the personality +that ordinarily is lacking in correspondence work, and there has been +developed amongst the children an amount of interest and enthusiasm +which is surprising to those who have not watched its progress. + +The problems connected with the rural schools are probably the most +difficult questions to solve in the whole field of education. We +believe, however, that the solution cannot begin directly with the rural +schools themselves. It must begin in educational centres and gradually +spread to the country districts. We are making constant efforts to reach +the actual rural schools and expect to utilize fully every means within +our power, but it is work that is attended with many inherent +difficulties. We sometimes feel that the agricultural status can be +reached better through the hamlet, village, and some of the city schools +than by means of the little red school house on the corner. By appeals +to the school commissioners in the rural districts, by work through +teachers' institutes, through farmers' clubs, granges and other means we +believe that we are reaching farther and farther into the very +agricultural regions. It is difficult to get consideration for purely +agricultural subjects in the rural schools themselves. Often the school +does not have facilities for teaching such subjects, often the teachers +are employed only for a few months, and there is frequently a sentiment +against innovation. It has been said that one reason why agricultural +subjects are taught less in the rural schools of America than in those +of some parts of Europe, is because of the few male teachers and the +absence of school gardens. + +We have met with the greatest encouragement and help from very many of +the teachers in the rural schools. Often under disadvantages and +discouragements they are carrying forward their part of the educational +work with great consecration and efficiency. In all the educational work +we have been fortunate to have the sympathy and co-operation of the +State Department of Public Instruction. We do not expect that all +teachers nor even a majority will take up nature-study work. It is not +desirable that they should. We are gratified, however, at the large +number who are carrying it forward. + +This Cornell nature-study movement is one small part of a general +awakening in educational circles, a movement which looks towards +bringing the child into actual contact and sympathy with the things with +which he has to do. This work is taking on many phases. One aspect of it +is its relation to the teaching of agriculture and to the love of +country life. This aspect is yet in its early experimental stage. The +time will come when institutions in every State will carry on work along +this line. It will be several years yet before this type of work will +have reached what may be considered an established condition, or before +even a satisfactory body of experience shall have been attained. Out of +the varied and sometimes conflicting methods and aims that are now +before the public, there will develop in time an institution-movement of +extension agricultural teaching. + +The literature issued by the Bureau of Nature-Study is of two general +types: that which is designed to be of more or less permanent value to +the teacher and the school; and that which is of temporary use, mostly +in the character of supplements and circulars designed to meet present +conditions or to rally the teachers or the Junior Naturalists. The +literature of the former type is now republished and is to be supplied +gratis to teachers in New York State. The first publication of the +Bureau of Nature-Study was a series of teachers' leaflets. This series +ran to twenty-two numbers. It was discontinued in May, 1901, because it +was thought that sufficient material had then been printed to supply +teachers with subjects for a year's work. It was never intended to +publish these leaflets indefinitely. Unfortunately, however, some +persons have supposed that because these teachers' leaflets were +discontinued we were lessening our efforts in the nature-study work. The +fact is that later years have seen an intensification of the effort and +also a strong conviction on the part of all those concerned that the +work has permanent educative value. We never believed so fully in the +efficiency of this kind of effort as at the present time. + + + + +LEAFLET II. + +THE NATURE-STUDY MOVEMENT.[3] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[3] Reprinted from the Proceedings of the National Educational +Association, 1903. Paper read in general session at Boston, July, 1903. + +The nature-study movement is the outgrowth of an effort to put the child +into contact and sympathy with its own life. + +It is strange that such a movement is necessary. It would seem to be +natural and almost inevitable that the education of the child should +place it in intimate relation with the objects and events with which it +lives. It is a fact, however, that our teaching has been largely exotic +to the child; that it has begun by taking the child away from +its natural environment; that it has concerned itself with the +subject-matter rather than with the child. This is the marvel of marvels +in education. + +Let me illustrate by a reference to the country school. If any man were +to find himself in a country wholly devoid of schools, and were to be +set the task of originating and organizing a school system, he would +almost unconsciously introduce some subjects that would be related to +the habits of the people and to the welfare of the community. Being +freed from traditions, he would teach something of the plants and +animals and fields and people. Yet, as a matter of fact, what do our +rural schools teach? They usually teach the things that the academies +and the colleges and the universities have taught--that old line of +subjects that is supposed, in its higher phases, to lead to "learning." +The teaching in the elementary school is a reflection of old academic +methods. We really begin our system at the wrong end--with a +popularizing and simplifying of methods and subjects that are the +product of the so-called higher education. We should begin with the +child. "The greatest achievement of modern education," writes Professor +Payne, "is the gradation and correlation of schools, whereby the ladder +of learning is let down from the university to secondary schools, and +from these to the schools of the people." It is historically true that +the common schools are the products of the higher or special schools, +and this explains why it is that so much of the common-school +work is unadapted to the child. The kindergarten and some of the +manual-training, are successful revolts against all this. It seems a +pity that it were ever necessary that the ladder of learning be "let +down;" it should be stood on the ground. + +The crux of the whole subject lies in the conception of what education +is. We all define it in theory to be a drawing out and a developing of +the powers of the mind; but in practice we define it in the terms of the +means that we employ. We have come to associate education with certain +definite subjects, as if no other sets of subjects could be made the +means of educating a mind. One by one, new subjects have forced +themselves in as being proper means for educating. All the professions, +natural science, mechanic arts, politics, and last of all agriculture, +have contended for a place in educational systems and have established +themselves under protest. Now, any subject, when put into pedagogic +form, is capable of being the means of educating a man. The study of +Greek is no more a proper means of education than the study of Indian +corn is. The mind may be developed by means of either one. Classics and +calculus are no more divine than machines and potatoes are. We are much +in the habit of speaking of certain subjects as leading to "culture;" +but this is really factitious, for "culture" is the product only of +efficient teaching, whatever the subject-matter may be. So insistent +have we been on the employing of "culture studies" that we seem to have +mistaken the means of education for the object or result of education. +What a man is, is more important than what he knows. Anything that +appeals to a man's mind is capable of drawing out and training that +mind; and is there any subject that does not appeal to some man's mind? +The subject may be Sanskrit literature, hydraulics, physics, +electricity, or agriculture--all may be made the means whereby men and +women are educated, all may lead to what we ought to know as culture. +The particular subject with which the person deals is incidental, for + +"A man's a man for a' that and a' that." + +Is there, then, to be no choice of subjects? There certainly is. It is +the end of education to prepare the man or woman better to live. The +person must live with his surroundings. He must live with common things. +The most important means with which to begin the educational process, +therefore, are those subjects that are nearest the man. Educating by +means of these subjects puts the child into first-hand relation with his +own life. It expands the child's spontaneous interest in his environment +into a permanent and abiding sympathy and philosophy of life. I never +knew an exclusive student of classics or philosophy who did not deplore +his lack of touch with his own world. These common subjects are the +natural, primary, fundamental, necessary subjects. Only as the +child-mind develops should it be taken on long flights to extrinsic +subjects, distant lands, to things far beyond its own realm; and yet, +does not our geography teaching still frequently begin with the universe +or with the solar system? + +In the good time coming, geography will not begin with a book at all, +as, in fact, it does not now with many teachers. It may end with one. It +will begin with physical features in the very neighborhood in which the +child lives--with brooks and lakes and hills and fields. Education +should begin always with objects and phenomena. We are living in a +text-book and museum age. First of all, we put our children into books, +sometimes even into books that tell about the very things at the child's +door, as if a book about a thing were better than the thing itself. So +accustomed are we to the book-route that we regard any other route as +unsystematic, unmethodical, disconnected. Books are only secondary means +of education. We have made the mistake of considering them primary. This +mistake we are rapidly correcting. As the book is relegated to its +proper sphere, we shall find ourselves free to begin with the familiar +end of familiar things. + +Not only are we to begin with common objects and events, but with the +child's natural point of contact with them. Start with the child's +sympathies; lead him on and out. We are to develop the child, not the +subject. The specialists may be trusted to develop the subject-matter +and to give us new truth. The child is first interested in the whole +plant, the whole bug, the whole bird, as a living, grooving object. It +is a most significant fact that most young children like plants, but +that most youths dislike botany. The fault lies neither in the plants +nor in the youths. A youth may study cells until he hates the plant that +bears the cells. He may acquire a technical training in cells, but he +may be divorced from objects with which he must live, and his life +becomes poorer rather than richer. I have no objection to minute +dissection and analysis, but we must be very careful not to begin it too +early nor to push it too far, for we are not training specialists: we +are developing the power that will enable the pupil to get the most from +his own life. As soon as the pupil begins to lose interest in the plant +or the animal itself, stop! + +There is still another reason for the study of the common things in +variety: it develops the power to grasp the problems of the day and to +make the man resourceful. A young man who has spent all his time in the +schoolroom is usually hopelessly helpless when he encounters a real +circumstance. I see this remarkably illustrated in my own teaching, for +I have young men from the city and from farms. The farm boy will turn +his hand to twenty things where the city boy will turn his to one. The +farm boy has had to meet problems and to solve them for himself: this is +sometimes worth more than his entire school training. Why does the farm +boy make his way when he goes to the city? + +It is no mere incident to one's life that he be able to think in the +thought of his own time. Even though one expect to devote himself wholly +to a dead language, in school he should study enough natural science and +enough technology to enable him to grasp living problems. I fear that +some institutions are still turning out men with mediæval types of mind. + +Now, therefore, I come again to my thesis,--to the statement that the +end and purpose of nature-study is to educate the young mind by means of +the subjects within its own sphere, by appealing to its own sympathetic +interest in them, in order that the person's life may be sweeter, +deeper, and more resourceful. Nature-study would not necessarily drive +any subject from the curriculum; least of all would it depreciate the +value of the "humanities;" but it would restore to their natural and +proper place the subjects that are related to the man. It would begin +with things within the person's realm. If we are to interest +children--or grown-ups, either, for that matter--we must begin by +teaching the things that touch their lives. Where there is one person +that is interested in philology, there are hundreds that are interested +in engines and in wheat. From the educational point of view, neither the +engine nor the wheat is of much consequence, but the men who like the +engines and who grow the wheat are immeasurably important and must be +reached. There are five millions of farms in the United States on which +chickens are raised, and also thousands of city and village lots where +they are grown. I would teach chickens. I would reach Men by means of +the Old Hen. + +How unrelated much of our teaching is to the daily life is well shown by +inquiries recently made of the children of New Jersey by Professor Earl +Barnes. Inquiries were made of the country school children in two +agricultural counties of the State as to what vocation they hoped to +follow. As I recall the figures, of the children at seven years of age +26 per cent desired to follow some occupation connected with country +life. Of those at fourteen years, only 2 per cent desired such +occupation. This remarkable falling off Professor Barnes ascribes in +part to the influence of the teacher in the country schools, who is +usually a town or city girl. The teacher measures everything in terms of +the city. She talks of the city. She returns to the city at the end of +the week. In the meantime, all the beauty and attractiveness and +opportunity of the country may be unsuggested. Unconsciously both to +teacher and pupil, the minds of the children are turned toward the city. +There results a constant migration to the city, bringing about serious +social and economic problems; but from the educational point of view the +serious part of it is the fact that the school training may unfit the +child to live in its normal and natural environment. It is often said +that the agricultural college trains the youth away from the farm; the +fact is that the mischief is done long before the youth enters college. + +Let me give another illustration of the fact that dislike of country +life is bred very early in the life of the child. In a certain rural +school in New York State, of say forty-five pupils, I asked all those +children that lived on farms to raise their hands; all hands but one +went up. I then asked those who wanted to live on the farm to raise +their hands; only that one hand went up. Now, these children were too +young to feel the appeal of more bushels of potatoes or more pounds of +wool, yet they had thus early formed their dislike of the farm. Some of +this dislike is probably only an ill-defined desire for a mere change, +such as one finds in all occupations, but I am convinced that the larger +part of it was a genuine dissatisfaction with farm life. These children +felt that their lot was less attractive than that of other children; I +concluded that a flower garden and a pleasant yard would do more to +content them with living on the farm than ten more bushels of wheat to +the acre. Of course, it is the greater and better yield that will enable +the farmer to supply these amenities; but at the same time it must be +remembered that the increased yield itself does not arouse a desire for +them. I should make farm life interesting before I make it profitable. + +Of course, nature-study is not proposed merely as a means of keeping +youth in the country; I have given these examples only to illustrate the +fact that much of our teaching is unrelated to the circumstances in +which the child lives--and this is particularly true of teaching in the +rural schools. Nature-study applies to city and country conditions +alike, acquiring additional emphasis in the country from the fact that +what we call "nature" forms the greater part of the environment there. +But the need to connect the child with itself is fundamental to all +efficient teaching. To the city child the problems associated with the +city are all-important; but even then I should give much attention to +the so-called "nature subjects;" for these are clean, inspiring, +universal. "Back to nature" is an all-pervading tendency of the time. + +We must distinguish sharply between the purposes of nature-study and its +methods. Its purposes are best expressed in the one word "sympathy." By +this I do not mean sentimentalism or superficiality or desultoriness. +The acquiring of sympathy with the things and events amongst which one +lives is the result of a real educational process--a process as vital +and logical and efficient as that concerned in educating the older pupil +in terms of fact and "science." Nature-study is not "natural history," +nor "biology," nor even elementary science. It is an attitude, a point +of view, a means of contact. + +Nature-study is not merely the adding of one more thing to a curriculum. +It is not co-ordinate with geography, or reading, or arithmetic. Neither +is it a mere accessory, or a sentiment, or an entertainment, or a +tickler of the senses. It is not a "study." It is not the addition of +more "work." It has to do with the whole point of view of elementary +education, and therefore is fundamental. It is the full expression of +personality. It is the practical working out of the extension idea that +has become so much a part of our time. More than any other recent +movement, it will reach the masses and revive them. In time it will +transform our ideals and then transform our methods. + +The result of all this changing point of view I like to speak of as a +new thing. Of course, there is no education that is wholly new in kind; +and it is equally true that education is always new, else it is dead and +meaningless. But this determination to cast off academic methods, to put +ourselves at the child's point of view, to begin with the objects and +phenomena that are near and dear to the child, is just now so marked, +and is sure to be so far-reaching in its effects, that I cannot resist +the temptation to collect these various movements, for emphasis, under +the title of the "new education." + +"Nature-study" is another name for this new education. It is a revolt +from the too exclusive science-teaching and book-teaching point of view, +a protest against taking the child first of all out of its own +environment. It is a product of the teaching of children in the +elementary schools. The means and methods in nature-study are as varied +as the persons who teach it. Most of the criticism of the movement--even +among nature-study folk themselves--has to do with means and methods +rather than with real ideals. We are now in the epoch when we should +overlook minor differences and all work together for the good of a +common cause. There is no one subject and no one method that is best. + +While it is not my purpose to enter into any discussion of the methods +of teaching nature-study, I cannot refrain from calling attention to +what I believe to be some of the most serious dangers, (1) I would first +mention the danger of giving relatively too much attention to mere +subject-matter or fact. Nowhere should the acquiring of mere information +be the end of an educational process, and least of all in nature-study, +for the very essence of nature-study is spirit, sympathy, enthusiasm, +attitude toward life. These results the youth gains naturally when he +associates in a perfectly free and natural way with objects in the wild. +Science-teaching has fallen short of its goal in the elementary +schools--and even in the colleges and universities--by insisting so much +on the subject-matter that the pupil is overlooked. In standing so +rigidly for the letter, we have missed the spirit. President Eliot has +recently called attention to this danger: "College professors heretofore +have been apt to think that knowledge of the subject to be taught was +the sufficient qualification of a teacher; but all colleges have +suffered immeasurable losses as a result of this delusion." (2) A second +danger is the tendency to make the instruction too long and too +laborious. As soon as the child becomes weary of giving attention, the +danger-point is reached; for thereafter there is loss in the spirit and +enthusiasm, however much may be gained in dry subject-matter. I believe +that even in high schools and colleges we make mistakes by demanding too +long-continued application to one subject. Short, sharp, enthusiastic +exercises, with pith and point, of five to ten minutes' duration, are +efficient and sufficient for most purposes, particularly with beginners. +(3) A third danger is the practice of merely telling or explaining. Set +the child to work, and let the work be within his own realm. Pollen, +lichens, capsules, lymphatics, integuments--these are not within the +child's range; they smack of the museum and the text-book. Yet it +appears to be the commonest thing to put mere children at the subject of +cross-fertilization; they should first be put, perhaps, at flowers and +insects. I wish that in every schoolroom might be hung the motto, +"Teaching, not telling." (4) A fourth point I ought to mention is the +danger of clinging too closely to the book habit; this I have already +touched on. We are gradually growing out of the book slavery, even in +arithmetic and grammar and history. This means a distinct advance in the +abilities of the teacher. Of all subjects that should not be taught by +the book, nature-study is chief. Its very essence is freedom from +tradition and "method." I wish that there were more nature-study books; +but they are most useful as sources of fact and inspiration, not as +class texts. The good teacher of nature-study must greatly modify the +old idea of "recitations." I wish to quote again from President Eliot: +"Arithmetic is a very cheap subject to teach; so are spelling and the +old-fashioned geography. As to teaching history in the old-fashioned +way, anybody could do that who could hear a lesson recited. To teach +nature-studies, geometry, literature, physiography, and the modern sort +of history requires well-informed and skillful teachers, and these cost +more than the lesson-hearers did." (5) Finally, we must come into +contact with the actual things, not with museums and collections. +Museums are little better than books unless they are regarded as +secondary means. The museum has now become a laboratory. The living +museum must come more and more into vogue,--living birds, living plants, +living insects. The ideal laboratory is the out-of-doors itself; but for +practical school purposes this must be supplemented. The most workable +living laboratory of any dimensions is the school garden. The true +school garden is a laboratory plat; time is coming when such a +laboratory will be as much a part of a good school equipment as +blackboards and charts and books now are. It will be like an additional +room to the school building. Aside from the real school garden, every +school premises should be embellished and improved as a matter of +neighborhood and civic pride; for one cannot expect the child to rise +above the conditions in which he is placed. All these dangers cannot be +overcome by any "system" or "method;" they must be solved one by one, +place by place, each teacher for himself. Whenever nature-study comes to +be rigidly graded and dressed and ordered, the breath of life will be +crushed from it. It is significant that everywhere mere "method" is +giving way to individualism. + +In time, the methods of teaching nature-study will crystallize and +consolidate around a few central points. The movement itself is well +under way. It will persist because it is vital and fundamental. It will +add new value and significance to all the accustomed work of the +schools; for it is not revolutionary, but evolutionary. It stands for +naturalness, resourcefulness, and for quickened interest in the common +and essential things of life. We talk much about the ideals of +education; but the true philosophy of life is to idealize everything +with which we have to do. + + + + +LEAFLET III. + +AN APPEAL TO THE TEACHERS OF NEW YORK STATE.[4] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[4] Supplement to Home Nature-Study Course, March, 1904. (Vol. V, No. +6.) + +[Illustration] + +The kernel of modern educational development is to relate the +school-training to the daily life. Much of our education is not +connected with the conditions in which the pupils live and is extraneous +to the lives that they must lead. The free common schools are more +recent in development than universities, colleges and academies and they +are even yet essentially academic and in many ways undemocratic. They +teach largely out of books and of subjects that have little vital +relation with things that are real to the child. The school work is +likely to be exotic to the pupil. The child lives in one world, and goes +to school in another world. + +Every subject has teaching-power when put into pedagogic form. The +nearer this subject is to the child, the greater is its teaching power, +other conditions being comparable; and the more completely does it put +him into touch with his environment and make him efficient and happy +therein. In time, all subjects in which men engage will be put in form +for teaching and be made the means of training the mind. The old +subjects will not be banished, but rather extended; but the range of +subjects will be immensely increased because we must reach all people in +terms of their daily experience. How all these subjects are to be +handled as school agencies, we cannot yet foresee, nor is it my purpose +now to discuss the question; but it is certain that the common things +must be taught. And the common subjects are as capable of being made +the means of developing the imagination and the higher ideals as are +many of the traditional subjects. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 1. Junior Gardeners beginning the work of cleaning +up a New York school ground._] + +Great numbers of our people are in industrial and agricultural +environments. By means of the industrial and agricultural trades they +must live. These trades must be made more efficient; and the youth must +be educated to see in them more than a mere livelihood. These industrial +and agricultural subjects must be put more and more into schools. My own +interest lies at present more with the agricultural subjects, and these +are the occasion for this appeal. The so-called "industrial" and +commercial subjects have already been put into schools with good effect: +the agricultural subjects now must come within the school horizon. + +Probably one million and more of the people of New York State live on +farms. This is approximately one in seven of our entire population. +Moreover, every person is interested in the out-of-doors and in the +things that grow therein. The future agricultural efficiency of New York +State will depend on the school training more than on any other single +factor; and on the agricultural efficiency of the State will depend, to +an important extent, its economic supremacy. New York is the fourth +State in total agricultural wealth, being exceeded only by Illinois, +Iowa and Ohio. All the country children should be reached in terms of +the country. Most of our school books are made for the city and town +rather than for the country. The problem of the development of the rural +school is the most important single educational problem now before us; +and it is essentially an agricultural problem. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 2. Junior Gardeners at work in a New York school +ground. The grounds are now ready for planting. The mail carrier now +calls and the pupils take the mail home._] + +My appeal, therefore, is to every teacher in New York State, whether in +country or city--for the city teacher makes public opinion, helps to set +educational standards, and many of the country children go to school in +the cities. I do not wish to press agriculture into the schools as a +mere professional subject, but I would teach--along with the customary +school work--the objects and phenomena and affairs of the country as +well as of the city. The schools lead away from the country rather than +towards it. All this I do not regard as a fault of the schools, but +merely as a limitation due to the fact that the schools are still in +process of evolution. It requires time to adapt a means to an end, and +the schools are not to be criticised. But we must do our best to hasten +the evolution. Schools, colleges and universities have only begun to +reach the people effectively: these institutions must eventually touch +every vital and homely problem, for they are to be the controlling +factors in our civilization. Any subject that is worthy a person's +attention out of school is also worthy his attention in school. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 3. Sugar beets and a fourteen-year-old +experimenter. (Supt. Kern, Illinois.)_] + +I heard a good story the other day of an occurrence of many years ago +illustrating the fact that school training may be wholly exotic to the +pupil. The story was told in Ogdensburg, and Heuvelton is near by. The +class in geography was on exhibition, for there were visitors. The +questions were answered quickly: "How far is it from Rome to Corinth?" +"From Rome to Constantinople?" "From Paris to Rome?" A visitor was +asked whether he had any questions to propound. He had one: "How far is +it from Heuvelton to Ogdensburg?" No one answered; yet the visitor +said that none of the pupils would be likely to go from Rome to +Constantinople, but that every one of them would go from Heuvelton to +Ogdensburg. + +Not only must the school teach in terms of its own environment, but more +and more it must become the intellectual and social center of the +neighborhood or district. Every modern rural school building should be +attractive enough to induce clubs of many kinds to hold meetings in it. +In the old "lyceum" days the school house was an important gathering +place. These days are mostly past, but better days should be coming: the +school should connect at every point with the life of the community. Any +event, however small, that centers the attention of the people at the +school house is a beginning and is worth while. A year ago the children +and teacher in one of our district schools began the work of "cleaning +up" the premises. The picture (Fig. 1) shows them at work. Later, when +the grounds were renovated and ready for the planting, boxes were placed +for the reception of the mail for those who do not live on the carrier's +route: this is the beginning of a centering of attention at the school +house. I think that the boxes might have been more attractive and +perhaps better placed, but this will come in time: a beginning has been +made. When once the people of any community come to think of the school +house as a meeting-place for old folks as well as for children, what may +we not expect of the rural school? We need adult education as well as +juvenile education. + +I have now no course of study to propose for agricultural or +country-life subjects in the schools, but I would like to know how many +teachers in the State desire to take up certain work of this nature as +an experiment. The College of Agriculture will be glad to suggest the +kind of work, if need be. The western states are undertaking this work: +we must not be behind. It is endorsed by Superintendent Skinner, as will +be seen from the letter published at the close of this pamphlet. + +To be effective and meaningful, this work should deal directly with the +things,--handling the things, studying the things, learning from the +things. This is nature-study. To commit to memory something about things +is of little consequence. We are too closely committed to books. We are +often slaves to books. Books are only secondary or incidental means of +educating, particularly in nature-study subjects. We have known the +book-way of educating for so long a time that many of us have come to +accept it as a matter of course and as the only way. A New York school +man recently told me an incident that illustrates this fact singularly +well. In the Cattaraugus Indian Reservation he opened a school in which +at first he employed only manual-training and nature-study work. Soon +one of the children left school. The teacher sought the mother and asked +why. The mother replied that there was no use in sending the child to +school because the teacher had given it no books to study. So slavishly +have we followed the book-route that even the Indian accepts it as the +only road to schooling! + +[Illustration: _Fig. 4. Prize corn and a ten-year-old experimenter in +one of Supt. Kern's districts, Illinois.]_ + + +SCHOOL-GARDENS. + +Many lines of work might be suggested for an occasional period. Perhaps +the best one for spring is a school-garden. In time, every good school +will have its garden, as it now has charts and blackboards and books. A +school-garden is a laboratory-room added to the school house. It may be +five feet square or ten times that much. The children prepare the +land,--lessons in soils, soil physics; sow the seed,--lessons in +planting, germination, and the like; care for the plants,--lessons in +transplanting, struggle for existence, natural enemies, conditions that +make for the welfare of the plants. The older pupils may be organized +into experiment clubs, as they are being organized in parts of Illinois +(see article on "Learning by Doing," by Supt. O. J. Kern, Review of +Reviews, Oct., 1903, p. 456). We can help you in this school-gardening +work. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 5. "Learning by doing." A new kind of school work +in Illinois, under the direction of Supt. Kern._] + + +OTHER WORK. + +If not school-gardens, take up other lines of work,--study the school +premises, the nearby brook or field, an apple tree, or any other common +object or phenomenon. If there is any special agricultural industry in +the neighborhood, discuss it and set the pupils at work on it. Any of +these common-day subjects will interest the children and brighten up the +school work; and the pursuit of them will teach the children the +all-important fact that so few of us ever learn,--the fact that the +commonest and homeliest things are worthy the best attention of the best +men and women. + + +IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS. + +Just now, the improving of school grounds is a pressing subject. As a +preliminary to the actual improving of the grounds, suppose that the +following problems were set before the pupils: + +1. _Exercises on the Grounds._ + +1. _Area._--Measure the school grounds, to determine the lengths and +widths. Draw an outline map showing the shape. The older pupils may +compute the square surface area. The distances may be compared, for +practice, in feet, yards and rods. (Arithmetic.) + +[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Using the Babcock milk test at Professor +Hollister's School, Corinth, N. Y._] + +2. _Contour._--Is the area level, or rough, or sloping? Determine how +great the slope is by sighting across a carpenter's level. In what +direction does the ground slope? Is the slope natural, or was it made by +grading? The older pupils may draw a cross-section line, to a scale, to +show what the slope is. (Geography.) + +3. _Fences._--What parts of the area are fenced? What kind of fence? +Total length of fence? Give opinion whether this fence is needed, with +reasons. Is the fence in good repair? If not, what should be done to +remedy it? (Arithmetic, language.) + +4. _Soil._--What is the nature of the soil--clay, sand, gravel, field +loam? Was subsoil spread on the surface when the grounds were graded? Is +the soil poor or rich, and why do you think so? Is it stony? What can +be done to improve the soil? (Geography, language.) + +5. _Ground cover._--What is on the ground--sod or weeds, or is it bare? +What do you think would be the best ground cover, and why? (Geography, +language.) + +6. _Trees and bushes._--How many trees and bushes are there on the +ground? Were they planted, or did they come up of themselves? Make a map +showing where the principal ones are. Name all the kinds, putting the +trees in one list and the bushes in another. Do any of the trees need +pruning, and why? State whether any of them have been injured or are +unhealthy. (Geography, language.) + +7. _Tenants._--What animals live or have lived on the school premises? +What birds' nests do you find (these may be found in winter)? Hornets' +nests? Perhaps you can find cocoons or egg-masses of insects in winter, +and the active insects themselves in spring and fall. What birds visit +the place? Do rabbits or mice or moles or frogs inhabit the premises? +(Geography, language.) + +8. _Natural features._--Describe any strong natural features, as rocks, +ponds, streams, groves. What views do you get from the school grounds? +(Geography, language.) + + +2. _Exercises on the School Structures._ + +9. _Buildings._--How many buildings are on the grounds, including sheds, +etc.? Give the sizes in lengths and widths. Brick or wood? Color? Make a +map or chart showing the position of these structures, being careful to +have the buildings properly proportioned with reference to the entire +area. (Language, geography.) + +10. _Repairs needed._--Describe what condition the structures are in. +Tell whether repairs are needed on foundations, side walls, roof, +belfry, chimney, steps, doors, windows, paint. (Language.) + +11. _Flag pole._--Where is your flag pole? Could it be in a better +place? How tall is it above ground? How much in diameter at the base? +What kind of wood? Painted? How deep in the ground? When was it put up? +What repairs does it need? (Language.) + + +3. _General Exercises._ + +12. _History._--When was the land set aside for a school? When was the +school house built? Who built it? (History, language.) + +13. _Cost._--Try to find out what the land cost. What the building cost. +Are they worth as much now? (History, language.) + +14. _Government._--Determine what officers have general control of the +school. How did they come to be officers? How long do they hold office? +What are the duties of each? Determine whether your school receives any +aid from the State. (Government.) + +15. _Improvement._--Tell what you think should be done to improve the +school grounds and the school structures. (Language.) + +16. _Photographs._--The teacher or some pupil should photograph the +school premises, and send the picture to us. We want at least one +picture of every rural school house and grounds in the State. Even a +very poor photograph is better than none. + +_Experiment Garden._--Every school ground should have at least one small +plat on which the children can grow some plant that is useful in that +community. Just now alfalfa is demanding much attention from farmers, +and it is certain soon to become a very important farm crop in New York +State. It is used for pasturage and for hay. When once established, it +lives for years. It is allied to clover and is a handsome plant for any +school grounds. Will not the teacher suggest to the children that they +make an alfalfa bed along one side of the school grounds? It will be +attractive and will teach many lessons to pupils and parents even if it +is only a few square feet in size. We want to put an alfalfa plat on +every rural school ground in the State. _We will supply the seed free._ +Alfalfa is easy to grow if only a few essential principles are kept in +mind. We will send full directions to any one who applies. From year to +year we will give nature-study lessons on these alfalfa plats. + +We are anxious to start work of the above kind. It can be done at any +time of the year. We are already in touch with more than 400 school +grounds, but we want to reach every rural school ground in the State. +_Will not the teacher send to us the best piece of work done by any +pupil in any of the foregoing sixteen problems?_ These papers we will +file, as showing the conditions of the premises of the particular +school. They will enable us to see the progress that is being made from +year to year in the improvement of your school premises. They will also +enable us better to give advice, when called upon to do so. Sometimes we +can send to the particular school a man to give advice on the spot. +Sending the best reports to the University will be a reward to the most +diligent pupils. Send all reports to John W. Spencer, Nature-Study +Bureau, Ithaca, N. Y. + +We desire to put in the rural school houses of the State some good +pictures of country and farm scenes. These pictures will be artistic +reproductions of meritorious photographs, and large enough to hang on +the walls of the school room. With each picture will be sent +instructions for framing in order to make the picture more attractive. +We shall choose eight such pictures for distribution the present school +year. _We will send one of these pictures free to any rural school in +the State that takes up two of the problems given above; and all of them +to schools that take up the sixteen problems._ We expect to publish +lists of all schools, with teachers' names, that take up this work in +improving the premises of rural schools. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 7. Junior Naturalists making ready for planting. +Tompkins Co., N. Y._] + +To one who is not teaching in the public schools, all this work seems to +be simple enough. Such persons are likely to be impatient that more +rapid progress is not made in introducing agricultural and common-life +subjects into the schools. But the teacher knows that all this work +requires patience and skill. It cannot as yet be forced into the schools +and still retain spontaneity and vitality. It must come gradually, and +prove itself as it goes. Probably all public school teachers are now +agreed that the schools should be put closely in line with the life of +their various communities. The questions now to be solved are chiefly +those of means and methods, and of arousing the school constituencies to +the new points of view. A full and free discussion of the whole subject +is now needed. The time is hardly yet ripe for very definite courses of +study in these new fields. Many schools are already teaching these new +subjects with entire success: these schools can serve the cause by +making their experience public. + + +LETTERS ON THE SUBJECT. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 8. Junior Gardeners at work in one of the New York +Schools._] + +However, this circular is merely an appeal. It is an inquiry for +suggestions and co-operation. I desire to know what can be accomplished +in the schools of New York State in the direction of inspiring and +useful work for children that live in the country or are interested in +the country. I am sure that something needs to be done: just what is +most feasible and best the teachers must largely determine. As further +suggestions, I append two letters from New York teachers: + +_From A. M. Hollister, Principal of the Corinth Public Schools, Saratoga +Co., N. Y._ + + "I am sending you under separate cover a picture of my class at + work with the Babcock test machine (Fig. 6). We have used the + machine both as a means of instruction in physics and chemistry + and as a general demonstration before the different classes in the + school. It beautifully illustrates some very important principles + of physics and chemistry. The most marvellous effect, however, has + been shown in the quality of the milk sold in the village. Milk + was sold showing a test as low as 2.9 per cent butter fat. Almost + as soon as the first testing was reported, the milk showed 3.8 per + cent butter fat. Milk has been sent to the school from a number + of dairymen with request for a test on particular cows that the + parties might base their purchases of cows on the results of the + test. + + "In regard to the gardening with some of our boys, I would say + that both boys and parents are much interested in the subject. We + shall doubtless start about forty gardens of one-tenth acre each. + The boys are to keep an exact account of all expenses to study + methods, and to do all the work. I am anticipating results in a + number of directions. The boys will be given something to do and + to interest themselves in, which of itself is an important thing + for a village boy. It will also develop a power of observation and + ingenuity. We wish to get all the information we can on potato, + tomato and squash culture. Other things will be suggested during + the winter." + + + _Approval of the Superintendent of Public Instruction._ + + (_Published by permission._) + + "For many years I have been making earnest efforts to induce + teachers, pupils and patrons to improve and beautify the school + buildings and school surroundings of our State. Some progress has + been made, but much remains to be done. + + "I heartily welcome the coöperation of every agency which can + contribute to this result. We must interest parents and teachers + in this work, but to obtain the best results I have always found + that we must first interest the children. Once a spirit of + enthusiasm is awakened in the children, it is easy to keep them + interested and busy. + + "I have long appreciated the earnest assistance of representatives + of Cornell University in arousing the interest of pupils, and I + heartily commend the plan outlined by the College of Agriculture + to make a study of the schoolhouse and school grounds a practical + part of the daily education of the child. A child's surroundings + have much to do with his education. The result of such systematic + study as is suggested must surely be a steadily increasing + determination to remedy defects and correct any evil which may + exist. When the attention of children is directed to existing + conditions which bring discomfort, it will not be difficult to + induce them to devise ways and means to improve matters. + + "I shall watch the result of your efforts with deep interest, and + stand ready to coöperate with you in every way. + + "Very sincerely yours, + + "CHARLES R. SKINNER, + + "ALBANY, _Dec._ 17, 1903. + + _State Superintendent._" + + + + +LEAFLET IV. + +WHAT IS AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION?[5] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[5] Cornell Countryman, June, 1904. + +Agricultural education has made great progress within the past few +years. Methods are crystallizing and at the same time the field is +enlarging. We once thought of agricultural education as wholly special +or professional, but we now conceive of it as an integral part of +general and fundamental educational policy. As a college or university +subject it is necessarily technical and semi-professional; but college +work must articulate with the common-school work, as language and +science now articulate with the schools. That is, agricultural subjects +are now to be considered as a part of primary and secondary school work, +leading naturally to special work in the same subjects for those who +desire technical training. In the schools the subjects are to be treated +non-professionally, as primary means of educating the child. The reason +for using these subjects as means of educating lies in the principle +that the child should be educated in terms of its own life rather than +wholly in subjects that are foreign to its horizon and experience. It is +most surprising that, while the theory of education is that the person +shall be trained into efficiency, we nevertheless have employed subjects +that have little relation to the individual child's effectiveness. + +Not long since my father showed me a letter that he received from a +school girl in 1851. It read as follows: "I seat myself expressly for +the purpose to finish this letter which has been long begun. I go to +school room to Mr. Wells and study parsing mental Philosophy grammar and +penciling." This sounds as if it came from "The Complete Letter-Writer." +This person lived on a farm. She lives on a farm to this day. Her +parents and grandparents lived on a farm. The family had no expectation +of living elsewhere than on a farm. Yet, in her entire school life, I +presume there was not a single hour devoted to any subject directly +connected with the farm or with the country. If her studies touched life +in any way that she could comprehend, it was probably in habits of +thought of the city and of the academician rather than in anything that +appealed to her as related to the life she was to lead. It is small +wonder that the farm has been devoid of ideals, and that the attraction +has been to leave it. The direction of the stream determines the course +of the river. + +The future course of education will develop many means of training the +child mind. Heretofore these means have been few and the result has been +narrow. We shall see agricultural, commercial, social subjects put into +pedagogic form and be made the agencies whereby minds are drawn out. +These will be at least as efficient as the customary methods that we +happen thus far to have employed. How much of one or how much of another +is a detail that must be left to the future. Nor does it follow that the +old-time subjects are to pass away. They will be an important part of +the system, but not the whole system. These new subjects are now coming +into the schools as rapidly, perhaps, as they can be assimilated. It is +a general feeling that our schools already are overcrowded with +subjects; and this may be true. The trouble is that while we are +introducing new ideas as to subjects, we are still holding to old ideas +as to curriculums and courses of study. We will break up our schools +into different kinds; we will employ more teachers; we will not endeavor +to train all children alike; we will find that we may secure equal +results from many kinds of training; we will consider the effect on the +pupil to be of much greater importance than the developing of the +particular subject that he pursues; there are many men of many minds; +some system will be evolved whereby individual capabilities will be +developed to the full; the means will be related to the pupil: one of +the factors will be subjects making up the environment of the pupil that +lives in the country. + +My plea, therefore, is that agricultural and country life subjects +become the means of educating some of the pupils of at least some of the +schools. To be sure, we have already introduced "natural science" into +many of the schools, but, for the most, part, this has worked down from +the college and, necessarily, it usually stops at the high school. We +need something much more vital for the secondary schools than science as +commonly taught. The great nature-study movement is an expression, as +yet imperfect, of the feeling that there should be some living +connection between the school life and the real life. + +A college of agriculture, therefore, is as much interested in the common +schools as a college of arts and sciences is. It should be a part of a +system, however informal that system may be, not an establishment +isolated from other educational agencies. But even as a college it will +reach more persons than it has ever reached in the past. In any +self-sustaining commonwealth it is probable that one-third of the people +must be intimately associated with the soil. These people need to be as +well-trained as those who follow the mechanic trades or the professions. +It is immensely difficult to put these agricultural subjects into +teachable form and to reach the agricultural people in a way that will +mean much to them, because agriculture is a compound of many wonderfully +diverse trades in every conceivable kind of natural conditions. Nor can +one institution in each large state or province hope eventually to reach +all these people, any more than one institution can reach all those who +would best be taught in terms of books. But there must be at least one +institution that is well equipped for the very highest kind of effort +in these fields; Congress long ago recognized this fact in the +establishment of the land-grant colleges, and all persons who are +informed on agricultural education also now recognize it. The +agricultural colleges have been handicapped from the first for lack of +funds. It is now coming to be recognized that the highest kind of effort +in these colleges cannot be sustained on a farm that pays for itself nor +by means that are copied from the customary college work in "humanities" +and "science." If it is to be efficient, agricultural education of a +university grade is probably more expensive to equip and maintain than +any other kind of education. + +Once it was thought that the agricultural college should be wholly +separate from any "classical" institution. The oldest of the existing +American agricultural colleges, the Michigan institution, is established +on this principle. So are the Massachusetts, Iowa and Pennsylvania +colleges and a number of others. It is natural that this should have +been the feeling in the original movement for the establishment of these +colleges, for the movement was itself a protest and revolt from the +existing education. Time, however, has put agricultural subjects on an +equal pedagogical plane with other subjects, and there is no more +reason why the agriculture should be segregated by itself than that the +architecture or law or fine arts should be. The agricultural colleges +connected with universities are now beginning to grow rapidly. This is +illustrated in the great development of the agricultural colleges at the +universities in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, Missouri, +Ohio, and elsewhere. It was once thought that the agricultural student +would be "looked down upon" in a university or in a college with other +departments. This was once true. It was true once, also, of the student +in natural science and mechanic arts. Pioneers are always marked men. +The only way to place agricultural students on an equality with other +students is to place them on an equality. + +These remarks are made in no disparagement of the separate agricultural +colleges, but only to illustrate the character of the growth of +agricultural education. No doubt the separate colleges blazed the way. +They stand for an idea that we would not like to dispense with. Every +state and territory has one college founded on the land grant, and in +the Southern states there are two, one for the whites and one for the +blacks; in nearly half of the states these colleges are separate +institutions. But the fact remains that the college connected with the +university is to have the broader field in the future. Its very +connection dignifies it and gives it parity. It draws on many resources +that the separate college knows not of, unless, indeed, the separate +college develops these resources for itself. The tendency, therefore, is +for every ambitious separate college to develop the accessory resources, +in the way of equipment in general science, literature, the arts; for +agricultural education is constantly coming to be of a higher grade. The +separate agricultural and mechanical colleges are rapidly becoming +essentially industrial universities, giving general training but with +the emphasis on the technical subjects. + +It is strange how far this principle of education by isolation has been +carried in the development of the agricultural colleges. Not only have +the colleges been separated from other educational enterprises, but in +many cases they have been planted far in the open country, partly on the +theory that the farm boy, of all others, should be removed from +temptation and from the allurements of other occupations. It was the +early theory, also, that the agricultural student must be compelled to +do manual labor in order that he be put in sympathy with it and that his +attention be isolated from tendencies that might divert him from +farming. These methods seem to have rested on the general theory that +if you would make a man a farmer you must deprive him of everything but +farming. It would be interesting to try to estimate how much this +general attitude on the part of the agricultural colleges was itself +responsible for the very inferiority of position that the agricultural +student was supposed to occupy. This attitude tended to maintain a +traditional class distinction or even to create such a distinction. +Agricultural education must be adapted to its ends; but it must also be +able to stand alone in competition with all other education without +artificial props. It is no longer necessary that the agricultural +student wear blinders. + +On the other hand, the farm point of view must be kept constantly before +the student, as the engineering point of view is kept before the student +in a college of civil engineering; but we are coming to a new way of +accomplishing this. Mere teaching of the sciences that underlie +agricultural practice will not accomplish it; nor, on the other hand, +will drill in mere farm practice accomplish it. It is not the purpose of +an agricultural college to make men farmers, but to educate farmers. We +are not to limit the student's vision to any one occupation, but to make +one occupation more meaningful and attractive than it has ever been +before. From the farmer's point of view a leading difficulty with the +college course is that it sometimes tends to slacken a man's business +energy. One cannot at the same time pursue college studies and +commercial business; and yet farming is a business. In a four years' +course some students are likely to incur certain habits of ease that are +difficult to overcome upon their return to the farm. How much this is a +fault of the courses of instruction and how much a personal equation of +the student is always worth considering. But if this is a fault of +college work it is generic and not peculiar to colleges of agriculture. +Experience has now shown that a compulsory labor system is no preventive +of this tendency, at least not with students of college and university +age. Student labor is now a laboratory effort, comparable with +laboratory work in medicine or mechanic arts. The mature student must +have some other reason for laboring than merely a rule that labor is +required. However, it is yet largely an unsolved problem with the +agricultural colleges as to just how the stirring business side of +farming can be sufficiently correlated with the courses of study to keep +the student in touch and sympathy with affairs. With the passing of +compulsory student labor there has no doubt been a reaction in the +direction of too little utilization of the college farm in schemes of +education; but we shall now get back to the farm again, but this time on +a true educational basis. + +Nothing is more significant of the development of the agricultural +colleges than the recent splitting up of the professorships. From +agricultural chemistry as a beginning, in one form or another, there +have issued a dozen chairs, first one subject and then another being +separated as a teachable and administrative entity. Even the word +"agriculture" is now being dropped from the professorships, for this is +a term for a multitude of enterprises, not for a concrete subject. +Horticulture was one of the first protuberances to be lopped off; and +even this must very soon be divided into its component parts, for there +is little relationship between the effort that grows apples and that +grows orchids or between the market garden and landscape gardening. Even +the chair of agronomy, the newest department of the colleges, must soon +be separated into its units. Forty years ago mechanic arts was +undivided. Who then would have prophesied such professorships as +experimental engineering, electrical engineering, marine engineering, +railroad engineering, naval architecture, machine design? The progress +of the dividing up of the mechanic arts and civil engineering marks the +rate of our progress, in the terms of the Land Grant Act, "to promote +the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the +several pursuits and professions in life." All trades, classes and +professions are to be reached with a kind of education that is related +to their work. One by one we are reaching persons in all walks and all +places. Socially, there are centuries of prejudice against the farmer. +When education is finally allowed to reach him in such a way as to be +indispensable to him, it will at last have become truly democratic. + +In this spirit agriculture is divided into its teachable units. The +lists of divisions of the teaching force or curriculum in the larger +agricultural colleges illustrate this admirably. In Illinois, for +example, the title of professors and instructors are associated with +such divisions as thremmatology, agronomy, pomology, olericulture, +floriculture, soil physics, dairy husbandry, dairy manufacture, horses, +beef cattle, swine husbandry, farm crops. At Cornell the coördinate +departments of instruction in the College of Agriculture are classified +as agricultural chemistry, economic entomology, soils, agronomy, +horticulture, animal husbandry with its sub-department of poultry +husbandry, dairy industry, agricultural engineering and architecture, +the farm home, rural economy and sociology, out-door art (including +landscape gardening), nature-study for teachers, besides miscellaneous +courses--making altogether thirteen divisions. The courses now offered +in the Cornell College of Agriculture, not including the winter-courses, +are 76, of which 71 are to be given in the next academic year. Nearly +all these courses comprise a half-year's work. + +While all this subdividing represents progress there are disadvantages +attending it, because it tends to give a partial view of the subject. +The larger number of farmers must engage in general "mixed husbandry" +rather than in specialties. Farming is a philosophy, not a mere process. +The tendency of the inevitable subdividing of the subjects is to force +the special view rather than the general view, as if, in medicine, +students were to become specialists rather than general practitioners. +The farm-philosophy idea was represented by the older teachers of +agriculture. Of these men Professor Roberts is a typical example, and +his work in making students to be successful, all-around farmers is not +yet sufficiently appreciated. Much of this farm philosophy is now coming +into the courses of instruction under the titles of rural economy, rural +economics, rural sociology and the like. I have sometimes thought that +the time may come when we will again have professors of "agriculture" +who will coördinate and synthesize the work of the agronomist, soil +physicist, chemist, dairyman and others. However, the dividing has not +yet worked any harm, and perhaps my fears are ungrounded; and it is +certain that with increasing knowledge and specialization the courses of +instruction must still further divide. + +Another most significant development in agricultural education is the +change in attitude towards the college farm. Once it was thought that +the college estate should be run as a "model farm." However, a farm that +sets a pattern to the farmer must be conducted on a commercial basis; +yet it is manifest that it is the province of a college to devote itself +to education, not primarily to business. A farm cannot be a "model" for +all the kinds of farming of the commonwealth; and if it does not +represent fairly completely the agriculture of the state, it misses its +value as a pattern. At all events the pattern-farm idea is practically +given up. It is then a question whether the farm shall be used merely to +"illustrate,"--to display kinds of tools, examples of fences and +fields, breeds of stock. This conception of the college farm is +comparable with the old idea of "experiments" in agricultural chemistry: +the teacher performed the experiments for the students to see. The +prevailing idea of the college farm is now (or at least, I think, soon +must be) that it shall be used as a true laboratory, as the student in +chemistry now works first-hand with his materials instead alone of +receiving lectures and committing books. Is a student studying cattle? +The herds are his for measurements, testing as to efficiency, studying +in respect to heredity, their response to feeding, their adaptability to +specific purposes, and a hundred other problems. Cattle are as much +laboratory material for the agricultural student as rocks are for the +geological student or plants for the botanical student. Technical books +were once kept only in libraries; now they are kept also in laboratories +and are laboratory equipment. College museums were once only for +display; now they are also for actual use by the student. Barns are +laboratories, to be as much a part of the equipment of a college of +agriculture as shops are of mechanic arts. They should be in close +connection with the main buildings, not removed to some remote part of +the premises. Modern ideas of cleanliness and sanitation are bound to +revolutionize the construction and care of barns. There is no reason why +these buildings should be offensive. It was once thought that dissecting +rooms and hospitals should be removed from proximity to other buildings; +but we have now worked these laboratories integrally into the plans of +colleges. Time has now come for a closer assembling of the college barns +with the college classrooms. Likewise the entire farm is no doubt to be +used in the future as a laboratory, at least in the institutions of +university grade--except such part as is used for pure investigation and +research. Where, then, shall the student go to see his model barn? To +these farms themselves; here a stock farm; there a fruit farm; elsewhere +a dairy farm. The shops in the colleges of mechanic arts have long since +come to be true laboratories; they do not engage in railroading or +manufacturing. They do not try to "pay their way;" if they do pay their +way this fact is only an incidental or secondary consideration. A +college of agriculture is a teaching institution: it must have equipment +and laboratories. + +It will be seen that the word "agriculture" has taken on a new and +enlarged meaning. The farmer is not only a producer of commodities: he +is a citizen, a member of the commonwealth, and his efficiency to +society and the state depends on his whole outlook. Also his personal +happiness depends on his outlook. He must concern himself not alone with +technical farming, but also with all the affairs that make up an +agricultural community: good roads, organizations, schools, mail routes, +labor movements, rural architecture, sanitation, the æsthetic aspect of +the country. One will be struck with the new signification of +"agriculture" if he scan the titles of publications that issue from +governmental agricultural departments, agricultural experiment stations, +agricultural nature-study bureaus, agricultural colleges. + +I cannot close this sketch without calling attention to the fact that +the college of agriculture has obligations to the farmers of its +commonwealth. The very fact that every college of agriculture in North +America is supported by public funds imposes this obligation. Moreover, +the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts stand for true democratic +effort, for they have a definite constituency that they are called upon +to aid. It is desirable that as many persons as possible shall assemble +at the college itself, but those who cannot go to college still have the +right to ask for help. This is particularly true in agriculture, in +which the interests are widely separated and incapable of being combined +and syndicated. Thereupon has arisen the great "extension" movement +that, in one way or another, is now a part of the work of every +agricultural college. Education was once exclusive; it is now in spirit +inclusive. The agencies that have brought about this change of attitude +are those associated with so-called industrial education, growing +chiefly out of the forces set in motion by the Land Grant Act of 1862. +This Land Grant is the Magna Charta of education: from it in this +country we shall date our liberties. + + + + +LEAFLET V. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR NATURE-STUDY WORK.[6] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[6] Syllabus of Lectures: Nature-Study (Animal and Plant Life), Mrs. A. +B. Comstock. + +[Illustration] + +Suggestions for nature-study must necessarily be more or less general. +Nature-study should be a matter of observation on the part of the +pupils. The teacher's part is to indicate points for observation and not +to tell what is to be seen. + +After the child has observed all that it is possible for him to see, the +remainder of the story may be told him or may be read. + +The objects of nature-study should be always in the teacher's mind. +These are, primarily, to cultivate the child's power of observation and +to put him in sympathy with out-of-door life. + +Having these objects clearly in mind, the teacher will see that the +spending of a certain amount of time each day giving lessons is not the +most important part of the work. A great amount of nature-study may be +done without spending a moment in a regular lesson. In the case of all +the things kept in the schoolroom--_i. e._, growing plants, insects in +cages and aquaria, tame birds and domestic animals--the children will +study the problems for themselves. The privilege of watching these +things should be made a reward of merit. + +The use of nature-study readers should be restricted. The stories in +these should not be read until after the pupils have completed their own +observations on the subjects of the stories. + +Stories about adventures of animals and adventures with animals may +always be read with safety, as these do not, strictly speaking, belong +to nature-study. They belong rather to literature and may be used most +successfully to interest the child in nature. + +Blackboard drawings and charts should be used only to illustrate objects +too small for the pupil to see with the naked eye. The pupil must also +be made to understand that the object drawn on the board is a real +enlargement of the object he has studied with his unaided eye. + +The use of a simple lens often contributes much interest to the work of +observation. The compound microscope may be used to show some +exceptionally interesting point, as the compound eyes of insects, the +scales on the butterfly's wing, or the viscid thread of the spider. But +this is by no means necessary. Nature-study work does not actually +require the use of either microscope or lens, although the latter is a +desirable adjunct. + +The great danger that besets the teacher just beginning nature-study is +too much teaching, and too many subjects. In my own work I would rather +a child spent one term finding out how one spider builds its orb web +than that he should study a dozen different species of spiders. + +If the teacher at the end of the year has opened the child's mind and +heart in two or three directions nature-ward, she has done enough. + +In teaching about animals, teach no more of the anatomy than is +obviously connected with the distinctive habits of each one; _i. e._, +the hind legs of a grasshopper are long so that it can jump, and the +ears of a rabbit are long so that it can hear the approach of its foes. + +While it is desirable for the teacher to know more than she teaches, in +nature-study she may well be a learner with her pupils since they are +likely any day to read some page of nature's book never before read by +human eyes. This attitude of companionship in studying with her pupils +will have a great value in enabling her to maintain happy and pleasant +relations with them. It has also great disciplinary value. + + +_Reasons for and against graded courses in nature-study._ + +The question whether there should be a graded course in nature-study is +decidedly a query with two answers. + +The reasons why there should not be a graded course, are: + +1st. The work should be spontaneous and should be suggested each day by +the material at hand. Mother Nature follows no schedule. She refuses to +produce a violet one day, an oriole the next, and a blue butterfly on +the third. + +2d. A graded course means a hard and fast course which each teacher must +follow whether or not her tastes and training coincide with it. + +3d. There is no natural grading of nature-study work. A subject suited +for nature-study may be given just as successfully in the first as in +the fifth grade. + +There is only one reason why a nature-study course should be graded, and +that is so cogent that it outweighs all the reasons on the other side: +the training of the grade teacher in nature-study is at present so +limited in subject-matter that if the course were ungraded the same work +would be given over and over in the successive grades until the pupils +became utterly weary of it. To many a pupil in the lower grades to-day, +nature-study means the sprouting of beans and peas and nothing more. As +a matter of experience, we believe that after a nature-study subject is +once studied it should be dropped entirely, the pupil should not again +meet it in the schoolroom until he finds it in its respective science in +the high school or college. On this account, we have been persuaded that +a graded course, or at least a consecutive course, is necessary. + +The following suggestions about grading the course are given with a hope +of being helpful, and not because we believe that the courses indicated +are necessarily the best courses possible. We have graded each subject +so that a teacher may follow her own tastes and inclinations, and may +not be forced to teach zoology when her interests are entirely with +botany, or vice versa. + +We have tried to give a distinctive trend to the observations for each +year, and have suggested a line along which the work may be done. + +As a matter of fact, however, the time to study any living thing is when +you chance to find it. If you find an interesting caterpillar or cricket +or bird, study it, whatever your grade of work. The probabilities are +that it may be long before you chance upon these same species again. + +It has been the experience of most teachers that the lower grades are +much more interested in nature-study than are the higher. Especially are +the seventh and eighth grades difficult to interest. Therefore, we have +made this part of the course economic in its bearing, hoping that this +may appeal to the grown-up feeling of pupils of these grades. + + +INSECTS. + +FIRST GRADE. + +The first year of work with insects may well be restricted to +familiarizing the pupils with the three most striking phases in the life +of insects with complete metamorphosis, _i. e._, the larvæ, the pupæ, +and the winged insects. Moths and butterflies are especially adapted for +this work with the small children. + +_Fall work._--In September there are still many caterpillars feeding. +Bring them in the schoolroom and feed them in breeding cages. For +different forms of cheap breeding cages, see Insect Life, pp. 326-330; +Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 5 (No. XIX, this volume); Lessons in +Nature-Study, p. 45. + +During October many of the hairy caterpillars will be found hurrying +along in quest of suitable winter quarters. These should be brought in +and put in box cages having sand or dirt in the bottom. They are seeking +secluded corners in which to curl up and hide during the cold weather. +Some of them pass the winter in their cocoons, and some do not. Insect +Life, pp. 239-241; Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 317-324; Moths and +Butterflies, (_b_), pp. 191-198. + +Bring in as many cocoons as possible. November or December, after the +leaves have fallen from the trees, is the best time in which to hunt for +the cocoons of _Cecropia_, _Promethea_, and _Cynthia_. Insect Life, pp. +194-196; Moths and Butterflies, (_b_), pp. 119-180. + +Teach the pupils the difference between the cocoon and the pupa. The +pupa is the quiescent form of the insect. The cocoon is the silken bag +covering it, and is always made by the caterpillar before it changes to +a pupa. + +If possible bring in some butterfly larvæ. In September many may be +found. The cabbage butterfly especially is always with us. Insect Life, +p. 245. Also the larvæ of the black swallow-tail may be easily found. +Insect Life, p. 243; Everyday Butterflies, p. 130; Moths and +Butterflies, (_b_), p. 39. + +Show the children (do not tell them) that the butterfly caterpillars do +not make cocoons, but that the naked pupa is suspended by a silk button, +and in some cases also by a silk thread. + +Many teachers complain that but few of the moths are able to get out of +the cocoons. The usual reason for this is that in the heated atmosphere +of the schoolroom the cocoons become too dry. To obviate this, the +cocoons should be dipped in water every week or two. + +_Spring work._--During the spring term use the apple-tree +tent-caterpillars. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 5 (No. XIX, this +volume); Moths and Butterflies, (_b_) p. 201. Show the four stages of +the insect: egg, caterpillar, pupa, and moth. Pay especial attention to +the way in which the caterpillars grow. + +_Summary of methods._--This whole year's work may be done with no +regular "lessons," and all the time required will be the care of the +breeding cages and the time given to hunting for the caterpillars and +cocoons. The child's reading may be selected from the many stories of +the caterpillars, moths and butterflies. Yet be very careful to make +each child understand that he himself is studying out the especial story +of each caterpillar and cocoon in the schoolroom. + + +SECOND GRADE. + +The plan for the second year is to continue the study of the +life-histories of insects. The pupil, having learned the different +stages of the moths and butterflies, should learn that all insects do +not experience such marvelous changes of form. + +_Fall work._--Arrange a breeding cage like figs. 288, 289, Insect Life, +p. 329, placing fresh sod in the flower pot and covering the lamp +chimney with a square of wire netting. Push the glass chimney down into +the earth so as to allow no crevices through which the insects may +escape. In such a cage, place grasshoppers and crickets of all sizes, +and study their growth. Insect Life, pp. 33-37. + +Show the pupils that the young grasshopper looks like the old one except +that the wings are shorter; the same is true of crickets. Keep the sod +damp so the grass will not become dry; and when it gets too old replace +it with other sod. A good way to keep these insects alive and to keep +the children interested in them is to plant wheat and grass seed in +several flower pots, and then to move the glass chimney from pot to pot, +giving the insects fresh pasturage when needed. + +As early as possible start some aquaria. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. +11 (No. XII, this volume); Insect Life, pp. 330-332. + +The mosquito is one of the most available insects for study in the +aquarium. Insect Life, pp. 131-136; Lessons in Nature-Study, p. 12. + +The nymphs of dragon flies and damsel flies and many others may be +studied during the entire winter. Insect Life, pp. 140-142; Cornell +Teachers' Leaflet, No. 11 (No. XII, this volume); Outdoor Studies, p. +54. Those that have cannibalistic habits should be kept apart, each one +in a separate jar. They may be fed by dropping into the jar a bit of raw +beefsteak tied to the end of a string. The purpose of the string is that +the uneaten meat may be withdrawn before it decays. It should not be +left in the water more than twenty-four hours. The insects do not need +feeding more than twice a week. + +_Spring work._--In the spring get new material for the aquaria. In pools +where there are many dead leaves look for the caddice worms that build +the log cabin cases, for these may be kept in aquaria that have no +running water. Insect Life, p. 149. + +While we advise the introduction of the aquaria during the second year, +their use should be continued during the following four grades; there +are always new things to study in ponds and streams, and nothing so +fascinates a child as watching the movements of these little denizens of +the water. + +_Summary of methods._--There need be no set lessons in the work of the +second year, unless the teacher in a few words, now and then, chooses to +call attention to certain things as the occasion seems to demand. The +object of the year's work is to teach the pupil the life histories of +insects which have no quiescent or pupa stage, and this should be +accomplished by simple observation of specimens bred in the schoolroom. + + +THIRD GRADE. + +The general subject of this year's work may well be the Homes of +Insects. This is a most interesting topic, and if well taught will +inspire the pupils to much individual observation and collecting. + +The questions to be asked concerning insect homes are: + +Of what material are they made? How are they made? What is the purpose +of the home? Is it made by the insect for itself to live in, or is it +made by the mother for the protection of her young? Is it made as a +protection for the insects while they are eating, or do they go out to +feed and come back only to rest and spend the night or day? + +_Fall work._--Leaf rollers: Insect Life, p. 206; Ways of the Six-Footed, +p. 119. + +Leaf miners: Insect Life, p. 208; Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 29. + +Galls: Insect Life, p. 210; Outdoor Studies, pp. 18, 38-39. + +Fall web worm: Insect Life, p. 200. + +Scallop shell moth: Insect Life, p. 201. + +Nests of silver spotted skipper: Insect Life, p. 203; Everyday +Butterflies, p. 190. + +Bag worms: Insect Life, p. 204. Ant lions: Outdoor Studies, p. 81. + +Carpenter bees: Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 108. + +Tiger beetle larvæ: Insect Life, pp. 270-272. + +All kinds of cocoons are found by the children. Ask concerning the +cocoons: Where did you find them? Were they in protected places? Why? + +Of these nests there are many more than those mentioned above. In fact, +to one who sees what he looks at, every plant, every tree, every fence +corner and every foot along the country path contains many most +interesting homes. The leaf rollers and leaf miners are the most common +and most easily found of all. + +_Spring work._--The spring work in this subject may be to study the way +in which caddice worms make their houses; take a caddice worm out of its +house and watch it build another. This is a new phase of the study of +caddice worms. Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 133. + +Study the homes of beetles under sticks and stones, and find the homes +of the engraver beetles under bark. Insect Life, p. 216. This work must +necessarily be done by the pupils out of school hours, and their +discoveries and specimens of homes should be made topics for lessons for +the whole school. + +During this term begin a butterfly calendar, made on the same plan as +the bird calendar. A collection of butterflies might be started for the +schoolroom in connection with the calendar. Study the specimens caught +and determine whether they hibernated as adults or chrysalids. If their +wings are battered and torn, they spent the winter as adults. If they +are bright in colors and their wings perfect, they spent the winter in +the chrysalis state. + +Hints for collecting insects: Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 7 (No. +XVIII, this volume); Insect Life, pp. 283-314 and pp. 48-49. How to Know +the Butterflies. + +_Summary of methods._--The work in the third grade, as outlined, +requires a lesson period now and then when single specimens are brought +in by individual pupils. Each pupil should examine the specimen, and +after that the lesson may be given. + + +FOURTH GRADE. + +After having studied Insect Homes, the pupils will be ready to take up +the broader subject, How Insects Live. The work of this year may be +given on this subject. + +In order to study the life-histories of insects, the pupils should know +some things about insect anatomy. If the work as indicated in the +previous grades has been followed, the pupils know the number of legs, +wings, and compound eyes most insects have, without ever having killed a +specimen or having received a special lesson in insect anatomy. Now +teach the children how insects breathe and how they eat. Show the +spiracles on the body of any caterpillar which is not hairy; they may be +seen on the abdomen of a grasshopper or of a butterfly that has not too +many large scales to cover them. + +After they have seen these spiracles or breathing pores, give a lesson, +illustrated by chart or blackboard, showing that these holes lead to the +breathing tubes of the body. Manual for the Study of Insects, pp. 73-75. + +To show how insects eat, allow the pupils to watch the following insects +in the breeding cages while feeding: a grasshopper; a leaf beetle +(potato beetle is a good example); any caterpillar; an ant; and a wasp. +Show that all these have mouth parts made for biting. Let the pupils see +an aphid sucking the juice of a plant; this may be done by bringing in a +twig infested by aphids. Let the pupils see the water bugs in the +aquarium eat. Insect Life, pp. 123-131, and pp. 137-140. Let them watch +a fly, a honey bee, and, if possible, a butterfly or moth, eat. All +these have mouth parts made for sucking. All this work should be +original investigation on the part of the pupils. + +After the pupils find out how insects breathe and eat, let them see how +each insect lives a life adapted to its own peculiar needs. Try to feed +some cabbage worms on clover or grass. Then try turnip or mustard +leaves, and watch the result. Change the potato beetle larvæ to some +other plant, and watch the result. + +Let the pupils first find out how the insects breathe in the water. Each +insect in the aquarium tells a different story as to its way of getting +air. The teacher will find all these stories indicated in the chapters +in Insect Life devoted to pond and brook insects. + +Call especial attention to protective coloring of insects. Show that +when an insect resembles its surroundings in color it is thereby +enabled to escape its enemies; or, if need be, is enabled to creep upon +its prey unobserved. + +Note the color of the grasshopper in the road; color of meadow +grasshopper; color of the caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly (green +and hard to find). Notice the shape and color of walking sticks; color +of the katydids. Note the bright color of the larvæ of potato beetle. +Why? (They are distasteful to birds, and their colors advertise the +fact.) Study the Monarch butterfly and the Viceroy. Everyday +Butterflies, p. 95 and p. 297; Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 39. Bring out +strongly in all this work that the insect in order to live must have its +special food plant and must escape notice of its enemies. This is the +proper place to begin the study of the valuable work done by birds in +destroying insects. + +In addition to this general work, study especially the wasps. + +Solitary Wasps: Mud daubers. Bring in their nests and examine them. Ways +of the Six-Footed, p. 96. How are the nests provisioned, and for what +purpose were they made? Find, if possible, nests of other solitary +wasps. Insect Life, p. 218, p. 262, p. 264. + +Social Wasps: Bring in a deserted nest of yellow-jackets. Of what is it +made? How? What for? Do the wasps store honey? Do they live as a colony +during the winter? All these questions may be answered by a pupil who +knows of a yellow-jackets' nest in the fall and watches it during the +winter. For the teacher there are discussions of these insects in Manual +for Study of Insects, pp. 660-664. Wasps and their Ways. + +Continue the butterfly collection and the butterfly calendar. + +_Spring work._--In the spring, begin a collection of moths for the +schoolroom. Insect Life, p. 50. Caterpillars and Moths. + +In the spring, notice when the first house-flies appear. What happens to +the house-fly in winter? (Send for Circular No. 35, second series, Div. +of Entomology of Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for the +life-history of the house-fly.) Explain that one female destroyed early +in the season means thousands fewer late in the season. + +Encourage the children to bring to the schoolroom all sorts of flies +and compare them with the house-fly. The object of this is to +teach something of the wonderful variety of forms among small and +inconspicuous insects. Make a collection of flies for the schoolroom. +For description of flies, see Insect Life, pp. 83-84. + +A good plan for the spring work is to keep the pupils interested in the +first appearance, after the vicissitudes of winter, of each insect which +it is possible for them to find. Note that insects do not appear before +their food plants appear. + +_Summary of objects and methods._--The questions to be answered during +the whole year's work are: How do the Insects live,--on what do they +feed? How do they escape their enemies? What happens to them in winter? +How are the new broods started in the spring? The work is chiefly +observation, but occasional lessons may be given and stories may be told +to keep the interest in the work from flagging. + + +FIFTH GRADE. + +_Fall work._--Study the Bees and Ants. + +Fit up ants' nests. Insect Life, p. 278. + +Teach the whole life-history by allowing the pupils to colonize the +nests. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 633-639; Insect Life, p. 271. +Make observations upon the _eggs, pupæ, workers, males, females_. What +are the winged forms that appear in swarms in June and July. + +Let the pupils observe the relation of ants to aphids. This may be done +on almost any shrub or roadside plant. Home Nature-Study Lesson 1904, +No. 8. + +The teacher should read Sir John Lubbock's "Ants, Bees and Wasps." + +Many stories on these subjects may be told and read, especially those +concerning the habits of exotic ants and ant wars which the children are +not likely to see; also of the slave-making ants. These slave-making +ants are quite common in New York State; their nests may be found under +stones. They resemble the brown mound-builder ant; the slaves are black. + +_Spring work._--In the spring work in this grade, study the habits of +the honey bee. An observation hive is desirable but not necessary. Bring +in the honeycomb filled with honey. If there are apiarists in your +neighborhood, they will gladly give you specimens of brood in the comb. +Read The Bee People and the Manual for Study of Insects, p. 673. + +Develop all the facts of the wonderful life in the hive by letting the +pupils observe them as far as possible. Then give them the many +interesting stories: + +Story of the Workers. + +Story of the Queen. + +Story of the Drone. + +Story of the Bee Larva. + +Story of Honey Making. + +Story of Wax and Comb Making. + +Story of the Swarm. + +In connection with the study of the honey bee, study the bumble bee. +Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 672-673; Insect Life, p. 256. Begin +with the study of the big queen that appears in May or June. Show that +she is of great benefit to us and must not be harmed or frightened. Let +the bumble bee's nest be a problem for summer observation, and finish +the study in the next grade in the fall. + +_Summary of objects and methods._--The work of this year should have for +its objects the harmonious life of social insects; their unselfish work +for each other; their devotion to their respective colonies; their ways +of building and of defending their habitations. + +The work should be based upon observations made by the pupils in and out +of the schoolroom. Many lessons should be given, mostly in the form of +stories. Ways of the Six-Footed, pp. 55-94. + + +SIXTH GRADE. + +_Fall work._--Study the spiders. Lessons in Nature-Study, p. 103; Insect +Life, pp. 223-232. Cornell Teachers' Quarterly, final number (No. XV, +this volume). + +In order to study spiders, they need not be handled with bare hands. +While all spiders are venomous to the same extent, perhaps, that a +mosquito or a bee is venomous, there is only one species in the eastern +United States (and that is very rare) the bite of which need be feared +by human beings. + +The use of spiders in nature-study does not have to do with handling +living specimens, but rather with the habits of the different species +and the building of the webs. In catching spiders to bring into the +schoolroom, use the method indicated by Professor Kellogg in +Nature-Study Lessons. Capture the specimen by the use of a pill box: +take the box in one hand and the cover in the other, and catch the +spider by suddenly closing the box over it. + +The pupils should be made to observe the chief differences between +spiders and insects; _i. e._, spiders have two regions of the body +instead of three as in insects; eight legs instead of six, simple eyes +instead of compound. Compare spiders with daddy-long-legs. + +If the teacher chooses to kill a specimen and show the arrangement of +the eyes and the spinnerets under the microscope, she may do so. This is +not necessary, although I have seen it done successfully in the sixth +grade. Diagrams and blackboard drawings may be used instead of the +microscope. + +Let the pupils observe the uses of silk by the spider: + +1. Snare for prey. 2. To enwrap prey when first entangled. 3. Nests for +eggs. 4. Lining for habitations. 5. Means of locomotion. + +Introduce the grass spider into the schoolroom in glass jars containing +grass sod, and let the pupils observe it at work. + +Encourage a study of cobwebs. Capture the owner of an orb web, and bring +it in a glass jar to the schoolroom. Try to give it its natural +environment; _i. e._, some sort of frame or branch of tree on which it +may fasten its web. + +The orb web: 1. How is it made? 2. Of how many kinds of silk? 3. The way +the spiral thread is arranged as shown by drawings. 4. The position of +the spider on the web. 5. The way the spider passes from one side of the +web to the other. 6. The way it treats its prey when the victim is once +entangled. + +The engineering ability shown in making this web is one of the most +marvelous things in all the realm of animal life. These observations may +well cover two months of this term. + +Study the ballooning spiders, the jumping spiders, the running spiders, +and the crab spiders. Study as many egg-sacs of spiders as possible. + +Another topic for study during the fall term is the Songs of Insects. +Insect Life, p. 235. Bring in the katydids, crickets, and meadow +grasshoppers, place them in cages containing green sod, and observe them +while they are singing. Note that only the males sing. Show the ears of +the crickets, katydids, and meadow grasshoppers in the elbows of their +front legs. The ear of the grasshopper is on the side of the segment of +the abdomen next to the thorax. Ways of the Six-Footed, pp. 3-27. + +Study snowy tree cricket. Manual for Study of Insects, p. 118. + +If possible, get a cicada as these insects continue to sing through the +warm days of September. Show the cover to the drums on the lower side of +the common cicada. Cornell Nature-Study Bulletin, No. 1, p. 24 (No. VI, +this volume). This can be made a most interesting subject, and pupils +should be encouraged to do observation work outside of school. + +Begin a general collection for schoolroom. + +_Spring work._--Continue making a general collection for the schoolroom, +and specialize in this direction. When an insect is brought in and added +to the collection, if the teacher knows the insect, a lesson should be +given on its life and habits. This connecting of the life and habits of +the insects with the collection of dead specimens is of greater value +from a nature-study point of view than the collection itself. + +_Summary of methods._--While this year's work must be based on the +observations of the pupils in the schoolroom and out-of-doors, yet many +interesting lessons may be given by the teacher. + + +SEVENTH GRADE. + +The study of this entire year may be the relation of insects to flowers. +Most of the references are given in the Plant-life work for this grade. + +The insect work may be limited to: What insects visit flowers? How do +they carry pollen? How does each kind of insect reach the nectar? Which +insects are robbers, and which are true pollen carriers? The use of +pollen by insects. Outdoor Studies, pp. 7-12. + +Take up the study of golden rod and its insect visitors, _i. e._, let +the pupils watch a bunch of golden rod and note all the insect visitors. +For directions concerning this work see Outdoor Studies, pp. 29-46. + +In the same way take up the study of asters and the late flowers, and +their insect visitors. Describe the visitor; what it does; what part of +the plant it visits. + +_Summary of objects and methods._--The object of this whole year's work +is to show the beautiful inter-relation between insects and flowers. The +studies must necessarily be made in the field. But many delightful +lessons may be given on the structure of flowers, that make of greatest +use to the flowers the work of insect visitors. + + +EIGHTH GRADE. + +The object of this year's work is the economic side of insect-study. +Many pupils do not continue these studies to high school or college. Yet +if they have homes with gardens or trees in city or country, they must +learn to cope with the many insect enemies that feed upon cultivated +plants. They should also learn to discriminate between insect friends +and foes. They should learn the best methods of combating the foes and +preserving the friends. + +Explain first that in fighting an insect enemy we must know how it eats. +If it inserts its beak in the stem of the plant there is no use trying +to kill it by putting poison on the leaves. + + +COMMON INSECT FOES. + +To be studied in the schoolroom: + +_Fall work._--Codlin-moth. Insect Life, p. 180. Show work on an apple, +and give methods of destroying it. + +Plum curculio. Insect Life, p. 182. + +The pomace flies. Insect Life, p. 184. + +Scale insects. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 165-174. + +Potato beetle. Manual for Study of Insects, p. 176. + +_Spring work._--Tussock moths and canker worms. Circular No. 9, 2d +Series, Dept. Agr., Div. of Ent., Washington, D. C.; Cornell Teachers' +Circular, No. 1. + +Cabbage worms. How to Know the Butterflies. + +Currant worms. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 613-614. + +Plant lice or aphids. Insect Life, pp. 177-178. + +Carpet beetle. Circular No. 5, 2d Series, Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C.; +Manual for Study of Insects, p. 539. + +Clothes moth. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 257-258; Circular No. 36, +2d Series, Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C. + +Tent caterpillar. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 5 (No. XIX, this +volume). + +A study of spraying should be made. Insects and Insecticides, pp. 39-56. +Spray Calendar, distributed free by the Cornell Agricultural Experiment +Station. + +Important Insecticides. Farmers' Bulletin No. 127, Dept. Agr., +Washington, D. C. + + +INSECT FRIENDS. + +_Fall work._--Lady bugs. Insect Life, p. 179. + +Aphis lions. Insect Life, p. 178; Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 125. + +Red clover and the bumble bee. + +Parasitic insects. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 621-630. + +_Spring work._--Bees and orchard in blossom. + +_Summary of methods._--The observations may be made in the schoolroom or +out-of-doors. There should be observations of experiments in spraying. +This may be accomplished in most localities by encouraging the pupils to +visit orchards undergoing the operation of spraying. However, by means +of syringe or watering pot, the infested plants brought into the +schoolroom may be sprayed and the results noted. Lessons should be given +on the importance of preserving insect friends while we are destroying +insect enemies. + + +OTHER ANIMALS ADAPTED FOR NATURE-STUDY. + +_The Toad and Frog._ The study of either of these two species is +delightful spring work for any grade. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 9 +(No. XVI, this volume); Wilderness Ways, p. 25. + +_Salamanders or Efts._ Familiar Life of the Roadside. + +_Fishes._ Observations upon goldfish or minnows kept in an aquarium +should be made the basis of lessons upon the life of fishes. Study: (1) +The shape of the body; see how it is especially adapted to rapid +movement through the water. (2) The shape and arrangement of the fins, +and their uses. (3) How the fish propels itself through the water. (4) +How the fish breathes. (5) The shape of the fish's mouth, and how and +what it eats. (6) Experiment to ascertain the ability of the fish to see +and hear. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 21 (Nos. XIII and XXXVI, this +volume). + +Encourage observations of habits of different species of fish common in +our ponds and streams. Study their eggs and the places where they are +found. Teach the children the reason for the game laws, and impress upon +them a true respect for those laws. Food and Game Fishes. + +_Mice._ Some house mice in an improvised cage may be placed in the +schoolroom, and the habits of the little creatures observed. Give them +paper to see how they make their nests. Note how and what they eat, and +how they clean themselves. Note shape of teeth and their use. If +possible, study the wild mice. Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, p. 111; +Wild Life, p. 171. + +_Squirrels and Chipmunks._ The work on these animals must be based on +out-of-door observations. Try to get the pupils to discover for +themselves answers to the following questions: How and where do they +travel? What do they eat? Where and how do they carry their food? Do +they store it for winter? If so, where? What do they do in winter? +Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, p. 15, p. 134; Wild Neighbors, p. 1. + +_Rabbits._--A domesticated rabbit should, if possible, be kept in the +schoolyard so that the pupils may make their own observations upon its +habits. Let them study: How and what it eats. The shape of its teeth. +The form and use of the ears. How does it travel? What sort of tracks +does it make, and why? From these observations lead the pupils to think +of the life of the wild rabbit, how it is adapted to escape from its +enemies and to get its food. Ways of Wood Folk, p. 41; Story of +Raggylug. + +_Guinea pigs._--These little animals are easily kept in the schoolroom, +and, though not particularly interesting in their habits, they prove +attractive to the smaller children and may be studied in the same way as +the other animals. + +_Domestic animals._--These need not be studied in the schoolroom, as the +pupils, if they have opportunity, can make the observations at home. +Studies of the horse, cow, pig, sheep, and goat, and also the cat and +dog may be made most interesting. Such questions as these may be asked +concerning each: What is the characteristic form of the animal? What is +its clothing? What does it eat? How are its teeth adapted to its food? +What is its chief use to man? How does it travel, slow or fast? How are +its feet adapted to its way of running or walking? Has it a language? +How many emotions can it express by sound? How many can it express by +action? How does it fight, and what are its weapons? What sort of life +did its wild ancestors live? How did they get their food, and how did +they escape from their enemies? + +_Summary of methods of nature-study of animals._--Study only so much +anatomy as is clearly adapted to the animal's ways of living. +Observations made by the pupils should be arranged into lessons by +either pupil or teacher. Such lessons make excellent English themes, and +they may be adapted to any grade. + + +BIRDS. + +Begin the study of birds by the careful study of some domesticated +species that may be observed closely and for a long period. The hen is +perhaps the best for this purpose. Study carefully all of the +adaptations of her anatomy to her life necessities. Study shape of her +body; the feathers; the bill; her food; how she eats; drinks; the shape +of her feet; their covering; how she sees; hears; smells; sleeps; study +the life of a chick; study the language of chick, hen and cock; +embryology of a chick. Study a robin or some bird that builds near +houses. Note all its habits from the time it appears in spring until +autumn. + +Bird houses and bird protection. Usefulness of birds. Our Native Birds, +Lange. Publications of U. S. Dept. Agr. + +_Summary of methods._--It is much more important that the pupil know the +habits of one species than that he should know by name many species. +Therefore encourage patient watching and careful observation concerning +the things which birds do. Such observations may be made into lessons by +pupil or by teacher for the benefit of all the pupils. First Book of +Birds, and Second Book of Birds; Bird Lore; The Story of the Birds; Bird +Neighbors. + + +PLANTS. + +FIRST GRADE. + +_Fall term._--Let the children study the different forms and the +colors of leaves. By no means teach the botanical terms for all the +shapes of leaves; simply let the children gather and bring in all +the different kinds of leaves they can find. Let them draw the +different forms in their blank books. Press leaves and mount +them. + +The object of this work is to give the child an idea of the great +number of leaf forms and colors, and to get him interested in +observing them. References: Botany, Bailey, pp. 90-100; Lessons +with Plants, pp. 79-90; Gray's How Plants Grow, chapter on +Leaves and Forms of Leaves; Elements of Botany, pp. 89-93. + +_Winter and spring terms._--Let the children study vegetables. +The following questions should be answered concerning a vegetable. +What part of the plant is it? Does it grow below or above ground? +What sort of leaf has it? What sort of flower? What sort of fruit +or seed? Lessons with Plants, pp. 353, 356, 364; First Studies, +pp. 50, 51, 174; Botany, Bailey, pp. 31-37; Cornell Teachers' Quarterly, +No. 7 (No. XXXIX, this volume). + + +SECOND GRADE. + +Teach the use of the flower. Do this by bringing in all flowers +possible, and show that as the flower fades the fruit becomes evident. +Let the pupils observe for themselves the fact that the flower +exists for the sake of the fruit. Interest the pupils in all kinds of +fruits and seeds. This is not the place to teach seed dispersion, +but simply the forms and colors of fruits and seeds. Let the +pupils also observe that insects carry pollen from flower to flower. +Do not give the explanation of this to children of this age, but let +them see the bees at work. + +For this work see Plant World, by Mrs. Bergen, pp. 80-107. + +Let the pupils observe the following things in plant physiology: + +Flowers sleep: Botany, Bailey, p. 50; Lessons with Plants, p. 402; +Plants, Coulter, pp. 9, 10, 48; Elements of Botany, p. 98. + +Plants turn toward the light: Elements of Botany, p. 100; Botany, +Bailey, p. 50; First Studies, p. 136. + +Effect of frost on flowers and leaves. + +_Winter and spring work._--Seed germination: First Studies, pp. 1-24; +Lessons with Plants, pp. 316-331; Botany, Bailey, pp. 164-171; Cornell +Teachers' Leaflet, No. 1 (No. XXVIII, this volume); Plants, p. 307; +Lessons in Nature-Study, p. 22. + +Let the pupils observe in the field: Position of leaves when first open. +A Reader in Botany, by Newell, Part I, p. 84. + +Position of leaves and flowers in the rain. First Studies, p. 135; +Elements of Botany, pp. 175-176; Plants, p. 51. + + +THIRD GRADE. + +_Fall work._--The fall work of this grade may be (1) The way flowers +make fruit, _i. e._, the way the fruit is formed from the flower. (2) +The dispersion of seeds. + +Fruits. First Studies, pp. 168-171; Lessons with Plants, pp. 251-310; +Botany, Bailey, pp. 147-157. + +Seed dispersion. First Studies, p. 176; Plant World, pp. 133-156; Little +Wanderers, by Morley; Seed Dispersal, by Beal; Cornell Teachers' +Quarterly, No. 2 (No. VIII, this volume); Seed Travelers, by Weed; +Botany, Bailey, p. 158. + +Let the pupils observe: "How some plants get up in the world." First +Studies, p. 150; Lessons with Plants, p. 396; Botany, Bailey, p. 108. + +_Spring work._--Opening of the buds. Lessons with Plants, pp. 48-63; +First Studies, p. 33. + +Arrangement of buds. Lessons with Plants, pp. 63-69. + +Expansion of bark. Lessons with Plants, pp. 69-72. + + +FOURTH GRADE. + +The object of this year's work may be the teaching of the value of +earth, air, light, and water upon plants. + +_Fall work._--Experiments to show these to be carried on in schoolroom. +Experiments to show value of earth to plants: + +(1) Plant seeds in fertile earth; poor earth; clean sand or sawdust. + +(2) Plant seeds in sawdust and on cotton batting placed on water in a +jar. + +Experiments to show use of light to plants: + +(1) Sow seeds in two boxes of earth prepared just alike. Place one in +the window, one in a dark closet, and note results. + +(2) Place house plants from greenhouse in a window, and note change of +position of leaves. + +(3) The story of the sunflower. + +Experiments showing use of water to plants: + +(1) Place a very much wilted cut plant in water, and note result. + +(2) Place seeds in earth which is dry, and in earth which is +kept moist. + +(3) Plant seeds on batting floating on a tumbler of water, and note +results. + +These experiments should extend over several weeks. + +_Winter and spring work._--Begin the study of trees. Choose some tree in +the schoolyard, if possible, and make this the basis of the work. The +following is an outline for the study of a maple tree: Begin +observations in January. Make drawings of the tree, showing the +relations of branches to trunk and general outline. Note the following +details: The color of trunk and branches in January, and the color in +February and March; when the buds begin to swell; the arrangement of +buds; watch closely to determine whether a bud develops into a blossom +or a leaf; the peculiarities of bark on trunk and branches; do the +leaves or the blossoms appear first; the shape and color of the +blossoms; draw them and study them thoroughly; the color and position of +the leaves when they first appear; draw the different stages of the +unfolding of the leaves; keep a calendar of all the year's history of +the tree; when in full leaf make another drawing of the whole tree; +study the tree from below, and if possible from above, to show +arrangement of leaves in reference to light; make drawings of the fruit +when it is formed; study how it travels; when the first autumn tints +appear; make colored drawings of the tree in its autumn foliage, and +note when leaves begin to fall and when the branches are finally bare; +note different form of maple in the open and maple in the forest. + +In connection with the year's history of the tree, study the tree from +an economic point of view. Make a special study of sugar-making in +connection with the maple tree. Study maple wood. To do this get a +quarter section of a piece of maple log and study the grain lengthwise +and in cross sections. Study all the industries possible in which maple +is used. Devote one notebook to all the work on the maple tree, and at +the end summarize the observations. For drawing of trees, see Cornell +Teachers' Leaflet, No. 12 (Nos. XXIX and XXX, this volume). Home +Nature-Study, Vol. V, Nos. 2, 5. + + +FIFTH GRADE. + +The work during this grade may be devoted to plant physiology. For this +work use First Studies of Plant Life, Atkinson. The experiments +described in this book are simple and excellent; they give the pupil +definite knowledge of the life processes of plants, and the use to the +plant of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit. + +Continue studies of trees. Select some other species than the one +studied during the last grade. Study it in the same way. Note the +differences between the two. Two or three contrasting species may thus +be studied. + + +SIXTH GRADE. + +Having studied in the previous year the uses of different parts of the +plant, the pupil will be fitted now to take up the general subject of +weeds. + +Take some common forms and let the pupils observe that they grow where +other plants do not grow, or that they drive out other plants; then +study the special reasons why each kind of weed is able to do these +things. Botany, Bailey, pp. 214-222; Elements of Botany, pp. 196-205. + +During the autumn another subject for study in this grade is +_Mushrooms_. Lead the pupils to see how these flowerless plants produce +seed, and let them bring in as many forms as possible. Do not try to +teach which mushrooms are poisonous. Lessons with Plants, p. 347; +Mushrooms, by Atkinson. + +_Winter work._--Evergreen trees. Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, No. 13 (No. +XXXIII, this volume). + +_Spring work._--The spring work may well be the making of a calendar for +trees and plants. Keep a record each day of the leafage of plants, the +appearance of weeds, and the appearance of blossoms of fruit trees and +all common flowers. Record which appear first, leaves or blossoms. + +This work will be good preparation for the study of the "struggle for +existence," which comes in the next grade. + + +SEVENTH GRADE. + +The work for this year, both fall and spring, may be the study of the +cross fertilization of flowers. Choose a few of the common flowers, and +let the pupils study the means by which pollen is carried from flower to +flower. + +In studying any flower fertilized by insects always ask: Where is the +nectary? Where in relation to the nectary are the stigma and the +anthers? What path must the insect follow in order to get the nectar? Do +the flowers attract insects by color? By fragrance? What insects do you +find visiting the flowers studied? Lessons with Plants, pp. 224-245; +Plants, Coulter, pp. 109-137; Elements of Botany, pp. 182-196; Readers +in Botany, Newell, Part II, p. 86; Plant World, Bergen, pp. 57-127; Ten +New England Blossoms, Weed. + +The cross fertilization of flowers is only one adaptation for succeeding +in the struggle for existence. + +Study as many other ways of insuring the continuance of a plant as is +possible. Botany, Bailey, pp. 197-217; Lessons with Plants, pp. 15-20; +Elements of Botany, pp. 199-212. + +Study plant communities. Botany, Bailey, pp. 219-227; Plant Relations, +pp. 146, 162, 168; Plant Structures, p. 313; Cornell Teachers' Leaflet, +No. 19 (No. XXXV, this volume). + + +EIGHTH GRADE. + +It seems to be the experience of most teachers that pupils of the +seventh and eighth grades are with difficulty kept interested in +nature-study. This is probably due to the fact that the methods suited +to earlier grades are not suited to these. Pupils of this age, now +feeling "grown up," are attracted only by more mature work. They may be +interested in some of the following subjects: + +_Horticulture and Gardening._--Cornell Teachers' Leaflets. +Garden-Making; The Pruning-Book; The Principles of Fruit-Growing; The +Principles of Vegetable-Gardening, all by Bailey. Plant Culture, by +Goff. + +_Forestry._--Relations of forests to preservation of rain-fall and +streams. Preservation of Forests. Use of Forests. Reforesting waste +lands, etc. A Primer of Forestry by Pinchot, United States Department +Agriculture. A First Book of Forestry, Roth. + +_Ferns._--Study and make collections of all the ferns of the locality. +Make drawings of each fern and its fruiting organs, and press and mount +the specimens with full accounts of habits and locality of the plant. +How to Know the Ferns, Mrs. Parsons; Gray's Botany; Our Ferns, Clute. + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.[7] + +[7] This list comprises some of the books that have been helpful to me. +It is not intended to be complete. Good new books are constantly +appearing. The teacher should endeavor to keep up with the new books. + +INSECTS. + +Every Day Butterflies. S. H. Scudder. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $2.00. + +Insect Life. J. H. Comstock. D. Appleton & Co. $1.25. + +Lessons in Nature-Study. Jenkins & Kellogg. W. B. Harrison, $1.00. + +Manual for Study of Insects. J. H. Comstock. Comstock Pub. Co. $3.75. + +Moths and Butterflies. (a) Julia P. Ballard. Putnam's Sons. $1.50. + +Moths and Butterflies. (b) Mary C. Dickerson. Ginn & Co. $2.50. + +Stories of Insect Life. Weed & Murtfeldt. Ginn & Co. 35 cents. + +Outdoor Studies. James B. Needham. American Book Co. 40 cents. + +Bee People. Margaret W. Morley. A. C. McClurg. $1.25. + +The Butterfly Book. W. J. Holland. Doubleday, Page & Co. $3.00. + +Caterpillars and Their Moths. Eliot and Soule. The Century Co. $2.00. + +Wasps and Their Ways. Margaret W. Morley. Dodd, Mead & Co. $1.50. + +The Ways of the Six-Footed. Anna Botsford Comstock. Ginn & Co. 40 cents. + +How to Know the Butterflies. J. H. and Anna Botsford Comstock. D. +Appleton & Co. $2.25. + + +ANIMALS OTHER THAN INSECTS. + +Animal Life. Jordan & Kellogg. D. Appleton & Co. $1.25. + +Familiar Fish. Eugene McCarthy. D. Appleton & Co. $1.50. + +Story of the Fishes. James N. Baskett. D. Appleton & Co. 65 cents. + +Familiar Life of the Roadside. Schuyler Mathews. D. Appleton & Co. +$1.75. + +Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers. John Burroughs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. +$1.00. + +Wild Life in Orchard and Field. Harper & Bros. Wild Neighbors. The +Macmillan Co. Ernest Ingersoll. $1.50 each. + +Kindred of the Wild. Roberts. L. C. Page. $2.00. + +Wild Life Near Home. Dallas Lore Sharp. The Century Co. $2.00. + +Four Footed Americans. Wright. The Macmillan Co. $1.50. + +American Animals. Stone & Cram. Doubleday, Page & Co. +$4.00. + +Food and Game Fishes. Jordan & Evermann. Doubleday, Page & Co. $4.00. + +Various books that deal with animals from the story or narrative point +of view will be found to be interesting and helpful. They are often +useful in arousing an interest in the subject. There are many good +animal books not mentioned in the above list. + + +Birds. + +Bird Homes. A. R. Dugmore. Doubleday, Page & Co. $2.00. + +Bird Life (with colored plates). Frank M. Chapman. D. Appleton & Co. +$5.00. + +Bird Neighbors. Neltje Blanchan. Doubleday, Page & Co. $2.00. + +Birds of Village and Field. Florence Merriam. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. +$2.00. + +First Book of Birds. Olive Thorne Miller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. + +Second Book of Birds. Olive Thorne Miller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. +$1.00. + +Our Native Birds. D. Lange. The Macmillan Co. $1.00. + +Story of the Birds. James N. Baskett. D. Appleton & Co. 65 cents. + +How to Attract the Birds. Neltje Blanchan. Doubleday, Page & Co. $1.35. + +The Bird Book. Eckstorm. D. C. Heath & Co. 80 cents. + +The Relations of Birds to Man. Weed & Dearborn. Lippincott. $2.50. + +The Woodpeckers. F. H. Eckstorm. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. + +Bird Lore. A magazine. The Macmillans. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. + + +PLANT LIFE. + +Botany; an Elementary Text for Schools. L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co. +$1.00. + +Corn Plants. F. L. Sargent. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 60 cents. + +Elements of Botany. J. Y. Bergen. Ginn & Co. $1.10. + +Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden. S. Mathews. D. Appleton & Co. +$1.75. + +First Studies in Plant Life. George F. Atkinson. Ginn & Co. 70 cents. + +Flowers and Their Friends. Margaret W. Morley. Ginn & Co. 60 cents. + +Flowers of Field, Hill and Swamp. C. Creevey. Harper & Bros. $2.50. + +Glimpses at the Plant World. Fanny D. Bergen. Ginn & Co. 35 cents. + +A Guide to the Wild Flowers. Alice Lounsberry. Frederick A. Stokes Co. +$2.50. + +How Plants Grow. Asa Gray. American Book Co. 80 cents. + +How to Know the Ferns. Mrs. Frances Theodore Parsons. Chas. Scribner's +Sons. $1.50. + +Our Ferns in Their Haunts. Clute. Stokes Co. $2.00. + +How to Know the Wild Flowers. Mrs. Wm. Starr Dana. Chas. Scribner's +Sons. $2.00. + +Lessons With Plants. L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co. $1.10. + +Little Wanderers. Margaret W. Morley. Ginn & Co. 35 cents. + +Mushrooms. George F. Atkinson. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, N. Y. $3.00. + +Plants; a text-book of botany. J. M. Coulter. D. Appleton & Co. $2.00. + +Plants and Their Children. Mrs. Wm. Starr Dana. American Book Co. 65 +cents. + +Reader in Botany. J. H. Newell. 2 vols. Ginn & Co. 70 cents. + +Seed Dispersal. W. J. Beal. Ginn & Co. 40 cents. + +Ten New England Blossoms. Clarence M. Weed. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. +$1.25. + +With the Wild Flowers, $1.00; Field, Forest and Wayside Flowers, $1.50. +Maud Going. Baker, Taylor & Co. + +Flowers and Their Insect Visitors. Gibson. Newson & Co. $1.00. + + +TREES. + +A Guide to the Trees. Alice Lounsberry. Frederick A. Stokes Co. $2.50. + +Familiar Trees and Their Leaves. S. Mathews. D. Appleton & Co. $1.75. + +Our Native Trees. Our Native Shrubs. Harriet Keeler. Chas. Scribner's +Sons. $2.00 each. + +A Primer of Forestry. Pinchot. U. S. Dept. Agri. + +Getting Acquainted with the Trees. J. H. McFarland. Outlook Co. $1.75. + +The First Book of Forestry. Roth. Ginn & Co. $1.00. + +Among Green Trees. Julia E. Rogers. Mumford. $3.00. + +Trees, Shrubs and Vines. Parkhurst. Chas. Scribner's Sons. $1.50. + +Practical Forestry. John Gifford. D. Appleton & Co. $1.20. + + * * * * * + +The Nature-Study Idea. L. H. Bailey. Doubleday, Page & Co. $1.00. + +Science Sketches. David Starr Jordan. McClurg & Co. $1.50. + +Poetry of the Seasons. Mary I. Lovejoy. Silver, Burdette & Co. 60 cents. + +Nature in Verse. Mary I. Lovejoy. Silver, Burdette & Co. 60 cents. + +Nature Pictures by American Poets. The Macmillan Co. $1.25. + +Arbor Day Manual. Charles Skinner. Bardeen & Co. $2.50. + +Songs of Nature. John Burroughs. McClure, Phillips & Co. $1.50. + +Among Flowers and Trees. Wait & Leonard. Lee & Shepherd. $2.00. + + + + +LEAFLET VI. + +A SUMMER SHOWER.[8] + +BY R. S. TARR. + + +[8] Teachers' Leaflet, No. 14: Cornell Nature-Study Bulletin, June, +1899. + +[Illustration] + +A Rainstorm comes, the walks are wet, the roads are muddy. Then the sun +breaks through the clouds and soon the walks are no longer damp and the +mud of the road is dried. Where did the water come from and where has it +gone? Let us answer these questions. + +A kettle on the stove is forgotten and soon a cracking is heard; the +housewife jumps to her feet for the kettle is dry. The kettle was filled +with water, but it has all boiled away; and where has it gone? Surely +into the air of the room, for it can be seen issuing as "steam" and then +disappearing from view, as if by magic. The heat of the fire has changed +the liquid water to a gas as invisible as the air itself. This gas is +_water vapor_. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 9. A glass of cold water on which vapor has +condensed in drops._] + +Do you wish to prove that the water vapor is there, although unseen? +Then, if the day is cool, watch the window and notice the drops of water +collect upon it. Or, if the day is warm, bring an ice-cold glass or +pitcher into the room and see the drops collect upon it (Fig. 9). People +sometimes say, when drops of water collect on a glass of cold water, +that the glass is "sweating;" but see whether the same thing will not +happen with a cold glass that does not contain water. + +These two simple observations teach us two very important facts: (1) +That heat will change liquid water to an invisible vapor, or gas, which +will float about in the air of a room; and (2) that cold will cause some +of the vapor to change back to liquid water. + +Let us observe a little further. The clothes upon the line on wash day +are hung out wet and brought in dry. If the sun is shining they probably +dry quickly; but will they not dry even if the sun is not shining? They +will, indeed; so here is another fact to add to our other two, namely +(3) that the production of vapor from water will proceed even when the +water is not heated. + +This change of water to vapor is called _evaporation_. The water +evaporates from the clothes; it also evaporates from the walks after a +rain, from the mud of the road, from the brooks, creeks and rivers, and +from ponds, lakes, and the great ocean itself. Indeed, wherever water is +exposed to the air some evaporation is taking place. Yet heat aids +evaporation, as you can prove by taking three dishes of the same kind +and pouring the same amount of water into each, then placing one on the +stove, a second in the sun, and a third in a cool, shady place, as a +cellar, and watching to see which is the last to become dry. + +About three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered by water, so that +the air is receiving vapor all the time. In fact, every minute thousands +of barrels of water-vapor are rising into the atmosphere from the +surface of the ocean. The air is constantly moving about, forming winds, +and this load of vapor is, therefore, drifted about by the winds, so +that the air you are breathing may have in it vapor that came from the +ocean hundreds or even thousands of miles away. You do not see the +vapor, you are perhaps not even aware that it is there; yet in a room 10 +feet high and 20 feet square there is often enough vapor, if it could +all be changed back to water to fill a two-quart measure. + +There is a difference in the amount of vapor from time to time. Some +days the air is quite free from it, and then clothes will dry rapidly. +On other days the air is damp and humid; then people say it is "muggy," +or that the "humidity is high." On these muggy days in summer the air is +oppressive because there is so much vapor in it. Near the sea, where +there is so much water to evaporate, the air is commonly more humid or +moist than in the interior, away from the sea, where there is less water +to evaporate. + +We have seen that there is some vapor in all air, and that there is more +at some times than at others. We have also seen how it has come into the +air, and that cold will cause it to condense to liquid water on cold +window panes and on water glasses. There are other ways in which the +vapor may be changed to liquid. + +After a summer day, even when there has been no rain, soon after the +sun sinks behind the western horizon the grass becomes so damp that +one's feet are wet in walking through it. The dew is "falling." During +the daytime the grass is warmed by the sun; but when the sun is gone it +grows cooler, much as a stove becomes cool when the fire is out. This +cool grass chills the air near it and changes some of the vapor to +liquid, which collects in drops on the grass, as the vapor condenses on +the outside of a glass of ice water. + +In the opposite season of the year, on a cold winter's day, when you +step out of a warm house into the chilly air, a thin cloud, or fog, +forms as you expel the air from your lungs, and you say that you can +"see your breath." What you really see are the little drops of water +formed as the vapor-laden breath is chilled on passing from the warm +body to the cold air. The vapor is condensed to form a tiny mist. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 10. A wreath of fog settled in a valley with the +hilltops rising above it._] + +Doubtless you have seen a wreath of fog settling in a valley at night; +or in the morning you may have looked out upon a fog that has gathered +there during the night (Fig. 10). If your home happens to be upon a +hillside, perhaps you have been able to look down upon the fog nestled +there like a cloud on the land, which it really is. Such a fog is caused +in very nearly the same way as the tiny fog made by breathing. The damp +air in the valley has been chilled until the vapor has condensed to form +tiny mist or fog particles. Without doubt you can tell why this fog +disappears when the sun rises and the warm rays fall upon it. + +On the ocean there are great fogs, covering the sea for hundreds of +miles; they make sailing dangerous, because the sailors cannot see +through the mist, so that two vessels may run together, or a ship may be +driven upon the coast before the captain knows it. Once more, this is +merely condensed vapor caused by chilling air that has become laden with +vapor. This chilling is often caused when warm, damp winds blow over the +cold parts of the ocean. + +This leads the way to an understanding of a rain storm; but first we +must learn something about the temperature of the air. The air near the +ground where we live is commonly warmer than that above the ground where +the clouds are. People who have gone up in balloons tell us so; and now +scientific men who are studying this question are in the habit of +sending up great kites, carrying thermometers and other instruments, in +order to find out about the air far above the ground. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 11. Fog clouds among the valleys in the mountains, +only the mountain peaks projecting above them._] + +It is not necessary, however, to send up a kite or a balloon to prove +this. If your home is among mountains, or even among high hills, you can +prove it for yourself; for often, in the late autumn, when it rains on +the lower ground, it snows upon the mountain tops, so that when the +clouds have cleared away the surface of the uplands is robed in white +(Fig. 12). In the springtime, or in the winter during a thaw, people +living among these highlands often start out in sleighs on a journey to +a town, which is in the valley, and before they reach the valley their +horses are obliged to drag the sleigh over bare ground. It is so much +warmer on the lower ground that the snow melts away much more quickly +than it does among the hills. + +The difference in temperature is, on the average, about one degree for +every three hundred feet, so that a hill top rising twelve hundred feet +above a valley would have an average temperature about four degrees +lower than the valley. Now some mountains, even in New York, rise +thousands of feet above the surrounding country. They rise high into the +regions of cold air, so that they are often covered with snow long +before any snow has fallen on the lowlands; and the snow remains upon +them long after it has disappeared from the lower country (Fig. 12). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 12. A mountain whitened by snow on the top, while +there is no snow at the base._] + +Some mountains are so lofty that it never rains upon them, but snows +instead; and they are never free from snow, even in mid-summer. If one +climbs to the top of such peaks he finds it always very cold there. +While he is shivering from the cold he can look down upon the green +fields where the birds are singing, the flowers blossoming and the men, +working in the fields, are complaining of the heat. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 13. A mountain peak snow capped, and covered on the +very crest by a cloud._] + +One who watches such a mountain as this, or in fact any mountain peak, +will notice that it is frequently wrapped in clouds (Fig. 13). Damp +winds blowing against the cold mountains are chilled and the vapor is +condensed. If one climbs through such a cloud, as thousands of people +have done when climbing mountains, he often seems to pass through +nothing but a fog, for really many clouds are only fogs high in the air. +(Fig. 14). + +But very often rain falls from these clouds that cling to the mountain +sides. The reason for this is easy to understand. As the air comes +against the cold mountains so much vapor is condensed that some of the +tiny fog particles grow larger and larger until they become mist +particles, which are too heavy to float in the air. They then begin to +settle; and as one particle strikes against another, the two unite, and +this continues until perhaps a dozen have joined together so as to form +a good-sized drop, which is so heavy that it is obliged to fall to the +ground as rain. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 14. Clouds clinging to the mountain sides. If one +were climbing these mountains he would find himself, in passing through +the clouds, either in a fog or a mist._] + +Let us now look at our summer storms. These do not form about mountain +peaks; yet what has been said about the mountains will help us to +understand such showers. + +It is a hot summer day. The air is muggy and oppressive, so that the +least exertion causes a perspiration, and even in the shade one is +uncomfortably hot. Soon great banks of clouds appear (Fig. 15),--the +"thunder heads,"--and people say "a thunder shower is coming, so that we +will soon have relief from this oppressive heat." The clouds draw near, +lightning is seen and thunder heard, and from the black base of the +cloud, torrents of water fall upon the earth. If we could have watched +this cloud from the beginning, and followed it on its course, we would +have seen some facts that would help explain it. Similar clouds perhaps +began to form over your head in the early afternoon and drifted away +toward the east, developing into thunder storms many miles to the east +of you. + +On such a day as this, the air near the ground is so damp that it gives +up vapor easily, as you can prove by allowing a glass of ice water to +stand on a table and watching the drops of water gather there, causing +the glass to "sweat" (Fig. 9). The sun beats down upon the heated ground +and the surface becomes like a furnace, so that the air near the ground +is warmed. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 15. A "thunder head," or cumulus cloud._] + +Air that is warm is lighter than cool air, and, being lighter, will +rise, for the heavy cool air will settle and push it up, as a chip of +wood will rise in a pail of water, because it is lighter than the water +which pushes it to the top. This is why the warm air rises from a +furnace, or a stove, or a lamp. It is the reason why the hot air rises +through a house chimney; undoubtedly you can find other illustrations, +as ventilation, and can find abundant opportunity to prove that warm air +will rise. + +The warm, moist air near the ground becomes so light that the +heavy air above settles down and pushes it up, so that an uprising +current of air is formed above the heated ground, much as an +uprising current of hot air rises through the chimney when the +stove is lighted. Rising thousands of feet into the sky the warm +air reaches such a height, and finally comes to a place so cool, that +some of the vapor must be condensed, forming fog particles, which +in turn form a cloud. + +On such a day, if you will watch a cloud, you will notice that its base +is flat (Fig. 15); and this flat base marks the height above ground +where the temperature of the atmosphere is low enough to change the +vapor to fog particles. Of course the air still rises somewhat above +this base and continues to get cooler, and to have more and more vapor +condensed. This makes a pile of clouds resting on a level base, but with +rounded tops (Fig. 15). Sometimes the base of these summer clouds, +called cumulus clouds, is a mile above the ground and their tops fully a +mile higher than this. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 16. Photograph of a lightning flash._] + +Just as on the mountain side, where the drops grow larger until they +must fall, so here, fog particles grow to drops of such a size that they +are too heavy to float. This growth is often aided by the violent +currents of air, which sometimes tumble and toss the clouds about so +that you can see the commotion from the ground. These currents blow one +particle against another, forming a single drop from the collision of +two; then still others are added until the rain drop is so heavy that it +must fall. + +But sometimes the air currents are so rapid that the drops are carried +on up, higher and higher, notwithstanding the fact that they are heavy. +Then they may be carried so high, and into air so cold, that they are +frozen, forming hail. These "hailstones" cannot sink to the ground until +they are thrown out of the violent currents, when they fall to the +ground, often near the edge of the storm. + +Some hailstones are of great size; you will find it interesting to +examine them. If you do this, notice the rings of clear and clouded ice +that are often to be seen. These are caused when the hail, after +forming, settles to a place where it melts a little, then is lifted +again by another current, growing larger by the addition of more vapor. +This continues until finally the ice ball sinks to the ground. + +There is thunder and lightning in such storms. Few things in nature are +grander than these, and those who will watch the lightning flash will +see many beautiful and interesting sights (Fig. 16). Sometimes the flash +goes from cloud to cloud, again from the cloud to the ground. No one +knows exactly why the lightning comes; but we do know that it is an +electric spark, something like that which one can often see pass from +the trolley to the wire of an electric car line. The main difference is +that the spark in a thunder storm is a powerful lightning bolt that +passes over a space of thousands of feet and often does great damage +where it strikes. + +The thunder is a sound which may be compared to the crack heard when a +spark passes from the trolley, though of course the noise is very much +louder. The crack of the lightning echoes and reverberates among the +clouds, often changing to a great rumble; but this rumbling is mainly +caused by the echo, the sound from the lightning being a loud crack or +crash like that which we sometimes hear when the lightning strikes near +by. + +Some of the vapor of the air, on condensing, gathers on solid objects +like grass, or glass; but some, as fog, floats about in the air. Really +this, too, is often gathered around solid objects. Floating about in the +air are innumerable bits of "dust" which you can see dancing about in +the sunlight when a sunbeam enters a dark room. Some of these "dust" +particles are actual dust from the road, but much of it is something +else, as the pollen of plants, microbes, and the solid bits produced by +the burning of wood or coal. + +Each bit serves as a tiny nucleus on which the vapor condenses; and so +the very "dust" in the air aids in the formation of rain by giving +something solid around which the liquid can gather. The great amount of +dust in the air near the great city of London is believed to be one of +the causes for the frequent fogs of that city. + +That there is dust in the air, and that the rain removes it, is often +proved when a dull hazy air is changed to a clear, bright air by a +summer shower. Watch to find instances of this. Indeed, after such a +hazy day, when the rain drops first begin to fall, if you will let a few +drops fall upon a sheet of clean white paper, and then dry it, you will +find the paper discolored by the dust that the rain brought with it. So +the rain purifies the air by removing from it the solids that are +floating in it. + +These are only a few of the things of interest that you can see for +yourself by studying the air. Watch the sky; it is full of interest. See +what you can observe for yourself. Watch especially the clouds, for they +are not only interesting but beautiful (Fig. 17). Their forms are often +graceful, and they change with such rapidity that you can notice it as +you watch them. Even in the daytime the colors and shadows are +beautiful; but at sunrise and at sunset the clouds are often changed to +gorgeous banks of color. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 17. A sky flecked with clouds high in the air._] + +Watch the clouds and you will be repaid; look especially for the great +piles of clouds in the east during the summer when the sun is setting +(Fig. 18). Those lofty banks, tinged with silver and gold, and rising +like mountains thousands of feet into the air, are really made of bits +of fog and mist. Among them vapor is still changing to water and rain +drops are forming, while violent currents are whirling the drops about, +and perhaps lifting them to such a height that they are being frozen +into hailstones. Far off to the east, beneath that cloud, rain is +falling in torrents, lightning is flashing and thunder crashing, though +you cannot hear it because it is so far away. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 18. The cloud banks of a thunder storm on the +horizon._] + +You see the storm merely as a brightly lighted and beautifully colored +cloud mass in the sky; but the people over whom it is hanging find it a +threatening black cloud, the source of a furious wind, a heavy rain, and +the awe-inspiring lightning. To them it may not be beautiful, though +grand in the extreme; and so, too, when the summer thunder shower visits +you in the early evening, you may know that people to the west of you +are probably looking at its side and top and admiring its beauty of form +and color. + +The storm passes on, still to the eastward, and finally the cloud mass +entirely disappears beneath the eastern horizon; but if you watch, you +will see signs that it is still there, though out of sight; for in the +darkness of the night you can see the eastern horizon lighted by little +flashes, the source of which cannot be seen. You call it "heat +lightning," but it is really the last signal that we can see of the +vanishing thunder storm, so far away that the sound of the crashing +thunder cannot be heard. + +You watch the mysterious flashes; they grow dimmer and dimmer and +finally you see them no more. Our summer shower is gone. It has done +what thousands of others have done before, and what thousands of others +will do in the future. It has started, moved off, and finally +disappeared from sight; and as it has gone it has told us a story. You +can read a part of this story if you will; and in reading it will find +much that interests. + + + + +LEAFLET VII. + +A SNOW STORM.[9] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + + The snow had begun in the gloaming, + And busily all the night + Had been heaping field and highway + With a silence deep and white. + Every pine and fir and hemlock + Wore ermine too dear for an earl, + And the poorest twig on the elm-tree + Was ridged inch deep with pearl. + From sheds new-roofed with Carrara + Came Chanticleer's muffled crow + The stiff rails were softened to swan's-down + And still fluttered down the snow. + --_Lowell._ + +[9] Home Nature-Study Course, December, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +The storm which Lowell describes so delightfully is the first soft, +gentle snow fall that comes in November or early December. "The silence +deep and white" settles like a benediction over the brown, uneven +landscape, and makes of it a scene of enchantment. Very different from +this is the storm that comes when the winter cold is most severe and +winter winds most terrific. Then the skies are as white as the fields, +with never a sign of blue; if the sun appears at all, it shines cold +instead of warm, and seems but a vague white spot behind the veil of +upward, downward whirling snowflakes; the wild wind takes the "snow +dust" in eddies across the fields and piles it at the fences in great +drift billows with overhanging crests. On such a day the snow is so cold +and dry, the clouds so low and oppressive, the bare trees so brown and +bleak, that we shiver even though we gaze on the dreary scene from the +window of a warm and comfortable room. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 19. Snow crystals enlarged._] + +But another change is sure to come. Some February day the wind will veer +suddenly to the south and breathe warm thawing breaths over the white +frozen world. Then will the forests appear in robes of vivid blue-purple +against the shining hills; and in the mornings the soft blue of the +horizon will shade upward into rose-color and still upward into yellow +and beryl green; these hues are never seen on the forest or in the sky +except when the snow covers the earth to the horizon line. The eye that +loves color could ill afford to lose from the world the purples and +blues which bring contrast into the winter landscape. + +The snow storm to our limited understanding, begins with a miracle--the +miracle of crystallization. Why should water freezing freely in the air +be a part of geometry, the six rays of the snow crystal growing at an +angle one to another, of sixty degrees? Or as if to prove geometry +divine beyond cavil, sometimes the rays include angles of twice sixty +degrees. Then why should the decorations of the rays assume thousands of +intricate, beautiful forms, each ray of a flake ornamented exactly like +its five sisters? And why should the snowflake formed in the higher +clouds of the upper air be tabular in shape but still, in cross section, +show that it is built on the plan of six radii? Look at it as we will, +the formation of a crystal is a beautiful mystery and is as unfathomable +as is the mystery of life. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 20. Snow crystals enlarged._] + +I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. R. G. Allen, Section Director for +New York of the U. S. Weather Bureau, for suggestions in making out the +following questions. The beautiful pictures of snow crystals +illustrating this lesson were made from photographs taken by Mr. W. A. +Bentley of Jericho, Vt. It is our desire to interest all teachers in +the natural history of a snow storm, to the end that "they may love the +country better and be content to live therein." + +A thermometer hung in a sheltered, open place away from the warmth of +the house is a necessary preliminary to the proper observation of the +phenomena of a snow storm. + +Dark woolen cloth is the best medium on which to catch and observe snow +crystals. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 21. "With a silence deep and white."_] + +QUESTIONS ON A SNOW STORM. + +1. What causes snow? + +2. At what temperature do snow crystals form? + +3. How do the clouds appear before a snow storm? + +4. What is the temperature of the air before the storm? + +5. What is the direction of the wind before the storm? + +6. Does the storm come from the same direction as the wind? + +7. What are the conditions of the wind and temperature when the snow +crystals are most perfect in form? + +8. What are these conditions when the snow crystals are matted together +in great flakes? + +9. What are these conditions when the snow crystals appear sharp and +needle-like? + +10. Are the snow crystals of the same storm similar in structure and +decoration? + +11. What is the difference in structure between a snowflake and a hail +stone? + +12. What is sleet? + +13. What is the difference between hoar frost and snow? + +14. Does the temperature rise or fall during a snow storm? + +15. Is it colder or warmer after a snow storm has passed than it was +before it began? + +16. What are the conditions of weather which cause a blizzard? + +17. Why does a covering of snow prevent the ground from freezing so +severely as it would if bare? + +18. Why is snow a bad conductor of heat? + +19. Pack snow in a quart cup until it is full and let it melt; then tell +how full the cup is of water. What do you infer from this? + +20. Have you ever observed the grass to be green beneath snow drifts? +Tell why. + +21. Does snow evaporate as well as melt? + +22. How does snow benefit the farmer and the fruit grower? + +23. Do the snow storms in your locality come from one general direction +all winter? + + + + +LEAFLET VIII. + +A HANDFUL OF SOIL: WHAT IT IS.[10] + +BY R. S. TARR. + + +[10] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 2: Leaflet 15. + +[Illustration] + +Wind drifts a seed from the parent plant until it settles to the ground, +perhaps in a field or by the roadside, or even in the schoolyard. There +it remains through the long winter; but with the return of spring, +encouraged by the warm sunlight, the seed awakens from its dormant +condition, breaks open the seed-cover and sends leaves into the air and +roots into the ground. No one planted the seed; yet the plant has made +its way in the world and it thrives until it has given to other seeds +the same opportunity to start in life. + +Had the seed fallen upon a board or a stone it might have sent out +leaves and roots; but it could never have developed into a plant, for +something necessary would have been lacking. What is there in the soil +that is so necessary to the success of plant life? How has it come to be +there? What is this soil that the plants need so much? These are some of +the questions which we will try to answer. + +One readily sees that the soil furnishes a place in which the plants may +fix themselves,--an anchorage, as it were. It is also easy to see that +from the soil the plants obtain a supply of water; and, moreover, that +this water is very necessary, for the vegetation in a moist country +suffers greatly in time of drought, and few plants are able to grow in a +desert region because there is so little water. You can make a desert in +the schoolroom and contrast it with moist soil by planting seeds in two +dishes of soil, watering one, but furnishing no water to the other. + +That water is necessary to plants is also proved by the plant itself. +The sap and the moisture which may be pressed out of a grass stem or an +apple are principally water taken from the soil by the roots. But there +is more than water, for the juice of an apple is sweet or sour, while +the sap and juice of other plants may be sweet or bitter. There are +substances dissolved in the water. + +It is these dissolved substances that the plants need for their growth, +and they find them ready for use in the soil. There is a plant-food +which the roots seek and find, so that every plant which sends roots +into the soil takes something from it to build up the plant tissue. The +sharp edges of some sedges, which will cut the hand like a dull knife, +and the wood ashes left when a wood fire is burned, represent in part +this plant-food obtained from the soil. + +Let us take a handful of soil from the field, the schoolyard, or the +street and examine it. We find it to be dirt that "soils" the hands; and +when we try to brush off the dirt, we notice a gritty feeling that is +quite disagreeable. This is due to the bits of mineral in the soil; and +that these are hard, often harder than a pin, may often be proved by +rubbing soil against a piece of glass, which the hard bits will often +scratch, while a pin will not. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 21. A boulder-strewn soil of glacial origin with +one of the large erratics on the right similar to those which early +attracted attention to the drift. See page 105._] + +Study this soil with the eye and you may not see the tiny bits, though +in sandy soils one may easily notice that there are bits of mineral. +Even fine loamy and clay soils, when examined with a pocket lens or a +microscope, will be found to be composed of tiny fragments of mineral. +It is evident that in some way mineral has been powdered up to form the +soil; and since the minerals come from rocks, it is the rocks that have +been ground up. That powdered rock will make just such a substance as +soil may be proved by pounding a pebble to bits, or by collecting some +of the rock dust that is made when a hole is drilled in a rock. Much the +same substance is ground from a grindstone when a knife is sharpened on +it, making the water muddy like that in a mud hole. + +It will be an interesting experiment to reduce a pebble to powder and +plant seeds in it to see whether they will grow as well as in soil; but +in preparing it try to avoid using a sandstone pebble, because sandy +soils are never very fertile. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 22. A glacial soil, containing numerous transported +pebbles and boulders, resting on the bed rock._] + +Not only is soil made up of bits of powdered rock, but it everywhere +rests upon rock (Fig. 25). Some consider soil to be only the surface +layers in which plants grow; but really this is, in most places, +essentially the same as the layers below, down even to the very rock, so +that we might call it all soil; though, since a special name, _regolith_ +(meaning stone blanket), has been proposed for all the soft, soil-like +rock-cover, we may speak of it as regolith and reserve the word soil for +the surface layers only. + +In some places there is no soil on the bare rocks; elsewhere the +soil-cover is a foot or two in depth; but there are places where the +regolith is several hundred feet deep. In such places, even the wells do +not reach the bed rock; nor do the streams cut down to it; but even +there, if one should dig deep enough, he would reach the solid rock +beneath. + +How has the hard rock been changed to loose soil? One of the ways, of +which there are several, may be easily studied whenever a rock has been +exposed to the air. Let us go to a stone wall or among the pebbles in a +field, for instance, and, chipping off the surface, notice how different +the inside is from the outside. The outer crust is rusted and possibly +quite soft, while the interior is harder and fresher. Many excellent +examples of this may be found in any stony field or stone wall. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 23. The bed of a stream at low water, revealing the +rounded pebbles that have been worn and smoothed by being rolled about, +thus grinding off tiny bits which later are built into the +flood-plains._] + +As hard iron rusts and crumbles to powder when exposed to the weather; +so will the minerals and the rocks decay and fall to bits; but rocks +require a very much greater time for this than does iron. It happens +that the soil of New York has not been produced by the decay of rock; +and, therefore, although the soils in many parts of the world have been +formed in this way, we will not delay longer in studying this subject +now, nor in considering the exact way in which rocks are enabled to +crumble. + +Another way in which rocks may be powdered may be seen in most parts of +New York. The rains wash soil from the hillsides causing the streams to +become muddy. In the streams there are also many pebbles, possibly the +larger fragments that have fallen into the stream after having been +broken from the ledges. The current carries these all along down the +stream, and, as they go, one piece striking against another, or being +dragged over the rocks in the stream bed, the pebbles are ground down +and smoothed (Fig. 23), which means, of course, that more mud is +supplied to the stream, as mud is furnished from a grindstone when a +knife or scythe is being sharpened on it. On the pebbly beaches of the +sea or lakeshore much the same thing may be seen; and here also the +constant grinding of the rocks wears off the edges until the pebbles +become smooth and round. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 24. Near view of a cut in glacial soil, gullied by +the rains, and with numerous transported pebbles embedded in the rock +flour._] + +Supplied with bits of rock from the soil, or from the grinding up of +pebbles and rocks along its course, the stream carries its load onward, +perhaps to a lake, which it commences to fill, forming a broad delta of +level and fertile land, near where the stream enters the lake. Or, +possibly, the stream enters the sea and builds a delta there, as the +Mississippi river has done. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 25. A scratched limestone pebble taken from a +glacial soil._] + +But much of the mud does not reach the sea. The greatest supply comes +when the streams are so flooded by heavy rains or melting snows that the +river channel is no longer able to hold the water, which then rises +above the banks, overflowing the surrounding country. Then, since its +current is checked where it is so shallow, the water drops some of its +load of rock bits on the flood-plain, much as the muddy water in a +gutter drops sand or mud on the sidewalk when, in time of heavy rains, +it overflows the walk. + +Many of the most fertile lands of the world are flood-plains of this +kind, where sediment, gathered by the streams farther up their courses, +is dropped upon the flood-plains, enriching them by new layers of +fertile soil. One does not need to go to the Nile, the Yellow, or the +Mississippi for illustrations of this; they abound on every hand, and +many thousands of illustrations, great and small, may be found in the +State of New York. Doubtless you can find one. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 26. The grooved bed rock scratched by the movement +of the ice sheet over it._] + +There are other ways in which soils may be formed; but only one more +will be considered, and that is the way in which most of the soils of +New York have been made. To study this let us go to a cut in the earth, +such as a well or a stream bank (Figs. 22 and 24). Scattered through the +soil numerous pebbles and boulders will doubtless be found; and if these +are compared with the bed rock of the country, which underlies the soil +(Fig. 22), some of them will be found to be quite different from it. For +instance, where the bed rock is shale or limestone, some of the pebbles +will no doubt be granite, sandstone, etc. If you could explore far +enough, you would find just such rocks to the north of you, perhaps one +or two hundred miles away in Canada; or, if your home is south of the +Adirondacks, you might trace the pebbles to those mountains. + +On some of these pebbles, especially the softer ones, such as limestone, +you will find scratches, as if they had been ground forcibly together +(Fig. 25). Looking now at the bed rock in some place from which the soil +has been recently removed, you will find it also scratched and grooved +(Fig. 26); and if you take the direction of these scratches with the +compass, you will find that they extend in a general north and south +direction, pointing, in fact, in the same direction from which the +pebbles have come. + +All over northeastern North America and northwestern Europe the soil is +of the same nature as that just described. In our own country this kind +of soil reaches down as far as the edge of the shaded area in the map +(Fig. 27), and it will be noticed that all of New York is within that +area excepting the extreme southwestern part near the southern end of +Chautauqua lake. + +Not only is the soil peculiar within this district, but there are many +small hills of clay or sand, or sometimes of both together (Figs. 33 +and 34). They rise in hummocky form and often have deep pits or +kettle-shaped basins between, sometimes, when the soil is clayey enough +to hold water, containing tiny pools. These hills extend in somewhat +irregular ranges stretching across the country from the east toward the +west. The position of some of these ranges is indicated on the map (Fig. +27). + +For a long time people wondered how this soil with its foreign pebbles +and boulders, altogether called "drift," came to be placed where it is; +they were especially puzzled to tell how the large boulders, called +erratics (Fig. 21), should have been carried from one place to another. +It was suggested that they came from the bursting of planets, from +comets, from the explosion of mountains, from floods, and in other ways +equally unlikely; but Louis Agassiz, studying the glaciers of the Alps +and the country round about, was impressed by the resemblance between +the "drift" and the materials carried by living glaciers. + +Agassiz, therefore, proposed the hypothesis that glaciers had carried +the drift and left it where we now find it; but for many years his +glacial hypothesis met with a great deal of opposition because it seemed +impossible that the climate could have changed so greatly as to cover +what is now a temperate land with a great sheet of ice. Indeed, even +now, although all who have especially studied the subject are convinced, +many people have not accepted Agassiz's explanation, just as years ago, +long after it was proved that the earth rotated each day, many people +still believed that it was the sun, not the earth, that was moving. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 27. Map showing the extent of the ice sheet in the +United States. Position of some of the moraines indicated by the heavily +shaded lines._ (_After Chamberlain._)] + +The glacial explanation is as certain as that the earth rotates. For +some reason, which we do not know, the climate changed and allowed ice +to cover temperate lands, as before that time the climate had changed so +as to allow plants like those now growing as far south as Virginia to +live in Greenland, now ice covered. When the ice of the glacier melted +away it left many signs of its presence; and when the temperate latitude +plants grew in Greenland they left seeds, leaves and tree trunks which +have been imbedded in the rocks as fossils. One may now pick the leaves +of temperate climate trees from the rocks beneath a great icecap. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 28. A view over the great ice plateau of Greenland, +with a mountain peak projecting above it._] + +To one who studies them, the signs left by the glacier are as clear +proof as the leaves and seeds. From these signs we know that the climate +has changed slowly, but we have not yet learned why it changed. + +There are now two places on the earth where vast glaciers, or ice +sheets, cover immense areas of land, one in the Antarctic, a region very +little known, the other in Greenland, where there is an ice sheet +covering land having an area more than ten times that of the State of +New York. Let us study this region to see what is being done there, in +order to compare it with what has been done in New York. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 29. The edge of a part of the great Greenland ice +sheet (on the left) resting on the land, over which are strewn many +boulders brought by the ice and left there when it melted._] + +In the interior is a vast plateau of ice, in places over 10,000 feet +high, a great icy desert (Fig. 28), where absolutely no life of any +kind, either animal or plant, can exist, and where it never rains, but +where the storms bring snow even in the middle of summer. Such must have +been the condition in northeastern America during the glacial period. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 30. A scratched pebble taken from the ice of the +Greenland glacier._] + +This vast ice sheet is slowly moving outward in all directions from the +elevated center, much as a pile of wax may be made to flow outward by +placing a heavy weight upon the middle. Moving toward the north, east, +south and west, this glacier must of course come to an end somewhere. In +places, usually at the heads of bays, the end is in the sea, as the end +of our glacier must have been off the shores of New England. From these +sea-ends, icebergs constantly break off; these floating away toward the +south, often reach, before they melt, as far as the path followed by the +steamers from the United States to Europe. Between the bays where the +glacier ends in the sea, the ice front rests on the land (Fig. 29), as +it did over the greater part of New York and the states further west. +There it melts in the summer, supplying streams with water and filling +many small ponds and lakes. The front stands there year after year, +sometimes moving a little ahead, again melting further back so as to +reveal the rocks on which it formerly rested. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 31. A part of the edge of the Greenland glacier, +with clean white ice above, and dark discolored bands below where laden +with rock fragments. In the foreground is a boulder-strewn moraine._] + +The bed rock here is found to be polished, scratched and grooved just +like the bed-rock in New York; and the scratches extend in the direction +from which the ice moves. Resting on the rock are boulders and pebbles +(Fig. 22), sometimes on the bare rock, sometimes imbedded in a clay as +they are in the drift. As we found when studying the soil in our own +region, so here the pebbles are often scratched, and many of them are +quite different from the rock on which they rest. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 32. Hummocky surface of the boulder-strewn moraine +of Greenland._] + +Going nearer to the ice we find the lower part loaded with pebbles, +boulders and bits of clay very like those on the rocks near by. Fig. 30 +shows one of these, scratched and grooved, which I once dug from the ice +of this very glacier. The bottom of the ice is like a huge sandpaper, +being dragged over the bed rock with tremendous force. It carries a +load of rock fragments, and as it moves secures more by grinding or +prying them from the rocks beneath. These all travel on toward the edge +of the ice, being constantly ground finer and finer as wheat is ground +when it goes through the mill. Indeed the resemblance is so close that +the clay produced by this grinding action is often called _rock flour_. + +Dragged to the front of the ice, the rock bits, great and small, roll +out as the ice melts, some, especially the finest, being carried away in +the water, which is always muddy with the rock flour it carries; but +much remains near the edge of the ice, forming a _moraine_ (Figs. 31 and +32). This moraine, dumped at the edge of the glacier, very closely +resembles the hummocky hills of New York (Figs. 33 and 34), mentioned +above, which are really moraines formed at the ice-edge during the +glacial period. While their form is quite alike, the New York moraines +are generally less pebbly than the Greenland moraines, because the +Greenland glacier carries less rock flour than did the glacier which +covered New York. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 33. A view over the hummocky surface of a part of +the moraine of the great American ice sheet in Central New York._] + +In the Greenland glacier, as you can see in Fig. 31, there is much dirt +and rock; in the glacier of the glacial period there was even more. When +it melted away the ice disappeared as water, but the rock fragments of +course fell down upon the rock beneath and formed soil. If over a +certain region, as for instance over your home, the ice carried a great +load of drift, when this gradually settled down, as the ice melted, it +formed a deep layer of soil; but if the glacier had only a small load a +shallow soil was left. Again, if the ice front remained for a long time +near a certain place, as near your home, it kept bringing and dumping +rock fragments to form moraines, which, of course, would continue to +grow higher so long as the ice dumped the rock fragments, much as a sand +pile will continue to grow higher so long as fresh loads are brought and +dumped. + +There are other causes for differences in the glacial soils, but most of +them cannot be considered here. One of them is so important, however, +that it must be mentioned. With the melting of so much ice, vast floods +of water were caused, and these came from the ice, perhaps in places +where there are now no streams, or at best only small ones. These rapid +currents carried off much of the rock flour and left the coarser and +heavier sand, gravel, or pebbles, the latter often well rounded, with +the scratches removed by the long-continued rolling about in the glacial +stream bed. + +One often finds such beds of sand or gravel in different parts of the +State, telling not only of ice where it is now absent, but of water +currents where is now dry land. The rock flour was in some cases carried +to the sea, elsewhere to lakes, or in still other places deposited in +the flood-plains of the glacier-fed rivers. Now some of this rock flour +is dug out to make into bricks. + +Enough has been said to show that the soils of New York were brought by +a glacier, and to point out that there are many differences in thickness +as well as in kind and condition of the soil. The agriculture of the +State is greatly influenced by these differences. In some cases one part +of a farm has a deep, rich soil, another part a barren, sandy, pebbly or +boulder-covered soil (Fig. 21), while in still another part the bed rock +may be so near the surface that it does not pay to clear the forest from +it. Moreover, some farms are in hummocky moraines, while others, near +by, are on level plains (Fig. 34), where a broad glacial stream built up +a flood-plain in a place where now the stream is so small that it never +rises high enough to overflow the plain. + +There are even other differences than these, and one who is familiar +with a region is often puzzled to explain them; but they are all due to +the glacier or to the water furnished by its melting, and a careful +study by a student of the subject of Glacial Geology will serve to +explain them. Each place has had peculiar conditions and it would be +necessary to study each place much more carefully than has been done +here in order to explain all the differences. + +Not only is agriculture influenced greatly by the differences in the +soil from place to place, but also by the very fact that they are +glacial soils. Being made up of partly ground-up rock fragments the +soils are often stony and difficult to till. Unlike the soil of rock +decay, the particles of which the glacial soil is made have been derived +by mechanical grinding, not by chemical decay and disintegration. There +has been less leaching out of the soluble compounds which make plant +foods. These are stored up in the rock fragments ready for use when +decay causes the proper changes to produce the soluble compounds which +plants require. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 34. Hummocky moraine hills in the background and a +level gravel plain--an ancient glacial-stream flood-plain--in +foreground._] + +Slowly the glacial soils are decaying, and, as they do so, are +furnishing plant-food to the water which the roots greedily draw in. So +the glacial soil is not a mere store house of plant-food, but a +manufactory of it as well, and glacial soils are therefore "strong" and +last for a long time. That decay is going on, especially near the +surface, may often be seen in a cut in the soil, where the natural blue +color of the drift is seen below, while near the surface the soil is +rusted yellow by the decay of certain minerals which contain iron. + +Few materials on the earth are more important than the soil; it acts as +the intermediary between man and the earth. The rocks have some +substances locked up in them which animals need; by decay, or by being +ground up, the rocks crumble so that plants may send roots into them and +extract the substances needed by animals. Gifted with this wonderful +power the plants grow and furnish food to animals, some of which is +plant-food obtained from the rocks; and so the animals of the land, and +man himself, secure a large part of their food from the rocks. It is +then worth the while to stop for a moment and think and study about +this, one of the most marvelous of the many wonderful adjustments of +Nature, but so common that most persons live and die without even giving +it more than a passing thought. + + + + +LEAFLET IX. + +A HANDFUL OF SOIL: WHAT IT DOES.[11] + +BY L. A. CLINTON. + + +[11] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 2: Leaflet 15, October, 1899. + +[Illustration] + +The more one studies the soil, the more certainly it will be found that +the earth has locked up in her bosom many secrets, and that these +secrets will not be given up for the mere asking. As mysterious as the +soil may appear at different times, it always is governed by certain +laws. These principles once understood, the soil becomes an open book +from which one may read quickly and accurately. + + +USES OF THE SOIL. + +The soil has certain offices to perform for which it is admirably +fitted. The most important of these offices are: + + 1. To hold plants in place; + 2. To serve as a source of plant-food; + 3. To act as a reservoir for moisture; + 4. To serve as a storehouse for applied plant-food or fertilizer. + +Some soils are capable of performing all these offices, while others are +fitted for only a part of them. Thus a soil which is pure sand and +almost entirely deficient in the essential elements of plant-food, may +serve, if located near a large city, merely to hold the plants in +position while the skillful gardener feeds the plants with specially +prepared fertilizers, and supplies the moisture by irrigation. + +Early in the study of soils an excursion, if possible, should be made +into the woods. Great trees will be seen and under the trees will be +found various shrubs and possibly weeds and grass. It will be noticed +that the soil is well occupied with growing plants. The surface will be +found covered with a layer several inches thick of leaves and twigs. +Beneath this covering the soil is dark, moist, full of organic matter, +loose, easily spaded except as roots or stones may interfere, and has +every appearance of being fertile. + + +SOIL CONDITIONS AS FOUND IN MANY FIELDS. + +After examining the conditions in the forest, a study should be made of +the soil in some cultivated field. It will be found that in the field +the soil has lost many of the marked characteristics noticed in the +woodland. In walking over the field, the soil will be found to be hard +and compact. The surface may be covered with growing plants, for if the +seeds which have been put into the soil by the farmer have not +germinated and the plants made growth, nature has quickly come to the +rescue and filled the soil with other plants which we commonly call +weeds. It is nature's plan to keep the soil covered with growing plants, +and from nature we should learn a lesson. The field soil, instead of +being moist, is dry; instead of being loose and friable, it is hard and +compact, and it appears in texture entirely different from the woodland +soil. The cause of the difference is not hard to discover. In the woods, +nature for years has been building up the soil. The leaves from the +trees fall to the ground and form a covering which prevents washing or +erosion, and these leaves decay and add to the humus, or vegetable +mould, of the soil. Roots are constantly decaying and furnish channels +through the soil and permit the circulation of air and water. + +In the field, nature's lesson has been disregarded and too often the +whole aim seems to be to remove everything from the soil and to make no +returns. Consequently the organic matter, or humus, has been used up; +the tramping of the horses' feet has closed the natural drainage canals; +after the crop is removed, the soil is left naked during the winter and +the heavy rains wash and erode the surface, and remove some of the best +plant-food. After a few years of such treatment, the farmer wonders why +the soil will not produce as liberally as it did formerly. + +_Experiment No. 1._--The fact that there is humus, or vegetable mould, +in certain soils can be shown by burning. Weigh a potful of hard soil +and a potful of lowland soil, or muck, after each has been thoroughly +dried. Then put the pots on the coals in a coal stove. After the soil is +thoroughly burned, weigh again. Some of the difference in weight may be +due to loss of moisture, but if the samples were well dried in the +beginning, most of the loss will be due to the burning of the humus. + + +CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT FERTILITY. + +There are certain conditions which affect soil fertility and of these +the most important are: + + Texture; + Moisture-content; + Plant-food; + Temperature. + + +TEXTURE AND ITS RELATION TO FERTILITY. + +By texture is meant the physical condition of the soil. Upon good +texture, more than upon any other one thing, depends the productivity of +the soil. When the texture is right the soil is fine, loose, and +friable; the roots are able to push through it and the feeding area is +enlarged. Each individual particle is free to give up a portion of its +plant-food, or its film of moisture. The conditions which are found in +the woods' soil are almost ideal. + +_Experiment No. 2._--The importance of good texture may be well shown in +the class room. Pots should be filled with a soil which is lumpy and +cloddy, and other pots with the same kind of material after it has been +made fine and mellow. After seeds are planted in the different pots, a +careful study should be made of the length of time required for +germination and of the health and vigor of the plants. + +_Experiment No. 3._--The greater part of our farming lands do not +present ideal conditions as regards texture. Clay soils are especially +likely to be in bad condition. If samples of the various soils can be +collected, as sand, loam, clay, etc., it may be clearly shown how +different soils respond to the same kind of treatment. With a common +garden trowel, the soils should be stirred and worked while wet, and +then put away to dry. After drying, the conditions presented by the +soils should be noted, also the length of time required for the soils to +become dry. Whereas the sand and the loam will remain in fairly good +condition when dry, the clay will have become "puddled," _i. e._, the +particles will have run together and made a hard, compact mass. Thus it +is found in practice that clay soils must be handled with far more care +and intelligence than is required for the sand and loams, if the texture +is to be kept perfect. + +_Experiment No. 4._--If, in the experiment above suggested, the clay +soil is mixed with leaf-mould, or humus soil, from the woods, it will +be found to act very differently. The vegetable matter thus mixed with +the mineral matter prevents the running together of the particles of +clay. + +Two principles, both important as relating to soil texture, now have +been illustrated. Soils must not be worked when they are so wet that +their particles will cohere, and organic matter, or humus, must be kept +mixed with the mineral matter of the soil. In practical farm operations, +if the soil can be made into a mud ball it is said to be too wet to +work. The required amount of humus is retained in the soil by +occasionally plowing under some green crop, as clover, or by applying +barn manures. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 35. The glass of water at the right has received +lime and the clay has been flocculated; the other was not treated._] + +Clay soils are also frequently treated with lime to cause them to remain +in good condition and be more easily tilled. Lime causes the fine +particles to flocculate, or to become granular, _i. e._, several +particles unite to form a larger particle, and these combinations are +more stable and do not so readily puddle, or run together. A mud-puddle +in clay soil will remain murky until the water has evaporated entirely. +Let a little water-slaked lime be mixed with the muddy water, and the +particles of clay will be flocculated and will settle to the bottom; +thus the water will become clear. + +_Experiment No. 5._--Into two glasses of water put some fine clay soil; +thoroughly stir the mixture (Fig. 35). Into one glass thus prepared put +a spoonful of water-slaked lime; stir thoroughly, then allow both +glasses to remain quiet that the soil may settle. Notice in which glass +the water first becomes clear, and note the appearance of the sediment +in each. + + +THE MOISTURE IN THE SOIL. + +In Leaflet VI has been given the history of a thunder shower. We are not +told much about the history of the water after it reaches the earth. If +we go out immediately after a heavy shower, we find little streams +running alongside the road. These little streams unite to make larger +ones, until finally the creeks and rivers are swollen, and, if the rain +was heavy enough, the streams may overflow their banks. In all these +streams, from the smallest to the largest, the water is muddy. Where did +this mud come from? It was washed largely from the cultivated fields, +and the finest and best soil is certain to be the first to start on its +voyage to the valleys or to the sea. If the farmer had only learned +better the lesson from nature and kept his fields covered with plants, a +large part of the loss might have been prevented. A rain gauge should be +kept in every school yard, so that every shower can be measured. It can +then be easily determined by the pupils how many tons of rain fall upon +the school grounds, or how much falls upon an acre of land. It will be a +matter of surprise that the amount is so great. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 36. a. Soil too dry. b. Soil in good condition. c. +Soil too wet._] + +Not all the water which falls during a summer shower is carried off by +surface drainage, since a considerable part sinks into the soil. As it +passes down, each soil grain takes up a portion and surrounds itself +with a little film of water, much as does a marble when dipped into +water. If the rain continues long enough, the soil will become saturated +and the water which cannot be retained, will, under the influence of +gravity, sink down to the lower layers of soil until it finally reaches +the level of the free water. From this free water, at varying depths in +the soil, wells and springs are supplied. If the soil were to remain +long saturated, seeds would not germinate, and most cultivated plants +would not grow because all the air passages of the soil would be filled +with water (Fig. 36). The water which sinks down deep into the soil and +helps to supply our wells is called free water. That part which is held +as a film by the soil particles (as on a marble) is called capillary +water. After the rain is over and the sun shines, a part of the moisture +which is held by the particles near the surface is lost by evaporation. +The moisture which is below tends to rise to restore the equilibrium; +thus there is created a current toward the surface, and finally into the +air; the moisture which thus escapes aids in forming the next thunder +storm. + +_Experiment No. 6._--Humus enables the soil to take up and hold large +quantities of water. To illustrate this, two samples of soil should be +obtained, one a humus, or alluvial, soil, rich in organic matter, and +the other a sandy soil. Put the two samples where they will become +thoroughly air dry. Procure, say five pounds each of the dry soils, and +put each into a glass tube over one end of which there is tied a piece +of muslin, or fine wire gauze. From a graduated glass pour water slowly +upon each sample until the water begins to drain from the bottom of the +tube. In this way it can be shown which soil has the greater power of +holding moisture. Both samples should then be set away to dry. By +weighing the samples each day, it can be determined which soil has the +greater power of retaining moisture. This experiment may be conducted +not only with sand and humus, but with clay, loam, gravel, and all other +kinds of soil. + +_Experiment No. 7._--A finely pulverized soil will hold more +film-moisture than a cloddy soil. To illustrate the importance of +texture as related to moisture, soil should be secured which is cloddy, +or lumpy. One tube should be filled, as heretofore described (Exp. No. +6), with the lumpy soil, and the other tube with the fine soil which +results from pulverizing the lumps, equal weights of soil being used in +each case. From a graduated glass pour water upon each sample until the +drainage begins from the bottom. Notice which soil possesses greater +power of absorbing moisture. Put the samples away to dry, and by careful +weighing, each day, it can be determined which soil dries out more +readily. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 37. "Foot-prints on the sands of time."_] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 38. A cross section through one of the +foot-prints._] + +The prudent farmer will take measures to prevent the escape of this +moisture into the air. All the film-moisture (on the soil particles) +needs to be carefully conserved or saved, for the plants will need very +large amounts of moisture before they mature, and they can draw their +supply only from this film-moisture. We can again apply the lesson +learned in the woods. The soil there is always moist; the leaves form a +cover, or blanket, which prevents the evaporation of moisture. +Underneath an old plank or board, the soil will be found moist. If we +can break the connection between the soil and the air, we can check the +escape of moisture. A layer of straw over the soil will serve to prevent +the loss of moisture; yet a whole field cannot be thus covered. It has +been found that the surface soil, if kept loose, say about three inches +of the top soil can be made to act as a blanket or covering for the soil +underneath. Although this top layer may become as dry as dust, yet it +prevents the escape, by evaporation, of moisture from below. It is a +matter of common observation that if tracks are made across a freshly +cultivated field, the soil where the tracks are will become darker (Fig. +37). This darker appearance of the soil in the foot-marks is due to the +moisture which is there rising to the surface. The implement of tillage +makes the soil loose, breaking the capillary connection between the +lower layers of soil and the surface; thus the upward passage of the +water is checked. Where the foot-print is, the soil has been again +pressed down at the surface, the particles have been crowded closer +together, and capillarity is restored to the surface so that the +moisture is free to escape (Fig. 38). In caring for flower-beds, or even +in growing plants in a pot in the school-room, it is important that the +surface of the soil be kept loose and mellow. Far better in a flower +garden is a garden rake than a watering pot. + +_Experiment No. 8._--To show the importance of the surface mulch, fill +several pots with a sandy loam soil, putting the same weight of soil +into each pot. In one pot, pack the soil firmly; in another pot, pack +the soil firmly and then make the surface loose. These pots of soil may +then be put away to dry; by daily weighing each it can be readily +determined what effects the various methods of treatment have upon the +moisture-holding power of soils. + +_Experiment No. 9._--The above experiment may be varied by covering the +soil in some of the pots with leaves, or straw, or paper, care being +taken that the added weight of the foreign matter is properly accounted +for. + + +SOIL TEMPERATURE. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 39. The moss-grown lawn or grass plot._] + +If a kernel of corn be placed in the ground in early spring before the +soil has become warm, the seed will not germinate. Abundance of moisture +and oxygen may be present, but the third requisite for germination, +proper temperature, is lacking. The soil is very slow to become warm in +the spring, and this is due to the large amount of water which must be +evaporated. During the winter and spring, the rain and melting snow have +saturated the soil. The under-drainage is deficient so there is no way +for the escape of the surplus water except by evaporation, and +evaporation is a cooling process. A well-drained soil is thus warmer +than a poorly-drained one. + +The atmosphere is much quicker to respond to changes in temperature than +is the soil. In the spring, the air becomes warm while the soil +continues cold, and the rains which fall during this time are warmed by +passing through the warm air. Then in sinking through the soil the +rain-water parts with some of its heat which makes the soil warmer. +During mid-summer the soil becomes very warm, and it is not affected by +cool nights, as is the atmosphere. Consequently as a summer rain may be +several degrees cooler than the soil, the water in passing through the +soil takes up some of the heat; thus the soil conditions are made more +favorable for plant growth. Therefore, soil temperature is regulated +somewhat by the rainfall. + +_Experiment No. 10._--The color of a soil also affects its temperature, +a dark soil being warmer than a light colored soil. By having +thermometers as a part of the school room equipment, interesting +experiments may be conducted in determining the effect of color and +moisture upon the temperature of soils. + + +AIR IN THE SOIL. + +Although that part of the plant which we can see is entirely surrounded +by air, it is also necessary that the soil be in such a condition that +it can be penetrated by the air. Indeed, growth cannot begin in a soil +from which the air is excluded. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 40. The clover roots penetrate the soil deeply._] + +_Experiment No. 11._--To prove this, put clay soil in a pot and plant +seeds; then wet the surface of the soil and puddle or pack the clay +while wet and watch for the seeds to germinate and grow. At the same +time put seeds in another pot filled with loose, mellow, moist soil. + +Frequently, after the farmer has sown his grain, there comes a heavy, +beating rain, and the surface of the soil becomes so packed that the air +is excluded and the seeds cannot germinate. If plants are grown in pots +and the water is supplied at the top, the soil may become so hard and +compact as to exclude the air and the plants will make a sickly growth. +The surface soil must be kept loose so that the air can penetrate it. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 41. After the clover dies the soil is in better +condition for its having lived._] + +On many lawns it may be noticed that the grass is not thriving. It has a +sickly appearance, and even the application of fertilizer does not seem +to remedy the conditions. Perhaps the ground has become so hard that the +air cannot penetrate and the grass is being smothered. If the surface of +the soil can be loosened with a garden rake, and clover seed sown, much +good may be accomplished. The clover is a tap-rooted plant, sending its +main root deep into the soil. + +After the death of the plant, the root decays, and the nitrogen which is +stored in it can be used as food by the other plants. Most useful of +all, however, in such cases, the decay of the tap-root of the clover +makes a passage deep into the soil and thus allows the air to enter. +Consult Figs. 39-41. + + + + +LEAFLET X. + +THE BROOK.[12] + +BY J. O. MARTIN. + +INTRODUCTION BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[12] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 5: Leaflet 18. June, 1900. + +[Illustration] + +A brook is the best of subjects for nature-study. It is near and dear to +every child. It is a world in itself. It is an epitome of the nature in +which we live. In miniature, it illustrates the forces which have shaped +much of the earth's surface. Day by day and century by century, it +carries its burden of earth-waste which it lays down in the quiet +places. Always beginning and never ceasing, it does its work as slowly +and as quietly as the drifting of the years. It is a scene of life and +activity. It reflects the sky. It is kissed by the sun. It is caressed +by the winds. The minnows play in the pools. The soft weeds grow in the +shallows. The grass and the dandelions lie on its sunny banks. The moss +and fern are sheltered in the nooks. It comes one knows not whence; it +flows one knows not whither. It awakens the desire of exploration. It is +a realm of mysteries. It typifies the flood of life. It goes "on +forever." + +In many ways can the brook be made an adjunct of the school-room. One +teacher or one grade may study its physiography; another its birds; +another may plat it. Or one teacher and one grade may devote a month or +a term to one phase of it. Thus the brook may be made the center of a +life-theme. + +L. H. B. + + +I. A BROOK AND ITS WORK. + +On a rainy day most of us are driven indoors and thus we miss some of +nature's most instructive lessons, for in sunshine or rain the great +mother toils on, doing some of her hardest labor when her face is +overcast with clouds. Let us find our waterproofs, raise our umbrellas, +bid defiance to the pattering rain, and go forth to learn some of the +lessons of a rainy day. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 42. The brook may be made the center of a +life-theme._] + +Along the roadside, the steady, down-pouring rain collects into pools +and rills, or sinks out of sight in the ground. The tiny streams search +out the easiest grade and run down the road, digging little gullies as +they go. Soon these rills meet and, joining their muddy currents, flow +on with greater speed down the hillside until they reach the bottom of +the valley and go to swell the brook which flows on, through sunshine or +rain. The water which sinks into the ground passes out of sight for a +time, but its journey is also downward toward the brook, though the +soil, acting as a great sponge, holds it back and makes it take a slower +pace than the rushing surface water. This slower-moving underground +water percolates through the soil until it comes to a layer of rock, +clay, or other impervious substance, along the slope of which it flows +until it is turned again to the surface in the form of a spring. Perhaps +this spring is one of those clear, cold pools, with the water bubbling +up through its sandy bottom, from which we love to drink on a hot +summer's day; or, again, it is a swampy spot on the hillside where the +cat-tails grow. In whatever form it issues from the ground, a tiny rill +carries away its overflow, and this sooner or later joins the brook. + +The brook, we see, is simply the collected rainfall from the hillsides, +flowing away to join the river. It grows larger as other brooks join it, +and becomes a creek and finally a river. But where is the dividing line +between brook, creek, and river? So gradually does the brook increase in +volume that it would be difficult to draw any dividing line between it +and the larger streams. And so with the rills that formed the brook: +each is a part of the river, and the names rill, brook, creek, and river +are merely relative terms. + +Brooks are but rivers on a small scale; and if we study the work that a +brook is doing, we shall find it engaged in cutting down or building up, +just as the river does, although, owing to the smaller size of the +brook, we can see most of these operations in a short distance. Let us +take our way through the wet grass and dripping trees to the brookside +and see what work it is doing. + +The countless rain-born rills are pouring their muddy water into the +brook and to-day its volume is much greater than when it is fed, as it +is in fair weather, by the slower-moving underground water of the +springs. It roars along with its waters no longer clear but full of clay +and sand ("mud" as we call it). + +If we should dip up a glassful of this muddy water, we should find that +when it had settled there remained on the bottom of the glass a thin +deposit of sediment. The amount of this sediment is small, no doubt, for +a single glassful, but when we think of the great quantity of water +constantly flowing by, we can see that considerable sediment is going +along with it. But this sediment in suspension is not all the load that +the brook is moving. If you will roll up your sleeve, plunge your hand +to the bottom of the brook and hold it there quietly, you will feel the +coarser gravel and small stones rolling along the bottom. + +All this load of sand and gravel comes, as we have seen, from the valley +sides, the banks of the brook, and from its bed. It is moving downward +away from its original resting place; and what is the result? For +thousands upon thousands of years, our brook may have been carrying off +its yearly load of sediment; and though each day's labor is small, yet +the added toil of centuries has been great. The result of this labor we +can see in the great trough or valley through which the brook flows. +Tennyson speaks of the ceaseless toil of the brook in the following +words: + + "I chatter, chatter, as I flow + To join the brimming river, + For men may come and men may go, + But I go on forever." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 43. A brook cutting under its bank and causing a +landslide._] + +We have seen how the rills and torrents bring into the brook their loads +of sand, clay, and gravel; now let us walk along the bank and see what +the brook is doing to increase this load. Just here there is a sudden +turn in the channel and so sharp is the curve that the rushing stream is +not able to keep in mid-channel, but throws itself furiously against the +outer bank of the curve, eating into the clay of which it is composed, +until the bank is undermined, allowing a mass of clay to slide down into +the stream bed, where it is eaten up and carried away by the rushing +water (Fig. 43). Farther on, the brook dashes down a steep, rocky +incline, and if we listen and watch we may hear the thud of boulders +hurled along, or even see a pebble bound out of the muddy foaming water. +These moving pebbles strike against each other and grind along the +bottom, wearing out themselves as well as the large unmovable boulders +of the rocky bed of the brook. Thus the larger stones are ground down, +rounded at first but in time reduced to sand, adding in this way to the +moving burden of the brook. By this slow process of cutting and +grinding, the deep rock gorges of New York state, like those at Watkins, +Ithaca, Au Sable Chasm, and even the mighty gorge of Niagara, have been +made. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado, over a mile in depth, is one of +the greatest examples of stream cutting to be found in the world. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 44. A pile of brook debris deposited by the +checking of the current._] + +Now the brook leads us into a dripping woodland, and just ahead we can +hear the roar of a little waterfall, for at this point the cutting +stream flows upon the bed rock with its alternating bands of hard and +soft rock through which the busy brook is cutting a miniature gorge. +Here is a hard layer which the stream has undermined until it stands out +as a shelf, over which the water leaps and falls in one mass with a drop +of nearly ten feet. Watch how the water below boils and eddies; think +with what force it is hammering its stone-cutting tools upon the rocky +floor. Surely here is a place where the brook is cutting fast. Notice +that swirling eddy where the water is whirling about with the speed of a +spinning top; let us remember this eddy and when the water is lower we +will try to see what is happening at its bottom. + +On the other side of the woods our brook emerges into a broad meadow; +let us follow it and see what becomes of its load, whether it is carried +onward, or whether the tired brook lays it down occasionally to rest. +Out of the woods, the brook dashes down a steep incline until the +foaming tide comes to rest in a deep pool. What becomes of the large +pebbles which have been swept down? Do they go on or do they stop? If +you go to the outlet of the pool you will see that the water is coming +out with nothing in its grasp but the fine clay and sand, the gravel and +pebbles having been dropped by the less rapid current of the pool. This +is one of the most important of the brook's lessons, for anything that +tends to check the current makes it drop some of the sediment that it +carries (Fig. 44). Yonder is an old tree stump with its crooked roots +caught fast on the bottom; the mid-stream current rushes against it only +to be thrown back in a boiling eddy, and the waters split in twain and +flow by on either side with their current somewhat checked. In the rear +of the stump is a region of quiet water where the brook is building up a +pile of gravel. Farther on, the banks of the brook are low and here the +waters no longer remain in the channel, but overflow the low land, +spreading out on either side in a broad sheet. The increased friction of +this larger area reduces the current, and again we see the brook laying +down some of its load. The sand and gravel deposited here is spread out +in a flat plain called a _flood plain_, because it is built up when the +stream is in flood. It is on the large flood plains of rivers that many +of our richest farm lands occur. These receive, each spring when the +stream is in flood, a fresh coating of soil mixed with fragments of +vegetable matter, and thus grow deeper and richer year by year. The +flood plains of the Mississippi and of the Nile are notable examples of +this important form of stream deposit. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 45. A delta built by a tiny rill flowing from a +steep clay bank._] + +And now let us make one more rainy-day observation before going back to +our warm, dry homes. Just ahead on the other side of that clump of +alders and willows lies the pond into which the brook flows and where +its current is so checked that it gives up almost all its burden of +sediment. Close to the shore it has dropped its heaviest fragments, +while the sand and clay have been carried farther out, each to be +dropped in its turn, carefully assorted as to size and weight. Here you +can see that the stream has partly filled this end of the pond, and it +is now sending its divided current out over the deposit which it has +made in a series of branching rivulets. This deposit is called a _delta_ +(Fig. 45), and deltas are another important form of stream deposits. In +the lakes and ponds, deltas may grow outward until the lake is filled, +when the stream will meander across the level plain without much current +and hence without much cutting power (Fig. 46). In the sea, great deltas +are being formed in some places, like those at the mouths of the +Mississippi, the Nile, and the Ganges. Large areas of dry land have thus +been built. Deltas, like flood plains, afford rich farming lands when +they are built high enough to remain above the water. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 46. A brook flowing across a pond which has been +filled._] + +Here let us end our study of the brook for to-day, and wait until the +rain ceases and the water runs clear again; then we can see the bottom +and can also learn by contrast how much more work the brook has been +doing to-day than it does when the volume of water is less. + +On the road home, however, we can notice how the temporary streams, as +well as the everflowing brook, have been cutting and depositing. See +where this tiny rill has run down that steep clay bank until its +current was checked at the foot. Notice how it has spread out its +sediment in a fan-shaped deposit. This form of deposit is sometimes made +by larger streams, especially in a mountainous country with plains at +the foot of the slopes. They are called _alluvial fans_ or _cone deltas_ +(Fig. 47), but they are not as important as flood plains and deltas. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 47. A brook building a delta into a lake. Formerly +the brook flowed straight ahead, but its own delta has caused it to +change its direction._] + +The first dry, sunny morning that comes we visit the brook again. It no +longer roars, but its clear waters now sing a pleasant melody as they +ripple along the stony bed. We can see at a glance that comparatively +little work is going on to-day, and yet if we look closely, we shall see +glittering particles of sand moving along the bottom. The clear water, +however, allows us to study the bottom which before was hidden by the +load of mud. + +First we see the rounded boulders and pebbles of all sizes which must +have been rolled about for a long time to make them so smooth. Some of +them are so very hard that we cannot even scratch them with our knives; +others are soft and easily broken. What would be the effect of rolling +together stones of such varying hardness? We must think of these stones +as the tools with which the brook cuts and grinds, for water without +sediment can do little more than slightly to dissolve the rock. + +Let us go at once to the little waterfall, for we shall be curious to +see what lies at the bottom of the whirling eddy that drew our attention +yesterday. As we look down into the sunlit pool we see that the eddy is +gone, for the volume of water is not great enough to cause it to +revolve, but there in the rock on the bottom is a deep basin-like hole. +In the bottom of this hole we shall see a number of well-rounded stones, +with perhaps some sand and gravel. These stones are the tools which, +whirled about by the eddying water, have cut the basin-like holes. Holes +of this sort are common in rocky stream beds, especially in the +neighborhood of falls or in places where falls have once been; they are +called _pot-holes_ and represent another form of stream cutting (Fig. +48). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 48. A pot-hole cut in the rock of a stream's bed._] + +Next let us visit the flood plains which we saw forming when the water +was high. Now we shall find the brook flowing in its channel with the +flood plain deposits left high and dry. If we dig down into the flood +plain, we shall see that it is made up of successive layers varying in +thickness and in the size of the fragments. Each of these layers +represents a period of high water and the size of the fragments in the +layer tells us something of the strength of the current, and therefore +of the intensity of the flood. Some layers are thicker than others, +showing a longer period of flood, or perhaps several floods in which +there was little variation. This _stratification_, as it is called, is +one of the peculiarities of water deposits and it is due to the +assorting power of currents which vary in force. If we were to cut into +the delta we should find the same thing to be true,--a regular +succession of layers, though sometimes confused by changes in direction +of flow. + +To-day we shall notice something which escaped our attention when it was +held by the rushing torrent--the valley bottom is much wider than the +bed of the stream; if we keep our eyes open we shall see the explanation +of this in the abandoned channels, where, owing to some temporary +obstructions, the stream has been turned from side to side of the +valley, now cutting on one bank and now on the other. In this turning +from side to side the cutting area of the stream is increased, and it +goes on widening its valley as well as cutting it downward. + +And now we have learned some of the most important ways in which the +busy brook is toiling; but there are other points which we might have +seen, and in some brooks there are special features to be noted. +However, we have learned that the brook is no idler, that its main work +is to conduct to the ocean the rain that falls upon the earth's surface, +and that in doing this it is wearing down the hills, carrying them away +only to build up in other places. The cheerful song of the brook takes +on a new meaning as we lie in the shade and watch it hurry by. It is not +the song of idleness nor of pleasure, but like the song with which a +cheerful and tireless worker seeks to make its task lighter. + + + + +LEAFLET XI. + +INSECT LIFE OF A BROOK.[13] + +BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. + + +[13] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 5: Leaflet 18, June, 1900. + +[Illustration] + +What wader, be he boy or water-fowl, has not watched the water-insects? +How they dart hither and thither, some skimming the surface, others +sturdily rowing about in the clear shallows! The sunlight fastens, for +an instant, their grotesque reflections on the smooth bottom, then +away--the shadow is lost, except for the picture it left in the memory +of the onlooker. + +The splashing, dashing wader, with his shout and his all-disturbing +stick, stands but a poor chance of making intimate acquaintances among +water-folk. Your true brook-lover is a quiet individual except when +occasion demands action. The lad who, from the vantage ground of a +fallen log or overhanging bank, looks down on the housekeeping affairs +of his tiny neighbors has the right spirit. Indeed, I doubt whether +these little folk are aware of his presence or curiosity. + +Time was when the enjoyment of brook-life was limited to boys. White +aprons, dainty slippers and fear of being called "Tom-boy" restrained +the natural impulses of the "little women." Happily that day is past, +and it no longer looks queer for girls to live in the open air and +sunshine, free to chase butterflies and hunt water-bugs with their +brothers. + +My brooks abound in swift eddies, perfect whirlpools in miniature, and +water-falls of assorted sizes. They have also their quiet reaches, where +whirligig beetles perform their marvelous gyrations, and bright-eyed +polliwogs twirl their tails in early May. On the banks are ferns and +mosses; sometimes willows and alders form a fringing border. + +The heart-leaved willows along many brooksides are found to bear at the +tips of many of their branches, knob-like bodies which look like pine +cones. (Fig. 49.) Now everybody knows that willows bear their seeds in +catkins. Why, then, should so many brookside willows thrust these cones +in our faces? On cutting one of the cones open, we learn the secret. A +tiny colorless grub rolls helplessly out of a cell in the very centre of +the cone. It is the young of a small gnat, scarcely larger than a +mosquito, and known as a "gall gnat." The cone-shaped body on the willow +branch is called a "pine-cone willow-gall." The little gray gnat comes +out in the spring. Any one can collect the galls from the willows and +keep them in some kind of cage in the house until the gnats come forth. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 49. Knob-like bodies resembling pine cones._] + +The pine-cone gall is an enlarged and deformed bud. The twig might have +developed into a branch but for the presence of the little larva. The +scales of the cone are the parts which under more favorable conditions +would have been leaves. The brook-lover cannot afford to miss the +pine-cone willow-galls. + +Wandering along the brookside in spring or early summer, one is +surprised to find so many insect visitors darting about in the air. +There are dragon-flies of many shapes, sizes and colors; dainty +damsel-flies perch airily on reeds, their gleaming wings a-flutter in +the sunshine; sometimes a nervous mud-wasp alights for a moment, and +then up and away. The dragon-flies seem intent on coming as near to the +water as possible without wetting their wings. They pay no heed to other +visitors, yet how easily they escape the net of the would be collector! +Let them alone. Their business is important if we would have a new +generation of dragon-flies to delight the eye next year. The eggs of +these creatures are left in the water and the young ones are aquatic. If +you would know more of them, dip down into the stream in some sluggish +bay. Dip deep and trail the net among the water plants. Besides +dragon-fly nymphs there will be caddice-worm cases like tiny cob-houses, +water-boatmen, back-swimmers, and giant water-bugs.[14] These are +insects characteristic of still or sluggish water, and are found in +spring and summer. + +[14] These and other forms found in still or slow flowing water are +described and pictured in Leaflet No. XII, Life in an Aquarium. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 50. Water-striders have long, thin legs._] + +The insects which skip lightly over the surface of the water where the +current is not too strong, are water-striders. (Fig. 50.) Some are short +and stout, others slender-bodied; but all have long thin legs. Their +color is nearly black. As they scurry about in the sunshine the +delighted watcher will sometimes catch a glimpse of their reflections on +the bottom. Six oval bits of shadow, outlined by rims of light; there is +nothing else like it! Be sure you see it. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 51. The dobson makes no pretensions to beauty. +(Natural size)._] + +Let us leave the quiet, restful pools and the sluggish bays, and follow +the hurrying water to the rapids. Every stone changes the course of the +current and the babble makes glad the heart of the wayfarer. Let us +"leave no stone unturned," until we have routed from his favorite haunt +that genius of the rapids, the dobson. (Fig. 51.) These creatures bear +other common names. They are prized by fishermen in the black bass +season. Dirty brown in color and frankly ugly in appearance and +disposition, these larvæ, for such they are, have little to fear from +the casual visitor at the water's edge. When a stone is lifted, the +dobsons beneath it allow themselves to be hurried along for some +distance by the current. The danger over, they "catch hold" and await +their prey farther down stream. In spite of their vicious looking jaws +these insects are not venomous. At the very worst they could do no more +than pinch the finger of the unwary explorer. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 52. May-fly nymph._ (_Three times natural size_).] + +When the dobson is full grown, it is called a hellgrammite fly or horned +corydalis. It has lost none of its ugliness, though it has gained two +pairs of thin, brownish-gray wings, and flies about in the evening. It +has been known to create some consternation by flying in at an open +window. It is harmless and short-lived in the adult stage. + +Upturned stones are likely to bring to view other strangers. Lying close +against these wet stony surfaces one usually finds young May-flies. +(Fig. 52.[15]) These, like the young dragon-flies, are called _nymphs_. + +[15] Figures 52, 53 and 54 are adapted from Dr. R. Leuckart's Zoological +Charts. + +When they are ready to leave the water they make their way to the shore, +and, clinging to some convenient tree trunk or building, they shed their +nymph skins. I have seen trees and buildings on the banks of the St. +Lawrence river literally covered with these cast skins. In the early +morning in June and July one may watch the molting process, the +unfolding of the gauzy wings, and the unsheathing of the long filaments. +(Fig. 53.) + +Do not believe that May-flies are harmful. They are sometimes too +numerous for comfort at summer resorts where myriads of them swarm about +the lights; but stories of their stinging and biting are entirely +without foundation. They are short-lived in the adult stage. The name of +the family to which they belong, _Ephemeridæ_, suggests their ephemeral +existence. It is of these that poets have sung. + +Stone-fly nymphs, also, cling closely to the flat stones. The cast skins +of these are frequently found on the banks of streams. They resemble +the May-fly nymphs but can be identified by a comparison with these +illustrations. (Fig. 54.) + +Sometimes on the very brink of a cataract one will see what appear like +patches of loose black moss. Strangely enough, these are the larvæ of +black-flies, related to the terrible black-fly of the north woods. The +black-fly larvæ can live only in the swiftest water. There they pass +through their transformations and succeed in emerging into their aërial +stage, in spite of the rushing current. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 53. The May-fly sheds its nymph skin._ (_Twice +natural size._)] + +All these things and many more are seen by those who frequent the water +brooks. Observers cannot tell all they see, for some things are too deep +for words. They can and do say to one and all, "Come, let us visit the +brook together. The water and all that dwell in it and round about, +invite us and make us welcome." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 54. Stone-fly, showing one pair of wings. The +lower figure is a nymph._ (_Twice natural size._)] + + + + +LEAFLET XII. + +LIFE IN AN AQUARIUM.[16] + +BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. + + +[16] Teachers' Leaflet No. 11. May, 1898. + +[Illustration] + +There is no more fascinating adjunct to nature-study than a well-kept +aquarium. It is a never-ending source of enjoyment, interest and +instruction to students of any age. Children in the kindergarten or at +home will watch with delight the lively occupants, which cut all sorts +of queer capers for their amusement, and older people may read some of +nature's choicest secrets through the glassy sides of the little water +world. To many, the word aquarium suggests a vision of an elaborately +constructed glass box, ornamented with impossible rock-work and strange +water plants, or a globe in which discouraged and sickly-looking +gold-fish appear and disappear, and take strange, uncanny shapes as they +dart hither and thither. + +Such forms of aquaria have their place in the world, but they are not +suited to the needs of an ordinary school-room. Every school may have +some sort of an aquarium if the teacher and pupils are willing to give +it some daily thought and care. Without such attention a fine aquarium +may become an unsightly and disagreeable object, its inhabitants +unhealthy and its beauty and usefulness lost. + +The great fundamental principle underlying success in making and +maintaining an aquarium is this: _imitate nature_. We all know how much +easier it is to formulate a principle, and even to write a book about +it, than to put it into practice. Most of us have not had the time and +opportunity for the close observation of nature necessary to interpret +her methods and to imitate her. It is to those teachers who are anxious +to learn what nature has to teach and who wish to lead their pupils to a +higher and wider conception of life, that these suggestions are offered. + +Four things are important in making and keeping an aquarium: + +1. The equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and +maintained. It is probable that an aquarium in an elementary school is +mainly used for the study of animal life; but animals do not thrive in +water where no plants are growing. Nature keeps plants and animals in +the same pond and we must follow her lead. The plants have three +valuable functions in the aquarium. First, they supply food for the +herbivorous creatures. Second, they give off a quantity of oxygen which +is necessary to the life of the animals. Third, they take up from the +water the harmful carbonic acid gas which passes from the bodies of the +animals. Just how the plants do this is another story. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 55. A museum-jar aquarium. (More animal life would +make a better equilibrium._)] + +2. The aquarium must be ventilated. Its top should be broad and open. +Every little fish, snail and insect wants air, just as every boy and +girl wants it. A certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and +the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their supply. +How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria,--the ponds +and streams? The plants furnish part of the air, as we have said. The +open pond, whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, is +constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no +more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney. + +3. The temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature +and experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the +aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. + +4. It is well to choose such animals for the aquarium as are adapted to +life in still water. Unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to +supply a constant flow of water through the aquarium, it is better not +to try to keep creatures that we find in swift streams. + +Practical experience shows that there are certain dangers to guard +against,--dangers which may result in the unnecessary suffering of the +innocent. Perhaps the most serious results come from overstocking. It is +better to have too few plants or animals than too many of either. A +great deal of light, especially bright sunlight, is not good for the +aquarium. A pond that is not shaded soon becomes green with a thick +growth of slime or algæ. This does not look well in an aquarium and is +likely to take up so much of the plant-food that the other plants are +"starved out." The plants in the school-room window may provide shade +for the aquarium, just as the trees and shrubs on its banks shade the +pond. If we find green slime forming on the light side of our miniature +pond, we should put it in a darker place, shade it heavily so that the +light comes in from the top only, and put in a few more snails. These +will make quick work of the green slime, since they are fond of it, if +we are not. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 56. A rectangular glass aquarium._] + +Some of the most innocent-looking "water nymphs" may be concealing +habits that we can hardly approve. There are some which feed on their +smaller and weaker neighbors, and even on the members of their own +families. We know that such things go on in nature, but if we wish to +have a happy family we must keep the cannibals by themselves. + +After an aquarium has been filled with water and the inhabitants well +established, it is not necessary to change the water, except in case of +accident. The water that is lost by evaporation has to be replaced. It +should be poured in gently in order not to disturb the water and destroy +its clearness. If a piece of rubber tubing is available, a practical use +of the siphon can be shown and the aquarium replenished at the same +time. It is a good plan to use rain water, or clear water from a pond, +for this purpose. + +A piece of thin board or a pane of glass may be used as a cover to keep +the dust out of the aquarium. This need not fit tightly or be left on +all the time. A wire netting or a cover of thin cotton net would keep +the flying insects from escaping, and it might be tied on permanently. +Dust may be skimmed off the top of the water or may be removed by laying +pieces of blotting paper on the surface for a moment. + +If any of the inhabitants do not take kindly to the life in the +aquarium, they can be taken out and kept in a jar by themselves--a sort +of fresh air and cold water cure. If any chance to die they ought to be +removed before they make the water unfit for the others. Bits of +charcoal in the water are helpful if a deodorizer or disinfectant is +needed. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 57. A home-made aquarium._] + +Experience, the dear but thorough teacher, is of more value to every one +of us than many rules and precepts. Nothing can rob us of the pleasure +that comes of finding things out for ourselves. Much of the fun as well +as much of the success in life comes from overcoming its difficulties. +One must have a large store of patience and courage and hopefulness to +undertake the care of an aquarium. After it is once made it is less +trouble to take care of than a canary or a pet rabbit. But most things +that are worth doing require patience, courage and hopefulness, and if +we can add to our store of any of these by our study of life in an +aquarium we are so much the better for it. + +Two kinds of aquaria will be found useful in any school. Permanent +ones--those which are expected to continue through a season or through a +whole year if the school-room is warm enough to prevent freezing; and +temporary ones--those which are for lesson hours or for the study of +special forms. + +If some one phase in the life of any aquatic animal is to be studied +during a short period, it is well to have special temporary aquaria. +Also, when a talk on some of the occupants of the larger aquarium is to +be given, specimens may be placed in small vessels for the time being +and returned later. For such purposes glass tumblers can be used, or +small fruit jars, finger bowls, broken goblets set in blocks of wood, +ordinary white bowls or dishes, tubs, pails or tanks for large +fishes,--in fact any wide-mouthed vessel which is easy to get. Special +suggestions will be made in connection with the study of some of the +water insects and others. + +A permanent aquarium need not be an expensive affair. The rectangular +ones are best if large fishes are to be kept, yet they are not +essential. Here, again, it is easier to write directions for the +construction of a perfect aquarium than it is for the most patient +teacher, with the help of the boys who are handy with tools, to put +together a box of wood and glass that will not spring a leak some day +and spoil everything. But failures do not discourage us; they make us +only more determined. If a rectangular water-tight box is out of the +question, what is the next best thing? One of the busiest laboratories +in New York State has plants and animals living in jars of all shapes +and sizes,--fruit jars, glass butter jars, candy jars, battery jars, +museum jars, and others of like nature. There are rectangular and round +aquaria of various sizes kept by all firms who deal in laboratory +supplies, and if some money is to be spent, one of these is a good +investment. Fig. 56 shows one of these rectangular ones, and Fig. 57 +shows a round one of small size which is useful and does not cost much. + + +A GOOD SCHOOL AQUARIUM. + +A cheap, substantial aquarium for general use may be made of glass and +"angle" or "valley" tin. Pieces of glass are always handy and the tin +can be had at any tin-shop. The tinsmith will know just how to cut, +"angle" and solder it. + +The following directions for making an aquarium of this kind are +supplied us by Professor C. F. Hodge of Clark University. He has made +and used them for years with great satisfaction in the university +laboratory and in graded schools. + +The illustration (Fig. 58, 59) shows various sizes. A good all-round +size has these dimensions: 12 inches high, 15 inches long and 8 inches +wide. One may use spoiled photographic plates for small desk aquaria, in +which to watch the development of "wigglers," dragon-fly nymphs or other +water insects. Lids of wire screen are shown on some of the aquaria in +the picture (1, 2 and 3). + +_To make the frame._--If the aquarium is to be 10 x 8 x 5 inches, we +shall need two pieces of glass for sides 10 x 5 inches, two for ends 8 x +10, and one for bottom 8 x 5; and two strips of tin 3/4 inch wide, 28 +inches long, and four strips 10-3/8 inches long. These should be angled +by the tinner, and out of them we shall make the frame. The 28-inch +strips should be cut with tinner's snips half way in two at 10-3/8, +5-3/8, 10-3/8 and 5-3/8 inches, cutting off the end at the last mark. +This keeps the top and the bottom of the frame each in one piece. Next +we bend them into shape. When the corners are well squared they should +be soldered. The four 10-3/8 pieces make the vertical corners and we +will solder them in place. An easy way to be sure that each angle is +square is to hold it in a mechanic's square while soldering it. + +[Illustration: _Figs. 58, 59. Permanent aquarium made of tin and +glass._] + +_To set the glass._--Lay the aquarium cement (see recipe) on evenly all +around the bottom of the frame and press the bottom glass into place. +Put in the sides and ends in the same way. Next carefully put a few very +limber twigs into the aquarium to hold the glass against the frame till +the cement takes hold. Cut off the extra cement with a knife and smooth +it nicely. Cover the frame with asphaltum varnish or black lacquer. In +a week it will be ready to use. + +Double thick glass must be used for large aquaria. + +_Cement._--Shun all resinous cements that require to be put on hot. The +following is a recipe for cement used in successful angle tin aquaria, +for both salt and fresh water: + + 10 parts, by measure, fine, dry, white sand, + 10 parts plaster of Paris, + 10 parts litharge, + 1 part powdered resin. + +Stir well together and, as wanted, mix to consistency of _stiff_ putty +with _pure_ boiled linseed oil. + +The formula given by the U. S. Fish Commission is recommended: + + 8 parts putty, + 1 part red lead, + 1 part litharge. + +Mix, when wanted, to consistency of _stiff_ putty, with raw linseed oil. + +After reading all these directions and getting the idea of an aquarium, +one should think the whole matter out for himself and make it just as he +wants it. Directions are useful as suggestions only. The shallow form is +better for raising toads, frogs and insect larvæ; the deeper aquaria +show water plants and fishes to better advantage. + + +INHABITANTS OF THE AQUARIUM. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 60. Eel-grass._] + +It is now time to begin to think about what shall be kept in the +aquarium. At the bottom a layer of sand, the cleaner the better, two or +three inches deep will be needed. A few stones, not too large, may be +dropped in on top of this first layer, to make it more natural. The +water plants come next and will thrive best if planted securely in the +sand. The most difficult thing is to get the water in without stirring +things up. A good way is to pour the water in a slow stream against the +inside of the aquarium. The best way is to use a rubber tube siphon, but +even then the water ought not to flow from a very great height. If the +aquarium is large, it had better be put in its permanent place before +filling. + +The aquarium will soon be ready for snails, polliwogs, and what ever +else we may wish to put into it. In the course of a few days the plants +will be giving up oxygen and asking for carbon dioxid. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 61. Duck-weed._] + +_Plants that thrive and are useful in aquaria._--Many of the common +marsh or pond plants are suitable. The accompanying illustrations show a +few of these. Nothing can be prettier than some of these soft, delicate +plants in the water. The eel-grass, or tape grass (Fig. 60), is an +interesting study in itself, especially at blossoming time when the +spiral stems, bearing flowers, appear. + +Any who are especially interested in the life-history of this plant may +read in reference books a great deal about what other observers have +learned from the plant concerning its methods of growth and development. +The best that we learn will be what the plant itself tells us day by +day. + +Some of the best reference books on both plant and animal life are found +in the New York State Teachers' Library and can be obtained by teachers +through the school commissioners. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 62. Water plants._] + +Every boy and girl who likes to taste the fresh, peppery plants which +they find growing in cold springs, knows watercress. If the aquarium is +not too deep, this plant will grow above the surface and furnish a +resting place for some snail which, tired perhaps by its constant +activity, enjoys a few minutes in the open air. + +Duck-weed or duck's-meat (Fig. 61) grows on the surface, dangling its +long thread-like roots in the water. A little of it is enough. Too much +would keep us from looking down upon our little friends in the water. + +The parrot's feather (Fig. 62, A) is an ornamental water plant that can +be obtained from a florist; a plant that looks very like it grows in our +ponds. It is called water-milfoil. + +The water purslane, B, or the common stoneworts, _Nitella_ and _Chara_, +D, E, the waterweed, F, and the horn-wort, C, appear graceful and pretty +in the water. If you do not find any of these, you are sure to find +others growing in the ponds in your neighborhood which will answer the +purpose just as well. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 63. Snail._] + +_Animals that may be kept in aquaria._--_The snail._ The common pond +snail with the spiral shell, either flat or conical, can be found +clinging to the stems of the cat-tails or flags and to floating rubbish +in ponds or swamps. If these are picked off carefully and taken home in +a pail of water they will be valuable inhabitants for the aquarium. They +are vegetable feeders and unless there is some green slime in the water, +cabbage or lettuce leaves may be put where the snails can get them. The +eggs of the snail are excellent food for fishes, and if a few could be +secured for special study, their form, habits and development may be +made delightful observation and drawing lessons. Snails can be kept out +of the water for some time on moist earth. Land snails and slugs should +be kept on wet sand and fed with lettuce and cabbage leaves. The common +slug of the garden is often injurious to vegetation. It may always be +tracked by the trail of slime it leaves behind it. Gardeners often +protect plants from those creatures by sprinkling wood-ashes about them. + +_Minnows._ Every boy knows where to find these spry little fellows. They +can be collected with a dipper or net and will thrive in an aquarium if +fed with earth worms or flies or other insects. If kept in small +quarters where food is scarce, they will soon dispatch the other +occupants of the jar. They will, however, eat bits of fresh meat. If the +aquarium is large enough, it would hardly be complete without minnows. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 64. Snail with conical shell._] + +_Cat fish._--It will not be practicable to keep a cat fish in the +permanent aquarium. If one is to be studied it can be obtained at any +fish market or by angling, the latter a slow method, but one which will +appeal to every boy in the class. The cat fish should be kept in a tub, +tank, or large pan of water, and if not wanted for laboratory work, they +might be fried for lunch, as cat fish are very good eating. + +_Gold fish_ are a special delight if kept in large aquaria. These may +often be obtained from dealers in the larger cities. Those who wish +other fish for study should be able to get information from the New York +State Fish Culturist, concerning the species that are suited to life in +still water, and how to get and take care of them. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 65. "Frog spawn."_] + +_The clam._--If empty clam shells are plenty on the bank of some stream +after a freshet, a supply of clams may be obtained by raking the mud or +sand at the bottom of the stream. They can be kept in a shallow pan, and +if the water is warmish and they are left undisturbed for a time, they +will move about. If kept in a jar of damp sand they will probably bury +themselves. They feed on microscopic plants and might not thrive in the +permanent aquarium. + +_Crawfish or crayfish._--These can be collected with nets from under +stones in creeks or ponds. They can live very comfortably out of the +water part of the time. There is small chance for the unsuspecting snail +or water insect which comes within reach of the hungry jaws of the +crawfish, and the temporary aquarium is the safest place for him. Many +who live near the ocean can obtain and keep in sea water the lobster, a +cousin of the crawfish, and will find that the habits of either will +afford much amusement as well as instruction. The school boy generally +knows the crawfish as a "crab." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 66. A useful net for general collecting._] + +_The frog._--The study of the development of the common frog is +accompanied with little or no difficulty. To be sure there are some +species which require two or three years to complete their growth and +changes, from the egg to the adult, yet most of the changes can be seen +in one year. Frogs are not at all shy in the spring, proclaiming their +whereabouts in no uncertain tones from every pond in the neighborhood. +The "frog spawn" can be found clinging to plants or rubbish in masses +varying in size from a cluster of two or three eggs to great lumps as +large as the two fists. The "spawn" is a transparent jelly in which the +eggs are imbedded. Each egg is dark colored, spherical in shape, and +about as large as a small pea. The eggs of the small spotted salamander +are found in similar masses of jelly and look very much like the frog's +eggs. If a small quantity of this jelly-like mass be secured by means of +a collecting net or by wading in for it, it may be kept in a flat white +dish with just enough clean, cool water to cover it, until the young +tadpoles have hatched. As they grow larger a few may be transferred to a +permanent aquarium prepared especially for them in a dish with sloping +sides, and their changes watched from week to week through the season. +The growing polliwog feeds on vegetable diet; what does the full grown +frog eat? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 67. The predaceous diving-beetle._] + +_Insects that can be kept in aquaria._--Insects are to many the most +satisfactory creatures that can be keep in aquaria. They are plentiful, +easy to get, each one of the many kinds seems to have habits peculiar to +itself, and each more curious and interesting than the last. + +Some insects spend their entire life in the water; others are aquatic +during one stage of their existence only. Those described here are a few +of the common ones in ponds and sluggish streams, of the central part of +the state of New York. If these cannot be found, others just as +interesting may be kept instead. One can hardly make a single dip with a +net without bringing out of their hiding places many of these "little +people." + +The predaceous diving-beetle (Fig. 67) is well named. He is a diver by +profession and is a skilled one. The young of this beetle are known as +"water-tigers" (Fig. 68), and their habits justify the name. Their food +consists of the young of other insects; in fact it is better to keep +them by themselves unless we wish to have the aquarium depopulated. When +the tiger has reached his full size, his form changes and he rests for a +time as a pupa; then comes forth as a hard, shiny beetle like Fig. 67. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 68. A water-tiger._] + +The water-scavenger beetle (Fig. 69), so called because of its appetite +for decayed matter, is common in many ponds. It has, like the diving +beetle, a hard, shiny back, with a straight line down the middle, but +the two can be distinguished when seen together. The young of this +beetle look and act something like the water-tigers, but have not such +great ugly jaws. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 69. A water-scavenger beetle._] + +There are three other swimmers even more delightful to watch than those +already mentioned. The water-boatmen (Fig. 70), with their sturdy +oar-like legs and business-like way of using them, are droll little +fellows. They are not so large as the back-swimmers. Fig. 71 shows a +back-swimmer just in the act of pulling a stroke. These creatures swim +with their boat-shaped backs down and their six legs up. We must be +careful how we handle the back-swimmers, for each one of them carries a +sharp bill and may give us a thrust with it which would be painful, +perhaps poisonous. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 70. Water-boatman._] + +The water-scorpion (Fig. 72) is a queer creature living in a neighborly +way with the boatmen and back-swimmers, though not so easy to find. Do +not throw away any dirty little twig which you find in the net after a +dip among water plants near the bottom of a stream or pond. It may begin +to squirm and reveal the fact that it is no twig but a slender-legged +insect with a spindle-shaped body. We may handle it without danger, as +it is harmless. This is a water-scorpion, and his way of catching his +prey and getting his air supply will be interesting to watch. He is not +shy and will answer questions about himself promptly and cheerfully. +Fig. 72 will give an idea of the size and appearance of this insect. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 71. A back-swimmer._] + +No water insect except the big scavenger beetle can begin to compare in +size with the giant water-bug (Fig. 73). We may think at first that he +is a beetle, yet the way he crosses his wings on his back proves him a +true bug. In quiet ponds these giants are common enough, but the boy or +girl who "bags" a full-grown one at the first dip of the net may be +considered lucky. + +The boatmen, back-swimmers and giants all have oars, yet are not +entirely dependent on them. They have strong wings, too, and if their +old home gets too thickly settled, and the other insects on which they +feed are scarce, they fly away to other places. The giant water-bug +often migrates at night, and is attracted to any bright light he sees in +his journey. This habit has given him the popular name of +"electric-light bug." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 72. Water-scorpion._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 73. Giant water-bug._] + +Among the insects which spend but part of their life in the water, we +shall find many surprises. It made us feel queer when we learned that +the restless but innocent-looking wiggler of the rain-water barrel was +really the young of the too familiar mosquito. The adult mosquito +leaves its eggs in tiny boat-shaped masses on the surface of stagnant +water, where food will be abundant for the young which soon appear. Some +time is spent by the wigglers in eating and growing before they curl up +into pupæ. Insects are rarely active in the pupa stage. The mosquito is +one of the very few exceptions. From these lively pupæ the full-grown +mosquitoes emerge. Fig. 74 shows a small glass tumbler in which are seen +the three aquatic stages of the mosquito's life and an adult just +leaving the pupa skin. Nothing is easier than to watch the entire +development of the mosquito, and the changes must be seen to be fully +enjoyed and appreciated. It would be interesting to note the differences +between the mosquitoes that come out of the small aquaria. A supply of +wigglers may be kept in the permanent aquarium where they serve as food +for the other insects. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and +pupæ of mosquito._] + +Every child knows the dragon-fly or darning-needle, and none but the +bravest of them dare venture near one without covering ears or eyes or +mouth, for fear of being sewed. Many and wide-spread are the +superstitions concerning this insect, and it is often difficult to bring +children to believe that this creature, besides being a thing of beauty, +is not only harmless but actually beneficial. If they knew how many +mosquitos the darning-needle eats in a day they would welcome instead of +fearing the gay creature. + +The young of the dragon-fly live a groveling existence, as different as +can be from that of their sun-loving parents. Their food consists of +mosquito larvæ, water-fleas and the like, and their method of catching +their prey is as novel as it is effective. Pupils and teacher can get +plenty of good healthy entertainment out of the behavior of these +awkward and voracious little mask-wearers. The first dip of the net +usually brings up a supply of dragon-fly nymphs and of their more +slender cousins, the damsel-fly nymphs. The latter have expanded +plate-like appendages at the hind end of the body which distinguish them +from the dragon-fly nymphs. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 75. The life history of a dragon-fly as seen in an +aquarium._] + +The transformation of one of these young insects into an adult is one of +the most interesting observation lessons that can be imagined for a warm +spring morning. If a dragon-fly nymph should signify its intention of +changing its form in my school-room, I should certainly suspend all +ordinary work and attend to him alone. Each child should see if possible +this wonderful transfiguration. + +Floating in the water of a pond or stream one may find a little bundle +of grass or weed stems, with perhaps a tiny pebble clinging to the mass. +Close examination will prove this to be the "house-boat" of one of our +insect neighbors, the caddice-worm. Contrasting strangely with the +untidy exterior is the neat interior, with its lining of delicate silk, +so smooth that the soft-bodied creature which lives inside is safe from +injury. The commonest of the many forms of houses found here are those +illustrated in Figs. 76 and 77. These will find all they wish to eat in +a well-stocked aquarium. When full grown they will leave the water as +winged creatures, like Fig. 78, and return to its depths no more. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 76. Case of caddice-worm._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 77. Another caddice-worm case._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 78. Caddice-fly._] + +There is surely no lack of material furnished by Mother Nature +for the study of aquatic life. Every one who really believes in its +usefulness can have an aquarium, and will feel well repaid for the +time and effort required when the renewed interest in nature is +witnessed which this close contact with living beings brings +to every student. Let us take hold with a will, overcome the +difficulties in the way, and teacher and pupils become students +together. + + + + +LEAFLET XIII. + +A STUDY OF FISHES.[17] + +BY H. D. REED. + + +[17] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 8: Leaflet 21. January, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +The first forms of animal life which attract the young naturalist's +attention are doubtless the birds. These are most interesting to him +because of their beautiful colors, their sweet songs, and the grace with +which they fly. But who has watched the fishes in a brook or an aquarium +and is not able to grant them a place, in beauty, grace and delicate +coloration, equal to the birds? To be sure, fishes cannot sing, yet +there are so many other interesting facts in connection with their +habits and life-histories that it fully makes up for their lack of +voice. + + +THE PARTS OF A FISH. + +While observing a living fish and admiring its beauty, it will probably +occur to some of us that a fish consists only of a head and tail. Yet +this is not all. Between the head and tail is a part that we may call +the trunk. It contains the digestive and other organs. There is no +indication of a neck in a fish. Any such constriction would destroy the +regular outline of the animal's body and thus retard the speed with +which it moves through the water. But head, trunk and tail are not all. +There are attached to the outer side of the fish's body certain +appendages that are called fins. + +Before discussing some of the different kinds of fishes and their +habits, it will be necessary to learn something about fins, for the fins +of all fishes are not alike. When a fish moves through the water, it +bends its tail first to one side and then to the other. This undulatory +movement, as it is called, pushes the fish's body ahead. One can observe +the movements easily upon a specimen kept alive in an aquarium jar. At +the extreme end of the tail there is a broad, notched fin which aids +the tail in propelling and steering the body. We will call this the +_tail_ or _caudal_ fin (Fig. 79 B). In most of our common fishes there +are seven fins--six without the caudal. The first of these six is a +large fin situated near the middle of the back. This is the _back_ or +_dorsal_ fin (Fig. 79 A). Sometimes we may find a fish that has two +dorsal fins. In this case the one nearest the head is called first +dorsal and the next one behind it the second dorsal. Near the head, in a +position corresponding to our arms, is a pair of fins which are called +the _arm_ or _pectoral_ fins (Fig. 79 E). Farther back towards the tail, +on the under side of the fish, is another pair, corresponding in +position to the hind legs of a quadruped. This pair is called the _leg_ +or _pelvic_ fins (Fig. 79 D). Just behind the pelvic fins is a single +fin, situated on the middle line of the body. This is the _anal_ fin +(Fig. 79 C). The pectoral and pelvic fins are called paired fins because +they are in pairs. The others which are not in pairs are called median +fins, because they are situated on the middle line of the body. The +paired fins serve as delicate balancers to keep the body right side up +and to regulate speed. They are also used to propel the body backwards. +After naming the different fins of the fish in the schoolroom aquarium, +it will be interesting to observe the uses of each. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 79. Diagram of a fish to show: A, dorsal fin; B, +caudal fin; C, anal fin; D, pelvic fins; E, pectoral fins; L, lateral +line._] + +On the side of the body, extending from the head to the caudal fin, is, +in most fishes, a line made up of a series of small tubes which open +upon the surface. This is called the _lateral line_, and acts in the +capacity of a sense organ (Fig. 79 L). Is the lateral line straight or +curved? Does it curve upwards or downwards? Does the curvature differ in +different kinds of fishes? Do all the fishes you find possess a lateral +line? Is the lateral line complete in all fishes, _i. e._, does it +extend from the head to the caudal fin without a single break? + +WHERE FISHES SPEND THE WINTER. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 80. 1, Shiner; 2, Barred Killifish; 3, Black-nosed +Dace; 4, Creek Chub; 5, Young of Large-mouthed Black Bass; 6, +Varying-toothed Minnow._] + +As winter approaches and the leaves fall and the ground becomes frozen, +the birds leave us and go farther south into warmer climates where food +is more abundant. We are all familiar with this habit of the birds, but +how many of us know or have even wondered what the fishes have been +doing through the cold winter months while the streams and ponds have +been covered with ice? Before the warmth of spring comes to raise the +temperature of the streams, let us go to some familiar place in a brook +where, during the summer, are to be found scores of minnows. None are to +be found now. The brook shows no signs of ever having contained any +living creatures. Suppose we go farther up or down the stream until we +find a protected pool the bottom of which is covered with sediment and +water-soaked leaves. With our net we will dip up some of the leaves and +sediment, being sure that we dip from the very bottom. On looking over +this mass of muddy material we may find a fish two or three inches long, +with very fine scales, a black back, a silvery belly and a blackish or +brown band on the side of the body extending from the tip of the nose to +the tail. This is the _Black-nosed Dace_ (Fig. 80). If specimens of this +fish are caught very early in the spring, one will be able to watch +some interesting color changes. As the spawning time approaches, the +dark band on the sides and the fins change to a bright crimson. +Sometimes the whole body may be of this gaudy color. During the summer +the lateral band becomes orange. As the season goes, the bright colors +gradually fade until finally, in the fall and winter, the little +black-nose is again clothed in his more modest attire. A great many of +the fishes, and especially the larger ones, seek some deep pond or pool +in the stream at the approach of winter, and remain near the bottom. If +the pond or stream is so deep that they do not become chilled they will +remain active, swimming about and taking food all winter. But when the +stream is very shallow and the fishes feel the cold, they settle down to +the bottom, moving about very little and taking little or no food. The +carp collect in small numbers and pass the winter in excavations that +they make in the muddy bottom. If the débris thrown up by the water +across the marshy end of a lake be raked over during the winter, one +will probably find some of the smaller catfishes spending the season in +a semi-dormant state. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 81. The Common Catfish or Bullhead._] + +Some interesting experiments may be tried with the fishes in the +aquarium jar. Keep them for a few days where it is cold and then bring +them into a warmer room and note the difference in their activity. + + +THE COMMON CATFISH OR BULLHEAD. + +This sleepy old fellow differs in many respects from most of our common +fishes. He has no scales. About the mouth are eight long whisker-like +appendages, called barbels (Fig. 81). Perhaps he is called catfish +because he has whiskers about his mouth like a cat. Any one who has ever +taken a catfish from the hook probably knows that care is needed in +order not to receive a painful prick from the sharp spines in his +pectoral and dorsal fins. + +There is nothing aristocratic about the catfish. In warm pools and +streams where the water is sluggish and the muddy bottom is covered with +weeds, he may be found moving lazily about in search of food. His taste +is not delicate. Animal substance, whether living or dead, satisfies +him. When in search of food he makes good use of his barbels, especially +those at the corners of his mouth, which he uses as feelers. The catfish +will live longer out of water than most of our other food fishes. They +will live and thrive in water which is far too impure for "pumpkin +seeds" or bass. They spawn late in the spring. The mother fish cares for +her young much as a hen cares for her chickens. When they are old enough +to take care of themselves, she weans them. + + +THE COMMON SUNFISH OR PUMPKIN SEED. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 82. The common Sunfish or Pumpkin Seed._] + +Some evening just at sunset visit a quiet pool in a nearby stream. Drop +in your hook baited with an "angle worm" and presently the dancing cork +shows that you have a "bite." On "pulling up" you find that you really +have a fish. It is a beautiful creature, too--thin flat body shaped +something like the seed of a pumpkin. His back is an olive green +delicately shaded with blue. His sides are spotted with orange, while +his belly is a bright yellow. His cheeks are orange-color streaked with +wavy lines of blue. Just behind his eye on his "ear-flap" is a bright +scarlet spot. This is the common _Sunfish_ or _Pumpkin Seed_ (Fig. 82). +He is a very beautiful, aristocratic little fellow, "looking like a +brilliant coin fresh from the mint." + +Keep him alive in an aquarium jar with a shiner. Compare the two fishes, +as to the size and shape of their bodies and fins. Feed them different +kinds of food, such as worms, insects and crackers, and try to discover +which they like best and how they eat. + +The sunfishes prefer quiet waters. They lay their eggs in the spring of +the year. The male selects a spot near the banks of the stream or pond +where the water is very shallow. Here he clears a circular area about a +foot in diameter. After making a slight excavation in the gravel or +sand, the nest is completed. The eggs are then deposited by the female +in the basin-like excavation. He watches his nest and eggs with great +diligence, driving away other fishes that chance to come near. + + +THE BLACK BASSES. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 83. Adult Small-mouthed Black Bass._] + +The black basses are not usually found in small streams where it is most +pleasant for teachers and pupils to fish. They are fishes that seek the +rivers and lakes. There are two kinds of black bass, the _Large-mouthed_ +and the _Small-mouthed_. As the name indicates, the two may be +distinguished by the size of the mouth. In the large-mouthed black bass +the upper jaw extends to a point behind the eye, while in the +small-mouthed species it extends to a point just below the middle of the +eye (Fig. 83). + +Both kinds of black bass may be found in the same body of water. The +character of the bottoms over which they are found, however, differs. +The small-mouthed prefers the stony bars or shoals. The large-mouthed, +on the contrary, selects a muddy bottom grown over with reeds. They feed +upon crayfish ("crabs"), minnows, frogs, worms, tadpoles and insects. +Our black basses are very queer parents. They prepare a nest in which +the eggs are deposited. Both male and female are very courageous in the +defense of their eggs and young. As soon as the young fishes are able to +take care of themselves the parent fishes leave them, and after that +time may even feed upon their own children. + + +THE STICKLEBACK. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 84. A Stickleback._] + +The sticklebacks are queer little fellows indeed (Fig. 84). The slender +body, extremely narrow tail, and the sharp, free spines in front of the +dorsal fin, give them at once the appearance of being both active and +pugnacious little creatures. The sticklebacks are detrimental to the +increase of other fishes since they greedily destroy the spawn and young +of all fishes that come within their reach. They build nests about two +inches in diameter, with a hole in the top. After the eggs are laid the +male defends the nest with great bravery. The little five-spined brook +stickleback in the Cayuga Lake basin, N. Y., is most commonly found in +stagnant pools, shaded by trees, where the water is filled with decaying +vegetable matter,--the so-called "green frog-spawn" (spirogyra), and +duck weed. If you supply the sticklebacks with plenty of fine vegetable +material, you may induce them to built a nest in the aquarium jar, but +they must be caught and placed in the jar early in the season before +they spawn. + + +THE JOHNNY DARTERS. + +In New York State, every swift stream which has a bed of gravel and flat +stones ought to contain some one of the Johnny darters, for there are a +great many different kinds (Fig. 85). They are little creatures, +delighting in clear water and swift currents where they dart about, +hiding under stones and leaves, or resting on the bottom with their +heads up-stream. The body of a darter is compact and spindle-shaped, +gradually tapering from the short head to a narrow tail. The eyes are +situated nearly on top of the head. The color of the darters varies +greatly with the different kinds. Some are very plain, the light ground +color being broken only by a few brown markings. Others are gorgeous in +their colorings, it seeming as if they had attempted to reproduce the +rainbow on their sides. Such kinds are indeed very attractive and are +ranked with the most beautifully colored of all our common fishes. When +a darter swims, he appears bird-like, for he flies through the water +much as a bird flies through the air. He does not use his tail alone in +swimming, as the catfish, the sunfish, the stickleback, and most of the +other fishes do, but flies with his pectoral fins. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 85. A Johnny Darter._] + +You surely must have a Johnny darter in your aquarium jar. The Johnnies +are true American fishes. Though small, they face the strong currents +and eke out a living where their larger cousin, the yellow perch, would +perish. There are many interesting facts which may be learned from the +Johnny darters when kept alive in an aquarium. When not actually moving +in the water, do the Johnnies rest on the bottom of the jar or remain +suspended in the middle apparently resting on nothing, as the other +aquarium fishes do? When a fish remains still in the middle of the jar +he does so because he has a well-developed air-bladder to help buoy him +up, and when a fish dies it is the air-bladder which causes him to turn +over and rise to the top. Now if the Johnnies always rest on the bottom +of the jar when not swimming and if one happens to die and does not rise +to the top we may know that, if he has an air-bladder at all, it is only +a vestigial one. It would be interesting also to find out for ourselves +whether a Johnny darter can really "climb trees" (I mean by trees, of +course, the water plants in the aquarium jar), or if he can perch upon +the branches like a bird. + + +THE MINNOWS. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 86. A convenient form of aquarium jar supplied with +water plants. The bottom is covered with clean sand and flat stones._] + +All the small fishes of the brooks are called minnows, or more often +"minnies," by the boy fisherman. The boy believes that they grow into +larger fishes. This is not true. The minnows are a distinct group of +fishes and, for the most part, small ones. They do not grow to be bass +or pike or sunfishes or anything else but minnows. Some of the minnows, +however, are comparatively large. Two of these are the _Creek Chub_ +(Fig. 80), and the _Shiner_ (Fig. 80). The chub is the king of the small +brooks, being often the largest and most voracious fish found in such +streams. His common diet probably consists of insects and worms, but if +very hungry he does not object to eating a smaller fish. During the +spawning season, which is springtime, the male chub has sharp, horny +tubercles or spines developed upon the snout. We are able to recognize +the creek chub by means of a black spot at the front of the base of the +dorsal fin. + +The shiner or red-fin has much larger scales than the chub. The back is +elevated in front of the dorsal fin, giving him the appearance of a +hump-back. His sides are a steel-blue with silvery reflections. While +the shiner is not the largest, it is almost everywhere one of the most +abundant brook fishes. In spring the lower fins of the male become +reddish. Like the chub, he has small horny tubercles developed on the +snout. + + +RANDOM NOTES. + +Did you ever see a fish yawn? Watch a shiner in your aquarium. Sometimes +you may see him open his mouth widely as though he was very sleepy. +Again you may find him resting on the bottom of the jar taking a nap. +Fishes cannot close their eyes when they sleep for they have no eyelids. + +A convenient way to collect fishes for the schoolroom aquarium is to use +a dip net. The ordinary insect net will do, but it is better to replace +the cheese-cloth bag by a double thickness of mosquito-bar, thus +enabling one to move the net through the water more rapidly. By dipping +in the deep pools, among grasses and under the banks with such a net one +can soon obtain fishes enough to stock an aquarium (Fig. 86). The +aquarium jar should never be placed in the sun. It is better to have +only three or four fishes in an aquarium at one time. Some flat stones +on the bottom of the jar will afford them convenient hiding places. + +For further notes on aquaria, consult Leaflet No. XII. + +[Illustration] + + + + +LEAFLET XIV. + +THE OPENING OF A COCOON.[18] + +BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. + + +[18] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 4: Leaflet 17. March, 1900. + +[Illustration] + +Among the commonest treasures brought into the schools by children in +the fall or winter are the cocoons of our giant silk-worms. If one has a +place to put them where the air is not too warm or dry, no special care +will be necessary to keep them through the winter. Out-door conditions +must be imitated as nearly as possible. If early in the fall one is +fortunate enough to meet one of these giants out for a walk, it is the +simplest thing in the world to capture him and watch him spin his +marvelous winter blanket. Two members of this family of giant insects +are quite common in this state, the largest the Cecropia, called +sometimes the Emperor, and the Promethea. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 87. Cocoon of the Cecropia moth. It sometimes hangs +from a twig of a fruit tree._] + +The Cecropia moth often measures five or six inches across--a veritable +giant. Its main color is dusty brown, with spots and bands of cinnamon +brown and white. On each wing is a white crescent bordered with red and +outlined with a black line. The body is heavy and covered with thick, +reddish-brown hairs, crossed near the end with black and white lines. On +its small head are two large feathery feelers or antennæ. The Cecropia +moth emerges from the cocoon, full grown, in early summer, when out of +doors. Those kept in the house often come out as early as March. The +eggs are deposited by the adults upon apple, pear, cherry, maple and +other shade and fruit trees. Professor Comstock says that the spiny +caterpillars which hatch from the eggs in about two weeks, are known to +feed upon the leaves of some fifty species of plants. One could +therefore hardly make a mistake in offering refreshment to these +creatures, since they are anything but epicures. The full-grown +caterpillar, having spent the summer eating and growing, with now and +then a change of clothes, is often three inches long and an inch in +diameter. It is a dull bluish green in color. On its back are two rows +of wart-like protuberances (tubercles), some yellow, some red, some +blue. As there is nothing else in nature which is just like it, one need +have no difficulty in recognizing the Cecropia in its different phases. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 88. End of cocoon of Cecropia, inside view, showing +where the moth gets out._] + +The cocoon which this giant silk-worm weaves is shown in Fig. 87. It may +be found on a twig of some tree in the dooryard, but sometimes on a +fence-post or equally unexpected place. Inside the cocoon the brown +pupa, alive but helpless, waits for spring. + +After the moth comes out it is interesting to examine the structure of +the cocoon, and to discover how the moth managed to free itself without +destroying the silken blanket (Fig. 88). + +Swinging loosely from last summer's twigs in lilac bushes, and on such +trees as wild cherry and ash, one often finds the slender cocoons of the +Promethea moth (Fig. 89). We cannot help admiring the skill and care +displayed by the spinner of this tidy winter overcoat. The giant +silk-worm which spun it chose a leaf as a foundation. He took care to +secure himself against the danger of falling by fastening the leaf to +the twig which bore it by means of shining strands of silk. It is easy +to test the strength of this fastening by attempting to pull it loose +from the twig. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 89. Cocoon of Promethea moth fastened to a twig +with silk._] + +The moths which come from these cocoons do not always look alike, yet +they are all brothers and sisters. The brothers are almost black, while +the wings of the sisters are light reddish brown, with a light gray wavy +line crossing the middle of both wings. The margins of the wings are +clay-colored. On each wing is a dark velvety spot. The adults emerge in +spring and are most often seen in the late afternoon. Their flight is +more spirited than that of the Cecropia, which moves very sedately, as +becomes a giant. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 90. Cocoon of Promethea, cut open lengthwise to +show the valve-like device at upper end through which the adult moth +pushes its way out._] + +The caterpillars of this species, the young Prometheas, feed during the +summer on leaves of wild cherry, ash and other trees. They grow to be +about two inches long, and are distinguished from others by their pale +bluish green color and yellow legs. They also have rows of wart-like +elevations on their backs, some black and shining, four of a bright red +and one large and yellow near the hindmost end. + + * * * * * + +The life of these giant insects is divided into four distinct stages: +the egg, deposited by the adult moth usually on or near the food plant; +the larva, or caterpillar stage, when most of the eating and all the +growing is done; the pupa, passed inside the cocoon woven by the larva; +and the adult, a winged moth. + +The life-cycle or generation is one year, the winter being passed in the +pupa stage. The insect lives but a short time in the adult stage and the +egg stage is but two or three weeks. Most of the summer is devoted to +the caterpillar phase of its life. + +These creatures are entirely harmless. They seldom appear in numbers +sufficient to make them of economic importance. + + + + +LEAFLET XV. + +A TALK ABOUT SPIDERS.[19] + +BY J. H. COMSTOCK. + + +[19] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 9: Leaflet 22. May, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +Of all our little neighbors of the fields there are none that are more +universally shunned and feared than spiders, and few that deserve it +less. There is a wide-spread belief that spiders are dangerous, that +they are liable to bite, and that their bites are very venomous. Now +this may be true of certain large species that live in hot countries; +but the spiders of the Northern United States are practically harmless. + +It is true, spiders bite and inject venom sufficient to kill a fly into +the wound made by their jaws. But they are exceedingly shy creatures, +fearing man more than they are to be feared. If an observer will refrain +from picking up a spider there is not the slightest danger of being +bitten by one; and excepting a single uncommon species no spider is +known in this part of the country whose bite would seriously affect a +human being. + +On the other hand, spiders do much to keep in check various insect +pests, and hence must be regarded as our friends. It is, however, from a +different point of view that we wish to look upon them at this time. It +is as illustrations of remarkable development of instinctive powers, and +of wonderful correlation of structure and habit, that we would have the +reader study these creatures. The teacher of nature-study can find no +more available or more fertile field from which to take subjects for +interesting children in the world about us. Let us then put aside our +fears and go into the fields and see whether we can learn something of +the ways of these spinners. + + +THE FUNNEL-WEB WEAVERS. + +Often on summer mornings the grass of the roadsides and fields is seen +to be carpeted with little sheets of glistening silk, the webs of the +grass-spider. None were observed the day before; and we wonder at the +sudden appearance of this host of weavers. Later in the day the webs +have vanished! Have the weavers rolled them up and carried them off? We +remember that there was an especially fine one near the end of the +veranda steps; we examine the place carefully and find that it is still +there, but not so conspicuous as it was. The warm sun has dissipated the +dew which rendered visible to our dull eyes the tapestry of the fields. +Now that our eyes are opened we can find the webs everywhere and are +impressed with a suspicion that perhaps ordinarily we see very little of +what is around us. + +We examine one of the webs carefully and find that it is a closely woven +sheet made of threads running in all directions; that it is attached to +spears of grass, and supported by numerous guy lines, and that from one +side a funnel-like tube extends downwards. If, while we are watching, an +insect alights on the sheet, there darts from the tunnel, where she was +concealed, the owner of the web, a dark-colored spider; and the insect +must be agile if it escapes. + +If you attempt to catch the spider it retreats to its tunnel; and when +you examine the tunnel the spider is not there. You find that the tube +is open below, that there is a back door by which the spider can escape +when hard pressed. + +We call those spiders that makes webs of this kind _The Funnel-web +Weavers_. They are long-legged, brown spiders, which run on the upper +surface of their webs; these are usually made on grass, but sometimes +they are found in the angles of buildings, and in quite high places. + + +THE COBWEB WEAVERS. + +The webs that we most often find in the corners of rooms are of a +different kind and are made by the members of a family known as _The +Cobweb Weavers_. In these webs there is not such a definite sheet of +silk as in those of the funnel-web weavers, but instead a shapeless maze +of threads extending in all directions. Many of the cobweb weavers, +however, make their webs in the fields on bushes, and weave in them a +flat or curved sheet, under which the spider hangs back downward. The +funnel-web weavers run right side up; the cobweb weavers hang inverted. +Some of the cobweb weavers do not remain in their webs, but have a nest +in a neighboring crack or corner, from which they rush to seize their +prey, and sometimes there is a funnel-shaped tube leading to their nest. +But these spiders differ from the true funnel-web weavers in running +back downwards on the lower side of their webs. + + +THE ORB WEAVERS. + +The spider webs that most often excite admiration are those in which the +supporting threads radiate from a center like the spokes of a wheel, and +bear a spiral thread. Such webs are known as orb-webs; and the family of +spiders that make them, _The Orb Weavers_. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 91. Nearly completed orb-web._] + +Few if any of the structures built by lower animals are more wonderful +than these webs; but they are so common that they are often considered +hardly worthy of notice. If they occurred only in some remote corner of +the earth, every one would read of them with interest. + +The webs or nets of the different species of orb weavers differ in the +details of their structure; but the general plan is quite similar. There +is first a framework of supporting lines. The outer part of this +framework is irregular, depending upon the position of the objects to +which the net is attached; but the central part is very regular, and +consists of a number of lines radiating from the center of the net (Fig. +91). All of these supporting lines are dry and inelastic. Touch them +with your pencil and you find that they neither stretch nor adhere to +it. Upon these radiating lines there is fastened in a very regular +manner a thread which is sticky and elastic. This will adhere to your +pencil, and will stretch several times its normal length before +breaking. Usually this sticky thread is fastened to the radiating lines +so as to form a spiral; but a few species make nets in which it is +looped back and forth. And even in the nets where the greater part of +the thread is in a spiral there are in most cases a few loops near the +lower margin (Fig. 91). Examine the next orb-web you find and see +whether it is true in that case. + +Many of the orb weavers strengthen their nets by spinning a zigzag +ribbon across the center. This ribbon is made by spreading apart the +spinnerets, the organs from which the silk is spun, and which will be +described later. Ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are held close +together so that they form a single thread, but by spreading them apart +many threads can be spun at once, thus forming a ribbon. + +Some orb weavers are not content with making a simple zigzag band across +the center of the net, but weave an elaborate bit of lace in this +position. Fig. 92 is from a photograph of the center of the net of one +of these spiders, which was found near Ithaca. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 92. Lace-like hub of an orb-web._] + +In studying the various kinds of orb-webs one should pay particular +attention to the center of the web; for this part differs greatly in the +webs of the different species. There is usually a _hub_ composed +entirely of dry and inelastic silk woven in an irregular manner; outside +of this there are several turns of a spiral thread which is also dry; +this constitutes the _notched zone_, a name suggested by the fact that +the spiral line is attached for a short space to each radius it crosses, +thus giving the line a notched course. In many cases it is here, on the +hub and the notched zone, that the spider waits for its prey; and it is +obvious that sticky silk in this place would be objectionable. Between +the notched zone and the _spiral zone_, the part furnished with the +sticky spiral thread, there is a clear space, the _free zone_, crossed +only by the radii. This gives the spider an opportunity to pass from one +side of the web to the other without going around the entire web. + +Some orb weavers do not wait upon the hub but have a retreat near one +edge of the net, in which they hang back downwards. While resting in +these retreats they keep hold of some of the lines leading from the net, +so that they can instantly detect any jar caused by an entrapped insect. + +When an insect in its flight touches one of the turns of the sticky line +the line adheres to it, but it stretches so as to allow the insect to +become entangled in other turns of the line. If it were not for this +elasticity of the sticky line, most insects could readily tear +themselves away before the spider had time to reach them. + +In running over its net the spider steps upon the radii, carefully +avoiding the sticky line; otherwise it would destroy its own net. The +rapidity with which a spider can cross its net without touching the +sticky line is remarkable. + +In making its web an orb weaver first spins a number of lines extending +irregularly in various directions about the place where its orb is to +be; this is the outer supporting framework. Often the first line spun is +a bridge between two quite distant points, as the branches of two +separate bushes. How did the spider cross the gulf? It has no wings. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 93. Nearly completed orb-web._] + +The bridge building can be easily seen on a warm summer evening, the +time at which the spiders are most active repairing their old nets and +building new ones. The spider lifts the hind end of its body and spins +forth a thread; this is carried off by the wind, until, finally striking +some object, it becomes fast to it. The spider then pulls in the slack +line, like a sailor, and when the line is taut fastens it to the object +on which it is standing, and the bridge is formed. + +After making the outward framework, the radiating lines are formed. A +line is stretched across the space so as to pass through the point which +is to be the center of the orb. In doing this the spider may start on +one side, and be forced to walk in a very roundabout way on the outer +framework to the opposite side. It carefully holds the new line up +behind it as it goes along, so that it shall not become entangled with +the lines on which it walks; one or both hind feet serve as hands in +these spinning operations; for, as the spider has eight feet, it can +spare one or two for other purposes than locomotion. When the desired +point is reached the slack is pulled in and the line fastened. The +spider then goes to the point where the center of the orb is to be, and, +fastening another line, it walks back to the outer framework, and +attaches this line an inch or two from the first. In this way all of the +radiating lines are drawn. The next step is to stay these radii by a +spiral line, which is begun near the center, and attached to each radius +as it crosses it. The turns of this spiral are as far apart as the +spider can conveniently reach. + +All of the threads spun up to this stage in the construction of the web +are dry and inelastic. The spider now proceeds to stretch upon this +framework a sticky and elastic line, which is the most important part of +the web, the other lines being merely a framework to support it. In +spinning the sticky line, the spider begins at the outer edge of the +orb, and passing around it, fastens this line to each radius as it goes. +Thus a second spiral is made. The turns of this spiral are placed quite +close together, and the first spiral, which is merely a temporary +support, is destroyed as the second spiral progresses. Fig. 93 +represents a web in which the second spiral is made over the outer half +of the radii. In this figure, _aa_ represents the temporary stayline; +_bb_, the sticky spiral; and _cc_, the fragments of the first spiral +hanging from the radii. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 94. Wasp, with head, thorax and abdomen +separated._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 95. Spider, showing division of the body into +cephalothorax and abdomen._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 96. Lower side of cephalothorax of a spider;_ md_, +mandible;_ mx_, maxilla;_ p_, palpus;_ l_, lower lip;_ s_, sternum._] + + +THE PARTS OF A SPIDER. + +Spiders differ much in appearance from the true insects. In the insects +the body is composed of three regions: the head; the thorax, to which +the legs are attached; and the abdomen or hind part of the body (Fig. +94). In the spiders the head and thorax are grown together, forming a +region which is known as the _cephalothorax_; to this the _abdomen_ is +joined by a short, narrow stalk (Fig. 95). Spiders differ also from +insects in the number of their legs, spiders having eight legs and +insects only six. + +Spiders have two pairs of jaws, which, except in the Tarantula family, +move sidewise like the jaws of insects. The first pair of jaws are +called the _mandibles_. Each mandible consists of two segments, a strong +basal one and a claw-shaped terminal one, at the tip of which the poison +gland opens (Fig. 96). The second pair of jaws is known as the +_maxillæ_. These jaws are situated just behind the mandibles, one on +each side of the mouth. Each maxilla bears a large feeler or _palpus_. +These palpi vary greatly in form; frequently, especially in females, +they resemble legs; hence many spiders appear to have five pairs of +legs. In the male spiders the last segment of the palpus is more or less +enlarged, ending in a complicated, knob-like structure (Fig. 97). It is +thus easy to determine the sex of a spider by merely examining the +palpi. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 97. Maxilla and palpus of male house-spider._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 98. Head of spider, showing eyes and mandibles._] + +The greater number of spiders have four pairs of eyes (Fig. 98), but +there may be only one, two, or three pairs; and certain cave spiders are +blind. The eyes appear like little gems set in the front of the +cephalothorax. They are most prominent in the jumping spiders, which +stalk their prey on plants, logs, fences, and the sides of buildings. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 99. Spinnerets of a spider._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 100. A group of spinning tubes._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 101. Viscid silk from an orb-web._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 102. Spinnerets and cribellum of a curled-thread +weaver._] + +The most characteristic feature of spiders is their spinning organs. The +silk is secreted in glands within the abdomen, and while in the body it +is a fluid. It passes out through the _spinnerets_, which are situated +near the hind end of the abdomen. There are two or three pairs of +spinnerets. These are more or less finger-like in form, and sometimes +jointed (Fig. 99). Upon the end of each spinneret there are many small +tubes, the _spinning tubes_ (Fig. 100), from which the silk is spun. +Some spiders have as many as one hundred and fifty or two hundred of +these spinning tubes on each spinneret. + +Ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are brought close together, so +that all of the minute threads that emerge from the numerous spinning +tubes unite to form a single thread. Hence this tiny thread, which is so +delicate that we can see it only when the light falls on it in a +favorable way, is composed of hundreds of threads. It is not like a +rope, composed of separate strands; for all the minute threads fuse +together into a single thread. The change in the silk from a fluid to a +solid cord, strong enough to support the weight of the spider, must take +place quickly after the silk comes in contact with the air on leaving +the spinning tubes; the minute size of the threads coming from the +spinning tubes doubtless facilitates this change. + +Sometimes a spider will spread its spinnerets apart, and thus spin a +broad ribbon-like band. We have seen a spider seize a large grasshopper +which was entangled in its web, and rolling it over two or three times, +completely envelop it in a sheet of silk spun from its spread-apart +spinnerets. We have already described bands spun by orb weavers across +the hub of the net in this way. + +It is supposed that the two kinds of silk spun by the orb weavers are +spun from different spinnerets, and that the viscid silk comes from the +front pair. When this silk is first spun, the viscid matter forms a +continuous layer of liquid on the outside of it. But very soon this +layer breaks up into bead-like masses--in a way similar to that in which +the moisture on a clothes line on a foggy day collects into drops (Fig. +101). + +There are two families of spiders that have spinning organs differing +from those of all other spiders. They have in front of the usual +spinnerets an additional organ, which is named the _cribellum_ (Fig. +102, c). This bears spinning tubes like the other spinnerets, +but these tubes are much finer. These spiders have also on the +next-to-the-last segment of the hind legs one or two rows of curved +spines; this organ is the _calamistrum_ (Fig. 103). By means of the +calamistrum these spiders comb from the cribellum a band of loose +threads which form a part of their webs. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 103. Last two segments of hind leg of spider, +showing calamistrum._] + + +THE CURLED-THREAD WEAVERS. + +The spiders possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum represent two +families, one of which makes irregular webs; the other, those which are +of definite form. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 104. Web of a curled-thread weaver._] + +An irregular web of a curled-thread weaver is shown in Fig. 104, from a +photograph. In this web the framework is of ordinary silk; and upon this +framework is placed a band of curled or tangled threads (Fig. 105). An +insect alighting on a net of this kind is likely to get its feet caught +in the tangled silk, and to be held fast till the spider can pounce upon +it. Nets of this kind are found on bushes and on the sides of buildings. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 105. Fragment of a curled-thread weaver's web, +enlarged._] + +There are two quite distinct types of regular webs made by spiders +possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum. One is a round web which +resembles at first sight those of the orb weavers; but it differs from +the ordinary orb-web in that the spiral thread is made of curled or +hackled silk. These webs are nearly horizontal, and are usually made +between stones or in low bushes; they are not common. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 106. Web of the triangle spider._] + +The other type is represented by the web of the triangle spider. This +web is most often found stretched between the twigs of a dead branch of +pine or hemlock. At first sight it appears like a fragment of an orb-web +(Fig. 106); but a little study will show that it is complete. The +accompanying figure, by Dr. B. G. Wilder, who first described the habits +of this spider ("Popular Science Monthly," 1875) illustrates the form of +the web. It consists of four plain lines corresponding to the radiating +lines of an orb-web, and a series of cross lines, which are spun by the +cribellum and calamistrum. Each cross line is composed of two lines, +about 1/500 of an inch apart. These double lines take the place of the +curled threads woven by other members of the family to which the +triangle spider belongs. From the point where the radiating lines meet, +a strong line extends to one of the supporting twigs. Near this twig the +spider rests, pulling the web tight so that there is some loose line +between its legs, as shown in the enlarged figure. When an insect +becomes entangled in one of the cross lines, the spider suddenly lets go +the loose line so that the whole web springs forward, and the insect is +entangled in other cross lines. The spider then draws the web tight and +snaps it again. This may be repeated several times before the spider +goes out upon the web after its prey. + +The triangle spider is a tiny fellow, and so closely resembles the color +of the dead branch near which it rests that it is very difficult to +find; its web is more easily seen, though it usually requires careful +searching to discover it. + + +THE MOTHERHOOD OF SPIDERS. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 107. Egg-sac of a spider._] + +As a rule young spiders are forced to shift for themselves, and a very +hard time they have; but of this we have not space to write. With +spiders, the mother's care is devoted chiefly to furnishing protection +to her helpless eggs. These are placed in silken sacs, which are often +very elaborate in construction and protected with great care. + +The most common egg-sacs are those found in the fields attached to +stones and pieces of wood (Fig. 107). They are disk-shaped objects, +silvery in color, and about the size of an old-fashioned three-cent +piece. + +The egg-sacs of the cobweb weavers can be found suspended in their webs; +and those of the orb weavers, in various situations. Fig. 108 represents +the large egg-sac of one of the orb weavers. This is made in the autumn, +and contains at that season a large number of eggs--five hundred or +more. These eggs hatch early in the winter; but no spiders emerge from +the egg-sac until the following spring. If egg-sacs of this kind be +opened at different times during the winter, the spiders will be found +to increase in size but diminish in numbers as the season advances. In +fact, a strange tragedy goes on within these egg-sacs: the stronger +spiders calmly devour their weaker brothers, and in the spring those +that survive emerge sufficiently nourished to fight their battles in the +outside world. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 108. Egg-sac of an orb weaver._] + +The females of the _Running Spiders_ not only make a carefully +constructed egg-sac, but also care for the young spiders for a time. The +running spiders are the large dark-colored, hairy spiders, often found +under stones and rubbish; they are so-called because they capture their +prey by running. The females of most of the species (those of the genus +_Lycosa_) drag after them their egg-sac, which is attached to the +spinnerets (Fig. 109); and when the young hatch, they climb on their +mother's back, and are carried about for a time. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 109. Lycosa and egg-sac._] + +One of the running spiders (_Dolomedes_) carries her egg-sac with her +mandibles until the young are ready to emerge. At this time the mother +fastens the egg-sac in a bush, and spins irregular threads about it, +among which the young spiders remain for a time (Fig. 110). In the +specimen figured, the egg-sac was concealed in the upper part of the +web. + + +THE BALLOONING SPIDERS. + +In warm autumn days, innumerable threads can be seen streaming from +fences, bushes, and the tips of stalks of grass, or floating through the +air. These are made by the _Ballooning Spiders_, which are able to +travel long distances, hundreds of miles, through the air by means of +these silken threads. + +The ballooning spider climbs to some elevated point, and then, standing +on the tips of its feet, lifts its body as high as it can, and spins out +a thread of silk. This thread is carried up and away by a current of +air. When the thread is long enough the force of the air current on it +is sufficient to bear the spider up. It then lets go its hold with its +feet and sails away. That these spiders travel long distances in this +manner has been shown by the fact that they have been seen floating +through the air at sea far from land. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 110. Nursery of Dolomedes. _] + + + + +LEAFLET XVI. + +LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD.[20] + +BY S. H. GAGE.[21] + + +[20] Teachers' Leaflet, No. 9, May, 1897. + +[21] It was the desire of the author to tell the story of this leaflet +in pictures as well as in words, and he wishes to express his +appreciation of the enthusiasm and ability with which the illustrations +were executed by Mr. C. W. Furlong. + +In this edition are added half-tone reproductions of photographs to +bring out more completely the life story. + +On account of its economic importance, and because the marvelous changes +passed through in growing from an egg to a toad are so rapid that they +may all be seen during a single spring term of school, the common +or warty toad has been selected as the subject of a leaflet in +nature-study. Toads are found everywhere in New York, and nearly +everywhere in the world; it is easy, therefore, to get abundant material +for study. This animal is such a good friend to the farmer, the +gardener, the fruit-grower, the florist and the stock-raiser that every +man and woman, every boy and girl, ought to know something about it. + +Furthermore, it is hoped and sincerely believed that the feeling of +repugnance and dislike, and the consequent cruelty to toads, will +disappear when teachers and children learn something about their +wonderful changes in form, structure and habits, and how harmless and +helpful they are. Then, who that knows of the chances, the dangers and +struggles in the life of the toad, can help a feeling of sympathy; for +after all, how like our human life it is. Where sympathy is, cruelty is +impossible, and one comes to feel the spirit of these beautiful lines +from Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner:" + + "_He prayeth best who loveth best + All things both great and small; + For the dear God who loveth us + He made and loveth all._" + +It was William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, +who first clearly stated the fact that every animal comes from an egg. +This is as true of a toad as of a chicken. + +The toad lives on the land and often a long way from any pond or stream, +but the first part of its life is spent in the water; and so it is in +the water that the eggs must be looked for. To find the eggs one should +visit the natural or artificial ponds so common along streams. Ponds +from springs or even artificial reservoirs or the basins around +fountains, also may contain the eggs. The time for finding the eggs +depends on the season. The toad observes the season, not the almanac. In +ordinary years, the best time is from the middle of April to the first +of May. + +One is often guided to the right place by noticing the direction from +which the song or call of the toad comes. The call of the toad is more +or less like that of the tree toads. In general it sounds like +whistling, and at the same time pronouncing deep in the throat, +bu-rr-r-r-r-. If one watches a toad while it makes its call, one can +soon learn to distinguish the sound from others somewhat similar. It +will be found that different toads have slightly different voices, and +the same one can vary the tone considerably, so that it is not so easy +after all to distinguish the many batrachian solos and choruses on a +spring or summer evening. It will be noticed that the toad does not open +its mouth when it sings, but, instead, the resonator or vocal sac under +its mouth and throat is greatly expanded. One must be careful to +distinguish the expansion of the mouth in breathing from the expansion +of the vocal sac. See the left hand toad in the drawing (Fig. 111) for +the vocal sac, and the toad in hibernation (Fig. 121) for the expansion +of the mouth in breathing. It is only the males that possess the vocal +sac, so that the toad chorus is composed solely of male voices. + +The eggs are laid in long strings or ropes which are nearly always +tangled and wound round the water plants or sticks on the bottom of the +pond. If the pond is large and deep, the eggs are laid near the shore +where the water is shallow. If the eggs have been freshly laid in clear +water the egg ropes will look like glass tubes containing a string of +jet black beads. After a rain the eggs are obscured by the fine mud that +settles on the transparent jelly surrounding them, but the jelly is much +more evident than in the freshly laid egg strings. + +Secure enough of the egg string to include 50 or 100 eggs and place it +in a glass fruit dish or a basin with clean water from the pond where +the eggs were found. Let the children look at the eggs very carefully +and note the color and the exact shape. Let them see whether the color +is the same on all sides. If the eggs are newly laid they will be nearly +perfect spheres. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 111. The toad in various stages of development from +the egg to the adult_] + +Frogs, salamanders and tree toads lay their eggs in the same places and +at about the same time as the toad we are to study. Only the toad lays +its eggs in strings, so one can be sure he has the right kind. The +others lay their eggs in bunches or singly on the plants, so they never +need be mistaken for the ones sought. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 112. Just hatched toad tadpoles climbing up where +the water is better aerated._] + +The eggs which are taken to the school house for study should be kept +in a light place; an east, south or west window is best. + +It requires only a short time for the eggs to hatch. In warm weather two +to four days are usually sufficient, but in the cool days of April it +may require ten days. As the changes are so very rapid, the eggs ought +to be carefully looked at two or three times a day to make sure that all +the principal changes are seen. If a pocket lens or a reading glass is +to be had it will add to the interest, as more of the details can be +observed. But good sharp eyes are sufficient if no lens is available. + +_Hatching._--Watch and see how long it is before the developing embryos +commence to move. Note their change in form. As they elongate they move +more vigorously till on the second or third day they wriggle out of the +jelly surrounding them. This is hatching, and they are now free in the +water and can swim about. It is curious to see them hang themselves up +on the old egg string or on the edge of the dish (Fig. 112). They do +this by means of a peculiar v-shaped organ on their heads. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 113. Older toad tadpoles with their heads up._] + +How different the little creatures are, which have just hatched, from +the grown up toad which laid the eggs! The difference is about as great +as that between a caterpillar and a butterfly. + +_Tadpoles, polliwogs._--We call the young of the frog, the toad and the +tree toad, tadpoles or polliwogs. The toad tadpoles are black. As they +increase in size they may become greyish. Those raised in the house are +usually darker than those growing in nature. + +The tadpoles will live for some time in clear water with apparently +nothing to eat. This is because in each egg is some food, just as there +is a large supply of food within the egg shell to give the chicken a +good start in life. But when the food that the mother supplied in the +egg is used up, the little tadpoles would die if they could not find +some food for themselves. They must grow a great deal before they can +turn into toads; and just like children and other young animals, to grow +they must have plenty of food. + +_Feeding the tadpoles._--To feed the tadpoles it is necessary to imitate +nature as closely as possible. To do this, a visit to the pond where the +eggs were found will give the clue. Many plants are present, and the +bottom will be seen to slope gradually from the shore. The food of the +tadpole is the minute plant life on the stones, the surface of the mud, +or on the outside of the larger plants. + +One must not attempt to raise too many tadpoles in the artificial pond +in the laboratory or school-room or there will not be enough food, and +all will be half starved, or some will get the food and the rest will +starve to death. While there may be thousands of tadpoles in the natural +pond, it will be readily seen that, compared with the amount of water +present, there are really rather few. + +Probably many more were hatched in the school-house than can be raised +in the artificial pond. Return the ones not put in the artificial pond +to the natural pond. It would be too bad to throw them out on the ground +to die. + +_Comparing the growth of the tadpoles._--Even when one does his best it +is hard to make an artificial pond so good as the natural one for the +tadpoles, and the teacher will find it very interesting and stimulating +to compare the growth and change in the tadpoles at the school-house +with those in the natural pond. + +As growth depends on the supply of food and the suitability of the +environment, it is easy to judge how nearly the artificial pond equals +the natural pond for raising tadpoles. It will be worth while to take a +tadpole from the natural pond occasionally and put it in with those at +the school-house, so that the differences may be more strikingly shown. +There is some danger in making a mistake here, however, for there may be +three or four kinds of tadpoles in the natural pond. Those of the toad +are almost jet black when young, while the others are more or less +brownish. If one selects only the very black ones they will probably be +toad tadpoles. + +Every week or oftener, some water plants, and perhaps a small stone +covered with the growth of microscopic plants, and some water, should be +taken from the pond to the artificial pond. The water will supply the +place of that which has evaporated, and the water plants will carry a +new supply of food. If the water in the artificial pond in the +school-room does not remain clear, it should be carefully dipped out and +fresh clear water added. It is better to get the water from the pond +where the eggs were laid, although any clear water will answer; but do +not use distilled water. + +The growth and changes in form should be looked for every day. Then it +is very interesting to see what the tadpoles do, how they eat, and any +signs of breathing. + +All the changes from an egg to a little toad (Fig. 111), are passed +through in one or two months, so that by the first of June the tadpoles +will be found to have made great progress. The progress will be not only +in size, but in form and action. + +One of these actions should be watched with especial care, for it means +a great deal. At first the little tadpoles remain under water all the +time, and do not seem to know or care that there is a great world above +the water. But as they grow larger and larger, they rush up to the +surface once in awhile and then dive down again, as if their lives +depended on it. The older they grow the oftener do they come to the +surface. This is even more marked in the large tadpole of the bullfrog. +What is the meaning of this? Probably most of the pupils can guess +correctly; but it took scientific men a long time to find out just why +this was done. The real reason is that the tadpole is getting ready to +breathe the free air above the water when it turns into a toad and lives +on the land. At first the little tadpoles breathe the air dissolved in +the water, just as a fish does. This makes it plain why an artificial +pond should have a broad surface exposed to the air. If one should use a +narrow and deep vessel, like a fruit jar, only a small amount of air +could be taken up by the water and the tadpoles would be half +suffocated. + +As the tadpoles grow older they go oftener to the surface to get the air +directly from the limitless supply above the water, as they will have to +do when they live wholly in the air. + +_Disappearance of the tail._--From the first to the middle of June the +tadpoles should be watched with especial care, for wonderful things are +happening. Both the fore and hind legs will appear, if they have not +already. The head will change in form and so will the body; the color +will become much lighter, and, but for the tail, the tadpole will begin +to look something like its mother. + +If you keep an especially sharp lookout, do you think you will see the +tail drop off? No, toad nature is too economical for that. The tail +will not drop off, but it will be seen to get shorter and shorter every +day; it is not dropping off, but is being carried into the tadpole. The +tail is perfect at every stage; it simply disappears. How does this +happen? This is another thing that it took scientific men a long time to +find out. + +It is now known that there are two great methods for removing parts of +the body no longer needed. In the first method the living particles in +the body which are able to wander all around, as if they were inspectors +to see that everything is in order, may go to the part to be removed and +take it up piece by piece. These living particles are known as white +blood corpuscles, wandering cells, phagocytes, leucocytes and several +other names. In the other method, the blood and the lymph going to the +part to be removed dissolve it particle by particle. Apparently the toad +tadpole's tail is dissolved by the blood and lymph rather than being +eaten up by the phagocytes, although the phagocytes do a part of the +work. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 114. Transforming tadpole of the green tree toad to +show the rapidity of tail absorption._ (_Change in 24 hours. Natural +size._) + +_HVLA--Natural size. Change in 24 hours; 28 mm. of tail absorbed in 24 +hours; 1-1/6 mm. per hour. Common toad shortens the tail about 1/5 mm. +per hour._] + +Now, when the tadpole is ready to dispense with its tail, the blood and +lymph and the phagocytes take it up particle by particle and carry it +back into the body where it can be used just as any other good food +would be. This taking in of the tail is done so carefully that the skin +epithelium or epidermis is never broken, but covers up the outside +perfectly all the time. Is not this a better way to get rid of a tail +than to cut it off? + +If you look at the picture of the disappearance of the tail in the toad +tadpole (Fig. 115) and in the tree-toad tadpole (Fig. 114), you will get +an idea how rapidly this takes place. It is easier to see the actual +shortening if the tadpoles are put in a white dish of clear water +without any water plants. The tadpoles do not eat anything while they +are changing to toads, so they will not need to be fed. + +_Beginning of the life on the land._--Now, when the legs are grown out, +and the tail is getting shorter, the little tadpole likes to put its +nose out of the water into the air; and sometimes it crawls half way +out. When the tail gets quite short, often a mere stub, it will crawl +out entirely and stay for some time in the air. It now looks really like +a toad except that it is nearly smooth instead of being warty, and is +only about as large as the end of a child's little finger (Fig. 115). + +Finally, the time comes when the tadpole, now transformed into a toad, +must leave the water for the land. + +What queer feelings the little toad must have when the soft, smooth +bottom of the pond and the pretty plants, and the water that supported +it so nicely are all to be left behind for the hard, rough, dry land! +But the little toad must take the step. It is no longer a tadpole, or +half tadpole and half toad. It cannot again dive into the cool, soft +water when the air and the sunshine dry and scorch it. As countless +generations of little toads have done before, it pushes boldly out over +the land and away from the water. + +If one visits the natural pond at about this season (last half of June, +first of July), he is likely to see many of the little fellows hopping +away from the water. And so vigorously do they hop along that in a few +days they may be as far as a mile from the pond where they were hatched. +After a warm shower they are particularly active, and are then most +commonly seen. Many think they rained down. "They were not seen before +the rain, so they must have rained down." Is that good reasoning? + +The little toad is careful and during the hot and sunny part of the day +stays in the shade of the grass or leaves or in some other moist and +shady place. If it staid out in the sun too long it would be liable to +dry up. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 115. Toad development in a single season_ (_1903_). + +_1-18. Changes and growth, April to November. 1-13. Development in 25 to +60 days._ + +_15-18. Different sizes, October 21, 1903. 9, 14. Different sizes, July +30, 1903._ + +_10, 11. The same tadpole,--11, 47 hours older than 10._ + +_12, 13. The same tadpole,--13, 47 hours older than 12._] + + +FOOD ON THE LAND. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 116. Toad catching a winged insect, and +illustrating how the tongue is extended and brought in contact with the +insect. Several other creatures that the toad might eat are shown in +various parts of the picture._] + +In the water the tadpole eats vegetable matter; but when it becomes a +toad and gets on the land it will touch nothing but animal food, and +that must be so fresh that it is alive and moving. This food consists of +every creeping, crawling or flying thing that is small enough to be +swallowed. While it will not touch a piece of fresh meat lying on the +ground, woe to moving snail, insect or worm that comes within its reach! + +It is by the destruction of insects and worms that the toad helps men so +greatly. The insects and worms eat the grain, the fruits and the +flowers. They bite and sting the animals and give men no end of trouble. +The toad is not partial, but takes any live thing that gets near it, +whether it is caterpillar, fly, spider, centipede or thousand-legged +worm; and it does not stop even there, but will gobble up a hornet or a +yellow jacket without the least hesitation. + +It is astonishing to see the certainty with which a toad can catch these +flying or crawling things. The way the toad does this may be observed by +watching one out of doors some summer evening or after a shower; but it +is more satisfactory to have a nearer view. Put a large toad into a box, +or better, into a glass dish with some moist sand on the bottom. In a +little while, if one is gentle, the toad will become tame, and then if +flies and other insects are caught with a sweep net and put into the +dish and the top covered with mosquito netting one can watch the process +of capture. It is very quickly accomplished, and one must look sharply. +As shown in the little picture (Fig. 116), the toad's tongue is +fastened at the front part of its mouth, not back in the throat as with +men, dogs, cats and most animals. It is so nicely arranged that it can +be extended for quite a distance. On it is a sticky secretion, and when, +quick as a flash, the tongue is thrown out or extended, if it touches +the insect, the insect is caught as if by sticky fly paper, and is taken +into the mouth. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 117. Toad making a meal of an angle worm._] + +Think how many insects and worms a toad could destroy in a single +summer. Practically every insect and worm destroyed adds to the produce +of the garden and the farm, or takes away one cause of discomfort to men +and animals. One observer reports that a single toad disposed of +twenty-four caterpillars in ten minutes, and another ate thirty-five +celery worms within three hours. He estimates that a good-sized toad +will destroy nearly 10,000 insects and worms in a single summer. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 118. Two newts feasting on tadpoles._] + + +ENEMIES--THE SHADOW SIDE OF LIFE. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 119. In danger from a crow._] + +So far nothing has been said about the troubles and dangers of the +toad's life. Fig. 111 is meant to show the main phases in the +life-history. If one looks at it perhaps he may wonder what becomes of +all the tadpoles that first hatch, as only two toads are shown at the +top. Is not this something like the other life-histories? How many +little robins or chickens die and never become full-grown birds! Well, +the dangers to the toad begin at once. Suppose the eggs are laid in a +pond that dries up before the little toads can get ready to live on the +land; in that case they all die. The mother toads sometimes do make the +mistake of laying the eggs in ponds that dry up in a little while. You +will not let the artificial pond at the school-house dry up, will you? +Then sometimes there is an especially dry summer, and only those that +transform very early from tadpoles to toads are saved. + +In the little picture (Fig. 118) is shown another source of danger and +cause for the diminution in numbers. The newts and salamanders find +young tadpoles very good eating and they make way with hundreds of them. +Some die from what are called natural causes, that is, diseases, or +possibly they eat something that does not agree with them. So that while +there were multitudes of eggs (1,000 or more from each toad), and of +just hatched tadpoles, the number has become sadly lessened by the time +the brood is ready to leave the water. + +Then when they set foot on land, their dangers are not passed. They may +be parched by summer's heat or crushed under the feet of men or cattle. +Birds and snakes like them for food. Figs. 119 and 120 show some of +these dangers. Is it a wonder, then, that of all the multitudes of +tadpoles so few grow up to be large toads? + +We have so few helpers to keep the noxious insects in check, it is not +believed that any boy or girl who knows this wonderful story of a toad's +life will join the crows, the snakes and the salamanders in worrying or +destroying their good friends. + + +MOULTING AND HIBERNATION. + +There are two very interesting things that happen in the life of many of +the lower animals; they happen to the toad also. These are moulting, or +change of skin, and hibernation, or winter sleep. Every boy and girl +ought to know about these, and then, if on the lookout, some or all of +the things will be seen. + +_Moulting._--Probably everybody who lives in the country has seen a +snake's skin without any snake in it. It is often very perfect. When the +outside skin or cuticle of a snake or a toad gets old and dry or too +tight for it, a new covering grows underneath, and the old one is shed. +This is a very interesting performance, but the toad usually sheds it in +a retired place, so the process is not often seen. Those who have seen +it say that a long crack or tear appears along the back and in front. +The toad keeps moving and wriggling to loosen the old cuticle. This +peels the cuticle off the sides. Now, to get it off the legs and feet, +the toad puts its leg under its arm, or front leg, and in that way pulls +off the old skin as if it were a stocking. But when the front legs are +to be stripped the mouth is used as is sometimes done by people in +pulling off their gloves. Do you think it uses its teeth for this +purpose? You might look in a toad's mouth sometime, and then you would +know. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 120. Snakes frequently swallow toads hind legs +foremost, as shown in the picture. This is especially true of the garter +snake, which is a great enemy of the toad._] + +It is said that when the skin is finally pulled off the toad swallows +it. This is true in some cases; at least it is worth while keeping watch +for. It is certain that the toad sometimes swallows the cast skin; it is +also certain that in some cases the cast skin is not swallowed. After a +toad has shed his old skin, he looks a great deal brighter and cleaner +than before, as if he had just got a new suit of clothes. If you see +one with a particularly bright skin, you will now know what it means. + +_Hibernation._--The toad is a cold-blooded animal. This means that the +temperature of its blood is nearly like that of the surrounding air. +Men, horses, cows, dogs, are said to be warm-blooded, for their blood is +warm and of about the some temperature whether the surrounding air is +cold or hot. + +When the air is too cool, the toad becomes stupid and inactive. In +September or October a few toads may be seen on warm days or evenings, +but the number seen becomes smaller and smaller; and finally, as the +cold November weather comes on, none are seen. Where are they? The toad +seems to know that winter is coming, that the insects and worms will +disappear, so that no food can be found. It must go into a kind of +death-like sleep, in which it hardly moves or breathes. This winter +sleep or hibernation must be passed in some safe and protected place. If +the toad were to freeze and thaw with every change in the weather it +would not wake up in the spring. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 121. Toad in the winter sleep._ (_Natural size_).] + +The wonderful foresight which instinct gives it, makes the toad select +some comparatively soft earth in a protected place where it can bury +itself. The earth chosen is moist, but not wet. If it were dry the toad +would dry up before spring. It is not uncommon for farmers and gardeners +to plough them up late in the fall or early in the spring. Also in +digging cellars at about these times they are found occasionally. + +In burying itself the toad digs with its hind legs and body, and pushes +itself backward into the hole with the front legs. The earth caves in as +the animal backs into the ground, so that no sign is left on the +outside. Once in far enough to escape the freezing and thawing of +winter, the toad moves around till there is a little chamber slightly +larger than its body; then it draws its legs up close, shuts its eyes, +puts its head down between or on its hands, and goes to sleep and sleeps +for five months or more. + +When the warm days of spring come it wakes up, crawls out of bed and +begins to take interest in life again. It looks around for insects and +worms, and acts as if it had had only a comfortable nap. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 122. The same toad awake in the spring._ (_Natural +size_).] + +The little toad that you saw hatch from an egg into a tadpole and then +turn to a toad, would hibernate for two or three winters, and by that +time it would be quite a large toad. After it had grown up and had +awakened from its winter sleep some spring, it would have a strong +impulse to get back to the pond where it began life as an egg years +before. Once there it would lay a great number of eggs, perhaps as many +as a thousand or two, for a new generation of toads. And this would +complete its life cycle. + +While the toad completes its life cycle when it returns to the water and +lays eggs for a new generation, it may live many years afterward and lay +eggs many times, perhaps every year. + +Many insects, some fish and other animals, die after laying their eggs. +For such animals the completion of the life cycle ends the life-history +also. But unless the toad meets with some accident it goes back to its +land home after laying the eggs, and may live in the same garden or +dooryard for many years, as many as eight years, and perhaps longer. +(See Bulletin No. 46, Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts +Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.) + + +ERRONEOUS NOTIONS ABOUT THE TOAD. + +If one reads in old books and listens to the fairy tales and other +stories common everywhere, he will hear many wonderful things about the +toad, but most of the things are wholly untrue. + +One of the erroneous notions is that the toad is deadly poison. Another +is that it is possessed of marvelous healing virtues, and still another, +that hidden away in the heads of some of the oldest ones are the +priceless toad-stones, jewels of inestimable value. + +_Giving warts._--Probably every boy and girl living in the country has +heard that if one takes a toad in his hands, or if a toad touches him +anywhere he will "catch the warts." This is not so at all, as has been +proved over and over again. If a toad is handled gently and petted a +little it soon learns not to be afraid, and seems to enjoy the kindness +and attention. If a toad is hurt or roughly handled a whitish, acrid +substance is poured out of the largest warts. This might smart a little +if it got into the mouth, as dogs find out when they try biting a toad. +It cannot be very bad, however, or the hawks, owls, crows and snakes +that eat the toad would give up the practice. The toad is really one of +the most harmless creatures in the world, and has never been known to +hurt a man or a child. + +A boy might possibly have some warts on his hands after handling a toad; +so might he after handling a jack-knife or looking at a steam engine; +but the toad does not give the warts any more than the knife or the +engine. + +_Cows giving bloody milk._--It is a common belief in the country that if +one kills a toad his cows will give bloody milk. Cows will give bloody +milk if the udder is injured in any way, whether a toad is killed or +not. There is no connection whatever between the bloody milk and a +killed toad. + +_Living without air and food._--Occasionally one reads or hears a story +about a toad found in a cavity in a solid rock. When the rock is broken +open it is said that the toad wakes up and hops around as if it had +been asleep only half an hour. Just think for a moment what it would +mean to find a live toad within a cavity in a solid rock. It must have +been there for thousands, if not for millions of years, without food or +air. The toad does not like a long fast, but can stand it for a year or +so without food if it is in a moist place and supplied with air. It +regularly sleeps four or five months every winter, but never in a place +devoid of air. If the air were cut off the toad would soon die. Some +careful experiments were made by French scientific men, and the stories +told about toads living indefinitely without air or food were utterly +disproved. + +It is not difficult to see that one working in a quarry might honestly +think that he had found a toad in a rock. Toads are not very uncommon in +quarries. If a stone were broken open and a cavity found in it, and then +a toad were seen hopping away, one might jump at the conclusion that the +toad came out of the cavity in the rock. Is not this something like the +belief that the little toads rain down from the clouds because they are +most commonly seen after a shower? + + +SURVEYS AND MAPS. + +In considering the suggestions made in this leaflet, we thought of the +hundreds of schools throughout the state and wondered whether there +might not be some difficulty in finding the ponds where the toads lay +their eggs, and in finding some of the things described in the other +leaflets. + +The teachers and students in Cornell University found this difficulty in +1868 when the University opened. The great Louis Agassiz came to the +University at the beginning to give a course of lectures on natural +history. The inspiration of his presence and advice, and of those +lectures, lasts to this day. + +Agassiz, and the University teachers, who had many of them been his +pupils, saw at once that the region around Ithaca must be full of +interesting things; but they did not know exactly where to find them. +Agassiz himself made some explorations, and the professors and students +took hold of the work with the greatest enthusiasm. They explored the +beautiful lake, the streams, hills, valleys, gorges, ponds and marshes. +Careful notes were kept of the exact locality where every interesting +thing was found and simple maps were made to aid in finding the places +again. Finally, after several years, knowledge enough was gained to +construct an accurate map for the use of all. A part of this map, +showing only the most important features, is put into this leaflet to +serve as a guide (Fig. 123). + +It will be seen that the University is made the starting point. With a +few hints it is believed that every school can make a good beginning +this year on a natural history survey of the region near its +school-house, and in the preparation of a map to go with the survey. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 123. Simple map showing the position of Cornell +University, the city of Ithaca, Cayuga Lake, and the roads and streams +and ponds near the University. From W. R. Dudley's map in "The Cayuga +Flora." Scale, 1 centimeter to the kilometer._ + +_U. Cornell University._ + +_U. L. University Lake in Fall Creek._ + +_R. Reservoir supplied from University Lake, and supplying the campus._ + +_E. P. East Pond where the eggs of the toad, tree toad, frogs and +salamanders are found._ + +_F. P. Forest Home Pond. A very favorable place for eggs, tadpoles, +etc._ + +_Inlet. The inlet of the lake. The lampreys are abundant near Fleming's +meadow._] + +_Preparation of the map._--It is well to have the map of good size. A +half sheet of bristol board will answer, but a whole sheet is better. +About the first thing to decide is the scale to which the map is to be +drawn. It is better to have the scale large. Twelve inches to the mile +would be convenient. Divide the map into squares, making the lines quite +heavy. If so large a scale were used it would be advantageous for +locating places to have the large squares divided into square inches, +but much lighter lines should be used so that there will be no confusion +with the lines representing the miles. + +_Locating objects on the map._--The corner of the school-house +containing the corner stone should be taken as the starting point. If +there is no corner stone, select the most convenient corner. Put the +school-house on the map anywhere you wish; probably the center of the +map would be the best place. In the sample map the University is not in +the center, as it was desired to show more of the country to the south +and west than to the north and east. + +The map should of course be made like other maps, so it will be +necessary to know the four cardinal points of the compass before +locating anything on it. Perhaps the school-house has been placed facing +exactly north and south or east and west, that is, arranged with the +cardinal points of the compass; if so, it will be the best guide. If you +are not sure, determine with a compass. With it the points can be +determined very accurately. Having determined the points of compass, +commence to locate objects in the landscape on the map as follows: Get +their direction from the starting point at the corner of the +school-house, then measure the distance accurately by running a bicycle +on which is a cyclometer, straight between the starting point and the +object. The cyclometer will record the distance accurately and it can be +read off easily. If no bicycle with a cyclometer is available, one can +use a long measuring stick, a tape measure or even a measured string; +but the bicycle and cyclometer are more convenient and accurate, +especially when the distances are considerable. + +Suppose the distance is found to be one-sixth of a mile due west. It +should be located two inches west of the corner taken as the starting +point. If the direction were south-west, then the two inches would be +measured on the map in that direction and located accordingly. Proceed +in this way for locating any pond or marsh, forest or glen. Now, when +the places are located on the map, you can see how easy it would be for +any one to find the places themselves. While the exact position should +be determined if possible and located, one does not often take a +bee-line in visiting them, but goes in roads, often a long distance +around. In locating the objects on the map, every effort should be made +to get them accurately placed, and this can be done most easily by +knowing the distances in a straight line. + +It is hoped that every school in the state will begin this year making a +natural history survey and a map of the region around its school-house. +The map will show but few locations, perhaps, but it can be added to +from year to year, just as the University map has been added to; and +finally each school will have a map and notes showing exactly where the +toads lay their eggs, where fish and birds are; and where the newts and +salamanders, the different trees and flowers, rocks and fossils may be +found. + +If the dates are kept accurately for the different years, one can also +see how much variation there is. Indeed, such nature-study will give a +sure foundation for appreciating and comprehending the larger questions +in natural science, and it will make an almost perfect preparation for +taking part in or for appreciating the great surveys of a state or a +country. It is believed that if accurate information were collected and +careful maps made by the different schools, the Empire State could soon +have a natural history survey and map better than any now in existence +in any state or country. + +_To the Teacher:_ + +_It is the firm belief of those who advocate nature-study that it is not +only valuable in itself, but that it will help to give enjoyment in +other studies and meaning to them. Every pupil who follows out the work +of this leaflet will see the need of a map of the region around the +school-house. This will help in the appreciation of map work generally._ + +_So many of the beautiful and inspiring things in literature are +concerning some phase of nature, that nature-study must increase the +appreciation of the literature; and the noble thoughts in the literature +will help the pupils to look for and appreciate the finer things in +nature._ + +_It is suggested that as many of the following selections as possible be +read in connection with the leaflet:_ + +_"The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz," by Longfellow._ + +_The "Prayer of Agassiz," by Whittier. Professor Wilder, who was +present, assures the author that this describes an actual occurrence._ + +_This "Silent Prayer" is also mentioned in an inspiring paragraph by +Henry Ward Beecher in the Christian Union, 1873._ + +_The first part of Bryant's "Thanatopsis," Coleridge's "Ancient_ +_Mariner," Burns' "On Scaring Some Water Fowl in Loch-Turit," and "To a +Mouse."_ + +_Cowpers "The Task," a selection from book vi., beginning with line 560. +This gives a very just view of the rights of the lower animals._ + +_In connection with the disappearance of the tail, read Lowell's +"Festina Lente," in the Biglow Papers. For older pupils, Shakespeare's +picture of the seven ages in the human life cycle might be read. "As You +Like It," Act II, Scene II, near the end, commencing, "All the world's a +stage," etc._ + +_Kipling's Jungle Books, and the works of Ernest Thompson-Seton and +William J. Long will help one to see how the world might look from the +standpoint of the animals._ + +_One of the most satisfactory books to use in connection with +nature-study is Animal Life, by President David Starr Jordan and +Professor Kellogg. This gives the facts that every teacher ought to know +in connection with the processes of reproduction._ + +_Attention is also called to A. H. Kirkland's Bulletin No. 46 of the +Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and +to the Nature-Study Leaflet on the Toad, by Dr. C. F. Hodge, of Clark +University, Worcester, Mass._ + +[Illustration: _Fig. 124. From egg back to toad._] + + + + +LEAFLET XVII. + +LIFE IN A TERRARIUM.[22] + +BY ALICE I. KENT. + + And Nature, the old nurse, took + The child upon her knee, + Saying: "Here is a story-book + Thy Father has written for thee." + + --_Longfellow to Agassiz._ + + +[22] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 8: Leaflet 21, January, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 125. Life in the terrarium._] + +Fortunate are the children and the teachers who are so placed that +Nature's story book is close at hand. But city children and their +teachers need not despair, for Nature, the old nurse, is loving and +bountiful and will rewrite, in living characters, many a page from the +wondrous book, for those who care to read. One such a page may be a +terrarium--a confined plot of earth on which things may live and grow +(from _terra_, "earth," as aquarium is from _aqua_, "water"). Within its +narrow confines, the whole drama of the beautiful life of many a tiny +creature may be rewritten. + +Here is a fragment of the drama, as written in one terrarium. + +This terrarium was made from an old berry crate (Figs. 125, 126). When +the children saw it first, last fall, this is what it looked like: a +large rectangular box, grass-green in color, thirty-nine inches long, +eighteen inches wide, and fifteen inches high. The long sides were of +glass, the short sides and top of green wire netting. The top could be +removed like the lid of a box. It stood upon a pedestal-table provided +with castors. In the bottom of the terrarium were three inches of rich +soil, covered with the delicate green of sprouting grass-seed. In one +corner was a mossy nook, and in another a mass of thistles and clover. +At one end, a small cabbage was planted and at the other lay several +sprays of glossy pin-oak. Suspended from the top, was a large spray of +purple thistles. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 126. Butterfly-time in the terrarium world._] + +Among the thistles in the corner, ten pendants of vivid green, bright +with golden points, could be seen. They were the chrysalids of the +monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. Among the cabbage leaves, were many of +the pale green eggs and several of the caterpillars of the cabbage +butterfly. Among the sprays of oak in the corner, several oak +caterpillars were feeding. + +Before many days had passed, the drama of life began. One by one, the +chrysalids of the milkweed butterfly paled in color and, becoming +transparent, showed through their whitened walls the orange-colored +wings of the developing butterflies within. They then burst, freeing +their gorgeous tenants. This happened until there were seven butterflies +in the terrarium. As two of these proved discontented with their new +home, they were set free. The five others spent the little round of +their aërial life seemingly happy and satisfied. They lived from three +to six weeks and showed some individuality in their tastes and habits. +Sometimes they chose the mossy corner for their resting place. On other +occasions they preferred the netting at the ends and top of the +terrarium. In fact, the netting at the ends of the terrarium was a +source of pleasure to these butterflies, as it served as a secure +resting place and an agreeable and convenient pathway to the top. One of +them spent nearly all its life on the thistles suspended from the top. +These thistles were kept fresh a long time by placing their stems in a +large sponge which was frequently drenched with water. + +The butterflies showed some individuality in their eating also. Thistle, +clover, golden-rod, nasturtiums, and honey-suckle were offered to them. +The thistle and the golden-rod were most frequently visited, and next to +these the nasturtiums were most favored. Another fact noted was that +most of the butterflies continued to visit the flower first chosen. +When, however, a thick syrup of sugar and water was offered to them, the +flowers were much neglected, only one butterfly persisting in +flower-visiting. Golden-rod was its choice. If the syrup was fresh-made +every morning and was placed in a convenient spot, the butterflies never +failed to sip it. They generally slept clinging to the wire-netting at +the ends or top of the terrarium. + +In the meantime, the cabbage began to attract the watchful eyes of the +wondering children. As it had industriously sent out many tiny roots, it +proved a safe and satisfactory home for its hidden occupants. Soon, one +by one, the caterpillars began to appear at the edges of the uppermost +leaves. They began small tours in the vicinage of the cabbage, and, +finally, as with the butterflies, the end wire nettings proved to be an +easy pathway to the top of the terrarium. Here several found good +resting places, and slowly changed to chrysalids. + +One day a cabbage butterfly obligingly flew in at the open window. It +was caught and placed in the terrarium. It, too, proved to be very fond +of sugar syrup. One morning the syrup was accidentally spilled on the +wooden ridge at the bottom of the terrarium outside of the netting. The +butterfly was so hungry that it could not wait for food more +conveniently placed; so it stretched its tongue out, full length, +through the netting, and in that way obtained it. The children were +surprised to find its tongue somewhat longer than its body. + +At this time, the cabbage was removed so that the eggs and the remaining +young caterpillars could be observed. The protecting coloring of the +eggs and caterpillars was first noticed. One little boy at first +announced that the caterpillars were green because they were not ripe, a +good example surely of the danger of reasoning from analogy! + +Very soon the inhabitants of this terrarium world began to increase. A +father and two mother grasshoppers and a young one, with his "armor on," +came to live there; also a "woolly bear," several other species of +caterpillars, several species of beetles, a big horse-fly, some +lady-bugs, and a cicada. About this time too, some very unwelcome +immigrants appeared. These were the ichneumon flies. So numerous did +they become in a very short time, that they threatened desolation to +this prosperous community. Nature's methods were then scrutinized and +the services of two tree-toads were sought. Their response was immediate +and cordial. Soon not an ichneumon fly could be found. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 127. Hand over hand._] + +The grasshoppers were partial to celery, over-ripe bananas, and +moisture. Three days after they became inhabitants of this miniature +world, the mother grasshopper dug a hole in the ground and laid eggs. +The observing children then had before them living illustrations of the +three stages of grasshopper life. + +The tree-toads were both amusing and accommodating. They, too, liked the +wire netting at the ends of the terrarium, and delighted the children by +climbing up foot over foot, or hand over hand, like odd four-handed +sailor boys (Fig. 127.) This brought into plain view the tiny suckers on +their feet. + +After the ichneumon flies had disappeared, a new difficulty arose. The +ground became mouldy, and the grass died down. The terrarium was then +placed by an open window and left there several hours for a number of +days until it was thoroughly dried out. Then bird-seed was planted and +the ground was watered thereafter with a small plant syringe. This gave +sufficient, but not excessive moisture, and it was one of the pleasures +of the children to imitate a rainy day in the terrarium world. And it +was a pleasing experience, for there were splashes of water on the glass +sides and many shining drops on the netting and verdure, which soon grew +several inches tall; there was the same delightful odor of rich fresh +earth that one enjoys during summer rains, and the sunshine touched with +brilliancy the gay fall flowers and the gorgeous outspread wings of the +butterflies. + +At this time the terrarium had an annex in the shape of a wooden box, a +foot square, with a gauze top. Here lived two mother spiders with their +egg-balls carefully hung on the cobweb beams of their homes. One day a +beautiful yellow silk egg-ball was found out of doors, and when it was +carefully opened to show the eggs with which it was filled, the +gratifying discovery was made that these eggs were hatching. They were +very tiny and very numerous. They were inclosed in a silken pouch and +were the exact color of its lining. When resting the little spiders +seemed to hold their legs under the body, and they were so small and so +like the egg in general appearance that if they had not run about when +disturbed they would never have been discovered. As soon as the egg ball +was opened they exploited their one talent, for they ran out on the +fingers of the person who held the ball and then suspended themselves by +almost invisible threads from all parts of the fingers. When they were +to be returned to the egg-ball they were gently pushed up. They then +obligingly ran back into their silken home, which was carefully closed +as before. These little ones were kept a week or ten days and were then +allowed to escape and establish homes for themselves. The life history +of the spider was thus seen, although, unfortunately, our adult spiders +did not belong to the same species as the young ones. + +To return to the terrarium: It was now early in November and each day +found one or more of the terrarium inhabitants missing. One of the +caterpillars disappeared and a cocoon made of its own hair was found in +its place; several chrysalids were found on the top of the terrarium; +the butterflies and the grasshoppers, one by one, went into that sleep +from which there is no awakening; and a number of the other creatures +disappeared. The children finally concluded that the latter had gone to +sleep in the ground. The grasshoppers and the tree-toads were the last +to take their rest, but just before they answered Mother Nature's call +to slumber, a large garden toad came to bear them company. + +He was a very interesting toad for he bore signs of having lived through +what must have been almost a tragedy. He had lost the lower half of one +front leg and had the scar of a long gash on his throat. These +disfigurements seemed not to cause him the least unhappiness, for he had +a very bright wide-awake expression and was as plump and complacent as a +toad should be. The loss of his leg caused him a little inconvenience, +for he sometimes lost his balance when hopping and fell on his back. He +occasionally found it difficult to right himself at once, but a few +vigorous kicks and jumps generally placed him right side up. Three days +after he became a member of the terrarium community, he, too, heard +Mother Nature's call to bed, and partially buried himself. Each day he +covered himself more completely, until finally only the top of his head +and two sleepy eyes were to be seen. One day, about a week afterward, he +disappeared entirely. He proved to be a very restless sleeper, and +frequently showed himself during the sunniest parts of nearly every day +all winter, occasionally coming entirely out of his earthy covering. He +served as a sort of barometer all winter, appearing in bright and +disappearing in gloomy weather. He never, however, left the spot he had +chosen for his bed. + +"Winter is the night of the year," and the little terrarium world +indoors exemplifies it as truly as the great fields of Nature's domain +out of doors. The soil is dry and hard in this miniature world and the +verdure has dried down to palest green and brown. In its earthy bed, the +caterpillars, beetles, and other creatures lie cosily asleep, and with +the masses of tiny eggs, await the vivifying touch of spring. + + + + +LEAFLET XVIII. + +DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.[23] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[23] Teachers' Leaflet No. 7, June, 1897. + +[Illustration] + +It is the purpose of this leaflet to give a few suggestions to aid those +pupils of the secondary schools who desire to make collections of +insects. + +There are several good reasons why children should be encouraged to make +collections of flowers, birds and insects; and the least of these +reasons is the possession of such a collection on the part of the child. +Making a collection of natural history specimens should only be the +means to an end, _i. e._, training the child to observe. When eyes are +opened to the wonders of nature, every roadside, brook and woodland is +fraught with interest which is undreamed of by those who are +nature-blind. It is sad to think of the hosts of people who go through +this beautiful world having eyes but seeing not, having ears but hearing +not. The eyes must be unsealed in youth, when the mind is alert and +receptive if the man or woman is to find in later life that Nature is +not only a resource and recreation but an ever faithful friend holding +out comforting arms to those who are weary in soul and body. + +Not only does the study of nature open the child's eyes, but it also +teaches him the value of accuracy. The young naturalist soon understands +that an observation is worth nothing unless it is truthful. On the other +hand, nature-study cultivates the imagination. The wonders in the lives +of insects, plants, and birds are so illimitable that almost anything +_seems_ possible. Few indeed are the studies wherein the fire kindled by +imaginative _seeming_ is guarded and checked by the facts of actual +_seeing_. + +There are a few points in favor of beginning with insects when the child +first attempts making a collection of natural objects. Insects are to be +found everywhere and are easily caught; it requires no technical skill +to preserve them, as is the case with birds; they retain their natural +forms and colors better than do flowers. To secure the desired results +for the pupil when he is making his collection of insects, the teacher +should take care that he makes his observations incidentally, thus +subserving the true methods of nature-study, which is to teach the child +while he remains unconscious of the fact that he is being taught. The +teacher, therefore, should ask the young collector, "Where did you catch +this butterfly?" "Where did you find this beetle?" "Upon what plant or +flower did you find this bug?" "Did you hear this cricket chirp? If so, +how did he do it?" etc., etc.; thus making him tell orally or in a +written language lesson the things he has seen while collecting. The +differences in the appearance and structure of the insects caught should +also be brought out by questions. These questions may be adapted to +pupils of any age, and the success of this part of the work must ever +depend upon the interest and genius of the teacher. + +The objection is sometimes raised that collecting and killing insects +and birds incite the child to cruelty and wanton destruction of life. +This seems good _a priori_ reasoning, but experience does not confirm +it. We have always found that those who collect and take an interest in +insect life are much more careful about killing or hurting insects than +are other people; the entomologist of all men takes the greatest pains +to avoid stepping upon the caterpillar or cricket in his path; also the +young ornithologists who have come under our observation show the +greatest devotion to the rights and interests of birds. Our experience +is that as soon as the child begins to take an interest in insects he +begins to see matters from their point of view, and this insures a +proper regard for their right to life. It will be well, however, for the +teacher to impress upon the pupil that he should kill no insect that is +not desired for his collection. + +The articles necessary for collecting insects are few and inexpensive. +One net and one killing bottle may do service for a grade or an entire +country school, thus reducing the expense to a minimum. + + +INSECT NET. FIG. 128. + + +_Materials required._ + +1. A handle about three feet long; an old broom handle will do. + +2. A piece of tin three inches wide, long enough to reach around the +handle. + +3. A piece of No. 3 galvanized wire 3 feet 6 inches long. + +4. One-sixth of a yard of heavy sheeting. + +5. Three-quarters of a yard of cheese cloth. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 128. Insect net._] + +Bend the wire into a ring about a foot in diameter and bend back about 3 +inches of each end of the wire so they may be inserted into a hole +drilled into the end of the handle. The piece of tin should be fastened +around the end of the handle where the wire is inserted to hold it +securely in place. If practicable, a tinsmith should be called upon to +help in bending the wire and fastening it to the handle. After this is +done, take the sheeting and fold it over the wire double, using only +enough to fit around the wire without gathering; the object of this +heavy cloth is to prevent the net from wearing out quickly. Make the +cheese cloth into a bag with rounded bottom and just wide enough to fit +the facing of sheeting, to which it should be sewed securely, and the +net is finished. + + +HOW TO USE THE NET. + +To be successful, the net must be swung swiftly. Insects have many eyes +and are very wide awake and have no desire to be caught; therefore, the +collector must be very active if he gets anything. One method of using +the net is called "sweeping;" to do this take the handle about a foot +and a half above the ring and pass the net quickly back and forth +striking it against the grass in front of you as you walk through open +fields; the net must be turned at each stroke and kept in rapid motion +or the insects will escape. After a time the net should be examined and +the insects put in the killing bottle. + +Another method of using the net is called "beating." This method is used +in collecting insects from bushes, and consists of lifting the net, +mouth upward, and striking it sharply against the branches or leaves, +thus jarring the insects into it. + +To use the net in water, sweep the water plants as quickly as possible. +In running streams, overturn stones, holding the net just below them +with the mouth up stream. An old dipper made into a sieve by perforating +the bottom with an awl is a good utensil for collecting water insects. + + +THE KILLING BOTTLE. FIG. 129. + +It is desirable to kill the insects in a humane way, so that they will +not suffer by the process; it is also desirable that they should not +revive after they are pinned, both for their own sakes as well as for +the sake of the feelings of the collector. The best way to secure +painless and sure death for the insects is by the means of a "cyanide +bottle." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 129. Killing bottle._] + + +_Materials needed for a killing bottle._ + +1. A bottle with a wide mouth; a morphine bottle or a small olive or +pickle bottle will do. Even a glass fruit-can holding a pint will answer +very well, although taking off and putting on the cover consumes more +time than is desirable. + +2. A cork that will fit the bottle tightly and is long enough to handle +easily. + +3. Two cents' worth of cyanide of potassium. + +4. One cent's worth of plaster of Paris. + +These latter materials may be procured from any drug store. + +Place the lump of cyanide of potassium in the bottle and pour in enough +water to cover it. Add immediately enough plaster of Paris to soak up +all the water; leave the bottle open in a shady place for an hour and +then wipe the dry plaster of Paris from its sides, put in the cork, and +it is ready for use. The plaster of Paris forms a porous cement, which, +while it holds the cyanide fast in the bottom, also allows the fumes of +the poison to escape and fill the bottle. It should be labelled +"poison," for cyanide of potassium is very poisonous. If kept corked +when not in use, a killing bottle made like this will last a whole +season. + +The first rule in using the killing bottle is this: do not kill any more +insects than you need for your collection. The second rule is: do not +breathe the fumes of the bottle, for they smell badly and are not good +for you. When you uncork the bottle to put an insect in it, hold it away +from your face and cork it up again as quickly as possible. + +Some insects may be caught from flowers, etc., directly into the bottle +by holding it uncorked beneath them for a moment; the fumes of the +poison soon overcome them and they drop into the bottle. In taking +insects from the net, hold the bottle in the right hand and the cork in +the left; insert the bottle into the net and place the mouth of it over +an insect crawling on the inside of the net, then put the cork on the +outside of the net into the mouth of the bottle, net and all, for a +moment until the insect falls into the bottom of the bottle; then remove +the cork and take the rest of the imprisoned insects in the same way. +Insects should be left in the bottle at least an hour, and may be left +in there over night without injury to the specimens. + + +INSECT PINS. FIG. 130. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 130. Insect pins, 1, 3, 5, are German insect pins. +2 is a steel mourning pin._] + +After the insects are caught they should be pinned so that they may be +arranged in the collection in an orderly manner. Common pins are not +good for pinning insects; they are too thick and they corrode very soon, +covering the specimens with verdigris. Regular insect pins are desirable +as they are very slender and do not corrode so quickly. These may be +obtained of any dealer in entomological supplies at a cost of fifteen +cents per hundred. + +Ask for the German insect pins Nos. 1, 3 and 5. If these pins are too +expensive you can use the black steel mourning pins. These come in +shallow boxes one by two inches square and have round glass heads and +the boxes are labelled "Germany;" these may be procured from any dry +goods store. However, insects pinned with any beside regular insect pins +cannot be sold or exchanged. + +All insects except beetles should be pinned through that part of the +body just back of the head, as shown in Figs. 137, 139, 140, 141. +Beetles should be pinned through the right wing-cover, as shown in Fig. +138. About one-fourth of the pin should project above the back of the +insect. Very small insects may be gummed to a narrow strip of card board +and the pin put through the card board. + + +LABELLING SPECIMENS. + +Specimens should be labelled with the date of capture and the locality. +Thus the butterfly, Fig. 141, would be labelled thus: + + Ithaca, N. Y. + Aug. 12, 1896. + +The paper on which this label is written should be slipped upon the pin +with which the butterfly is pinned and placed just below the insect. +Labels should be as small as possible and be neatly cut. + + +INSECT BOXES. + +For the beginner nothing is more convenient than an empty cigar box, +which may be obtained at any store where cigars are sold. (Fig. 131.) +The bottom of the box should be covered with some soft, firm material +into which pins may be pushed without bending them. There are many such +materials. Sheet cork or pressed peat may be obtained of dealers in +entomological supplies. Some ingenious boys use regular bottle corks, +cut into cross sections about 1/4 inch thick. Others take the pith of +dried corn-stalks divided in half lengthwise. The cheapest and most +easily procurable of the purchasable materials is cork linoleum. This is +for sale in most carpet stores. Get the quality that is about 1/4 inch +thick, which costs about $1 per yard; put it into the box cork-side up. +Any of these materials can be fastened to the bottom of the box with +glue or with tacks. In all cases they should be covered neatly with +white paper, for the insects appear better against a white background. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 131. A convenient box for the use of the young +collector._] + +For permanent collections, wooden boxes with glass tops are much safer; +and as the insects may be seen through the glass these boxes are more +practical for school collections. This kind of a box is shown in Fig. +132. Its sides are 18 by 16 inches and its height is three inches +outside measure. The upper edge of the sides of the bottom part of the +box is made with a tongue which fits into a groove made in the lower +edge of the sides of the cover. This is done so that the top and bottom +parts of the box shall fit very closely together in order that museum +pests cannot get in and destroy the specimens. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 132. Insect box made of wood, with glass top._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 133. A cross-section of the side of insect box Fig. +132, showing method of construction and giving measurements._] + +In Fig. 133 is a cross section through one side of the box, showing how +it should be made and giving measurements. In the drawing the glass is +fitted into a groove in the inner side of the cover. This glass might be +puttied in like a window pane if it is found difficult to make the +groove. The corners of the box may be mitred and dove-tailed, or mitred +and nailed; the latter is more easily done. Any carpenter or cabinet +maker can make this box. Great care must be taken to use only thoroughly +seasoned wood in its construction; otherwise the bottom will be sure to +warp and shrink and leave cracks through which the museum pests will +enter. + +The cost of such a box will vary from $0.75 to $1. Basswood should be +used for its construction; pine is not at all suitable on account of the +resin in it. Screw eyes may be put into these boxes and they may be hung +on the walls of the schoolroom like pictures. + + +MUSEUM PESTS. + +These are small beetles which find their way through the narrowest +crevice into the insect boxes and lay their eggs on the pinned insects. + +The larvæ when they hatch work within the specimens at first but after a +time destroy the bodies entirely. The presence of these little rascals +may be detected by dust on the bottom of the box just below the +infested insect. As soon as this dust is observed, pour into one corner +of the box a tablespoonful of carbon bisulfide, or benzine, and close +the box quickly. The teacher or parent should put the substances into +the boxes, as the first is a poison and both are very inflammable. As a +method of preventing the beetles from attacking the collection it is +well to fasten a "moth ball" into one corner of the box. These may be +obtained at a drug store. + + +SPREADING-BOARD. FIG. 134. + +Butterflies and moths look much better in a collection when their wings +are extended at right angles to the length of the body. To arrange them +thus we have to use what is termed a spreading-board. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 134. A spreading-board._] + + +_Materials needed for a medium sized spreading-board._ + +1. Two strips of pine or other soft wood 18 inches long, 1-1/2 inches +wide and 1/2 inch thick. + +2. One strip of wood 18 inches long, 3-1/4 inches wide and 1/2 inch +thick. + +3. Two cleats 3-1/4 inches wide, 3/4 inch high and 1/2 inch thick; and +two cleats 1 inch wide and as high and thick as the others. + +4. A strip of cork or linoleum 17 inches long and a little less than an +inch wide. + +To construct the spreading-board, take the two narrow strips of wood, +place them one-fourth inch apart and on the under side fasten them +across the ends of the longer cleats. Then on the same side as the +cleats tack the piece of cork or linoleum over the space between the +strips of board, and as the cleats are one-half inch wide the linoleum +should cover all the space left. Then midway the boards fasten the two +smaller cleats. Fig. 135 shows a cross-section of the spreading-board +just in front of these two middle cleats. Now it is ready for the +bottom board which will fit exactly if directions are followed, and this +completes it. The space between the two upper boards is wide enough to +take in the body of the moth or butterfly. The cork or linoleum below +the space will hold firmly the pin on which the butterfly is impaled. +The cleats hold the top and bottom boards apart and so protect the +points of the pins. Spreading-boards may be made much smaller or much +larger to suit moths of different sizes; the space between the top +boards must always be large enough to admit the body of the insect. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 135. A cross-section of spreading-board in front of +the cleat "d" in Fig. 134._] + +To use the spreading-board: Insert the pin with the butterfly on it into +the linoleum just far enough so that the body of the insect will be in +the space between the boards up to the wings, Fig. 135. Place the wings +out flat on the board and fasten them there with narrow strips of paper +pinned across them, Fig. 134, _a_. While held down by these strips of +paper arrange them so that the hind margins of the front wings shall +cover the front margins of the hind wings and shall be in a line at +right angles to the body; then pin larger pieces of paper over the rest +of the wings, Fig. 134, _b_. Sometimes isinglass is used instead of +paper to hold the wings down, Fig. 134, _c_. The insects should be left +on the spreading-board at least three days; and when the board has +insects on it, it should be kept in a box where the museum pests and +mice cannot get at it. + +Sometimes when the moths are not spread soon after being killed, they +become so stiff that the wings cannot be moved without breaking them. In +such cases the insects should be put on paper in a jar which has some +wet sand in the bottom and which can be covered tightly. The air in such +a can is so moist that in two or three days the insect will become +limber and may be spread with ease. + + +WHERE TO COLLECT INSECTS. + +The border of a piece of woods where many shrubs and weeds are growing +is an especially good place for collecting many kinds of insects. Any +place where there is a great variety of plants and flowers will give a +variety of insects. Banks of streams and underneath stones in the fields +are good places for collecting. + + +WHEN TO COLLECT INSECTS. + +The best time of the year is during the summer months. The best time of +day is in the forenoon after eight o'clock, and in the twilight at +evening. + +At night many moths may be caught by making a paste of sugar and water +(unrefined sugar is best) and painting it upon tree trunks with a brush +after sunset. The paste should cover a space two inches wide and several +inches long. After dark seek these places cautiously with a lantern and +moths will be found sucking the paste; these may be caught with the +killing bottle if you move carefully so as not to frighten them; they do +not seem to mind the light of the lantern. + +Electric street-lights attract many insects which may be caught +in the net. A lamp set in an open window is also a very good lure +on warm nights in the spring and summer. + + +ARRANGING THE INSECTS IN BOXES. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 136. a, Cricket. b, Grasshopper._] + +After collecting insects comes the desire to arrange them properly, +putting together in neat rows those that resemble each other. To +classify insects correctly requires much study. The scope of this +leaflet admits of only a few suggestions about the most common insects. + +_Dragon Flies._--There are many kinds of these, but they all have four +wings, finely netted and transparent, the hind wings being as large or +larger than the front wings. These are perfectly harmless insects. + +_Grasshoppers, Crickets and Katydids._--These are known to all, Fig. +136. There are two families of grasshoppers: those with long horns or +antennæ and those with short antennæ. Katydids, crickets, cockroaches +and walking-sticks are near relatives to the grasshoppers. + +_Bugs._--These insects have the front pair of wings thick and heavy at +the base and thin and transparent at the tips, Fig. 137, _b_. The +squash-bug, the chinch-bug, and the electric-light bug are examples of +these. Some bugs have the front wings entirely thin and transparent and +sloping like a steep roof over the back of the insect, like the cicada, +Fig. 137, _a_; and the Brownie bug, Fig. 137, _c_, _d_. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 137. a, Cicada. b, Stink-bug. c, Leaf-hopper. d, +Leaf-hopper--front view._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 138. Beetles--showing the pin through the right +wing cover. a, Snapping beetle. b, Wood-boring beetle. c, Water +beetle._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 139. Flies--showing the knobs just below the wings. +Note that flies have only two wings. a, Crane fly. b, Pomace +fly--enlarged._] + +_Beetles._--These have hard wing-covers which meet in a straight line +down the back and have a pair of thin wings folded under them, Fig. +138. The "June bug" or "May beetle" and the potato beetle are good +examples of beetles. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 140. a, Wasp. b, Bee. Note these have four wings._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed +antennæ._] + +_Flies._--These have only two wings, usually transparent. Behind each of +these wings a short thread with a knob on it extends out on each side of +the body instead of hind wings, Fig. 139. House-flies, horse-flies and +mosquitoes are examples of flies. + +_Bees, Wasps and Ants._--Bees, wasps and the winged form of ants have +four transparent wings, Fig. 140. Some flies resemble bees and wasps, +but if examined it will be found that they have only two wings instead +of four. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 142. The Cabbage butterfly._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 143. The Bass-wood leaf-roller moth._] + +_Butterflies and Moths._--Butterflies and moths may be told apart by +the following character: The antennæ or horns of the butterflies are +always threadlike and knobbed at the tip, Figs. 141, 142, while the +antennæ of moths are in various shapes, but never bear knobs at the +tips, Figs. 143, 144, 145, 146. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 144. The Imperial moth. A common night-flying +moth._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 145. An under-wing moth._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 146. The Luna moth. A common night-flying +species._] + + +DEALERS IN ENTOMOLOGICAL SUPPLIES. + +The following is a list of the dealers in entomological supplies that +have advertisements in the current American entomological journals: + +A. Smith & Sons, 269 Pearl Street, New York, N. Y. + +John Akhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. + +M. Abbott Frazar, 93 Sudbury Street, Boston, Mass. + +Entomological Society of Ontario, Victoria Hall, London, Ont. + +Queen & Co., 1010 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. + +The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, 515-543 N. St. Paul Street, +Rochester, N. Y. + + + + +LEAFLET XIX. + +SOME TENT-MAKERS.[24] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[24] Teachers' Leaflet No. 5, June, 1897. + +It is unfortunate that there is, throughout the country, a prevailing +dislike for the small creatures called "worms." This dislike is, in most +instances, the result of wrong training, and is by no means a natural +instinct. As evidence of this, witness the joy with which the small boy +or even the small girl, handles "bait" when preparing to go fishing; +although of all common "worms" surely the angle-worm is least attractive +from any point of view. A still more striking example is the hardihood +with which young fishermen catch the dobson to use as a lure for +bass--for the dobson is not only very ugly in appearance but is also +vicious, often pinching severely the careless fingers of its captors. +Thus the dislike for insects being the result of the point of view, it +should be the first duty of the teacher to remove this repulsion. In the +lesson which follows there is no occasion for teacher or pupils to touch +the insects unless they choose to do so; but an attempt is made to +arouse an interest in the habits and ways of insect life. If we can +succeed in arousing the child's interest in the actions of a +caterpillar, he will soon forget his dislike for the "little brothers" +which live upon foliage and which experience miraculous changes of form +during their short lives. + +In selecting the Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar for this lesson we have +been guided by the following facts: First, it is to be found in early +spring; second, its life-history from egg to cocoon is accomplished +within the limits of the spring term of our schools; third, it is common +everywhere; fourth, it is an important insect from an economic point of +view, and the children may be taught how to keep it out of the orchards, +thus making the lesson of practical use. + +In this lesson the teacher is encouraged to use her own methods and +originate new ones to make the work interesting. The Leaflet is meant +for the exclusive use of the teacher and the text should not be shown to +the pupils. The pictures on page 235 are to be shown to the pupils at +the teacher's discretion. When answers are herein given to the questions +asked, they are meant to aid the teacher in drawing out the correct +replies from the children. + + +MATERIALS NEEDED. + +1. A pocket lens or a tripod lens is desirable, but not a necessity. +These lenses may be bought from or ordered through any jeweler or +bookseller. They cost from twenty-five cents to one dollar each. It is +worth while for any teacher to possess one of these magnifiers as a +means of interesting her pupils in many things. + +2. A bottle, a broad-bottomed one being preferable so that it will not +tip over easily. This bottle is to be filled with water in which a small +branch of the apple tree may be placed to keep it fresh. A common ink +bottle will do to begin with. Fig. 147. + +3. A wooden or pasteboard box, twelve or fourteen inches square,--a soap +box or hat box will do. In place of a cover, nail or paste mosquito +netting or cheese cloth over the top; remove the bottom so that the box +may be placed over the bottle and the branch of apple in it. This is +called a "breeding-cage," and its use is to keep the insects from +straying about the schoolroom. + +4. A twig bearing the egg-mass of the tent caterpillar. These are easily +found before the leaves appear on the apple tree or the wild cherry +tree. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 147. The bottle with the twigs bearing the +egg-masses. The tent is being woven below._] + + +METHODS OF USING THE LEAFLET. + +The teacher should give the pupils a preliminary talk on tents. Speak of +the tents used by Indians, by armies, by circuses, by campers, and +describe them each in turn. The teacher should use all the facts at her +disposal, and all her ingenuity to get the children interested in this +subject. Spend a little time for two or three days in discussing tents, +and get the pupils to tell orally or in essays all they know about +tents. When sufficient interest is thus aroused, tell them this: "The +reason we have talked about tents is that we are going to study some +little folks who make tents and live in them. Their tents are not made +of bark like the Indian's or of canvas like the soldier's, but are made +of the finest silk, which is spun and woven by the tenters themselves. +These silken tents are not pitched upon the ground and fastened down by +ropes and pegs, for these folk, like the Swiss Family Robinson, live in +trees. Many people live in one of these tree tents, and they are all +brothers and sisters. Now, just where these tents are made, and how they +are made, and what sort of little people make them are things which we +shall find out if we watch carefully and patiently." + + +LESSON I.--THE EGGS. FIG. 149, _a_. + +The teacher, having found the egg-mass, should show it to the pupils and +let them, during play hours, collect some for themselves. Say that they +are eggs, but explain no further. Get the children to examine the +egg-masses; ask the following questions: + +On what part of the trees are these egg-masses found? + +What is the shape of the egg-mass? (Bring out the fact that they look +like a portion of the twig swollen or budded.) + +What is the color of the egg-mass? + +Is there much difference in color between the egg-mass and the branch? + +Has this similarity in color any use? (Develop the idea that the shape +and the color of the egg-mass make it resemble the twig so closely as to +hide it from birds or any animal that would be likely to eat the eggs.) + +Does the egg-mass shine? + +Why does it shine? _Answer._ Because there is a coat of varnish around +the eggs. + +Why was varnish put around the eggs? (Get the answer by asking why +varnish is put on wood. Varnish is put around the eggs to preserve them +and to keep them dry during the rains and snows of autumn and winter.) + +If the eggs are near the hatching period the varnish will have scaled +off, revealing the tiny white eggs; if not, let the teacher remove the +varnish with a knife or pin, thus exposing the eggs. If the teacher has +a lens the children should view the eggs through it. Exhibit the picture +Fig. 149, b, which represents the eggs greatly enlarged showing the +net-work of cement which holds them in place. Ask the children to +compare the shape of these eggs with that of bird's eggs, and bring out +the fact that these are thimble-shaped. Then ask the pupils to guess +what sort of mother laid these eggs, cemented them fast with a network, +and then covered them with a coat of waterproof varnish. After +sufficient interest is aroused on this point, explain to them: "One day +last July a little moth or miller was flitting about the tree from which +these twigs were taken. If we could have been there and caught her we +should have found her a pretty little creature with four wings covered +with down and a soft fuzzy body. In color she was a pale rosy-brown, and +had two bands of pale yellow across each front wing." (Call attention to +the picture of the moth, Fig. 149, e.[25]) + +[25] If a specimen of the moth could be obtained, it would be much more +interesting to the children than the picture. The teacher can collect or +breed the moths in July to use the next spring to illustrate the lesson. + +"This is the little mother which laid her eggs in a ring around the twig +and covered them with a waterproof coat to keep them safe and sound +until this spring, when they will hatch." + +What will come out of these eggs when they hatch? The teacher should not +answer this question, but let the pupils watch the eggs and discover the +answer for themselves. + +Place the twig with the egg-mass upon it in the bottle of water (Fig. +147). It will be best if this twig is a part of a forked branch, so that +the caterpillars may make their web upon it (Fig. 148). As soon as the +eggs hatch ask the following questions: + +What sort of young ones hatch out of the eggs? + +Are they like their mother? + +What color are they? + +Why are their heads so large? _Answer._ So that they can gnaw the lid +off the egg and thus get out. + +Why should the young ones of a pretty moth be little black caterpillars? + +(Leave this answer for future investigation.) + +After the caterpillars hatch it will be necessary to bring in each day +fresh apple twigs with buds and leaves on them so as to feed the little +prisoners. It is very desirable that they be kept alive until they have +begun their web and have molted at least twice. If they show a +disposition to wander off, put the breeding cage over the bottle and +branch and so keep them confined with their food. + +To supplement the study of the imprisoned caterpillars, study should be +made at the same time of the insects out of doors and under natural +conditions. If none appear upon an apple or wild cherry tree near the +school-house, the teacher should transfer a colony to such a tree (Fig. +148). This may be done by fastening a twig with an egg-mass upon it to a +branch of the tree. If too late to get the unhatched eggs, get a nest +with the small worms in it and tie that to the convenient branch +instead. This study of the insects out of doors is very necessary in +discovering their normal habits. + + +LESSON II. THE CATERPILLARS. FIG. 149, _c_. + +If the eggs hatch before the leaves appear, upon what do the +caterpillars feed? + +How long is it after hatching before the caterpillars commence to make +their tent? + +Where is the tent always formed? + +_Answer._ In the fork of the branches. + +Why is this so? + +_Answer._ The forking branches offer a convenient support upon which to +stretch the tent: and when, as in the case out of doors, the tent is +spread in a fork of the larger limbs, these limbs afford two branching +roads for the caterpillars to follow in searching for food. + +Let the pupils make drawings of the tent as soon as it is large enough +to be seen well. + +What is the color of the caterpillars when they are a week old? + +Upon what do they feed? + +At what time of day do they feed? + +When on a tree, how far from their tent do they go for food? + +Are the paths over which the caterpillars travel when searching for food +marked in any way? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 148. A young colony of tent-makers on a cherry +tree._] + +_Answer._ This caterpillar spins a silken thread wherever it goes and +therefore leaves a trail of silk behind it. + +Of what is the tent made? + +Compare the tent with a spider's web and note the differences. + +Where does the silk come from, of which the tent is made? + +_Answer._ The silk glands of the caterpillar are situated near the +mouth, while those of the spider are on the rear end of the body. + + +LESSON III. HOW THE INSECTS GROW. + +The caterpillars shed their skins about five times. The first molt +occurs about three days after they hatch; the second molt about four +days later; and the third molt about six days after the second. After +each molt, the color and markings of the caterpillars are somewhat +changed. During some of the molts the pupils should watch a caterpillar +change his skin. After the class has seen this operation the teacher may +give the following lesson: + +Where is your skeleton? + +What is it made of? + +What is it for? Bring out the fact that the skeleton is a support for +the muscles and organs of the body. + +Where is an insect's skeleton? Get as many answers to this question as +possible, then explain: + +The insect's skeleton is on the outside of its body instead of a skin, +and the flesh and muscles are supported by it on the inside instead of +on the outside like our own. As this skeleton is hard it cannot stretch; +as the insect grows and gets too large the shell bursts open and the +insect walks out of it. Now underneath this old hard skeleton a new one +is formed, which is soft and flexible at first, and so stretches to +accommodate the growing insect. After a little time this new skeleton +also hardens and has to be shed when it is too small to suit its owner. + +Notes should be made by the pupil upon the change of color and markings +after the different molts, and the process of molting should be +described. + + +LESSON IV. THE PUPA. FIG. 149, _d_. + +In ordinary seasons, about the middle of May, the caterpillars get their +growth. If those in the breeding cage have died or have not thrived, +bring in a few full-grown caterpillars from the orchard and put them on +some branches in the breeding cage. Give them fresh food each day as +long as they will eat; also place some sticks and chips on the bottom +of the breeding cage for the worms to "spin up" on. Then have the +children observe the following things: + +How do the caterpillars begin their cocoons? + +Where are the cocoons made? + +How are they made? + +Draw a picture of a cocoon. + +About a week after a cocoon is made, open it carefully with a pair of +scissors so as not to hurt the inmate, and let the pupil see the change +that has come over the caterpillar. + +Have the pupils describe the pupa. + +Let the pupils make drawings of the pupa. + +The moths will hardly emerge from the cocoons until after the close of +the school term. The children should be encouraged to gather the cocoons +from the fences around the orchards and from the sticks and the branches +on the ground and to carry them home. The cocoons may be placed in +pasteboard boxes and kept until the moths emerge, about the middle of +July. + + +LESSON V. DESTROYING THE CATERPILLARS. + +After the caterpillars are fully grown and all the processes of growth +have been observed by the pupils, the teacher should give a lesson upon +the injury which they do to trees and the necessity of keeping the +orchards free from these pests. This lesson should be given guardedly so +as not to encourage the children to cruelty in killing insects. The +teacher should always try to inculcate in the child reverence for life, +that wonderful force, which we can so easily take from a creature but +which we can never give back. It is better to appeal to the child's +sense of justice in giving this lesson. The teacher may vary it to suit +her own ideas, but in substance it might be given somewhat as follows: + +"All life is sacred; the smallest worm has as good a right to live in +the sight of God as you or any child has. Life should never be taken +except when necessary. However, no one has the right to interfere with +the rights of another. Neither the child nor the worm has any right to +trespass upon the property of any one else." + +"Let us see whether these caterpillars are trespassers or not. The +farmer works hard to earn the money to buy the land upon which the +orchard is planted; he works hard to earn the money with which to buy +the young trees; he works hard to set out the trees and cultivate the +orchard; therefore the orchard and the fruit of it are his property, and +he has a right to drive away all thieves. If men or children steal the +fruit, he has a right to appeal to the law and have them fined or +imprisoned. If worms come and injure the tree by eating up the foliage, +he has a right to keep them out if he can. The leaves are necessary to +the tree, for if they are destroyed the tree cannot get the air it needs +to keep it vigorous and enable it to mature its fruit. We have seen that +these caterpillars destroy the leaves, and thus do great injury to the +apple crop. We therefore have a right to destroy these little robbers, +as that is the only way we can keep them out of our orchards." + +How can the caterpillars be destroyed? + +The egg-masses can be collected in winter and early spring from young +orchards, and burned. + +Tie bits of suet or fresh fat pork to the branches of the trees and thus +induce chickadees, nuthatches, and woodpeckers to visit the orchard in +winter. These birds will destroy eggs and cocoons of the tent +caterpillar, and of other insect pests also. + +In large, old trees, we must wait until later. Ask the pupils the +following questions: + +At what times did we find the worms in their tents? _Answer._ Early +morning; late afternoons; and during cold, dark days. + +If we should destroy the tents in the middle of a warm, sunny day, what +would happen? _Answer._ The caterpillars, being out feeding on the +leaves, would not be hurt, and as soon as they came back would make +another tent. + +If the tent is destroyed in the early morning or late afternoon or on a +cold, dark day, what would happen? _Answer._ The caterpillars, all being +in the tent, would be destroyed. + +How may the tents be destroyed? _Answer._ By wiping them out with a long +pole on one end of which is wound a rag saturated with kerosene. Or by +burning them out with a torch. + +Is it best to destroy the caterpillars early in the season, while they +are still small, or to wait until they are large and are about ready to +pupate. + +If the trees were sprayed with Paris green in the early spring, what +would happen? _Answer._ The caterpillars would be killed as soon as they +began to eat, when they were first hatched. + +When these caterpillars feed on the leaves of wild cherry they are doing +no damage to an orchard. Therefore, when the tents appear on wild cherry +trees have we any right to destroy them? _Answer._ The wise and careful +farmer does not allow wild cherry trees to grow along his fences if +they will become breeding places for insect enemies which will next year +attack his orchards. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 149. The Curious History of a Tent Caterpillar. a, +The masses of eggs on the twigs of an apple tree. b, The eggs enlarged. +c, A full grown caterpillar. d, Cocoons. e, The moth, or adult insect._] + + + + +LEAFLET XX. + +MOSQUITOES.[26] + +BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. + + "Nature-Study is learning those things in nature that are best + worth knowing, to the end of doing those things that make life + most worth living." + + --PROFESSOR HODGE in _Nature-Study and Life_. + + +[26] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 23, May, 1902. + +[Illustration] + +Spite of all the efforts of scientists and nature-students to popularize +the mosquito, its reputation as a public nuisance is as well sustained +as ever, and it seems destined to remain as unpopular as were its +ancestors. There is no doubt that these creatures "abound" and that +"they are great annoyances to both man and animals," as Dr. Howard tells +us in "The Insect Book;" but he has laid a new and even more deadly sin +at their door in stating, as he does in no uncertain terms, that "they +are active agents in the transfer of disease." + +There seems to be no escape from the attention of these persistent "imps +o' evil." Though we travel to far Alaska or to icy Greenland we cannot +be free. Since we are doomed to existence in the same world with the +mosquito it behooves us to discover, if possible, some way to turn the +creature to account for our entertainment or instruction. Forget for the +moment that you despise mosquitoes, and let us study their ways. By +making its life history the subject of some of our lessons we may at +least learn how the mosquito lives and develops; and later we can turn +this knowledge to practical account. Since for many generations these +creatures have made the human race the subject of insistent study, it is +no more than fair that the tables should be turned! + +You are not good nature-students until you have recognized and overcome +your prejudices. You read the life history of the rabbit and you think +you hate its enemies. You watch a family of foxes with their cunning +ways, and the mother's care for her young and you cannot help +sympathizing with them in their struggle for existence. Every creature +in its turn becomes interesting to you when you find yourself wondering +about how it makes its home, rears its young, and gets its food. As you +get nearer to nature you will cease to feel any pride in the fact that +you "hate" snakes, mosquitoes, and all such "varmints." Indeed that +hatred, born of ignorance, will have given place to sympathy and +interest. You have a new point of view. + +One of the first questions asked of the returning animals in early +spring is, "How have you spent the winter?" The bluebird and the robin +show no signs of weariness after their long flight from the South. The +"woolly bear" caterpillars look just as they did in October. The early +butterflies are a trifle worn and shabby after their hibernation. But +who has thought to inquire where and how the mosquito has spent the cold +season? "Who cares," one may say, "so long as they don't stay around +where we are as they did last summer?" + +[Illustration: _Fig. 150. Mosquito's wing._] + +Suppose we make it our business from now on to care about such things, +and to inquire into the ways our plant and animal neighbors have of +living and of getting a living. Are you quite sure that the mosquitoes +have not spent their winter under your protection? If in April you had +had occasion to frequent either garret or cellar there you might have +found them. By dozens and scores they were waiting for the return of +warm weather to free them. Many of them winter not as eggs, larvæ, or +pupæ, but as winged adults, as _mosquitoes_. This rather interferes with +the prevalent notion that mosquitoes live but for a day. Would that this +were true, and might that day be short! + +[Illustration: _Fig. 151. Raft of eggs, greatly enlarged._] + + +THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE MOSQUITO. + +The life history of a mosquito is in four chapters, some of which are +exceedingly short, others long. The length of each may be varied by the +weather and the season. Moisture and warmth are particularly +advantageous to the rapid development of these creatures. Ten days in +hot weather may be sufficient time for the growth of a generation of +them, from egg to adult. There are many generations in a year. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 152. The larva or wiggler._] + +The larvæ of mosquitoes are aquatic. They live in stagnant water +everywhere, in ponds, swamps, ditches, puddles, rain-water barrels, and +horse-troughs. In early spring the female mosquito that has wintered in +your garret will probably go to the nearest rain-water barrel or +water-tank. She finds her way by instinct, before the sun is up. When +you go to replenish your pitcher you will find a little flat cluster of +eggs like a tiny raft floating on the surface (Fig. 151). It is +dark-colored and the chances are you will not see it unless it gets into +your pitcher. By two o'clock in the afternoon there may be from two to +four hundred lively little wigglers in the water. Possibly they will +wait until the following day. They all hatched from the eggs of one +mosquito. They hitch and twitch about in the water, coming often to the +surface and hanging there for a moment (Fig. 152). You call them +"wigglers." But did you ever wonder why they wiggle, why they come so +often to the surface, and why they thrust up the little tube which +projects from near the end of the body? Did you ever ask what they find +to eat in the water, and how they eat it? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 153. The active pupa._] + +The larval stage lasts about ten days in hot summer weather, but longer +when the days are cool. Then comes a change in form into the pupa (Fig. +153). The creature is still active and aquatic, though no food is taken. +It does not stay long away from the surface while in this stage. +Finally, after two or more days as a pupa, the full-grown mosquito +emerges and takes wing, leaving its pupa case floating on the top of the +water like a forlorn little derelict. + + +ENEMIES OF THE MOSQUITO. + +Besides man, the mosquito has many natural enemies. In the water +especially they fall easy victims to the thousand-and-one insect ogres. +The nymphs of dragon-flies are especially fond of wigglers, and there +has been much said and written about raising dragon-flies as a safeguard +against mosquitoes. Most of the predaceous insects which live in still +water feed on young mosquitoes, while the adults often fall prey to +their more swiftly flying insect neighbors. + + +HOW TO STUDY THE MOSQUITO. + +Over and around the tumbler place a piece of close-woven mosquito +netting to confine the adult insects. A glass tumbler two-thirds full of +rain-water, a little cluster of eggs, or a half dozen wigglers, a keen +observer, and you have a nature-study opportunity not to be surpassed in +the finest laboratory. If you have already seen a part of the life +history, do not be satisfied until you have completed your chain of +observations. Get the eggs; watch the hatching, the molting, the +transformations. See every stage. Learn something new every time you +look at the wiggler or the mature mosquito. It is not at all necessary +that you let these insects escape into the school-room and cause +trouble. + +Those who wish more minute description, with many illustrations of +mosquitoes of different kinds, should obtain from the Division of +Publications, Department of Agriculture, the published results of Dr. L. +O. Howard's studies of mosquitoes. In this pamphlet, from which the +drawings in this lesson are copied, the subject of the transfer of +disease germs by mosquitoes is very thoroughly discussed, with pictures +which distinguish between the common mosquito and those which transfer +malaria and other diseases. + +Those scientists who had to do with the naming of the many species of +mosquitoes had certainly a sense of humor. One would think they named +the creatures according to the mildness or malignity of their bite. A +few of the names are as follows: + + Culex excitans + Culex pungens + Culex irritans + Culex stimulans + Culex perturbans + Culex excrucians + + +THE CRUSADE AGAINST MOSQUITOES. + +BY M. V. SLINGERLAND. + +There is now a world-wide crusade against mosquitoes, extending from the +wilds of Africa through the noted malarial districts of Italy to +America. In America a National Mosquito Extermination Society has been +formed. This extensive crusade is due to the practical demonstration +that some kinds of mosquitoes may transmit malaria, yellow fever and +probably other diseases of human beings. + +All mosquitoes must have water in which to develop, and the warfare +against them consists largely in destroying their watery breeding +grounds. This is being done on a large scale, either by draining or by +filling in marshes, pools, and similar places which often swarm with the +"wigglers." Large areas of such mosquito-breeding waste lands in New +Jersey and on Long Island are thus being reclaimed and the mosquito +nuisance largely abated. + +Aquaria, rain barrels, tanks, small ponds and similar places can be kept +free from the "wigglers" by introducing small fish, as gold fish or +silver fish, sunfish, "killies," roaches or minnows. An interesting and +instructive object lesson could be given by putting a few minnows from a +near-by brook into the school aquarium or into a specially prepared +glass dish well stocked with the "wigglers." + +One can easily prevent mosquitoes from breeding in rain barrels or tanks +by covering them with mosquito netting. + +Another practicable and successful method is to pour or sprinkle +kerosene oil every two or three weeks in a thin film over the surface of +cesspools, rain barrels, tanks, ponds or any other body of sluggish +water where the "wigglers" are found. This oil film kills the "wigglers" +(both larvæ and pupæ) by preventing them from getting to the surface to +breathe, and it also prevents the mother mosquito from laying her eggs +on the water. There are patent preparations or oils which penetrate all +through the water, killing the "wigglers" but spoiling the water for +general use, so that such oils are usually applied only to infested +cesspools, sewer basins, or manure pits. + +By a little concerted effort of local officials, individuals, or by the +school children in applying whichever of the above methods is most +practicable, much interesting and valuable work could be accomplished +and the pestiferous mosquito largely eliminated in many localities. + + + + +LEAFLET XXI. + +THE WAYS OF THE ANT.[27] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[27] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 1. October, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +For many years ants have been recognized as among the most interesting +of the little animals that people our fields. However, not until +recently have we begun to understand, even in a small measure, their +economic importance and the part they play in maintaining the balance in +insect life. Therefore, we shall give a few studies of ants and their +ways, and as a knowledge of their habits is necessary to begin with, we +will take up the ant-nest first. + + +AN ANT-NEST. + +Two panes of glass laid flat one on the other with a space between of +one-eighth of an inch or less, these panes covered with a piece of dark +paper or wood to keep out the light and then placed on something that +will allow them to be surrounded by water; a bit of blotting paper +two inches square, dampened and placed at one end of the glass +chamber--these are all the materials and the art necessary for the +construction of a perfectly equipped ant-nest. + +Once we wished to make an ant-nest hurriedly, and this is the way we did +it: we chose an agate wash basin (Fig. 154), as this would not rust, and +filled it half-full of water; in this we made an island, by placing in +it a three-pint agate basin turned bottom side up. We took two discarded +negatives, size 4x5 inches, and cleaned off the films; then we placed +one of the pieces of glass on the basin-island, took the stumps of four +burnt matches and placed one on each side of this glass near its edge; +then we placed the other piece of glass on top, letting it rest on the +matches to make a chamber just high enough for the ants to live in +comfortably. This done, we took the cover of a cigar-box and cut it +down to the size of the negatives, put a screw-eye in the center to lift +it by and placed it on top of the upper glass to make the chamber below +quite dark. Then we took a trowel and fruit-can and went after some +inhabitants for our island. We went to an open pasture and turned over +stones until we found beneath one a heap of yellowish grain-like pupæ +and little translucent whitish bodies, which we knew were larvæ, all +being cared for by swarms of worker-ants. One of us pushed the trowel +beneath, taking up dirt and all, while the other held the can open, into +which the trowel was emptied. We hastened back and as gently as +possible, taking care to hurt none of our little captives, placed the +contents of the can on the top of the nest. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 154. An improvised ant-nest._] + +As the first thought of an ant is never for its own safety, but for the +safety of its infant sisters, the little workers began to hunt for a +safe and dark place in which to stow away their charges. In running +about they soon discovered the space between the two pieces of glass and +in a few hours the young ones were moved into the new quarters. Then we +cleaned away the earth on top of the nest, and by lifting the cover we +were able to see all that was going on within. The water in the +wash-basin prevented any of our uneasy captives from escaping, as these +little people, so clever in most things, have never yet mastered the art +of swimming. + +I have an ant-nest on my table as I write, shown in Fig. 156. Instead of +matches to keep the two pieces of glass apart I have a narrow strip of +canton flannel glued around the edge of the glass floor except for two +little doors at the opposite corners; there is also a narrow strip of +cloth partitioning the chamber into two rooms with a door at one end. +One room I left empty and in the other I placed a bit of blotting paper +which I keep damp by occasionally adding a few drops of water. The nest +is placed upon a piece of plank 18 inches square. Around the plank near +the edge is a groove about an inch deep made with a chisel and kept full +of water, so that my ants have a castle with a moat. It was necessary to +paint this bit of plank thoroughly, above and below, to keep it from +warping. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 155. Ant-nest, on a piece of plank, which has a +moat near its edge to confine the insects._] + +The ants in my nest I found on a hillside beneath a stone; they are +brownish with yellow legs and a little less than a quarter of an inch in +length. They were stupid at first and would not discover the chamber +prepared for them, but persisted in hiding their young under bits of +earth which were brought in with them. So I made a scoop of a sheet of +writing paper and with it placed a heap of the young, with a few of the +nurses, in the empty chamber, then put on the glass ceiling and cover +and left them. In a few hours the whole colony had moved into this +chamber, but evidently it was not humid enough for the health of the +young, and by the next morning the pupæ and larvæ and eggs were all in +the other chamber arranged around the edges of the blotting paper. + +What I have seen of interest in this nest on my table would fill a small +volume, if written out in detail. Just now a worker approached a pupa, +that appears through the lens like a little bag of meal tied at one end +with a black string; she examined it carefully with her antennæ and +concluded it needed to be moved, and, though it is as large as she, +picked it up in her jaws and carried it to a position which she regarded +as more favorable. Then she approached a larva which looks like a little +crook-neck squash, inquired as to its needs with her antennæ and then +cleaned it with her tongue, as a cat licks a kitten, and fed it. Her +next duty was to pick up a whole bunch of little white oblong eggs and +scurry off with them to get them out of the light. Then she stopped to +help another worker to straighten out the soft legs and antennæ of a +pale, new sister that was just emerging from the pupa skin. By the time +I had seen as much as this I felt it my duty to replace the cover, as +the light greatly disturbs the little captives. It is said that if a +yellow glass be used for the upper piece, the ants feel that they are in +darkness, and their actions may be watched constantly without disturbing +them. + +For a permanent nest, it is necessary to secure a queen, which lays all +the eggs for the colony. She may be recognized by her larger size and +may sometimes be found in a nest under the stones. However, it is so +difficult to obtain a queen that I more often bring in the young and the +workers; the latter will be content as long as they have the babies to +feed and bring up; when finally this is accomplished, I usually take my +colony back to its nest in the field, where it is made most welcome. +This may seem sentimental, but after you have watched these little +people working so hard and taking such devoted care of their baby +sisters and doing so many wise things in their home, you will be loth to +let the tiny creatures die of discouragement because they have nothing +else to do, and you will be still more loth to let them loose to +scatter, bewildered and helpless, over a strange earth. However, I have +to be very careful and mark the nest to which they belong, for if I +should put them near another colony, my poor captives would soon die +inglorious deaths. + +Food which we provide for the ants in captivity should be varied and +should be put on the island, rather than in the nest as we may thus be +able to better clean away the refuse. Crackers or bread soaked in +sweetened water, sponge cake, berry-jam, sugar, bits of raw meat, yolks +of hard boiled eggs crushed, freshly killed insects or earth-worms, all +may prove acceptable to our little friends. Their food may be soft but +should not be in a fluid state. + + +QUESTIONS ABOUT ANTS. + +_If you have not made an ant-nest and observed the ant as indicated, +make some field observations. These may be made with the naked eye, or +with a tripod lens. Such a lens costs about thirty-five cents._ + +1. Have you ever seen an ant-hill? If so, describe it. + +2. Do all ants build mound nests? + +3. In what situations have you found ant-nests? + +4. How many kinds of ants do you know? + +5. Have you ever seen winged ants? If so, describe the experience. + +6. What is the reason for a winged form of ants? + +7. Have you observed ants meet and "converse" with each other? If so, +how did they do it? + +8. Have you seen the ants carrying their young? If so, how do they do +it? + +9. If you have made an ant-nest, tell what you have seen going on within +it. + +10. Tell any experiences you have had with ants, that show their +courage, energy or cleverness. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 156. Uncovered ant-nest, viewed from above, looking +through the glass ceiling._ + +_The white pieces around the edges and at the center are strips of +canton flannel, forming walls and partition to the nest. Note the doors +at the lower left and upper right hand corners and at lower end of the +partition. The piece of blotting paper in the chamber at the left +chanced to have a picture of an eagle upon it. The small white objects +are pupæ, assorted in heaps._] + + +ANTS AND THEIR HERDS.[28] + +[28] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 8, May, 1904. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 157. Rose infested with aphids or plant-lice._] + +Very soon after the green leaves come, one may notice that the ants seem +to be greatly interested in getting to the tops of trees, bushes and +vines. If one watches for only a short time, he may see them hastening +up and down with that important ant-air which says plainly, "There now, +don't hinder me, I haven't a moment to waste." If we should follow with +our eyes one of these hurried six-footed Marthas on her way up a tree, +we would find that her business was that of milk-maid. Her cows are +there pasturing on the leaves overhead, and she hastens to them coaxing +for the milk, which is a clear drop of sweet honeydew. For many years +entomologists repeated the statement that the honeydew secreted by +aphids or plant-lice for the use of the ants came from the two little +tubes on the back of the insect. It is easy to see how this mistake came +about; the tubes were there, and so was the honeydew; the tubes +suggested a cow's udder, and as the ants use the honeydew the natural +inference was that it came from the tubes. This interesting error has +been printed in so many honorable books, that it has become a classic. +As a matter of fact, the caterpillars of our little, blue butterflies do +have glands on the abdomen which secrete honeydew for the use of the +ants; but the honeydew of the plant-lice, like honey itself, is +manufactured in the alimentary canal, and issues from it. Observations +have shown that each individual plant-louse may produce from five to +seven drops of honeydew in twenty-four hours. If our cows could produce +as much in proportion, then a good Holstein would give something like +six thousand pounds of milk per day, and would be a highly profitable +animal to have in the dairy. Although the honeydew does not come from +the little tubes on the back of the plant-louse, yet those tubes have +their uses. I once observed a young spider approaching an aphid, which +was facing its enemy. As the spider approached, the aphid lifted its +abdomen, and thrust one of these tubes over directly in the spider's +face, and on this tube there suddenly appeared a little ball of yellow +wax. The whole act was so like a pugilist thrusting his fist in his +enemy's face that I laughed. The spider retreated and the aphid let its +abdomen fall back in its natural position, but the little wax ball +remained for some time on the tip of the tube. A German scientist, Mr. +Busgen, of the University of Jena, discovered that a plant-louse smeared +the eyes and jaws of his enemy, the aphis-lion, with this wax which +dried as soon as applied. In action it was something like throwing a +basin of paste at the head of an attacking party. Mr. Busgen discovered +that the aphis-lion thus treated was obliged to stop and clean himself +before he could go on with his hunt, and meantime the aphid walked off +in safety. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 158. A stable made by ants for plant-lice._] + +The honeydew is excreted in such quantities that often the pavement +beneath trees may be seen to be spattered by the drops of this sweet +rain. It seems to be excreted solely for attracting the ants. In return +for this, the ants give care and protection to their herds. They +sometimes take them into their nests and care for them. In one case, at +least, one species of ant builds for one species of aphid (which lives +upon dogwood) a little mud stable which protects the aphids from all +enemies. This stable is neatly placed at the fork of the twigs and has a +little circular door by which the ants may enter (Fig. 158). The +lady-bug larvæ and the ant-lions both feed voraciously on the aphids; an +ant will attack single-handed one of these depredators, although it be +much larger than herself, and will drive it away or perish in the +attempt. + +Some so-called practical people say, "Let us study only those things in +Nature that affect our pocketbook, and not waste our time studying +irrelevant things." If this spirit had animated scientists from the +first, many of the most important economic discoveries would never have +been made. This relation of ants to aphids is an example to the point. +For a hundred years has the fact been known that ants use the aphids for +their cows, and the practical men said, "This is a very pretty story, +but what we want is some method of killing the aphids." It remained for +Professor Forbes, of Illinois, to show the practical application of this +"pretty story" in the life history of the corn-root plant-louse, which +did great damage to the corn crop of the West. These plant-lice winter +in the ground wherever they chance to be left by the dying roots of the +last year's crop, and with their soft bodies could never work their way +in the hard earth and to the roots of the newly-planted corn in the +spring. Professor Forbes discovered that the ants in these infested +fields make mines along the principal roots of the new corn; and that +they then go out and collect the plant-lice, and place them in these +burrows, and there watch over them and protect them. + + +OBSERVATION LESSON ON THE RELATION OF ANTS TO PLANT-LICE. + +_A reading-glass or lens may be used to advantage in making these +observations._ + +_Find some plant near at hand that is infested by aphids in order to +note from time to time the relation of ants to these little creatures. +Some aphids on the petiole and leaves of the Virginia Creeper on our +piazza once afforded me a convenient field for daily observation._ + +1. How does the ant approach the aphid and ask for honeydew? + +2. Does she wait long if there is no response? + +3. Does the ant step on the aphids as she runs about among them? + +4. What are the colors of the aphids you have observed? + +5. On what plants were they feeding? + +6. What sort of mouth parts have the aphids? + +7. What part of the plant is their food, and how do they get it? + +8. Why does not Paris green applied to the leaves on which aphids are +feeding kill them? + +9. Have you seen the lady-bird larvæ or the ant-lions destroying aphids? +Explain. + +10. Have you ever seen the little wax balls on the tubes of the +plant-lice? If so, did you note when and why they were produced? + +11. Have you ever seen an ant attacking the enemies of plant-lice? +Describe. + +12. How do you think this relation of ants to aphids affects +agriculture? + +13. Study what the ants do for the aphids which infest your rose bushes. +Do you infer from this that it is well to exterminate the ant colonies +in your flower garden? + +14. Do you know how to clear your plants of plant-lice? If so, how? If +not send to Cornell or some other experiment station for a spray +bulletin. + + + + +LEAFLET XXII. + +THE BIRDS AND I.[29] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[29] Teachers' Leaflet No. 10, May, 1898. + +[Illustration] + +The springtime belongs to the birds and me. We own it. We know when the +Mayflowers and the buttercups bloom. We know when the first frogs peep. +We watch the awakening of the woods. We are wet by the warm April +showers. We go where we will, and we are companions. Every tree and +brook and blade of grass is ours; and our hearts are full of song. + +There are boys who kill the birds, and girls who want to catch them and +put them in cages; and there are others who steal their eggs. The birds +are not partners with them; they are only servants. Birds, like people, +sing for their friends, not for their masters. I am sure that one cannot +think much of the springtime and the flowers if his heart is always set +upon killing or catching something. We are happy when we are free; and +so are the birds. + +The birds and I get acquainted all over again every spring. They have +seen strange lands in the winter, and all the brooks and woods have been +covered with snow. So we run and romp together, and find all the nooks +and crannies which we had half forgotten since October. The birds +remember the old places. The wrens pull the sticks from the old hollow +rail and seem to be wild with joy to see the place again. They must be +the same wrens that were here last year and the year before, for +strangers could not make so much fuss over an old rail. The bluebirds +and wrens look into every crack and corner for a place in which to +build, and the robins and chipping-sparrows explore every tree in the +old orchard. + +If the birds want to live with us, we should encourage them. The first +thing to do is to let them alone. Let them be as free from danger and +fear as you or I. Take the hammer off the old gun, give pussy so much to +eat that she will not care to hunt for birds, and keep away the boys who +steal eggs and who carry sling-shots and throw stones. Plant trees and +bushes about the borders of the place, and let some of them, at least, +grow into tangles; then, even in the back yard, the wary cat-bird may +make its home. + +For some kinds of birds we can build houses. Some of the many forms +which can be used are shown in the pictures at the end of this Leaflet. +Any ingenious boy can suggest a dozen other patterns. Although birds may +not appreciate architecture, it is well to make the houses neat and +tasty by taking pains to have the proportions correct. The floor space +in each compartment should be not less than five by six inches, and six +by six or six by eight may be better. By cutting the boards in multiples +of these numbers, one can easily make a house with several compartments; +for there are some birds, as martins, tree swallows, and pigeons that +like to live in families or colonies. The size of the doorway is +important. It should be just large enough to admit the bird. A larger +opening not only looks bad, but it exposes the inhabitants to dangers of +cats and other enemies. Birds which build in houses, aside from doves +and pigeons, are bluebirds, wrens, tree-swallows, martins, and sometimes +the chickadees. For the wren and the chickadee the opening should be an +inch augur hole, and for the others it should be about one-and-a-half +inches. Only one opening should be provided for each house or +compartment. A perch or door-step should be provided just below each +door. It is here that the birds often stop to arrange their toilets; and +when the mistress is busy with domestic affairs indoors the male-bird +often sits outside and entertains her with the latest neighborhood +gossip. These houses should be placed on poles or on buildings in +somewhat secluded places. Martins and tree-swallows like to build their +nests twenty-five feet or more above the ground, but the other birds +usually prefer an elevation less than twelve feet. Newly made houses, +and particularly newly painted ones, do not often attract the birds. + +But if the birds and I are companions I must know them more intimately. +Merely building houses for them is not enough. I want to know live and +happy birds, not dead ones. We are not to know them, then, by catching +them, or stuffing them, or collecting their eggs. Persons who make a +business of studying birds may shoot birds now and then, and collect +their eggs. But these persons are scientists and they are grown-up +people. They are trying to add to the sum of human knowledge, while we +want to know birds just because we want to. But even scientists do not +take specimens recklessly. They do not rob nests. They do not kill +brooding birds. They do not make collections merely for the sake of +making them; and even their collections are less valuable than a +knowledge of the bird as it lives and flies and sings. + +Boys and girls should not make collections of eggs, for these +collections are mere curiosities, as collections of spools and marbles +are. They may afford some entertainment, to be sure, but one can find +amusement in harmless ways. Some persons think that the securing of +collections makes one a naturalist, but it does not. The naturalist +cares more for things as they really are in their own homes than for +museum specimens. One does not love the birds when he steals their eggs +and breaks up their homes; and he is depriving the farmer of one of his +best friends, for birds keep insects in check. + +Stuffed birds do not sing and empty eggs do not hatch. Then let us go to +the fields and watch the birds. Sit down on the soft grass and try to +make out what the robin is doing on yonder fence or why the wren is +bursting with song in the thicket. An opera-glass or spy-glass will +bring them close to you. Try to find out not only what the colors and +shapes and sizes are, but what their habits are. What does the bird eat? +How much does it eat? Where is its nest? How many eggs does it lay? What +color are they? How long does the mother bird sit? Does the father bird +care for her when she is sitting? How long do the young birds remain in +the nest? Who feeds them? What are they fed? Is there more than one +brood in a season? Where do the birds go after breeding? Do they change +their plumage? Are the mother birds and father birds unlike in size or +color? How many kinds of birds do you know? + +These are some of the things that every boy or girl wants to know; and +we can find out by watching the birds! There is no harm in visiting the +nests, if one does it in the right way. I have visited hundreds of them +and have kept many records of the number of eggs and the dates when they +were laid, how long before they hatched, and when the birds flew away; +and the birds took no offense at my inquisitiveness. These are some of +the cautions to be observed: Watch only those nests which can be seen +without climbing, for if you have to climb the tree the birds will +resent it. Make the visit when the birds are absent, if possible; at +least, never scare the bird from the nest. Do not touch the eggs or the +nest. Make your visit very short. Make up your mind just what you want +to see, then look in quickly and pass on. Do not go too often; once or +twice a day will be sufficient. Do not take the other children with you, +for you are then likely to stay too long and to offend the birds. + +Now let us see how intimately you can become acquainted with some bird +this summer. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 159._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 162._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 160._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 163._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 161._] + +[Illustration: _Suggestions for home-made bird houses._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 164._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 165._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 166._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 167._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 168._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 169._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 170._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 171._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 172._] + +[Illustration: _Improvised bird houses._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 173._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 176._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 174._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 175._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 177._] + +[Illustration: _Suggestions for home-made bird houses._] + + + + +LEAFLET XXIII. + +THE EARLY BIRDS.[30] + +BY L. A. FUERTES. + + +[30] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 4: Leaflet 17, March, 1900. + +[Illustration] + +After a long winter, many of us are too impatient for spring to wait for +the swelling of the buds, the opening of the early flowers, and the +springing of the grass. Several weeks lie between the end of winter and +the truly genial spring days, and during this interval we look for +something to herald the settled spring season. And the thing which gives +us that for which we are unconsciously looking, more than all other +signs, is the arrival of the birds. Who has not warmed to the quavering +call of the first blue-bird, or been suddenly thrilled some early spring +day with the sunny notes of the song-sparrow! + +In the southern part of this State, notably in the lower Hudson Valley, +the winter is spent by several birds which elsewhere we are accustomed +to see only after the winter has passed. Among these are the blue-bird, +robin, song-sparrow, white-throated-sparrow, meadow-lark, and possibly +the purple-finch. But in most of the State we must wait until the first +or second week in March before we can be sure of seeing any of them. It +is a question which of the earlier birds will first make its appearance, +as these early migrants are much less regular in their movements than +those that come late in April and in May, after the weather has become +settled. Many a robin and blue-bird arrives during some early warm +"spell," to find himself suddenly surrounded by flying snow and blown +about by cold winds. But these and a few other hardy ones seem able to +stand such rebuffs with great equanimity, and the momentary shining of a +fickle March sun will often evoke some pent-up song-sparrow's notes from +the shelter of a hedge or thicket. Robins, blue-birds, song-sparrows, +cowbirds, meadow-larks, phoebes, bronzed grackles, kingfishers, and +doves may be looked upon as the vanguards of the hosts of migrating +birds that come to us each year, and the first four or five may be +expected almost any time after the first week in March. If the winter +has been late, these may not appear until the middle or even the latter +part of the month, in which case one is busy keeping track of the +arrivals, as the other birds have caught up then, and all come nearly at +the same time. + +It is unnecessary to give detailed descriptions of robins, bluebirds, +and song-sparrows, as nearly everyone is familiar with them; but some of +the other early comers may be more easily recognized if some field +impressions of them be given. + + * * * * * + +Almost any warm day in early March we may hear a thin, clear "tsssss" in +a high piping key, and on looking up see from one to five black birds, +about the size of orioles, flying in a strange undulating manner--some +up and some down, with the wings held close to their sides during the +"drop" in their flight. They are cowbirds. The flock may swirl into the +top of a tree and sit close together. (Fig. 178.) If this happens within +eyeshot, stop and watch them for a moment. One or two of the males are +almost certain to utter the ridiculous song of the species, which, like +that of their relatives, the grackles, is accompanied by the most +grotesque of actions. The bird spreads its wings to their utmost, +spreads and elevates the tail, stretches its neck upwards and forwards, +and then, quivering and tottering, nearly falls forward off the perch. +The only sound which accompanies this absurd action is a faint chuckling +"clk-sfs'k," which is scarcely to be heard a hundred feet away. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 178. Cowbirds._] + + * * * * * + +With the cowbirds we may expect the arrival of the bronzed grackles, +which resemble them much in flight, but are larger and come in far +larger flocks--sometimes ten, sometimes a hundred or more. Their arrival +is known by the vigorous calls they utter while flying, a loud bass +"jook." When seen squabbling in the spruce trees or in the bare branches +of the willows fringing the streams, the males are likely to be giving +their "song." It is scarcely more of a note than the cowbird's, a rusty +squeak, and it is accompanied by a contortion in the same manner. It is +not such a pronounced effort, however, and is often only a slight +shudder and shrug of the shoulders. They feed, like cowbirds, mostly on +the ground, and walk about most sedately in the grass like small crows. +In tall grass, however, they waddle too much to be graceful. When taking +flight they spread their long pointed tails in a very peculiar and +characteristic manner--not out in a horizontal plane, like most birds, +but up at the sides in the shape of a gardener's trowel, which gives +them an extraordinary appearance. + + * * * * * + +The redwings begin to come into the marshes soon after the grackles, and +are at that time in full feather and song. Their rich, deliberate +"clonk-ka lrrrrrrr," interlarded with the clear piping whistles of some +of the flock, makes a concert of bird-notes very dear to all who are +familiar with it. In their scarlet and black velvet dress these birds +are impossible to mistake, whether seen chasing over the marshes, +singing from an elm-top, or balancing with spread tail upon some tall +reed stalk. + + * * * * * + +There is a bird-note so often and so justly mistaken for that of the +phoebe that the error certainly merits correction. The spring song of +the chick-a-dee (which may be heard on almost any warm day all winter, +and is very easy to call forth by even a poorly whistled imitation) is a +clear, pure "^[=eee]_{[=eee]}" or "[--__ __]" which really says +"Phoebe" much more plainly than the true phoebe note, this latter +being much lower in tone, and only to be heard after March is well on, +and almost always in the vicinity of running streams and brooklets; +while the gay little chick-a-dee whistles at any time or place that +suits his versatile fancy. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Fig. 179. Meadow larks._] + +The mellow flute notes of the meadow larks (Fig. 179) float to us from +the middle of some large, open field, and are among the most beautiful +bits of bird music we ever hear. They are not to be represented by +notes, and can only be most inadequately described. There is great +variation in the sequence of notes, but all are beautifully clear and +ringing, and have a decided tinge of what would be sadness if it were +not so sweet. The bird flies in a very characteristic manner, never +raising the wings above the plane of the back, and when seen below the +horizon line always shows the white feathers in the tail. His saffron +breast and black breast-mark seldom show on the living birds, and the +mottled brown back is a wonderful safeguard against his many overhead +enemies. + + * * * * * + +Two or more doves may be seen winging their headlong flight through the +air. These are among the swiftest of birds, and are generally out of +eyeshot almost before you have seen them. (That is one way of knowing +what they are.) In flight, they look like small pigeons with very long +graduated tails, and when, in some old orchard or open wood, you see one +rise from the ground into a tree, the white lateral feathers in the tail +make an easily recognizable mark. (Fig. 180.) Their cooing notes are +well known--a high-pitched "overtone," followed by several long +bell-toned "[(ooooo],--[(ooooo]," notes. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 180. Mourning doves._] + + * * * * * + +About April 1 to 10, you may hear a scratching in the dead leaves among +the underbrush in any thickly grown tangle, and upon cautiously coming +up you may discover the authors--not big grouse as you may have +supposed, but a flock of fine, vigorous fox-sparrows on their way to +their northern breeding grounds. They are bright bay fellows, with +boldly blotched brown and white breasts, diligently scattering the +leaves for their food of seeds, spiders, ants, and various insects. If +you have been fortunate enough not to have been seen you may hear their +song, which is one of the finest of our sparrow songs, readily +recognizable as such, though not resembling any of its fellows--a clear, +vigorous carol, often ending abruptly with a rather unmusical "clip." +If, however, they have seen you, you will be treated to a sharp "tseep!" +and a rear view of a flock of rapidly retreating birds, for they are not +sociable (with us, at least), and generally take a hint to move on +before you know of their presence. They do not stay long with us on +their migration, and seeing them one day is no indication that you can +find them the next. + + * * * * * + +Although the white-throated sparrows spend the winter in our southern +counties, they do not start their northward journey as early as we might +expect, and it is not until the first part of April that we may be sure +of finding them. I have one list, indeed that shows their first +appearance on May first! + +They are to be found in places similar to those which the fox-sparrows +choose, and are very similar to them in habits, but the boldly striped +head and gray breast are very distinctive marks. Almost all of our +native sparrows have a call note, the "tsweep" note, which is hard to +distinguish in the different species without much patient listening--and +I doubt if any person is infallible in this distinction. The +white-throat has this note, as well as the song-sparrow, tree-sparrow (a +winter-bird), fox-sparrow, white-crown, chippy, field-sparrow, +grass-finch, in fact all our brown-backed sparrows. But the song of the +white-throat is his own, and may be heard frequently during his very +leisurely journey through our state. His Canadian name, "Peabody bird" +is descriptive of his notes, "-- _.., _.., _.." When a number get +together and whistle, as if they were singing a round, it makes a very +sweet concert. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 181. White-throated sparrow._] + + * * * * * + +One of the foremost birds in the spring movement is the grass-finch +(vesper-sparrow or bay-winged bunting). It is to be found in open fields +and along roadside fences, in company with meadow larks, and its sweet +song may be heard almost any warm evening after the middle of April. +Unlike most of our birds, this sparrow sings at its best late in the +afternoon and during twilight, which perhaps makes its song seem the +sweeter. It is rather a gentle song, though to be heard at some +distance, carrying quite as far as that of the song-sparrow. Although +the quality of voice is somewhat similar in these two birds, +the grass-finch lacks the merry abandon that characterizes the +song-sparrow's song, but has instead a deeper chord, which is called by +some people sadness. The bird may be easily recognized in the fields by +the white tail-feathers, which always show in flight. It is about the +size and general color of the song-sparrow. + + * * * * * + +By the time the foregoing birds are comparatively common, and the maple +buds are bursting and the lilacs swelling, the gay purple finch appears. +He is not purple at all, but has a crimson head, which fades on the +lower breast through rosy pink into pure white. He is fond of spruces +and larches, feeding greedily on the tender buds as well as on the ants +and scale insects that infest them. His song is a fine one, and in +addition to the charm of being poured forth in full flight, is so long +and intricate that one finds himself holding his breath as the burst of +melody continues, as if to help the little fellow catch up with his +music. + + * * * * * + +Along the banks of some lake or stream, sitting idly on a telegraph pole +or wire, rising and settling, elevating and depressing his long parted +top-knot, a patriarchal old kingfisher may be seen silently awaiting the +gleam of a shiner in the water below (Fig. 182). Or perhaps you may +first see him flying like a big woodpecker, screaming his chattering cry +high in the air, or scaling close to the water under the fringing +hemlock branches that overhang the stream. His large size, slate-blue +back, loud notes, and characteristic flight make him a hard bird to +mistake in any case. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 182. Kingfisher._] + + * * * * * + +There are many other birds which pass us on their way north, but they +herald rather the summer than the breaking of spring. The following list +of spring migrations is taken from Mr. Chapman's "Handbook of the Birds +of Eastern North America," and was compiled for use about New York City. +The dates nearly coincide with those I have found about the central part +of the State, and are, in the main, only a few days in advance of those +for the northern counties. The latter dates in the column are about what +may be taken for the middle tier of counties. + +It is the earnest hope of the writer that these few very brief +sketches may be of use to those interested in entering the delightful +field of the study of birds; your experience may and probably +will be different from that which I have cited, which only goes to +show that everyone must really see for himself, and not only that, +but by so doing may make new observations and get new ideas on +practically all of even our best known birds. Birds are not, as a +rule, hard to watch, and the patience it requires to sit still and +"be a stump" long enough for birds to cease noticing you is soon +and amply repaid by the new insight into an unknown realm +which is sure to follow. + +LIST OF BIRDS COMPRISING THE SPRING MIGRATION. + +(Until April 20--Approximate.) + +(_Taken from Chapman's Handbook of Birds of Eastern North +America._) + + Date of arrival. + + Feb. 15-Mar. 10. Purple Grackle. + Rusty Grackle. + Red-winged Blackbird. + Robin. + Bluebird. + + Mar. 10-20 Woodcock. + Phoebe. + Meadow Lark. + Cowbird. + Fox-sparrow. + + Mar. 20-31 Wilson's Snipe. + Kingfisher. + Mourning Dove. + Swamp-sparrow. + Field-sparrow. + + April 1-10 Great Blue Heron. + Purple Finch. + Vesper-sparrow. + Savanna-sparrow. + Chipping-sparrow. + Tree Swallow. + Myrtle Warbler. + American Pipit. + Hermit Thrush. + + April 10-20 Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. + Barn Swallow. + Yellow Palm Warbler. + Pine Warbler. + Louisiana Water Thrush. + Ruby-crowned Kinglet. + + + + +LEAFLET XXIV. + +THE WOODPECKERS.[31] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[31] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 30, March, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +It is best to follow some definite line of bird study for an entire +year. All of the observations that could be made in a single month on +any bird would give but an inadequate idea of its habits. To know the +life of a bird, one must study it month by month for at least one year. + +The woodpeckers seem a most attractive group for our study. They are not +only very interesting, but of great importance to the farmer, orchadist +and forester. There are five common species in New York State that we +all may learn to know, and then make observations of our own on their +habits. These species are the downy, the hairy, the sapsucker, the +flicker and the redhead. The way to begin our observations in winter is +to tie a piece of suet to the branch of some tree easily observed from +our windows. Such a bird feast as this is on a branch of a chestnut oak +in front of my office window, and though I never have time to watch more +than momentarily the birds that come there to eat, yet each glance tells +me something of their ways, and my own day's work is much brighter and +happier therefor. The "downy" (Fig. 183), as he is universally called, +comes with his mate every day and they eat greedily of the suet; when +they first arrive they are so absorbed in working this food mine that I +sometimes stand directly beneath and watch them without frightening +them. Perhaps they know that I am the friend who invited them to +breakfast. Anyway, as soon as they leave the suet they hunt +industriously over my tree, finding there all of the hidden insects, and +thus they keep my oak clean and pay for their breakfast. Occasionally +the hairy woodpecker comes, a self-invited guest to the suet banquet. To +the untrained eye he looks very like an over-grown downy, as he is by +two or three inches the longer; but his outer tail feathers are +entirely white, while the downy's are barred with black; usually the red +cap of the hairy is divided by a black stripe. The hairy is said to be a +shy bird, but I have seen him several times this winter at a suet party +near dwellings. + +In April there is likely to appear in any region of New York State a +bird which is often mistaken for the downy or hairy, although it is very +different in both coloring and habits. This is the sapsucker, the only +woodpecker of bad repute (Fig. 184). However, I am sure its deeds are +not nearly so black as they are painted. The male sapsucker has a bright +red crown and chin and throat, his breast is yellow, and he is also +yellowish on the back; while the males of the downy and hairy are +red-capped and black and white with no yellow. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 183. Downy woodpecker._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 184. Sapsucker._] + +QUESTIONS ON WOODPECKERS TO BE ANSWERED IN MARCH. + +1. What is the difference in appearance between the male and female +downy? + +2. How does the downy travel down a tree; does it go head-first? What +food have you seen it eat? + +3. How does the downy use its tail in going up and down the tree trunk? + +4. Have you approached a woodpecker closely enough to see how its toes +are arranged? If so, describe them. + +5. How does it manage its head to make its blows forceful? + +6. Are you able to discriminate between the hairy and the downy when you +see them? How? + +7. Do you know the difference in the notes of the hairy and downy? +Explain. + + +DOWNY, SAPSUCKER AND RED-HEAD.[32] + +[32] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 31, April, 1903. + +This morning I was awakened by the beating of a drum over in the woods. +My ear was not yet sufficiently trained so that I knew whether my +drummer was Mr. Downy or Mr. Hairy, yet I strongly suspected the former. +The tattoo of the Sapsucker (which does not nest here) James Whitcomb +Riley has aptly characterized as "Weeding out the lonesomeness." This is +exactly what the drumming of woodpeckers in the early spring means. The +male selects some dried limb of hard wood and there beats out his +well-known signal which advertises far and near, "Wanted, a wife." And +after he wins her he keeps on drumming to cheer her, while she is busy +with her family cares. The woodpecker has no voice for singing, like the +robin or thrush, and realizing his deficiency, he does not insist on +singing like the peacock, whether he can or no. He chooses rather to +devote his voice to terse and business-like conversation, and when he is +musically inclined he turns drummer. He is rather particular about his +instrument, and, having found one that pleases him in tone, returns to +it day after day. + +In case the drumming I heard this morning was an advertisement for a +wife, I am interested to know what has become of Mrs. Downy, who has +been true to her mate all winter. Does, perhaps, the springtime bring +divorce as well as marriage? Mr. Burroughs tells of a downy that was +absolutely brutal in his treatment of his mate in winter, not allowing +her to live in his neighborhood. Be this as it may, the downy and the +hairy woodpeckers that have feasted upon my suet this winter have +invariably come in pairs, and while only one at a time sits at meat, and +the lord and master is somewhat "bossy," yet they seem to get along as +well as most married pairs. + +The sapsucker is a woodpecker that has strayed from the paths of +virtue; he has fallen into temptation by the wayside, and instead of +drilling a hole for the sake of the grub at the end of it he drills it +for its own sake. He is a tippler and sap is his beverage. He is +especially fond of the sap of the mountain ash, apple, thorn apple, +canoe birch, red maple, red oak and white ash. He drills his holes in +beautiful rows, and sometimes girdles a limb or tree, and for this he is +pronounced a rascal by men who have themselves ruthlessly cut from our +land millions of trees that should now be standing. However, the +sapsucker does not live solely on sap and the soft cambium layer of the +tree; he also feeds on insects wherever he finds them. When feeding +their young, sapsuckers are true flycatchers, getting the insects while +on the wing. If you find a sapsucker girdling a tree in your orchard or +a birch on your lawn, just protect the trees with a wire netting, and +let the sapsucker catch mosquitoes for you instead, and remember that he +belongs to a good family and is entitled to some consideration, even if +he has taken to drink. + +The red-head (Fig. 185) is well named, for his helmet and visor show a +vivid, glowing crimson that stirs the sensibilities of the color lover. +He is readily distinguished from all other woodpeckers because his +entire head and the bib under his chin are red. For the rest, he is a +beautiful dark metallic blue and white. He is a most adept drummer, and +his roll is a long one. One that I observed last spring selected a dead +limb at the top of an oak tree and there he drummed merrily every +morning. He is an adaptable fellow and has been known to drum on tin +roofs and lightning rods, thus braving the dangers of civilization for +the sake of better music. Though he can rattle so well when he is +musically inclined, he is not, after all, much of a woodpecker, for he +lives mostly on insects which he catches while they are crawling or on +the wing, and he also likes nuts. He is especially fond of beech nuts, +and, being a thrifty fellow as well as musical, in time of plenty he +stores up food against time of need. He places his nuts in crevices and +forks of branches, in holes in trees, and other hiding places. Lets us +watch him this spring and see whether we can discover what he eats. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 185. The Red-headed Woodpecker._] + +QUESTIONS ABOUT WOODPECKERS TO BE ANSWERED IN APRIL AND MAY. + +1. Have you observed any species of woodpecker drumming? + +2. Have you been able to see the drum? If so, describe it. + +3. Are you able to distinguish between the tapping of the woodpecker +when searching for food, and his drumming when he is making music? + +4. If you have made any observations on the sapsucker, please give them. + +5. Have you seen the sapsucker at work? If so, did the holes girdle the +tree? Were the holes round or square? + +6. Have you seen the red-head this spring? + +7. Describe the way the woodpecker uses its tail when climbing a tree. + +8. Send for Bulletin No. 7, of the United States Department of +Agriculture, Division of Ornithology, called "Food of Woodpeckers." Read +this Bulletin and answer these questions: Does the sapsucker do more +harm than good? What special benefit to us is the red-head? Which is the +most useful of our woodpeckers? + + +THE FLICKER OR YELLOW HAMMER.[33] + +[33] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 32, May, 1903. + +The first time I ever saw a flicker I said, "What a wonderful meadow +lark, and what is it doing on that ant hill?" But another glance +revealed to me a red spot on the back of the bird's neck, and as soon as +I was sure that this was not a bloody gash I knew it belonged to no +meadow lark. The golden brown plumage dotted with black, the under wings +of luminous yellow, the white spot above the tail, the ashen gray back, +and, above all, the oriental ornaments of crescents,--one brilliant red +across the back of the neck, one black across the breast,--all conduce +to make the flicker one of our most showy and beautiful birds. The +flicker has many names, such as golden-winged woodpecker, yellow hammer, +highhole, and yarup or wake-up, and many others. It earned the name of +highhole because of its way of excavating its nest high up in trees, +usually between ten and twenty-five feet from the ground. It especially +loves an old apple tree as a site for a nest, and most of our large, old +orchards of New York State may boast of a pair of these handsome birds +during the nesting season of May and June. However, the flicker is not +above renting any house he finds vacant which was made by other birds +last year. The flicker earned his name of "yarup" or "wake-up" from his +spring song, which is a rollicking jolly "wick-a-wick-a-wick." As a +business bird the flicker shines in the rather extraordinary line of +eating ants. It has a tongue equipped almost exactly like the tongue of +the animal called the ant eater, and it often may be seen using it with +great effectiveness in catching the little communal laborers. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 186. Young Flickers._] + +Those who have observed the flicker during the courting season declare +him to be the most silly and vain of all the bird wooers. Mr. Baskett +says, "When he wishes to charm his sweet-heart he mounts a very small +twig near her, and lifts his wings, spreads his tail, and begins to nod +right and left as he exhibits his mustache to his charmer, and sets his +jet locket first on one side of the twig and then the other. He may even +go so far as to turn his head half around to show her the pretty spot on +his 'back hair.' In doing all this he performs the most ludicrous +antics, and has the silliest of expressions of face and voice as if in +losing his heart, as some one phrases it, he had lost his head also." + + +SUMMARY OF THE STUDY OF WOODPECKERS. + +We have now studied our five species of woodpeckers common in New York +State, and I trust that you know them all by sight. When you are +teaching the children about the woodpecker, there are many interesting +stories to tell about the way that his form is adapted to his life. Some +of these stories are as follows: First. The woodpecker's bill, which is +a drill and chisel, and how he uses it for getting at the grub or the +borer in the wood, and for making the hole for the nest, and for +drumming when he feels musical. Second. The tongue, which is a barbed +spear, and has a wonderful spring attachment of bones which allows it to +be thrust far out. This tongue is fitted in each case to get the kind of +food which sustains its owner. Third. The feet have a special +arrangement of toes which allows the bird to cling tenaciously to a tree +trunk. Study the way the fourth toe, which may be compared to our little +finger, has been moved around backward so that it acts as another thumb. +Fourth. Study how the tail made of stiff feathers is particularly +adapted to act as a brace, helping the bird to climb a tree. In studying +all these things I would especially recommend you to a little book +called, "The Woodpeckers" by Fannie Hardy Eckstrom, published by +Houghton, Mifflin & Co., price $1.00. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE FLICKER. + +1. Have you ever seen a flicker? + +2. Do you know its song? + +3. Has the flicker a straight bill like the downy's? + +4. What are the differences between the male and female flicker? + +5. Have you ever seen a flicker catching ants? Describe. + +6. Do you think the flicker is a beneficial bird? If so, why? + +7. Have you ever seen a flicker's nest? Describe. + +8. Do you know how the flicker feeds its young? Explain. + +9. Describe the difference in color between the male and female of the +(a) downy, (b) the hairy, (c) the redhead, (d) the sapsucker, (e) and +the flicker. + +10. How can you tell the difference between a flicker and a meadow lark +during flight? + +[Illustration: _Downy's long tongue._] + + + + +LEAFLET XXV. + +THE CHICKADEE.[34] + +[34] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 3, December, 1903. + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + + _He is the hero of the woods; there are courage and good nature + enough in that compact little body, which you may hide in your + fist, to supply a whole groveful of May songsters. He has the + Spartan virtue of an eagle, the cheerfulness of a thrush, the + nimbleness of Cock Sparrow, the endurance of the seabirds + condensed into his tiny frame, and there have been added a + pertness and ingenuity all his own. His curiosity is immense, and + his audacity equal to it; I have even had one alight upon the + barrel of the gun over my shoulder as I sat quietly under his + tree._--ERNEST INGERSOLL. + +[Illustration] + +However careless we may be of our friends when we are in the midst of +the luxurious life of summer, even the most careless among us give +pleased attention to the birds that bravely endure with us the rigors of +winter. And when this winged companion of winter proves to be the most +fascinating little ball of feathers ever created, constantly overflowing +with cheerful song, our pleased attention changes to active delight. +Thus it is that in all the lands of snowy winters the chickadee +is a loved comrade of the country wayfarer; that happy song, +"chick-a-dee-dee-dee," finds its way to the dullest consciousness and +the most callous heart. + +One day in February we were, with much enjoyment, wading through a +drifted highway that skirted a forest, the least twig of which bore a +burden of soft snow. Over all hung that silence of winter which is the +most "silent silence" that rests upon the earth anywhere outside the +desert. No breeze swayed a creaking branch or shook from it the snow in +soft thud to the white carpet below. Even the song of the brook was +smothered beneath coverlets of ice and pillows of drift. We stood fast, +awed by the stillness, when suddenly it was broken by the thrilling +notes of the chickadees. We could hardly credit our senses, for it +seemed as if the woods was a hopeless place for any living creature that +morning. But there before our eyes was a flock of these courageous birds +hunting for food on the leeward sides of boles and branches left bare +and black in the recent storm. Their tiny weights sent the snow in +showers from the terminal twigs, which phenomenon was greeted with +triumphant song while the cheerful midgets hunted the relieved branches +topside and bottomside for any lurking tidbit. As we watched them, +Emerson's poem came to mind: + + "Piped a tiny voice near by, + Gay and polite, a cheerful cry-- + Chick-chickadeedee! saucy note + Out of sound heart and merry throat, + As if it said, 'Good-day, good Sir! + Fine afternoon, old passenger! + Happy to meet you in these places + Where January brings few faces.'" + +No wonder that the great American philosopher was attracted by this +other American philosopher who sings when he is cold and hungry. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 187. A chickadee at the entrance to its nest._] + +Besides its usual song the chickadee has a song that says "phoebe" much +more distinctly than does the song of the phoebe itself. Few people +recognize this, and often in February or early March it is announced in +the local newspaper, "The phoebe-birds were heard to-day" though it may +be weeks yet before these birds arrive. The two songs may be easily +distinguished by even the ear untrained to music. In the phoebe song of +the chickadee, the last syllable is at least one note lower than the +first and has a falling inflection; while the last syllable of the +phoebe bird's song is at least a half note higher than the first and has +a rising inflection. + +Not long since I visited the deserted nest of a devoted pair of +chickadees. It was cuddled down in the bottom of a hole that +opened on the very top of a fence post, and, one would imagine, +must have been wet more than once while inhabited. However, +a large family was raised there during the past season and much +enjoyment was derived from watching the many fubsy birdlings +that found home and comfort in that unattractive retreat. I +looked upon them with special interest, for I was sure they would +visit the suet on my trees this winter and thus become friendly +neighbors. + +As soon as the trees are bare, nail or tie bits of suet to branches +which may be observed from your windows. I know of no investment which +pays such enormous dividends both to pleasure and pocket as do suet +restaurants in orchards patronized by chickadees. Every child, at home +or school, will be attracted by this experiment. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE CHICKADEE. + +1. Describe the colors of the chickadee above; below; wings; tail; +throat and head. + +2. Describe the differences in coloring between the chickadee and the +nuthatch. + +3. What is the shape of the chickadee's beak and for what is it adapted? + +4. Does it frequent the trunks of trees, or the twigs? + +5. Describe its actions when hunting for food on a twig. + +6. What is the chief food of the chickadee? + +7. Why is it of special value to the farmer? + +8. What are the differences in the winter and summer habits of the +chickadee? + +9. Do you know the "phoebe" note of the chickadee? + +10. Where do these birds build their nests and of what material? + +11. What are the colors and markings on the eggs? + +12. When is the nesting season? + + + + +LEAFLET XXVI. + +THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.[35] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[35] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 4, January, 1904. + + The busy nuthatch climbs his tree, + Around the great bole spirally, + Peeping into wrinkles gray, + Under ruffled lichens gay, + Lazily piping one sharp note + From his silver mailèd throat. + + --MAURICE THOMPSON. + +"_With more artless inquisitiveness than fear, this lively little +acrobat stops his hammering or hatching at your approach, and stretching +himself out from the tree until it would seem he must fall off, he peers +down at you, head downward, straight into your upturned opera-glass. If +there is too much snow on the upper side of a branch watch how he runs +along underneath it like a fly, busily tapping the bark, or adroitly +breaking the decayed bits with his bill, as he stretches for the +spider's eggs, larvæ, etc., hidden there; yet somehow, between +mouthfuls, managing to call out his cherry quank! quank! hank! hank!_" + +--NELTJE BLANCHAN. + +[Illustration] + +A voice outside is calling at me; I cannot describe it accurately, but +it is making delightful woodsy remarks that make me long to throw aside +the pen and go out and wander where the snow is making still softer the +carpet of dead leaves on the forest floor. It is not a musical note but +it is most enticing and translates into sound the picture of +bare-branched trees and the feeling of enchantment that permeates the +forest in winter. Neltje Blanchan says the voice reiterates "quank, +quank," others say it is "nay, nay"--but no nasal sound of the human +voice, and no spelling of the English language adequately represent this +call of the white-breasted nuthatch. + +On the tree in front of the window I can see the owner of this sylvan +voice. He is a little bird blue-gray above with black head and black and +white V-trimmings on the back of his suit and with soft, white breast. +He is flitting blithely from tree to tree enjoying the snow storm and +coming often to the suet feast which I have spread for him and for his +little feathered kin. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 188. The nuthatch, one of the winter birds._] + +We have been having exciting times at the suet banquet this morning. The +building in which my office is, stands on a high knoll near the +forest-covered brink of a deep gorge. Thus my window is opposite the +tops of the trees. One of our nature-study staff, a brave and gallant +knight, who loves birds and knows that I love to watch them, climbed two +of these trees at imminent risk of breaking his neck in order to place +this suet just opposite my window. The whole chickadee family and four +nuthatches, and Sir Downy and Madam Hairy had been reveling in the feast +all the morning when suddenly one after another three crows appeared +upon the scene. My heart sank as I saw them eying the suet with +interest. Nearer and nearer they hopped from branch to branch. I pounded +on the window and called out, "Go away" in both the crow and the English +language, all in vain. One crow braver or hungrier than the others with +one defiant eye on me flapped confidently down and sought to carry the +suet off in his beak; to his surprise it was tied on. That seemed +suspicious and when we raised the window and leaning far out explained +matters he lifted slowly with a jeering "caw" that said plainly "I'll +call sometime when you are not at home" and with that he and his +companions disappeared up the gorge. The invited guests at the suet +table were less disturbed than was I, and I suppose it is rather +inconsistent to feed the chickadees and let the ravens go hungry. But +this suet will last the little birds a month while it would hardly +furnish a breakfast for three crows; and in philanthropic enterprises +one is obliged to draw the line somewhere even at the cost of +consistency. + +I will return to my nuthatch, who, by the way, has just hammered off a +piece of suet and thrust it into a crevice of the bark on the tree +bole. Why does he do that: is it for convenience in eating or is it an +attempt to store up some of his dinner for future need? Anyway it is bad +manners, like carrying off fruit from _table d' hote_. But he is polite +enough in another respect; every time after eating the suet he wipes his +beak on his branch napkin with great assiduity, first one side and then +the other, almost as if he were sharpening it. The woodpeckers are +similarly fastidious in cleaning suet off their beaks. + +The loud note of the nuthatch, seeming to be out of proportion to the +size of the bird is, by no means, its only note. Yesterday we observed a +pair hunting over the branches of an elm over our heads, and they were +talking to each other in sweet confidential syllables "wit, wit, wit," +entirely different from the loud note that is meant for the world at +large. + +The nuthatches and chickadees hunt together all winter. This is no +business partnership, but one of congeniality based upon similar tastes. +Thus it is that the two birds are often confused. There is, however, a +very noticeable character that distinguishes them at the first glance. +Strange to say the nuthatch has also been confused with the sapsucker +and has gained unjust obloquy thereby. How any one with eyes could +confuse these two birds is a mystery, for they resemble each other in no +particular nor in general appearance. + +While the nuthatch finds much of its food on trees, yet Mr. Torrey tells +of seeing one awkwardly turning over the fallen leaves for hidden +cocoons and other things quite worth his while; and Mr. Baskett tells of +having seem them catch flies in the air and becoming quite out of breath +at this unusual exercise. + +Audubon made some most interesting observations on the nuthatch. He says +they may sleep hanging head downward. He also says of their nesting +habits that "both birds work together, all the time congratulating each +other in the tenderest manner. The male, ever conspicuous on such +occasions, works some, and carries off the slender chips chiseled by the +female. He struts around her, peeps into the hole, cherups at intervals, +or hovers about her on the wing. While she is sitting on her eggs, he +seldom absents himself many moments; now with a full bill he feeds her, +now returns to be assured that her time is pleasantly spent." + +The red-breasted nuthatch is sometimes associated with its +white-breasted cousin; it is a smaller bird and is essentially a +northern species. The nuthatches get their name from their habit of +wedging nuts and acorns into bark and then hatching them open. From +every standpoint the nuthatches are most desirable acquaintances, and we +cannot spend our time to better advantage than in getting familiar with +their interesting habits. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH. + +1. Describe from your own observations the colors of the nuthatch above +and below. + +2. (a) What is the most noticeable character that distinguishes the +nuthatch from the chickadee? (b) Does the nuthatch usually frequent the +bole or the twigs of a tree? (c) Is there any difference in this respect +between the habits of the nuthatch and the chickadee? + +3. Does the nuthatch alight with its head down or up? + +4. Does it travel down or up? Does it always go in a spiral? + +5. What is its food? + +6. Does it open nuts for the meat or the grubs within? + +7. Does it use its tail as a brace in climbing trees as does the +woodpecker? + +8. Where does it build its nest? + +9. What is the color of the eggs? + +10. Why does it seem less common in summer than in winter? + +11. How does it use its feet when resting on a tree trunk? + +12. Has it any special development of the feet to help it in traveling +on tree trunks? + +13. Do you know the note of the nuthatch? Describe. + +14. How would you spell its note? + +15. How does the nuthatch help the farmer and fruit grower? + + + + +LEAFLET XXVII. + +ABOUT CROWS.[36] + +BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. + + +[36] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 27, December, 1902. + +[Illustration] + +Thousands and thousands of crows fast asleep amongst the branches of a +grove of pines! The trees themselves look dark and sombre against the +snowy hillside, but when the assemblage of dusky birds has gathered +there, the shadows thicken and the darkness settles like a pall. Soon +all is hushed and silent. + +Would you not go miles to see such a sight? + +Yet maybe you have lived for years within easy walking distance of a +great crow "dormitory" without even suspecting its existence. You may +have watched the crows flying overhead every morning and then again +every afternoon, without noticing that they came from the same direction +each morning and returned at nightfall. This was just my experience +until I began to care about crows and their ways. Now I know that there +is a sleeping roost a mile or so up one of our wooded valleys and the +oldest inhabitant tells me that he remembers seeing "more'n a million" +crows up there in winters when he was a boy. Undoubtedly generation +after generation of crows return to these sleeping places; certain +localities have probably been so used for centuries. + +Although we have crows here all winter they may not be the same +individuals that spent the summer here. The center of crow population in +the eastern United States from November till February is the +neighborhood of Chesapeake Bay. There the food supply is more abundant +than where the ground is snow-covered in winter, and thither the crows +migrate in innumerable armies. Dormitories from ten to thirty acres in +extent and accommodating from ten thousand to three hundred thousand +crows each have been found in that region. + +Why crows gather thus in companies either small or large is undoubtedly +due to their natural sociability. The opportunities for exhibition of +conversational powers offered by such a custom seems to be greatly +appreciated by every crow. Such a babel as they raise when in early +morning their watchman rouses them from sleep! They appear to be +reviling him for his untimely interruption. For several minutes the +woods fairly ring with their loud, coarse shouts. Then, as if resigned +to their fate, they take flight towards the feeding grounds. By sunset +they all congregate again and after recounting their adventures, settle +down early to sleep. + +In open winters crows fare well enough. Seeds and berries are easy to +get and considerable grain may be found in harvested fields. But like +barnyard fowls, crows are omnivorous. After the grasshoppers disappear, +a supply of animal food is hard to get. The silken egg-sacs of spiders +are often found torn open and rifled, while suspiciously near by are the +tracks of crows. Undoubtedly rabbits and field mice would unite with the +spiders in declaring the crow to be their deadly enemy. + +That crows eat corn is undeniable. The farmers know it to their sorrow, +the bird's champions reluctantly admit it, the crow himself goes openly +into the field, both in winter and summer, with no intent to conceal his +intentions. And yet this universally acknowledged habit will bear +investigation. Upon the real or supposed injury done to sprouting corn +and to roasting-ears, the farmer and his sons base their animosity +toward crows and rejoice at the wholesale or retail slaughter of these +birds. Carefully prepared estimates show conclusively that the crow is +the farmer's friend. Only _three per cent_ of the total food of the crow +consists of corn in any form, while _twenty-six per cent_ consists of +insects such as grasshoppers, May beetles (June bugs, whose young are +the white grubs), cutworms and other injurious kinds. On such evidence +as this would not an unprejudiced jury acquit the crow? + +The best way to establish the crow in this new and true relationship to +the farmer, is to interest the boys and girls in studying crows and +their ways. To make a fair judgment, one must collect evidence. Mere +hearsay is not always to be depended on. Justice and truth are worth +working for. The case of the Crow _vs._ the Farmer, will give +opportunity for the practice of both of these virtues. + + +WINTER BIRDS.[37] + +[37] Quiz on Lesson No. 27, December, 1902. + +The winter is not so devoid of life as we sometimes think. There are +mammals in the woods and coverts, fishes in the lakes and deep brooks, +birds in the forest and the open. Let us devote one early midwinter +lesson to the birds. Have the children make particular observations on +the English sparrow. Other birds may be observed, as, for example, our +old friend the crow. All these birds touch the life of the farmer and +the nature-lover. Those students who are so situated that a study of +crows is impossible may substitute English sparrows, chickadees, +woodpeckers or any other winter birds. + +A bulletin entitled "The Common Crow" was issued by the U. S. Department +of Agriculture in 1895. Students in this course can obtain one copy each +by sending ten cents to Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, +Washington, D. C. Do not send stamps. + +Do crows winter in your vicinity? + +Are you able to verify the statements made in the lesson concerning the +flight in opposite directions in morning and evening? Give observations +made since receiving this lesson. + +Is there a crow dormitory in your vicinity? (Inquire of old residents +and keep a close watch.) + +Watch a crow on the wing. If he is flying low, try to count the big wing +feathers. Note here any peculiarities of this bird's way of flying. + +How does a crow hold on to a limb when asleep? + +What characteristics have crows and chickens in common? + +How do they differ? + +Compare feathers, bills and feet of chickens and crows. + +Look for crow tracks in the snow. Where have you seen them? Can you +always tell which way the bird was going? How? Sketch the tracks on +separate sheet. + +How long is the longest toe, including the claw? Which toe is this? + +Is the track ever longer than the toe itself? If so, why? + +Have you ever seen the scratches in the snow made by the stiff wing +feathers when the crow takes its flight from the ground? + +Count the scratches. + +What food have you seen crows eating? + +Watch during the whole month and mention any new items you can add to +their bill of fare. + +Have you ever seen crow's nests? Where? When? + +Describe the nest, eggs and nestlings, if you have seen them. (These are +things to look for during the spring and summer.) + +Does the plumage of the yearling crow differ from that of the older +birds? + +Do males and females differ in color? + +Crows are said to possess remarkably well developed brains. What +evidence have you of their sagacity, fearlessness, cunning or greed? + +What other winter birds have you seen this year? + +Give on separate sheet an account of a winter walk. + + + + +LEAFLET XXVIII. + +HOW A SQUASH PLANT GETS OUT OF THE SEED.[38] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[38] Teacher's Leaflet No. 1, December, 1896. The first Cornell +nature-study leaflet. For a discussion of the title of this leaflet and +what it signifies pedagogically, consult "The Integument Man," in "The +Nature-Study Idea." (Doubleday, Page & Co.) + +[Illustration] + +If one were to plant seeds of a Hubbard or Boston Marrow squash in loose +warm earth in a pan or box, and were then to leave the parcel for a week +or ten days, he would find, upon his return, a colony of plants like +that shown in Fig. 189. If he had not planted the seeds himself or had +not seen such plants before, he would not believe that these curious +plants would ever grow into squash vines, so different are they from the +vines which we know in the garden. This, itself, is a most curious +fact,--this wonderful difference between the first and the later stages +of nearly all plants, and it is only because we know it so well that we +do not wonder at it. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 189. Squash plant a week old._] + +It may happen, however,--as it did in a pan of seed which I sowed a few +days ago--that one or two of the plants may look like that shown in Fig. +190. Here the seed seems to have come up on top of the plant; and one is +reminded of the curious way in which beans come up on the stalk of the +young plant. If we were to study the matter, however,--as we may do at a +future time--we should find a great difference in the ways in which the +squashes and the beans raise their seeds out of the ground. It is not +our purpose to compare the squash and the bean at this time, but we are +curious to know why one of these squash plants brings its seed up out of +the ground whilst all the others do not. In order to find out why it is, +we must ask the plant, and this asking is what we call an experiment. We +may first pull up the two plants. The first one (Fig. 189) will be seen +to have the seed-coats still attached to the very lowest part of the +stalk below the soil, but the other plant has no seed at that point. We +will now plant more seeds, a dozen or more of them, so that we shall +have enough to examine two or three times a day for several days. A day +or two after the seeds are planted, we shall find a little point or +root-like part breaking out of the sharp end of the seed, as shown in +Fig. 191. A day later this root part has grown to be as long as the seed +itself (Fig. 192), and it has turned directly downwards into the soil. +But there is another most interesting thing about this germinating seed. +Just where the root is breaking out of the seed (shown at _a_ in Fig. +192), there is a little peg or projection. In Fig. 193, about a day +later, the root has grown still longer, and this peg seems to be forcing +the seed apart. In Fig, 194, however, it will be seen that the seed is +really being forced apart by the stem or stalk above the peg for this +stem is now growing longer. The lower lobe of the seed has attached to +the peg (seen at _a_, Fig. 194), and the seed-leaves seem to be backing +out of the seed. Fig. 195 shows the seed a day later. The root has now +produced many branches and has thoroughly established itself in the +soil. The top is also growing rapidly and is still backing out of the +seed, and the seed-coats are still firmly held by the obstinate peg. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 190. Squash plant which has brought the seed-coats +out of the ground._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 191. Germination just beginning._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 192. The root and peg._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 193. Third day of root growth._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 194. The plant breaking out of the seed._] + +Whilst we have been seeing all these peculiar things in the seeds which +we have dug up, the plantlets which we have not disturbed have been +coming through the soil. If we were to see the plant in Fig. 195, as it +was "coming up," it would look like Fig. 196. It is tugging away in +getting its head out of the bonnet which is pegged down underneath the +soil, and it has "got its back up" in the operation. In Fig. 197 it has +escaped from its trap and it is laughing and growing in delight. It must +now straighten itself up, as it is doing in Fig. 197, and it is soon +standing proud and straight, as in Fig. 189. We now see that the reason +why the "seed" came up on the plant in Fig. 190, is that in some way the +peg did not hold the seed-coats down (see Fig. 195), and the expanding +leaves, being pinched together must get themselves loose as best they +can. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 195. The operation further progressed._] + +There is another thing about this interesting squash plant which we must +not fail to notice, and this is the fact that these first two leaves of +the plantlet came out of the seed and did not grow out of the plant +itself. We must notice, too, that these leaves are much smaller when +they are first drawn out of the seed-coat than they are when the +plantlet has straightened itself up. That is, these leaves increase very +much in size after they reach the light and air. The roots of the +plantlet are now established in the soil and are taking in food which +enables the plant to grow. The next leaves which appear will be very +different from these first or seed leaves. + +These later ones are called the true leaves. They grow right out of the +little plant itself. Fig. 199 shows these true leaves as they appear on +a young Crookneck squash plant, and the plant now begins to look much +like a squash vine. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 196. The plant just coming up._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 197. The plant liberated from the seed-coats._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 198. The plant straightening up._] + +We are now curious to know how the stem grows when it backs out of the +seeds and pulls the little seed-leaves with it, and how the root grows +downwards into the soil. Now let us pull up another seed when it has +sent a single root about two inches deep into the earth. We will wash it +very carefully and lay it upon a piece of paper. Then we will lay a +ruler alongside of it, and make an ink mark one-quarter of an inch from +the tip, and two or three other marks at equal distances above (Fig. +200).[39] We will now carefully replant the seed. Two days later we will +dig it up, when we shall most likely find a condition somewhat like that +in Fig. 201. It will be seen that the marks E, C, B, are practically the +same distance apart as before and they are also the same distance from +the peg AA. The point of the root is no longer at DD, however, but has +moved on to F. The root, therefore, has grown almost wholly in the end +part. + +[39] NOTE.--Common ink will not answer for this purpose because it +"runs" when the root is wet; indelible ink, used for marking linen or +for drawing, should be used. It should also be said that the root of the +common pumpkin and of the summer bush squashes is too fibrous and +branchy for this test. It should be stated also that the root does not +grow at its very tip, but chiefly in a narrow zone just back of the tip; +but the determination of this point is rather too difficult for the +beginner, and, moreover, it is foreign to the purpose of this tract. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 199. The true leaves developing._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 200. Marking the root._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 201. The root grows in the end parts._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 202. The marking of the stem, and the spreading +apart of the marks._] + +Now let us make a similar experiment with the stem or stalk. We will +mark a young stem, as at A in Fig. 202; but the next day we shall find +that these marks are farther apart than when we made them (B, Fig. 202). +The marks have all raised themselves above the ground as the plant has +grown. The stem, therefore, has grown between the joints rather than +from the end. The stem usually grows most rapidly, at any given time, at +the upper or younger part of the joint (or internode); and the joint +soon reaches the limit of its growth and becomes stationary, while a new +one grows out above it. + +[Illustration] + + + + +LEAFLET XXIX. + +HOW THE TREES LOOK IN WINTER.[40] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[40] Teacher's Leaflet No. 12, January, 1899. + +[Sidenote: _To the teacher._--We want the country child to have a closer +touch with nature in the winter time. Teach him to see, to know, and to +care for the trees when they are leafless. This leaflet will suggest how +you may interest him. + +You can also intensify his interest in the subject, and at the same time +increase his knowledge of drawing, by having him make skeleton or +outline drawings of the trees about the schoolhouse or the home. Leaflet +XXX gives suggestions for drawing. + +You can correlate this work with geography by giving the distribution or +range of the different kinds of trees. Indicate the limit of +distribution northward, southward, eastward, westward; also the regions +in which the species is most abundant. The common manuals of botany will +help you in this work; or you may consult the many excellent special +books on trees. + +In teaching nature-study, remember that a great part of its value lies +in the enthusiasm and zeal with which you handle it. Try, also, to +develop the æsthetic sense of the pupil; but do not teach mere +sentiment.] + + +[Illustration] + +Only the growing and open season is thought to be attractive in the +country. The winter is bare and cheerless. The trees are naked. The +flowers are under the snow. The birds have flown. The only bright and +cheery spot is the winter fireside. But even there the farmer has so +much time that he does not know what to do with it. Only those who have +little time, appreciate its value. + +But the winter is not lifeless and charmless. It is only dormant. The +external world fails to interest us because we have not been trained to +see and know it; and also because the rigorous weather and the snow +prevent us from going afield. In the spring, summer, and fall, the hours +are full to overflowing with life and interest. On every hand we are in +contact with nature. If the farmer's winter is to be more enjoyable the +farmer must have more points of contact with the winter world. One of +the best and most direct of these points of sympathy is an interest in +the winter aspects of trees. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 203. Small-fruited Shagbark Hickory._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 204. Pignut Hickory. This and Fig. 203 are from +"Lessons with Plants."_] + + +a. THE STRUCTURE OF THE TREE-TOP. + +In the summer time we distinguish the kinds of trees chiefly by means of +the shape and the foliage. In winter the foliage is gone; but the shape +remains, and the framework of the tree is also conspicuous. Trees are as +distinct in winter as in summer; and in some respects their characters +are more apparent and pronounced. + +Observe the outline of a tree against the dull winter sky. It does not +matter what kind of tree it is. Note its height, shape, and size of top, +how many branches there are, how the branches are arranged on the main +trunk, the direction of the branches, whether the twigs are few or many, +crooked or straight. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 205. Slippery Elm. The expression is stiff and +hard._] + +Having observed these points in any tree, compare one kind of tree with +another and note how they differ in these features. Compare an apple +tree with an elm, an elm with a maple, a basswood with a pine, a poplar +with a beech, a pear tree with a peach tree. + +Having made comparisons between very dissimilar trees, compare those +which are much alike, as the different kinds of maples, of elms, of +oaks, of poplars. As your powers of observation become trained, compare +the different varieties of the same kind of fruit trees, if there are +good orchards in the vicinity. The different varieties of pears afford +excellent contrasts. Contrast the Bartlett with the Flemish Beauty, the +Kieffer with the Seckel. In apples, compare the Baldwin with the Spy, +the King with the Twenty Ounce. The sweet and sour cherries show marked +differences in method of branching. Fruit men can tell many varieties +apart in winter. How? + +Two common hickories are shown in Figs. 203 and 204. How do they differ? +Do they differ in length of trunk? General method of branching? +Direction of branches? Character of twig growth? Straightness or +crookedness of branches? + +Contrast the slippery elm (Fig. 205) and the common or American elm +(Fig. 211). The former has a crotchy or forked growth, and long, stiff, +wide-spreading branches. The latter is more vase-like in shape. The +branches are willowy and graceful, with a tendency to weep. + +Compare the oaks. The white and scarlet oaks have short trunks when they +grow in fields, and the main branches are comparatively few and make +bold angles and curves. The swamp white oak (Fig. 206), however, has a +more continuous trunk, with many comparatively small, horizontal, and +tortuous branches. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 206. Swamp White Oak._] + +With Fig. 206 compare the pepperidge (Fig. 207). This is one of the most +unusual and interesting of all our native trees. It grows in swales. It +has a very tough-grained wood. The autumn foliage is deep red and +handsome. The peculiarities of the tree are the continuation of the +trunk to near the summit, and the many lateral, short, deflected, +tortuous branches. + +Consider the structure of the sassafras in Fig. 208. The great branches +stand off nearly at right angles to the trunk, and are bushy and twiggy +at the ends. Each large branch if cut off at its base and stood upright +would look like an independent tree, so tree-like are its branches. +Observe how much more bushy the sassafras is than any of the other trees +already figured. Compare it in the method of branching and the +twigginess with the slippery elm (Fig. 205). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 207. Pepperidge or Sour Gum. The oddest of New York +trees._] + +But there is still greater brushiness in the thorn-apple (Fig. 209). In +twigginess Figs. 208 and 209 are very unlike, however. Pick out the +differences. Observe the very short and spur-like twigs in the +thorn-apple; also notice how soon the trunk is lost in the branches. + +With all the foregoing pictures compare the steeple-like form of the +Lombardy poplar (Fig. 210). The tree is frequent along roadsides and +about yards. What is its structure? Observe it as it stands against the +winter sky. There is nothing else in our northern landscape so straight +and spire-like. If you know a beech tree standing in a field, contrast +it with the Lombardy poplar. These two trees represent extremes of +vertical and of horizontal branching. + +Aside from the general structure of the tree-top, the pupil will become +interested in the winter color of the tree and in the character of the +bark. How does the bark differ between elms and maples, oaks and +chestnuts, birches and beeches, hickories and walnuts? Why does the bark +separate in ridges or peel off in strips? Is it not associated with the +increase in diameter of the trunk? The method of breaking of the bark +is different and peculiar for each kind of tree. + +Look at these things; and think about them. + + +THE EXPRESSION OF THE TREE. + +Consciously or unconsciously, we think of trees much as we think of +persons. They suggest thoughts and feelings which are also attributes of +people. A tree is weeping, gay, restful, spirited, quiet, sombre. That +is, trees have expression. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 208. Sassafras. Type of a bushy-topped tree._] + +The expression resides in the observer, however, not in the tree. +Therefore, the more the person is trained to observe and to reflect, +the more sensitive his mind to the things about him, and the more +meaning the trees have. No one loves nature who does not love trees. We +love them for what they are, wholly aside from their uses in +fruit-bearing or shade-giving. A knowledge and love of trees binds one +close to the external world. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 209. Thorn-apple. One of the most picturesque +objects in the winter landscape._] + +How shall one increase his love of trees? First, by knowing them. He +learns their attributes and names. Knowing them in winter, as already +suggested, is one of the ways of becoming acquainted. Second, by +endeavoring to determine what thought or feeling they chiefly express. +The slippery elm is stiff and hard. The American elm is soft and +graceful. The Lombardy poplar is prim and precise. The oak is rugged, +stern, and bold. The pepperidge is dejected. The long white branches of +a leaning buttonwood standing against a distant forest, suggest some +spectre hurrying away from the haunts of men. + +Trees which have very strong expressions, or which are much unlike +others, are said to have character. They are peculiar. Of such trees are +oaks, pepperidges, Lombardy poplars, button woods, old apple trees. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 210. Group of Lombardy Poplars. From Bulletin 68._] + +A tree with very strong characters is said to be picturesque. That is, +it is such an object as an artist delights to put into a picture. Trees +which are very unsymmetrical, or knotty, gnarled, or crooked, are +usually picturesque. Of all common trees, none is more picturesque than +an old apple tree. Observe its gnarled and crooked branches, and the +irregular spaces in its top. + +Encourage the pupil to extend his observation to all the trees about +him, especially to such as are common and familiar. Teach him to observe +the growths of bushes and trees in the fence-rows which lie on his way +to school; and to observe carefully and critically. How do gooseberry +bushes differ from currant bushes, and raspberries from blackberries? +Observe the lilac bush and the snowballs. How is the snow held on the +different kinds of evergreens--as the pines, spruces, arbor-vitæ? See +how the fruit-spurs on pears and plums stand out against the sky. +(Consult Leaflet No. XXXI, "Four Apple Twigs.") Are there any bright +colors of branch and twig to relieve the bareness of the snow? Do you +see any warmth of color in the swales where the willows and osiers are? +Do you see old plumes of grass and weeds standing above the snow? Do +they bring up any visions of summer and brooks and woods? + +[Illustration] + + + + +LEAFLET XXX. + +ONE WAY OF DRAWING TREES IN THEIR WINTER ASPECT.[41] + +BY C. W. FURLONG. + + +[41] Teacher's Leaflet, No. 12, January, 1899. + +The few suggestions which are set forth in these pages are based upon +two assumptions:--first, that the teacher has some knowledge of the most +salient principles of elementary perspective; and second, that she has a +love for all things beautiful. It is feasible to deal here not to any +extent with art in either its abstract or its concrete form, but only +with drawing. + +Drawing, in its simplest analysis, is the ability to record objects as +they appear to the normal eye. + +Art is more complicated. It includes many elements, a few of which are +composition, expression of movement, and action. The very thought, +feeling, and refinement of the artist must be expressed in his work. He +must tell not only what he sees, but also what he feels. He interprets +nature through his own moods. + +There are no outlines in nature. The boundaries, shapes, and character +of various forms are determined by the difference of their color values, +and the contrasts of light and shade. Yet an outline drawing is the +simplest means of representing form and proportion. Although inadequate +in many respects, this somewhat conventional rendering is important to +the beginner, for it is necessary that the child be taught to observe +forms and proportions correctly; and these impressions may be recorded +most simply and definitely by outline drawings. Michael Angelo +emphasized its importance in these words: "The science of drawing or of +outline is the essence of painting and all the fine arts, and the root +of all the sciences." + +To a great extent, one may show in an outline drawing the character and +texture of surfaces. Our main object should be to train the boys and +girls to observe in order to acquire a correctness of perception, for +"education amongst us consists too much in telling, not enough in +training." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 211. The American Elm, one of the most typical of +vase-form trees._] + +One of the greatest difficulties is to impress upon the minds of +beginners the fact that they must think while they look and draw. Insist +upon the pupil's looking repeatedly at the object. It is better to +observe for five minutes and draw for one, than to observe for one and +draw for five. + +Make the drawing lesson more interesting by telling the class something +about the object which they are to draw, involving in the story facts +that will impress upon their minds some of the most salient +characteristics of the object. Encourage the children to discuss the +object, drawing out facts for their own observation. Certain kinds of +trees, like certain races of people, have a general similarity, yet +every single tree has an individuality of its own. + +Apply a few essential questions that will help to determine at least the +kind of tree it is, the race to which it belongs; for first we must get +its general character, seeing its big proportions and shape; and later +must search for its individualities. + +Is it tall for its greatest width? + +How far does the trunk extend before dividing? + +At what height do the lowest branches arise? + +What is their general direction? + +Do they appear to radiate from the trunk? + +How do they appear to radiate from the trunk? + +How do the main branches compare in size with the trunk? + +Are they crooked or straight? + +The manner of branch growth must be studied carefully. + +We see in our elm (Fig. 211) that the trunk divides at about a fourth of +its height into several main branches, while in the case of the +pepperidge (Fig. 207) the trunk extends to the very top of the tree, the +branches being small in proportion to the trunk, not varying much in +size, and taking an oblique downward direction. Notice the weird +expression of these trees with their crookedly bent tops, one side of +each trunk being almost devoid of branches. + +The trunk of the sassafras (Fig. 208) continues nearly to the top of +this tree, while the large branches, though unsymmetrical, give it a +well-balanced appearance. + +Again in our picture of the thorn-apple (Fig. 209), we are at once +impressed with its irregular form, the branches on the left taking a +more oblique direction than those of the other side, the trunk dividing +a little short of half the height of the tree. + +For an example, let our subject be an elm tree (Fig. 211); our drawing +to be rendered in outline. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 212. Blocking-in the elm tree (Fig. 211). The first +work which the artist does when he draws the tree._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 213. Working in the details with sharp lines. The +original pencil sketch is not followed exactly._] + +_Material._--Almost any good drawing paper, white or buff in color, will +answer our purpose; 9x12 is a good size. Our pencil should be of medium +grade lead (F. or HB.) of any standard make, Kohinoor preferred. + +If procurable, we should have a light drawing board 17x22 inches (here +is an opportunity for the carpenters) to place the paper on, otherwise a +very stiff piece of cardboard; or a large geography book might answer. +It is best, however, to fasten our paper, which we cannot do in using +the book. For fastening the paper use four thumb tacks for the corners. + +A Faber or multiplex pencil eraser is needed; also a sponge eraser with +which to remove the light lines and clean the drawing before lining it +in. + +_Our position._--Our point of view will depend upon our subject, but it +is not well to be so near as to necessitate raising the head in order to +see the top of the tree. If we take longer than one sitting for our +drawing (which I do not think advisable, as we must not choose too +complicated a subject), we must mark our position in order to obtain +again the same point of view. + +_Position of the drawing-board._--Our paper must be placed on the board +with its edges parallel to those of the board. The drawing-board should +be held perpendicular, or nearly so, to the direction in which it is +seen, for if the board is tilted far backward, it will be fore-shortened +and our tree will probably have been drawn longer than it should be. + +_How to look._--The tendency of the beginner is to see and draw too much +in detail. It is most essential that we look first for the large shapes, +the greatest dimensions; next for the smaller ones; last for detail. It +is not well for the pupils to work too close to their drawings. They +should occasionally sit well back in their seats or get up and stand +behind the seats to obtain the general effect of their drawing, to see +that the big shapes are right and that the character of the tree has not +been lost. + +As an aid to placing our drawing so as best to fill the space it has to +occupy, we may use what the French call a _cherche-motif_, the English, +a finder. This is nothing more than a small piece of stiff paper or +cardboard about 5x8 inches, in which is cut a small rectangular opening +about 3/4x1 inch; the size and proportion may vary somewhat. We may look +through this opening, the card acting as a frame to our picture. This +will help us to decide whether our subject will look better placed the +horizontal or the vertical way of the paper and how much of the subject +to include and where to place it in that space. We may include more or +less in the finder by varying its distance from the eye. + +Now, I am sure we should not place ourselves within a dozen yards of our +tree if we wished to get its general effect; therefore, we must have +plenty of foreground in our drawing. We must give the eye a chance to +look, allowing plenty of space between the lowest point of our drawing +and the lower edge of our paper. + +As the height of tree we are to draw (Fig. 211) is greater than its +greatest width, we find that it will fill the space best if placed the +vertical way of the paper. After indicating the extreme height and width +by four light marks, before carrying the drawing further we must test +these proportions by comparing the width with the height, always testing +the shorter dimension into the longer, viz.: + +_To test the drawing._--Close one eye. The pencil may be used to test +the drawing by holding it in front of you at arm's length (as in Fig. +214) perpendicular to the direction in which the object is seen; also +revolving it in a plane perpendicular to the direction in which the +object is seen, in order to compare one dimension with another. For +example, hold your pencil horizontally at arm's length so that its blunt +end covers the outermost left-hand point of the elm. Slide your thumb +along the pencil till it covers the extreme right-hand point; retain +that measurement (keeping the same position in your chair, pencil always +at arm's length); revolve the pencil in the same plane until it +coincides with the height of the elm, at the same time lowering it so +that the end of the thumb covers the lowest point of the tree; note +carefully the point that the blunt end covers; raise the pencil so that +the end of the thumb covers that point, noting again where the blunt end +occurs and notice how many times, and how much over, the width goes into +the height. In our elm (Fig. 211) we find that the width goes about once +and six-sevenths into the height, or a little short of twice. If the +latter statement is preferred, we must bear in mind the proportion left +over. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 214. How to test the drawing._] + + +Do not use the scale side of a ruler or marks on the pencil or object +used in order to test the proportions, and never transfer measurements +from the object used in testing to your paper. A scale or other +mechanical means should not be used in free-hand drawing. The teacher +should have a spool of black thread and should give a piece about 2 feet +6 inches long to each pupil. An eraser, a knife, or some small article +may be attached to one end of the thread. By holding the weighted thread +as a plumb-line in front of us, we have an absolutely vertical line; so +by having it intersect a desired point of our tree we may obtain the +relative positions to the right and left of other points above and below +this intersected point. + +_Blocking-in._--We may conceive of the general shape of our elm by +looking at it with half closed eyes. It appears in silhouette. Now +imagine lines joining its outermost points; this will give the general +mass or shape of our tree. Now if we represent the outermost points +contained in these lines by sketching lightly these "blocking-in" lines, +as they are called, we obtain the general shape of the elm (Fig. 212). +We must emphasize the fact that these blocking-in lines are to be +sketched in lightly by holding the pencil near the blunt end, using a +free-arm motion. Now before going farther we again test these new points +to see if they occupy their correct positions in relation to the height +and width. Do not, however, transfer the measurements from the pencil to +the paper. This test is only to obtain the proportion of one dimension +to another. Having tested these smaller dimensions we may draw lightly +the main branches. + +After having indicated their general direction and character of growth, +we may indicate some of the smaller branches and twigs (Fig. 213). All +this work should be carried out without erasing; all corrections should +be made by slightly darker lines. + +Let us now sharpen our pencils to a good point and go over the drawing +with a fine dark line, carefully studying the character and spirit of +the tree. Now erase the lighter and superfluous lines, as the dark lines +remain distinct enough to indicate our drawing. + +_Lining-in._--We may now take our pencil nearer the point and proceed to +line-in the drawing, going over it with a definite, consistent line. If +desirable, we may accent and bring out certain parts of the tree more +strongly than others by darker or shade lines and short, strong markings +called accents. These are especially effective at the junction and +underside of branches, and where one wishes to give the object a +nearer appearance. A soft, broad, grey line may be obtained by using a +softer pencil (B) and the drawing given variety by breaking lines here +and there. We should be cautious in using them, however; but lack of +space does not permit further discussion of the subject of accented +outlines. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 215. The outline drawing complete, and the first +pencil marks erased._] + +Allow the pupils to make short ten- or fifteen-minute "time sketches" of +trees. In these it is the spirit and general effect of the tree that we +must strive for. Above all, we must allow our little draughtsmen to give +their own interpretation of the tree. A helpful suggestion as to +proportion, etc., would be in place, but we must allow their +individuality to have as much play as possible. + +The suggestions given on these pages are necessary for the beginner. +Some of them are hard facts; but it lies with the teacher to develop the +æsthetic and artistic qualities lying dormant in the pupil, ready to be +moulded and started in the right direction. + +If you have confined the pupils to the flat copy, break away from it; +allow them to create. Let them see the beautiful things all about them. +They will respond. Let them draw from nature and still life. Train them +to observe. + +The early summer days, just before school closes, with their bright +sunlight and strong shadows, make many subjects interesting as +light-and-shade drawings. Fall, with its brilliant coloring, gives us a +chance to use the color-box, while the early winter twilights will bring +many an interesting silhouette before our boys and girls, and next day +during the drawing hour these impressions may be carried out in pen and +ink. + +The most successful teacher will be the one of sympathetic nature whose +love reaches out to the boys and girls, as well as to all things +beautiful. The most successful teacher will be the one who endeavors to +place the children where they may view nature sympathetically and in the +most intimate relationship. + + + + +LEAFLET XXXI. + +FOUR APPLE TWIGS.[42] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[42] Teachers' Leaflet No. 3, March, 1897. + +[Illustration] + +As I walked through an apple orchard the other day for the first time +since the long winter had set in, I was struck by the many different +shapes and sizes of the limbs as I saw them against the blue-gray of the +February sky. I cut four of them in passing, and as I walked back to the +house I wondered why the twigs were all so different; and I found myself +guessing whether there would be any apples next summer. + +I have had pictures made of these four little apple limbs. Let us look +them over and see whether they have any story to tell of how they grew +and what they have set out to do. + + +I. + +One of these twigs (Fig. 216) was taken from a strong young tree which, +I remember, bore its first good crop of apples last year. This simple +twig is plainly of two years' growth, for the "ring" between the old and +new wood is seen at B. That is, the main stem from the base up to B grew +in 1895, and the part from B to the tip grew in 1896. But the buds upon +these two parts look very unlike. Let us see what these differences +mean. + +We must now picture to ourselves how this shoot from B to 10 looked last +summer while it was growing. The shoot bore leaves. Where? There was one +just below each bud; or, to be more exact, one bud developed just above +each leaf. These buds did not put out leaves. They grew to their present +size and then stopped. The leaves fell. + +What are these buds of the tip shoot preparing to do in 1897? We can +answer this question by going back just one year and seeing what the +buds on the lower (or older) part of the shoot did in 1896. On that part +(below B) the buds seem to have increased in size. Therefore, they must +have grown larger last year. There were no leaves borne below these +buds in 1896, but a cluster of leaves came out of each little bud in the +spring. As these leaves expanded and grew, the little bud grew on; that +is, each bud grew into a tiny branch, and when fall came each of these +branches had a bud on its end to continue the growth in the year to +come. What we took to be simple buds at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are, therefore, +little branches. + +But the strangest part of this wonderful little twig has not yet been +seen,--the branches are of different sizes, and three of them (7, 8, 9) +have so far outstripped the others that they seem to be of a different +kind. It should be noticed, too, that the very lowermost bud (at 1) +never grew at all, but remained perfectly dormant during the entire year +1896. It will be seen, then, that the dormant bud and the smallest +branches are on the lower part of the shoot, and the three strong +branches are at the very tip of the last year's growth. + +If, now, we picture the twig as it looked in the fall of 1895, we shall +see that it consisted of a single shoot, terminating at B. It had a +large terminal bud (like those at 7, 8, 9, 10), and this bud pushed on +into a branch in 1896, while three other buds near the tip did the same +thing. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 216.--A two-year-old shoot from a young apple tree. +Half size._] + +Why did some of these branches grow to be larger than others? "Simply +because they were upon the strongest part of the shoot, or that part +where the greatest growth naturally takes place," some one will answer. +But this really does not answer the question, for we want to know why +this part of the shoot is strongest. Probably the real reason is that +there is more sunlight and more room on this outward or upward end. In +1897,--if this shoot had been spared--each of these four largest twigs +(7, 8, 9, 10) would have done the same thing as the parent twig did in +1896: each would have pushed on from its end, and one or two or three +other strong branches would probably have started from the strong +side-buds near the tips, the very lowest buds would, no doubt, have +remained perfectly inactive or dormant for lack of opportunity, and the +intermediate buds would have made short branches like 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. In +other words, the tree always tries to grow onward from its tips, and +these tip shoots eventually become strong branches, unless some of them +die in the struggle for existence. What, now, becomes of the little +branches lower down? + + +II. + +From another apple tree I took the twig shown in Fig. 217. We see at +once that it is very unlike the other one. It seems to be two years old, +one year's growth extending from the base up to 7, and the last year's +growth extending from 7 to 8; but we shall see upon looking closer that +this is not so. The short branchlets at 3, 4, 5, 7 are very different +from those in Fig. 216. They seem to be broken off. The fact is that the +broken ends show were apples were borne in 1896. The branchlets that +bore them, therefore, must have grown in 1895, while the main branch, +from 1 to 7, grew in 1894. It is plain, from the looks of the buds, that +the shoot from 7 to 8 grew last year, 1896. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 217. A three-year-old shoot and the fruit-spurs. +Half size._] + +Starting from the base, then, we have the main twig growing in 1894; the +small side branches growing in 1895; these little branches bearing +apples in 1896; and the terminal shoot also growing in 1896. Why was +there no terminal shoot growing in 1895? Simply because its tip +developed a fruit-bud (at 7) and therefore could not send out a branch; +for there are two kinds of buds,--the small, pointed leaf-bud and the +thick, blunt fruit-bud. If the branchlets 3, 4, 5, 7 are two years old, +the dormant buds--1, 2--must be of the same age. That is, for two long +years these little buds have been waiting (if I may use the expression) +for some bug to eat off the buds and leaves above, or some accident to +break the shoot beyond them, so that they might have a chance to grow; +but they have waited in vain. + +We have now found, therefore, that the little side shoots upon apple +twigs often become fruit-branches or fruit-spurs, while the more +ambitious branches above them are making a great display of stem and +leaves. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 218.--A fruit-spur which has borne six apples. Half +size._] + +But will these fruit-spurs bear fruit again in 1897? No. The bearing of +an apple is hard work, and these spurs did not have enough vitality left +to make fruit-buds for the next year; but as they must perpetuate +themselves, they have sent out small side buds which will bear a cluster +of leaves and grow into another little spur in 1897, and in that year +these new spurs will make fruit-buds for bearing in 1898. The side bud +is plainly seen on spur 5, also on spur 4, whilst spur 7 has sown a +seed, so to speak, in the bud at 6. It is plain, therefore, why the tree +bears every other year. + + +III. + +There was one tree in the orchard from which the farmer had not picked +his apples. Perhaps the apples were not worth picking. At any rate, the +dried apples, shriveled and brown, are still hanging on the twigs, and +even the birds do not seem to care for them. I broke off one of these +twigs (Fig. 218). Let us see how many apples this interesting twig has +borne. We can tell by the square-cut scars. An apple was once borne at +1, another at 2, another at 4, another at 5, another at 6, and another +at 7,--and at 7 there will be a scar when the apple falls. Six apples +this modest shoot has borne! And I wonder how many of them got ripe, or +how many were taken by the worms, or how many were eaten by the little +boys and girls on their way to school! + +A peculiar thing happened when the fruit was growing at 2. Two side buds +started out, instead of one, and both of them grew the next year. But +one of the little branchlets fell sick and died, or a bug nipped off its +end, or it starved to death; and its memory is preserved by the little +stick standing up at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and eventually bore +apples at 4, 5, 6, and 7. + +I have said that these fruit-spurs bear only every other year; then, if +this branch has borne six apples consecutively, it must be twelve years +old. The truth is that it is about twenty years old, for some years it +failed to bear; but the age cannot be traced out in the picture, +although any little boy or girl with bright eyes could soon learn to +trace out yearly rings on the shoot itself. + + +IV. + +The last shoot that I got that day has a whole volume of history in it, +and I cannot begin to tell its story unless I should write a small book. +But we will trace out its birthdays and see how many apples it has +borne. It is shown in Fig. 219, and because it is so long I have had to +break it into several pieces to get it on the page. It begins at A, and +is continued at B, C, D, E, and F. + +Let us count the yearly rings and see how old the whole limb is. These +rings are at 28, 26, D, 12, 1,--five of them; and as the shoot grew one +year before it made any ring, and another year made no increase in +length--as we shall presently see--the whole branch must be seven years +old. That is, the limb probably started in 1890.[43] Let us begin, then, +at A, and follow it out. + +[43] It is really impossible to tell whether the shoot started from the +limb A in 1889 or 1890, without knowing the age of A; for the spur may +have developed its blossom bud at the end in either the first or second +year of its life. That is, young fruit-spurs sometimes make a blossom +bud the very year they start, but they oftener "stand still" the second +year and delay the blossom bud until that time. + +1890. Started as a spur from the main branch, A, and grew to 1. + +1891. Apple borne at 1. This apple did not mature, however, as we can +readily see by the smallness of the scar. In this year, two side buds +developed to continue the spur the next year. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 219. A seven-year-old apple twig and its curious +history. (Half size.)_] + +1892. Ceased to be a fruit-spur, and made a strong growth on to 12. For +some reason, it had a good chance to grow. Perhaps the farmer pruned the +tree, and thereby gave the shoot an opportunity; or perhaps he plowed +and fertilized the land. + +In the meantime, one of the side buds grew to 3, and the other to 7, and +each made a fruit-bud at its end. + +1893. Shoot grew lustily,--on to D. + +The fruit-bud at 3 bore an apple, which probably matured, as shown by +the scar 2. Two side buds were formed beneath this apple, to continue +the spur next year. + +The fruit-bud at 7 bloomed, but the apple fell early, as shown by the +small scar. Two side buds were formed. + +The buds upon the main shoot--1 to 12--all remained dormant. + +1894. Shoot grew from D to beyond E. + +Side bud of 2 grew to 4, and made a fruit-bud on its end; the other side +bud grew on to 5, and there made a fruit-bud. + +Side bud of 7 grew on to 10, and the other one to 8, each ending in a +fruit-bud. + +Buds on old shoot--1 to 12--still remained dormant. + +Some of the buds on the 1893 growth--12 to D,--remained dormant; but +some of them made fruit-spurs,--14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23. + +1895. Shoot grew from beyond E to 28. + +Flowers were borne at 4 and 5; but at 4 the fruit fell early, for the +five or six scars of the flowers can be seen, showing that no one of +them developed more strongly than the other; that is, none of the +flowers "set." A fairly good fruit was probably borne at 5. At the base +of each, a bud started to continue the spur next year. + +Upon the other spur, flowers were borne both at 8 and 10. At 10 none of +the flowers set fruit, but a side bud developed. At 8 the fruit +partially matured, and a side bud was also developed. + +The buds upon the old stem from 1 to 12 still remained dormant. + +Some of the spurs on the 1893 growth--12 to D--developed fruit-buds for +bearing in 1896. + +Some of the buds on the 1894 growth--D to beyond E--remained dormant, +but others developed into small fruit-spurs. One of these buds, near the +top of the 1894 growth, threw out a long shoot, starting from E; and +the bud at 26 also endeavored to make a long branch, but failed. + +1896. Main shoot grew from 28 to the end. + +The side bud below 4 (where the fruit was borne the year before) barely +lived, not elongating, as seen above 3. This branch of the spur is +becoming weak and will never bear again. The side bud of 5, however, +made a fairly good spur and developed a fruit-bud at its end, as seen at +6. + +The side bud of 10 grew somewhat, making the very short spur 11. This +branchlet is also getting weak. The bud of 8, however, developed a +strong spur at 9. Both 11 and 9 bear fruit-buds, but that on 11 is +probably too weak ever to bear fruit again. In fact, the entire spurs, +from 1 to 6 and 1 to 9, are too weak to be of much account for +fruit-bearing. + +This year several of the spurs along the 1893 growth--12 to D--bore +flowers. Flowers were borne from two buds on the first one (at 13 and +14), but none of the flowers "set." One of the little apples that died +last June still clings to the spur at 14. A side bud (15) formed to +continue the spur in 1897. Flowers were borne at 16, 20, 21, and 23, but +no apples developed. Upon 16 and 20 the flowers died soon after they +opened, as seen by the remains of them. Upon 23, one of the flowers set +an apple, but the apple soon died. The spurs 17 and 18 are so weak that +they have never made fruit-buds, and they are now nearly dead. The spurs +19 and 22 have behaved differently. Like the others, they grew in 1894 +and would have made terminal fruit-buds in 1895, and would have borne +fruit in 1896; but the terminal buds were broken off in the fall or +winter of 1894, so that two side buds developed in 1895, and each of +these developed a fruit-bud at its end in 1896 in the spur 19, but only +one of them developed such a bud in 22. Upon these spurs, therefore, the +bearing year has been changed. + +Upon the growth of 1894--D to beyond E--only three spurs have developed, +nos. 24, 25, 26. These started out in 1895, and two of them--25 and +26--have made large fat buds which are evidently fruit-buds. The shoot +at E grew on to EE, and all the buds on its lower two-year-old portion +remained dormant. + +On the 1895 growth--from beyond E to 28--all the buds remained dormant +save one, and this one--27--made only a very feeble attempt to grow into +a spur. + +The buds upon the 1892 growth--1 to 12--are still dormant and waiting +for an opportunity to grow. + +What an eventful history this apple twig has had! And yet in all the +seven years of its life, after having made fifteen efforts to bear +fruit, it has not produced a single good apple! The fault, therefore, +does not lie in the shoot. It has done the best it could. The trouble +has been that the farmer either did not give the tree enough food to +enable it to support the fruit, or did not prune the tree so as to give +the twig light and room, or allowed apple-scab or some other disease to +kill the young apples as they were forming. I am wondering, therefore, +whether, when trees fail to bear, it is not quite as often the fault of +the farmer as it is of the trees? + + + + +LEAFLET XXXII. + +THE BURST OF SPRING.[44] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[44] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 4, Leaflet 17, March, 1900. + +[Illustration] + +Spring is coming! The buds will burst and the birds will sing! + +How do the buds burst? Watch them as the spring opens; or, if you are +impatient, cut long twigs and place them in bottles of water in a +living-room, and the buds will swell. First, notice what the winter buds +are like,--that they are spherical, or oblong, or conical bodies lying +close to the limb and tightly covered with scales. Notice that there is +a mark or scar beneath the bud, showing where a leaf was borne. + +It is excellent practice to collect winter twigs of different kinds of +trees and bushes, and to compare the form and color of the shoots, and +the size, shape, color, and make-up of the buds. Lay the twigs side by +side on the table and notice how one differs from the other. What part +of the twig grew last year? Notice the "ring" at the base of the last +year's growth. After all the differences are noted, put the twigs in +water, as you would a bouquet. Sometimes flowers and leaves will appear. +If the twigs are two or three feet long, the buds are more likely to +grow, for then there is sufficient supply of food in them. Change the +water frequently, and cut off the lower ends of the twigs so that a +fresh surface will be exposed to the water. It will be two to five weeks +before the buds open, depending mostly on the kind of plant. + +Mark one bud on a maple, or apple, or lilac, or other plant, by tying a +string about the twig. Look at it carefully from day to day: observe how +it opens, and what comes out of it. + +The pupil should know that a winter twig has interest. + + * * * * * + +The bud may be peach or apricot. Soon the bud begins to swell at its +top. The scales open. A white lining appears. This lining soon protrudes +(Fig. 220). Soon the lining opens. We see that it is a flower. Or +perhaps the peach bud sends out a green shoot rather than a flower. +There must be two kinds of peach and apricot buds,--a flower-bud and a +leaf-bud. Can you tell them apart? The flower-bud is thicker and +rounder. Usually one stands on either side of a leaf-bud. But the +leaf-bud may stand alone. Find one: any peach tree or apricot tree will +have leaf-buds, but all may not have flower-buds. As the bud expands and +the flower or leaf appears, notice that the bud-scales fall away. Do +these scales leave scars? And do not these scars, standing together, +make the "ring" which marks the beginning of the new growth? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 220. Opening of an apricot bud._] + + * * * * * + +Observe a pear bud. Notice that the scales elongate as the bud swells. +You can see the white bases of the scales, marking the new growth (Fig. +221). If it is a leaf-bud the scales may become three-fourths of an inch +long before they fall. But sooner or later, they are cast, and their +places are marked by scars. If it is a flower-bud, notice that several +flowers come out of it. In the apricot and peach, there is only one +flower in each bud. Each of these little pear flowers is closed up like +a bud and elevates itself on a stalk before it opens: and this stalk +becomes the stem of the pear fruit. But this pear flower-bud contains +leaves as well as flowers. Fig. 222 shows what comes out of a pear bud. +This, then, is a mixed flower-bud,--it contains both leaves and flowers. +The apricot and the peach bear true or simple flower-buds. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 221. Opening of a pear bud._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 222. What came out of a pear bud._] + + * * * * * + +Watch apple buds. The scales do not elongate as in the pear, but the +flower-buds are mixed. Fig. 223 shows the expanding cluster from an +apple flower-bud. Four flowers will open; and there are six leaves. If +the buds are made to open in the house on severed twigs, the leaves do +not grow so large before the flowers expand, for the twig does not +contain sufficient food. Fig. 224 is a photograph of an apple twig which +I had in my window one winter's day. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 223. Opening of an apple bud._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 224. Apple flowers in midwinter._] + + * * * * * + +Examine a hickory twig. The illustration (Fig. 225) shows the "ring" +marking the beginning of the annual growth. See the large leaf-scars. +Notice that the terminal bud is much the largest. It is the one which +will grow. The other buds will remain dormant unless they are forced +into growth by the death of the terminal bud or by other unusual +circumstances. Notice that buds differ in size on shoots of all plants; +consider that not all the buds are to grow: there is a struggle for +existence. When the hickory bud expands, some of the scales fall away; +but some of the inner parts enlarge into leaf-like bodies, as shown in +Fig. 226. In some hickories these bodies become two or three inches long +before they fall. Hickories open very late in the season. The Norway +maple, commonly planted on lawns, behaves in a similar way. Observe the +sugar maple. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Fig. 225. Shoot of a hickory._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 226. The opening of a hickory bud._] + +A twig of the common elm is shown in Fig. 227. Notice the "ring." See +the two kinds of buds. We suspect that the three larger ones are +flower-buds. With the very first warm days--before the robin has built +her nest--these three buds will burst; soon the red-brown tassels will +hang on the leafless twigs. Each tassel is a flower. Several flowers +come from each bud. We see them in Fig. 228; and the leaf-buds have +elongated somewhat. Watch for the fruits or seeds that blow about the +walks so early in spring; and note how the leaves come out. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 227. Twig of elm._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 228. Blossoms of the elm._] + + * * * * * + +With the first breath of spring, the "pussy willows" come. And what are +the "pussies"? They are clusters of flowers. So snugly are the little +flowers wrapped in wool, that the "pussies" are silken-soft as they +begin to expand. Fig. 229 is a willow shoot. Find one when the buds +first begin to burst. Notice the big brown-black scale that covers the +bud as a shield and falls when the "pussy" first begins to appear. + + * * * * * + +And now what is a winter bud? It is a miniature shoot or flower, resting +for the time, and snugly wrapped for the long winter. It was made last +season. It is ready to leap into growth the moment the warm rain of +spring wakens it. A good hand lens will show the embryo branch, if a +section is made of the bud. + +This bud is not only ready-formed but is ready-fed. The winter shoots +contain starch. On a cut surface of a dormant twig, apply a drop of +tincture of iodine; note the bluish color, which is indicative of +starch. This starch is insoluble; but with the first awakening of life, +it changes into sugar, which is soluble and is transferred to the +growing part. The burst of spring is made possible by means of this +stored food. Notice the azalea in the florist's window (Fig. 230). The +large flower-buds were formed the year before, and it is a short +operation to "force" them into bloom. The flowers come in advance of the +leaves; therefore these leaves could not have made the food required for +the bloom. The blooming of the apple twig (Fig. 224) in the winter shows +that the food is in the twig and buds. Once I drew a branch of a tree +into a room and fastened it there. It made leaves and began to grow +while the tree to which it was attached was perfectly dormant (Fig. +231). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 230. Bloom of azalea._] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Fig. 229. The opening of a pussy willow._] + +Not only are the buds ready-formed and ready-fed, but they are covered. +Snugly is the tender, growing part protected. Pull away the scales of a +winter bud one by one. Observe how closely they are placed. Often the +chinks are filled with a packing of wool, or are sealed with varnish. +Dip the bud in water: then see whether the water permeates the +covering. The chief value of the bud covering is not to protect from +freezing, as commonly supposed, but to prevent the soft growing parts +from drying out. + +The plants are waiting for spring. They are ready. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 231. Branch of a tree bearing leaves inside a +window, when the tree itself is dormant._] + + + + +LEAFLET XXXIII. + +EVERGREENS AND HOW THEY SHED THEIR LEAVES.[45] + +BY H. P. GOULD. + + +[45] Teacher's Leaflet No. 13, February, 1899. + +[Sidenote: _Note to the teacher._--This leaflet has two particular +objects: to teach how evergreens shed their leaves, and to enable you to +distinguish a few of the evergreens which are most commonly met. These +studies (and those suggested in Leaflet No. XXIX) should be the means of +adding much cheer to the winter. Encourage pupils to make collections of +cones, to observe when they shed their seeds, and how long (how many +seasons) they remain attached to the branch. Remember that mere +identification of the kinds of trees is not the highest type of +nature-study. + +Cones are good subjects for free-hand drawing. Beginners should draw +them in outline, omitting the shading. Encourage pupils to draw single +leaf-clusters of the different pines, cautioning them to show the right +number of leaves in each case.] + +[Illustration] + +Cone-bearing evergreens are familiar to everyone; yet this familiarity +is usually with the trees as entire objects. We do not often stop to +analyze a tree in order to find out what gives it its characteristic +appearance or to see what makes it look as it does. + +We shall often find, if we stop to look, that much of the character of a +tree,--that is, its general appearance or the way in which it impresses +us,--is due to the leaves and to their arrangement on the branches. This +is true of many of the evergreen trees. + +Why are certain kinds of trees called evergreen in distinction from +those which are said to be deciduous? The reason is obvious. One kind is +always green from the presence of foliage, while the other sheds all of +its leaves every season. The evergreen trees, like the pines and the +spruces and the firs, always appear to be well covered with foliage; +hence it does not often occur to us that these trees shed their leaves. +And yet perhaps we can recall happy hours when we used to play beneath +some large pine tree where the ground was carpeted with pine "needles." + +The falling of the leaves of the maple trees or the oaks is a familiar +sight, but who has seen the spruce leaves fall, and who can tell when +the pine needles drop? + +That the evergreen trees do shed their foliage, as truly as the maples +and the elms do, we will not question, for we can see the fallen leaves +under any tree. Look up into the top of a spruce or pine. See that the +interior is bare of foliage. The leaves are towards the ends of the +branches, where they receive sunlight. Yet the branches which are now in +the interior once bore leaves, for we can see the leaf-scars. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 232. Shoot of the common white pine, one-third +natural size._] + +It will be interesting to find out something about the leaves of our +common evergreens. Let us look at some of them. + + +THE WHITE PINE. + +In Fig. 232 is shown a white pine branch. Notice that the leaves are +borne in bunches or clusters of five. Each bunch of leaves is produced +in the axil (or angle) of a minute scale-like body, but this scale can +best be seen and studied on the very young growth. It has been worn away +or broken from the older growth by the wind and the rain and the other +forces of nature. + +Another strange fact should be well observed. The leaves of the maples +and other deciduous trees are borne only on the present season's +growth; but this is not the case in the pines, and kindred trees. If we +trace back the growth of the past two or three years, we may find that +there are as many leaves on the wood that is two years old as there are +on the last season's growth; and in many cases we can find leaves on the +part of the branch that is three years old. This means that the pine +leaves or needles are two and sometimes three years old when they fall. +The Fig. 232 shows the falling of the leaves from the different years' +growth. The part of the branch between the tip and A is the last +season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; the part between B +and C is three years old. The part that grew four seasons ago--beyond +C--has no leaves. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 233. Cone of white pine. It has shed its seeds. +Half natural size._] + +The different seasons' growth is indicated not by distinct "rings" as in +the case of deciduous trees, but by the branching. Each whorl of +branches about a limb represents the end of a season's growth. A young +pine tree, or the younger limbs of an old tree, shows this character +very plainly. + +Do the leaves of the pines and of the other evergreen trees fall at the +end of the growing season, as the leaves of most of the deciduous trees +do? Or do they gradually become lifeless and fall at any season, from +the force of the wind and other natural forces? Tie a large sheet of +cloth in the top of some evergreen tree, in such a way as to form a +receptacle to catch the leaves. Do you catch leaves in winter as well as +in summer? Do you find leaves on the snow? + +As there are several different kinds of pines, we must picture carefully +in our minds the foliage of the white pine, for it is different from +that of any others. The leaves are soft and very slender, and from three +to four inches long. The base of each cluster of leaves is at first +surrounded by a small sheath. A scar is left when the leaves drop and +these scars can often be seen on parts of the branches that are eight or +ten years old. Do the leaves of other kinds of trees make a scar when +they fall? + +The white pine cones, in which the seeds are borne, are conspicuous +objects. They are five or six inches long and slightly curved. It will +be interesting to find out whether the seeds ripen the same year in +which they are formed. Perhaps a cone still containing seeds can be +secured. Carefully tear it apart and see where the seeds are attached. +Red squirrels sometimes eat the pine seeds. A white pine cone, which has +shed its seeds, is shown in Fig. 233. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 234. Shoot of common pitch pine. One-half natural +size._] + +This kind of pine is found widely scattered in New England, New York, +and westward to Minnesota and Iowa and along the Alleghany Mountains as +far south as Georgia; also in some parts of Canada. It is a valuable +lumber tree. + + +THE PITCH PINE. + +This kind of pine is very different, in many respects, from the white +pine. Let us find some of the differences. Instead of having leaves in +bunches of five, it has them in clusters of three, and the base of each +cluster is inclosed by a scaly sheath which does not fall away as in the +case of the white pine; neither does the little scale-like body upon the +branch, in the axil of which the leaf-cluster is borne, fall away, but +it may be found just below the leaf, and even on branches that are +several years old. Sometimes a sheath is found with only two leaves. We +shall want to know, too, how old the leaves are when they fall. Do they +remain on the tree longer than the white pine leaves do? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 235. Cone of pitch pine. One-half natural size._] + +Again, instead of being soft and slender as the white pine leaves are, +we shall find that these leaves are rigid and thick in comparison, and +stand out straight from the branches. The shape of the leaves is also +distinct from that of the white pine needles. See whether you can find +any other differences. + +A pitch pine branch is shown in Fig. 234. The part between the tip and A +is the past season's growth. Observe the foliage on the part that is two +years old. Part of it has fallen. We often find it on growth which is +older than this; but in this specimen there are no leaves on the +three-year wood. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 236. Pitch pine. One-third natural size._] + +The cone of the pitch pine is very unlike that of the white pine. Fig. +235 gives a good idea of one that has shed its seeds. Compare this with +Fig. 233; or, better, examine the two kinds of cones side by side. The +pitch pine cones are sometimes borne in clusters of two or more and +they persist,--that is, remain on the tree for several years after the +seeds have ripened and scattered. + +Notice how the new cones are borne with reference to last season's +growth. Are they attached to the tip of a branchlet? Or are they closely +attached to the side of a branch? Figs. 236 and 237 will help us answer +this question. The little cones in Fig. 237 near the tip of the twig, +are just beginning to form. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 237. Pitch pine, showing young cones. Half natural +size._] + +The pitch pine usually grows in sandy or rocky soil and is found in the +United States along the Atlantic coast to Virginia, along the mountains +to Georgia, westward to Western New York, Eastern Ohio, Kentucky, and +Eastern Tennessee. It has little value as timber, because it does not +grow large enough. + + +SCOTCH AND AUSTRIAN PINES. + +In the same manner other pines may be studied. Fig. 238 shows a cone and +a bit of foliage of the Scotch pine, and Fig. 239 the Austrian pine. +These cones grew the past season and are not yet mature. After they +ripen and shed the seeds which they contain, they will look somewhat +like the cone in Fig 235. The Scotch pine has short and blue-green +needles. The Austrian pine is coarser, and has long dark-green needles. + +There are but two leaves in a cluster on these kinds of pines and we +shall find that the sheath which incloses the base of the leaf-cluster +is more conspicuous than in either the white or the pitch pine. Do the +leaves persist in the Scotch and Austrian pines longer than they do in +the others we have examined? Study the cones of these and other pines. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 238. Scotch pine. Half natural size._] + +The Scotch and Austrian pines are not native to this country, but are +much grown for ornament. They can be found in almost any park and in +many other places where ornamental trees are grown. + + +THE NORWAY SPRUCE. + +The leaves of spruce trees are borne very differently from those of the +pines. Instead of being in clusters of two or more, they are single and +without a sheath at the base; neither are there scale-like bodies on the +branches where the leaves are borne. Notice, too, that the leaves have a +very short stem or petiole. + +The leaves of the Norway spruce are about one inch long, although the +length varies more or less in different parts of the tree and in +different trees. They are rather stiff and rigid and sharp-pointed. In a +general way, the leaves are four-sided, though indistinctly so. + +It will be interesting to study the position which the leaves take on +the branches. A hasty glance might give us the impression that the +leaves are not produced on the under side of the branches; but a more +careful examination will convince us that there are nearly as many on +the under side as on the upper. The leaves are all pointing outward from +the branch and as nearly upward as is possible. In other words, the +leaves grow toward the light. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 239. Austrian pine. One-third natural size._] + +We must not forget to see how long the leaves of the Norway spruce +persist and to find out when the leaf-scars disappear. We can find +leaves that must surely be six or seven years old and sometimes we can +find them even older than this. The leaf scars, too, remain a long time. +The falling of the leaves is illustrated in Fig. 240. It shows the +extremities of a limb which is eight years old. The part between the tip +and A is last season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; and +beyond B is a part that grew three seasons ago. The section beyond C is +six years old; from C to D is seven years of age. The four years' growth +of this limb not shown in the drawing was as densely covered with +foliage as is the part shown in the upper figure; but there are not many +leaves between C and D (seven years old) and none on the eight-year-old +wood (except those on the branchlets, and these are younger). + +The cone of the Norway spruce is nearly as long as that of the white +pine, but it is not so rough and coarse as the white pine cone is. The +cones are usually borne on the tips of small branchlets, although +occasionally one is borne in the manner shown in Fig. 241. The cones +usually fall the first winter. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 240. Twig of the common Norway spruce. Half natural +size._] + +The Norway spruce is not a native of this country, but like the Scotch +and Austrian pines, it was introduced from Europe and is grown very +widely as an ornamental tree. It is the commonest evergreen in yards and +parks. + + +THE BLACK SPRUCE AND ITS KIN. + +There are several different kinds of spruces which we find growing in +our forests and swamps, and sometimes these are planted for ornament. A +sprig of foliage and a cone of one of these,--the black spruce,--is +shown in Fig. 242. The foliage is not very unlike that of the Norway +spruce, but the cones are very small in comparison. They are about one +inch long, though they vary considerably in size. Before they open they +are oval or plum-shaped; but when mature and the scales of the cone have +expanded, they are nearly globular. They are often borne in clusters, as +well as singly, and persist for many years after the seeds have fallen. +The position of the cones will depend upon their age. When young they +point upward, but they gradually turn downward. + +In general appearance the white spruce resembles the black very closely. +The leaves of the white spruce have a whitish or dusty looking tinge of +color and when crushed or bruised give forth a peculiar, disagreeable +odor. The cones vary in length from an inch to two inches, and in shape +are more cylindrical or finger-shaped than the cone of the black spruce. + +The foliage of the red spruce lacks the whitish tinge of color of the +white spruce and the cones, which are from one inch to two inches in +length, are obovate in shape--that is, the widest place is through the +upper part of the cone, and from this point it gradually tapers to the +tip. They seldom persist longer than the second summer. + +The leaves of all these different kinds of spruces vary greatly in +length, thickness, and sharpness of point, according to the part of the +tree on which they grow, and their surroundings. The shedding of the +leaves on these or other spruces can be determined as easily as in the +Norway spruce. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 241. Cone of Norway spruce. Half size._] + +These three spruces like a cold climate and grow in many sections of the +northern United States and Canada and farther south in the mountains. +They are sometimes all found growing together, but the black spruce +likes best the damp, cold swamps, while the others grow best on the +drier and better drained lands. The black spruce is commonest. The red +spruce is least known. + + +THE BALSAM FIR. + +This is another evergreen tree which grows naturally in the cold, damp +grounds of the northern United States and Canada, and to some extent in +the eastern states as far south as West Virginia. + +The foliage is borne in much the same manner as that of the spruces; yet +there are interesting differences in the characters of these two kinds +of leaves. Perhaps the most noticeable difference is in the shape; and +the color of the fir leaves will attract our attention because the under +side is a silvery color, while the upper side is green. What is the +nature of the tip of the leaf and how does it compare with the pines and +spruces in this respect? Does the leaf have a stem or petiole or is it +attached directly to the branch without any stem? How are the leaves +shed? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 242.--Black spruce. Half natural size._] + +The cones are about three inches long and present a rather delicate +appearance. It will be interesting to determine the position of the +cones, that is, the direction in which they point, and to learn whether +it is the same when they are young as it is after they have matured. + +The grayish colored bark of the trunk and limbs bears many "blisters" +from which Canada balsam is obtained. + + +THE HEMLOCK. + +A hemlock twig is an interesting object. It may have many characters in +common with the spruce and fir; yet the impression which we get from it, +or from a large hemlock tree, is entirely distinct. The arrangement of +the leaves and the gracefulness of the drooping branchlets are most +pleasing. We are led to examine it more closely. We notice that the +leaves appear to be borne in two more or less regular rows,--one on +each side of the branch or twig; but in reality they come from all sides +of the branch, and it is the position which the leaves assume that gives +this two-rowed appearance. + +The leaves have a short stalk or petiole, and this stalk rests along the +side of the branchlet in such a direction that the leaves are placed in +single rows on either side of the branch. The petioles of the leaves are +nearly parallel with the branch while the leaves often make a decided +angle with the petiole. This fact can best be brought out by carefully +examining a small twig. + +While we are noting the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets, we +should also notice the points of similarity and difference between these +leaves and those of the spruces and firs. We shall find that there is +more in common, at least so far as shape and color are concerned, +between the hemlock and the fir than between the hemlock and the spruce. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 243. Spray of the hemlock. Two-thirds natural +size._] + +The small, delicate cones, borne on the tips of the branchlets, will +also attract our attention (Fig. 243.) We may wonder at their small +size, for they are only about three-quarters of an inch long, and very +delicate; yet a second glance at the tree will impress us with the +number of cones which the tree bears, and we conclude that, although the +cones may be small, yet there are so many of them that there will be no +lack of seeds. + +It is more difficult to trace the age of a hemlock limb than of many +other kinds of trees, yet we can easily determine that many of the +leaves are several years old when they fall. + +The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning hides for leather. The tree +is much used for lumber. Where does it grow? + + +THE ARBOR-VITÆ. + +One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vitæ (often, but +wrongly, called the white cedar) has any leaves at all. It does possess +them, however, but they are very different in size and shape from any of +the others that we have examined. They are small scale-like bodies, +closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets, in four +rows. Leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to be +"appressed." The leaves of the arbor-vitæ are so close together that +they overlap one another. The leaves are of two distinct shapes, +sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves. The former +are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the +branchlets, while the latter are on the sides or edges. See Fig. 244. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size._] + +If we carefully look at the leaves, we shall notice a raised spot near +the point or tip. This is said to be a resin gland. This gland can be +seen more plainly on the surface leaves that are two years old. + +Most of the leaves persist for at least two and sometimes three years; +but even older ones can be found. These older leaves, however, exist not +as green, active leaves, but merely as dried and lifeless scales. These +lifeless leaves are probably detached from the branches by the forces of +nature. + +The cones are even smaller than the hemlock cones. They are borne in the +axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branchlets and are not +conspicuous unless one is close to the tree. + +The arbor-vitæ is much planted for hedges and screens, as well as for +other ornamental purposes. There are many horticultural varieties. The +tree is abundant in a wild state in New York. + + +SUMMARY OF THE KINDS OF COMMON EVERGREENS. + +_The white pine_ (Pinus Strobus).--Leaves in clusters of five, soft and +slender; cones five or six inches long, slightly curved; bark smooth +except on the trunks and larger limbs of old trees, where it is +fissured. + +_The pitch pine_ (Pinus rigida).--Leaves in clusters of three, from +three to four inches long, rather rigid; cones two to three inches long, +often in clusters of two or more but frequently borne singly, persisting +long after the seeds have been shed; bark more or less rough on the +young growth and deeply fissured on the trunks of old trees. + +_The Scotch pine_ (Pinus sylvestris).--Leaves usually in clusters of +two, from two to four inches long, rigid, of a bluish-green hue when +seen in a large mass on the tree; cones two to three inches long and the +scales tipped with a beak or prickle. + +_The Austrian pine_ (Pinus Austriaca).--Leaves in clusters of two, five +or six inches long and somewhat rigid, dark green in color, and +persisting for four or five years; cones about three inches long, +conical in shape; and scales not beaked or pointed as in the Scotch +pine. + +_The Norway spruce_ (Picea excelsa).--Leaves borne singly, about one +inch long, dark green, four-sided; cones about six inches long, and +composed of thin scales, and usually borne on the tips of branchlets. +The small branches mostly drooping. + +_The black spruce_ (Picea nigra).--In general appearance, this is not +very unlike the Norway spruce, but the small branches stand out more +horizontally and the cones are only one or one and one-half inches long, +recurving on short branches. The cones persist for several years after +shedding the seed. + +_The white spruce_ (Picea alba).--Leaves about one inch long, having a +glaucous or whitish tinge; twigs stout and rigid, of a pale +greenish-white color; cones from one to two and one-half inches long, +more or less cylindrical or "finger-shaped," and easily crushed when +dry. + +_The red spruce_ (Picea rubra).--The foliage lacks the whitish tinge of +the white spruce and is of a dark or dark yellowish color; twigs stouter +than those of the black spruce and not so much inclined to droop; cones +about one inch long, obovate, and usually falling by the second summer. + +_The hemlock_ (Tsuga Canadensis).--Leaves about one-half inch long, flat +with rounded point, green on the upper side, whitish beneath, and borne +on short appressed petioles; cones about three-quarters of an inch long, +oval or egg-shaped, and borne on the ends of small branchlets and often +persisting for some time. + +_The balsam fir_ (Abies balsamea).--Leaves narrow, less than one inch +long, borne singly, very numerous and standing out from the branchlets +in much the way of the spruce; cones about three inches long, +cylindrical, composed of thin scales, and standing upright on the +branches, or recurved; bark smooth, light green with whitish tinge. + +_The arbor-vitæ_ (Thuya occidentalis).--Leaves very small, scale-like, +and over-lapping one another in four rows, adhering closely to the +branchlets; the cones oblong and small,--a half-inch or less in +length,--and composed of but few scales. + + + + +LEAFLET XXXIV. + +THE CLOVERS AND THEIR KIN.[46] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + The pedigree of honey does not concern the bee, + A clover any time to him is aristocracy. + + --EMILY DICKINSON. + + +[46] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 8, May, 1904. + +[Illustration: _White clover._] + +There is a deep-seated prejudice that usefulness and beauty do not +belong together;--a prejudice based obviously on human selfishness, for +if a thing is useful to us we emphasize that quality so much that we +forget to look for its beauty. Thus it is that the clover suffers great +injustice; it has for centuries been a most valuable forage crop, and, +therefore, we forget to note its beauty, or to regard it as an object +worthy of æsthetic attention. This is a pitiful fact; but it cheats us +more than it does the clover, for the clover blossoms not for us, but +for the bees and butterflies as well as for itself. As I remember the +scenes which have impressed me most, I find among them three in which +clover was the special attraction. One was a well-cultivated thrifty +orchard carpeted with the brilliant red of the crimson clover in bloom. +One was a great field of alfalfa spread near the shore of the Great Salt +Lake, which met our eyes as we came through the pass in the Wasatch +Mountains after days of travel in dust-colored lands; the brilliant +green of that alfalfa field in the evening sunlight refreshed our eyes +as the draught of cold water refreshes the parched throat of the +traveller in a desert. And another was a gently undulating field in our +own State stretching away like a sea to the west, covered with the +purple foam of the red clover in blossom; and the fragrance of that +field settled like a benediction over the acres that margined it. But we +do not need landscapes to teach us the beauty of clover. Just one clover +blossom studied carefully and looked at with clear-seeing eyes, reveals +each floweret beautiful in color, interesting in form, and perfect in +its mechanism for securing pollination. + +The clover is especially renowned for its partnerships with members of +the animal kingdom. It readily forms a partnership with man, thriftily +growing in his pastures and meadows, while he distributes its seed. For +ages it has been a special partner of the bees, giving them honey for +carrying its pollen. Below the ground it has formed a mysterious +partnership with microbes, and the clover seems to be getting the best +of the bargain. + +For many years clover was regarded as a crop helpful to the soil, and +one reason given was the great length of the roots. Thus the roots of +red clover often reach the depth of several feet, even in heavy soil, +which they thus aerate and drain, especially when they decay and leave +channels. But this is only half the story; for a long time people had +noted that on clover roots were little swollen places or nodules, which +were supposed to have come from some disease or insect injury. The +scientists became interested in the supposed disease, and they finally +ascertained that these nodules are filled with bacteria, which are the +underground partners of the clovers and other legumes. These bacteria +are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air, and make it available for +plant-food. As nitrogen is the most expensive of the fertilizers, any +agency which can extract it from the free air for the use of plants is +indeed a valuable aid to the farmer. Thus it is that in the modern +agriculture, clover or some other legume is put on the land once in +three or four years in the regular rotation of crops, and it brings back +to the soil the nitrogen which other crops have exhausted. An +interesting fact about the partnership between the root bacteria and the +clover-like plants is that the plants do not flourish without this +partnership, and investigators have devised a method by which these +bacteria may be scattered in the soil on which some kinds of clover are +to be planted, and thus aid in growing a crop. This method is to-day +being used for the introduction of alfalfa here in New York State. But +the use of clover as a fertilizer is not limited to its root factory for +capturing nitrogen; its leaves break down quickly and readily yield the +rich food material of which they are composed, so that the farmer who +plows under his second-crop clover instead of harvesting it, adds +greatly to the fertility of his farm. + +The members of three distinct genera are popularly called clovers: The +True Clovers (_Trifolium_), of which six or seven species are found in +New York State, and more than sixty species are found in the United +States. The Medics (_Medicago_), of which four species are found here. +The Melilots (_Melilotus_), or sweet clovers, of which we have two +species. + + +THE TRUE CLOVERS. (_Trifolium._) + +[Illustration: _Fig. 245. The common red clover._] + +_The Red Clover (Fig. 245). (Trifolium pratense._[47])--This beautiful +dweller in our fields came to us from Europe, and it is also a native of +Asia. It is the clover most widely cultivated in New York State for +fodder, and is one of our most important crops. Clover hay often being a +standard of excellence by which other hay is measured. The export of +clover seed from the United States has sometimes reached the worth of +two million dollars per year, and this great industry is supposed to be +carried on with the aid of that other partner of the red clover, the +bumblebee. Bumblebees had to be imported into Australia before clover +seed could be produced there. The whole question of the relation of the +bumblebee to the pollination of clover no doubt needs to be re-studied, +for recent observations have led to the contesting of prevailing +opinions. It has been supposed that the failure of the clover seed crop +in some places is due to the destruction of bumblebees; whether this is +true or not, we are certain that bumblebees visit clover blooms, and the +teacher can observe for himself. + +[47] Pronounced _Trifol' -ium praten' -se_, the second or specific name +with three syllables. + +There is a more perennial form of red clover, known as variety +_perenne_. It is distinguished from the common form of red clover by its +taller growth and mostly less hairy herbage, and by the fact that the +flower-head is usually somewhat stalked. Some persons regard it as a +hybrid of red and zig-zag clover. + +_Zig-Zag Clover. (T. medium.)_--This is another species of red clover, +resembling the one just discussed, except that its flower-head rises on +a long stalk above the upper leaves, while the red clover has the +flower-head set close to these leaves. The color of the blossom is +darker than in red clover, and the flower-head is looser. The stems of +the zig-zag clover are likely to be bent at angles and thus it gets its +name. It is a question whether this species is really grown on farms. It +is probable that some or all of the clover that passes under this name +is _Trifolium pratense_ var. _perenne_. At all events, the zig-zag +clover seems to be imperfectly understood by botanists and others. + +_Crimson Clover--Scarlet Clover (Fig. 246). (T. incarnatum.)_--While +this beautiful clover grows as a weed in the southern parts of our +State, it has only recently begun to play an important part in our +horticulture. It is an annual, and its home is the Mediterranean region +of Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils, and in our State is +chiefly used as a cover-crop for orchards, and to plow under as a +fertilizer. It usually has bright, crimson flowers, arranged in a long, +pointed head, and its brilliant green fan-shaped leaves make it the most +artistically decorative of all our clovers. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 246. Crimson clover._] + +_Buffalo Clover (Fig. 247). (T. reflexum.)_--This is sometimes taken for +a variety of the red clover, but only a glance is needed to distinguish +it. While the head is perhaps an inch in diameter the flowerets are not +directed upward and set close as in the red clover, but each floweret is +on a little stalk, and is bent abruptly backward. The flowers are not +pink. The standard is red, while the wings and keel are nearly white. +The leaves are blunt at the tip. It grows in meadows in western New York +and westward. This species is native to this country. + +_Alsike Clover. (T. hybridum.)_--This is a perennial and grows in low +meadows and waste places from Nova Scotia to Idaho. It was introduced +from Europe. It is especially valuable in wet meadows, where the red +clover would be drowned. The blossoms of the alsike look like those of +the white clover except that they are a little larger and are pink; but +the long branching mostly upright stems are very different in habit from +the creeping stems of the white clover; the blossoms are very fragrant. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 247. Three clovers, respectively, Buffalo, Yellow, +and Rabbit-foot clover._] + +_The White Clover. (T. repens.)_--This beautiful little clover, whose +leaves make a rug for our feet in every possible place, is well known to +us all. It is the clover best beloved by honey-bees, and the person who +does not know the distinct flavor of white clover honey has lost +something out of life. While in hard soil the white clover lasts only +two or three years, on rich, moist lands it is a true perennial. While +it was probably a native in the northern part of America, yet it is +truly cosmopolitan and may be found in almost all regions of the +temperate zones. Very likely the common stock of it is an introduction +from Europe. By many this is considered to be the original shamrock. + +_The Yellow, or Hop Clover (Fig. 247). (T. agrarium.)_--This friendly +little plant, filling waste places with brilliant green leaves and small +yellow flower-heads, is not considered a clover by those who are not +observant. But if the flowerets in the small, dense heads are examined, +they will be seen to resemble very closely those of the other clovers. +The stems are many-branched and often grow a foot or more in height. The +flowers are numerous, and on fading turn brown, and resemble the fruit +of a pigmy hop vine, whence the name. Its leaves are much more pointed +than those of the medics, with which it might be confused because of its +yellow flowers. + +_Low Hop Clover, or Hop Trefoil. (T. procumbens.)_--This resembles the +above species, except that it is smaller and also more spreading, and +the stems and leaves are more downy. + +_The Least Hop Clover. (T. dubium.)_--This may be readily distinguished +from the above species by the fact that its yellow flowerets occur from +three to ten in a head. This is said by some to be the true shamrock, +although the white clover is also called the shamrock. + +_The Rabbit-Foot, or Stone Clover (Fig. 247). (T. arvense.)_--This is +another clover not easily recognized as such. It grows a foot or more in +height and has erect branches. The leaflets are narrow and all arise +from the same point. The flowerets occur in long, dense heads. The calyx +is very silky, and the lobes are longer than the white corollas, thus +giving the flower-head a soft, hairy look, something like the early +stages of the blossom of the pussy willow. Because of its appearance it +is often called "pussy clover." + + +THE MEDICS. (_Medicago._) + +_Alfalfa (Fig. 248). (Medicago sativa.)_--This is the veteran of all the +clovers, for it has been under cultivation for twenty centuries. It is a +native of the valleys of western Asia. In America it was first +introduced into Mexico with the Spanish invasion. It was brought from +Chile to California in 1854, where it has since been the most important +hay crop. In fact, there is no better hay than that made from alfalfa. +It was probably introduced into the Atlantic States from southern +Europe, and has grown as a weed for many years in certain localities in +New England and the Middle States; only recently has it been considered +a practicable crop for this climate, although it was grown in Jefferson +Co., N. Y., in 1791. Its special value is that it is a true perennial, +and may be cut three times or more during a season, and when once +established it withstands hot, dry weather. It is of marvelous value to +the semi-arid regions. The alfalfa flower is blue or violet, and grows +in a loose raceme. The plant grows tall and its stems are many branched. +This and all these medics are introduced from Europe. + +_Black or Hop Medic. (M. lupulina.)_--This would hardly be called a +clover by the novice. The long stems lie along the ground, and the tiny +yellow flower-heads do not much resemble the clover blossom. It is a +common weed in waste places in our State. It is perennial. + +_The Toothed Medic. (M. denticulata.)_--Instead of having the yellow +flowerets in a dense head, this species has them in pairs or perhaps +fours, or sometimes more. It is widely distributed as a weed, and is +also introduced as a pasture plant for early grazing. It is of little +value as hay. + +_The Spotted Medic. (M. Arabica.)_--This very much resembles the +preceding species except that the leaves are likely to have on them +conspicuous dark spots near the center. Like the preceding species it is +an annual and a weed, and has also been introduced as a plant for early +grazing. This and the toothed medic are known to farmers under the name +of bur-clover. The reason for this name is found in the seed-pod, which +is twisted in a spiral and has an outer margin of curved prickles. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 248. Alfalfa, foliage and flowers._] + + +THE MELILOTS, OR SWEET CLOVERS. (_Melilotus._) + +In driving or walking along the country roads, we may find ourselves +suddenly immersed in a wave of delightful fragrance, and if we look for +the source we may find this friendly plant flourishing in the most +forbidding of soils. Growing as a weed, it brings sweet perfume to us, +and at the same time nitrogen, aeration and drainage to the hopeless +soil, making rich those places where other weeds have not the temerity +to attempt to grow. When the soil is generous, the sweet clover often +grows very tall, sometimes as high as ten feet. It is a cheerful, +adaptable and beneficial plant, and I never see it without giving it a +welcome, which, I am sorry to say, I cannot always grant to other +roadside wayfarers. The sweet clovers are European. + +_The White Sweet Clover (M. alba)_ is sometimes called Bokhara clover +and has white flowers (Fig. 249). + +_The Yellow Sweet Clover (M. officinalis)_ has yellow blossoms. It has +interesting old English names, such as Balsam Flowers, King's Clover and +Heartwort. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 249. White sweet clover._] + + +QUESTIONS ON THE CLOVERS. + +_Two general kinds of types of studies are to be made of the clovers: +identification studies, whereby you will come to know the kinds of +clover; life history studies, whereby you will come to know under what +conditions the plants live and thrive. The latter is the more important, +but the former usually precedes it, for one is better able to discover +and discuss the biological questions when he is acquainted with the +species. The following questions will bring out some of the important +biological aspects:_ + +1. How many of the true clovers, the medics, and the sweet clovers do +you know? + +2. Send me properly labelled pressed specimens of the leaves and +blossoms of the clovers that you have been able to find. + +3. Dig a root of red clover and find the nodules on it. Please describe +them. + +4. What methods does the U. S. Department of Agriculture employ to +inoculate the soil with bacteria so that alfalfa may grow? + +5. How do clover roots protect the land from the effects of heavy rains? + +6. How do the clover plants conserve the moisture in the soil? + +7. How does this conservation of moisture aid the farmer and orchardist? + +8. What is a cover-crop, and what are its uses? + +9. Why do farmers sow red clover with grass seed? + +10. How do the habits of the stems of white clover differ from those of +other clovers? + +11. Why is white clover so desirable for lawns? + +12. Compare the floweret of the red clover with the sweet pea blossom +and describe the resemblance. + +13. Study a head of white clover from the time it opens until it is +brown, and tell what changes take place in it day by day. + +14. What has happened to the flowerets that are bent downward around the +stalk? + +15. Watch one of these flowerets deflect, and describe the process. + +16. How many flowerets do you find in a head of red clover? Of white +clover? Of alsike? + +17. Which flowerets open first in a head of red clover? + +18. Describe a clover seed. Describe a seed of alfalfa. + +19. What insects do you find visiting the red clover blossoms? The white +clover blossoms? + + +ALFALFA, OR LUCERNE.[48] + +[48] Home Nature-Study Course, New Series, Vol. I, No. 1, October, 1904. + +The alfalfa plant is just now coming into great prominence in New York +State. Every teacher, particularly in the rural schools, will need to +know the plant and to have some information about it. + +_What alfalfa is._--It is a clover-like plant. It is perennial. It has +violet-purple flowers. The leaves have three narrow leaflets. It sends +up many stiff stems, 2 to 3 feet high. The roots go straight down to +great depths. + +_Why it is important._--It is an excellent cattle food, and +cattle-raising for dairy purposes is the leading special agricultural +industry in New York State. In fact, New York leads all the States in +the value of its dairy products. Any plant that is more nutritious and +more productive of pasture and hay than the familiar clovers and grasses +will add immensely to the dairy industry, and therefore to the wealth of +the State. Alfalfa is such a plant. It gives three cuttings of hay year +after year in New York State, thereby yielding twice as much as clover +does. In the production of digestible nutrients per acre ranks above +clover as 24 ranks above 10. When once established it withstands +droughts, for the roots grow deep. + +Alfalfa is South European. It was early introduced into North America. +It first came into prominence in the semi-arid West because of its +drought-resisting qualities, and now it has added millions of dollars to +the wealth of the nation. Gradually it is working its way into the East. +It is discussed in the agricultural press and before farmers' +institutes. Last year the College of Agriculture offered to send a small +packet of seeds to such school children in New York State as wanted to +grow a little garden plat of it. About 5,000 children were supplied. The +teacher must now learn what alfalfa is. + +In nearly every rural community, sufficient alfalfa can be found for +school purposes. In many places it has run wild along roadsides. + +On these plants make the following observations: + +1. Under what conditions have you found alfalfa growing? How did the +plant come to grow there,--sown, or run wild? + +2. Describe the form of the root. How does the root branch? + +3. Do you find the little tubercles or nodules on the roots? On what +part of the roots? How large? How numerous? + +4. The crown of the plant (at the surface of the ground),--describe it, +and how the tops and the roots start from it. + +5. The stems,--how many from each crown, whether erect or prostrate, how +they branch. + +6. The leaves,--simple or compound? Form? Edges entire or fine toothed? +Do the leaves "sleep" at night, as those of clover do? + +7. Do you find any distinct spots on the leaves? What do you think is +the cause of them? + +8. Flowers,--how borne (whether singly or in clusters), color, form, +resemblance to any other flowers you may know. Do they vary in color? + +9. If possible, find the seed-pods and seeds, and describe. + +10. Make inquiries as to whether alfalfa is becoming well known in your +vicinity. + + +_Agricultural Account of Alfalfa._ + +You may be asked some practical questions about alfalfa; therefore we +give you a brief agricultural account of it. If you desire further +information, write to the College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y., for +Bulletin 221, "Alfalfa in New York." + +Alfalfa is grown mostly for hay. It is not adapted to pasture, because +the new growth springs from the crown at the surface of the ground, and +if this is destroyed the growth will not be renewed vigorously. New York +is a hay-producing State. Grain feeds can be grown more cheaply in the +West. It is of great importance to the State, therefore, if a better +hay-producing plant can be found. We have seen that New York leads the +States in dairy cattle. Other livestock also is abundant. Last year more +than half a million horses and mules were fed in the State. + +Success has not attended efforts to grow alfalfa in all parts of New +York. This is due to two principal reasons: (1) farmers have not known +the plant and its habits well enough to give it the care and treatment +it demands; (2) the soils of many localities, because of their physical +condition or composition, are not suitable for the plant. + +The alfalfa seedling is not a strong plant. It cannot compete with weeds +nor overcome adverse conditions of moisture; it cannot adapt itself to +conditions resulting from poor preparation of land, and it is not +vigorous in its ability to get food from any source. Care must be given +to the preparation of the land in order that sufficient moisture may be +supplied during the early stages of growth and that there may be an +abundance of quickly available plant-food. After growth has started, +alfalfa has the power to get some of its nitrogen from the air through +the nodules which grow upon its roots; yet during the early stages of +growth it is essential that the soil be supplied with all elements of +plant-food in available form. + +While alfalfa requires an abundance of moisture for its best growth and +development, yet it will not grow in soils that hold water for any +considerable length of time. Such soils are usually those with an +impervious subsoil or hard-pan, or those of clay or silt structure which +retain free water to the exclusion of air. Therefore, it is important +that alfalfa soils be well and uniformly drained, either by natural +conditions or by underground drains. One other essential of prime +importance is that the soil be neutral or alkaline in its reaction; in +other words, that it contain no free acid. Limestone or blue-grass soils +are ideal in this regard for alfalfa. If acid is present, the difficulty +may be corrected either wholly or in part by the application of 500 to +2,000 pounds of lime per acre. + +As in most other legumes (members of the family Leguminosæ, including +peas, beans, clovers), there is a peculiar relationship existing between +the plant and excrescences or nodules upon its roots. These nodules are +essential to the normal growth and development of the plant. They +contain bacteria, and these bacteria have the power of "fixing" or +appropriating the free atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. Legumes are +"nitrogen-gatherers," whereas most other plants secure their nitrogen +only from decomposing organic matter. Failure to have the soil +inoculated with the proper bacteria for alfalfa is the cause for many +failures with the crop. In most instances when the plants do not make +satisfactory growth, or have a yellow, dwarfed appearance, the trouble +can be traced to the absence of these bacteria from the soil, and hence +to a lack of nodules on the roots. The relationship existing between the +plant and the organism is one of mutual benefit. Each kind of leguminous +plant seems to have its characteristic bacterium, which grows on no +other plant, although this question is not thoroughly settled. + +Farmers are becoming aware of this requisite in alfalfa culture and +usually supply it in two different ways. The older method is to take the +surface soil from an old alfalfa field, where the plants have grown well +and where nodules are to be found on the roots, and to sow it on the +land to be seeded at the rate of one hundred or more pounds per acre. In +this way the soil becomes inoculated with the bacteria, and as the young +plants spring into growth the bacteria develop on the roots. Another +method is to inoculate the seed before sowing with artificial cultures +of the bacteria. Both of these methods are usually successful, and if +soil conditions are right the chances for failure are few. + +Alfalfa should be cut when it opens into flower. At this time the stems +and leaves contain their highest percentage of nutrients, the leaves do +not so easily fall off in curing, and the stems are not so woody. +Besides these reasons, if cutting be delayed until after flowering, the +plant may not spring quickly into subsequent growth. + +Disease does not spare the alfalfa plant. Both leaves and roots are +attacked, the leaf spot being serious. The parasitic dodder is a serious +enemy in some parts of New York State. + + + + +LEAFLET XXXV. + +HOW PLANTS LIVE TOGETHER.[49] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[49] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 6: Leaflet 19, October, 1900. + +[Illustration] + +To the general observer, plants seem to be distributed in a promiscuous +and haphazard way, without law or order. This is because he does not see +and consider. + +The world is now full of plants. Every plant puts forth its supreme +effort to multiply its kind. The result is an intense struggle for an +opportunity to live. + +Seeds are scattered in profusion, but only the few can grow. The many do +not find the proper conditions. They fall on stony ground. In Fig. 250 +this loss is shown. The trunk of an elm tree stands in the background. +The covering of the ground, except about the very base of the tree, is a +mat of elm seedlings. There are thousands of them in the space shown in +the picture, so many that they make a sod-like covering which shows +little detail in the photograph. Not one of these thousands will ever +make a tree. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 250. A carpet of young elms, all of which must +perish._] + +Since there is intense competition for every foot of the earth's surface +that is capable of raising plants, it follows that every spot will +probably have many kinds of plant inhabitants. Plants must live +together. They associate; they become adapted or accustomed to each +other. Some can live in shade; they thrive in the forest, where +sun-loving plants perish. Others prefer the sun, and thereby live +together. There are plant societies. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 251. A plant society waiting for the spring._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 252. Weak, narrow-leaved grasses grow in the +cat-tail forest._] + +Every distinct or separate area has its own plant society. There is one +association for the hard-tramped dooryard,--knot-weed and broad-leaved +plantain with interspersed grass and dandelions; one for the +fence-row,--briars and choke-cherries and hiding weeds; one for the dry +open field,--wire-grass and mullein and scattered docks; one for the +slattern roadside,--sweet clover, ragweed, burdock; one for the meadow +swale,--smartweed and pitchforks; one for the barnyard,--rank pigweeds +and sprawling barn-grass; one for the dripping rock-cliff,--delicate +bluebells and hanging ferns and grasses. Indefinitely might these +categories be extended. We all know the plant societies, but we have not +considered them. + +In every plant society there is one dominant note. It is the +individuality of one kind of plant which grows most abundantly or +overtops the others. Certain plant-forms come to mind when one thinks of +willows, others when he thinks of an apple orchard, still others when he +thinks of a beech forest. The farmer may associate "pussly" with +cabbages and beets, but not with wheat and oats. He associates cockle +with wheat, but not with oats or corn. We all associate dandelions with +grassy areas, but not with burdock or forests. + +It is impossible to open one's eyes out-of-doors, outside the paved +streets of cities, without seeing a plant society. A lawn is a plant +society. It may contain only grass, or it may contain weeds hidden away +in the sward. What weeds remain in the lawn? Only those which can +withstand the mowing. What are they? Let a bit of lawn grow as it will +for a month, and see what there is in it. A swale, a dry hillside, a +forest of beech, a forest of oak, a forest of hemlock or pine, a weedy +yard, a tangled fence-row, a brook-side, a deep quiet swamp, a lake +shore, a railroad, a river bank, a meadow, a pasture, a dusty +roadway,--each has its characteristic plants. Even in the winter, one +may see these societies,--the tall plants still asserting themselves, +others of less aspiring stature, and others snuggling just under the +snow (Fig. 251). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 253. The wild grape covers the treetop, and the +children play in the bower. The grape is searching for light._] + +Often these societies are in the nature of overgrowth and +undergrowth--one society living beneath another. Of such are forest +societies. Few woods are so dark that some plants do not grow on the +ground, unless they are evergreen or coniferous woods. Even in humbler +communities, the overgrowth and undergrowth are usually apparent if one +looks closely. Separate the cat-tails in the dense swamp and see the +weak and narrow-leaved grasses growing between (Fig. 252). Note the +clover, young grasses, and other plants between the grass in the meadow: +the farmer says that his meadow has good "bottom." + +Some plants even grow on top of other plants. It is their way of getting +light. Of such are the climbers. Note the mantle which the wild grape +throws over the trees (Fig. 253). Often the supporting tree is smothered +and killed. + +When an area is newly cleared, many plants rush for it. Quickly it is +covered with ambitious growths,--pokeweeds, fireweeds, thistles, briars, +nettles. Often each plant occupies large places alone, making clumps or +patches. These patches are plant colonies,--made up mostly of one +species or kind (Fig. 254). But as the struggle tightens, other plants +insinuate themselves into the colony and it is broken up; a mixed +population results. Sometimes these colonies are broken up by the shade +of trees and tall bushes which have come up near them, for all neglected +areas, in this part of the world, tend to return to forest if they are +not mown, pastured or burned. Mown and pastured areas run into grass, +for the grass withstands the cutting and grazing. In burned areas the +struggle begins anew when the fire has passed. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 254. A colony of clotbur._] + +Plant societies are easy to study for the school. The study of them +appeals to the desire for exploration and adventure, and adds zest to +the excursion. Go to a swale, swamp, roadside, forest, weedy field, or +other place, and ask the pupil to note: (1) that the flora of the place +is unlike that of places with different physical features; (2) that +these particular plants grow together because they can all survive +under similar conditions; (3) what these conditions are,--whether sun, +shade, dry soil, wet soil, sand, clay, rock; (4) what particular plant +is most abundant or gives character to the society. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 255. Two plant societies,--the close-bitten sward +and the rushy pond._] + +Study one society thoroughly. Make lists of the kinds of plants and of +the relative numbers of each. If the names of the plants are not known, +call them by numbers; make dried specimens of them for reference. When +another society is visited, repeat these observations, and compare one +society with another. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 256. The edge of the road. Trees and bushes crowd +the drive-way, and a ribbon of grass and weeds has pushed itself to the +very margin._] + +_Ask every plant why it grows there._ + + + + +LEAFLET XXXVI. + +PLANTING A PLANT.[50] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[50] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 8: Leaflet 21, January, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +Most persons are interested in plants, even though they do not know it. +They enjoy the green verdure, the brilliant flower, the graceful form. +They are interested in plants in general. I wish that every person were +interested in some plant in particular. There is a pleasure in the +companionship, merely because the plant is a living and a growing thing. +It expresses power, vitality. It is a complete, self-sufficient +organism. It makes its way in the world. It is alive. + +The companionship with a plant, as with a bird or an insect, means more +than the feeling for the plant itself. It means that the person has +interest in something real and genuine. It takes him out-of-doors. It +invites him to the field. It is suggestive. It inculcates a habit of +meditation and reflection. It enables one to discover himself. + +I wish that every child in New York State had a plant of his own, and +were attached to it. Why cannot the teacher suggest this idea to the +pupils? It may be enough to have only one plant the first year, +particularly if the pupil is young. It matters little what the plant is. +The important thing is that it shall be alive. Every plant is +interesting in its way. A good pigweed is much more satisfactory than a +poor rosebush. The pupil should grow the plant from the beginning. He +should not buy it ready grown, for then it is not his, even though he +own it. + +It is well to begin with some plant that grows quickly and matures +early. One is ambitious in spring, but his enthusiasm may wither and die +in the burning days of summer. If possible, grow the plant in the free +open ground; if this is not feasible, grow it in a pot or box or tin +can. Take advantage of the early spring enthusiasm. Choose hardy and +vigorous plants: sow the seeds when the "spirit moves." + +If a pupil is interested in kitchen-garden vegetables, recommend lettuce +and radish, or a potato. If in flowers, suggest sweet pea, bachelor's +button or blue-bottle, annual phlox, candytuft, China aster. If in +fruits, suggest strawberry. + + * * * * * + +We desire to inaugurate a general movement for the planting of plants. +The school ground should be planted. Private yards should be planted. +Roadsides should be planted. In some cities and villages there are +committees or other organizations whose object it is to encourage the +planting of public and private places. Sometimes this organization is +connected with the school interest, sometimes with a local horticultural +or agricultural society, sometimes with a business men's organization. +There should be such a committee in every village and town. We wish that +the teachers might help in this work, for they would not only be lending +their aid to planting, but also be interesting their pupils in some +concrete and useful work, and teaching them the value of public spirit. +Arbor Day should be more than a mere ceremonial. It should be a means of +awakening interest in definite plans for the adornment of the +neighborhood and of directing the attention of the children +nature-ward. + + +LEAFLET XXXVII. + +CUTTINGS AND CUTTINGS.[51] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[51] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 3: Leaflet 16, January, 1900. + +[Illustration] + +Perhaps no subject connected with the growing of plants awakens so much +popular wonder and inquiry as their propagation by means of cuttings and +grafts. We assume that propagation by means of seeds is the natural way, +and therefore do not wonder, notwithstanding that it is wonderful. We +assume that propagation by cuttings is wholly unnatural, and therefore +never cease to wonder, notwithstanding that this is less wonderful than +the other. To common minds, common things are not wonderful. Mere +commonplace familiarity takes away the charm, for such minds have no +desire of inquiry. The well trained mind goes beneath the surface, and +wonders at everything; and this wonder, grown old and wise, is the +spirit of science. + +A plant does not have a definite number of parts, as an animal does. It +may have ten branches or fifty. Each of these branches may do what every +other branch does--produce leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds. It is not so +with the higher animals, for in them each part may do something which +some other part cannot do: if the part is a leg, it runs; if an ear, it +hears. Each part serves the whole animal; and it cannot reproduce the +animal. But in the plant, each branch lives for itself: it grows on the +parent stock; or, if it is removed, it may grow in the soil. And if it +grow in the soil, it is relieved of competition with other branches and +grows bigger: it makes what we call a plant. + +Having thus bewildered my reader, I may say that a bit of a plant stuck +into the ground stands a chance of growing; and this bit is a cutting. +Plants have preferences, however, as to the kind of bit which shall be +used; but there is no way of telling what this preference is except by +trying. In some instances this preference has not been discovered, and +we may say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings. Most plants +prefer that the cuttings be made of the soft or growing wood, of which +the "slips" of geraniums and coleus are examples. Others grow equally +well from cuttings of the hard or mature wood, as currants and grapes; +and in some instances this mature wood may be of roots, as in the +blackberry. Somewhat different principles underlie the handling of these +two kinds of cuttings; and these principles we may now consider. We +shall find it excellent practice to set the pupils to making cuttings +now and then. If we can do nothing more, we can make cuttings of +potatoes, as the farmer does; and we can plant them in a box in the +window. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 257. Geranium cutting. One-half natural size._] + + +THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING. + +The softwood cutting is made from tissue which is still growing, or at +least from that which is not dormant. It must not be allowed to wilt. It +must, therefore, be protected from direct sunlight and dry air until it +is well established; and if it has many leaves, some of them should be +removed, or at least cut in two in order to reduce the evaporating +surface. Keep the soil uniformly moist; and avoid soils which contain +much decaying organic matter, for these soils are breeding places of +fungi which attack the soft cutting and cause it to "damp off." + +For most plants, the proper age of maturity of wood for the making of +cuttings may be determined by giving the twig a quick bend; if it snaps +and hangs by the bark, it is in proper condition; if it bends without +breaking it is too young and soft or too old; if it splinters, it is too +old and woody. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 258. Carnation cutting. Natural size._] + +The tips of strong upright shoots usually make the best cuttings. +Preferably each cutting should have a joint or node near its base; and +if the internodes are short, it may comprise two or three joints. Allow +one to three leaves to remain at the top. If these leaves are large, +cut them in two. + +Insert the cutting half or more its length in clean sand or gravel. +Press the earth firmly about it. Throw a newspaper over the bed to +exclude the light--if the sun strikes it--and to prevent too rapid +evaporation. See that the soil is moist clear through, not on top only. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 259. Rose cutting. More than one-half natural +size._] + +Mason's sand is good earth in which to start cuttings. Or fine +gravel--sifted of most of its earthy matter--may be used. If the +cuttings are to be grown in a window, put three or four inches of the +earth in a shallow box or a pan. A soap box cut in two lengthwise, so +that it makes a box four or five inches deep--like a gardener's flat--is +excellent. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 260. Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses._] + +If the box does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a +pane of glass to prevent evaporation; and then the children may see the +plants more readily. But take care that the air is not kept too close, +else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings and they will rot at +the surface of the ground. See that the pane is raised a little at one +end to afford ventilation; and if water collects in drops on the under +side of the glass, remove the pane for a time. Cuttings of common +plants, as geranium, coleus, fuchsia, carnation, should be kept in a +living-room temperature. + +The pictures are better than words. The line across them shows where the +soil comes. There are softwood cuttings of the geranium (Fig. 257), the +carnation (Fig. 258), and the rose (Fig. 259); and there is a gardener's +cutting bed (Fig. 260) with cuttings of carnations and roses. + +Be patient. As long as the cuttings look bright and green, they are +safe. It may be a month before roots form. When roots have formed, the +plants will begin to make new leaves at the tip. Then they may be +transplanted into other boxes or into pots. The verbena in Fig. 261 is +just ready for transplanting. Each child will want a plant. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 261. Verbena cutting ready for transplanting. +Two-thirds natural size._] + +It is not always easy to find growing shoots from which to make the +cuttings. The best practice is to cut back some old plant severely, then +keep it warm and well watered, and thereby force it to throw out new +shoots. The old geranium plant from the window garden, or the one taken +up from the lawn bed, may be served this way. See Fig. 262. This may +seem hard treatment, but that is all the old plant is good for; it has +passed its usefulness for bloom. The best plants of the geranium and the +coleus and many window plants are those which are not more than one year +old. The cuttings that are made in January, February, or March will give +compact blooming plants for the next winter; and thereafter new ones +take their place. + +Some plants may be propagated by means of cuttings of leaves. The Rex +begonias or "beefsteak geraniums" are the commonest examples. The large, +nearly mature leaf is divided into triangular pieces, each piece +containing at its point a bit of the leaf-base (top of the leaf-stalk). +This kind of cutting is shown in Fig. 263. This base is sometimes split +(as at o) by gardeners to hasten the formation of roots. Only the tip of +the cutting is stuck into the sand; otherwise it is treated like other +softwood cuttings. + + +THE HARDWOOD CUTTING. + +Many plants grow readily from cuttings of ripe or dormant wood. The +willows cast their branchlets in snow and wind, and these, falling in +pleasant places propagate their kind; and thus the river sides and the +lake shores become willow-crowned. + +Grapes, currants, gooseberries, poplars readily take root from the +hardwood. Fig. 264 shows a currant cutting. It has only one bud above +the ground. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 262. Old geranium plant cut back to make it throw +out shoots from which cuttings can be made._] + +The best results are attained when the cuttings are made in the fall, +and then buried until spring in sand in the cellar. They are not idle +while they rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and the roots form +more readily when the cutting is planted in the spring. But if the +children are interested, take cuttings at any time in winter, plant them +in a deep box in the window, and watch. They will need no shading or +special care. + +When plants of any variety are scarce, the cuttings may be shorter. +Sometimes they are reduced to a single "eye" or bud, with an inch or two +of wood attached; and these single-eye cuttings are planted much as one +plants seeds. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 263. Begonia leaf cutting. Natural size._] + + +THE GRAFT. + +If the cutting were planted in a plant rather than in the soil, we +should have a graft; and the graft might grow. In this case, the cutting +would not make roots, but it would grow fast to the other plant, and the +twain would become one. When the cutting is inserted in a plant it is no +longer called a cutting, but a cion; and the plant in which it is +inserted is called the stock. The completed thing--the cion growing in +the stock--is a graft. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 264. Currant cutting. One-third natural size._] + +Plants are particular as to their companions, when it comes to such +close relationships as these. They choose the stocks upon which they +will grow; but we can find out what their choice is only by making the +experiment. There are queer things about it. The pear grows well on the +quince, but the quince does not grow so well on the pear. The pear grows +on some of the hawthorns, but it is an unwilling subject on the apple. +Tomato plants will grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato +plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes and potatoes may be +produced; when the tomato is the root, neither potatoes nor tomatoes +will be produced. Chestnuts are said to grow on some kinds of oaks. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 265. Cion for cleft-grafting. One-half natural +size._] + +Why do we graft? Think a bit. If I sow seeds of a Baldwin apple, I shall +probably have as many kinds of apples as I have trees. Some of these +apples may be like the Baldwin, and they may not. That is, apple seeds +do not reproduce the particular variety. They will not be held to any +stricter account than merely to produce apples; these apples may range +all the way from toothsome kinds to Ben Davis. The nurseryman knows +this, and he does not wait for the trees to bear in the hope that they +will produce something to his liking. So he grafts them when they still +are young,--takes a cion from the kind which he wishes to perpetuate. So +it happens that all the Baldwins and the Kings and the Russets, and all +other named varieties, are growing on alien roots; and what kinds of +fruits these stocks would have produced no one will ever know, because +their heads were cut off in youth and other heads were put on to order. +In this way apples and pears and plums and peaches and cherries and +apricots are propagated, for they will not grow readily from cuttings. +But raspberries and blackberries and gooseberries and currants and +grapes grow willingly from cuttings, and they are not grafted by the +nurseryman. + +The forming, growing tissue of the trunk is the cambium, lying on the +outside of the woody cylinder, beneath the bark. In order that union may +take place, the cambium of the cion and the stock must come together. +Therefore, the cion is set in the side of the stock. I once knew a man +who believed that everything was designed for some useful purpose. The +hole in the pith bothered him, until he discovered that a cion just +filled it. He grafted his trees accordingly; but the experiment was +productive of nothing except pithy remarks. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 266. Cleft-graft. One-half natural size._] + +There are many ways of shaping the cion and of preparing the stock to +receive it. These ways are dictated largely by the relative sizes of +cion and stock, although many of them are matters of mere personal +preference. The underlying principles are two: see that there is close +contact between the cambiums of cion and stock; cover the wounded +surfaces to prevent evaporation and to protect the parts from disease. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 267. The graft waxed._] + +On large stocks the common form of grafting is the cleft-graft. The +stock is cut off and split; and in one or both sides a wedge-shaped cion +is firmly inserted. Fig. 265 shows the cion; Fig. 266, the cions set in +the stock; Fig. 267, the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower +bud--that lying in the wedge--is covered by the wax; but being nearest +the food supply and least exposed to weather, it is the most likely to +grow: it pushes through the wax. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 268. Shield-budding. One-half natural size._] + +The wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. The hands are greased, +and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to spread. For the +little grafting which any school would do, it is better to buy the wax +of a seedsman. However, grafting is hardly to be recommended as a +general school diversion, as the making of cuttings is; and this account +of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the general curiosity on the +subject. But we hope that now and then a youngster will make the effort +for himself, for nothing is more exciting than to make a graft grow all +by one's self. + +Cleft-grafting is done in spring, as growth begins. The cions are cut +previously, when perfectly dormant, and from the tree which it is +desired to propagate. The cions are kept in sand or moss in the cellar. +Limbs of various sizes may be cleft-grafted--from one-half inch up to +four inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch is the most +convenient size. All the leading or main branches of a tree top may be +grafted. If the remaining parts of the top are gradually cut away and +the scions grow well, the entire top will be changed over to the new +variety in three or four years. Each cion may be a different variety; +but there is no difference in the operation or the treatment of the +tree. + +On young or small stocks, like nursery trees, the cleft-graft is not +practicable, and a different form of grafting is employed; but the +teacher will not care to be confused with further details. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 269. The bud set in the matrix. One-half natural +size._] + +We have seen that a cutting may be reduced to a single bud; so may a +cion. If the bud-cion has very little or no wood attached, and is +inserted underneath the bark, the operation is known as budding. The +commonest form of budding is shown in Figs. 268, 269, 270. This is the +method known as shield-budding, because the bud, with its attached +bark, is shield-shaped (Fig. 268). A T-shape incision is made in the +stock, and under the bark the bud is inserted (Fig. 269); then the wound +is tightly bound with soft cord or bast (Fig. 270). Budding may be +performed whenever the bark will "slip" and when well grown buds can be +secured,--that is, either in spring or late summer. It is usually +performed at the latter season; and then the bud does not throw out a +shoot the same season, but merely grows fast to the stock. The next +spring it throws out a shoot and makes a trunk; and in the meantime the +stock has been cut off just above the bud. That is, the bud-shoot takes +the place of the top of the stock. + +Shield-budding is performed only on small and young stocks. It is +usually exclusively employed in the propagation of stone fruits, as +cherries, peaches, plums, apricots, for experience has proved that it is +preferable to other forms of grafting. It may also be employed for other +fruit trees. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 270. The bud tied._] + +How is a peach tree made? In 1898 a pit or seed is saved. In the spring +of 1899 it is planted. The young tree comes up quickly. In August, 1899, +the little stock has one bud--of the desired variety--inserted near the +ground. In the spring of 1900 the stock is severed just above the bud: +the bud throws out a shoot which grows to a height of four or six feet; +and in the fall of 1900 the tree is sold. It is known as a year-old +tree; but the root is two years old. + +How is an apple tree made? The seed is saved in 1898, planted in 1899. +The seedlings do not grow so rapidly as those of the peach. At the end +of 1899 they are taken up and sorted; and in the spring of 1900 they are +planted. In July or August, 1900, they are budded. In the spring of 1901 +the stock is cut off above the bud; and the bud-shoot grows three or +four feet. In 1902 the shoot branches, or the top begins to form; and in +the fall of 1902 the tree may be sold as a two-year-old, although most +persons prefer to buy it in 1903 as a three-year-old. In some parts of +the country, particularly in the west, the little seedling is grafted in +the winter of 1899-1900 in a grafting-room; and the young grafts are set +in the nursery row in the spring of 1900, to complete their growth. + +I have now given my reader an elementary lesson in horticulture; but I +shall consider it of little avail if it is not transformed into +practice for the children. February is the gardener's time for the +starting of his cutting-beds, in which to grow plants for the summer +bloom. Ask the children to bring the old geraniums and fuchsias and +coleus, and other favorites. Keep them in a warm window; cut them back; +see that they are well watered; then take the cuttings when the time +comes. The children will be interested to watch the fortunes of the +different cuttings. They will be interested in Vergil's couplet, as set +to rhyme in old-fashioned English: + + Some need no root, nor doth the Gardner doubt, + That Sprigs though headlong set, will timely sprout. + + + + +LEAFLET XXXVIII. + +A CHILDREN'S GARDEN.[52] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[52] Teachers' Leaflet No. 4, April, 1897. + +[Illustration] + +We want every school child in the State to grow a few plants. We want +every one of them to learn something of why and how plants grow; and the +best and surest way to learn is to grow the plants and to watch them +carefully. We want everyone to become interested in everything that +lives and grows. It does not matter so very much just what kinds of +plants one grows as it does that he grows something and grows it the +best that he knows how. We want the children to grow these plants for +the love of it,--that is, for the fun of it,--hence we propose that they +grow flowers; for when one grows pumpkins and potatoes, and such things, +he is usually thinking of how much money he is going to make at the end +of the season. Yet, we should like some rivalry in the matter in every +school, and we therefore propose that a kind of a fair be held at the +school-house next September, soon after school begins, so that each +child may show the flowers which he has grown. What a jolly time that +will be! + +Now, we must not try to grow too many things or to do too much. +Therefore, we propose that you grow sweet peas and China asters. They +are both easy to grow, and the seeds are cheap. Each one has many +colors, and everybody likes them. Now let us tell you just how we should +grow them. + +_1. The place._--Never put them--or any other flowers--in the middle of +the lawn,--that is, out in the center of the yard. They do not look well +there, and the grass roots run under them and steal the food and the +moisture. I am sure that you would not like to see a picture hung up on +a fence-post. It has no background, and it looks out of place. The +picture does not mean anything when hung in such a spot. In the same +way, a flower bed does not mean anything when set out in the center of +a lawn. We must have a background for it, if possible,--a wall upon +which to hang it. So we will put the flower bed just in front of some +bushes or near the back fence, or alongside the smoke-house, or along +the walk at the side of the house, or in the back yard. The flowers will +not only look better in such places, but it will not matter so much if +we make a failure of our flower bed; there are always risks to run, for +the old hen may scratch up the seeds, the cow may break into the yard +some summer night, or some bug may eat the plants up. + +Perhaps some of the children may live so near to the school-house that +they can grow their plants upon the school grounds, and so have sweet +peas and asters where there are usually docks and smartweeds. Grow them +alongside the fence, or against the school-house if there is a place +where the eaves will not drip on them. + +_2. How to make the bed._--Spade the ground up deep. Take out all the +roots of docks and thistles and other weeds. Shake the dirt all out of +the sods and throw the grass away. You may need a little manure in the +soil, especially if the land is either very hard or very loose and +sandy. But the manure must be very fine and well mixed into the soil. It +is easy, however, to make sweet pea soil so rich that the plants will +run to vine and not bloom well. + +Make the bed long and narrow, but not narrower than three feet. If it is +narrower than this the grass roots will be likely to run under it and +suck up the moisture. If the bed can be got at on both sides it may be +as wide as five feet. + +Sow the seeds in little rows crosswise the bed. The plants can then be +weeded and hoed easily from either side. If the rows are marked by +little sticks, or if a strong mark is left in the earth, you can break +the crust between the rows (with a rake) before the plants are up. The +rows ought to be four or five inches further apart than the width of a +narrow rake. + +_3. How to water the plants._--I wonder if you have a watering-pot? If +you have, put it where you cannot find it; for we are going to water +this garden with a rake! We want you to learn, in this little garden, +the first great lesson in farming,--how to save the water in the soil. +If you learn that much this summer, you will know more than many old +farmers do. You know that the soil is moist in the spring when you plant +the seeds. Where does this moisture go to? It dries up,--goes off into +the air. If we could cover up the soil with something, we should prevent +the moisture from drying up. Let us cover it with a layer of loose, dry +earth! We will make this covering by raking the bed every few +days,--once every week anyway, and oftener than that if the top of the +soil becomes hard and crusty, as it does after a rain. Instead of +pouring water on the bed, therefore, we will keep the moisture in the +bed. + +If, however, the soil becomes so dry in spite of you that the plants do +not thrive, then water the bed. Do not _sprinkle_ it, but _water_ it. +Wet it clear through at evening. Then in the morning, when the surface +begins to get dry, begin the raking again to keep the water from getting +away. Sprinkling the plants every day or two is one of the surest ways +to spoil them. + +_4. When and how to sow._--The sweet peas should be put in just as soon +as the ground can be dug, even before frosts are passed. Yet good +results can be had if the seeds are put in as late as the 10th of May. +In the sweet pea garden at Cornell last year, we sowed the seeds on the +20th of April. This was about right. The year before, we sowed them on +the 30th. If sown very early, they are likely to bloom better, but they +may be gone before the middle of September. The blooming can be much +prolonged if the flowers are cut as soon as they begin to fade. + +Plant sweet peas deep,--two or three or sometimes even four inches. When +the plants are a few inches high, pull out a part of them so that they +will not stand nearer together than six inches in the row. It is a good +plan to sow sweet peas in double rows,--that is, put two rows only five +or six inches apart,--and stick the brush or place the chicken-wire +support between them. + +China asters may be sown from the middle of May to the first of June. In +one large test at Cornell, we sowed them the 4th of June, and had good +success; but this is rather later than we would advise. The China asters +are autumn flowers, and they should be in their prime in September and +early October. + +Sow the aster seed shallow,--not more than a half inch deep. The tall +kinds of asters should have at least a foot between the plants in the +row, and the dwarf kinds six to eight inches. + +Sometimes China asters have rusty or yellow spots on the undersides of +their leaves. This is a fungous disease. If it appears, have your father +make some ammoniacal carbonate of copper solution and then spray them +with it; or Bordeaux mixture will do just as well or better, only that +it discolors the leaves and flowers. + +_5. What varieties to choose._--In the first place, do not plant too +much. A garden which looks very small when the pussy willows come out +and the frogs begin to peep, is pretty big in the hot days of July. A +garden four feet wide and twenty feet long, half sweet peas and half +asters, is about as big as most boys and girls will take care of. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 271. A clump of weeds in the corner by the +house,--motherwort and Virginia creeper. How pretty they are!_] + +In the next place, do not get too many varieties. Four or five kinds +each of peas and asters will be enough. Buy the named varieties,--that +is, those of known colors,--not the mixed packets. If you are very fond +of reds, then choose the reddest kinds; but it is well to put in at +least three colors. The varieties which please you may not please me or +your neighbor, so that I cannot advise you what to get. + +Of China asters, the Comet type--in various colors--will probably give +the most satisfaction. They are mostly large-growing kinds. Other +excellent kinds are the Perfection and Peony-flowered, Semple or +Branching, Chrysanthemum-flowered, Washington, Victoria, and, for early, +Queen of the Market. Odd varieties are Crown, German Quilled, Victoria +Needle, and Lilliput. Very dwarf kinds are Dwarf Bouquet or Dwarf +German, and Shakespeare. + +One of the chief merits of the China aster is the lateness of bloom, +allowing the flowers to be used in the schools after they open in the +fall. An excellent flower for sowing during May is the common annual +Phlox (_Phlox Drummondii_ of the catalogues). Poppies are also +satisfactory, but the flowers do not last long. Petunias are excellent +and Balsams, Clarkias, Coreopsis (or Calliopsis), and Zinnias may be +sown. + +Now, let us see how many boys and girls in New York State will raise +sweet peas and China asters this year! And we should like them to write +us all about it. + + + + +LEAFLET XXXIX. + +A HILL OF POTATOES.[53] + +BY I. P. ROBERTS. + + +[53] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 7: Leaflet 20, January, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +Plant a hill of potatoes. You can do it in the school-room. Plant in a +box or a flower-pot. Keep the box warm, and do not let the soil dry out. +Plant whole tubers and pieces of tubers. Plant pieces of various sizes. +Plant some that have no "eyes." Plant shallow--so that the tuber is just +covered with soil--and deep. Watch the results. + +All plants are abundantly supplied with means for reproducing their +kind: some by seed, some by multiplication at the crown or base or by +roots, others by means of underground stems; and some, as the potato, +have two or more means of reproduction. In its wild or partially +improved state the potato is abundantly supplied with fruit, "seed +balls," borne on the top of the stalks. The seeds of a single ball will +often produce many varieties of potatoes; but they cannot be depended +upon to reproduce the parent stock. Farmers seldom attempt to raise +potatoes from the seeds; when they do it is for the purpose of securing +new varieties. The common method of reproduction is to plant a part or +all of an enlarged underground stem, that is, a part of the "potato" or +tuber. + +When the soil is reasonably porous and fertile, a strong root may start +at the seed-piece and descend more or less directly into the subsoil. In +most cases, however, the roots spread laterally. This is a good +illustration of how plants may vary in their root habits in order to +adapt themselves to their environment. Notice where the roots form on +the plants you are growing. Few farmers know where they form. +Distinguish the true or feeding roots from the underground stems. +Determine how many tubers form on each underground stem. Dig up a hill +of potatoes from the garden before school closes. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 272. Underground part of potato plant in mellow +soil._] + +A single eye, with a portion of the tuber attached to furnish +nourishment to the bud until sustenance can be secured from newly formed +rootlets, may produce one, occasionally more, strong upright stems. A +most interesting study of manifold reproduction may be made even in the +winter time by planting in a fertile soil a piece of potato containing a +single eye (Fig. 273). As soon as the rootlets begin to start, divide +each eye and piece into two parts and re-plant. In a few days after the +rootlets have again started, divide the two pieces into four and +re-plant. This operation may be performed again and again, until many +plants suitable for transplanting in the open may be secured from a +single eye. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 273. Piece of tuber for planting, bearing a single +eye._] + +Demonstrate that the potato contains starch. This can be done by +applying a drop of dilute iodine to a freshly cut surface of the tuber: +the starch grains turn blue-black. Five cents' worth of iodine purchased +at the drug-store will be sufficient for many tests. Dilute it about +one-half with water. This starch, after being changed to sugar, +supplies the young plant with nourishment. Dig up the pieces you have +planted and see which start first, shoots or roots. + +The "potato" is an enlarged underground stem provided with numerous buds +similar to those on the stems of plants above ground. These buds are +placed spirally on the underground stem or tuber with a considerable +degree of uniformity. As on the stems of other plants, the buds are less +numerous and weaker at the base and most numerous and vigorous at the +top or upper end. On a smooth well developed long potato, the spiral +arrangement of the buds may be illustrated by sticking a tooth-pick or +pin in each eye, beginning at the base or stem end, and connecting the +pins with a string (Fig. 274). + +[Illustration: Fig. 274. How to illustrate the spiral arrangement of the +eyes.] + + +FARM NOTES ON THE POTATO. + +Now that we have seen the potato growing in the school-room, some +information may be given respecting its treatment in the field as a +crop. + +Potatoes are easily raised, even under adverse conditions, although they +respond quickly to superior fertility and tillage. The average yield in +the United States during the last ten years was 76.6 bushels an acre, +although from three to four hundred bushels an acre are not uncommon +under superior tillage when soil and climate are at their best. + +The area devoted to potatoes during the last decade was two and a half +million acres annually. Potatoes do best on a moderately moist and deep +soil and in a climate relatively cool. + +Since the period of growth is short, varying from three to five months, +they should be planted in soil which has an abundance of readily +available plant-food. Notice in Fig. 272 that most of the underground +stems which have produced potatoes leave the main stem about four inches +below the surface and but a short distance above the seed-piece. This +suggests that the seed should be planted about four inches deep. To +produce three hundred bushels of potatoes requires the exhalation of +over three hundred tons of water: therefore water or moisture is of +quite as much importance in securing large yields as plant-food. + +It is best to prepare the land deeply, to plant deep, and then to +practice nearly or quite level culture. The practice of hilling up +potatoes, so common in most parts of the country, is to be discouraged, +usually, because it is wasteful of moisture and the tubers do not grow +in the coolest part of the soil. For very early potatoes, hilling-up may +be allowable. Till the soil very often to save the moisture. For the +philosophy of this, see Leaflet No. IX. + +Not infrequently the potato is seriously injured by blights which attack +the leaves. The early blight, which usually appears in June, may destroy +some of the foliage, thereby checking growth. The late blight, which +also attacks the foliage, is far more serious. It differs little in +outward appearance from the early blight. In rare cases the vines are so +seriously injured that no potatoes are formed. The potato rot or blight +did great damage to the potato in many localities in the United States +in 1845. In 1846 the blight appeared in Ireland and virtually destroyed +the entire crop. Before this date the potato had become the chief food +supply of the peasantry. The cultivation of oats as a food crop had been +universal before the introduction of the potato, but oats furnished so +little food on a given area as compared to the potato that the +cultivation of them at the time the blight appeared had been very +largely abandoned. The loss of the potato crop produced widespread +famine. The most conservative estimate of the numbers who perished for +want of food or by disease caused by a meager diet of unhealthy and +innutritions food is set down at six hundred thousand during the two +years of the potato blight. This disease was not so destructive in 1847 +as in 1846; and by 1848 it had virtually disappeared. Some one has said +that if Great Britain had expended one dollar for investigating the +diseases of potatoes where she had spent a thousand dollars for +perfecting the engines of war, the terrible famine might have been +averted. We now think it a relatively easy matter to keep the blight in +check by thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture. + + +HOW THE POTATO HAS BEEN IMPROVED. + +All plants have their origin in pre-existing plants. While the young +plant is always similar to the one from which it was derived, it is +never exactly like its parent in every detail. This arises from the fact +that all of the conditions under which the parent plant and its +offspring grow are never exactly alike. The variations or differences in +the plants are usually exceedingly small in a single generation; but +occasionally they are wide, in which case they are called "sports" and +are usually difficult to perpetuate. If successive generations of plants +are reared under continuously improved conditions, there will be a +continuous and accumulating variation from generation to generation, +which in time may come to be so great as to make it difficult to +discover a marked similarity between the wild and the cultivated forms +of the same plant. + +When conditions are undisturbed by man there is found to be a fierce +struggle for existence. The hardiest or those best suited to the +conditions preponderate, and this without any reference to the wants of +mankind. The farmer steps in and selects those plants which give promise +of being most useful or most beautiful and then decreases or eliminates +the struggle for these selected plants, by destroying the plants which +are least desirable, by fertilizing and tilling the soil, by conserving +moisture, and by improving the physical conditions of the land, thereby +making it more comfortable for the plants which he has chosen. The +selected or "improved" plant, by reason of being more comfortable and +better nourished, tends to vary in one or more directions from the wild +and unimproved types. Whenever these variations tend towards greater +productiveness, better quality or enhanced beauty, selection is again +made of such specimens as give promise of supplying the wants and +gratifying the desires of civilized man. The bettered conditions of the +plant, by reason of man's effort, do not usually result in producing +like variation along all lines. One part of the plant as the flower, the +fruit, or the stem, varies more than the other parts. All this tends to +break up a single type or stock into many varieties. There are hundreds +of varieties of potatoes all traceable to a single wild species. The +kind and quantity of nourishment supplied plays the most important part +of any single factor in producing variation. + +The general character of the cultivated potato plant as to leaf, stem, +root, and habit of growth, is virtually the same as the wild plant, +variation having been directed and accentuated along the line of +increasing the size and quality of the underground tubers. This habit of +producing enormously enlarged underground stems has been operating so +long that the plant has inherited the power of transmitting this +acquired quality to the succeeding plants. The most improved varieties +seldom produce seed balls, because growth has been directed so largely +toward enlarging and multiplying the tubers. By selecting tubers with +shallow buds or eyes and avoiding those with deep, sunken eyes, +varieties have been produced with few eyes or buds, and these set not in +deep indentations but nearly even with the surface of the potato. + + * * * * * + +As a school-room subject, the potato is not very tractable, unless we +study merely the tubers. If the school is in session in summer, the +growing plant may be had. Then it will be found to be an interesting and +profitable exercise to set the children at the problem of determining +the root-system of the potato plant. How do the roots look? Does the +plant have a tap-root, or do the roots spread laterally? Are the tubers +borne on roots? Or on underground stems? Why do you think so? Does the +tuber terminate the branch? What relation, in position, do the +tuber-bearing branches bear to other parts of the underground system? Do +you think that the tuber-bearing branches aid in collecting food from +the soil? + +The top of the plant may be studied in the same spirit,--branching, +leaves, flowers, berries. + +If the growing plant cannot be had, study tubers. Compare as to size, +shape, color, character of eyes, whether scabby or smooth. Use them as +objects in drawing. + +Plant tubers in the school-room, in boxes or flower pots. This Leaflet +will suggest some interesting observations. + +How important is the potato crop in the State and nation? The pupil can +use his mathematics here. + + + + +LEAFLET XL. + +THE HEPATICA.[54] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[54] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 30, March, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +As children are always especially interested in the wild flowers in +spring, I have thought best to study a few of the woodland blossoms. The +wonderful processes of plant life are as well shown in these as in any. +The hepatica is among the first which greets us in the spring, and we +will study this first. + +There are several ways of getting acquainted with a plant: one is to +go-a-visiting, and another is to invite the plant to our own home, +either as guest on the window-sill, or as a tenant of the garden. When +we visit the hepatica in its own haunts it is usually with the longing +for spring in our hearts that awakens with the first warm sunshine and +which is really one of the subtlest as well as greatest charms of living +in a climate that has a snowy winter. As we thread our way into the +sodden woods, avoiding the streams and puddles that are little glacial +rivers and lakes from fast disappearing snow-drifts still heaped on the +north sides of things, we look eagerly for signs of returning life. The +eye slowly differentiates from the various shades of brown in the floor +of the forest a bit of pale blue or pink purple that at first seems as +if it were an optical delusion; but as we look again to make sure, lo! +it is the hepatica. There it is, rising from its mass of purple brown +leaves, leaves that are always beautiful in shape and color and suggest +patterns for sculpture like the acanthus or for rich tapestries like the +palm-leaf in the Orient. There the brave little flower stands with its +face to the sun and its back to the snow-drift and looks out on a gray +brown world and nods at it and calls it "good." + +It is when the hepatica is our guest that we have a better opportunity +for studying its form and features. Take up a hepatica root in the fall +and pot it and place it in a cool cellar until March 1. Then give it +light, warmth, and moisture on your table and see how gladly it will +blossom and tell its secrets. Or perhaps if we are not sufficiently +forehanded to get the root in the fall we can get it during a thaw in +March when we go foraging for spring feelings in winter woods. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 275. Hepatica, harbinger of spring._] + +When finally a bud has uncuddled and lifted itself into a flower, it +will tell us the story of leaves in different disguises, and we may be +able to notice whether the pollen ripens and is all distributed when the +flower begins to fade and fall. We may note also the number of seeds and +examine one of them with a lens. It is what the botanists call an akene, +which simply means just one seed with a tight envelope about it. We have +a careless habit of forgetting all about plants after their blossoms +fade unless their fruits or seed are good to eat or good to look at. +This is as inconsistent as it would be to lose all interest in the farm +before the fields were planted. After the flower is gone the plant must +mature its seeds and somehow must sow them. We will study the hepatica +through the summer and autumn, for we must know what is happening to it +every month. + + +QUESTIONS CONCERNING THE HEPATICA TO BE ANSWERED DURING MARCH AND APRIL. + +1. In what situations are the hepaticas found? + +2. How does the hepatica prepare for the winter and store up energy for +blossoming early in the spring? + +3. How early do you find blossom buds down in the center of the plant? +Did you ever look for these buds in the fall? + +4. Do the flowers come out of the crown bud? + +5. Are the leaves that come up late in the spring as fuzzy when they +first appear as those that come up early? + +6. Make out as complete a life-history of the hepatica as you can,--how +it sows itself, where it grows, how long it lives, with what plant it +keeps company. + + + + +LEAFLET XLI. + +JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT.[55] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[55] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 31, April, 1903. + + "Jack-in-the-Pulpit preaches to-day + Under the green trees, just over the way. + Squirrel and song sparrow high on their perch + Hear the sweet lily bells ringing to church. + Come, hear what his reverence rises to say, + In his low, painted pulpit this calm Sabbath day, + Fair is the canopy over him seen, + Penciled by nature's hand, black, brown, and green." + + _J. G. Whittier._ + +[Illustration: _Fig. 276. Jack-in-the-Pulpit._] + +[Illustration] + +At one time or another, perhaps all of us are given to the belief that +all flowers blossom for our especial enjoyment. It is hard to think back +for a thousand years and imagine hepaticas blooming on our New York +hills; yet no doubt, they blossomed then in far greater numbers than +they do to-day. Many of our native plants played their part in +sustaining the lives of the native Americans, and that little preacher, +Jack-in-the-pulpit, was a turnip long before he was a preacher. Indian +turnip was his name in the days of our ancestors because the Indians +boiled his bulb-like root and the ripe berries, thus making them a less +peppery and a more palatable food. + +The St. Nicholas Magazine was for so many years the organ through which +Jack preached so many sermons to children all over our land that +he is even to-day one of the best loved of the woodland flowers. +Whittier, in his "Child Life," and Lucy Larcom have both celebrated +Jack-in-the-pulpit in song, and these verses should be given to the +children when they are studying the habits of this interesting plant. + +Jack-in-the-pulpit is a wild cousin of the over-civilized calla lily. It +is interesting to study the way the flowers resemble each other, and +this you and the children will be able to study for yourselves. It will +teach you that the showy parts of a blossom may be merely a protection, +and an advertisement for the true flower hidden within. + + +QUESTIONS CONCERNING JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. + +1. Where do you find this plant, in dry or in wet locations? + +2. What is the shape of the root? Is it pleasant to the taste? + +3. How do the leaves look when they first appear above the ground? + +4. How far are the leaves developed when the flowers appear? + +5. Does the tip of the hood fold over at first? + +6. Do you see a resemblance to the calla lily when you bend the tip of +the hood backward? Compare or contrast the two plants. + +7. How many leaves has Jack-in-the-pulpit? Are they simple or compound? + +8. What are the colors of the "pulpits" in your locality? + + + + +LEAFLET XLII. + +INDIAN CORN.[56] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[56] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 32, May, 1903. + +_"Hail! Ha-wen-ni-yu! Listen with open ears to the words of thy people. +Continue to listen. We thank our mother earth which sustains us. We +thank the winds which have banished disease. We thank He-no for rain. We +thank the moon and stars which give us light when the sun has gone to +rest. We thank the sun for warmth and light by day. Keep us from evil +ways that the sun may never hide his face from us for shame and leave us +in darkness. We thank thee, oh, mighty Ha-wen-ni-yu that we still live. +We thank thee that thou hast made our corn to grow. Thou art our creator +and our good ruler, thou canst do no evil. Everything thou doest is for +our happiness."_ + +[Illustration] + +Thus prayed the Iroquois Indians when the corn had ripened on the hills +and valleys of New York State long before it was a state, and even +before Columbus had turned his ambitious prows westward in quest of the +Indies. Had he found the Indies with their wealth of fabrics and spices +he would have found there nothing so valuable to the world as has proved +this golden treasure of ripened corn. + +The origin of Indian corn, or maize, is shrouded in mystery. There is a +plant which grows on the tablelands of Mexico which is possibly the +original species, but so long had maize been cultivated by the American +Indians that it was thoroughly domesticated when America was discovered. +In those early days of American colonization it is doubtful, says +Professor John Fiske, if our forefathers could have remained here had it +not been for Indian corn. No plowing nor even clearing was necessary for +the successful raising of this grain. The trees were girdled, thus +killing their tops to let in the sunlight; the rich earth was scratched +a little with a primitive tool and the seed put in and covered; and the +plants that grew therefrom took care of themselves. If the pioneers had +been obliged to depend alone upon the wheat and rye of Europe which +would only grow with good tillage they might have starved before they +had gained a foothold on our forest-covered shores. While maize has +never been a popular grain in European countries outside of the +southermost parts, yet on the great continents of Africa and Asia it +was welcomed from the first, and is now largely grown. It has ripened +for so many centuries on the slopes of the Himalayas that if you were to +ask one of the natives to-day how long it had grown there he would +answer you "always." + +It is fitting that a grain which is so peculiarly adapted to be the aid +and support of a great civilization should grow upon a plant of such +dignity and beauty as is the maize. The perfect proportions of the +slender stalk to the long gracefully curving leaves; the plumed tassels +swaying and bowing to every breeze and sending their pollen showers to +the waiting skeins of silk hidden below; the ripened ear with its exact +rows of shining yellow grains wrapped in silken husks; all these make +the corn plant as delightful to the eye as it is intrinsically important +to the welfare of nations. No more wonderful lesson in plant growth can +we find for our study than this lesson of the Indian corn. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 277. Parts of corn kernel._] + + +LESSON ON INDIAN CORN FOR SPRING AND SUMMER. + +Secure a kernel of corn and cut it in halves (Fig. 277) and with the +naked eye you will be able to see there the young plant pressed close to +its stored up food, which, though largely composed of starch, also has +in it proteids and oil. You will see that this food is dry and thus +cannot be used by the young plant, for plants, whether young or old, +must take their nourishment in a fluid condition. Soak the seed and see +how soon the young plant passes on the moisture to soften the food so +that it may imbibe it and grow. Fill a tumbler with earth and plant a +grain of corn next to the glass so that you may be able to see how it +grows. + + +CORN STALKS, LEAVES AND ROOTS. + +1. Which appears first, root parts or leaf? + +2. How does the leaf look when it first comes up? + +3. How old is the corn when the blossom stalks begin to show above the +leaves? + +4. Does the stalk break more easily at the joints than elsewhere? +Measure the distances between the joints in a stalk of young corn and +two weeks later measure these distances again, and compare your figures. +From these measurements tell whether the plant grows only at the top, or +has it several growing places? + +5. Are the joints nearer each other at the bottom or at the top? + +6. Where do the bases of the leaves clasp the stalks? + +7. Tell why this arrangement gives strength to the stalk. + +8. Do you see a little growth at the base of the leaf that prevents the +rain from flowing down between the stalk and the clasping leaf? This is +called the rain-guard. How might it damage the plant if the water should +get in between the leaf and stem? + +9. What is the structure of the leaf and direction of the ribs? + +10. How does this structure keep the long leaf from being torn to pieces +by the wind? + +11. Note the ruffled edge of the leaf. Lay such a leaf flat on a table +and bend it this way and that, and note how this fullness allows it to +bend without breaking the edges. What advantage is this to the plant? + +12. Study the roots of a corn plant. How far do they extend into the +ground? Describe them. + +13. Study the brace roots that come off the stalk an inch or more above +the ground. Of what utility are these to the plant? + +14. Bend down a stalk of growing corn and place a stone on it near its +base so as to hold it down, and note how it acts. Does it commence to +lift itself up straight from the joint, or from a place between the +joints? + +15. Cut off the water supply from a plant, or watch the corn during a +drought and tell how the leaves behave. + +16. Do they offer as much surface to the air for evaporation when they +are curled? Is this the way the plant protects itself by retaining this +moisture during a dry time? + +17. Do the stalks or leaves grow after the ears begin to form? + +18. Do you find "suckers" growing; if so what is the variety? + + +FLOWERS. + + There are two kinds of flowers on the corn: the tassels bearing + the pollen, and the ears bearing the ovules which develop into + seeds. Study first the tassel. Observe the flowerets through a + lens if you have one and note that the pollen sacs open a little + at one side instead of at the tip so that the wind is needed in + order to shake out the pollen. It is estimated that on each corn + plant there may be developed eighteen million pollen grains and + two thousand ovules. The pollen-tube must penetrate the whole + length of each thread of corn-silk in order to reach the ovules. + +19. What agency carries the pollen grains to the ear? + +20. What would happen to a field of corn if the farmer cut off all the +tassels as soon as they were formed? + +21. Find a tassel before it appears and study it. Secure an ear when +only an inch or two long and study it. These should be studied as flower +parts. + +22. How early can you find the ear? Look at every joint and tell how +many ears you find on a young stalk. + +23. In studying the ear, take first the husk. Does it resemble the leaf +in structure? What is the difference between the outer and the inner +husks? + +24. Do you believe that the husk is a modified leaf; if so why? In the +young ear does each thread of silk extend out to the end of the ear; if +so why? + +25. Is there a thread of silk for each kernel in the ear? + +26. Study corn when it is in the "milk." Is the taste sweet? + +27. Does this sweet taste continue as the kernel matures? + +28. How is the stalk modified to fit the ear? + + +ENEMIES. + + The corn has many difficulties to contend with: there are heavy + winds, too much or too little rain, hail, and, worst of all, + frosts which not only kill it when it is first planted, but + also hurt it before it is matured. The corn has living enemies + also, such as wire-worms and cut-worms. Our forefathers were + much troubled with the mischief which crows did in pulling corn. + However, many of our observing farmers to-day say that only in + rare instances do the crows injure corn much. The work done by + cut-worms is often attributed to crows. + +29. Please note in your locality what difficulties the corn has to +contend with. If possible make a special study of the damage said to be +done by crows. Give the results. + + + + +LEAFLET XLIII. + +THE RIPENED CORN.[57] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[57] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 1, October, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +Every boy and girl living on a farm in New York State twenty-five years +or more ago, has in memory a picture like this: a stubbly hill-side +field beset with russet shocks of corn and constellations of orange +pumpkins, whence might be seen wide valleys filled with purple haze, and +far hills bedecked with autumn tapestries woven about emerald patches of +new wheat. + +To such a field, after the laggard sun had changed the hoar frost to +dew, would they hasten of an October morning, to begin the corn-husking. +The enthusiastic youngster, who had an eye to artistic unity in the +situation, invariably selected a pumpkin for his seat, scorning his more +sordid fellows who had brought milking-stools from the barn, when nature +had placed so many golden thrones at their disposal. Too soon a +discovery was made about this that applies as well to other thrones,--it +proved an uneasy seat, and was abandoned for a sofa constructed of +corn-stalks. Here, leaning back with a full sense of luxury, listening +to the rustle of the dry leaves and husks and the monotonous song of the +cricket, enlivened now and then by the lazy call of the crow from the +hemlocks on the hill, the sweet note of the belated meadow-lark from the +valley, or the excited bark of the dog as he chased a squirrel along the +fence, the busy husker passed the autumn day. On either side of him were +evidences of his labor. On the right stood great disheveled stooks of +corn stalks bereft of their pockets of gold; on the left lay in a heap +the shining yellow ears, ready to be measured in the waiting +bushel-basket; in front was always a little pile of noble ears with some +of the husks still attached,--the seed corn. Proud was the boy when he +had learned to select successfully "the ear of good length, cylindrical +rather than pointed, the cob firm and well filled from butt to tip with +grains uniformly large, of good color and in regular rows that showed no +space between." Now-a-days, we challenge this ideal of the "perfect +ear." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 278. The Harvest of the Corn._] + +As "chore time" approached, came the wagon afield to gather the harvest +of ears and take them to the cribs, where their gold gleaming between +the boards gave comfortable assurance of peace and plenty. But the seed +corn was stored in a way learned by our forefathers from the American +Indians; the ears were braided together by their husks, by the skilled +farmer, who could make a braid two or three feet long, strong enough to +hold the weight of the ears that hung a heavy fringe along each side; +this braid when completed was tied with a bit of soft, tow twine, long +saved for the purpose, and then was hung on hooks on the granary walls. +There, until spring, waited the elect of the cornfield, holding in +perfect kernels all the future corn wealth of that farm. + +From the first day's husking a bushel of ears was reserved from the crib +and was spread on a chamber floor to dry quickly; later this was taken +to the mill and ground into samp, one of the prized luxuries of the +autumn bill of fare. Other corn was ground into finer meal for the +delicious Johnny-cake and the Indian bread, the latter reaching fullest +perfection when baked in a brick oven. + +To the tenants of the farm barns the corn meant even more than to those +in the farm house. In August the cattle in dry pastures cast longing +eyes and expressive voices toward the pale, green leaves and waving +tassels of the sowed-corn, and great was their joy the first day they +tasted this delicacy; in November, they munched the dry leaves of the +planted crop, leaving in the barn-yard an angular patterned carpet of +bare, hard stalks. In winter the corn meal, in proper proportions, made +for them a food that kept them warm despite the cold winds that clutched +at them, through crevices, with fingers of drifted snow. And no less +dependent on this important crop were the denizens of the fold, of the +sty, and of the chicken-yard. + +The old-time harvesting and husking are passing from the New York farm +of to-day. The granary is no longer frescoed with braids of model ears, +for the seed corn is now bought by the bushel from the seedsmen. The +corn harvester has dissolved the partnership between corn and pumpkin +and fells the stalks by the acre, doing away with the old-time stooks or +shocks. Corn-stalks now become silage and are fed in a green condition +throughout the winter. How often do we lose something of picturesqueness +when we gain the advantages of modern improvements! Let us be thankful, +however, that the corn harvester and the silo make efficient use of the +great fields of corn. + +Although there is but one species of corn recognized (_Zea Mays_), there +have been an endless number of varieties developed from it. Seven +hundred and seventy of these were sufficiently distinct to be recognized +when the Department of Agriculture published its account of varieties. +The importance of the corn crop to this country and to others is almost +incalculable. In 1902, the United States produced more than two and a +half billion bushels and the export price was $.60 per bushel. When the +corn crop fails every man, rich or poor, in America, suffers from it, +and every business is affected by it. Though the man working in the +cornfield may think only of his own crop, yet he is the man that is +helping maintain the prosperity of our country. He is working for us +all. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE RIPENED CORN. + +1. Is the corn crop in your vicinity good this year? + +2. What affected it, beneficially or otherwise? + +3. How many ears of corn are there usually on a mature stalk? + +4. Are they on the same side of the stalk, or how are they disposed? + +5. How many kinds of corn do you know? + +6. Describe an average ear of each in the following particulars: shape +and color of kernel; number of rows of kernels on the cob; number of +kernels in a row; length of cob. Are the rows in distinct pairs? Do any +of the rows disappear near the tip; if so, how many? + +7. Study a cob with corn on it. Are the kernel-sockets of adjacent rows +opposite each other or alternate? + +8. Cut a kernel of pop-corn and a kernel of field corn across and +compare the texture of the two. What has this texture to do with causing +the kernel to "pop?" + +9. How many foods do you know made from the grain of the corn? + +10. How many products do you know made from stalks of the corn? + +11. Do you know of any part of the corn that is used in constructing +battleships? + +12. What is the corn crop of New York State worth in dollars a year? +(See U. S. Census Bulletin, No. 179.) + +13. How many bushels of shelled corn are usually produced on an acre of +well cultivated land? + +14. Could the corn plant itself without the agency of man? + +If you are able to draw, please make a sketch of a kernel of sweet corn +and a kernel of field corn. Break an ear of corn in two and sketch the +broken end, showing shape of the cob and its relation to the kernels. + + +NOTE ON THE NEW CORN BREEDING.[58] + +[58] Extracted from an article by L. H. Bailey in Country Life in +America, July, 1903. + +The particular materials that give the corn kernel most of its value are +the oil, the protein and the starch. For the production of corn oil--for +which the demand is large--a corn that has a high oil content is, of +course, particularly valuable; while for the production of starch or for +the feeding of bacon hogs, a relatively higher percentage of other +materials is desirable. It is apparent, therefore, that races of corn +should be bred for a particular content, depending on the disposition to +be made of the grain. Equal economic results cannot be attained, +however, in increasing the content of any of the three leading +ingredients, since a pound of gluten is worth one cent, a pound of +starch one and one-half cents, and a pound of oil five cents. The +amounts of these ingredients in the corn kernel are amenable to increase +or diminution by means of selection,--by choosing for seed the kernels +of ears that are rich or poor in one or the other of these materials. +Fortunately, the oil and starch and protein of the corn kernel occupy +rather distinct zones. Next the outside hull is a dark and horny layer +that is very rich in protein; in the center is the large germ, very rich +in oil; between the two is a white layer of starch. It is found that the +kernels on any ear are remarkably uniform in their content; the +dissection of a few kernels, therefore, enables the breeder to determine +the ears that are rich in any one of the substances. Experiment stations +in the corn-growing States are already making great headway in this new +breeding of corn, and one private concern in Illinois is taking it up as +a commercial enterprise. All this recalls the remarkable breeding +experiments of the Vilmorins in France, whereby the sugar-content of the +beet was raised several points. It is impossible to overestimate the +value of any concerted corn-breeding work of this general type. The +grain alone of the corn crop is worth about one billion dollars +annually. It is possible to increase this efficiency several +percentages; the coming generation will see it accomplished. + +An interesting cognate inquiry to this direct breeding work is the study +of the commercial grades of grains. It is a most singular fact that the +dealer's "grades" are of a very different kind from the farmer's +"varieties." In the great markets, for example, corn is sold as "No. 1 +yellow," "No. 2 yellow," "No. 3 yellow," and the like. Any yellow corn +may be thrown into these grades. What constitutes a grade is essentially +a judgment on the part of every dealer. The result is that the grain is +likely to be condemned or criticised when it reaches its destination. +Complaints having come to the government, the United States Department +of Agriculture has undertaken to determine how far the grades of grain +can be reduced to indisputable instrumental measurement. The result is +likely to be a closer defining of what a grade is; and, this point once +determined, the producer will make an effort to grow such grain as will +grade to No. 1, and thereby attain to the extra price. Eventually, the +efficiency points of the grower and the commercial grades of the dealer +ought nearly or quite to coincide. There should come a time when corn is +sold on its intrinsic merits, as, for example, on its starch content. +This corn would not then be graded 1, 2 and 3, on its starch content, +because that content would be assured in the entire product; but the +grade 1 would mean prime physical condition, and the lower grades +inferior physical condition. Eventually, something like varietal names +may be attached to those kinds of corn that, for example, grade fifteen +per cent protein. The name would be something like a guarantee of the +approximate content, as it now is in a commercial fertilizer. + +The first thing that strikes one in all this new work is its strong +contrast with the old ideals. The "points" of the plants are those of +"performance" and "efficiency." It brings into sharp relief the +accustomed ideals as to what are the "good points" in any plant, +illustrating the fact that these points are for the most part only +fanciful, are founded on a priori judgments, and are more often +correlated with mere "looks" than with efficiency. An excellent example +may be taken from corn. In "scaling" any variety of corn it is customary +to assume that the perfect ear is one nearly or quite uniformly +cylindrical throughout its length, and having the tip and butt well +covered with kernels. Now, this ideal is clearly one of perfectness and +completeness of mere form. We have no knowledge that such form has any +correlation with productiveness in ears, hardiness, drought-resisting +qualities, protein or starch content,--and yet these attributes are the +ones that make corn worth growing at all. We only know that such ears +may bear more kernels. An illustration also may be taken from string +beans. The ideal pod is considered to be one of which the tip-projection +is very short and only slightly curved. This, apparently, is a question +of comeliness, although a short tip may be associated in the popular +mind with the absence of "string" in the pod; but it is a question +whether this character has any direct relation to the efficiency of the +bean-pod. We are also undergoing much the same challenging of ideas +respecting the "points" of animals. Now, animals and plants are bred to +the ideals expressed in these arbitrary points by choosing for parents +the individuals that score the highest. When it becomes necessary to +recast our "scales of points," the whole course of evolution of domestic +plants and animals is likely to be changed. We are to breed not so much +for merely new and striking characters, that will enable us to name, +describe and sell a "novelty," as to improve the performance along +accustomed lines. It may be worth while to produce a "new variety" of +potato by raising new plants from the seed-bolls; but it is much more to +the point to augment the mealiness of some existing variety or to +intensify its blight-resisting qualities. We are not to start with a +variety, but with a plant. + + + + +LEAFLET XLIV. + +THE USES OF FOOD STORED IN SEEDS.[59] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[59] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 4, January, 1904. + + "A mystery passing strange, + Is the seed in its wondrous change; + Forest and flower in its husk concealed, + And the golden wealth of the harvest field." + + --LUCY LARCOM. + +[Illustration] + +As is the case with our own babies, the first necessity of the infant +plant is food close at hand to sustain this tiny speck of life until it +shall be large and strong enough to provide for itself. If we study any +seed whatever we shall find some such motherly provision for the plant +baby or germ. Sometimes the germ is a mere speck with a large amount of +food packed around it, as is the case with the nutmeg; sometimes the +baby is larger and its food is packed in a part adjacent to it, as is +the case with the corn (Fig. 279); and sometimes the mother stuffs the +baby itself so that it has enough to last it until its own little roots +and leaves bring it mature food, as is the case with the squash seed. In +any case this "lunch put up by the mother," to use Uncle John's words, +is so close at hand that as soon as favorable conditions occur the +little plant may eat and grow, and establish itself in the soil. + +Nature is remarkable for her skill in doing up compact packages, and in +no other place is this skill better shown than in storing food in seeds +for the young plants. Not only is it concentrated, but it is protected +and of such chemical composition that it is able to remain fresh and +good for many years awaiting the favorable moment when it may nourish +the starting germ. People often wonder why, when a forest is cleared of +one species of trees, another species grows in its place. This often may +have resulted from the seeds lying many years dormant awaiting the +opportunity. This preservation of the food in the seed is largely due to +the protecting shell that keeps out the enemies of all sorts, especially +mould. And yet, however strong this box may be, as it is in the +hard-shelled hickory nut, it falls apart like magic when the germ within +begins to expand. + +Brain rather than brawn is the cause of man's supremacy in this world. +Of all the beings that inhabit the earth he knows best how to use for +his own advantage all things that exist. His progress from savagery to +civilization is marked by his growing power to domesticate animals and +plants. Very early in his history man learned the value to himself of +the seeds of the cereals. He discovered that they may be kept a long +time without injury; that they contain a great amount of nutrition for +their bulk; that they are easily prepared for food; that, when planted, +they give largest return. Thus, we see, the advantages the plant mother +had developed for her young, man has turned to his own use. That the +food put up for the young plant is so protected and constituted as to +endure unhurt for a long time gives the cereal grains their keeping +quality. That it is concentrated and well packed renders it convenient +for man to transport. That the "box" is easily separated from the +"lunch" makes the preparation of food by crushing and sifting an easy +matter for man. That every mother plant, to insure the continuation of +the species, develops many seeds, so that in the great struggle for +existence at least some shall survive, makes the cereals profitable for +man to plant, and harvest the increase. Think once, how few ears of corn +it requires to plant an acre. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 279. Section of kernel of corn, showing the embryo, +and the food supply at one side of it (at the right)._] + +Because of all these things there has grown up between domestic plants +and man a partnership. Man relieves the plant of the responsibility of +scattering its seeds, and in return takes for himself that proportion of +the seeds which would have died in the struggle for existence had the +plant remained uncultivated. This partnership is fair to both parties. + +Different plants store food materials in different proportions in their +seeds; the most important of these food substances are starch, oil, +protein, and mineral matter. All of these materials are necessary to man +as food. In the cereals the seeds contain a large proportion of starch, +but in the nuts, like the butternuts and walnuts, there is a +predominance of oil. Let us for a moment examine a kernel of corn and a +kernel of wheat and see how the food is arranged. Fig. 279 is a kernel +of corn cut in two lengthwise; at the lower left-hand corner are the +root parts and leaf parts of the young plant (the embryo); above the +embryo is the loose starch material. Now we have the baby corn plant +lying at one side, and its food packed about it. However, this food is +in the form of starch, and must be changed to sugar before the young +plant can partake of it and grow. There lies a connecting part between +the germ and its food, the scutellum. This is so constituted that when +soaked with water it ferments the starch and changes it to sugar for the +young plant's use. + +The germ itself is also a very nutritious food for man; hence the seed +is eaten, "baby and all." In the corn, those kernels with the largest +germs have the largest food value, and, therefore, to-day corn breeders +are developing kernels with very large embryos. + +If we examine the microscopic structure of the food part of a grain of +wheat (Fig. 280), we find that there are two outer layers, _a_ and _b_. +Next there is a row of cells _d_ that divides these outer layers from +the flour cells within. This is the aleurone layer. At _e_ are the flour +cells which constitute the central portion of the wheat kernel. They +contain starch, and also gluten, and some oil, and some mineral +substances. In grinding to make white flour, the miller tries to leave +the aleurone layer of cells _d_ with the outer layers _a_ and _b_, for +if it is mixed with the flour the latter spoils much sooner, and it is +also darker in color. In the seed is a ferment that helps digest the +food for the young plant. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 280. Section of grain of wheat._] + +In order to think more intelligently about our use of food, let us find +out, if we can, which parts of the food stored up by the plant for its +sustenance are used by us both for ourselves and our livestock. The +intelligent farmer gives his stock a carefully balanced ration, _i. e._, +food that is well proportioned for the growth and product of the animal. +If he wishes his cows to give more milk he may give them more proteids +in their food, and less starch and fat. If he wishes to fatten them he +may give them a greater amount of starch and fat and less of the +proteids. In order to know what these proteids and starch and fat mean, +both to us and to the plant, we have to know a little chemistry. The +following table may aid us in this: + + Nutritive substances which {Proteids (casein, gluten, legumen, + contain nitrogen. { etc., albuminoids, gelatine, + { white of egg, etc.). + + Nutritive substances which {The carbohydrates (sugar and + do not contain nitrogen. { starch). Fats (oils, butter). + + Mineral substances. {Lime, phosphorus, sulfur, etc. + +The substances mentioned in the above table are all needful to +sustain the life of man and beast. If we compare the body to a +steam engine, then we can see that its whole framework is built +out of the proteids, mineral matter and water. The starch and sugar +and fats constitute the fuel used to heat the boiler and make the +engine move. Strictly speaking the proteids are also used somewhat +as fuel, as well as for framework. It is easily seen from this +that in order to be healthy we should try to give ourselves food +containing a proper amount of building material to repair the +breakage and wear and tear in the engine, and also give ourselves +enough fuel to make the boiler do its greatest possible work. For +if we do not have sufficient building material we break down, and +if we do not have sufficient fuel we lack energy. Food thus properly +proportioned is called a "well balanced ration." + +A well balanced ration per day for the average human being is +as follows: + + Proteids, - - - - - - .40 lbs. + Starch, - - - - - - - 1.00 " + Fats, - - - - - - - - .40 " + Mineral matter, - - - .10 " + ----------- + 1.90 lbs. + +The above is the amount of nutriment necessary, and in addition to this +there should be sufficient bulk to keep the digestive organs healthy. We +are just now entering upon the era of intelligence in relation to our +food. It seems strange that this intelligence should first be applied to +our domestic animals rather than to man. As soon as the farmer +discovered that to make his animals pay better he must give them the +right proportions of building material and fuel for energy, he demanded +that the agricultural chemists give him directions for mixing and +preparing their food. But how few of the cooks in our land understand in +the slightest degree this necessity for the proper proportions to our +food! When they do we may look forward to entering upon an era of serene +good health, when we shall have strength to bear and ability to do. + +In answering the following list of questions you may be obliged to +consult with the miller, or feed-dealer, but it is to be hoped that you +will gain a clear conception of the parts of the seed used in making +foods from cereals. + +1. What is graham flour? How does it differ from white wheat flour? + +2. What is whole wheat flour? + +3. What is bran? + +4. What is cracked wheat? + +5. What are shorts, middlings, or canaille? + +6. Which of the above are considered the more nutritious and why? + +7. What part of the corn kernel is hominy? + +8. What is corn meal? + +9. Is corn bran considered good food? + +10. What is gluten meal? + +11. What is germ meal? + +12. Why is corn fattening to cattle? + +13. How much of the oat grain is contained in oat meal? + +14. What is a cotyledon? + +15. Show by sketch or describe the cotyledon in the chestnut, the walnut +or hickory nut, and the bean. + +16. Describe or show by sketch the position of the germinal portion in +each of these. + +If you cannot find the germ in these, soak them in water for several +days and then observe. + +The following publications may be had from the Department of +Agriculture, Washington, D. C., on application: + +Circular No. 46, Revised--The Functions and Uses of Food. By C. F. +Langworthy. + +Circular No. 43, Revised--Food-Nutrients-Food Economy. The Cost of Food +as Related to its Nutritive Value. By R. D. Milner. + + +A PROBLEM IN FEEDING. + +As our knowledge increases, we give greater attention to the economical +and efficient use of all feeds for live-stock. We cannot afford to feed +even the corn stalks carelessly, either for the immediate concern of the +pocket-book or for the good of the animal. The results of many +experiments in feeding lead to the conclusion that a suitable daily +ration for a cow giving milk and weighing 1,000 pounds should contain 24 +pounds of dry matter, of which 2.5 pounds is digestible protein; .4 +pounds digestible fat; and 12.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates. In such +a ration, the ratio of digestible protein to digestible carbohydrates in +the ration will be as 1 is to 5.4. In computing this ratio the amount of +fat, multiplied by 2.4, is added to the carbohydrates. The fiber and the +nitrogen-free extract constitute the carbohydrates. Individual animals +vary so much in digestive capacity and in other respects that the +foregoing standards may be frequently widely departed from to advantage. +Thus many animals will profitably use more than 24 pounds of dry matter +in a day and the ratio of protein to carbohydrates may vary from 1:5 to +1:6.5 without materially affecting the amount or character of the +product. Standards are useful as guides. The art of feeding and the +skill of the feeder consist in determining in how far the standard +should be conformed to or departed from in each individual case. + +Suppose a farmer has corn silage and timothy hay, and may purchase +cotton seed meal, wheat bran and buckwheat middlings, how may they be +combined so that the ration shall contain 24 pounds dry matter, and the +ratio of protein to the carbohydrates shall be approximately 1:5.4? The +following table gives the data: + + Water. Protein. Fiber. Nitrogen-free Fat. + extract. + + In 100 pounds of silage[60]. 79.1 1.2 4.3 7.4 .6 + Timothy hay 13.2 3.4 16.8 28.4 1.2 + Cotton seed meal 8.2 31.3 1.3 10.9 11.9 + Wheat bran 11.9 13.6 1.8 43.1 3.2 + Buckwheat middlings 13.2 22. [61] 33.4 5.4 + +[60] Silage is often put up when the corn is more mature, and then the +water content is less than here given. + +[61] Included with nitrogen-free extract. + + + + +LEAFLET XLV. + +THE LIFE HISTORY OF A BEET.[62] + +BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. + + +[62] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 29, February, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +If you are fond of a dish of "greens" made of young beet leaves in early +summer, you must see to it that there are beets in the garden. What +shall be planted? Seeds. Certainly; but where do the seeds come from? +Most of us buy them from a seedsman, it is true; but somebody must grow +them. They are not manufactured articles. If the beet plant produces +seeds it must first have flowers. Have you ever seen the beet in +blossom? When do the flowers come and how do they look? + +Study the picture in Leaflet LII. Read the history beneath the picture. +Better still, get a plump red beet from the cellar, and plant it in a +can, a box, or a flower-pot. If no beets are to be had, a turnip, a +carrot, or a parsnip will do as well. It seems that "plants" come from +beet roots as well as from beet seed. The root you plant in the +flower-pot grew last summer from a seed. When may we expect the plant to +produce seeds of its own, thus multiplying according to its nature? If +you keep a beet plant long enough it will answer this question. + +Beet seeds are rather slow in germinating. For this reason it is common +to soak them in warm water several hours or a day before planting in the +garden. These facts are interesting in themselves; and instead of being +discouraged should we not try to find out some reason why the beet seed +should take more time than the corn or the bean? From a comparative +study of a beet seedling and of a plant which comes from a beet root +throughout a season, one may learn the whole life history of a beet. +This story is not written down in books. Every stage of growth noted in +the two plants should be regarded as typical of the life of an +individual, for each plant must pass through all these stages in its +development from seed to seed again. + +The seedling beet pushes out roots and begins early to take food from +the soil. One may even see the root-hairs through which the liquids +enter the plant. Inquire if the plant growing from a beet root has put +out new roots. Have not its old ones dried long ago in the cellar? It is +a good idea to have more than one plant, so that investigation of a +matter like this may go on without disturbing all. Where, if not from +the soil through roots, does the food come from which nourishes those +thick-ribbed leaves? From the stored-up material in the root, does it +not? Is this not the plant's way of providing for the second half of its +life, after a long resting period in the "beet" stage? When the "plant" +or top has grown quite large, how does the old beet look? + +We may read in the botany that certain plants are biennials, taking two +seasons to pass through all the phases from seed to seed; but we shall +not know the joy of gaining knowledge from original sources nor +experience the mental training that comes with this "finding out" +process until we have actually planted the beets or other things and +watched them grow. + +The following questions relate to the study of a beet plant. Any other +available plant may be reported on. The important thing is that a minute +study be made of some particular plant. + +What plant are you making this special study of this month? + +What care do you give it? + +What conditions of temperature and moisture do you find most beneficial +to its growth? + +What other plants are related to it? (Mention a wild and a cultivated +plant.) + +What leads you to think them related? (Make this clear and definite.) + +How do the plants which come from beet roots differ from those which +come from the seed? + +Of what utility to the plant is the fleshy root of beet, turnip, or +carrot? When is this root made use of by the plant? + +What becomes of the old beet as the plant grows larger and stronger? + +What is the natural length of life of an individual beet plant? + +Through how many changes of form does it pass? Which of these are +"resting" stages? + +Give the events in the life history of a beet in chronological order by +seasons, beginning with a seed in the spring of 1903, and ending with +the first crop of ripened seed. + + + + +LEAFLET XLVI. + +PRUNING.[63] + +BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. + + +[63] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. IV, No. 20, February, 1902. + +[Illustration] + +You should know how the trees in your school yard have been pruned. Who +did the work, nature or a man with a saw? Some people hold to the idea +that pruning is unnatural, and therefore should not be practiced. Let us +see if this is true. Have you ever gone into the deep woods after a +storm? Who has been there, tearing and wrenching at the big limbs, +twisting the small branches until the ground is strewn with wreckage? +Nature has been pruning a few trees and she works with a fury which is +awe-inspiring. But the trees are much the worse for their encounter with +the forces they must obey without question. Their branches are broken; +mere stubs are left. With the melting snow and the April rains germs of +decay are likely to enter at every break in the bark. In a few years the +trunk may be weakened and the monarch of the woods lie prone upon the +forest floor. + +We may learn the lesson of how not to prune by looking at this great +pine tree torn by the storm (Fig. 281). + +"But why do we prune?" one asks. Let the horticulturist answer. In a +Farmers' Reading-Course lesson on The Care of Trees, Professor Craig +says: "Fruit trees must be pruned. If a tree in an open field is allowed +to go unpruned, the crown soon becomes a dense mass of twigs and +interlacing branches. Such a tree may produce as large a number of +apples as a well-pruned, open-headed tree, but will there be the same +percentage of merchantable fruit? The chief effort of every plant under +natural conditions is expended in ensuring its own reproduction. This is +chiefly effected by means of seeds. A small apple may contain as many +seeds as a large one and even more. The orchardist wants big fruits, and +if they are nearly seedless so much the better." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 281. A pine tree pruned by the storm._] + +In a tree top there is a sharp struggle for existence. But few of the +twigs which started from last year's buds will reach any considerable +size. One needs only to count the dead and the dormant buds on a branch, +and the weak, stubby, or decayed side shoots to appreciate this fact. If +part of the branches are cut out, this struggle is reduced and energy is +saved. By judicious pruning the tree may be shaped to suit the needs of +the owner. If a low tree is desired to make fruit-gathering easy pruning +keeps the head down. An open, spreading habit may be encouraged by +cutting out such branches as tend to grow close to the main trunk. A +careful orchardist has an ideal in his mind and knows how to prune to +bring the tree up to his standard. He knows the habits of trees of +different varieties. He will not prune all alike. He must prune some +every year, or the trees will not carry out his plans. + +The pruner should not only know why he prunes, but how the work should +be done. He should be able to tell why he removes one limb and leaves +another. When I look at the trees in parks and along the streets I +wonder at the careless pruning. Judging from the way they are treated +one would think that a tree could be produced in "a year or two or three +at most." + +Pruning should not be confined to fruit trees. It may be practiced with +profit on all kinds of plants from shade trees to house plants. Pinching +off the terminal bud of a young geranium makes the plant branch. Cutting +the lower limbs of a young elm makes the tree more stately. Nature may +do this, but broken branches leave wounds which the tree cannot heal. +Small branches may be cut close with a sharp knife or pruning shears. +The tree readily heals these places. It is little short of a crime to +break or tear limbs from trees. The injury done to the trees is bad +enough; but does not such heedless treatment of living things also have +a baneful influence on the mutilator? + +For larger branches, if these must come off, no tool is better than a +sharp saw. The cut should be smooth and clean. No ragged edges of bark +should be left. The branch should all be cut off, and care should be +taken not to tear the bark about the wound. If a stub six or eight +inches long, or even one inch, be left, the tree is likely to suffer. +The branch started years ago from a bud on the side of the main trunk, +then but a twig itself. The fibers of the branch are continuous with +those of the trunk. In the air are the germs of decay. These take hold +of the bare stub and soon make their way to the center of the tree +itself. Try as it may, the tree cannot quickly heal a wound so far from +the main paths traveled by the sap in the trunk. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 282. Close cutting results in prompt healing._] + +The two illustrations (Figs. 282, 283) show the right and the wrong way +to remove a limb. When the branch is cut close, new growth takes place +all around the cut surface and in a few years the wound is healed. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 283. The long stub does not heal._] + +Bad pruning is worse than no pruning. Do you not think that nature +students should use their influence to protect the trees in the school +grounds, in the door yards, and along the streets? Trees have insect and +fungous enemies enough without having to contend against carelessness +and neglect. + + +QUESTIONS ON PRUNING. + +1. Describe the results of some of the natural forces you have seen +pruning trees. Observe willows after a storm. + +2. Are all sorts of trees affected alike by wind, ice, and snow? + +3. From your observations which kinds suffer most? Give your opinion as +to why. + +4. Nature does not always prune in this boisterous fashion. Silent +forces are at work pruning out the weak buds and shoots, giving the +strong ones a better chance. Select a very young tree, or a shrub like +the lilac. Examine the tips of the branches. You will find healthy buds +on last season's growth. See if you can find any dormant buds. Are there +any weak-looking or dead twigs? + +5. Compare the number of strong healthy shoots with the number which the +plant started to make. How many of each? + +6. Mention several good effects which may result from pruning. + +7. What are some of the bad results of over-pruning? Of insufficient +pruning? + +8. Consult some orchard-owner concerning this subject. When does he +prune to increase the production of fruit? When to increase the growth +of the woody part of the tree? + +9. If the lower branches of a tree are not removed, what is the effect +on the shape of the tree? + +10. For what kinds of trees is this form desirable? + +11. What is your opinion as to the shearing of evergreens into fantastic +shapes? + +12. If a tree has a tendency to grow crooked, how should one prune to +correct the habit? + +13. Would you prune an elm tree just as you would an apple tree? Why? + +14. Why does pinching off the terminal bud of a geranium produce a more +bushy plant? + +15. Discuss in full the reasons for cutting a limb off smoothly and +close to the main trunk or larger branch. Look at every tree you pass to +see whether it has been pruned well. Has it been able to cover its +wounds by the healing process? + +16. Is it correct to suppose that "anybody" can prune a tree? + +17. The cut surfaces made by pruning large limbs from trees are often +covered with thick paint, tar, or Bordeaux mixture. What is the purpose +of this? + +18. Why is it better to prune a little every year than a great deal once +in five years? + +19. When is the best time to prune shade trees? Why? + +20. Does a tree carry the bases of its branches upward as it grows +higher, or does the base of every branch remain at the level from which +it started originally? Observe many trees in different situations before +making up your mind on this point. + + + + +LEAFLET XLVII. + +A STUDY OF A TREE.[64] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[64] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 2, November, 1903. + + THE SUGAR MAPLE. + + The maple puts her corals on in May, + While loitering frosts about the lowlands cling, + To be in tune with what the robins sing, + Plastering new log-huts 'mid her branches gray; + But when the autumn southward turns away, + Then in her veins burns most the blood of Spring, + And every leaf, intensely blossoming, + Makes the year's sunset pale the set of day. + + --LOWELL. + +[Illustration] + +Like a friend is a tree, in that it needs to be known season after +season and year after year in order to be truly appreciated. A person +who has not had an intimate, friendly acquaintance with some special +tree has missed something from life. Yet even those of us who love a +tree because we find its shade a comfort in summer and its bare branches +etched against the sky a delight in winter, may have very little +understanding of the wonderful life-processes which have made this tree +a thing of beauty. If we would become aware of the life of our tree we +must study it carefully. We should best begin by writing in a blank book +week after week what happens to our tree for a year. If we keep such a +diary, letting the tree dictate what we write, we shall then know more +of the life of our tree. + +In selecting a tree for this lesson I have chosen the sugar maple, for +several reasons. It is everywhere common; it is beautiful; it is most +useful; and it has been unanimously chosen as the representative tree +of the Empire State. Let each of us choose some maple tree in our +immediate vicinity that shall be the subject for our lesson now, and +again in the winter, and again in the spring. Our first thought in this +study is that a tree is a living being, in a measure like ourselves, and +that it has been confronted with many difficult problems which it must +have solved successfully, since it is alive. It has found breathing +space and food; it has won room for its roots in the earth and for its +branches in the light; and it has matured its seeds and planted them for +a new generation. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 284. Sugar maple._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 285. A sugar maple grown in an open field._] + + +BRIEF PHYSIOLOGY OF THE TREE. + +The tree lives by breathing and by getting its daily food. It breathes +through the numerous pores in its leaves, and green bark, and roots. The +leaves are often called the lungs of the tree, but the young bark also +has many openings into which the air penetrates, and the roots get air +that is present in the soil. So the tree really breathes all over its +active surface, and by this process takes in oxygen from the air. It +gives off carbon dioxid as we do when we breathe. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 286. Silver maple._] + +While the leaves act as partial lungs they have two other most important +functions. First, they must manufacture the food for the entire tree. +"Starch factories" is the name that Uncle John gives to the leaves when +he talks to children, and it is a good name. The leaf is the factory; +the green pulp in the leaf cells is part of the machinery; the machinery +is set in motion by sun-shine power instead of steam or water power; the +raw materials are taken from the air and from the sap sent up from the +roots; the first product is usually starch. Thus, it is well when we +begin the study of our tree to notice that the leaves are so arranged as +to gain all sunlight possible, for without sunlight the starch factories +would be obliged to "shut down." It has been estimated that on a mature +maple of vigorous growth there is exposed to the sun nearly a half acre +of leaf surface. Our tree appears to us in an unfamiliar light when we +think of it as a starch factory covering half an acre. Plants are the +original starch factories. The manufactories that we build appropriate +the starch that plants make from the raw materials. + +Starch is plant-food in a convenient form for storage; but as it cannot +be assimilated by plants in this form it must be changed to sugar before +it can be transported and used in building up plant tissues. Hence the +leaves have to perform the office of a stomach in order to digest the +food they have made for the use of the tree; they change the starch to +sugar, and they take from the sap nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and +other substances which the roots have appropriated from the soil, and to +these they add portions of the starch, and thus make the proteids which +form another part of the diet of the tree. It is interesting to know +that while these starch factories can operate only in the sunlight, the +leaves can digest the food, transport it, and build up tissues in the +dark. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 287. The bole of a sugar maple grown in a wood._] + +The autumn leaf, which is so beautiful, has completed its work. The +green material which colors the pulp in the leaf cells is withdrawn, +leaving there material which is useless, so far as the growing of the +tree is concerned, but which glows gold and red, thereby making glad the +eye that loves the varying tints in autumn foliage. It is a mistake to +believe that the frost makes these brilliant colors: they are caused by +the natural old age and death of the leaf, and where is there to be +found old age and death more beautiful? When the leaf turns yellow or +red it is making ready to depart from the tree; a thin corky layer is +being developed between its petiole and the twig, and when this is +finally accomplished the leaf drops from its own weight, from the touch +of the lightest breeze, or from a frost on a cold night. + + +OBSERVATIONS ON THE MAPLES. + +We want you to know the maples from actual observation. + +Discover the characteristic forms of the tree, the character of bark, +fruits, and leaves. Verify the pictures in this lesson. + +Though the fruit of the sugar maple matures in midsummer, yet you may +perhaps find beneath your tree some of the keys or seeds now partially +planted. If the tree stands alone you may perchance see how well she has +strewn its seeds, and how many of its progeny have been placed in +positions where they can grow successfully. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 288. Leaves and fruits of Norway maple._] + +We have in New York State seven species of maple common in our forests. +Two of these are dwarf species rarely attaining thirty-five feet in +height, more often found as mere bushes. These two are the mountain +maple and the striped maple or moosewood. This latter is sometimes +called goose-foot maple, because its leaf is shaped somewhat like the +foot of a goose. Of the maples that attain to the dignity of tall trees +we have four species: the sugar maple, the silver or white maple, the +red or swamp maple, and the box elder. The leaf of the box elder does +not look like the leaf of a maple at all; it has a compound leaf of +three or five leaflets, but the flowers and fruits are those of the +maples. There is also a variety of sugar maple that is called black +maple. We have planted in our parks the sycamore and Norway maples +introduced from Europe, and also ornamental species from Japan. Our +native species are easily distinguished from these and from each other; +just a little observation as to the shape of the leaves, the form of the +trees, and the character of the bark enables a person to tell all these +species at a glance. I hope that you will become familiar with the seven +native species. Such knowledge is not only of practical use, but gives +real zest and pleasure. When a person walks in the morning he should be +able to call his tree acquaintances as well as his human acquaintances +by name. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 289. Leaves and fruits of striped maple._] + + +QUESTIONS ON THE MAPLES. + +1. How many species of maple trees do you know and what are they? + +2. How do you distinguish the red maple and the silver maple from the +sugar maple? + +3. What is the shape of the one tree you have chosen to study? + +4. What is there in its shape to tell you of its history, _i.e._, did it +grow in the open or in the forest? Was it ever shaded on either side; +if so, what was the effect? How have the prevailing winds affected its +shape? + +5. How old do you think the tree is? + +6. Was the tree injured by storm or insects during the past season; if +so, how? + +7. Study the leaves on this tree and note any differences in shape and +color. + +8. What is the use of the skeleton of the leaf? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 290. Leaves of mountain maple, sugar maple, red +maple._] + +9. Is there always a bud in the axil where the leaf stalk joins the +twig? + +10. How are the leaves arranged on the twig? + +11. What is the color of the tree this autumn? + +12. When did the leaves begin to fall? Place in your note book the date +when the tree finally becomes bare. + +13. Have you found any seeds from your tree? If so, describe them. + +14. How are they dispersed and planted? + +15. Are both seeds of the pair filled out? + +16. How high is your tree? + +17. How large an area of shade does it produce? If it stands alone, +measure the ground covered by its shadow from morning until evening. + +18. How has its shadow affected the plants beneath it? Are the same +plants growing there that grow in the open field? + +19. Make a sketch of the tree you are studying, showing its outline. + +20. Make a sketch of the leaf of the sugar maple. + + + + +LEAFLET XLVIII. + +THE MAPLE IN FEBRUARY.[65] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[65] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 5, February, 1904. + + SAP. + + Strong as the sea and silent as the grave, it ebbs and flows unseen: + Flooding the earth,--a fragrant tidal wave, with mists of deepening + green, + + --JOHN B. TABB. + +[Illustration] + +"Tapping the sugar bush" are magical words to the country boy and girl. +The winter which was at first so welcome with its miracle of snow, and +its attendant joys of sleighing and skating, begins to pall by the last +of February. Too many days the clouds hang low and the swirling flakes +make out-of-door pursuits difficult. Then there comes a day when the +south wind blows blandly and the snow settles into hard, marble-like +drifts, and here and there a knoll appears bare, and soggy, and brown. +It is then that there comes just a suggestion of spring in the air; and +the bare trees show a flush of living red through their grayness and +every spray grows heavy with swelling buds. Well do we older folk +remember that in our own childhood after a few such days the father +would say, "We will get the sap buckets down from the stable loft and +wash them, for we can tap the sugar bush soon if this weather holds." In +those days the buckets were made of staves, and were by no means so +easily washed as are the metal buckets of to-day. Still do we recall the +sickish smell of musty sap that greeted our nostrils when we poured the +boiling water in to cleanse those old, brown buckets. During the long +winter evenings we had all had something to do with the fashioning of +the sap spiles made from selected stems of sumac; after some older one +had removed half of the small branch lengthwise with a draw-shave we +younger ones had cleared out the pith, thinking thirstily meanwhile of +the sweet liquid which would sometime flow there. + +With buckets and spiles ready when the momentous day came, the large, +iron caldron kettle was loaded on a stoneboat together with the sap cask +and log chain, the axe and various other utensils, and as many children +as could find standing room; and then the oxen were hitched on and the +procession started across the rough pasture to the woods where it +eventually arrived after numerous stops for reloading almost everything +but the kettle. When we came to the boiling-place we lifted the kettle +into place and flanked it with two great logs, against which the fire +was to be kindled. Meanwhile the oxen and stoneboat had returned to the +house for a load of buckets; and the oxen blinking with bowed heads or +with noses lifted aloft to keep the underbrush from striking their faces +"geed and hawed" up hill and down dale through the woods, stopping here +and there while the man with the auger bored holes in certain trees near +other holes which had bled sweet juices in years gone by. When the auger +was withdrawn the sap followed it and enthusiastic young tongues met it +half way though they received more chips than sweetness therefrom. Then +the spiles were driven in tightly with a wooden mallet. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 291. Sugar making in New York._] + +The next day after "tapping," those of us large enough to wear the +neck-yoke donned this badge of servitude and with its help brought pails +of sap to the kettle, and the "boiling" began. As the evening shades +gathered, how delicious was the odor of the sap steam permeating the +woods farther than the shafts of fire-light pierced the gloom! How weird +and delightful was this night experience in the woods! and how +cheerfully we swallowed the smoke which the contrary wind seemed ever to +turn toward us! We poked the fire to send the sparks upward and now and +then we added more sap from the barrel and removed the scum from the +boiling liquid with a skimmer which was thrust into the cleft end of a +stick to provide it with a sufficiently long handle. As the evening wore +on we drew closer to each other as we told the stories of the Indians +and the bears and panthers that had roamed these woods when our father +was a little boy; and there came to each of us a disquieting suspicion +that perhaps they were not all gone yet, for everything seemed possible +in those night-shrouded woods; and our hearts suddenly jumped into our +throats when nearby there sounded the tremulous, blood-curdling cry of +the screech owl. + +It was the most fun to gather the sap in the warmer mornings, when on +the mounds the red squaw-berries were glistening through a frosty veil; +then we looked critically at the tracks in the snow to see what visitors +had come sniffing around our buckets. We felt nothing but scorn for him +who could not translate correctly those hieroglyphics on the film of +soft snow that made white again the soiled drifts. Rabbit, skunk, +squirrel, mouse, muskrat, fox: we knew them all by their tracks. + +After about three days of gathering and boiling the sap, came the +"syruping down." During all that afternoon we added no more sap, and we +watched carefully the tawny steaming mass in the kettle; and when it +threatened to boil over we threw in a thin slice of fat pork which +seemed to have some mysterious, calming influence. The odor grew more +and more delicious, and finally the syrup was pronounced sufficiently +thick. The kettle was swung off the logs and the syrup dripped through a +cloth strainer into the carrying pail. Oh! the blackness of the material +left on that strainer! but it was "clean woods-dirt" and never destroyed +our faith in the maple sugar any more than did the belief that our +friends were made of "dirt" destroy our friendship for them. + +Now the old stave bucket and the sumac spile are gone, and in their +place a patent galvanized spile not only conducts the sap but holds in +place a tin bucket carefully covered. The old caldron kettle is broken +or lies rusting in the shed. In its place are evaporating vats placed +over furnaces with chimneys, built in the new-fangled sugar houses. The +maple molasses of to-day seems to us a pale and anæmic liquid and lacks +just that delicious flavor of the rich, dark nectar which we, with the +help of cinders and smoke and various other things, brewed of yore in +the open woods. + +While sugar-making interests us chiefly as one of our own industries, +yet we must not forget that it is based upon the life processes of the +maple tree, and in studying about it we may be able to learn important +facts about the tree which we have chosen for our study. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE MAPLE TREE. + +1. How does the maple tree look in winter? Describe it or sketch it. + +2. Are the buds on the twigs opposite or alternate? + +3. Are the tips of the twigs the same color as the bark on the larger +limbs and trunk? + +4. If you can draw, make a pencil sketch, natural size, of three inches +square of bark of the maple tree trunk. + +5. How does the bark on the trunk differ from that on the branches? + +6. How does the bark on the trunk of a maple tree differ from that on +the trunk of a soft maple or an elm? + +7. What work for the tree do the trunk and branches perform? + +8. Is the tree tapped on all sides? If not, why? + +9. How deep must the spiles be driven successfully to draw off the sap? + +10. Would you tap a tree directly above or at the same spot tapped last +year; or would you place two spiles one above the other? Give reasons. + +11. Why does the sap flow more freely on warm days after cold nights? + +12. Is the sap of which we make sugar going up or down? + +13. How does the sugar come to be in the sap? + +14. Why is the sugar made during the "first run" better than that which +is made later? Why cannot you make sugar in the summer? + +15. Does it injure trees to tap them? + +16. Do the holes made in earlier years become farther apart as the tree +grows? + +17. What other trees besides the sugar maple give sweet sap? + +18. What animals, birds, and insects are to be seen in the woods during +sugar-making time? + +19. Have you ever seen the tracks of animals on the snow in the woods? +If so, make pictures of them and tell what animals made them. + + + + +LEAFLET XLIX. + +THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE.[66] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[66] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 2, November, 1903. + + "All day long the red squirrels came and went, and afforded + me much entertainment by their manoeuvres. One would approach + at first warily through the shrub-oaks, running over the snow + crust by fits and starts like a leaf blown by the wind, now a + few paces this way, with wonderful speed and waste of energy, + making inconceivable haste with his "trotters" as if it were for + a wager, and now as many paces that way, but never getting on + more than half a rod at a time; and then suddenly pausing with + a ludicrous expression and a gratuitous somerset, as if all the + eyes in the universe were fixed on him,--for all the motions of + a squirrel, even in the most solitary recesses of the forest, + imply spectators as much as those of a dancing girl,--wasting more + time in delay and circumspection than would have sufficed to walk + the whole distance,--I never saw one walk,--and then suddenly, + before you could say Jack Robinson, he would be in the top of a + young pitch-pine, winding up his clock and chiding all imaginary + spectators, soliloquizing and talking to all the universe at the + same time,--for no reason that I could ever detect, or he himself + was aware of, I suspect."--THOREAU. + +[Illustration] + +From contact with civilization some wild animals flourish while others +are soon exterminated by association with man. To this latter class +belongs the black squirrel. Within my own memory this beautiful creature +was almost as common in the rural districts of New York State as was the +red squirrel; but now it is seen no more except in most retired places; +while the red squirrel, pugnacious and companionable, defiant and shy, +climbs on our very roofs and sits there scolding us for daring to come +within his range of vision. One reason for the disappearance of the +black squirrel is, undoubtedly, the fact that its meat is a delicious +food. The red squirrel is also good food at certain times of the year, +but because of its lesser size, and its greater agility and cunning, it +has succeeded in living not merely despite of man, but because of man, +for now he rifles corn cribs and grain bins and waxes opulent by levying +tribute on man's own savings. + +Although the red squirrel is familiar to us all, yet, I think, there are +few who really know its habits, which are as interesting as are those of +bear or lion. Note, for example, the way he peeps at us from the far +side of the tree, and the way he uses his tail as a balance and a help +in steering as he leaps. This same tail he uses in the winter as a boa +by wrapping it around himself as he lies curled up in his snug house. +His vocal exercises are most entertaining also; he is the only singer I +know who can carry two parts at a time. Notice some time this autumn +when the hickory nuts are ripe that the happy red squirrel is singing +you a duet all by himself,--a high, shrill chatter, with a low chuckling +accompaniment. + +We usually regard nuts as the main food of squirrels, but this is not +necessarily so; for they are fond of the seeds of pines and hemlocks, +and also hang around our orchards for apple-seeds. In fact, their diet +is varied. The red squirrel is a great thief and keeps his keen eye on +chipmunks and mice, hoping to find where they store their food so that +he can steal it if he can do so without danger to his precious self. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE RED SQUIRREL. + +We want you to make some original observations on the red squirrel. + +1. In summer, what is the color of the red squirrel on the upper parts? +Beneath? + +2. What is the color along the side where the two colors join? + +3. Do these colors change in winter? + +4. Tell how and where the squirrel makes its nest. + +5. Does it carry nuts in its teeth or in its cheeks? + +6. Has it cheek pockets like the chipmunk? + +7. Does the red squirrel store food for winter use? If so, where? + +8. Does it spend its time sleeping in winter like the chipmunk, or does +it go out often to get food? + +9. Name all the kinds of food which you know it eats. + +10. Did you ever see a red squirrel disturb birds' nests? + +11. How does a squirrel get at the meat of a hard-shelled nut like a +black walnut, or a hickory nut? (Answer this by a sketch, if you can +draw.) + +12. Do the squirrels of your neighborhood have certain paths in +tree-tops which they follow? + +13. How many emotions does the squirrel express with his voice? + +14. What kind of tracks does the red squirrel make in the snow? (Show +this by a sketch if possible.) + + + + +LEAFLET L. + +THE IMPROVEMENT OF COUNTRY SCHOOL GROUNDS.[67] + +BY JOHN W. SPENCER. + + +[67] Supplement to Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1902. + +[Illustration] + +MY DEAR TEACHER: + +Despite all that is said and done the average school ground is far short +of its possibilities in an artistic way. Of this you are well aware, and +no doubt you have often wished that you might remedy this defect. Your +hours are full of arduous work. Perhaps, however, you can interest your +children to help you to clean and to improve the grounds, without much +extra care or work on your part. + +This illustration of a schoolhouse (Fig. 292) is taken from Bulletin +160, published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University. The +title of the bulletin is "Hints on Rural School Grounds." I wish you +would send for the bulletin. It will be mailed you free if you request +it. + +The picture is not an imaginary sketch, but a faithful representation of +what stood in a prosperous rural community less than five years ago. To +one familiar with country school buildings it will not be considered as +a solitary "awful example," but rather as a type of many that are +scattered over the State. I hope it is not your misfortune to be +teaching in such a house, even though it is my desire to reach every +teacher who is that luckless. However, to make my talk more real let us +"make believe," as children say, that you are the priestess in a similar +temple of learning. Together we will plan how we can make the most of +very uncongenial surroundings. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 292. A country school property._] + +It would be safe to wager a red apple that the inside of the building is +every bit as dilapidated as the outside. A community that tolerates such +a building would not be likely to have anything but the rudest furniture +and most of that on crutches. It would be something out of the usual if +the box stove is not short a leg or two, with brick-bats being used as +substitutes. You will be fortunate if the stove door has two good hinges +and if the wood is not green. At the last school meeting, did the +patrons instruct the trustees not to pay more than six dollars per week +for your services? Was the proposition that the district raise five +dollars, to which the State would add five more for the purchase of +books for a library, unanimously voted down and the poor man who +introduced the resolution expected to apologize for his temerity? The +leading man in the district each Sunday during summer drives two miles +to salt his young stock, inspect fences, and see how the yearlings are +prospering; but he never thinks of visiting the school to see how his +children are progressing. Yet the people of this district are not bad. +They are counted good citizens by the bar and judge, when they are drawn +on juries. The public buildings at the county-seat are models of their +kind and these gentlemen do not remonstrate as to the expense. Perhaps +it has not occurred to them that school buildings and grounds should +have as high a standard as those of the county. A correct public ideal +is everything. It is not a hopeless undertaking to advance such an ideal +in the community of which we are speaking. + +I suggest to you as teacher in this school to undertake some +improvements in the grounds. I consider the above sketch to be a zero +case. If improvements can be developed here, it is reasonable to suppose +that the same can be repeated where conditions are primarily better. The +possibilities are sufficient to warrant the undertaking. The victory +will add to your strength. The lives of the children will be better +filled for the part they may do, and you will have started a public +improvement. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 293. "The girls organized themselves into a +tug-of-war team."_] + +I should not appeal to the parents for help. You have a fountain of +power in the children. It is necessary only to inspire and guide them. +This is no theory of mine. It is a result that has been worked out in +many instances. + +The beautiful city of Rochester is proud of its schools. The development +of the town made the construction of new school buildings necessary to +such an extent that little money remained for the improvement of the +grounds. Some of them were located in the breadwinners' districts. The +grounds were as the contractor left them; your imagination can picture +their condition. The interiors were well nigh perfect. The exterior was +sometimes a Sahara of mud and builders' rubbish. The principal of one of +the schools--a woman, by the way,--knowing the force in children, set +about to apply it to the improvement of the surroundings. Her method was +first to inspire, and then to direct. Her success was ample. Both boys +and girls participated. The girls organized themselves into a tug-of-war +team (Fig. 293). By fastening ropes to sticks and beams, these things +were hauled out of sight. The boys leveled the hummocks and brought +fertile soil from some distance. This principal confined her +improvements to small areas--so small that the children wanted to do +more when they were through. From the time school opened until the +rigors of winter stopped the juvenile improvements, only part of the +space from the front of the building to the street was graded. Some of +the boys brought chaff from a haymow, which was raked in as lawn grass +seed. The following spring quite as many weeds appeared as grass, but +the children gave the weeds the personification of robbers and made +their career short. The promoters had a just pride in what they had +accomplished; and that meagre bit of lawn meant vastly more to them than +had it been made by a high-salaried landscape gardener. + +I am acquainted with another instance, where the patrons are largely +Polish Jews. I am credibly informed that the average head of a family +does not have a gross annual income to exceed three hundred and fifty +dollars. This necessitates that the mother go out for work and that the +children leave school as soon as the law allows to take up work. Yet +with all these unfavorable circumstances the pupils have a pride in +their school grounds that is glorious to see. In the fall of 1901 prizes +were offered for the greatest improvement of school grounds made by +children. Nothing daunted, the principal entered his grounds in +competition with those in the more wealthy part of the city. The +committee of awards gave him the third prize. To judge from the mere +physical side, the decision was no doubt just; but when judged on the +score of getting the greatest results from the least material, the +principal and his school may have deserved the first prize, plus a +reward. + +The chances are that your fuel is wood, and perhaps not very +dry at that. It is in a pile in the open. Sometimes the sticks are +scattered over half the lot. This you can prevent by properly +appealing to the pride of your pupils. You will find that they +wish to be more tidy than is the school over in Whippoorwill Hollow +or in some other district that is considered to be a little more +in the back country than your own. + +About the time you hear the first spring notes of the bluebird and the +robin, prepare public opinion in your little school community for a +spring furnishing. You can devise many ways to inspire them. Tell them +about Col. George R. Waring and his white brigade and what they did to +make New York City cleaner than it had been for many decades before. +After the Spanish war, when Cuba became a responsibility upon the United +States, the question arose as to what could be done to make filthy +Havana cleaner and freer from yellow fever. No one was thought by the +Federal government so competent to solve the problem as Colonel Waring. +He went, spared not himself, and did his duty, did it so fearlessly that +he died the victim of the filth he had fought so valiantly. He had done +much during previous years to commend his memory to posterity; but +probably nothing will stand out so prominently as his great ability to +correct municipal untidiness. Ask your pupils to be Warings in their own +neighborhoods. + +By this time the ground will be bare of snow and it will be soft. Ask +some of the pupils to bring rakes, and have them gather up the rubbish. +You can all play gypsies when you gather about the bonfire. This will be +a favorable time to sow grass seed; for I have no doubt the school lot +will need it. A lawn mixture of seed would be ideal, but I hardly expect +you to pay for it. At this stage of your improvements, I scarcely expect +that any of the patrons of your school would do so either. Later some of +them may feel differently. Your pupils can at least follow the plan of +those spoken of in Rochester--get chaff from a haymow. It will +inevitably be a mixture of grass and weeds, but the latter can be pulled +out after germinating. It is barely possible that some farmer will give +you some clover and timothy, such as he uses in seeding his meadow; and +this will be far better. + +Next, I should put out a hitching-post. When your school commissioner +calls it will be appreciated. If that functionary does not publicly +compliment your school for even such small improvements, I wish you +would report such indifference to me, giving his full address, and I +will request him to explain this forgetfulness. + +Good results in landscape-gardening depend on observing certain +principles, the same as with our wardrobe. Many a clever girl will +accomplish more in dress with twenty-five dollars than others can do +with twice that amount. Among the first and most important efforts is to +make a frame or setting for the house by planting around the borders of +the place. Sometimes the location will make this inconvenient if not +impossible, when, for instance, the building is placed near the street +or crowded between other buildings. Even in such cases, however, it is +well to keep the idea clearly in mind and to approach it as nearly as +circumstances will permit. An illustration of a normal location to which +this principle can be applied is shown in Fig. 294. The trees and the +higher shrubs are planted first and on the extreme borders of the lot, +with shorter shrubs, roses, and the like in front of them. This frame +can be given a finish by planting flowers or very low things next the +grass. If the area be ample, let the edges be irregular (Fig. 294); but +if very limited, straight lines become necessary. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 294. Showing how the borders may be planted._] + +The open space within the boundaries should be a mat of green carpeting, +for nothing can be more beautiful than sward. Fight all influences to +bedeck it with beds of flowers in forms of stars and moons and other +celestial and terrestrial designs. The demands for such capers may be +great, but hold out against them boldly. Certain small shrubs, ferns, +and flowers may be planted along the walls of the building, particularly +in the angles; but I beg of you to leave the green plat unscalloped and +unspoiled, only as is necessary for drives and walks. When the buildings +are unsightly, cover with vines and plant bushes against them. Fig. 295 +illustrates how Fig. 292 may be improved with very little effort. + +Now I will speak of the actual planting. In the light of unnumbered +thousands of Arbor Day trees put out to struggle a few weeks for life +and then die, this may seem the most important feature of my article. To +the unsuccessful planter, let me suggest that he select shrubs and trees +which take care of themselves under adverse conditions. We have a +number of such. If they were imported from Japan and sold at fancy +prices, they would be greatly appreciated. The common sumac is one of +them. For a shrub I know of nothing of its class so sure to bear the +ordeal of transplanting or to make more vigorous growth under adverse +conditions. It can be pruned to suit, and nothing can rival its blaze of +color in late autumn; yet as a farmer, I know the experience of fighting +against its existence in fence corners, about stone piles, and on steep +hillsides. I do this even though I am fond of the shrub and admire it. +It encroaches on my vineyard and injures the crop. Grapes will help pay +taxes and sumac will not. In my cherry orchard it is a weed. In my back +yard and on the borders of my lawn it is an ornamental shrub. The same +can be observed of people. When in their proper sphere they are helpful +factors in a community; when out of it they are nuisances. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 295. How the grounds in Fig. 292 may be improved._] + +If you ask me to mention a tree most likely to live when planted by +unskilled hands, I should name the willow. I mean the most common kind +to be found in the northern States--the kind that stands beside the +roadside watering-trough. The impression is common that willows will +thrive only in wet places. It is true that a willow is very comfortable +in places where many other trees will suffer from wet feet; yet it will +give good results elsewhere. It is reasonable to suppose that poor soil +goes with a poor school building, and a refined tree would probably +find life hard in such a place. I should certainly plant a willow in +such cases. It will thrive where a goat can, and where a sheep cannot. +For city places, the Carolina poplar is to be recommended. If the soil +is good enough, plant maples, elms, or other trees. + +A judicious planting of Virginia creeper helps the appearance of +buildings both good and bad. I should surely plant it about the main +building and the outbuildings and fences, if the patrons of the school +did not object. The probabilities are that when the vines have begun to +cover some of the deformities of the place, some finicky resident of the +district will cut them out on the plea that they promote decay of the +weather-beaten clap-boards; but do not be discouraged by such a +possibility. Vines, too, usually interfere with the painting of a +building. Although they may be taken down and put back after the +painters are through, the first effect is not regained unless the +process of putting back has been done with unusual care. + +Do not make the mistake of planting too much. A small lawn can be +overdressed as is sometimes the case with women. Lilac, Japan quince, +syringa, hydrangea, and like common shrubs, could be planted if the +opportunities of space seem to warrant. + +I hope it will be your taste to allow the limbs of the trees to start +low and those of the shrubs to begin as near the ground as possible. I +am aware that among country people it is the practice to tolerate only +the higher limbs. I can give a reason for this only on the supposition +that they must do something in pruning, and the lower limbs are the most +convenient to reach. I know a man who came into possession of a place +having a fine lot of evergreens with the lower branches at the ground. +By way of proclaiming a change of ownership he cut away the lower +branches, leaving a bare trunk of about five feet. Before he touched +them they were beautiful green cones and when passing the place I always +turned my face in their direction to enjoy the beauty. When he was +through they were standing on one leg, and a wooden leg at that. I have +never felt kindly toward the man since. + +In the matter of planting I know of no better method than that of the +experienced orchardist. As a rule he buys his trees of a nurseryman. +They are often dug in the fall, and are planted the following spring. +During the interval they are stored in specially constructed cellars, +and at no time are the roots permitted to become dry. When packed for +shipment damp moss is placed about the roots. When the orchardist +removes them from the packing box he "heels" them in, which is a kind of +probationary planting in shallow furrows where they stand until ready to +be set out permanently. When that time comes the trees are taken from +the trench and the roots plunged in a tub of thin mud or doused with +water and covered with a blanket. An orchardist counts a tree lost if +the roots have been allowed to remain in the sun until the small +rootlets have so dried that they have a gray appearance. + +In taking the young tree from the nursery row only a fraction of the +original roots go with the tree, and these are badly bruised at the +point of cleavage. These ragged ends should be dressed smoothly by means +of a slanting cut with a knife. All mutilated roots should be removed. +You must bear in mind that the roots you find with the trees are capable +of performing but a small part of what was done by all the roots when +growing in their native place. + +The hole in which the tree is set should be large enough to accommodate +the roots without cramping them out of their natural positions. It is +important that the earth used for filling should be fertile, and it is +doubly important that it should be fine--even superfine. Clods, even +small clods like marbles, will not snuggle up to the bark of the root as +closely as is absolutely necessary. Set the tree about an inch deeper +than you think it originally stood, so that when planted and the earth +settles, it will really be about the same depth. All the earth should +not be dumped in at once and then the surface pressed firm with the +feet. A close examination will show that the soil has "bridged" in +places, leaving many roots in tiny caverns. It is important that fine +soil should be snuggled close to each little rootlet, not for warmth but +for moisture. Fill the hole by installments of one-third at each +filling. Sprinkle the fine earth about the roots. Then dash in a third +of a pail of water. This will give the roots much needed moisture and, +best of all, will wash the earth about each root fiber. I urge the +adoption of this careful method for all trees and shrubs, not excepting +the sumac and willow. Even wallows will show their gratitude for such +considerate treatment, even though they are able to survive rougher +usage. They will pay for it when the drought and neglect of summer come. + +The most common mistake made in the selection of trees is in taking +those that are too large. For the conditions that we have under +consideration, I suggest that a tree no larger than a broom-handle be +chosen. I know that the common feeling is, "we shall have to wait too +long for our shade." Unless the larger tree is in the hands of an +expert, the smaller will be the more desirable at the end of five years. +I much prefer, moreover, the selection of a tree or shrub growing in the +sunshine, rather than one from the shade. + +I have one final request to make, which to the novice will be the most +difficult of all and one which he is quite likely to fail in performing +because of lack of moral courage. I mean the cutting back of the top of +the tree or shrub after planting. Before the removal of the tree, the +roots probably found pasturage in a cart load of soil. After planting, +the root pasturage is not more than half a bushel of soil. What follows +when the forces of plant growth begin? A demand for soil products, with +a very much restricted means of supply. The top must be cut back to +match the shortened root system. Thousand of trees die every year +because this principle is not duly observed and the failure is often +attributed to the nurseryman. The amount necessary to cut back differs +with different trees and shrubs. No hard and fast rules can be given. +With willows and sumacs one-third to one-half of everything bearing leaf +buds can be cut away. With a maple having a diameter of one and a half +inches at the butt, I should suggest that about one-third of the branch +area be left to grow. + +In this article I have had in mind the improvement of school grounds +where all the conditions are at zero--where the building would be a +discredit to any owner, where the patrons are totally indifferent, and +where the only resource is to awaken a public spirit on the part of the +children. With better school buildings, more ample grounds, and a small +number of patrons favorable to improvement, the foregoing ideas need not +be followed closely. However, they do contain principles and some +details that deserve careful consideration, even in landscape planting +of the highest form. The first step should be the development of local +pride. Something may be accomplished among the parents; but it is a +problem as to what extent that may be done. To the true teacher the +pupils may be counted upon as the mainstay in such an undertaking. To +such a teacher I should say, Do not for a moment believe that the +improvements seen about the school grounds will be all the good that is +wrought. Fifty years from now there will be a few gray-haired +men and women who take more interest in the appearance of their +"front-door-yard," and give their children encouragement in having a +posy bed "all their own," and who extend sympathy and service to the +better appearance of the school grounds, because of your altruism when +you taught district school. + +We have some aids that may be helpful to you and to which you are +welcome. Bulletin 160, spoken of at the beginning, specifically treats +of this work, and Bulletin 121, on "Planting of Shrubbery," has been +very popular. We have published a number of articles on children's +gardening, all of which will be sent you free if you request it. If you +have specific problems we shall be glad to have you write and we will +help you all we can by correspondence. + +The most efficient help we can give you is through the organizing of +your pupils into Junior Naturalist clubs. We give these clubs especial +instruction in gardening and the improvement of home and school grounds. +Children receive great inspiration from large numbers doing the same +thing, while we can give instruction to ten thousand as easily as to one +child. Many hundreds of teachers and thousands of children find the +study of nature a beam of sunshine in the schoolroom and a great aid in +the English period without being a burden to the teacher. + + + + +PART II. + +CHILDREN'S LEAFLETS. + +DESIGNED TO OPEN THE EYES OF THE YOUNG. + + +Most of these leaflets were published as companions to the Teachers' +Leaflets and Lessons,--the teachers' lessons written in one vein and the +children's in another. Even though the subject-matter may be largely +duplicated in the two, it seems worth while to keep these separate as +showing a simple method of presentation and as suggesting a means of +procedure to those who would reach small children. + + + + +THE CHILD'S REALM. + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + + A little child sat on the sloping strand + Gazing at the flow and the free, + Thrusting its feet in the golden sand, + Playing with the waves and the sea. + + I snatch'd a weed that toss'd on the flood + And parted its tangled skeins; + I trac'd the course of the fertile blood + That lay in its meshèd veins; + + I told how the stars are garner'd in space, + How the moon on its course is roll'd, + How the earth is hung in its ceaseless place + As it whirls in its orbit old:-- + + The little child paus'd with its busy hands + And gaz'd for a moment at me, + Then dropp'd again to its golden sands + And play'd with the waves and the sea. + + + + +LEAFLET LI. + +A SNOW STORM.[68] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet VII.) + + A chill no coat however stout, + Of homespun stuff could quite shut out, + * * * * * + The coming of the snow storm told. + + --WHITTIER. + + +[68] Junior Naturalist Monthly, December, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +"Surely, it is going to snow," says Grandfather, as he puts an armful of +wood into the old box beside the fire; and a happy feeling comes over +you, and you like Grandfather a little better because he has promised +you a snow storm. "What a wise old Grandfather he is!" you think. He +always seems to know what is going to happen out-of-doors and you wonder +how he learned it all. Perhaps I can tell you why Grandfather is so +wise. When he was a boy he lived on a farm and was in the outdoor world +summer and winter. There he learned to know Nature day by day. This is +why he can consult her now as to wind and weather, and why he nearly +always understands what she tells him. He is a good observer. + +If you hope ever to be as weather-wise as Grandfather, you must begin +right away to see and to think. The next time you hear him say, "It is +going to snow," put on your fur cap and mittens and go out-of-doors. Is +the air clear, crisp, and cold--the kind you like to be out in? Or is it +a keen cold that makes you long for the fire-place? Can you see the sun? +If so, how does it look? In what direction is the wind? How cold does +the thermometer tell you it is? + +All the time that you are learning these things the storm will be +coming nearer. Then on your dark coat sleeve something soft and white +and glistening falls--a snowflake. You touch the bright thing and it +disappears. Where did it come from and whither did it go? Others follow +faster and faster, jostling each other as they whirl through the air. +Look at them closely. Are the crystals large and flowery or small and +clear? Put your head back and let them come down on your face. Is their +touch soft or do they hurt as they fall? + +Perhaps by this time you are very cold and think that supper must be +nearly ready. You go into the house, and you find the gray kitten +snoozing comfortably on the hearthrug. You snuggle down beside her "to +warm your frozen bones a bit," and still the storm and outdoor world are +near; for is it not splendid music that the wind is making as it roars +down the old chimney or sways the tall pine trees? + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. + +Answer as many of the following questions as you can from your own +observations: + +1. How did the sky look before it began to snow? During the storm? After +the storm? It is always a good thing to look up at the sky. + +2. In what direction did the old weather-cock tell you the wind was +blowing as the storm came on? Did the wind change during the storm? If +so, did the snow change in any way? + +3. Look at snow crystals through a tripod lens if you have one. How many +points do they have? + +4. After supper go to the window, raise the shade, and look out on the +stormy night. Tell Uncle John all that you see. + +5. On your way to school the next day after a snow storm, have the +following in mind to write to us about: + +(a) The tracks in the snow. How many do you find? Did Rover make them? +the gray kitten? a snow bird? an old crow? a rabbit? a squirrel? + +(b) The way the trees and small plants receive the snow. Some hold it, +others cast it off: why? + +(c) Notice the snow drifts. Where are they highest? Why does the snow +pile up in some places and not in others? Is the drift deepest close to +buildings or a little way from them? Are the drifts deepest close to the +trees, or is there a space between the tree and the drift? + + + + +LEAFLET LII. + +A PLANT AT SCHOOL.[69] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[69] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +I dropped a seed into the earth. It grew, and the plant was mine. + +It was a wonderful thing, this plant of mine. I did not know its name, +and the plant did not bloom. All I know is that I planted something +apparently as lifeless as a grain of sand and that there came forth a +green and living thing unlike the seed, unlike the soil in which it +stood, unlike the air into which it grew. No one could tell me why it +grew, nor how. It had secrets all its own, secrets that baffle the +wisest men; yet this plant was my friend. It faded when I withheld the +light, it wilted when I neglected to give it water, it flourished when I +supplied its simple needs. One week I went away on a vacation, and when +I returned the plant was dead; and I missed it. + +Although my little plant had died so soon, it had taught me a lesson; +and the lesson was that it is worth while to have a plant. I wish that +every Junior Naturalist would have a plant. It matters little what the +plant is. Just drop the seed, keep the earth warm and moist, watch the +plant "come up," see it grow. Measure its height at a given time every +day. Keep a record of how many times you water it. Make a note of every +new leaf that appears. See whether it leans towards the light. If it +dies, tell why. Four weeks from the time when you plant the seed, send +Uncle John your notes. + +A sheet of foolscap paper contains about twenty-eight lines, one line +for the notes of each day, and space enough at the top to write your +name, date of sowing, kind of seed, and nature of the soil. Open the +sheet and on each line at the left side write all the dates for four +weeks ahead; then fill in these lines across the two pages day by day as +the plant grows. For the first few days there will not be much to write, +but you can say whether you watered the earth or not, and where you +kept the pot or box. It will be good practice to get into the habit of +taking notes. I suppose that the record of the first few days will run +something as follows: + + MYRON JOHNSON, name of school, age ----. ----, Teacher. + + _Feb. 2._ Monday. Planted six cabbage seeds in loose soil from the + chip yard. I put the earth in a small old tin cup, and pressed it + down firmly. I made it just nicely moist, not wet. I planted the + seeds about equal distances apart and about one-fourth inch deep, + and pressed the earth over them. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 297. An egg-shell farm. The plants, from left to +right, are: cabbage, field corn, pop-corn, wheat, buckwheat._] + +_Feb. 2._ Did not water to-day, for the soil seemed to be moist enough. + +_Feb. 3._ Watered at 10:30 A. M. Teacher told me to be careful not to +make the soil too wet. + +_Feb. 4._ Watered at noon. + +_Feb. 5._ Put the cup nearer the stove so that the seeds would come up +more quickly. + +_Feb. 6._ The earth is cracking in two or three places. Watered at noon. + +_Feb. 7._ Went to the schoolhouse and found some of the plants coming +up. + +_Feb. 9._ Four of the plants are up. (Here tell how they look, or make a +few marks to show.) + +When your month's record is all complete, send the sheet, or a copy of +it, to Uncle John, and this will be your club dues. See how many things +you can find out in these four weeks. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 298. A window plant that is easy to grow. It is a +common garden beet. The end of the beet was cut off so that it could be +got into the tin can. A very red beet will produce handsome red-ribbed +leaves. In all cases, be sure that the crown or top of the plant has not +been cut off too close, or the leaves may not start readily. The beet +starts into growth quickly and the growing plant will stand much abuse. +It makes a very comely plant for the school-room window. Try carrot, +turnip, and parsnip in the same way._] + +Before the four weeks are past write to Uncle John and he will tell you +what next to do. By that time your plants will need transplanting, and +he will tell you how to do it. Perhaps you can set some of the plants +outdoors later on and see them grow all summer; whether you can or not +will depend on the kinds of plants that you grow. If you want to grow +asters or cabbages next summer, you can start some of them in February +and March. + +Quick-germinating seeds, fit for starting in the schoolroom, are wheat, +oats, buckwheat, corn, bean, pumpkin and squash, radish, cabbage, +turnip. Perhaps some of these require a warmer place than others in +which to germinate. If you find out which they are, let Uncle John know. + +You can grow the plants in egg-shells, wooden boxes (as cigar boxes), +tin cans, flower pots. If you use tin cans it is well to punch two or +three holes in the bottom so that the extra water will drain out. Set +the can or box in a saucer, plate, or dripping-pan so that the water +will not soil the desk or table. It is best not to put it in a sunny +window until after the plants are up, for the soil is likely to "bake" +or to become hard on top; or if you do put it in such a place, throw a +newspaper over it to prevent the earth from drying out. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR PLANT STUDY.[70] + +[70] Alice G. McCloskey, Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, 1904. + +Last year hundreds of children sent us records of their plants. This +kind of work is most satisfactory to Uncle John. Following is a record +which we received in March, from a girl in the fourth grade: + +Feb. 16--Monday. I planted seven cabbage seeds in an eggshell. I did not +water it. + +Feb. 17--Did not see anything. + +Feb. 18--Saw a little brown thing. + +Feb. 19--Saw a little seed lying on top. + +Feb. 20--Saw little sprout. + +Feb. 21--Holiday. + +Feb. 22--Holiday. + +Feb. 23--Holiday. + +Feb. 24--Saw two little sprouts. + +Feb. 25--The egg-shell was full of sprouts. + +Feb. 26--The plant was coming up and the earth was very wet, so I did +not water it. + +Feb. 27--Saw six sprouts. + +Feb. 28--Holiday. + +March 1--Holiday. + +March 2--Turned the plant around, so it would look toward the light. + +March 2--That afternoon I planted the cabbage in a tin can with tissue +paper around it, because the cabbage outgrew the eggshell some time ago. + +March 3--I put the plant out of the window. + +March 4--I did not look at it. + +March 5--One of the sprouts began to droop. + +March 6--I dug the dirt up around it. Then it was put in the air out of +the window. + +March 7--Holiday. + +March 8--Holiday. + +March 9--I put it out of the window. + +March 10--It was put out of the window. It was brought in at the close +of school. + +March 11--Dug the dirt out from the plant and patted it down. + +March 12--Watered. + +March 13--Put out of the window. + +March 14--Holiday. + +March 15--Holiday. + +March 16--Watered and put out of the window. HELEN. + +Was not this a good record for a little girl to make? I wish that she +had told something about the soil in which she planted the seeds. This +is always important. In winter you may have some difficulty in getting +soil, but in the village a florist will let you have some, and in the +country you may be able to get it in the cellar of a grocery store or +from your own cellar. Perhaps you can find some in the potato bin. When +there is a "thaw," get some soil, even if it is very wet; you can dry it +near the stove. Perhaps your schoolhouse will be too cold over Sunday in +mid-winter to allow you to grow plants. If so, plant the seeds at home. + +When you have planted your seeds, unless you take them up every day, you +cannot see how the little plants are behaving down under the soil. I +want to tell you how you can know some things that the plants are doing +without disturbing them. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 299. Radish seeds germinating between +blotting-paper and the side of a tumbler._] + +Choose an ordinary glass (Fig. 299), roll up a piece of blotting paper +so that it is a trifle smaller than the glass, and place it inside. +Between the blotting paper and the glass, put a few radish seeds or any +kind of seed such as you planted in the soil. Keep the blotting paper +moist and watch what happens. In four or five days the plants should be +"up." Here are some things to think about as you watch them: + +1. Note any change in the seeds when they have been moist for a few +hours. + +2. What happens to the outer coat of the seed? + +3. In what direction does the little root grow? The stem? + +4. Notice the woolly growth on the root? Does this growth extend to the +tip of the root? + +5. When the little plant has begun to grow, turn it around so that the +root is horizontal. Does it remain in that position? + +6. How soon do the leaves appear? + +It may interest some of the Junior Naturalists to see the effect of much +water on seeds. Suppose you experiment a little along this line. Choose +three glasses. In one put seeds into water, in another put them into +very wet or muddy soil, and in the third plant the seeds in moist soil, +such as seeds are ordinarily planted in. Tell us the results of the +three experiments. + + +A THIRD-GRADE RECORD. + +Following is a facsimile reproduction of a spontaneous and unpruned +record made by a child in the third grade. The child grew beans in a +tumbler against blotting paper, as shown in Fig. 299. I hope that this +will illustrate to both teacher and children the value of simple +note-taking. + +[Illustration] +[Illustration] +[Illustration] +[Illustration] +[Illustration] +[Illustration] +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 300. The bean plants that were grown by the +third-grade child._] + + + + +LEAFLET LIII. + +AN APPLE TWIG AND AN APPLE.[71] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XXXI.) + + +[71] Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +Yesterday I went over into the old apple orchard. It was a clear +November day. The trees were bare. The wind had carried the leaves into +heaps in the hollows and along the fences. Here and there a cold-blue +wild aster still bloomed. A chipmunk chittered into a stone pile. + +I noticed many frost-bitten apples still clinging to the limbs. There +were decayed ones on the ground. There were several small piles of fruit +that the owner had neglected, lying under the trees, and they were now +worthless. I thought that there had been much loss of fruit, and I +wondered why. If the fruit-grower had not made a profit from the trees, +perhaps the reason was partly his own fault. Not all the apples still +clinging to the tree were frost-bitten and decayed. I saw many very +small apples, no larger than the end of my finger, standing stiff on +their stems. Plainly these were apples that had died when they were +young. I wondered why. + +[Illustration: _Fig 301. This is the branch that tried and failed._] + +I took a branch home and photographed it. You have the engraving in Fig. +301. Note that there are three dead young apples at the tip of one +branch. Each apple came from a single flower. These flowers grew in a +cluster. There were three other flowers in this cluster, for I could see +the scars where they fell off. + +But why did these three fruits die? The whole branch on which they grew +looked to be only half alive. I believe that it did not have vigor +enough to cause the fruit to grow and ripen. If this were not the cause, +then some insect or disease killed the young apples, for apples, as well +as people, may have disease. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 302. These are the flowers that make the apples. +How many clusters are there?_] + +Beneath the three dead apples, is still another dead one. Notice how +shrivelled and dried it is, and how the snows and rains have beaten away +the little leaves from its tip. The three uppermost apples grew in 1902; +but this apple grew in some previous year. If I could show you the +branch itself, I could make you see in just what year this little apple +was borne, and just what this branch has tried to do every year since. +This branch has tried its best to bear apples, but the fruit-grower has +not given it food enough, or has not kept the enemies and diseases away. + +The lesson that I got from my walk was this: if the apples were not good +and abundant it was not the fault of the trees, for they had done their +part. + +In the cellar at home we have apples. I like to go into the cellar at +night with a lantern and pick apples from this box and that--plump and +big and round--and eat them where I stand. They are crisp and cool, and +the flesh snaps when I bite it and the juice is as fresh as the water +from a spring. There are many kinds of them, each kind known by its own +name, and some are red and some are green, some are round and some are +long, some are good and some are poor. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 303. The apples are usually borne one in a place, +although the flowers are in clusters. Why?_] + +Over and over, these apples in the cellar have been sorted, until only +the good ones are supposed to remain. Yet now and then I find a decayed +heart or a hollow place. The last one I picked up was fair and handsome +on the outside, but a black place and a little "sawdust" in the blossom +end made me suspicious of it. I cut it open. Here is what I found (Fig. +306). Someone else had found the apple before I had. Last summer a +little moth had laid an egg on the growing apple, a worm had come from +the egg and had eaten and eaten into the apple, burrowing through the +core, until at last it was full grown, as shown in the picture. Now it +is preparing to escape. It has eaten a hole through the side of the +apple, but has plugged up the hole until it is fully ready to leave. +When it leaves it will crawl into a crack or crevice somewhere, and next +spring change into a pupa and finally come forth a small, dun-gray moth. +This moth will lay the eggs and then die; and thus will be completed the +eventful life of the codlin-moth, from egg to worm and pupa and moth. +But in doing all this the insect has spoiled the apple. The insect acts +as if the apple belonged to him; but I think the apple belongs to me. I +wonder which is correct? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 304. The Baldwin apple. How many kinds of apples do +you know?_] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 305. The same Baldwin apple cut in two._] + +Some of these apples are sound and solid on the inside, but they have +hard blackish spots on the outside (Fig. 307). This is a disease--the +apple-scab. This scab is caused by minute plants and these plants also +claim the apple as their own. There are ways by means of which the +apple-grower is able to destroy the codlin-moth and the apple-scab; and +thereby he secures fair and sound apples. + +Insects and diseases and men are all fighting to own the apple. + + +TEN THINGS TO LEARN FROM AN APPLE. + +When you write your dues to Uncle John on the apple, answer as many of +the following questions as you can. You can get the answers from an +apple itself. He does not want you to ask anyone for the answers: + +1. How much of the apple is occupied by the core? + +2. How many parts or compartments are there in the core? + +3. How many seeds are there in each part? + +4. Which way do the seeds point? + +5. Are the seeds attached or joined to any part of the core? Explain. + +6. What do you see in the blossom end of the apple? + +7. What do you see in the opposite end? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 306. This is an apple in which a worm made its +home._] + +8. Is there any connection between the blossom end and the core? + +9. Find a wormy apple and see if you can make out where the worm left +the apple. Perhaps you can make a drawing. To do this, cut the apple in +two. Press the cut surface on a piece of paper. When the apple is +removed you can trace out the marks. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 307. These are the apples on which other plants are +living.--The apple-scab._] + +10. When you hold an apple in your hand, see which way it looks to be +bigger--lengthwise or crosswise. Then cut it in two lengthwise, measure +it each way, and see which diameter is the greater. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 308. Here is where city boys and girls buy their +apples._] + + + + +LEAFLET LIV. + +TWIGS IN LATE WINTER.[72] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + + +[72] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1904. + +[Illustration] + +Along a country road, through a drifted field, over a rail fence, and +into the woods I went, gathering twigs here and there as I passed. A +February thaw had come and these first messengers of spring, reaching +out from shrub and tree, were beginning to show signs of life. Many +young people do not believe that spring is near until they hear a robin +or a bluebird. The bare little twigs tell us first. Look at them as you +go on your way to school. Are they the same color in February that they +were in the short December days? + +When I reached home with my bundle of twigs, it was "fun" to sit by the +window and study the strange little things. They were so different one +from another, and so interesting in every way, that I decided to ask our +boys and girls to gather some winter twigs and tell us about them. +Select your twigs from the butternut, willow, hickory, horsechestnut, +apple, plum, plane-tree, maple, or any other tree that you come across. +Here are some suggestions that will help you in your study: + +1. How many colors do you find in one twig? Count the tints and shades. +I found eight colors on a small maple branch (Fig. 309). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 309. Red or swamp maple._] + +2. Notice the differences in several twigs as they lie on the table. +What makes them look so different: size, shape, color, arrangement of +buds, the size or shape of the buds? + +3. On how many twigs are the buds opposite each other? Note the opposite +buds on the horsechestnut (Fig. 310). On how many are they alternate? +Are the buds opposite on the butternut (Fig. 311)? + +4. Which twigs bear the buds singly? + +5. When you find two or more buds growing together on a stem, is there +any difference in the size of the buds? + +6. On how many of the twigs can you see a scar left by the leaf when it +dropped off (Fig. 310 and Fig. 311 _a, a_)? Compare the leaf scars on +different twigs. Notice the strange scar on the butternut (Fig. 311). It +looks like the face of an old sheep. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 310. Horsechestnut._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 311. Butternut._] + +7. Do you see any cocoons on your twig? + +8. You all know the rings on an apple twig that tell how much it grew +each year. Do you find rings on other twigs? Do you see them on any of +these pictures? + +9. What do you suppose makes these rings? Do you think there was once a +large terminal bud where these rings are? + + + + +LEAFLET LV. + +PRUNING.[73] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XLVI.) + + +[73] Extended from Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +First snow, then sleet, and then a down-pour of rain--it stormed all +day. At night-fall it grew colder. The wind blew fiercely. The twigs and +branches fell on the white crust which covered the earth. Nature was +pruning the trees. + +Have you ever seen your father go into the orchard and prune his trees? +Why did he do it? Compare the work done by nature and that which your +father does. Which seems to be the more careful pruner? + +Let us experiment a little. It will please Uncle John. He always wants +his boys and girls to find out things for themselves. Select a branch of +lilac or some other shrub. Mark it so that you will always know it. +Count the buds on the branch. Watch them through the spring and the +summer. Note the number that become branches. You will then know that +nature prunes the trees. + +If you think a minute, you will see that pruning is necessary in the +plant world. Suppose a branch has thirty buds, and that every bud should +produce thirty branches, each of which in turn should produce thirty +more,--do you think there would be any room left in the world for boys +and girls? Would a tree be able to hold so many branches? + +You certainly have noticed decayed holes in trees. Did you ever wonder +why they were there? I suppose that most persons never wonder about it +at all; or if they do give it any passing thought, they say it is only +"natural" for trees to have rotten spots. But these rotten spots mean +that once the tree was injured. Perhaps the injury was the work of a +careless or thoughtless man who pruned the tree. Very few persons seem +really to know how to remove the limbs of a tree so that the wound will +heal readily. + +As you go and come, observe how the trees have been pruned. Do you see +long "stubs" left, where limbs have been cut? Yes; and that is the wrong +way to cut them. They should be cut close to the main branch or trunk, +for then the wounds will heal over better (Fig. 312). If we abused our +cows and horses, as we sometimes abuse our shade trees, what would +become of the animals? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 312. The wrong way and the right way to remove a +limb._] + +Did you ever see trees that were mutilated to allow of the stringing of +telephone and telegraph wires? + +Who owns the shade trees along a street or public highway? + + + + +LEAFLET LVI. + +THE HEPATICA.[74] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XL.) + + +[74] Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +Something new and pleasant happened in my life this year. In February, +while the wood was snow-covered and the roadsides piled high with +drifts, I saw hepaticas in bloom. + +Oh, no! I did not find them out of doors. I had all the fun of watching +them from my warm chimney-corner. Then when winds blew fiercely I often +went to the window where they grew and buried my head in the sweet +blossoms. What do you suppose they told me? If some winter day you feel +their soft touch on your face, and smell their woodsy fragrance, you +will hear the message. + +Perhaps you want to know how the hepaticas found their way into my +window-box. Last fall as I walked through a leafy wood I gathered a few +plants, roots and all, that I had known and loved in spring and summer +days. Among them were hepaticas. These I laid away in the cellar until +the first of February. Then I planted them in a corner of the window-box +that I had left for them. + +Since the little woods plants have come to live with me I have learned +to know them well. Perhaps the most important lesson they have taught me +is this: The blossoms may be the least interesting part of a plant. Will +you find out what hepaticas have to tell as the seasons pass? + +Even before you hear the first robin, go into the woods, find one of the +hepaticas, and mark it for your own. You will know it by the old brown +leaves. Then watch it day by day. The following questions will help you +to learn its life story: + +1. Where do hepaticas grow, in sunny or shady places? During which +seasons do they get the most sunlight? + +2. Watch the first sign of life in the plant. Do the new leaves or the +flowers come first? + +3. Look at the hepatica blossom a long time. How many different parts +can you see in it? Whether you know the names of these parts now does +not matter. I want you to see them. + +4. Notice the three small, green, leaf-like parts that are around the +flower bud. As the flower opens see whether they are a part of it, or +whether they are a little way from it on the stem. + +5. Observe the stem closely. Is it short or long? Hairy or smooth? + +6. As the new leaves appear find out whether they are fuzzy on the +inside as well as on the outside. Notice how they are rolled up and +watch them unroll. + +7. In how many different colors do you find hepaticas? + +8. Do some smell sweeter than others? If so, does color seem to have +anything to do with it? + +9. Look at a hepatica plant at night or very late in the afternoon. Also +watch it early in the morning and in cloudy weather. Then look at it in +bright sunshine. Do you see any change in the flowers? I think you will +discover something of much interest. + +10. Seed-time among hepaticas is very interesting. Notice what becomes +of the three small, leaf-like parts that were underneath the flower. How +many seeds are there? + +11. How long do you think the leaves of hepatica remain on the plant? Do +you suppose they remain green all winter? + +12. What becomes of the hepatica plant after it blossoms? Did you ever +see one in summer? Describe. + + + + +LEAFLET LVII. + +JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT.[75] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XLI.) + + +[75] Junior Naturalist Monthly, April, 1903. + +[Illustration] + + They call him Jack-in-the-Pulpit, he stands up so stiff and so queer + On the edge of the swamp, and waits for the flower-folk to come and + hear + The text and the sermon, and all the grave things that he has to say; + But the blossoms they laugh and they dance, they are wilder than ever + to-day; + And as nobody stops to listen, so never a word has he said; + But there in his pulpit he stands, and holds his umbrella over his + head, + And we have not a doubt in our minds, Jack, you are wisely listening, + To the organ-chant of the winds, Jack, and the tunes that the sweet + birds sing! + + LUCY LARCOM. + +"It is Indian turnip," said I. + +"No," said Grandmother, "it's memory root. If you taste it once you will +never forget it." And what Grandmother said to me so long ago, I say to +every boy and girl, "If you taste it once you will never forget it." + +But of all the names for this strange little wood plant, I like +Jack-in-the-pulpit best. Though never a word has it said in our lifelong +acquaintance, it has been a helpful little "country preacher" to me. As +we go into the woods this year, let us make up our minds that we will +know more than we ever have known before of its interesting life. + +Where do you find the Jack-in-the-pulpit? In what kind of soil does it +grow? How does it first come up? + +What is the shape of the root? One is enough for the whole class to +study and it should be planted again. We do not want the +Jack-in-the-pulpit to disappear from our woods. + +Does the little hood fold over at first? + +The hood or "umbrella" is not the flower. You will find the flowers on +the little central stalk that you call "Jack." See whether the blossoms +are alike. Look at the blossoms on several plants. Place a stick by the +side of one of these plants so that you will know it later in the year +when the Jack-in-the-pulpit has disappeared. + +Notice whether there are insects in the lower part of the flower stalk. +If so, can they get out? + +When the blossom has gone, look for the seeds. What color are they in +June? In August? + +Have you any house plant that you think is related to +Jack-in-the-pulpit? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 313. Tubers of Jack-in-the-pulpit, or Indian +turnip._] + + + + +LEAFLET LVIII. + +THE DANDELION.[76] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and L. H. BAILEY. + + +[76] Supplement to Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1904. + +[Illustration] + +The first warmth of spring brought the dandelions out of the banks and +knolls. They were the first proofs that winter was really going, and we +began to listen for the blackbirds and swallows. We loved the bright +flowers, for they were so many reflections of the warming sun. They soon +became more familiar, and invaded the yards. Then they overran the +lawns, and we began to despise them. We hated them because we had made +up our minds not to have them, not because they were unlovable. In spite +of every effort, we could not get rid of them. Then if we must have +them, we decided to love them. Where once were weeds are now golden +coins scattered in the sun, and bees revelling in color; and we are +happy! L. H. BAILEY. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. + +I. Ask your teacher to let you go out of doors for ten minutes to look +at dandelions. In your note books write answers to the following +questions: + + 1. At what time of day are you looking for the dandelions? Is the + sun shining, or is the sky overcast? Make up your mind to notice + whether dandelions behave the same at all hours of the day and in + all kinds of weather. + + 2. How many dandelions can you count as you stand on the + school-ground? The little yellow heads can be seen a long distance. + + 3. Where do they prefer to grow,--on the hillsides, along the + roadsides, in the marshes, or in your garden? + +II. Gather a basket full of blossoming dandelions, roots and all, take +them to school, and ask the teacher to let you have a dandelion lesson. +Here are some suggestions that will help you: + + 1. Each pupil should have a plant, root and all. Describe the + plant. Is it tall or short? How many leaves are there? How many + blossoms? + + 2. Hold the plant up so that you can see it well. How many + distinct colors do you find? How many tints and shades of these + colors? + + 3. Look carefully at the blossom. How many parts has it? How much + can you find out about the way in which the yellow head is made up? + +III. Mark a dandelion plant in your garden. Watch it every day. Keep a +record of all that happens in its life. Later in the year send Uncle +John a little history or account of the plant you have watched. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 314. Blow the dandelion balloon!_] + + DANDELION. + + Dear common flower, that grow'st beside the way, + Fringing the dusty road with harmless gold, + First pledge of blithesome May, + Which children pluck, and, full of pride uphold, + High-hearted buccaneers, o'erjoyed that they + An Eldorado in the grass have found, + Which not the earth's ample round + May match in wealth, thou art more dear to me + Than all the prouder summer-blooms may be. + + --LOWELL. + + + + +LEAFLET LIX. + +MAPLE TREES IN AUTUMN.[77] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflets XLVII and XLVIII.) + + The hills are bright with maples yet, + But down the level land + The beech leaves rustle in the wind, + As dry and brown as sand. + The clouds in bars of rusty red + Along the hill-tops glow, + And in the still sharp air the frost + Is like a dream of snow.--ALICE CARY. + + +[77] Junior Naturalist Monthly, November, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +The hills are bright with maples about the time Jack Frost appears, and +many people say that he makes the leaves turn red and yellow. Wise folk +tell us, however, that Jack Frost is not the artist; that leaves change +to autumn tints when their work is completed. + +Boys and girls may not know that leaves "work;" yet all through the long +summer days when you have been playing in the shade of some old maple, +the leaves over your head have been very busy. Uncle John says that each +leaf is a "starch factory," and this is true. Starch is necessary for +plant food and it is manufactured in the leaves. The green leaves and +stems are the machinery, which is run by sunlight. Look at a large +branch of maple and see how the leaves are arranged to catch every +sunbeam. The more light the green parts of the tree get, the more plant +food can be made and the sturdier and handsomer the tree. + +But the story of the way in which the plant food is made is a long one +and not easy for young people to understand. This can come later when +you have become familiar with the many interesting things that you learn +by watching the tree and by studying with the microscope. + +If I should to go into your school-room and should ask how many boys and +girls know a sugar maple, I suppose every hand would be raised. But if I +should ask: "When does the sugar maple blossom?" "What do the blossoms +look like?" "When do the winged seeds fall?" I wonder how many could +give me satisfactory answers to my questions! + +Choose some fine old maple for study. The one that stands near the door +will be best, since you can see it every day. Write in a note book all +that you can find out about it as the weeks go by. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR FALL STUDY. + +1. Notice how the leaves turn to the sunlight. + +2. Try to find two leaves exactly alike in color, form, size, length of +stem, etc. If you succeed send them to Uncle John. + +3. How many different tints can you find in a single leaf? + +4. As you look at two sugar maple trees, do they seem to be colored +alike? + +5. Are all sugar maples that you know the same shape? + +6. How are the leaves arranged on the branch? + +7. Can you find any winged seeds near the tree? If so, plant one in a +box of earth and see whether it will grow. + +8. If you find any plants growing beneath the maple tree, describe them +or tell what they are. + +9. Do you know any other kinds of maples? How do you distinguish them? + +[Illustration: _Child's drawing of a maple leaf. Fifth grade. +(Reduced.)_] + + + + +LEAFLET LX. + +A CORN STALK.[78] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflets XLII and XLIII.) + + +[78] Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +"Tom," said I to a young friend who stood by the window tossing a +ten-cent piece into the air, "what plant is used for part of the design +on that coin?" + +The boy did not answer right away. I do not believe he had ever looked +at it closely; yet this is one of the prettiest of our silver pieces. +After a few minutes he said, "It is corn, isn't it?" + +Hearing a note of surprise in his voice, I told him something about +corn-raising in this country. We then decided that it is a good thing to +represent corn on one of the United States coins, since it is a source +of much of our wealth. + +But aside from its value, Indian corn should interest us because it is a +wonderful plant. Boys and girls do not know much more about it than does +any old black crow. You have watched the farmer plant corn and you like +to eat it. Jim Crow has watched the farmer plant corn and he likes to +eat it, too. The time has come, however, when you can get ahead of him +if you care to; and to get ahead of crows on the corn question is worth +the while. Let me tell you how to do it. + +1. Secure a kernel of corn, cut it in halves, and note the food inside +it. This food was stored in the seed by the parent plant. Uncle John +would say that it is the "lunch" that the mother puts up for her +children. What must happen before the food can be used by the little +plant? + +2. Place some moist soil in a tumbler, and put a kernel of corn in it +near the side so that you can watch it grow. How soon does the root +appear? The leaves? How many leaves come up at one time? + +3. Ask your father to give you a small piece of ground in the garden. +Plant a few kernels of corn so that you will have some plants of your +own to study this summer. Other people's plants are never so interesting +as our own. + +4. As your corn plants push their way up into the light and air, watch +them every day. Notice how the new leaves are protected by the next +older ones. + +5. Is the stem hollow or solid? In which way would it be stronger? + +6. Notice the joints. Are they the same distance apart throughout the +length of the stem? Does the distance between the joints always remain +the same? Measure them some day; then in a week measure them again. + +7. Where does the stalk break most easily? + +8. Where does the leaf clasp the stalk? + +9. Notice how strong the leaf is. In what direction do the ribs extend? +If these long narrow leaves were not strong what would happen to them as +they wave back and forth in the wind? + +10. Have you ever noticed the ruffled edges of the leaves? As you bend +them you will see that the edges do not tear. + +11. There are two kinds of blossoms on a corn plant. The ear bears one +kind, the tassel the other. If you were to cut all the tassels from the +plants in your garden, the kernels would not grow on the ears. Later on +you will learn why. + +12. Watch the ear closely as it grows. + +13. Follow a thread of silk to the place where it is attached. Notice +whether there is one silk for each kernel. + +14. When the corn is in the milk stage it is preparing to store up food +for the young plants. How does it taste at this time? + +15. Look closely at the base of the corn stalk and you will see roots +extending obliquely into the soil. These are the brace roots. Of what +use do you think they are to the corn stalk? + + + + +LEAFLET LXI. + +IN THE CORN FIELDS.[79] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflets XLII and XLIII.) + + +[79] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +"Caw caw!" said Jim Crow as he flew over our heads. "Was he jeering at +us?" we wondered, the children and I. Perhaps he was inquisitive to know +what business we had in the open country and in the fields of corn. +Perhaps he was not concerned with us at all. Very likely crows are less +concerned with us than we think they are. + +Jim Crow flew on out of sight, but we stayed among the ripening corn. +The ears were filling out. The ends of the silk were turning brown. We +saw many things that we had planned to look for in vacation: the tall +stem, the brace roots, the long strong leaves and the way the ribs +extend in them, the ruffled edges of the leaves, the two kinds of +blossoms, and where each silken thread is attached. The whole story was +before us. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 315. Over the fields in corn-harvest time._] + +But this is the harvest time and we are ready to learn a new lesson from +the corn fields. As we watch them now let us answer the following +questions: + +1. How is the corn cut? + +2. How many ears do you find on a stalk? + +3. Are the ears on the same side of the stalk or on opposite sides? + +4. Take into the school room as many kinds of corn as you can find and +describe each as follows: + + a--The shape and color of the kernel. + b--Number of rows of kernels. + c--The number of kernels in each row. + +5. Perhaps the girls will pop some corn and bring it to the +Junior Naturalist Club meeting. Let them try to pop field corn. +Cut kernels in two of field corn and pop-corn, and report whether +they differ. Why does pop-corn pop? + +6. Make a list of the foods for which corn is used. + +7. Why are pumpkins planted among corn? + +8. Why not make for your school room some decorations from +ears of corn? + +[Illustration] + + + + +LEAFLET LXII. + +THE ALFALFA PLANT.[80] + +BY L. H. BAILEY and JOHN W. SPENCER. + +(Compare Leaflet XXXIV.) + + +[80] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1904. + +[Illustration] + +All the things that the farmer sells are produced by plants and animals. +The animals live on the plants. It is important that we know what some +of these plants are. + +Some plants are grown for human food. Such are potato, wheat, apple, +lettuce. Some are grown only to feed to animals. Such are grasses and +clover,--plants that are made into hay. + +Hay is the most important crop in New York State. In fact, New York +leads all the States in the value of the hay and forage. This value is +more than 66 millions of dollars. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 316. Sprig of the alfalfa plant._] + +Hay is important in New York also because there are so many dairy cattle +in the State. There are more than one and one-half millions of dairy +cattle in New York. In the value of the milk and butter and cheese, New +York also leads all other States. There are also great numbers of beef +cattle, horses, mules, and sheep. All these millions of animals must be +supplied with hay in our long cold winters. + +Hay is made in New York State from grasses and clover. Suppose we could +find some plant that would yield twice as much hay as clover yields, and +yet be as nutritious,--you can readily see how valuable such a plant +would be to the State. It would be better than a gift of millions of +dollars. Such a plant is alfalfa. + +Now that you know something about alfalfa in a general way, I want you +to know how the plant looks and how it grows. It is not yet very well +known even among farmers, but its cultivation is increasing every year. +You will probably know where there are fields of it. Sometimes it grows +along roadsides as a weed. Last spring Uncle John offered to send a +small packet of alfalfa seeds to any Junior Naturalist who wrote for it. +He sent about 5,000 packets. But if you do not know the plant or cannot +find it, _write at once to Uncle John and he will send you some by mail +from the University farm_. + +Let us see how many school children in New York State will know what +alfalfa is between now and Thanksgiving time. When writing to Uncle John +about alfalfa, try to answer as many of the following questions as +possible from your own observation: + +1. Does the plant remind you of any other plant that you ever saw? Of +what? + +2. How does it grow,--straight up or spreading out on the ground? + +3. How many stalks come from one root? + +4. What are the leaves like? Mark out the shape with a pencil. + +5. What are the flowers like? Do you know any other flowers of similar +shape? What is the color? + +6. If possible, dig around a plant and describe how the root looks. Does +it branch into many fibres, as grass roots or corn roots do? + + +UNCLE JOHN'S LETTER ABOUT THE ALFALFA GARDENS. + +_My Dear Boys and Girls:_ + +Do you know much about the alfalfa plant? Do you remember that last +spring we promised to send a packet of seed to each of you who asked for +it? Did you send your name asking that you be served? We received the +names of several thousand children asking for seed and I am wondering +whether you are one of them. If so, did you sow the seed? Will you write +me a letter telling me what became of it? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 317. What leaf is this? Is it enlarged?_] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 318. Leaf of alfalfa. What significance have the +spots?_] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 319. Flowers of the alfalfa. Are they natural +size?_] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 320. Alfalfa pods. How much enlarged?_] + + +I am very fond of children's letters. Each year I receive more than +thirty thousand of them. I sometimes wonder whether there is another man +who is honored by so many letters from young people, for I count it an +honor to be so remembered. + +As large as that number is, I cannot spare one letter. I always want a +few more. All your letters are read and I take great pains to answer all +questions. If, by any oversight, you have been missed I am sorry. I know +what it costs a boy or girl to write a letter. I never open one without +feeling that the writer is a friend of mine, otherwise he would not have +expended so much hard work to write it. + +School has now begun and of course you are very busy, and so is your +teacher. One of the best opportunities to write letters is in school. +Please ask your teacher whether you may not write me during your +language period. You may say that she may make authors of all of you if +she can, but I will do all I can to help you become good letter writers. +Ask her whether a letter to me may not be a substitute for a +composition. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 321. Crown of the alfalfa plant, showing how root +and top start off._] + +In your letter you may tell me your experience with alfalfa. Tell me +your failures as well as your successes. Even though you received your +seeds and did not sow them, tell me that. I shall never find fault with +you for telling me the truth. If you sowed the seed and the plants did +not do well, tell me that also. The plants may look very small and +uninteresting to you this year, but next year they may surprise you. + +In some parts of the United States the alfalfa crop is of great value +and the loss of it would bring distress to many farmers. I am wondering +whether the crop, as raised in all parts of our country, is not worth +more money than all the gold found in the Klondike, taking the two year +by year. I do not know how that may be. I am wondering. Men by the +thousand have gone to the gold mines and endured many hardships and +later returned with less money than those who had remained at home and +took care of their alfalfa. + +It may be that a mine of wealth lies very near you, and to get it you +may have to ask alfalfa to find it and bring it to you. Gold cannot be +found in all places in a gold country and alfalfa may not feel +comfortable and grow in all parts of a good farming country. What we +asked of you last spring was that you become alfalfa prospectors and +later tell us what you found. + +JOHN W. SPENCER. + + + + +LEAFLET LXIII. + +THE RED SQUIRREL.[81] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XLIX.) + +_The squirrel came running down a slanting bough, and as he stopped +twirling a nut, called out rather impudently, "Look here! just get a +snug-fitting fur coat and a pair of fur gloves like mine and you may +laugh at a northeast storm."_--THOREAU. + + +[81] Junior Naturalist Monthly, November, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +For a cheery companion give me the red squirrel! I enter the woods and +there the little fellow is, ready to welcome me. "What a fine day it is +for gathering nuts!" he seems to say, and straightway, as I listen to +his merry chatter, I think it is a fine day for any sport that includes +him and the brown November woods. + +Young naturalists may think it is a difficult thing to become acquainted +with red squirrels, but you will often find them willing to be sociable +if you show them a little kindness. I have many times watched two or +three squirrels playing about a friend as she sat in her garden. They +seemed to find her nearly as interesting as the old pine tree near by. +They are inquisitive animals. + +"How did you tame them?" I asked. + +"I fed them occasionally," she replied. "At first I put some nuts on the +grass several feet away from me. Then I gradually placed a tempting meal +nearer and nearer until the little fellows seemed to lose all fear of +me." + +If we care to, you and I, we can learn a great deal about red squirrels +before another year has passed. If you live on a farm you should know +the habits of all the wild creatures about you. You can then be just to +them, and decide whether or not you can afford to let them continue to +be tenants on your farm. You will find that all of them have interesting +lives. + + THE RED SQUIRREL. + + A. B. C. + + Just a tawny glimmer, + A dash of red and gray,-- + Is it a flitting shadow, + Or a sunbeam gone astray? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 322. In the haunts of the red squirrel._] + + It glances up a tree trunk, + And from some branch, I know + A little spy in ambush + Is measuring his foe. + + I hear his mocking chuckle; + In wrath he waxes bold, + And stays his pressing business + To scold and scold and scold. + +QUESTIONS ABOUT THE RED SQUIRREL. + +1. What is the color of the red squirrel? Is he really red? Is his +entire coat of one color? Does he wear different colors in winter and +summer? + +2. Did you ever see a red squirrel's nest? If so, describe it. + +3. Does the red squirrel hibernate; that is, does he sleep all winter as +the chipmunk does? + +4. What does a red squirrel eat? Did you ever see him getting the winged +seeds out of a pitch pine cone? + +5. Do you believe a squirrel ever planted an oak? Give a reason. + +6. If you live in the country, you have seen red squirrels running on +the rail fences. Why do they like rail fences? Do you see them so often +on other kinds of fences? + +7. Notice the tracks made in the snow in winter woods. Try to find +whether the red squirrel's is among them. + +8. If you know any other kinds of squirrels, tell how they differ from +the red squirrel. + + + + +LEAFLET LXIV. + +ROBIN.[82] + +BY L. H. BAILEY. + + +[82] Introduction printed in Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +The drifts along the fences are settling. The brooks are brimming full. +The open fields are bare. A warm knoll here and there is tinged with +green. A smell of earth is in the air. A shadow darts through the apple +tree: it is the robin! + +Robin! You and I were lovers when yet my years were few. We roamed the +fields and hills together. We explored the brook that ran up into the +great dark woods and away over the edge of the world. We knew the old +squirrel who lived in the maple tree. We heard the first frog peep. We +knew the minnows that lay under the mossy log. We knew how the cowslips +bloomed in the lushy swale. We heard the first soft roll of thunder in +the liquid April sky. + +Robin! The fields are yonder! You are my better self. I care not for the +birds of paradise; for whether here or there, I shall listen for your +carol in the apple tree. + + * * * * * + +Our lesson on robin shall be a lesson out of doors. We shall leave the +books behind. We shall see the bird. We shall watch him and make up our +minds what he is doing and why. We shall know robin better; and robin +lives in the fields. + +Perhaps you think you know robin. Suppose that one of your friends never +saw a robin; do you think you could close your eyes and describe him so +that your friend would know how the bird looks? + +Then tell me where robin builds its nest, and of what materials; and how +many eggs are laid and their color; and how long the mother bird sits; +and how long the fledglings remain in the nest. You can readily find a +family of robins in some near-by tree, or perhaps even on the porch; and +you can learn all these things without ever disturbing the birds. + +I want you to watch a bird build its nest. You may think that you know +how robin builds, but can you really tell me just how the bird carries +the mud, and where it finds the other materials, and how long the +building operation continues? Do both birds take part in the building? + +Then I want to know whether you can tell the difference between father +robin and mother robin. Did you ever notice whether robins that come +first in the spring have brighter breasts than those that come later? +And can you explain? + +Tell me, too, what robin does with his year. You know when he comes in +spring and when he builds and when the speckled young ones fly. But +where is he in summer and fall and winter? And what is he about all this +time? Does he build another nest and rear another family, or does he go +vacationing? And does he gather the same kind of food in spring and +summer? Does he gather cherries for his family or for himself? Did you +ever see robin in winter in New York? + +What can you tell me about the song of robin? Does he sing all the year? +Or does he have a different note for summer? Not one of you can tell how +many different notes and calls robin has. I sometimes think that robin +knows several languages. + +I have seen many more springs than you have seen: and yet I always wait +for robin on the lawn. I often wonder whether the same robins come back +to my lawn. They seem to go to business at once. They hop with the most +confident air, and day after day pull strings out of the ground. You +know what these strings are: but do you know how robin finds them? Is it +by smell, or sight, or feeling, or hearing? Do you suppose he is +listening when he cocks his head to one side and then to the other? Or +is he merely making motions? And I wonder whether birds and animals +usually make motions just for the sake of making them? + +I have asked you many questions, and not one of you can answer. Perhaps +I cannot answer. You ask, "What's the use?" If you can see robin, and +learn why, you can also learn other things. But I like robin just +because he is robin. + +There is one thing more. You will read about robin redbreast. Who is he? +Find out for me whether robin redbreast of Europe and of English poetry +is the same as our American bird. + + + + +LEAFLET LXV. + +CROWS.[83] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XXIV.) + + +[83] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1904. + +[Illustration] + +At a wigwam in the Adirondack Mountains a tame crow lives with a family +of Indians. These Indians make baskets of birch bark and other things +that they find out of doors, and sell them to visitors who spend their +summer in the mountains. The little crow helps in the business. He makes +himself so interesting to the passers-by that they stop to watch him. +The Indians then have an opportunity to show their baskets, and very +often sell them. + +But we need not go to the Adirondacks to find a crow that earns his +living. Mr. F. E. L. Beal, who has studied crows a long time, speaks of +them as valuable farm hands; and Neltje Blanchan says that they are as +much entitled to a share of the corn as the horse that plows it. This +may surprise boys and girls who have heard crows spoken of as thieves +and rascals. Let us look into their story so that we can find out for +ourselves whether to the farmer the crow is a friend or an enemy. + +_How Jim Crow does harm:_-- + +1. By killing toads, frogs, small snakes, and salamanders ("lizards"). +Why are these little creatures first rate farm hands? + +2. By pulling up sprouting corn. Some farmers prevent this by tarring +the corn. + +3. By stealing eggs, small chickens, and tiny birds. It is said that the +crow is rarely guilty of these wrongs. What do you know about it? + +_How Jim Crow does good:_-- + +4. By eating large numbers of insects: grasshoppers, caterpillars +(including army worms and cut worms), June bugs, and other insects. So +many insects does he devour that he earns more than he destroys. A half +bushel of corn scattered on a field is said to be sufficient in many +cases to prevent Jim Crow from pulling the growing corn. + +_To study crows:_-- + +Watch the crows to find out just what they do. Do you ever see them +flying in large numbers? If so, at what time of day do they fly? Where +are they going? Notice how they use their wings. + +Do they come from the same direction each morning? Would it not be a +great experience to make up a party and visit the place from which they +come? What do you think you would find there? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 323. Who's afraid!_] + +When you see crows feeding in a field try to learn what they are eating. + +You can often find crows' tracks in the snow. There the prints of their +feet and wings may be seen. What do you think interested the crows in +the snow-covered field? + +Determine whether the caw is always the same. Is it sometimes short, +sometimes long? Can you associate these differences with the actions of +the birds? + +I wish you would read John Hay's poem, "The Crows at Washington." + + + + +LEAFLET LXVI. + +A FRIENDLY LITTLE CHICKADEE.[84] + +BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XXIV.) + + This scrap of valor just for play + Fronts the north wind in waistcoat gray. + + --EMERSON. + + +[84] Junior Naturalist Monthly, December, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +One cold December day a chickadee found himself alone in a wood. He +looked very much like other chickadees, a small, gray bird, wearing, as +someone has said, "a black hood with white side pieces and a black +vest." He was like others of his kin, too, in that he was a skillful +acrobat. He could stand right side up on a twig or cling to it upside +down--one position seemed as easy as the other. + +But I am not sure that this little chickadee was like his fellows in one +respect. I have wondered whether they are all as friendly as he. I shall +tell of something that he did, and leave it to young naturalists to find +out whether other chickadees will show as friendly a spirit. + +It happened on the cold December day when the chickadee was alone in the +"snow-choked wood" that a Senior Naturalist wandered along that way. +Whether or no the little bird knew that the tall man was there I cannot +say. At any rate, he called out "phoe-be," the plaintive little pipe of +two notes, clearer and sweeter than the real phoebe bird can make. The +tall man answered the call, whistling two notes as plaintive and sweet +as the chickadee's own. Again and again the whistle was repeated and +every time it was answered. Nearer and nearer came the fluffy midget, +until finally he alighted on a tree directly over the tall man's head. + +And then a remarkable thing happened! You will scarcely believe it, yet +it is true. Knowing how near the chickadee was, the tall man whistled +"phoe-be" very softly, and the little bird flew down and rested on his +arm. How pleased the Senior Naturalist must have felt when he had gained +the confidence of this wild bird! I wish that our boys and girls would +try to do the same thing and tell Uncle John whether the experiment is +successful. + + +STUDY OF A CHICKADEE IN WINTER. + +1. Keep a sharp lookout for chickadees. Can you tell one when you see +it? They are often with nuthatches and downy woodpeckers. If you tie a +piece of suet in a tree near your house these winter birds may visit +you. + +2. Listen to the notes of all the winter birds. Some day you will hear +one say "Chick-a-dee-dee-dee-dee." Then he may sing "phoe-be," and you +will try to imitate the notes. He may answer you. Tell us how near you +can get to one of these friendly little birds. + +3. Watch a chickadee searching for his breakfast on a twig. What kind of +a bill has he? What do you think he is finding to eat? + +4. If I lived on a farm I should have suet hung in my orchard to +encourage the chickadees to stay there. Can you tell why? + +5. Do you see chickadees in summer? Where are they then? + +6. If I were to ask you to find a deserted chickadee's nest, where would +you look? + + + + +LEAFLET LXVII. + +THE FAMILY OF WOODPECKERS.[85] + +BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XXIV.) + + +[85] Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, March, April, and May, 1903. + +I. THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. + +[Illustration] + +The story goes that, once upon a time, a naturalist found a great many +grasshoppers wedged into an old fencepost. They were alive but could not +get away. Bye and bye their jailor appeared. He was neither somber nor +ugly, as you might suppose, but a merry red-headed woodpecker. With +never a thought of cruelty in his little red head, he had used the +fencepost as a cold-storage place, and had filled it with a good supply +of food. + +Now I am sure our boys and girls will ask, "Is this story true?" I +cannot say. The best way to decide whether it may be true is to study +the habits of a red-headed woodpecker. Do you think that we shall find +him capable of so clever a trick? + +The red-head is not uncommon. Keep on the lookout for him. His head, +neck, throat, and upper breast are red; the rest of his body is +blue-black and white. He is a handsome fellow, a bright bit of color in +wood, garden, orchard, or field. Let us see what we can learn about him. + + +SUGGESTIONS. + +1. Try to get a nearer view of any bird that you see sitting on a +telegraph pole or fencepost. It may be a red-headed woodpecker. + +2. Is this little fellow as good a drummer as his relatives? + +3. His mate likes his music. If she comes near, the better to hear him +drum, notice whether she has a red head. + +4. Do you find beech-nuts or other food stored in decayed trees? Under a +bit of raised bark? In cracks in bark? In gate posts? If so, a red-head +may be about. + +5. These woodpeckers eat more grasshoppers than any of the others. Find +out whether they eat them on the ground. + +6. Have you ever seen one fly into the air after a passing insect? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 324. The red-headed woodpecker._] + +7. Do red-headed woodpeckers ever visit your chicken yard? Watch them +closely and find out why they are there. + +8. Do you see them later in the year eating fruit on your farm? + +9. It has been found that they eat ants, wasps, beetles, bugs, +grasshoppers, crickets, moths, spiders, and caterpillars. If you find +them doing harm on your farm will you not compare it with the good they +do? + +10. What plants do they visit? + +11. Where is red-head's nest? + + +II. DOWNY WOODPECKER.--A LITTLE ORCHARD INSPECTOR.[86] + +[86] Junior Naturalist Monthly, January, 1903. + +Rap! rap! rap! the little inspector has come to look at our apple trees. +"You are welcome, downy woodpecker," say we every one. "Stay as long as +you like. We want to look at you closely so that we shall know you every +time we see you." + +A bird about three inches shorter than a robin, black above, white +below, white along the middle of the back, and the male red on the nape +of the neck: this is the way downy looks. A hardworking, useful, +sociable tenant of the farm: this is what downy is. + +Let us see how this little woodpecker is useful. If you live on a farm, +you have probably heard of borers--grubs that get into trees and injure +them. Your father does not like these grubs, but downy does. He seems to +like any kind of grub. Watch him on a tree sometimes when he is looking +for one. He knows where to find it, although neither you nor I might +suspect that an insect is living beneath the smooth bark. Then he bores +into the tree, and spears the grub with his long tongue. His tongue is a +remarkable weapon. He can stretch it two inches beyond the tip of his +bill, and it is barbed on both sides. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 325. Cocoons of the codlin-moth as they were found +attached to a piece of loose bark, natural size._] + +Downy does not stop work, you must remember, when borers are not plenty. +Beetles nibble no more plants after his eyes light on them. They are +trespassers, and as judge, jury, and executioner, he proves his right +to be considered a most useful farm hand. Ants, too, provide him with a +good meal occasionally. + +Among the helpful deeds of the downy woodpecker, we must not forget to +mention that he destroys great numbers of the larvæ or worms of the +codlin-moth in winter, when these worms have tucked themselves away in +the crevices of the bark, all wrapped in their cocoons. (Figs 325, 326.) +Perhaps your father has shown you these little cocoons along the body +and in the crotches of the apple tree. If not, you can find them +yourself. Open some of them and see whether the worm is still there. If +he is not, downy has probably taken him. I suppose you know that the +larvæ of the codlin-moth are the worms you find in apples. See Leaflet +LIII. + +You must not confound the downy woodpecker with that other woodpecker, +the sap-sucker, that often drills rings of holes in the trunks of apple +trees. The sapsucker has yellow on his under parts. I shall tell you +about him some other time. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, +enlarged._] + +You have learned that insects and apple-scab and yourselves all try to +see who shall own the apple fruit. Now you know that birds, and insects +that feed on leaves and in the wood, are also concerned in this quarrel +about the apple. + + +A FEW THINGS TO OBSERVE. + +1. Does the downy woodpecker travel down a tree head first or does he +hop backward? + +2. Try some day to see his feet. You will find that two of his toes are +turned forward and two backward. Are there other birds that have this +arrangement of toes? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 327. The downy woodpecker._] + +3. Notice that he braces himself with his tail as he works. + +4. Do you ever see the downy woodpecker eat seeds of plants that the +farmers do not like to have on their land? + +5. Hang a bone or piece of unsalted suet out of doors for the +woodpeckers. They will enjoy an unexpected feast. + +6. Where does downy make his nest? + + +III. THE SAPSUCKER.[87] + +[87] Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1903. + +If you are walking through an orchard or wood and see a jolly little +woodpecker with red on its head, do not say at once that it is a +downy woodpecker. Look again. Has it yellow on the underparts, black on +the breast, a red throat, and red on the crown instead of on the nape? +Then it is a sapsucker, a new arrival. (Fig. 328.) It is larger than the +downy. The female has no red on the throat. + +And to think that such a merry little fellow has such a bad reputation +among farmer-folk! You will be surprised to find how unkindly +woodpeckers are treated throughout the country, because of the misdeeds +of the sapsucker. Even the downy has suffered much abuse. This is +unfortunate, for I am sure downy woodpeckers have done much more good +than sapsuckers have done harm. + +I wish that all Junior Naturalists would try to find out whether even +the sapsucker deserves all that has been said against him. He does harm +by boring holes in trees, but how much? Let us learn. As woodpeckers are +not shy, it is not difficult to get near them. I have stood within a few +feet of a sapsucker, and he did not mind a bit. He kept on boring holes +in a tree without a thought that any one might object. + +1. How many trees can you find that have holes bored by the sapsucker? + +2. How are the holes arranged; here and there on the trunk, or in rings +around it? Have you ever found a complete ring of holes? + +3. Keep a record of the months in which you find the sapsucker. + +4. Notice how the sap runs down into the holes that have been newly made +by a sapsucker. + +5. It is said that this woodpecker eats the inner bark of the tree as +well as the sap. What can you find out about this? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 328. The sapsucker. Compare this picture with that +of the downy woodpecker in Fig. 327._] + +6. Do you ever find insects near the holes made by the sapsucker? Do you +think he eats them? + +7. Find out where the sapsucker has his nest. + + +IV. THE FLICKER.[88] + +[88] Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1903. + +Three woodpeckers have been introduced to you in these leaflets: the +red-head, the hard working downy (Fig. 327), the sapsucker (Fig. 328). +There is one more that we ought to add to the list for summer study, +since he is very likely to cross our path,--the flicker (Fig. 329). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 329. The flicker._] + +This woodpecker has a great many names, probably because he lives +in a great many States. The most common are: flicker, highhole, +yellow-hammer, and golden-winged woodpecker. I like the name flicker +best of all. + +He is a good-sized bird, about two inches longer than a robin. His +colors are: brownish with black spots above, whitish spotted with black +underneath, a black crescent on the breast, and a scarlet crescent on +the back of the neck. When he flies you will notice two things: the rich +golden color of the inside of his wings, and the white patch on the back +just above the tail. + +Now, since he is a woodpecker, you will probably expect to find the +flicker in trees; but you are quite as likely to find him on the ground. +About half of his food consists of ants, and these he finds afield. He +also eats other insects, as well as a good deal of plant food. + +I hope that you will see a flicker this year and hear him call out, +"a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a." Possibly some of you may find a +nest that these birds have dug out in an old apple tree. They do not +always make new nests, however, but live in the deserted homes of other +woodpeckers. + + +QUESTIONS. + +1. Has the flicker a straight bill like the downy woodpecker? + +2. Have you seen the flicker's mate? If so, in what way does she differ +from him in color or marking? + +3. Where does the flicker build its nest? What color are the eggs? + +4. Try to watch a flicker feeding its young. Describe. + +5. Do you know the call of the flicker? Can you imitate it, or write it +so that Uncle John can recognize it? + +6. Do flickers remain all winter? If not, when do they come? When do +they leave? + + + + +LEAFLET LXVIII. + +DESERTED BIRDS'-NESTS.[89] + +BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. + + +[89] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February, 1901. + +[Illustration] + +There is a wagon trail which I like to follow; it is always a pleasant +walk. There is no foot path; so I do not think many people pass that +way. Perhaps this is why many little wild creatures of the field and +wood like to live there. I do not know any other place where the birds +sing so sweetly, where the wild flowers grow so thick, and where the +insects are so numerous. + +By the side of this road I found the little vireo's nest which you see +in the picture. It was about five feet from the ground, and hung near +the end of a long branch. It was interesting to find out what it was +made of,--grasses, strips of bark, hair, pine needles, plant fibres, and +bits of paper. On the outside were lichens and spiders' webs. The pieces +of paper were dropped along the way, I think, by the leader in a +cross-country run. Even the little vireos have an interest in the +outdoor sports of the college men. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 330. The vireo's nest._] + +One of the most interesting bird homes is the oriole's nest. Uncle John +will like to know whether you find one. The young orioles must have +happy times in their cradle, which hangs between the earth and the sky. + +Winter is the best time of year to hunt for birds' nests. It is hard to +find them in the spring and the summer. The parent birds intend it shall +be. If you succeed in getting a nest, take it into the school room so +that the other members of your club can study it with you. + + +SUGGESTIONS. + +Where did you find the nest? What is its size and shape? Name it, if you +can. + +Was it built on the horizontal crotch of the branch, or on an upright +crotch? + +How was it fastened to the branch? + +Notice the materials of which it is made. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 331. The hanging nest of the oriole. A cord is +woven into the nest._] + +In the oriole's nest you will see that there is a difference in the way +in which the upper and lower parts are made. What is it? + +How deep is the oriole's nest which you find? Compare the material on +the outside with that on the inside. + +How is the nest fastened to the twigs? + +Where does a catbird build its nest? Robin? Bluebird? Swallow? Hen? +Turkey? + +[Illustration: _What?_] + + + + +LEAFLET LXIX. + +THE POULTRY YARD: SOME THANKSGIVING LESSONS.[90] + +BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY and JAMES E. RICE. + + +[90] Extended from Junior Naturalist Monthly, November, 1902. + +[Illustration] + +A rosy-cheeked girl, a freckled-faced boy and a little bald-headed baby +were the only young persons at the Thanksgiving dinner. The baby was not +old enough to be invited, but we were so thankful to have her with us +that we could not resist drawing her chair up to the table. + +The turkey was a big one and "done to a turn." We old folks thought so, +the freckled-faced boy thought so, and the rosy-cheeked girl thought so. +The baby, so far as I could judge, thought not at all. She chewed +energetically on a spoon and left the discussion of the turkey to her +elders. + +Having known for a long time that children like to chatter, I decided +that I would give the little lad and lassie opposite me an opportunity +to talk about turkeys, ducks, chickens, and the like. "These," thought +I, "are good Thanksgiving topics, and a boy and girl who have lived on a +farm all their lives can tell me some interesting things about them." + +But this world is full of many strange surprises! It was not long before +I learned that those little folk could not answer some very simple +questions about poultry. They did not even know why a chicken does not +fall off the roost when it sleeps. To be sure, they could tell the exact +moment when, in the process of carving, the wish-bone would appear: but +you will admit that this is very little. I certainly was disappointed. +The bald-headed baby cheered things up a bit, however, by crowing +lustily. I rejoiced in the fact that apparently she had heard sounds +from the barn-yard. + +Now there are many reasons why children, Junior Naturalists especially, +should know something about poultry. It may be that you live on a farm +and will want to raise chickens, ducks, and turkeys some day; and the +farmer who knows his poultry best will be most successful in raising it. +But whether you live in country or city you will like to study these +interesting birds. Let us see what we can find out about them in the +next three or four weeks. November, the month of Thanksgiving, is a good +time to begin. + + +TURKEYS. + +Let us first pay our respects to the king of the poultry yard. We may +never know His Royal Highness, the old gobbler, very well, because it is +said he will not often permit folks to meet him on his own ground. I am +told that a visitor is more sure of a welcome within his domain if he +wear sombre garb. Although gaily dressed himself the old fellow objects +to bright colors on others. + +There is one thing that we can do if the gobbler does not let us near +him,--we can peek at him through the fence. Then, too, at Thanksgiving +time many a slain monarch will hang in a nearby market. Following are a +few suggestions that will help us to learn something about turkeys. I +hope that you know all these things now, and, therefore, will not need +to be asked. If you do, please write Uncle John. How many letters do you +think he will get from such persons? + +In the study of any bird, learn to describe it fully: the size, the +shape, the bill, the length of legs, the feet, and the color. Is there +more than one color of turkey? + +Observe the head, face and wattles of the turkey gobbler. + +Notice the strong, curved beak; the bright, clear, hazel eyes. + +How many colors does he wear? + +When the turkey is being prepared for the Thanksgiving dinner, ask +mother for the foot. Are there any feathers on it? Has it the same +number of toes that you find on a rooster's foot? Is the arrangement of +the toes the same? + +Perhaps you find scales on the legs of the turkey. Do you find them also +on hens' legs? On which side of the leg,--front or back--are the scales +the larger? + +When I was a little girl I liked to pull a tendon that I found in the +turkey's foot after it had been cut off. It was amusing to see the toes +curl up. I did not know then that when birds roost at night this tendon +is stretched as they bend their legs. Then the toes grasp the perch and +hold the bird on. When it stretches its leg to leave the roost the toes +spread out, but not until then Because of this birds can go to sleep +without the least fear of falling. What kind of perch do they choose, a +wide one or a narrow one? Why? + +Can you tell which is the hen turkey and which the gobbler? Explain. On +which one do you find a hairy tuft on the breast? + +Did you ever hear of the caruncle on the head of the turkey? Compare +this with the comb in domestic fowls. Does it differ in shape? Do ducks +and geese have combs? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 332. A turkey likes to roam through the fields._] + +What is the color of the turkey's face? Does it change color? Do you +notice any difference in color when the turkey is angry? What are the +turkey's wattles? + +Notice the fourth toe. Why is it placed in opposite direction to the +others? I wonder whether it enables the fowl to grip the perch; and +whether it gives the turkey a wide span for support in running over +loose brush. + +Turkeys and chickens and other animals have habits, as boys and girls +do, only that they are not bad habits. Did you ever watch turkeys +hunting grasshoppers? And did they go in flocks or alone? How do +chickens hunt,--in flocks or alone? Which roams farther from home, +turkeys or chickens? Do turkeys lay their eggs in the barn or poultry +house, as chickens do? Did you ever see a turkey's nest, and where was +it? + +We have Junior Naturalists in many parts of the world: England, +Scotland, Australia, Egypt. Will they have an opportunity to study +turkeys? See what you can find out in answer to this question. + + +A TIME-HONORED RACE--GEESE. + +Geese, as you know, come of a very distinguished race. This is no +advantage to them in a social way in the poultry yard, however. There is +not a duck nor a turkey nor even a wise rooster, that knows or cares +whether in times gone by geese saved a Roman city, or whether they were +recognized in ancient Egypt. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 333. Geese; "a very distinguished race."_] + +The story of the old gray goose was the one I liked best long ago,--the +goose that died before Aunt Nabby had enough feathers to make a bed. How +often you and I have listened to mother sing about her! And what an +inconsiderate old gray goose we thought she was, to die before the +feather bed was finished. + +Some things for Junior Naturalists to think about come into my mind in +connection with Aunt Nabby's goose and others of its kind: + +Why do goose feathers make the best beds? + +Do you think an old grandmother goose would give enough feathers in her +lifetime to make a good bed? I have heard of one that lived sixty years. + +Are feathers ever taken from live geese for beds? + +Compare the feathers of land-fowls and water-fowls. + +Probably one or more of our Junior Naturalists will have a goose for his +Thanksgiving dinner. If so, I wish that the wing feathers might be +brought to school. See whether you can find out why the wing feathers of +a goose were preferred for making quill pens. Make a pen if you can and +write a letter to Uncle John with it. The five outer wing feathers are +most useful for writing, and of these the second and third are best. +Why? Do you think that the Declaration of Independence was signed with a +quill pen? Do goose quills make good holders for artists' brushes? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 334. A happy family._] + +What kind of food do geese like best? + +Is the tongue of a goose similar to that of a turkey or chicken? + +Is the old gander as cross as the turkey gobbler? + +Have you ever seen a flock of wild geese flying northward or southward? +Which way are they going in the fall? Observe that nearly always they +keep their V-shaped ranks unbroken. There is, of course, a leader whose +call the flock follows. Whether the leader is some chosen member of the +number or whether he takes his position by chance I do not know. What +time of day do the wild geese fly? Do you like to hear them honking as +they go on their way? I wish you would find out whether our farmyard +geese are only these common wild geese tamed. + + +CHICKENS AND DUCKS; AND THE STORY OF TWO MOTHER HENS. + +One mother hen had her own brood of fluffy little chicks (Fig. 334). +When they were old enough they scratched for worms and ate gravel as +obediently as any one could desire. How happy they were underneath the +hemlocks in the long afternoons! + +[Illustration: _Fig. 335. Mother hen and baby ducks._] + +The other mother hen had to take care of ducks (Fig. 335). Pretty as any +chicks they were, but troublesome as only little ducks can be with a +nervous old hen for their adopted mother. The family in the picture +looks very contented. Do you suppose that the photographer told them to +look pleasant? When we come to know ducks and chickens better, we shall +learn why the little ducks are often such a trial to the hen mother. + +It may be that when we ask boys and girls to study chickens and ducks +they will say that there is nothing new to learn about them. I am not so +sure. The freckled-faced boy thought he knew all about them, too. Let us +see whether we can suggest some new things to think about, as you look +over the fence into the poultry yard, or watch the cook preparing a hen +or duck for the Thanksgiving dinner. + +As I looked at the chickens in a barn-yard the other day, I was +interested in the different kinds that I saw: some brown, some white, +some black, some speckled; some had feathers on their feet, others had +not; some had combs with many points, in others the comb was close to +the head; some had long tails, some short tails, some no tails at all to +speak of. If I were to name the differences that I noticed you would not +get through reading them in time to write your November dues. How many +unlike marks or characters can you find in chickens or ducks? + +Have you ever seen two chickens or two ducks exactly alike? + +Compare the feet of a hen and a duck. Their bills. Do you think that a +duck can scratch for worms? + +What do ducks eat? What kind of food do hens like best? + +How do a hen's feathers differ from a duck's? + +Note the scales on a hen's foot. Snakes have scales on their bodies, +too. Some day you may learn a wonderful story that these similar +features of hen and snake suggest. + +Touch a hen's eye lightly with a pencil. Does she cover it with a thin +eyelid? A turtle does this. Has a turtle scales also? If so, may be it +will come into the wonderful story connected with hens and snakes. + +Look closely at a hen's ear. + +Watch chickens as they make their toilet. A farmer told me that among +the tail feathers of barn-fowls there is an oil sac that they find +useful in cleaning their clothes. I wonder whether this is true? + +While I was watching some chickens the other day, I saw one jump up into +the air several times. She was a skillful little acrobat. What do you +think she was trying to catch? + +Watch the cook as she prepares a chicken or turkey for dinner. Find the +crop into which the food passes after it has been swallowed. From the +crop it passes on to the gizzard. Look closely at the gizzard. See what +strong muscles it has. It needs them to grind the grain and gravel +stones together. It is a very good mill, you see. + +Try to find out whether a duck has a crop and a gizzard. Do not ask any +one. Wait until there is to be a duck for dinner some day. Would you +suppose from the kind of food ducks eat that they need a crop and a +gizzard? + +Do little chickens have feathers when they are hatched? What is the +cover of their bodies called? Are they always of the same color when +they are hatched that they are when they are grown up? What kinds of +poultry change their color when their feathers grow? Notice the chickens +of Black Minorcas (if you know any one who has that kind), then write +Uncle John about their color. Did you ever see fowls without feathers? +When you go to the fair be sure to look for some "Silkies." Did you ever +see fowls whose feathers were all crinkled up toward their head? Look +for "Frizzles" when you go to the fair. + + +A LESSON ON EGGS. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 336. A coop of chickens._] + +What is the color of the turkey's egg? Do the first-laid turkey's eggs +differ in color from those that are laid later? How do these eggs differ +in color from the eggs of ducks, geese, and hens? Do eggs from different +breeds of hens differ in color? Do eggs from different kinds of poultry +differ in shape? Can you not make some drawings of eggs showing how they +differ, and send to Uncle John? Not one of you can tell how much a +turkey's egg weighs, nor a hen's egg. Do you think that eggs from all +kinds of hens weigh the same? And if they do not, do you think that they +are worth the same price the dozen? + +Did you ever look through an egg at a strong light? What did you see? +Was there an air space? Was it on the big end or the little end? Leave +the eggs in a dry room for a few days. Does the air space increase in +size? Boil an egg. Remove the shell carefully over the air space. Do you +notice a membrane? Are there two membranes? Boil an egg until it is very +hard; does the white of the egg separate in layers? Break the yoke +carefully; do you notice layers of light and dark color? Is there a +little soft light colored spot in the centre? Write to Uncle John and +ask him what this is. + + +SOME QUESTIONS IN GENERAL. + +How many varieties of fowls can you name? How do they differ in size and +color? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 337. What kind of hens are these?_] + +Have you ever seen ducks, geese, hens, and turkeys standing on the snow +or ice? If so, how did they behave? Which seemed to enjoy it? Why should +a duck or goose be able to swim in ice water without apparently +suffering from cold? When mother dresses a duck or goose for dinner, ask +her to let you see the layers of fat under the skin and inside the body. +Write to Uncle John and tell him what the fat in the body is for. Ask +him how this fat came in the body; also whether there is such a thing as +fat in the food which the ducks eat. + +Did you ever see hens and ducks out in the rain? Did they all enjoy it? +Did you ever see anything wetter than a wet hen? Why do they look so +disconsolate? + +Examine the feathers of different kinds of poultry. How do the feathers +of ducks, geese, turkeys and fowls differ? Try wetting the various +feathers, then let them dry out. Make drawings of these feathers, +showing, if you can, the different colors and shapes. + +Do turkeys think? Did you ever watch a turkey steal her nest? Where did +she go? How long did you watch her before you found the nest? Did she +cover up her eggs? With what? Why do they cover the eggs when they leave +the nest? Do ducks, geese, turkeys, and hens all cover their eggs? Why +do hens differ in this respect from the turkeys? Do all kinds of ducks +cover their eggs? + +Did you ever watch ducklings and little chickens eat? Did you notice any +difference in their appetites? Which grow faster, little chickens or +little ducks? + +Do you know that some hens do not pay their board? Sometimes hens eat +more than they are worth. It may be the fault of the hen or it may be +that she is not provided with the proper kind of food or given the +proper care. A hen cannot make eggs unless she has the proper kind of +food. Some persons so feed and handle their hens that they are able to +produce eggs for six cents the dozen; other persons expend more than a +dollar to get the dozen. + +How does the farmer make his money from fowls (that is, what kind of +products does he sell)? + +You should learn to classify chickens according to the uses for which +they are grown. (1) Some kinds of hens excel in egg-laying. These kinds +are known as the "egg breeds." One of the leading egg breeds is the +Leghorn. (2) Others produce much meat, and are known as the "meat +breeds," as the Brahma. (3) Others are fairly good fowls for both eggs +and meat, and are called "general-purpose breeds," of which Plymouth +Rock and Wyandotte are good examples. (4) Then there are "fancy breeds," +grown as pets or curiosities or as game birds. Now, try to find out +whether there are any general differences in form and looks to +distinguish one class of breeds from another. And find out whether +turkeys, geese, and ducks may be similarly classified. + + +HOW FRANK AND HENRY RAISED CHICKENS. + +Frank and Henry wanted to keep chickens all by themselves. They thought +they might sell the eggs and the fowls and get spending money. They knew +little about chickens, but then, it did not matter, for chickens will +take care of themselves. All there is to do is to give them corn and +water every day,--at least, so the boys thought. + +Both boys had a hard time the first year, but they kept at it. Frank +finally made a success. Henry lost money; his hens died or did not lay, +and he had to give up. One boy turned out to be a good farmer and the +other a poor farmer. You have seen such farmers living side by side. + +I will tell you why Frank succeeded. 1. He provided warm and pleasant +quarters for the chickens, so that the fowls were comfortable and +contented. 2. He learned to like the chickens, so that he spent many of +his extra hours watching them and caring for them. 3. He learned that +something more is required in feeding a hen than merely to satisfy her +appetite. Some kinds of food may be best for growing chicks and others +for laying hens. 4. He soon found that some hens lay more and larger +eggs than others, and he saved eggs from these hens for hatching. Henry +said that "eggs are eggs" and that there was "no sense in being so +fussy." 5. He learned that eggs and poultry sell best when they really +are best and when they are carefully cleaned and neatly packed. Frank +had learned the first lessons in good farming. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 338. At the drinking fountain._] + + + + +LEAFLET LXX. + +LITTLE HERMIT BROTHER.[91] + +BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. + + +[91] Nature-Study Quarterly, June, 1899. + +[Illustration] + +In far Thibet exists a class of Buddhist monks who are hermits and who +dwell in caves. I was told about these strange people by a Senior +Naturalist, who has spent his life going around the world and finding +the countries upon it as easily as you Junior Naturalists find the same +countries on the globe in the schoolroom. A real naturalist is never +contented with maps of places and pictures of things, but always desires +to see the places and things themselves. + +The Senior Naturalist told me that he found Thibet a dreary land +inhabited by queer people; and the hermit monks were the queerest of +all. Each one dwelt in his solitary cave, ate very little, and worked +not at all, but spent his time in thought. Could we read his thoughts we +should be none the wiser, since they are only mysterious thoughts about +mysterious things. + +Now it is a surprising fact that we have hermits of similar habits here +in America; only our hermits are little people who dress in a white garb +and live in cells underground; they also eat little and work not at all, +and probably meditate upon mysteries. However, they are equipped with +six legs while the monks of Thibet have only two, a difference of little +importance since neither hermit travels far from his cave. + + * * * * * + +There are in eight or nine counties in New York State places that may +surely expect visitors on certain years. The connection between these +guests and the hermits of Thibet may not seem very close at first sight; +but wait and see. + +The reason why these New York counties expect company is that they +entertained a large number of similar guests in 1882, 1865, 1848, 1831, +1814, in 1797, and probably at intervals of seventeen years long before +that; in 1797, however, was the first record made of the appearance of +these visitors. Every time they came they probably outstayed their +welcome; yet they had the good quality of allowing their hosts sixteen +years of rest between visits. + +In order that the Junior Naturalist may recognize these visitors I will +describe their methods of arrival. Sometime in the latter part of May or +in early June you may hear a great buzzing in some trees, as if there +were a thousand lilliputian buzz saws going at once. If you examine the +trees you will find on them many queer-looking insects, with black +bodies about an inch long, covered with transparent wings folded like a +roof. Naturally you will wonder how such great numbers of large insects +could appear one day when they were nowhere to be seen the day before. +But if you look at the ground beneath the trees you will find in it many +small holes. You will also find clinging to the trees many whitish +objects, which at first sight seem like pale, wingless insects, but +which on closer examination prove to be merely the cast skins of insects +(Fig. 339). These are the cowls and robes which our little American +hermits cast off after they come out of their underground cells, and +which they must shed before they can free their wings. Our little +American hermits we call the seventeen-year locusts. However, this name +is a most confusing one, since we also call our grasshoppers locusts, +and to them the name truly belongs. These seventeen-year locusts are +really cicadas, and they belong to a different order from the locusts. +The real locusts have mouth-parts formed for biting, while the cicadas +have mouth-parts grown together in the form of a tube, through which +they suck juices of plants. So we hope the Junior Naturalists will call +our little hermits by their right name, cicadas; and will not permit +them to be spoken of as locusts. + +In order that you may know the mysterious lives of these wonderful +insects, I will tell you the story of one of them. + + +THE STORY OF LITTLE HERMIT BROTHER, CICADA SEPTENDECIM. + +Once a cicada mother made with her ovipositor a little slit or cavity in +an oak twig, and in this slit placed in very neat order two rows of +eggs. Six weeks later there hatched from one of these eggs a pale, +lively little creature, that to the naked eye looked like a tiny white +ant. If, however, we could have examined him through a lens we should +have found him very different from an ant; for his two front legs were +shaped somewhat like lobsters' big claws, and instead of jaws like an +ant, he had simply a long beak that was hollow like a tube. After he +came out of his egg he ran about the tree and seemed interested for a +time in everything he saw. Then, suddenly, he went to the side of a limb +and deliberately fell off. To his little eyes the ground below was +invisible; so our small cicada showed great faith when he practically +jumped off the edge of his world into space. He was such a speck of a +creature that the breeze took him and lifted him gently down, as if he +were the petal of a flower; and he alighted on the earth unhurt and +probably much delighted with his sail through the air. At once he +commenced hunting for some little crevice in the earth; and when he +found it he went to the bottom of it and with his shovel-like fore-feet +began digging downward. I wonder if he stopped to give a last look at +sky, sunshine, and the beautiful green world before he bade them +good-bye for seventeen long years! If so, he did it hurriedly, for he +was intent upon reaching something to eat. This he finally found a short +distance below the surface of the ground, in the shape of a juicy +rootlet of the great tree above. Into this he inserted his beak and +began to take the sap as we take lemonade through a straw. He made a +little cell around himself and then he found existence quite blissful. +He ate very little and grew very slowly, and there was no perceptible +change in him for about a year; then he shed his skin for the first +time, and thus, insect-wise, grew larger. After a time he dug another +cell near another rootlet deeper in the ground; but he never exerted +himself more than was necessary to obtain the little food that he +needed. This idle life he found entirely satisfactory, and the days grew +into months and the months into years. Only six times in the seventeen +years did our hermit change his clothes, and this was each time a +necessity, since they had become too small. Judging from what the Senior +Naturalist told me, I think this is six times more than a Thibetan +hermit changes his clothes in the same length of time. + +What may be the meditations of a little hermit cicada during all these +years we cannot even imagine. If any of the Junior Naturalists ever find +out the secret they will be very popular indeed with the scientific men +called psychologists. However, if we may judge by actions, the sixteenth +summer after our hermit buried himself he began to feel stirring in his +bosom aspirations toward a higher life. He surely had no memory of the +beautiful world he had abandoned in his babyhood; but he became suddenly +possessed with a desire to climb upward, and began digging his way +toward the light. It might be a long journey through the hard earth; for +during the many years he may have reached the depth of nearly two feet. +He is now as industrious as he was shiftless before; and it takes him +only a few weeks to climb out of the depths into which he had fallen +through nearly seventeen years of inertia. If it should chance that he +reaches the surface of the ground before he is ready to enjoy life, he +hits upon a device for continuing his way upward without danger to +himself. Sometimes his fellows have been known to crawl out of their +burrows and seek safety under logs and sticks until the time came to +gain their wings. But this is a very dangerous proceeding, since in +forests there are many watchful eyes which belong to creatures who are +very fond of bits of soft, white meat. So our cicada, still a hermit, +may build him a tall cell out of mud above ground. How he builds this +"hut," "cone," or "turret" as it is variously called, we do not know; +but it is often two inches in height, and he keeps himself in the top of +it. Under ordinary circumstances our cicada would not build a hut, but +remain in his burrow. + +Finally there comes a fateful evening when, as soon as the sun has set, +he claws his way through the top of his mud turret or out of his burrow +and looks about him for further means of gratifying his ambitions to +climb. A bush, a tree, the highest thing within his range of vision, +attracts his attention and he hurries toward it. It may be he finds +himself in company with many of his kind hurrying toward the same goal, +but they are of no interest to him as yet. Like the youth in the famous +poem, "Excelsior" is his motto and he heeds no invitation to tarry. When +he reaches the highest place within his ken he places himself, probably +back downward, on some branch or twig, takes a firm hold with all his +six pairs of claws, and keeps very still for a time. Then his skeleton +nymph-skin breaks open at the back and there pushes out of it a strange +creature long and white, except for two black spots upon its back; on he +comes until only the tip of his body remains in the old nymph-skin; then +he reaches forward and grasps the twig with his soft new legs and pulls +himself entirely clear from the old hermit garb. At once his wings begin +to grow; at first they are mere pads on his back, but they soon expand +until they cover his body and are flat like those of a miller. The many +veins in the wings are white and he keeps the wings fluttering in order +that they may harden soon. If, in the moonlight of some June evening, a +Junior Naturalist should see a tree covered with cicadas at this stage +he would think it had suddenly blossomed into beautiful, white, +fluttering flowers. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 339. The cicada is full grown at last, and his +empty nymph skin is hanging to a branch._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 340. The cicada's drum._] + +As the night wears on, the color of our hero changes and his wings +harden; until when the sun rises we behold him in the glory of a black +uniform with facings of orange and with beautiful glassy wings folded +roof-like above his body. (Fig. 339.) Great is the change wrought in his +appearance during this one marvelous night, and greater still the change +wrought in his habits! He is now no longer a hermit; there are thousands +of his kind about him, a fact which he realizes with great joy. So happy +is he that he feels as if he must burst if he does not find some +adequate means for expressing his happiness in this beautiful world of +sunshine. Then suddenly he finds in himself the means of expression and +bursts into song. Yet, it is not a song exactly, for he is a drummer +rather than a singer. On his body just behind each of his hind wings is +a kettle drum. The head to this drum is of parchment thrown into folds +and may be seen with a lens if you lift his wings and look closely. +(Fig. 340.) Instead of drum sticks he uses a pair of strong muscles to +throw the membranes into vibration and there is a complex arrangement of +cavities and sounding boards around these drum heads so that the noise +he gives off is a great one indeed for a fellow of his size. So fond is +he of making music that he has no time to eat or to do aught else but to +sound fanfares all the sunshiny day. He is not the only musician on the +tree; there are many others and they all join in a swelling chorus that +has been described as a roar like that made by the "rushing of a strong +wind through the trees." + +If our cicada could talk to one of you Junior Naturalists he would tell +you that there was a good reason for all this music. He would explain +that only the men of the cicada world possess drums and that the object +and reason of all their music is the entertainment of the lady cicadas, +who are not only very fond of this drumming, but are good critics of +cicada music as well. He would perhaps tell you also that he had his eye +on a certain graceful maiden perched on the leaf between him and the +sun; but she, on the other hand, seemed to give about equal attention to +him and three other drummers situated near by. Excited by the +competition and by her indifference, he rattled his drum faster and +faster until he rose to the heights of cicada melody and harmony that +left his rivals far behind. Then the lady of his choice listened +spellbound and pronounced him the greatest of all musicians, and thus he +won his bride. However, we may safely predict that their wedded life +will be too full of happiness to last. After a few weeks the sunshine, +the music, the happiness of wooing and winning will prove too much for +our hero and one day he will beat his drum in a last mad ecstacy and +fall to earth and die from happy exhaustion. His little wife may survive +him only long enough to cut slits in some of the twigs of the home tree +and place in them rows of eggs from which shall develop a family of +hermits which shall come forth and fill the world with their music +seventeen years hence. + + * * * * * + +There are many broods of cicadas in the United States, so that they +appear in different localities in different years. New York State has +five well-marked broods. + +There are several other species of cicada peculiar to America. One is +called _Cicada tredecim_, since it appears every thirteen years. +However, this species is limited to the South. + +The dog-day harvest fly, or lyreman, is the cicada that is best known to +us through the northern and middle States. This appears in small numbers +every year and is a distinct addition to the summer chorus of insect +singers. He is larger and much more dignified in appearance than is his +cousin _septendecim_. He wears a black suit embroidered with scrolls of +dark olive green and the whole lower surface of his body is covered with +white powder. His drums are situated above plates which may be seen on +the lower side of the body, one behind each hind leg. He hides in trees +and his shrill music is so associated with the heat of summer noons that +the sound itself makes one drowsy. The hermit life of the lyreman in +underground cells is supposed to last only two years. + +While the cicadas of which we have spoken are the children of an ancient +race which inhabits America, Europe also has her ancient races of +cicadas, although they are not the kind which live hermit lives for +seventeen years. We have evidence that their music was held in high +esteem by the ancient races of men--especially the Greeks. When Homer +complimented his orators he compared them with cicadas. Thus it may lend +a special interest to the study of the cicada by our Junior Naturalists +when they know that his kettle drums have been celebrated instruments of +music by poets who wrote three thousand years before America was +discovered by Columbus. + + +QUERIES FOR SHARP EYES. + +1. When did you first see one of the cicadas? + +2. What was it doing when you found it? + +3. Did it do anything to attract your notice to it, or did you find it +by accident? + +4. Where did you find it? + +5. See whether you can determine which are the father and which the +mother cicadas. + +6. Try to find where a mother cicada has laid eggs. + +7. If you find where the cicada emerged from the ground, or from a hut, +give a brief description of the location, as to kind of soil, etc. + +8. Where did you find the most of the cast-off nymph skins? + +9. Did you discover animals or birds feeding upon the cicada? + + + + +LEAFLET LXXI. + +A HOME FOR FRIENDLY LITTLE NEIGHBORS.[92] + +BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XVII.) + + +[92] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1902. + +[Illustration] + +Last year when vacation days were over our young people found it hard to +leave the acquaintances that they had made during the summer,--the +garden-folk, the road-side-folk, and the wood-folk. Let us take them +indoors with us this year. It will not be difficult to provide a home +for some of the more friendly ones and they will help to make the +schoolroom a cheerful place. How pleasant it will be in the long +afternoons to hear the cricket's merry tune or see the flutter of a +butterfly's wings! The quiet woods and the green fields will then seem +nearer and we shall feel a little touch of their mystery and beauty. + +It is not necessary to have a fine home for the outdoor-folk. They will +not object if it is not an up-to-date dwelling. Fig. 341 illustrates a +very convenient terrarium, as the home is called. The sides and top are +covered with fine wire screening and the front is glass. By raising the +cover, which is fastened to one side by means of hinges, new visitors +can be admitted easily. + +Another terrarium is shown in Fig. 126, page 208. This is made from an +old berry crate. It does not look quite so well as the other, but, as I +said before, the inmates will not mind a bit. The toads will give their +high jump as gracefully and the crickets fiddle as merrily as in the +finer one. + +When the terrarium is ready to furnish, you can have some nature-study +trips in search of materials for it. Cover the floor with stones and +place about three inches of good soil over them. Then you will be ready +to select the carpet. Let this be of soft green moss, the prettiest bits +that you can find on the forest floor. Leave one corner free for sods +on which tall grasses grow, so that there will be a cozy nook for the +orchestra (crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, and the like). What a fine +concert there will be! Will the most conceited toad in the terrarium +ever dare to raise his voice in song again after hearing it? Perhaps +next spring we shall know. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 341. A shower for the little neighbors._] + +Even before the home is completed, you can gather your small guests +about you. Temporary lodgings can be provided without much trouble. Fig. +342 illustrates a good insect cage, and a box containing damp moss and +covered with mosquito netting will make fairly comfortable quarters for +salamanders ("lizards") and toads. + +The first visitor that you welcome will probably be a little +woolly-bear, a brown and black caterpillar that you see so often in your +autumn walks (Fig. 343). He is one of my favorite insect friends, and I +really like to have him snuggle up in a furry ball in my hand. You will +find woolly-bear a very restless little creature. You never know what he +is going to do next. He may spin a cocoon this fall or "he may curl up +like a woodchuck," as Uncle John says, and sleep until spring. Then, if +all goes well, he will spin his cocoon and come out an Isabella +tiger-moth (Fig. 344). No matter how fast woolly-bear may be hurrying +along the highway when you meet him, put him into the terrarium, for you +will find that he is a most entertaining little fellow. + +If you have an insect net, sweep it among shrubs and weeds. I am hoping +that when you look into it you will find "golden-eyes" or the +lace-winged-fly. When you see the pretty little green creature you will +wonder that her children can be called aphis-lions, for they are not at +all like their mother (Fig. 345); but when you have watched them among +the aphids or plant-lice, you will understand how they have earned their +name. They have very long jaws and very large appetites. + +No one knows better than golden-eyes what her children are capable of +doing when on a foraging tour. For this reason she places her eggs high +on silken stalks (Fig. 345). If she laid them on the leaf close +together, the first aphis-lion hatched would not give the other members +of his family a chance to open their eyes, nor to know how pleasant it +is to live on a green leaf. As it is he walks down the silken stalk and +finds himself among the aphids. Then, when he has proved himself the +gardener's friend by devouring a great many of the small green insects, +he spins a pearly white cocoon and out of this comes a lace-winged-fly +with glistening golden eyes. If one of these dainty creatures comes to +live in your terrarium, you may notice some day that it has a +disagreeable odor. This is a characteristic that many insects possess, +and owing to it the birds do not like to eat them. + +There is another insect out in the garden that ought to be an inmate of +every terrarium this fall, the green cabbage-worm. Some Junior gardeners +will object to calling this a friendly little neighbor, but you will +find that he will teach you many new things, in this way proving himself +friendly to you as a naturalist. You must remember that these green +caterpillars did not know that you had planted the garden in which they +worked destruction. They did not know that you wanted to send the very +best cabbage to the State fair. They knew only that when they opened +their eyes they were on a green leaf and it was good to eat. + +Probably you will find the eggs of the cabbage butterfly on the under +side of the leaves. Then you can feed the young caterpillars when they +hatch. They will, of course, prefer cabbage leaves. If you miss them +some day, search in the terrarium for the chrysalids into which they +have changed. These chrysalids sometimes imitate the color of the +support from which they hang, and you may have difficulty in finding +them. For this reason it may be well to keep one of the caterpillars +under a lamp chimney, the top of which has been covered with mosquito +netting (Fig. 342), so that you may know how the chrysalids look. + +The cabbage butterflies are familiar to most boys and girls; yet as they +come out of the chrysalid state in your terrarium, you will be able to +observe them more closely. Notice that the wings are dull white on the +upper sides, while on the under side the apex of the fore wings and the +entire surface of the hind wings are pale lemon yellow. In the female +you will find that there are two black spots besides the tip on each of +the fore wings, and in the male there is but one. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 342. An insect cage._] + +Now that I have put you in the way to find a few members of the insect +world for your terrarium, I am going to ask you to think about some +other outdoor-folk that naturalists learn to like. + +Have you ever turned over stones or broken off pieces of an old stump in +the woods or along the bank of a stream? If so, you may have seen +salamanders ("lizards") making their escape as quickly as possible. If +you can get a few for your terrarium you will learn to like them, for +they are harmless and have very interesting ways. Do not catch them by +their tails as they try to get away, or you may find that you have +captured the tails but lost the salamanders. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 343. Woolly-bear, natural size._] + +Let the excursion in search of these little fellows be one of the +jolliest of the year. You will find them in moist places and should +therefore, carry a box containing damp moss to put them in. I would +suggest that you take two boxes along, one for the smaller salamanders, +the other for their larger brothers. Why? I will tell you. + +It happened this summer that a party of little folks went out with me on +a salamander hunt. We found three kinds: the _Spotted Salamander_, which +is black with yellow spots on each side of the back; the _Red-back +Salamander_, which usually has a reddish brown band along the back; and +a black one covered with whitish spots. This black one with whitish +spots was named "Freckles" by one of our number, a much more attractive +name than his own, which is _Pleth'-o-don glu-ti-no'-sus_. + +We placed the three in a box, and as I closed it the large spotted +salamander seemed very well satisfied (no wonder!), while the other two +raised their heads in a most appealing way. I was firm, however, and +made them prisoners, feeling sure that they would be comfortable in the +nice large terrarium. + +When morning came we opened the box, for we were ready to put our little +neighbors into their new home. What was our surprise to find the spotted +salamander alone! As to countenance he was well content; as to sides he +was much bulged out. Poor little "Freckles" and poor little Red Back! I +wish I had listened to your appeal! + +[Illustration: _Fig. 344. Isabella tiger moths, male and female. The red +and black woolly-bear is the larva or caterpillar of this moth. The +smaller moth is the male._] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. + +1. A terrarium is "an inclosed bit of earth on which things may live and +grow." Do not think that it is necessary to have one as well made at +first as that in the illustration. (Fig. 341.) Uncle John will be well +pleased to know that you have made some arrangement for having +outdoor-folk live in the schoolroom. Any such home will be a terrarium. + +2. Every one can have grasshoppers for study. How many different kinds +can you find? Do all have the feelers or antennæ the same length? +Observe the growth of the wings in the nymph, as the young grasshopper +is called. In the grown-up ones notice that the narrow wing is on the +outside and the pretty ones underneath. + +3. Every one can also find crickets, and no terrarium will be complete +without them. In the warm schoolroom or home they will make music until +late in the year. Watch the black cricket make music with his wings. + +Notice a tiny light speck near the elbow of the cricket's front leg. +This is the ear; so you see the little fellows "listen with their +elbows." + +The mother cricket has a spear at the end of her body. With this she +makes a hole in the ground in which to place her eggs. She cannot chirp, +but the father makes enough music for the family. You will see that the +mother seems to enjoy it. + +Plant fresh grass seed and grain occasionally in the cricket corner of +your terrarium. + +4. If you do not own an insect net, try to find a lace-winged fly +without one. It will not be difficult for young naturalists to see the +flies resting on the bushes along the roadside. These insects are +valuable to farmers because their children, the aphis-lions, eat so many +plant-lice and other insects. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 345. Golden-eyes or lace-winged fly; eggs, larva or +aphis-lion, cocoon, adult._] + +Look on the under side of the leaves for the cocoon illustrated in Fig. +345. It has the appearance of a small pearl. The first time I found one +I did not know what it was. I left it on my desk hoping that something +interesting would come out of it. The next morning there was a pretty +green insect trying to get out of the window and I wondered how it had +come there. While thinking about it my eye fell on the cocoon lying on +my desk. I noticed that a lid had been raised on it and suspected at +once how golden-eyes had found her way into my room. Who will succeed +in getting the eggs, an aphis-lion, a cocoon, or a lace-winged fly? Let +us know. + +5. The larger the number of butterflies you can bring into the +schoolroom, the gayer will be the terrarium world. Gather fresh thistles +or other flowers from which they can suck the nectar or give them +sweetened water in a dish. Notice their long mouth-parts as they eat. + +One of the most common of all butterflies is the large brown and black +one. This is called the monarch butterfly. Notice that many of these fly +together on autumn days. They are going south with the birds. + +6. Be sure to keep the moss damp for the salamanders and add +occasionally fresh pieces in which they will get food. Perhaps you can +teach them to eat raw meat after they have been with you awhile. + +7. The terrarium will not be complete without a toad or two. You can +feed them flies, other insects, and earthworms, and they may then leave +the salamanders alone. You need not be afraid to handle the toads for +_they cannot give you warts_. When they have been in the terrarium +awhile they will show you how they like to spend the winter. + +[Illustration: _A terrarium in School No. 23, Buffalo._] + + + + +LEAFLET LXXII. + +MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES.[93] + +BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. + + +[93] Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1902. + +[Illustration] + +Of all the insects that interest boys and girls, moths and butterflies +seem to hold the first place. I find, however, that young people are not +always able to distinguish these insects one from another, and do not +know very much of the strange lives they lead. Perhaps you may have +found out a few facts about them in books, but this is not _knowing_. To +know, one must see some of the wonderful things that they do. When you +have watched the whole life-story of a moth or butterfly, you will have +a far greater interest in these animals than their handsome wings and +graceful flight have ever given you. + +The most important thing to remember in the study of moths and +butterflies is that they appear in four different forms during their +lives. These forms are: + + _The egg._ _The larva._ _The pupa._ _The adult._ + + +THE EGGS. + +The eggs are laid singly or in clusters. They are usually found on the +plant which is the favorite food of the young. Look for the shining +masses of the eggs of the tent-caterpillar on apple and wild cherry +trees; also for the yellow eggs of potato beetles on potato leaves. + + +THE LARVA. + +The larva or "worm" hatches from the egg. During this period in its +history the insect _eats_ and _grows_. If you doubt that they have good +appetites, undertake to feed a few healthy caterpillars this spring. If +you doubt that they are particular as to the kind of food they have, +find out for yourselves whether the apple tree "worm" will eat +milk-weed leaves or whether the milk-weed caterpillar will eat leaves +taken from an apple tree. + +One of the most interesting things to notice in the study of larvæ or +caterpillars is that they occasionally appear in bright new coats, and +we find the old ones have been cast aside. It is necessity, not pride, +that leads them to do this. You see, an insect's skeleton is on the +outside of its body; and if it could not be shed once in a while how +would there be room for the little creature to grow? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 346. Chrys'-a-lids of the mourning-cloak +butterfly._] + + +THE PUPA. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 347. Cocoon of the cecropia moth. It is often +attached to the twig of a fruit tree._] + +Of all the forms in which moths and butterflies appear, the pupa is the +strangest. Although we speak of this period in the life of the insect as +one of rest or sleep, it is the time when the most wonderful changes +take place in its body. + +The queer little objects that you see illustrated in Fig. 346 are the +pupæ of the mourning-cloak butterfly. When the caterpillars were about +to shed their coats for the last time, they hung themselves head +downward from a twig by means of a silk button which they had spun. Then +they cast off their skins, leaving the chrysalids or naked pupæ hanging; +protected from birds by their spiny form and protected from many +enemies, even from young naturalists, by their wood-brown color which so +closely resembles the support from which they are suspended. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 348. The cecropia pupa inside the cocoon. Nearly +natural size._] + +Let us next look at the pupa of a moth. This is often inside a covering +which is called a cocoon. If you look on the fruit trees or shade trees +about your home you may find a cocoon of the ce-cró-pi-a moth. You will +see that it is made of silk. This covering was spun by the giant +silkworm as a protection against the storms of winter. How snug the pupa +is inside, and how firmly the cocoon is fastened to the twig on which +you found it! Figs. 347, 348, 349 show this interesting insect. + +When you are studying pupæ remember that butterflies do not come out of +cocoons. Their chrysalis or pupa is always uncovered. In the case of +moths, however, the pupa is either inside a cocoon or protected by being +underground or in some well sheltered place. These facts suggest a +question. Is there any reason why the one should be better fitted to +endure cold and storms than the other? + + +THE ADULT. + +We now come to the fourth period in the lives of moths and butterflies, +a period which has ever had and ever will have an interest for young and +old. Since there are many persons, little and big, who cannot +distinguish the two groups, butterflies and moths, let us learn the +marks by which they may be known. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 349. Cecropia moth just emerged from the cocoon, on +which it hangs. The moth comes from the pupa._] + +Butterflies have uncovered pupæ. They fly by day. The wings are folded +over the back when at rest. The antennæ or feelers have _knobs_ on the +ends. (Fig. 350 B.) The body is slender. + +Moths have pupae either inside cocoons or protected by being underground +or in some sheltered place. Many moths fly at night. The antennæ are +never knobbed. (Fig. 350 M M.) leave the wings spread when they are at +rest. The body is stout. + +Occasionally you may come across insects that very closely resemble +butterflies, yet have some characters that are similar to those of +moths. They are the skippers, so named because of their strong and rapid +flight. The antennæ have knobs, but these knobs are drawn out and turned +back in the form of a hook. (Fig. 350 S.) The body is rather stout. The +pupa is covered by a thin cocoon. In some species the wings are held +vertically, in others horizontally. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. + +Cocoons and butterfly chrysalids are very hard to find because they so +closely resemble the withered leaves that cling to shrubs and trees. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers._] + +You will probably find cocoons of the ce-cro-pi-a and pro-mé-the-a +moths. The former, illustrated by Figs. 347 to 349, is commonly found on +fruit trees; the latter swings loosely from a branch of ash, wild +cherry, or lilac. The promethea cocoon is enfolded in a leaf which the +caterpillar fastened to a twig by means of silk before it spun the +cocoon. If you are rewarded for your search by finding some of these +winter homes, leave a few of them in a cool place and occasionally dip +them in water that they may not become too dry. Look at them carefully +from time to time and note any changes that take place. Following are a +few suggestions that will help you in the study of cocoons: + +1. Observe the covering of the pupa closely. Is it made of other +material beside silk? When the woolly-bear, that many of you have cared +for all winter, spins his cocoon, he will use some of his own hair as +well as silk. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 351. Luna moth and swallow-tail butterfly._] + +2. Open the cocoon. Is the pupa free from it? Are the threads of silk +woven in the same direction in all parts of the covering? + +3. Out of which end do you think the moth will come? + +4. Describe the inside of the cocoon. Do you find anything in it beside +the pupa? + +5. The cocoons of the Chinese silkworm are soaked in hot water or +softened by steam before the thread can be unwound. Put one of the +cocoons that you find in hot water and see whether you can unwind the +silk. I wish you could secure some cocoons of the real silkworm. + +Boys and girls often ask us what they shall feed moths and butterflies. +Many of the adult insects do not eat at all. Some, however, sip the +nectar of flowers or sap of trees. Oftentimes they will drink sweetened +water or the juice of fruit. If you have an opportunity, watch one while +it eats. Notice the long "tongue" through which it takes its food. This +is made of two pieces grooved on the inner side, and when held together +they form a tube. When the insect is not eating these mouth-parts are +coiled. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 352. The life-story of an insect, the forest tent +caterpillar. m, male moth; f, female; p, pupa; e, egg-ring recently +laid; g, hatched egg-ring; c, caterpillar. Moths and caterpillars are +natural size, and eggs and pupa are slightly enlarged._] + + + + +LEAFLET LXXIII. + +THE PAPER-MAKERS.[94] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + + +[94] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February and March, 1901. + +A CASTLE MADE OF PAPER. + +[Illustration] + +Many school rooms in the State have a hornet's nest which some boy or +girl has brought to show the teacher. It is usually hung on the wall or +used as an ornament on top of the bookcase. Let us take it down some day +this month and learn something about it. + +Do you think the nest can be called a castle? Why not? Look inside. Is +it not several stories high? Are there not spacious galleries in it? Is +it not as well guarded when the wasps are at home as if an army of +soldiers stood outside? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 353. The paper castle._] + +Let us see how this castle is built. You have heard that wasps were the +first paper makers. In the early summer you will see them around wood +that has been worn by the weather. They take off loose fibres and by +means of their mouth-parts work them into pulp. Can the rain get through +this paper? Find out whether it is waterproof. + +Some of the nests made by vespa (Fig. 353), as the hornets or +yellow-jackets are called, are very large. Do you think a wasp could +make one alone? No, these are social wasps; that is, a great many live +together. There are males, females, and workers. Some day we shall tell +you how the wasps form their colony, but for this lesson we want you to +study the nest. + +Notice the envelope which covers the cells. How many layers of paper are +there in it? We might call each layer a clapboard. + +Can you see any difference in the direction of the outside layers on top +of the nest and those which are below? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 354. Interior arrangement of white-faced hornet's +nest._] + +How many stories high is the nest? + +Note the difference in the size of the stories. Where do you find the +smallest? + +Count the rooms or cells in each. + +You know, of course, that an egg is placed in each cell. When the larvæ, +as the young of the wasps are called, are hatched, they still live in +the cells. + +How do they manage to keep in their cells? You see the nest is really +turned upside down. Their little heads must hang where the worker wasps +can feed them easily. I wonder whether you can tell me why the young +wasps do not fall out? + +The workers chew all the food which they give the little ones. When in +summer you see hornets about your flower beds or feeding on other +insects, it may be that they are preparing breakfast for the young. +Notice the flowers which they visit. + + +POLISTES, THE PAPER-MAKER. + +In the previous lesson I spoke of vespa wasps that make homes of paper. +You learned that they bite off pieces of weather-worn wood with their +jaws and chew it until it is made into pulp. Were you interested in +these social wasps? If so, you may like to hear about another member of +the same family. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 355. Home of polistes, the paper-maker._] + +Hiding in some crevice about your house or the school building there is +probably a wasp which naturalists call po-lis´-tes. She has been there +ever since the cold weather came. In the spring you may see her tearing +off pieces of wood from some unpainted building or weather-worn fence. +Let us see what she is going to do. + +This wasp is the founder of a colony. The first thing she does is to +select a place for her home. Then she makes a few cells--only a few, for +she has no help. When you find a nest like the one in the picture (Fig. +355), you will see how the comb is fastened to the roof or to a tree or +to the under side of a stone. + +As soon as the cells are completed, the mother lays an egg in each. From +these eggs little grubs or larvæ are hatched. They are fed by the mother +until they become pupæ. The cells are sealed over while the wasps are in +the pupa state. They have to break open the seals before they can come +out. + +All members of the first brood are workers. As soon as they are hatched +the mother has nothing to do but to provide eggs. They clean out the +cells in which they passed their early days; they make additions to the +nests; they take care of the young. Do you remember how the vespa +workers prepared food for the larvæ in their colony and what they fed +them? The young polistes are cared for in the same way. + +You may see the workers flying about in your garden this summer, getting +the sweets from the various flowers that you have planted. You will know +why they are so busy through the long sunny days. You will think of the +hungry little wasps waiting for their dinner. You will wonder whether +they put their heads out of the cells when the workers feed them. + + +NEST OF POLISTES. + +1. Compare the nest of polistes with that of vespa. + +2. In what ways do they differ? + +3. Where did you find the nest? + +4. How was it held in place? + +5. How many cells are there in it? + +6. Notice the pieces of the seals which still remain on the nest. Tell +us whether they are made of the same material as the cells. Of what +utility are the seals? + + + + +LEAFLET LXXIV. + +SOME CARPENTER ANTS AND THEIR KIN.[95] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY. + +(Compare Leaflet XXI.) + + +[95] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1903. + +[Illustration] + +One bright August morning, as we were walking along the edge of a wood, +we found an old tree trunk lying on the ground. I am sure it had been +there a long time. Large pieces of bark were loose enough to be lifted +up; being naturalists, we took advantage of this fact to see whether +anything was living underneath. + +What queer little outdoor folk we found: "thousand-legged worms," +sow-bugs, a black beetle that looked as if its back were made of +patent-leather, and best of all a colony of ants! These ants were large +black ones known as carpenter ants. They had made very comfortable +quarters in this old log. How alarmed they were when we so rudely +exposed them to the light! + +One brave ant impressed me more than any other member of the colony. I +wish that all of our girls and boys might have seen it. With my knife I +commenced to cut down the wall of one of the rooms to see what was +inside. The soldier-like ant stood near and, instead of running away, it +attacked the large steel blade with its jaws. Was not that a brave thing +to do? Are you surprised that I closed the knife and put it into my +pocket? + +During all this time there was great commotion in the colony. The worker +ants were scurrying off with the younger members of the family, trying +to find a safe place for them. Some of these little brothers and sisters +were tiny white legless creatures; some were covered up in what looked +like little bags; others were ghost-like things, very white and +apparently lifeless. + +Now before you can understand what is going on in an ant's nest, you +must know four things: + +1. The white oblong eggs are very small. You will not see them readily. + +2. The little legless creatures, or larvæ, hatch from the eggs and are +fed by the workers. Mrs. Comstock says that an ant larva looks like a +crook-neck squash. + +3. The larvæ either spin cocoons or rest awhile without any covering +before they become fully grown ants. In their resting form they are +called pupæ. Children usually think the little sack-like pupæ are the +eggs. + +4. The fully grown ants come from the pupæ. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 356. Making a home for ants._] + +We want every Junior Naturalist Club to have an ant's nest in the school +room and to observe the following: + +In time of danger do the ants look to their own safety first? + +Watch the workers feed and clean the young. + +Try to see an ant help a younger relative out of the pupa skin. + +Notice how many uses the ants seem to have for their antennæ or feelers. + +Has it ever seemed to you that ants carry on a conversation when they +meet? + +See how many different kinds of ants you can find out-of-doors, Tell us +about their homes. + + +HOW TO MAKE AN ANT'S NEST. + +In the illustration (Fig. 356) you will see an ant's nest. For this kind +of nest you will need a plank, near the outside edge of which is a deep +groove. The plank should be painted; can you tell why? In the center use +two pieces of glass laid flat and separated by narrow sticks along each +side, so that they are about one-eighth of an inch apart. The sticks +should not come close together at one corner. This leaves a little +doorway for the ants. Cover the top glass with black paper or cloth so +that the space between the two pieces of glass may seem a nice, dark, +safe room in which ants may live. It will be a good thing to keep a +small piece of damp blotting paper in one corner of this room in case +the workers want a moist place for the young ones. Fill the groove in +the plank with water and the nest is ready. + +The best ant colony to take indoors is the one that you find under +stones in a pasture. With a trowel lift up the ants, pupæ, larvæ, and +sand and put the contents carefully into a pint can. When you reach the +schoolroom put the contents of the can on the plank and watch what +happens. If the ants do not find the room you have made for them, place +a few larvae and pupæ within it. They will probably find them. + +Do not neglect to provide food for the colony. Ants like to eat cracker +soaked in sweetened water, bread, cake, berry jams, sugar, bits of raw +meat, yolk of hard-boiled egg, and custard. + +[Illustration: _Junior naturalist museum in the school. District No. 2, +Sheridan, N. Y._] + + + + +LEAFLET LXXV. + +A GARDEN ALL YOUR OWN.[96] + +BY JOHN W. SPENCER. + + +[96] Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1904. + +MY DEAR NEPHEWS AND NIECES: + +[Illustration] + +Would you like to have a garden this summer--a garden all your very own? +If so, you can surely have one. A man up in a balloon could have one if +he were to try; a man living down in a coal mine could not, because +there would be no sunlight. Plants must have light from the sun, which +is the vital source of all light. I consider that anyone who cares for a +plant, growing either in a window box or in a tomato can, has a garden. +Yes; a plant growing in an eggshell constitutes a garden. + + +A LITTLE GIRL'S GARDEN. + +Near my desk is a picture of a little girl, holding in her arms a big +pumpkin that she raised in a garden all her own. I do not know how many +pies could have been made from that pumpkin, but, at any rate, it was a +big pumpkin. The seed from which the vine started was planted in an +egg-shell in the school-room. When the bright May days came the +egg-shell had become too small for the plant or the plant had become too +large for the egg-shell, so the little girl planted it in the open +ground at her home. She must have been a tiny girl or the soil in her +garden must have been very hard, for without help she was unable to +spade it and make it fine. She hired her father to do it for her and +paid him by carrying his dinner every day for a week to the shop where +he worked. When lunch time came, papa and she had a little picnic all by +themselves. There is no prettier picture than is made by such strong +comradeship between a little girl and her father. + + +MAKE A BARGAIN WITH YOUR TEACHER. + +I hope your teacher will permit you to have some boxes of earth (I mean +_soil_) in the windows of your school-room, in which you may plant +flower or vegetable seeds. In early June, just before the close of +school, you can divide the plants among yourselves and set them out in +the open ground or in window boxes at your home. Ask your teacher +whether you may have such a privilege. Promise that if she will grant +this favor you will be just as good as the "little girl who had a little +curl that hung in the middle of her fore-head," and if at any time you +become "horrid" the teacher may give your share of the plants to some +one better behaved than yourself. If she is a wise teacher she will +consent, but not until she has made a bargain with you that you are to +do all the work and to ask nothing from her but advice when you need it. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 357. Sweet peas._] + + +A PLANT NURSERY. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 358. A nest of window pots._] + +Your first garden should be in a shallow box, called a "flat," which you +may consider a kind of nursery for the plants. Let this nursery, or +cradle, be as long and as wide as a soap box, and not more than three or +four inches deep. You can make a "flat," as gardeners do, by sawing a +soap box in two. In the bottom of the box make some small auger holes +for drainage. Some of you may be so fortunate as to be able to gather +from the woods and fields the material for fitting up the flat. Some +moss,--say about an inch of it,--should first be laid in the bottom. +When moss cannot be found, use stones or pieces of broken pottery to +cover the drainage holes. This is to prevent the soil from washing +through. The remainder of the flat should be filled with good woods +earth. Pack the soil firmly. Fill the flat not even full, but to within +half an inch of the top. Those who cannot go to the fields must get the +best garden soil to be found. A few children may be unable to get even +garden soil. They will be obliged to go to the florist's for soil, as +they must do when they fill their window boxes. Because of the frequent +waterings required by all plants growing in boxes, it is important to +get soil that is not sticky and that will not pack hard. + + +SOWING THE SEED. + +When the time comes for the sowing of seeds, you had better ask your +teacher to look over your shoulder to see that you do it correctly. In +sowing, put the seeds in straight rows. These rows may be made by +denting the soil with the sharp edge of a stick or ruler. Let the rows +extend the entire width of the flat. Into the dent, drop the seeds at +regular intervals. If any seeds drop outside of the dent, gently push +them into place with a toothpick. Half a dozen rows of one variety of +flowers or vegetables having small seeds will give a large number of +plants. One flat may accommodate a number of varieties. + +At the point where one variety stops and another begins, a neat label of +wood should be stuck. This affords a good chance for a boy to bring his +new jack-knife into use. On the label should be written the name of each +variety. This will give an excellent opportunity for one who writes a +good vertical hand to make himself useful. Begin at the very top of the +label and write towards the lower end; then if the lower part of the +label rots off or becomes discolored, you will still have the first and +most important part of the name left. The label should never be +disturbed, for a careless boy or girl might not put it back into the +exact place where it was found, which would be indeed unfortunate. The +Smiths and Joneses of that plant community would become so mixed that +the Joneses would be called Smiths and the Smiths would be known as +Joneses. It would be as bad as changing door-plates. + +When the seeds have been evenly distributed in rows like houses along a +street there comes another very important step,--the covering of the +seeds. If seeds are covered too deep they will rot because of too much +moisture; if the covering is too thin, the soil will dry so rapidly that +the seeds will fail because of insufficient moisture. The size of the +seed usually determines the amount of covering necessary. As a broad +general rule, the soil covering should be about four times the thickness +of the seed. + +Having been covered, the earth must be thoroughly watered. This must be +done gently and carefully. If done with a rush, the water will wash the +covering away and many of the seeds will be left bare. Whenever such an +accident occurs, the seed may be pushed into the soil with a toothpick. +At most times when watering, continue to apply the water until it just +begins to drain through the bottom of the flat. This should be +practiced even after the seeds have germinated and become growing +plants. Keep the flats shaded until the plants begin to push their heads +through the soil. After this time strong light should gradually be given +them that the plants may not become tall and spindling, or "leggy," as +gardeners say. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 359. Transplanted into a pot._] + +If the seed boxes are in a sunny or windy place, the soil may dry out +too rapidly. This can be prevented by laying a newspaper over the flat +when the sun strikes it. As the plantlets grow, care must be taken not +to shade them too much. + + +A PLANT KINDERGARTEN. + +In some plants the first leaves are called the "seed-leaves," and, like +children's milk teeth, soon disappear. The next set are the true leaves. +After the true leaves appear, if the plants seem crowded and +uncomfortable, like three boys trying to sleep in a narrow bed, +transplant them into other flats prepared similarly to the one into +which the seeds were sown. You may think of this as the promotion of the +young plants from the cradle to the kindergarten. Here the plants should +be placed about an inch from each other, in squares. Wet the plants +thoroughly before taking them up and also the soil into which they are +to make their second home. After this is done, the soil should be +pressed firmly about the roots, as you snuggle the bedclothes about your +neck on a cold winter's night. It is entertaining practice to transplant +the plants into pots, if you happen to have any florist's pots of small +size. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 360. A soap box put to use._] + +This transplanting of plants in the school-room gives a quiet occupation +to boys and girls who for a time may not be engaged in study. The +disobedient child or the would-be "smart" one might better be denied +the privilege. I say "privilege," because the wise teacher will make +window gardening a privilege and not required work. After the +transplanting has been completed and the plants thoroughly soaked with +water, they must be shaded for about twenty-four hours, after which they +had better receive the strong light once more, when they will resume +their growth. + + +PLANTS NEED WATER. + +If plants could feel and talk, they would tell of periods when they had +endured great suffering because of thirst: suffering as great as that +sometimes experienced by travelers in crossing a desert. Often it has +been so great as almost to ruin a plant's constitution. I am often +asked, "How frequently shall I water plants?" It is as difficult to give +a fixed rule for watering as to determine how often a boy should be +allowed a drink. During cool cloudy weather, plants do not require as +much water as when the sun shines bright and hot on them. I can give no +better general direction than this:--water plants when the surface of +the soil seems dry and powder-like, when a pinch of it rolled between +the thumb and finger does not form a little ball. Under conditions in +which the drainage is good, plants should receive water until the +surplus begins to trickle out of the holes at the bottom. If you follow +these directions carefully, your schoolroom garden should afford a good +lot of plants for cultivation at home in the open ground or in boxes. + + +WHAT YOU MAY PLANT. + +As to the kind of seeds to sow, you must be governed by what you most +desire to have in your home garden for summer cultivation. If you are +able to have a garden in the open ground, I would have you make a +selection of both flowers and vegetables. Do not choose a large variety +of either, for children are but little men and women and must shape +their tasks to fit their shoulders. It would be better to have a garden +the size of a horse blanket and have it in good condition all summer +than to have a larger one and allow it to become a wilderness of weeds. + +In the vegetable line, you can have radishes and lettuce that may be +harvested by the Fourth of July. After the first crop has been removed +the ground should be spaded and wax beans planted in rows about eighteen +inches apart and the beans six inches apart in the rows. These give the +juiciest of pods, excellent for pickling. Kings and princes could have +none better. This plan gives you two crops from the same ground in one +summer. Plant radishes in rows twelve inches apart and about two inches +apart in the row. Pull them for the table when the roots are +three-quarters of an inch or a little more in diameter. Set lettuce +about three inches apart in the row, which is twice or more as thick as +the plants should be when full grown. When half grown or more every +other plant may be pulled out for table use and the remaining ones will +soon fill the vacancies. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 361. A window-garden of one's own._] + +In suggesting your selection of flowers, I shall mention but a few. I +have chosen the following kinds because they are not too particular or +exacting as to care, while some are equally well adapted for cultivation +either in the open ground or in window boxes. I hope you will include +sweet peas, dahlias, and gladioli in your selection. I have not named +them in this list because they are not suitable for planting in flats, +but are planted directly in the open ground where they are to spend +their lives. Gladioli and most dahlias you will not raise from seeds. + +The following is a list from which you may make a selection for planting +in your school-room, to divide later with your mates for home +planting:-- + + Petunia } + Nasturtium } Suitable for planting either in + Sweet Alyssum } window boxes or in the open ground. + Mignonette } + + Bachelor's Button } + Salvia (Flowering Sage) } + Phlox } To be planted in + Aster } the open ground. + Marigold } + Candytuft } + +[Illustration: _Fig. 362. Plan of the improvement of the school ground, +shown in Fig. 365._] + + +MAKE A GARDEN IN A BOX. + +There is no reason why you cannot have a window-box as attractive as the +one shown in Fig. 361. Plants will grow as well for you as for the +richest or the greatest man of whom you ever heard. All they require is +to be made comfortable. The two things most necessary for their comfort +are water as often as they need it, and fertile soil that will not +become hard from frequent watering. Plants in boxes need water much +oftener than those in the open ground. I once knew of a window-box on a +tin roof on the south side of the house that was watered morning, noon, +and night. Those plants must have been comfortable, for they made +thrifty growth. + +When you have learned how to make plants comfortable in a flat, you will +know what is necessary for their comfort in a window-box. They should +have the same kind of earth, but more of it. The box should never be +less than eight inches wide and eight inches deep and as long as you can +afford to fill with earth and plants. There must be holes in the bottom +for drainage, and moss or small stones placed over the holes to prevent +the soil from washing away. + +The plants should be set four to six inches apart in the box. At first, +this will seem too great a distance, but after a few weeks of growth, +the plants will cover all bare spots. When transplanting either to +window-boxes or to the open ground, do it the same way as when changing +plants from the cradle flat to the kindergarten flat. + +I know of a brother and a sister who found enough soil to fill some +egg-shells. The shells had small drainage holes in the bottom. In time +the plants grew and became too large for the egg-shells. Then the +children went in search of more soil. They found enough to fill a few +tomato cans. These cans also had drainage holes in the bottom. In each +can they set a plant. They then put the cans into a soap box. Then they +packed excelsior into all the vacant places in the soapbox. The +excelsior helped to hold the moisture. The box stood on a back veranda +where the plants had plenty of sunshine. So long as they were +comfortable they did their best, which is as much as they could have +done if they had been in expensive vases in the grounds of the White +House at Washington. + + +CONSIDER YOUR SCHOOL GROUNDS. + +On the last page of this leaflet are two pictures of a school-house. The +first shows how it looked when it had not a friend. The second shows +what the friendship of the teacher and the children could do for it. In +both cases the building remains the same. Look at one picture and then +at the other. See, if you can, what one thing has been done to make the +difference--a difference as great as that between a tramp and a +gentleman. A few shrubs have been planted by the friends, but the +greatest thing they did was to clean up. They took away everything that +looked untidy and shabby. + +At this time of the year you see many beautiful crocuses, tulips, +daffodils, and hyacinths. Nothing children can plant will give so much +for the labor as these bulbs. Why not have some on the school grounds? +When school begins next September, write me for directions how to grow +them. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 363. Product of a child's garden._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 364. School premises before improving._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 365. School premises after improving._ + +_Could you not do as much for your school grounds?_] + + + + +LEAFLET LXXVI. + +THE GARDENS AND THE SCHOOL GROUNDS.[97] + +BY JOHN W. SPENCER. + + +[97] Junior Naturalist Monthly, June, 1903. + +MY DEAR BOYS AND GIRLS: + +[Illustration] + +Of course you believe that Columbus discovered America, even though you +were not with him. If you had been on the deck of his ship when San +Salvador raised its head on the rim of the sea, you would be talking +about it every day of your life. As it is, your knowledge comes to you +through books, and you think you are fortunate if you are able to answer +questions correctly on examination. This leads me to remark that there +is much more interest in things that we have helped to "make happen" +than in things that we read about and that were "made to happen" by some +one else. + +There is a chance for each of you boys and girls, in a way, to become a +Columbus. It is true that, not counting the north and south poles, all +the continents are discovered, but there is much pleasure and "fun" in +discovering facts. I am now speaking from experience. I think that James +Buchanan was President when I learned, in such a way that I could +explain to others, the principles of a suction-pump. Some of the +suggestions led me to make a squirt gun from a bit of elder stalk. +Sometimes when I made a demonstration the water would fly in the faces +of my audience. I started a squirt gun factory, but the teacher stopped +the enterprise because it made too much litter in the school-room. + +I have a suggestion that will start you on a voyage of discovery. When +you have gone as far as you can I wish you would write me, telling what +you have learned. Writers of agricultural books sometimes use the +expression, "There is fertility in tillage." Is that true? + +By fertility is meant the power of the soil to furnish plant-food. +Fertile soil is "rich" soil. By tillage is meant frequent stirring of +the soil. For example, Billy Boy and his chum each have a flower garden +side by side of equal size. Each boy sows seeds from the same bag. The +same sunshine and the same rains give vigor to each flower-bed alike. +Billy Boy spades the soil deep and makes it fine. His chum stirs the top +and leaves clods on the surface. With the end of a sharp stick Billy +makes a straight drill for the seed. On the bottom of the drill the soil +is fine like meal, and the seed is sown with great care and is covered +with the finest soil. If the seed is small he makes the soil covering +very thin. The last thing he does is to firm the soil by patting it with +either his hand or the flat part of a hoe, and he does it in an +affectionate way as if he were patting a dog. His chum makes the drill +for the seed in a hasty way, leaving in the bottom little clods of earth +as large as hickory nuts. He sows the seed as if he were glad to get rid +of it, and he covers it as if he wanted it out of sight as soon as +possible. + +Which of the two boys gave the better tillage to the soil? During the +summer you will see how others care for their plants and you will see +instances of good tillage and poor tillage. You must observe and write +me which of the two had the better success in having the seed come up. +The difference between the two ways does not end in sowing and +germination of seed, but continues all summer until the end of the +season. Billy Boy will care for the soil by combing it with a rake +several times a week, with the same care and affection with which the +lover of a horse will groom the animal each morning. The chum will think +the plants are all like goats, and ought to live with almost any chance. +Billy Boy will have no weeds among his plants and his chum will have +them in great numbers. The chum may say that weeds shade the plants and +thereby protect them from drought. I have known grown-up farmers to say +that. Is it true? Go on a voyage of discovery and find out. + +I hope your garden may be of the Billy Boy kind, receiving plenty of +tillage. You will have no trouble to find any number of the other kind +of gardens growing to weeds and receiving no tillage. It will please me +very much if you will write me, giving as many reasons as you can why +tillage makes the soil more fertile (or "rich") and able to produce +better plants and flowers. Each letter will be carefully read. + + +AN EXPERIMENT. + +Perhaps you can answer the questions by watching your garden or some +one's else garden; but you can answer them better if you will grow a few +"hills" of corn. In the fall I shall have many questions to ask you +about corn, and I want you to be able to answer by telling me what you +have seen with your own eyes. Those of you who are Junior Naturalists +have done well with your dues this year, but we must always do better +next year than we did last; so I want you to know many things about +Indian corn when you come back to school in the fall. Your teacher has +also been asked to study corn, and I am going to study it myself. I am a +farmer and I have grown corn all my life. Once I thought that I knew all +about it; but frequently some one asks me a question about it that I +cannot answer. + +Now, I hope that you can plant at least ten "hills" of corn, or, if you +do not plant it in "hills," you may make two rows, each of them five or +ten feet long. I want you to plant part of these hills (or one of the +rows) in good rich soil. Perhaps your father will let you plant them in +the best part of the garden along with the cabbages or other crops; or, +perhaps, your mother will let you plant them at the back part of the +flower garden. Then I want you to keep down the weeds and break or +cultivate the ground often with a hoe or rake so that the soil is always +loose. Then I want you to plant the other part of the corn in a poor or +dry piece of ground, where the weeds grow. This part you need not +cultivate. I think that before the summer is half over you will learn a +very great lesson by looking at these two pieces of corn. Some of you +will say that you know beforehand what will happen; but I want you to +grow the corn nevertheless. + +By fall I hope you will be able to write me whether you can tell a rich +soil when you see it, and also why you think it is rich. I want everyone +of the Junior Gardeners to tell me that much when school opens. + + * * * * * + +_To the Teacher:_ + +We must depend upon your courtesy to help in reporting what has been +done by you and your pupils in improvement of school grounds. In +addition to this we hope it may be your pleasure to ask all the children +who are able to write to tell us in detail, at some language period, +what they have done. We are never able to get reports of all this good +work. Many teachers feel that nothing but heroic deeds in the planting +of school grounds are worthy of mention. This is a mistake. Some grounds +may be more improved by attention to simple tidiness than by expensive +planting, and they are equally worthy of mention. + +The attendance at some schools is small and the pupils are young. Small +efforts from them are relatively great when compared with what is done +by schools with ample facilities. We know a teacher who began her first +teaching in the fall of 1902. The pupils were eight in number and most +of them were small. The school was in the country. The interior of the +building was shabby. The teacher was courageous and resolute. With her +small handful of not over-competent pupils, she had school "exercises" +and the children sold tickets. By this means enough paper was bought to +cover the walls, and the teacher and the children put the paper on. Then +they made other sales, for which they received as commission three +pictures creditably framed. They were hung on the walls of the +school-house. By this time, the tide of civic improvement in that +community began to turn towards the improving of the school building and +grounds. We are eagerly awaiting reports to know what was done on Arbor +Day. Under such conditions, it was no small thing that the teacher and +children accomplished. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 366. Making a school-garden in Massachusetts._] + + + + +LEAFLET LXXVII. + +SOMETHING FOR YOUNG FARMERS.[98] + +BY JOHN W. SPENCER. + + +[98] Supplement to Junior Naturalist Monthly, April, 1902. + +MY DEAR NEPHEWS AND NIECES: + +[Illustration] + +I wish to make farmers of you all. I will try to tell you how to have +farms all your own--farms on which you can plant seeds and see the +plants grow. Once a little girl in Buffalo, who is one of my Junior +Naturalists, asked me whether I would call at her home and see the +harvest from seeds she planted on one of her farms the spring before. +The principal of the school went with me, for he knew all about the +little girl's success, and seemed proud of what she had accomplished. +What do you think it was she had raised? It was something that filled +her lap and was good to eat. It was a fine pumpkin. It weighed +twenty-two pounds. I wish I could have a photograph of her holding the +pumpkin, her face glowing with pride and satisfaction. + +You are surely able to do as much as this little girl did. Perhaps you +would prefer some other crop to pumpkins, in which case you have many +kinds of seeds from which to choose. + +Last spring, in school, this little girl with other boys and girls began +planting and caring for egg-shell farms. It costs no money and but +little trouble to own several such farms. The greatest pleasure and +profit is to be found in having them in school, for then you have the +opportunity of seeing how others manage their farms, and there is a spur +in doing what others are doing. When you have read all about my plan I +wish you would ask your teacher whether you cannot have some egg-shell +farms in your grade. When your plants are large enough to put +permanently in the open ground, you can plant them in a garden or +window-box at your home. If it is not convenient to have egg-shell +farms at school, ask your parents if you cannot have some at home. + +Please give me your ears and your attention while I tell you how to get +your farms. + +In April you have eggs at some one of the three meals of the day, and +the empty shells can be easily obtained. The end of the shell to be +broken is the sharp or "peaked" end. Break away about a quarter or a +third of it and pour out the white and the yolk that is inside. This +empty shell is to hold the soil of your farm, and you can have as many +farms as may be convenient to care for. On each egg-shell you may write +your name, for the same reason that people have door plates on the doors +of their houses or signs on their places of business. Some very +methodical boys and girls write also the names of the kind of seeds +sown, and the dates of planting and sprouting. Do not forget to put a +hole through the bottom of each one of your farms for drainage. I wish I +could be with you when you get your soil; we would go out to the +pastures and the woods for a supply. I should be able to tell you much +about different soils, and how they have been made. It is an interesting +story that I must tell you when we are past the hurry of spring's work. +If we could go afield we should find the best soil for your egg-shell +farms about the roots of rotted stumps or in rotted leaves. It is +necessary that the soil shall not bake hard because of frequent +waterings, shall not dry out quickly, and shall have plenty of +plant-food. I fancy the most convenient plan will be for all of you who +wish soil to form a syndicate by contributing a cent each and go to a +florist and buy your soil. Tell the florist you wish it for your use and +the probabilities are that he will be so much interested in your plants +that you will get more for the same amount of money than I could if I +were to go for you. + +The next difficulty will be to keep your farms right side up. That is +easily accomplished by putting some sand or sawdust in a shallow box and +making a dent where you wish each farm to stand. If you have your farms +in the school-room, Tom, Dick, and Harry can have all their farms in the +same box. There will be no trouble in separating them if the owner's +name is written on each one. + +Next comes the planting of seeds and the problem of the amount of earth +to put over them. Big seeds require more covering than little seeds. +Seeds like peas, beans, and corn may be thrust into the middle of your +farm. Small seeds, like those of the petunia, which are almost like +dust, require only the gentlest sprinkling of soil. Seeds as large as +those of the aster and the balsam should be covered with a layer of +earth as thick as a lead pencil. I advise you to plant twice as many +seeds as you wish to have grow. Many accidents may happen and if all +grow, the surplus plants can be replanted later or thrown away. The +earth covering should be sprinkled or sifted over the seeds, and then it +must be patted or pressed down firmly. By this means the particles of +soil are snuggled close together, and the seed and the soil hold +moisture much better than when the particles lie loose and far apart. + +The next thing to do after planting is to sprinkle water over your +farms. Do this as gently as possible, for with all your care some seeds +may be uncovered. Look over the ground carefully, and those you find +exposed poke into the earth with the point of a pencil or a stick. + +The soil of your farms must be kept moist at all times. This is a point +that will require your continued attention. When your Uncle John +attended school, many years ago, there was a passage in his reader that +taught him that "Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty." The +attention required to keep plants suitably watered does not fall much +short of eternal vigilance. This need not scare you. If you care for +your farms you will find it a pleasure to wait on your plants. + +If you have your egg-shell farms in the school-room, there will be no +opportunity to water your plants Saturday or Sunday, when school is not +in session. I think if you make your farms soaking wet Friday at the +close of school, and then set them back from the window out of the +direct rays of the sun, no harm will come from dryness before Monday +morning. + +You must watch to see whether all members of the same family do the same +thing precisely alike. After sowing your seeds and watering your farms +you will go to them many times to see whether anything has happened. You +will not be able to see anything or hear anything, and you will conclude +that nothing is going on in the soil. + +In this you will be mistaken, for some active changes are taking place. +They are of a kind that you can neither see nor hear. In days to come, +when you are men and women, you will be able to appreciate the fact that +some of the most important events come about silently and some of the +least important come with a racket. + +The first leaves that appear on most plants are called the seed-leaves. +If your plants are comfortable, but a few days will pass before true +leaves develop. You will find the latter very different from the +seed-leaves. Before the first or seed-leaves appear it is not important +that your farms have the strong sunlight. In fact I always put my +egg-shell farms in the shade while the seeds are germinating, but at the +first peep of a leaf or stem I put them in the full sunshine. + +Most of you will no doubt have your farms on the window ledge. Among the +first things you will observe is a way all the leaves have of looking +out of doors. If you turn your farms around so the leaves are looking in +the room, the time will not be long before all of them will be faced out +of doors again. Once on a time one of my Junior Naturalists told me that +plants take to sunshine as a duck does to water. A duck is never so +comfortable as when in water; and I am certain that sunshine is +important to the comfort of most plants. Some of my nephews and nieces +will understand why light is so necessary to plants, for I have spoken +of this before. + +I hope you will this moment decide to have some egg-shell farms, and sow +some seed immediately after getting your soil. Later, when the plants +are large enough to plant in the open ground, we will talk of what is +best to do with them. In Leaflet LII you will find a picture of an +egg-shell farm. + + + + +LEAFLET LXXVIII. + +BULBS.[99] + +BY JOHN W. SPENCER. + + +[99] Nature-Study Quarterly, October, 1899. + +A BULB GARDEN. + +[Illustration] + + "It's rather dark in the earth to-day," + Said one little bulb to his brother; + "But I thought that I felt a sunbeam ray-- + We must strive and grow till we find the way?" + And they nestled close to each other. + Then they struggled and toiled by day and by night + Till two little snowdrops in green and white, + Rose out of the darkness and into the light, + And softly kissed one another.--_Boston Journal._ + +To succeed with the cultivation of flowers, the first thing to have in +mind is to make the plant comfortable. This condition should be not only +the first thought, but also the last thought. If you can do this +successfully, the plant will do the rest of the work and your results +will be abundant. + +What plant comfort is, is a question more easily suggested than +answered, for it is a very large subject--about as large as the surface +of the earth. As a venture we will say that there are as many different +kinds of plants as there are people. It is at least safe to say that +plants have as many different notions as to their conditions of life as +have the people of the different nations and tribes of the world. + +If you were to have a birthday party and should invite as your guests +the children from the four corners of the earth, and by magic could +bring them to you in a jiffy, the boys and girls from Greenland would +come enfolded in seal-skin, and those from Hawaii would bring only their +bathing suits. You would have a busy time keeping them comfortable, for +when you opened the door to cool off the little Greenlanders, the little +Kanakas would complain of too much draft; and at the table the former +would ask if you happened to have some tallow candles for dessert, and +the latter would ask for bread-fruit and bananas. + +Many of our flowering plants have been brought together from such remote +quarters as that. We have bulbs from Holland, and pansies from England, +and phlox from the dry atmosphere of Texas. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 367. The Snow-drop._] + +There is as much difference in the conditions necessary for comfort in +these different plants as there is in the requirements of the little +Eskimos and little Polynesians. To some extent, plants can change their +manner of living, but in the main they are happiest when they can have +their own way, just as you and I are. + +We cannot bring about the foggy, damp weather of Holland and England +when we want it; neither can we bring the dry atmosphere of Texas--air +so dry that meat will cure hard in the hottest weather without tainting. +It so happens, however, that from one Fourth of July to the next we have +many kinds of weather, and if one could not find conditions suited to +almost any kind of plant it would be strange. If we cannot make the +weather accommodate itself to the best comfort of the plant, we must set +the plant so as to accommodate itself to the weather. + +Pansies from foggy England and bulbs from the lowlands of Holland should +be planted to bloom in the cool days of spring, and the phlox from Texas +will prosper in the heat and drought of July and August. + +With this idea well fixed in your mind, you will easily see that when +you know the country from which a plant has come, a knowledge of the +physical geography of that country will be helpful in knowing how to +make the plant happy and prosperous. + +We must also make the plant comfortable in the soil. There is great +difference in what plants require to make them comfortable. Some, like +thistles or mullein or ragweed, will thrive on almost any soil and are +no more exacting as to food than a goat or a mule; but other plants are +as notional as children reared in the lap of luxury. As a rule, +flowering plants belong to the "lap-of-luxury" class. + +Soil covers the land as thin skin covers an apple or as a thin coat of +butter covers bread, and it holds more or less plant-food. When men +erect school buildings and afterwards grade the ground they usually turn +a part of the soil upside down. There is also considerable rubbish of +the builders left scattered about, such as brick-bats, chips of stone, +and the like, that go to make the place an uncomfortable one for +notional plants. For this reason I wish particularly to call your +attention to the manner in which you should prepare the ground on which +you intend to plant. The first thing to do is to spade the ground +thoroughly to the depth of at least ten inches. All stones as large as a +big boy's fist should be thrown out, and all lumps given a bat with the +back of the spade to break them into fine particles. This is to be a +flower-bed and should be soft like your own bed. It would be better to +make it up more than once. After the first spading it would be well to +cover the bed with a coat of stable fertilizer to a depth of six to +eight inches, which will give additional plant-food; and in spading the +second time, this fertilizer will become thoroughly mixed with the soil. +The surface should next be raked smooth, and your flower-bed will then +be ready for planting. + +We all admire the bright bulb flowers that are among the first to +blossom in the spring. These mostly come from Holland, or at least +attain their perfection there. We have just spoken of the importance of +planting flowers at such a time that they may live their career when our +climate is most like that from which they come. In the case of bulbs, +spring and early summer is the most favorable time for them in this +country, and fall is the proper time for planting. + +The exact time in the fall to plant, how to plant, what bulbs to plant, +when to put a winter overcoat on the bed, and other details, I will +leave for Mr. Hunn to tell in the following Leaflet. He has had many +years' experience in the management of flowers, and I advise you to read +carefully what he says. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 368. A bulb bed at the school house._] + + + + +LEAFLET LXXIX. + +A TALK ABOUT BULBS BY THE GARDENER.[100] + +BY C. E. HUNN. + + +[100] Nature-Study Quarterly, October, 1899. + +[Illustration] + +Perhaps you would like to hear from the gardener. Your Uncle John has +told you something about preparing a bed for your plants. His advice is +very good; but the bulbs we are to talk about are like those notional +children whom he mentions and they do not want tallow candles for any +part of their meal. + +You should know that bulbs do not want to come into direct contact with +the stable fertilizer. They want the fertilizer below them where the +feeding roots may nibble at it when the bulb is hard at work developing +the leaves and flower. You know that all the leaves and the flowers were +made the year before, and the bulb simply holds them until the new roots +have formed. No kind of treatment will make a bulb produce more flowers +than were formed in the year it grew (last year); but the better the +treatment the larger and finer the flowers will be. + +If I wanted to make a bulb bed, I should choose, if possible, a sandy +soil and throw out the top soil to the depth of six inches. Then I +should put into the bottom of the bed about two inches of well rotted +manure and spade it into the soil. Then I should throw back half of the +top soil, level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed, and +then cover them with the remainder of the soil; in this way you will +have the bulbs from three to four inches below the surface. It is dark +down there and in the fall months the top of the ground is cooler than +at the depth of five or six inches and the top of the bulb will not want +to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry, will send out +roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. + +When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the +bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks, +or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of six inches if the material +is coarse; but if you use leaves, three inches will be enough, because +the leaves lie close together and may smother out the frost that is in +the ground and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep +until spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March +and early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are +near or above the surface. Early in April the covering may be removed +gradually and should all be off the beds before the leaves show above +the ground. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 369. Simple designs for bulb beds._] + +Perhaps many of you cannot find a sandy place for your beds; if not, +make your beds as has been told you, leaving the stones in the bottom of +the bed for drainage. Then, when you are ready to set the bulb, place a +large handful of sand where your bulb is to go and set your bulb on it; +this will keep the water from standing around the bulb. Very good +results may be obtained on heavy soil by this method. + +What kind of bulbs shall we put into these beds? Choose hyacinths, +tulips, narcissus, or daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various +colors around the edge. + +If you use hyacinths you can have the national colors, red, white, and +blue, or many shades of either color, as shown in the diagrams (Fig. +369). Of tulips you can have stars or ribbons of yellow, white, or +crimson, or in fact almost any color except true blue. In narcissus, +yellow, sulfur, and white are the colors. The little crocuses come in +yellow, blue, white, and striped colors, and are in bloom and gone +before the large flowers take your attention. Many other bulbs are fine +for spring flowering; but as most of them are more difficult to grow +and many of them rather expensive, I do not think we will discuss them +now. + +Suppose we want a bed of red, white, and blue hyacinths (Fig. 369), and +make it six feet in diameter: how many bulbs would you want? Now, +hyacinths should be planted six inches apart each way, and the outside +row should be at least three inches from the edge of the bed. You see +you will want a little over one hundred bulbs, which, if one person had +to buy them, would cost him a considerable sum; but if fifty or more +boys and girls would club together it would be easy for everyone. + +If you want a bed of tulips, they should be planted four or five inches +apart instead of six inches. So you will need more bulbs; but they are +cheaper than hyacinths. The narcissus bulbs, being still smaller than +tulips, may be planted three inches apart; and the little crocuses, the +first flowers of spring, should touch one another, as should also the +snowdrops. + +Perhaps many of you do not wish to wait until spring for your bulbs to +flower, in which case we must try to persuade them to bloom through the +winter, say at Christmas. Nearly all bulbs are good-natured, and may be +coaxed to do things that nature never asks them to do; so if we go at it +right we shall find it very easy to make them think their time to bloom +has come, even if the ground is covered with snow and the ice is thick +on the ponds. Hyacinths, narcissus, and crocus can all be made to flower +in the winter by starting this way. Get the bulbs so as to be able to +pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier all the better. +The soil should be rich, sandy loam if possible; if not, the best you +can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of sand and mix +thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in the bottom a +few pieces of broken pots, charcoal, or small stones for drainage; then +fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the dirt the +top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill around it with +soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the dirt. If the +soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful of sand under +the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in the beds +outdoors. If you do not have pots you may use boxes. Starch boxes are a +good size to use as they are not heavy to handle; and I have seen +excellent flowers on bulbs planted in old tomato cans. If boxes or cans +are used, care must be taken to have holes in the bottoms to let the +water run out. A large-size hyacinth bulb will do well in a five-inch +pot. The same size pot will do for three or four narcissuses or eight to +twelve crocuses. + +After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they +should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar or on +the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to +the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to +grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will +give good flowers. When the weather gets cold enough so that a crust is +frozen on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and +as the weather gets colder more straw must be used. From six to eight +weeks after planting, the bulbs should have made roots enough to grow +the plant, and the pots may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a +week or so; after which, if the plants have started into growth, they +may be taken into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. +They will grow very rapidly now and will want lots of water; after the +flowers begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the +time. When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part +of the time to help bring out the color of the flowers. Fig. 370 shows a +pot of tulips. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 370. Pot of tulips._] + +I want to tell you of two bulbs that do not need so much fussing with to +get them to bloom for Christmas. One of them is called freesia (Fig. +371) and if I could have but one kind of bulb to flower in the winter, I +should choose this. The little bulbs are not half as large as crocus +bulbs and you will be astonished at the large leaves and flowers such a +bulb can produce. The bulbs are about the cheapest of all winter bulbs +and they grow without putting them away to make roots, as the tops do +not seem as impatient to start as those of most other bulbs, but wait +until there are roots to help them along. The flowers are borne on a +slender stem and look very graceful, either on the plant or in bouquets. +They are also very fragrant, and a pot with five or six bulbs will +perfume a large room. All they need is good light soil, sunlight, water, +and warmth to make glad the heart of anyone who plants them. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 371. Pot of the freesia._] + +The other bulb I should select is the oriental narcissus or Chinese +sacred lily. This grows in water without any soil whatever. Just take a +bowl or glass dish about three times the size of the bulb; put some +pretty stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with +stones so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or +three small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet; +then fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it +evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the +fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume and you +will have the pleasure of watching the roots start and grow, the top +throw up long green leaves, and the flower clusters develop and open +their flowers. Hyacinths may also be grown in water, but not as easily +as this narcissus, or in such inexpensive dishes. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 372. Winter box of bulbs._] + +The picture (Fig. 372) of a bulb box was taken last winter from a box of +mixed bulbs grown at Cornell. The calla in the center and the Kenilworth +ivy trailing over the front were planted in the box in September, and +pots of geraniums and other plants set on the dirt to fill the space. +When the bulbs that were in pots were ready to be started they were +taken out of the pots and set in the dirt in the box, where they grew +and flowered; the tall stems are paper white narcissus, the best variety +for winter. On each side there is a hyacinth just starting and in front +a little freesia in bloom. When these bulbs were done flowering, small +pots of blooming plants were set on the box and a charming window box +was obtained with many different things in it through the winter. + + +WHERE TO PLANT BULBS; AND OTHER ADVICE FOR THE OUTDOOR GARDEN. + +A large part of the beauty of the flower-bed lies in its position. A +flower-bed in the middle of the lawn is usually out of place. It has no +"setting," as the artists say. It lacks background. It is merely an +incidental thing dropped into the sward. It is out of place. A +flower-bed should belong to some part of the general planting of the +grounds, or it should be a part of the border or boundary surrounding +the place. The center of any grounds should be left open, or free from +heavy planting. A few trees may be planted in the center, if one desires +shade; but all the masses of foliage and flowers should be somewhere +near the sides or else near the foundations of the house or near other +definite boundary lines. In such places the flower-bed is supported by +other herbage. It has relation to something else. It forms a part of a +general picture; and every good yard should be a picture. + +Along the borders the beds are usually more easily cared for than they +are in the center of the lawn. In the latter place they are in danger of +being trampled over, and the roots of the grass run underneath the bed +and absorb the food and moisture which the flowers need. The beauty of a +formal bed in the center of the lawn is destroyed if some of the plants +are injured or do not develop. Symmetry is part of its merit. If, +however, the bed is along the border, a few vacant places in the bed do +not attract great attention. In school grounds it is well to have the +beds somewhat near together or continuous, in order that the labor of +taking care of them may be less. + +It is always well to plant profusely. Much of the beauty of a flower-bed +lies in an abundance of color. One must consider, also, that some of the +roots, seeds, or bulbs may fail. Some of them may not grow in the first +place, and others may be injured by weather or by accidents. It is well +to provide for all these contingencies. + +One of the best plants to use for the school bulb garden is the crocus, +because the bulbs are cheap and very hardy. The mixed bulbs, comprising +all the common colors, can be had for forty or fifty cents per hundred +at retail, and if one should buy them in considerable quantities, they +could be had for less than this. A thousand bulbs of mixed crocuses +should be got for three dollars or a little more, and these would make a +great display along the fence or walks of any school garden. One of the +ways to grow crocuses is to plant the bulbs in the grass, not cutting +out the grass where they are planted. That is, they grow right in the +sod. By the time the lawn needs to be mown in the spring, the flowers +are gone and the crocuses can be cut with the grass. The crocuses will +not last so long in a mown sod as they will in beds which are especially +prepared for them, but they will ordinarily give good results for two or +three years if the land is good; and they are so cheap that they can be +renewed from time to time. + +Other good, hardy bulbs for fall planting out-of-doors, aside from +lilies, are hyacinth, snowdrop, snowflake, tulip, narcissus of various +kinds (including daffodils and jonquils), grape hyacinth, squill. All +these are early spring bloomers and will delight the children's eyes. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 373. A good arrangement of shrubbery and +flower-beds._] + + + + +LEAFLET LXXX. + +HORSES.[101] + +BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and I. P. ROBERTS. + + +[101] Junior Naturalist Monthly, December, 1904. + +[Illustration] + +A few minutes ago I went into the stable to see Peg and Nan, the two bay +horses. On the outside of each stall I found a door-plate, with _Nan_ +written in large, black letters on one, _Peg_ on the other. I visited +each old friend in turn. + +They are quite different in disposition, these two horses. Nan is +gentle, affectionate, patient; Peg is spirited, unfriendly, restless. I +am very fond of them both and as yet have not been able to decide which +I enjoy the more, quiet Nan or spirited Peg. + +All horses are interesting to me. As I take my daily walk, I like to +look at the different ones I meet along the way. There is the baker's +horse and the butcher's; the doctor's horse, sleek and active; the heavy +gray horses that haul loads of coal up the hill all through the winter +weather; "Old Speckle," the postman's horse; and the friendly bay I so +often see feeding in the meadow. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 374. Nan._] + +Of all these wayside acquaintances, I like best the one I meet in the +meadow. Perhaps I associate him with the meadow-lark's song, the fresh, +green grass, and the gay little dandelions that were about when I first +crossed his path; or, perhaps our friendship progressed more rapidly +than city streets ever will permit. He seems to know when I am +approaching and raises his head in welcome. I always pet him and talk to +him a bit, and we both know that two friends have met. + +There are many things about horses that everyone ought to know. If we +were to ask Junior Naturalists how coach horses differ from roadsters +and how roadsters differ from draft horses, how many would be able to +tell us? + +Perhaps you will ask, "What is a draft horse?" The draft horse has short +legs, a heavy body, a short, thick neck, broad deep chest and shoulders, +strong hocks and moderately large feet. It may be that your father owns +a draft horse. Ask him whether it is a Percheron, a Clydesdale, or an +English Shire. These are the most familiar breeds of draft horses. The +Percherons came from France and at first they were gray. Now they are +often black or dark brown. The Shires, commonly bay, brown or sorrel, +came from England; and the Clydesdales, similar in appearance to the +Shires but smaller and more active, came from Scotland. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 375. A typical draft horse._] + +All boys and girls know coach horses. As you stand by the school-room +window, you may see one pass. They have long arched necks and fine +heads. Their bodies are rounded and well proportioned. + +Roadsters, trotters, and saddle horses are usually not so large as +coachers. Their necks are inclined to be longer and their chests +narrower than in the coach horse; however, their muscles and tendons are +strong. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 376. Welsh pony and its mother._] + +Now you must not think that just because a horse is drawing a load he is +a draft horse; nor because a horse is hitched to a coach he is a coach +horse; nor because he is driven on the road he is a roadster. These +three names,--draft horses, coach horses, roadsters,--represent types or +classes. They mean kinds of horses that are supposed to be best adapted +for drawing, or for coaches and carriages, or for fast driving, +providing the horse has no other work to do. But the horses that you +usually see are just mere common horses of no particular type, and are +used for a great variety of purposes. They are "nondescripts," which +means "undescribed" or "unclassified." You would not think of putting a +true draft horse, like the animal in Fig. 375, on a light carriage; nor +of hitching a coacher like that in Fig. 377 to a coal wagon. Do you +think there is any real roadster, or coach horse, or draft horse in your +neighborhood? If not, perhaps you can tell, as the horses pass you, +whether they are nearest like one type or another. Try it. + +If you will observe horses closely you will find that some are large, +heavy, and strong, and that they are seldom made to move rapidly, while +others may be nearly as tall but they are slim, and carry their heads +high and their necks arched. You should also notice that the heavy draft +horse does not lift his feet high nor walk with a proud and lofty tread, +while the coach horse lifts his feet high, carries his head high, and +moves very proudly. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 377. A good coacher._] + +There are several breeds of draft or heavy horses. Fig. 375 shows a fine +Clydesdale horse imported from Scotland. Notice how nicely he is marked. +The horseman would say that he has four "white stockings" and plenty of +"feather" on his fetlock; strange, is it not, that this long hair should +be called feather? + +If you should see a large, smooth gray horse similar to the Clyde, +without the "white stockings" or the "feather," you may conclude that he +is a Percheron horse. As we have said before, the Percheron breed of +horses came from France. It is not always gray in color. It is slightly +smaller than the Clydesdale. + +After you have learned that a draft horse should be large and strong, +study the picture of the coach horse (Fig. 377). Compare him with the +draft horse. The coach horse is not a fast trotter nor even a fast +roadster, but he is usually very beautiful, strong, and stylish. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 378. Arabian horse._] + +Now I shall ask you to compare the neck shown in Fig. 380 with that +shown in Fig. 381. Which do you think is the more beautiful? The horse +with the long, slim neck is a noted trotter. If the neck and head were +large, would it help or hinder the trotter? Compare the neck of the +trotter with that of the draft horse and see whether you can explain why +one is heavy and the other light. Can you explain to your parents why +the draft horse should weigh more than the coach horse? + +Do you admire the head and neck shown in Fig. 380? Wherein does it +differ from the others? This type is called "ewe-neck." Can you tell +why? Tell me whether you think this horse would be a safe driver. + +What do you think of the head and neck of the Arabian horse (Fig-378)? +You like it, do you? Why? Can you imagine what kind of horse belongs to +that head and neck? Describe it. + +Probably the Arabian horse would be too spirited for you so I shall show +you a Shetland pony. (Fig. 379.) Where is Shetland? Why are horses so +small in the country where this little fellow came from? How does he +differ from the other horses shown in the Leaflet? Note _all_ of the +differences. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 379. Shetland pony._] + +In Fig. 376 you will see the picture of a Welsh pony, and she has a +ponyette, a baby only a few days old. Which is the larger, the Shetland +pony or the Welsh pony? Which one would you prefer if the baby were left +out? Could you raise a calf until it became a grown cow and then trade +it for a pony? Just a plain little pony can be bought for the price of +a good cow. It is part of a good education to know how to raise and +handle cows and horses. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 380. Ewe-neck, a poor horse._] + +With this Leaflet in your hand, you should go to the stable, or, better +still, out on the street, and see whether you can find as good horses +and ponies as the pictures represent. As you study horses try to answer +the following questions: + +1. Where is the horse's knee joint? Which way does the knee bend? + +2. Where is the hock joint? Which way does it bend? + +3. Can a horse sleep when standing? + +4. How are the legs placed when a horse lies down? + +5. How does a horse get up,--front legs first or hind legs first? How +does a cow get up? + +6. When a horse starts, after standing, what foot does he put forward +first,--the left or the right? Fore or back? What foot moves next? + +7. When a horse trots, do the two feet on one side move together? Or do +lefts and rights move together? + +8. What does a driver mean when he says that a horse "forges" or +"over-reaches?" + +9. Name the things that a horse commonly eats. What is a good feed for a +day,--how much of each thing, and when given? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 381. Neck of a trotter._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 382. At pasture._] + + + + +INDEX. + + + ["Fig." means that the page referred to contains the figure only, + no text reference.] + + PAGE. + + Agassiz, glacial hypothesis 105 + making of surveys and maps 202, 203 + + Agriculture, its place in schools 45-47 + + Agricultural education, what it is 45-53 + + Air 87, 123, 124 + + Alfalfa 40, 354, 355, 357-360, 489-493 + + Alluvial fans 132 + + Annual rings 321, 327, 328, 329, 330, 335, 474 + + Ants 62, 64, (Fig.) 224, 243-251, 274, 508, 513 + + Ant-lions 250 + + Aphids 62, 68, 248-251, 539 + + Aphis-lion 249, 539, 540, 543 + + Apple, buds 328, 329 + fruit 467-472 + grafting of 374, 375 + shape of tree 304 + twigs 317-325 + + Apple-scab 470, (Fig.) 471 + + Apricot 328, 375, 377 + + Aquaria 59, 60, 141-156, 165, 166 + + Arborvitae 345, 346, 347 + + Asters 379-383 + + Azalea 331 + + + Back-swimmers, see "Bugs." + + Bagworms 61 + + Balsams 383 + + Barngrass 362 + + Bass, black 162 + + Basswood leaf-roller, see "Moths." + + Beans 291, 460-466, 563, 564 + + Begonias 372, 373 + + Bees, wings of (Fig.) 224 + bumble 65, 68, 351, 352 + carpenter 61 + honey 62, 64, 65, 353 + + Beet 257, 415, 416 + sugar 405 + + Beetles 210, 223, 224, 507 + engraver 61 + plum curculio 68 + + Beetles, potato 62, 63, 68 + predaceous diving 151 + snapping (Fig.) 223 + tiger 61 + water scavenger 152 + whirligig 135 + wood-boring (Fig.) 223 + + Bibliography of nature-study 76-79 + + Biennial 416 + + Birds, leaflets on 253-290, 503, 504, 515, 516 + suggestions for study 70, 71 + See special birds. + + Black bass, see "Bass." + + Blackberry 305, 370, 375 + + Blackbird, redwing 263 + + Black-fly, see "Flies." + + Bluebells 362 + + Bluebird 238, 261 + + Black-nosed dace, see "Dace." + + Bordeaux mixture 381, 382, 389 + + Breeding cage 228 + + Brook, The, insects of 135-140 + suggestions for study 125 + work of 126-134 + + Brownie-bugs, see "Bugs." + + Budding 376, 377 + + Buds + apple 317-325 + apricot 328 + azalea 331 + butternut 474 + dormant 318, 314-320, 329 + elm 330 + flower 319, 328, 330 + hepatica 392 + hickory 329, (Fig.) 330 + horse-chestnut (Fig.) 474 + leaf 319, 328, 330 + maple 329, 473 + peach 328 + pear 328 + pussy-willow 330 + terminal 318, 474 + winter 72, 331, 332, 327-336, 473, 474 + + Bugs, 223 + brownie (Fig.) 223 + back-swimmers 136, 152, 153 + giant water 137, 153 + June 288 + + Bugs, lady 210, 250 + stink 223 + water boatmen 136, 152 + water scorpions 152, 153 + water-striders 137 + + Bulbs 567, 577-580, 581-583 + see special bulbs. + + Burdock 362 + + Butterflies 58, 59, 61, 62, 224, 238, 544 + cabbage 208, 209, 210, (Fig.) 224, 540 + common blue 248 + milkweed 208, 209 + monarch 63, 544 + viceroy 63 + + Butternut (Fig.) 474 + + + Cabbage butterfly, see "Butterflies." + + Caddice-worm 61, 136, 155 + + Cambium 375 + + Cankerworms 68 + + Carnations (Fig.) 370, 372 + + Carrot 257 + + Caterpillars 58, 62, 501 + apple-tree tent 59, 69, 227-235 + of cecropia moth 167, 168 + cabbage 63, 68, 208, 209, 210 + of codlin-moth 470 + of common blue butterfly 248 + of fall web-worm 61 + of promethea moth 168, 169 + "woolly-bear" 210, 238, 539, (Fig.) 541 + + Catfish 150, 161 + + Cat-tails 364 + + Cecropia moth, see "Moths." + + Cereals, food value of 409-414 + + Chara (Fig.) 148, 149 + + Charcoal 144 + + Cherry, grafting of 377 + + Chestnut, grafting of 374 + + Chickadee 279-281, 285, 503, 504 + + Chickens 70, 522-524, 525, 526, 527 + + Child's Realm, The (poem) 451 + + Chinese lily, see "Narcissus." + + Chipmunk 69 + + Choke-cherries 362 + + Chrysalids 58, 59 + of apple-tree tent caterpillar 233 + cabbage butterfly 209, 540 + + Chrysalids, codlin-moth 470 + milkweed butterfly 208 + + Cicada 66, 210, (Fig.) 223, 529-535 + dog-day harvest fly 534, 535 + seventeen-year locust 529-535 + + Cion 374 + + Clam 150 + + Clarkias 383 + + Clay 117, 118 + + Clothes moth, see "Moths." + + Clouds 84, 85, 88, 90 + + Codlin-moth, see "Moths." + + Clover 124, 349-360 + alsike 353 + buffalo 352, 353 + crimson 352 + hop, see yellow. + hop trefoil, see low hop. + least hop 354 + low hop 354 + rabbit foot (Fig.) 353, 354 + red 351, 352 + scarlet, see crimson. + stone, see rabbit-foot. + zig-zag 352 + See, also, "Alfalfa," "Medics," "Melilots." + + Cocoons 58, 59, 167-169 + of cecropia moth 167, 168 + codlin-moth 508 + lace-winged fly 539, 540, 543 + promethea moth 168, 169 + tent caterpillar (Fig.) 233, 235 + "woolly-bear" 211, 539 + + Cockle 363 + + Cold-blooded animals 199 + + Coleus 370, 372 + + Common blue butterfly, see "Butterflies." + + Cones, of arborvitae 345, 347 + hemlock 344, 347 + balsam fir 343, 347 + Austrian pine 338, 339, (Fig.) 340, 346 + pitch pine 337, 338, 346 + Scotch pine 338, 339, 346 + white pine (Fig.) 335, 336, 346 + black spruce 341, 342, 346 + Norway spruce 341, (Fig.) 342, 346 + red spruce 342, 347 + white spruce 342, 346 + + Corn, Indian 397-407, 409-414, 485-488, 571 + + Coreopsis 383 + + Corydalis, 138 + + Cowbird 261, 262 + + Crane-fly, see "Flies." + + Crayfish 150 + + Creek chub 165 + + Crickets 59, 66, 543 + + Crocus 582, 583, 588 + + Crow 197, 284, 287-290, 501, 502 + + Cross-fertilization, see "Pollination." + + Currants 305, 370, 373, (Fig.) 374, 375 + + Currant-worms 68 + + Cuttings 369-378 + + Cutworms 288, 400, 501 + + Cyanide bottle 216, 217 + + + Dace, black-nosed 159 + + Daffodils 582-588 + + Dahlia 564 + + Dairy products, value in N. Y. State, 489 + + Damping-off 370, 371 + + Damsel-flies 136, 154 + + Dandelion 362, 363, 481, 482 + + Darter, Johnny 163 + + Delta 103, 131, 132, 133 + + Dew 83 + + Dobson 137, 138 + + Dock 362, 380 + + Dodder 360 + + Dog-day harvest fly, see "Cicada." + + Domestic animals 70, 414 + See, also, "Horses," "Poultry." + + Doves 254, 261, 264 + + Dragon-flies 136, 154, 155, 222 + + Ducks 522-524, 525, 526 + + Duck-weed 148 + + + Eel-grass 147, 148 + + Eggs, of ants 246 + caterpillars 210, 229, 230, (Fig.) 235 + cicada 530, 534 + frogs 188 + grasshoppers 210 + lace-winged fly 539, 543 + mosquito 238, 239 + domestic fowls 524, 525 + salamanders 188 + spiders 181-183, 211, 288 + toads 186-189, 200 + + Egg-shell farms 456, 566, 573-576 + + Electric-light bug, see "giant water bug" under "Bugs." + + Elm, American 300, 303, (Fig.) 308, 309, 310-316, 330 + slippery (Fig.) 299, 300, 301, 303 + struggle for existence 361 + + Entomological supplies, dealers in 226 + + Evaporation 82 + + Evergreens 333-347 + See special kinds. + + + Fall web-worm, see "Caterpillars." + + Ferns 76, 362 + + Finch, grass, see "vesper sparrow" under "Sparrows." + purple 261, 265, 266 + + Fir, balsam 343, 347 + + Fireweed 364 + + Fish 69, 149, 150, 157-166 + See special fish. + + Flicker, see "Woodpeckers." + + Flies 62, 224 + black 139 + crane (Fig.) 223 + hellgrammite 138 + horse 210 + house 63 + pomace (Fig.) 222 + + Flood-plain 104, 130 + + Flowers, pistillate 400 + staminate 400 + study of 71, 72 + + Fog 83, 86, 88, 89 + + Foods, value of various kinds 411, 412 + bulletins on 413 + + Forestry 75 + + Fossils 107 + + Frog 150, 151, 188, 189, 501 + + Frost 426, 427 + + Fruits 71, 72 + + + Galls 61 + pine-cone willow 135, 136 + + Gardens, children's 36, 37, 40, 379-383, 559-566, 569-571, 573-576 + + Geese 520-522, 525, 526 + + Geraniums 370, 372, 419 + + Giant water-bug, see "Bugs." + + Germination 560-562, 566, 573-576 + of bean 291, 460-466 + squash 291-295 + + Glacial scratches (Fig.) 104, 105, 108, 109, 110 + + Glacier (Fig.) 100, 104-113 + + Gladiolus 564 + + Gold-fish 150 + + Gooseberries 305, 373, 375 + + Grackle, bronzed 261, 262, 263 + + Grafting 374-378 + + Grape (Fig.) 363, 364, 370, 373, 375 + + Grape hyacinth 588 + + Grass 362, 363, 364, 380 + + Grasshoppers 56, 59, 62, 63, 66, 210, 288, 524 + + Guinea-pigs 70 + + + Hail 88, 89 + + Hawthorn 374 + + Hay, value as crop in N. Y. State 489 + + Hellgrammite fly, see "Flies." + + Hemlock 343-345, 347 + + Hepatica 391-393, 477, 478 + + Hibernation, of butterflies 61, 238 + mosquitoes 238 + toad 199, 200 + "woolly-bear" 539 + + Hickory, buds 329, (Fig.) 330 + small-fruited shagbark (Fig.) 298, 300 + pignut (Fig.) 298, 300 + + High-hole, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers." + + Horse-chestnut (Fig.) 474 + + Horse-fly, see "Flies." + + Horses 589-594 + See, also, "Domestic Animals." + + Horticulture 75 + + House-fly, see "Flies." + + Hyacinth 582, 583, 586, 588 + + + Ichneumon flies 210 + + Imperial moth, see "Moths." + + Indian turnip, see "Jack-in-the-Pulpit." + + Insects, cage for 539, (Fig.) 540 + how to collect and preserve 213-226 + of a brook 135-140 + suggestions for study 58-69 + + Isabella moth, see "Moths." + + + Jack-in-the-Pulpit 395, 396, 479, 480 + + Johnny Darters, see "Darter." + + June bug, see "Bugs." + + + Katydid 66 + + Kingfisher 261, 266 + + Knotweed 262 + + + Lace-winged fly 539, 540, 543, 544 + + Lady-bugs, see "Bugs." + + Leaf-miners 60 + + Leaf-rollers 60 + basswood (Fig.) 224 + + Leaf-scars 474 + of evergreens 334 + + Leaves, autumn colors 71, 426, 427, 483 + fall of 427 + functions of 424, 425, 426, 483 + + Lenses 228 + + Lettuce 563, 564 + + Lightning 89, 91 + + Lilac 305 + + Lime 118 + + Lobster 50 + + Locusts, mouth parts 530 + seventeen-year, see "Cicada." + + Lucerne, see "Alfalfa." + + Luna moths, see "Moths." + + + Maple, black 428 + box elder 428 + goose-foot, see striped. + mountain 427, (Fig.) 429 + Norway 329, 428 + planting of 446 + red 428, (Fig.) 429, (Fig.) 473 + silver 428 + striped 427, (Fig.) 428 + sugar 73, 74, 329, 423-430 + swamp, see red. + + Maple sugar 431-434 + + Maps, construction of 202-205 + + Martins 254 + + May-flies 138, 139 + + Meadow-lark 261, 263, 264, 274 + + Medics 350, 351 + black 355 + hop, see black + toothed 355 + spotted 355 + See, also, "Alfalfa." + + Melilots 350, 351 + white sweet clover 356 + yellow sweet clover 356 + Bokhara clover 356 + + Mice 69 + + Milkweed butterfly, see "Butterflies." + + Mineral matter, in seeds 410, 411 + in soils 100 + + Minnows 149, 165 + + Monarch butterfly, see "Butterflies." + + Moraine 110 + + Mosquitoes 58, 59, 62, 153, 154, 237-241, 272 + + Moths, how to collect 222 + how to distinguish from butterflies 224 + life cycle 169 + basswood leaf-roller (Fig.) 224 + cecropia 167, 168 + clothes 68 + codlin 68, 468-471, 508 + imperial (Fig.) 225 + Isabella tiger 539, (Fig.) 542 + luna (Fig.) 226 + promethea 167, 168, 169 + scallop-shell 61 + tussock 68 + underwing (Fig.) 225 + + Moulting, of caterpillars 232 + cicada 531 + snake 198 + toad 198, 199 + + Mudwasps, see "Wasps." + + Mulching, of soil 120, 121, 122, 380, 381 + + Mullein 362, 579 + + Museum pests 219, 220 + + Mushrooms 74 + + + Narcissus 582, 583, 588 + oriental 585, 586 + + Nature-study, outline of movement 21-29 + suggestions for (graded course and bibliography) 55-79 + what it is 11-20 + + Nettles 364 + + N. Y. Teachers, An appeal to 31-43 + + N. Y. State Teachers' Library 148 + + Nitella (Fig.) 148, 149 + + Nitrogen 350, 360 + + Note-taking 455-457, 458, 459, 460-466 + + Nuthatch, white-breasted 283-286 + red-breasted 285 + + Nutmeg 409 + + + Oaks, grafting of 374 + scarlet 300 + swamp white 300 + + Oil, in seeds 398, 405, 410 + + Oriole 515, 516 + + + Parsley 363 + + Parsnips 257 + + Parrot's feather (Fig.) 148, 149 + + Peaches 328, 375, 377 + + Pear 374, 375 + + Pepperidge 300, 301, 304, 309 + + Petunias 383 + + Phlox 383 + + Phoebe 280, 361, 363 + + Pigeons 254 + + Pigweeds 362, 367 + + Pines, Austrian 338, 339, (Fig.) 340, 346 + pitch 336-338, 346 + Scotch 338, 339, 346 + + Pitchforks 362 + + Plantain 362 + + Plants, breeding of 389, 390, 405-407, 411 + planting of 367, 368 + physiology of 72, 73, 74, 142, 424-427 + societies of 361-365 + + Plums 375, 377 + + Plum curculio, see "Beetles." + + Pokeweed 364 + + Pollination 351, 352, 400 + + Polliwogs, see "Tadpoles." + + Pomace flies, see "Flies." + + Ponies 593, 594 + + Pop-corn 488 + + Poplar, Carolina 444 + cutting of 373 + Lombardy 301, (Fig.) 303, 304 + + Poppies 383 + + Potatoes 370, 374, 385-390, 407 + + Pot-holes 133 + + Poultry 517-527 + See, also, "Domestic Animals." + + Predaceous diving beetles, see "Beetles." + + Promethea moth, see "Moths." + + Protective coloration 62, 63 + + Protein 398, 405 + + Pruning 417-421, 444, 475, 476 + + Pumpkin 401 + + Pupa, of ants 244, 245, 246 + butterflies, see "Chrysalids." + mosquitoes 239, 240 + moths, see "Chrysalids." + + + Quince 374 + + + Rabbit 56, 70 + + Radish 563, 564 + + Ragweed 362, 579 + + Raindrops 86, 88, 89, 90 + + Rainfall 119, 123 + + Raspberry 305, 375 + + Robin 238, 261, 499, 500 + + Rock flour 110 + + Roots, growing point of 293, 294 + + Rose (Fig.) 371 + + Rust, on asters 381, 382 + + + Salamanders 188, 197, 501, 539-544 + + Sand 117, 120 + + Sapsucker, see "Woodpeckers." + + Sassafras 301, (Fig.) 302, 309 + + Scale insects 68 + + Scallop-shell moth, see "Moths." + + School grounds, improvement of 35, 38-41, 437-447, 566-568, 571, 572 + + Schoolroom, The 9 + + Scion, see "Cion." + + Seed, dispersal of 72 + dormant 409, 410 + uses of stored food 409-414 + See, also, "Germination." + + Shiner 162, 165 + + Shower, A Summer 81-91 + + Silage 403 + + Siphon 144 + + Skipper, silver spotted 61 + + Sleep, of flowers 72 + + Slug 149 + + Smartweed 362, 380 + + Snakes 197, 198, 501 + + Snails 143, 148, 149 + + Snow 84, 85, 93-97, 453, 454 + + Snowball bush 305 + + Snowdrops 582, 583, 588 + + Snowflakes 588 + + Soil 99-114 + value of various kinds 115-124 + in school gardens 560, 570, 571, 574, 579, 581 + + Sparrows, fox 264, 265 + song 261, 265 + tree 265 + white-crowned 265 + white-throated 261, 265 + vesper 265 + + Spiders 65, 66, 68, 69, 171-183, 211, 249, 288 + + Spraying 68, 69 + + Springs 126 + + Spruce, black 341-343, 346 + Norway 339-341, (Fig.) 342, 346 + red 342, 343, 347 + + Squash 291-295, 407 + + Squill 588 + + Squirrel, red 435, 436 + black 435 + how to study 69 + + Starch 331, 386, 387, 398, 405, 410, 483 + + Stems, growing point of 295 + + Stickleback 163 + + Stink-bugs, see "Bugs." + + Stock, for grafting 374 + + Stone-flies 138, 140 + + Storms, snow 93-97, 453, 454 + thunder 86, 87, 90 + + Stratification 133 + + Stream-cutting 127-129, 133 + + Stream deposition 104, 130, 133 + + Struggle for existence 74, 75, 361, 410, 418 + + Sumac 431, 433, 466 + + Sunfish 161 + + Sweet clover, see "Melilots." + + Sweet-peas 379-383, 564 + + Swallow, tree 254 + + + Tadpoles 135, 189-193 + + Tape-grass 147, 148 + + Terrarium 207-212, 537-544 + + Thistle 364, 579 + + Thunder 89 + + Thorn-apple 301, (Fig.) 303, 309 + + Tillage 570, 571 + + Tomato 374 + + Trees, winter aspect of 297-305 + how to draw 307-316 + how to plant 444-446 + see special kinds. + + Tree-toads 188, 189, 210 + + Tussock moth, see "Moths." + + + Underwing moth, see "Moths." + + + Virginia creeper 444 + + Vireo 515 + + Verbena 372 + + Vegetables 71 + + Viceroy butterfly, see "Butterflies." + + + Walking-sticks 63 + + Warm-blooded 199 + + Wasps 62, 63, (Fig.) 224 + mud 136 + + Water 120, 126 + + Water boatmen, see "Bugs." + + Watercress 148 + + Waterfalls 129, 133 + + Water-milfoil (Fig.) 148, 149 + + Water-purslane (Fig.) 148, 149 + + Water-scavenger beetle, see "Beetle." + + Water-scorpion, see "Bugs." + + Water-strider, see "Bugs." + + Water-tiger 152 + + Weeds 74 + + Wheat 411 + + Whirligig beetle, see "Beetles." + + Willows 305, 373, 443, 446 + pussy 330 + + Wire-grass 362 + + Wire-worms 400 + + Woodpeckers 269-277, 505-513 + downy 269, 270, 271, 284, 507-510 + flicker 274-277, 512, 513 + golden-winged, see flicker. + hairy 269, 270, 271, 284 + red-head 272, 505-507 + sapsucker 270, 271, 272, 510-512 + + Wrens 254 + + + Yarup, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers." + + Yellow-hammer, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers." + + + Zinnias 383 + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: + +Alternative spelling retained. + +Punctuation normalized without comment. + +Spelling change + +Page 108, "moivng" was changed to read "moving" + +Page 155, "caddice-warm" was changed to read "caddice-worm." + +Page 178, "entangeled" was changed to read "entangled." + +Page 190, "grow a a great" was changed to read "grow a great." + +Page 223, "Snappping beetle" was changed to read "Snapping beetle." + +Page 274, "Ornothology" was changed to read "Ornithology." + +Page 284, "I pounded on the widow" was changed to read "I pounded on the +window." + +Page 285, "Audobon" was changed to read "Audubon." + +Page 288, "omniverous" was changed to read "omnivorous." + +Page 321, "histery" was changed to read "history." + +Page 363, "open ones eyes" was changed to read "open one's eyes." + +Page 383, "motherworth and Virginia creeper" was changed to read +"motherwort and Virginia creeper." + +Page 396, "Is is pleasant" was changed to read "Is it pleasant." + +Page 530, "thousand liliputian" was changed to read "thousand +lilliputian." + +Page 510, "once that it it is" was changed to read "once that it is." + +Page 592, "Is you should" was changed to read "If you should."] + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43200 *** |