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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 18:38:12 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 18:38:12 -0800 |
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diff --git a/43200-h/43200-h.htm b/43200-h/43200-h.htm index c2d84fa..7fe5c61 100644 --- a/43200-h/43200-h.htm +++ b/43200-h/43200-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of CORNELL Nature-Study Leaflets, by Various. @@ -240,47 +240,7 @@ p.drop-cap:first-letter </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets - Being a selection, with revision, from the teachers' - leaflets, home nature-study lessons, junior naturalist - monthlies and other publications from the College of - Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., 1896-1904 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 12, 2013 [EBook #43200] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORNELL NATURE-STUDY LEAFLETS *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43200 ***</div> <div id="cover" class="figcenter w100"> <img src="images/cover.jpg" @@ -1485,7 +1445,7 @@ the thought of his own time. Even though one expect to devote himself wholly to a dead language, in school he should study enough natural science and enough technology to enable him to grasp living problems. I fear that some institutions are still turning -out men with mediæval types of mind.</p> +out men with mediæval types of mind.</p> <p>Now, therefore, I come again to my thesis,—to the statement that the end and purpose of nature-study is to educate the young @@ -2184,7 +2144,7 @@ pupils and patrons to improve and beautify the school buildings and school surroundings of our State. Some progress has been made, but much remains to be done.</p> -<p>"I heartily welcome the coöperation of every agency which can contribute +<p>"I heartily welcome the coöperation of every agency which can contribute to this result. We must interest parents and teachers in this work, but to obtain the best results I have always found that we must first interest the children. Once a spirit of enthusiasm is awakened in the children, it @@ -2202,7 +2162,7 @@ which bring discomfort, it will not be difficult to induce them to devise ways and means to improve matters.</p> <p>"I shall watch the result of your efforts with deep interest, and stand -ready to coöperate with you in every way.</p> +ready to coöperate with you in every way.</p> <p class="author">"Very sincerely yours,<br /> "CHARLES R. SKINNER,<br /> @@ -2479,7 +2439,7 @@ for example, the title of professors and instructors are associated with such divisions as thremmatology, agronomy, pomology, olericulture, floriculture, soil physics, dairy husbandry, dairy manufacture, horses, beef cattle, swine husbandry, farm crops. At Cornell -the coördinate departments of instruction in the College of Agriculture +the coördinate departments of instruction in the College of Agriculture are classified as agricultural chemistry, economic entomology, soils, agronomy, horticulture, animal husbandry with its <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> @@ -2507,7 +2467,7 @@ sufficiently appreciated. Much of this farm philosophy is now coming into the courses of instruction under the titles of rural economy, rural economics, rural sociology and the like. I have sometimes thought that the time may come when we will again -have professors of "agriculture" who will coördinate and synthesize +have professors of "agriculture" who will coördinate and synthesize the work of the agronomist, soil physicist, chemist, dairyman and others. However, the dividing has not yet worked any harm, and perhaps my fears are ungrounded; and it is certain @@ -2575,7 +2535,7 @@ outlook. Also his personal happiness depends on his outlook. He must concern himself not alone with technical farming, but also with all the affairs that make up an agricultural community: good roads, organizations, schools, mail routes, labor movements, -rural architecture, sanitation, the æsthetic aspect of the country. +rural architecture, sanitation, the æsthetic aspect of the country. One will be struck with the new signification of "agriculture" if he scan the titles of publications that issue from governmental agricultural departments, agricultural experiment stations, agricultural @@ -2761,8 +2721,8 @@ grown-up feeling of pupils of these grades. <p>The first year of work with insects may well be restricted to familiarizing the pupils with the three most striking phases in the -life of insects with complete metamorphosis, <i>i. e.</i>, the larvæ, the -pupæ, and the winged insects. Moths and butterflies are especially +life of insects with complete metamorphosis, <i>i. e.</i>, the larvæ, the +pupæ, and the winged insects. Moths and butterflies are especially adapted for this work with the small children.</p> <p><i>Fall work.</i>—In September there are still many caterpillars feeding. @@ -2790,9 +2750,9 @@ pupa. The pupa is the quiescent form of the insect. The cocoon is the silken bag covering it, and is always made by the caterpillar before it changes to a pupa.</p> -<p>If possible bring in some butterfly larvæ. In September many +<p>If possible bring in some butterfly larvæ. In September many may be found. The cabbage butterfly especially is always with -us. Insect Life, p. 245. Also the larvæ of the black swallow-tail +us. Insect Life, p. 245. Also the larvæ of the black swallow-tail may be easily found. Insect Life, p. 243; Everyday Butterflies, p. 130; Moths and Butterflies, (<i>b</i>), p. 39.</p> @@ -2918,7 +2878,7 @@ Butterflies, p. 190.</p> <p>Carpenter bees: Ways of the Six-Footed, p. 108.</p> -<p>Tiger beetle larvæ: Insect Life, pp. 270-272.</p> +<p>Tiger beetle larvæ: Insect Life, pp. 270-272.</p> <p>All kinds of cocoons are found by the children. Ask concerning the cocoons: Where did you find them? Were they in protected places? Why?</p> @@ -2997,7 +2957,7 @@ investigation on the part of the pupils.</p> see how each insect lives a life adapted to its own peculiar needs. Try to feed some cabbage worms on clover or grass. Then try turnip or mustard leaves, and watch the result. Change the -potato beetle larvæ to some other plant, and watch the result.</p> +potato beetle larvæ to some other plant, and watch the result.</p> <p>Let the pupils first find out how the insects breathe in the water. Each insect in the aquarium tells a different story as to its way of @@ -3013,7 +2973,7 @@ to creep upon its prey unobserved.</p> <p>Note the color of the grasshopper in the road; color of meadow grasshopper; color of the caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly (green and hard to find). Notice the shape and color of walking -sticks; color of the katydids. Note the bright color of the larvæ +sticks; color of the katydids. Note the bright color of the larvæ of potato beetle. Why? (They are distasteful to birds, and their colors advertise the fact.) Study the Monarch butterfly and the Viceroy. Everyday Butterflies, p. 95 and p. 297; Ways of the Six-Footed, @@ -3078,7 +3038,7 @@ the work from flagging.</p> <p>Teach the whole life-history by allowing the pupils to colonize the nests. Manual for Study of Insects, pp. 633-639; Insect Life, -p. 271. Make observations upon the <i>eggs, pupæ, workers, males, +p. 271. Make observations upon the <i>eggs, pupæ, workers, males, females.</i> What are the winged forms that appear in swarms in June and July.</p> @@ -5982,7 +5942,7 @@ current and the babble makes glad the heart of the wayfarer. Let us that genius of the rapids, the dobson. (<a href="#fig51">Fig. 51</a>.) These creatures bear other common names. They are prized by fishermen in the black bass season. Dirty brown in color and frankly ugly in appearance and -disposition, these larvæ, for such they are, have little to fear from +disposition, these larvæ, for such they are, have little to fear from the casual visitor at the water's edge. When a stone is lifted, the dobsons beneath it allow themselves to be hurried along for some distance by the current. The danger over, they "catch hold" and await @@ -6024,7 +5984,7 @@ unfolding of the gauzy wings, and the unsheathing of the long filaments. numerous for comfort at summer resorts where myriads of them swarm about the lights; but stories of their stinging and biting are entirely without foundation. They are short-lived in the adult stage. The name of -the family to which they belong, <i>Ephemeridæ</i>, suggests their ephemeral +the family to which they belong, <i>Ephemeridæ</i>, suggests their ephemeral existence. It is of these that poets have sung.</p> <p>Stone-fly nymphs, also, cling closely to the flat stones. The @@ -6035,10 +5995,10 @@ comparison with these illustrations. (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54</a>.)</p> <p>Sometimes on the very brink of a cataract one will see what appear like patches of loose black moss. Strangely enough, these -are the larvæ of black-flies, related to the terrible black-fly -of the north woods. The black-fly larvæ can live only in the +are the larvæ of black-flies, related to the terrible black-fly +of the north woods. The black-fly larvæ can live only in the swiftest water. There they pass through their transformations -and succeed in emerging into their aërial stage, in spite of the +and succeed in emerging into their aërial stage, in spite of the rushing current.</p> <div id="fig53" class="figcenter w100"> @@ -6150,7 +6110,7 @@ whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, is constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney.</p> -<p>3. The temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° Fahr. +<p>3. The temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature and experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day.</p> @@ -6166,7 +6126,7 @@ of the innocent. Perhaps the most serious results come from overstocking. It is better to have too few plants or animals than too many of either. A great deal of light, especially bright sunlight, is not good for the aquarium. A pond that is not shaded -soon becomes green with a thick growth of slime or algæ. This +soon becomes green with a thick growth of slime or algæ. This does not look well in an aquarium and is likely to take up so much of the plant-food that the other plants are "starved out." The plants in the school-room window may provide shade for the aquarium, @@ -6353,7 +6313,7 @@ putty with <i>pure</i> boiled linseed oil.</p> <p>After reading all these directions and getting the idea of an aquarium, one should think the whole matter out for himself and make it just as he wants it. Directions are useful as suggestions only. -The shallow form is better for raising toads, frogs and insect larvæ; +The shallow form is better for raising toads, frogs and insect larvæ; the deeper aquaria show water plants and fishes to better advantage.</p> <h5><span class="smcap">Inhabitants of the Aquarium</span>.</h5> @@ -6688,9 +6648,9 @@ really the young of the too familiar mosquito. The adult mosquito leaves its eggs in tiny boat-shaped masses on the surface of stagnant water, where food will be abundant for the young which soon appear. Some time is spent by the wigglers in eating and -growing before they curl up into pupæ. Insects are rarely active in the +growing before they curl up into pupæ. Insects are rarely active in the pupa stage. The mosquito is one of the very few exceptions. From these -lively pupæ the full-grown mosquitoes emerge. <a href="#fig74">Fig. 74</a> shows a small +lively pupæ the full-grown mosquitoes emerge. <a href="#fig74">Fig. 74</a> shows a small glass tumbler in which are seen the three aquatic stages of the mosquito's life and an adult just leaving the pupa skin. Nothing is easier than to watch the entire development of the mosquito, and the @@ -6710,14 +6670,14 @@ fearing the gay creature.</p> <div id="fig74" class="figleft w25"> <img src="images/illus156.jpg" width="100%" -alt="Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and pupæ of mosquito." -title="Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and pupæ of mosquito." /> -<p class="center"><i>Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and pupæ of mosquito.</i></p> +alt="Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and pupæ of mosquito." +title="Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and pupæ of mosquito." /> +<p class="center"><i>Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and pupæ of mosquito.</i></p> </div> <p>The young of the dragon-fly live a groveling existence, as different as can be from that of their sun-loving parents. Their food -consists of mosquito larvæ, water-fleas and the like, and their +consists of mosquito larvæ, water-fleas and the like, and their method of catching their prey is as novel as it is effective. Pupils and teacher can get plenty of good healthy entertainment out of the behavior of these awkward and voracious little mask-wearers. @@ -6923,7 +6883,7 @@ all winter. But when the stream is very shallow and the fishes feel the cold, they settle down to the bottom, moving about very little and taking little or no food. The carp collect in small numbers and pass the winter in excavations that they make in the -muddy bottom. If the débris thrown up by the water across the +muddy bottom. If the débris thrown up by the water across the marshy end of a lake be raked over during the winter, one will probably find some of the smaller catfishes spending the season in a semi-dormant state.</p> @@ -7226,7 +7186,7 @@ bands of cinnamon brown and white. On each wing is a white crescent bordered with red and outlined with a black line. The body is heavy and covered with thick, reddish-brown hairs, crossed near the end with black and white lines. On its small head are two large feathery feelers or -antennæ. The Cecropia moth emerges from the cocoon, full grown, in early +antennæ. The Cecropia moth emerges from the cocoon, full grown, in early summer, when out of doors. Those kept in the house often come out as early as March. The eggs are deposited by the adults upon apple, pear, cherry, maple and other shade and fruit trees. Professor Comstock says @@ -7621,7 +7581,7 @@ move sidewise like the jaws of insects. The first pair of jaws are called the <i>mandibles</i>. Each mandible consists of two segments, a strong basal one and a claw-shaped terminal one, at the tip of which the poison gland opens (<a href="#fig96">Fig. 96</a>). The second pair of jaws is known as the -<i>maxillæ</i>. These jaws are situated just behind the mandibles, one on +<i>maxillæ</i>. These jaws are situated just behind the mandibles, one on each side of the mouth. Each maxilla bears a large feeler or <i>palpus</i>. These palpi vary greatly in form; frequently, especially in females, they resemble legs; hence many spiders appear to have five pairs of @@ -8846,7 +8806,7 @@ the orange-colored wings of the developing butterflies within. They then burst, freeing their gorgeous tenants. This happened until there were seven butterflies in the terrarium. As two of these proved discontented with their new home, they were set -free. The five others spent the little round of their aërial life +free. The five others spent the little round of their aërial life seemingly happy and satisfied. They lived from three to six weeks and showed some individuality in their tastes and habits. Sometimes they chose the mossy corner for their resting place. @@ -9353,7 +9313,7 @@ on the walls of the schoolroom like pictures.</p> through the narrowest crevice into the insect boxes and lay their eggs on the pinned insects.</p> -<p>The larvæ when they hatch work within the +<p>The larvæ when they hatch work within the specimens at first but after a time destroy the bodies entirely. The presence of these little rascals may be detected by dust on the bottom of the box just below the infested @@ -9491,7 +9451,7 @@ larger than the front wings. These are perfectly harmless insects.</p> <p><i>Grasshoppers, Crickets and Katydids.</i>—These are known to all, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> <a href="#fig136">Fig. 136</a>. There are two families of grasshoppers: those with -long horns or antennæ and those with short antennæ. Katydids, +long horns or antennæ and those with short antennæ. Katydids, crickets, cockroaches and walking-sticks are near relatives to the grasshoppers.</p> @@ -9546,9 +9506,9 @@ title="Fig. 140. a, Wasp. b, Bee. Note these have four wings." /> <div id="fig141" class="right w50"> <img src="images/illus226b.jpg" width="100%" -alt="Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed antennæ." -title="Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed antennæ." /> -<p class="center"><i>Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed antennæ.</i></p> +alt="Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed antennæ." +title="Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed antennæ." /> +<p class="center"><i>Fig. 141. The Red Admiral butterfly. Note the knobbed antennæ.</i></p> </div> <p><i>Flies.</i>—These have only two wings, usually transparent. Behind @@ -9582,9 +9542,9 @@ title="Fig. 143. The Bass-wood leaf-roller moth." /> <hr class="brk" /> <p><i>Butterflies and Moths.</i>—Butterflies and moths may be told apart -by the following character: The antennæ or horns of the butterflies +by the following character: The antennæ or horns of the butterflies are always threadlike and knobbed at the tip, <a href="#fig141">Figs. 141</a>, <a href="#fig142">142</a>, -while the antennæ of moths are in various shapes, but never bear +while the antennæ of moths are in various shapes, but never bear knobs at the tips, <a href="#fig143">Figs. 143</a>, <a href="#fig144">144</a>, <a href="#fig145">145</a>, <a href="#fig146">146</a>. <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> @@ -10152,8 +10112,8 @@ living and of getting a living. Are you quite sure that the mosquitoes have not spent their winter under your protection? If in April you had had occasion to frequent either garret or cellar there you might have found them. By dozens and scores they were waiting for the return of -warm weather to free them. Many of them winter not as eggs, larvæ, or -pupæ, but as winged adults, as <i>mosquitoes</i>. This rather interferes with +warm weather to free them. Many of them winter not as eggs, larvæ, or +pupæ, but as winged adults, as <i>mosquitoes</i>. This rather interferes with the prevalent notion that mosquitoes live but for a day. Would that this were true, and might that day be short!</p> @@ -10182,7 +10142,7 @@ title="Fig. 153. The active pupa." /> <p><i>Fig. 153. The active pupa.</i></p> </div> -<p>The larvæ of mosquitoes are aquatic. They live in stagnant water +<p>The larvæ of mosquitoes are aquatic. They live in stagnant water everywhere, in ponds, swamps, ditches, puddles, rain-water barrels, and horse-troughs. In early spring the female mosquito that has wintered in your garret will probably go to the nearest rain-water barrel or @@ -10297,7 +10257,7 @@ or tanks by covering them with mosquito netting.</p> kerosene oil every two or three weeks in a thin film over the surface of cesspools, rain barrels, tanks, ponds or any other body of sluggish water where the "wigglers" are found. This oil film -kills the "wigglers" (both larvæ and pupæ) by preventing them +kills the "wigglers" (both larvæ and pupæ) by preventing them from getting to the surface to breathe, and it also prevents the mother mosquito from laying her eggs on the water. There are patent preparations or oils which penetrate all through the water, @@ -10368,8 +10328,8 @@ by and placed it on top of the upper glass to make the chamber below quite dark. Then we took a trowel and fruit-can and went after some inhabitants for our island. We went to an open pasture and turned over stones until we found beneath one a heap -of yellowish grain-like pupæ and little translucent whitish bodies, -which we knew were larvæ, all being cared for by swarms of +of yellowish grain-like pupæ and little translucent whitish bodies, +which we knew were larvæ, all being cared for by swarms of worker-ants. One of us pushed the trowel beneath, taking up dirt and all, while the other held the can open, into which the trowel was emptied. We hastened back and as gently as possible, @@ -10419,7 +10379,7 @@ a heap of the young, with a few of the nurses, in the empty chamber, then put on the glass ceiling and cover and left them. In a few hours the whole colony had moved into this chamber, but evidently it was not humid enough for the health of the young, and -by the next morning the pupæ and larvæ and eggs were all in the +by the next morning the pupæ and larvæ and eggs were all in the other chamber arranged around the edges of the blotting paper.</p> <div id="fug155" class="figcenter w100"> @@ -10434,16 +10394,16 @@ a small volume, if written out in detail. Just now a worker approached a pupa, that appears through the lens like a little bag <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> of meal tied at one end with a black string; she examined it carefully -with her antennæ and concluded it needed to be moved, and, +with her antennæ and concluded it needed to be moved, and, though it is as large as she, picked it up in her jaws and carried it to a position which she regarded as more favorable. Then she approached a larva which looks like a little crook-neck squash, -inquired as to its needs with her antennæ and then cleaned it +inquired as to its needs with her antennæ and then cleaned it with her tongue, as a cat licks a kitten, and fed it. Her next duty was to pick up a whole bunch of little white oblong eggs and scurry off with them to get them out of the light. Then she stopped to help another worker to straighten out the soft legs and -antennæ of a pale, new sister that was just emerging from the +antennæ of a pale, new sister that was just emerging from the pupa skin. By the time I had seen as much as this I felt it my duty to replace the cover, as the light greatly disturbs the little captives. It is said that if a yellow glass be used for the upper @@ -10520,7 +10480,7 @@ through the glass ceiling.</i></p> <p><i>The white pieces around the edges and at the center are strips of canton flannel, forming walls and partition to the nest. Note the doors at the lower left and upper right hand corners and at lower end of the partition. The piece of blotting paper in the chamber at the -left chanced to have a picture of an eagle upon it. The small white objects are pupæ, +left chanced to have a picture of an eagle upon it. The small white objects are pupæ, assorted in heaps.</i>] <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p> @@ -10607,7 +10567,7 @@ for them. In one case, at least, one species of ant builds for one species of aphid (which lives upon dogwood) a little mud stable which protects the aphids from all enemies. This stable is neatly placed at the fork of the twigs and has a little circular door by -which the ants may enter (<a href="#fig158">Fig. 158</a>). The lady-bug larvæ and the +which the ants may enter (<a href="#fig158">Fig. 158</a>). The lady-bug larvæ and the ant-lions both feed voraciously on the aphids; an ant will attack single-handed one of these depredators, although it be much larger than herself, and will drive it away or perish in the attempt.</p> @@ -10662,7 +10622,7 @@ them? <p>8. Why does not Paris green applied to the leaves on which aphids are feeding kill them?</p> -<p>9. Have you seen the lady-bird larvæ or the ant-lions destroying +<p>9. Have you seen the lady-bird larvæ or the ant-lions destroying aphids? Explain.</p> <p>10. Have you ever seen the little wax balls on the tubes of the @@ -11806,7 +11766,7 @@ THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanc <span class="i0">Peeping into wrinkles gray,</span> <span class="i0">Under ruffled lichens gay,</span> <span class="i0">Lazily piping one sharp note</span> - <span class="i0">From his silver mailèd throat.</span> + <span class="i0">From his silver mailèd throat.</span> </div> </div> </div> @@ -11824,7 +11784,7 @@ down at you, head downward, straight into your upturned opera-glass. If there is too much snow on the upper side of a branch watch how he runs along underneath it like a fly, busily tapping the bark, or adroitly breaking the decayed bits with his bill, as he stretches for the spider's -eggs, larvæ, etc., hidden there; yet somehow, between mouthfuls, managing +eggs, larvæ, etc., hidden there; yet somehow, between mouthfuls, managing to call out his cherry quank! quank! hank! hank!</i>"</p> <p class="author">—<span class="smcap">Neltje Blanchan</span>.</p></blockquote> @@ -12430,7 +12390,7 @@ books on trees.</p> <p>In teaching nature-study, remember that a great part of its value lies in the enthusiasm and zeal with which you handle it. Try, also, to -develop the æsthetic sense of the pupil; but do not teach mere +develop the æsthetic sense of the pupil; but do not teach mere sentiment.</p></div> <div> @@ -12655,7 +12615,7 @@ which lie on his way to school; and to observe carefully and critically. How do gooseberry bushes differ from currant bushes, and raspberries from blackberries? Observe the lilac bush and the snowballs. How is the snow held on the different kinds of -evergreens—as the pines, spruces, arbor-vitæ? See how the fruit-spurs +evergreens—as the pines, spruces, arbor-vitæ? See how the fruit-spurs on pears and plums stand out against the sky. (Consult Leaflet No. XXXI, "Four Apple Twigs.") Are there any bright colors of branch and twig to relieve the bareness of the snow? @@ -12981,7 +12941,7 @@ possible.</p> <p>The suggestions given on these pages are necessary for the beginner. Some of them are hard facts; but it lies with the -teacher to develop the æsthetic and artistic qualities lying dormant +teacher to develop the æsthetic and artistic qualities lying dormant in the pupil, ready to be moulded and started in the right direction.</p> @@ -14068,16 +14028,16 @@ of the leaves are several years old when they fall. <p>The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning hides for leather. The tree is much used for lumber. Where does it grow?</p> -<h5><span class="smcap">The Arbor-vitæ</span>.</h5> +<h5><span class="smcap">The Arbor-vitæ</span>.</h5> -<p>One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vitæ (often, +<p>One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vitæ (often, but wrongly, called the white cedar) has any leaves at all. It does possess them, however, but they are very different in size and shape from any of the others that we have examined. They are small scale-like bodies, closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets, in four rows. Leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to be "appressed." The leaves of the -arbor-vitæ are so close together that they overlap one another. +arbor-vitæ are so close together that they overlap one another. The leaves are of two distinct shapes, sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves. The former are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the branchlets, while @@ -14085,9 +14045,9 @@ the latter are on the sides or edges. See <a href="#fig244">Fig. 244</a>.</p> <div id="fig244" class="figcenter w50"> <img src="images/illus347.jpg" width="100%" -alt="Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size." -title="Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size." /> -<p class="center"><i>Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size.</i></p> +alt="Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size." +title="Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size." /> +<p class="center"><i>Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size.</i></p> </div> <p>If we carefully look at the leaves, we shall notice a raised spot @@ -14106,7 +14066,7 @@ borne in the axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branchlets and are not conspicuous unless one is close to the tree. <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p> -<p>The arbor-vitæ is much planted for hedges and screens, as well +<p>The arbor-vitæ is much planted for hedges and screens, as well as for other ornamental purposes. There are many horticultural varieties. The tree is abundant in a wild state in New York.</p> @@ -14174,7 +14134,7 @@ three inches long, cylindrical, composed of thin scales, and standing upright on the branches, or recurved; bark smooth, light green with whitish tinge.</p> -<p class="hang"><i>The arbor-vitæ</i> (Thuya occidentalis).—Leaves very small, scale-like, +<p class="hang"><i>The arbor-vitæ</i> (Thuya occidentalis).—Leaves very small, scale-like, and over-lapping one another in four rows, adhering closely to the branchlets; the cones oblong and small,—a half-inch or less in length,—and composed of but few scales. @@ -14217,7 +14177,7 @@ if a thing is useful to us we emphasize that quality so much that we forget to look for its beauty. Thus it is that the clover suffers great injustice; it has for centuries been a most valuable forage crop, and, therefore, we forget to note its beauty, or to regard it as an object -worthy of æsthetic attention. This is a pitiful fact; but it cheats us +worthy of æsthetic attention. This is a pitiful fact; but it cheats us more than it does the clover, for the clover blossoms not for us, but for the bees and butterflies as well as for itself. As I remember the scenes which have impressed me most, I find among them three in which @@ -14680,7 +14640,7 @@ alfalfa. If acid is present, the difficulty may be corrected either wholly or in part by the application of 500 to 2,000 pounds of lime per acre.</p> -<p>As in most other legumes (members of the family Leguminosæ, +<p>As in most other legumes (members of the family Leguminosæ, including peas, beans, clovers), there is a peculiar relationship existing between the plant and excrescences or nodules upon its roots. These nodules are essential to the normal growth and @@ -17637,7 +17597,7 @@ kettle is broken or lies rusting in the shed. In its place are evaporating vats placed over furnaces with chimneys, built in the new-fangled sugar houses. The maple molasses of to-day seems to <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> -us a pale and anæmic liquid and lacks just that delicious flavor +us a pale and anæmic liquid and lacks just that delicious flavor of the rich, dark nectar which we, with the help of cinders and smoke and various other things, brewed of yore in the open woods.</p> @@ -18288,7 +18248,7 @@ those who would reach small children. <span class="i4">I snatch'd a weed that toss'd on the flood</span> <span class="i6">And parted its tangled skeins;</span> <span class="i4">I trac'd the course of the fertile blood</span> - <span class="i6">That lay in its meshèd veins;</span> + <span class="i6">That lay in its meshèd veins;</span> </div><div class="stanza"> <span class="i4">I told how the stars are garner'd in space,</span> <span class="i6">How the moon on its course is roll'd,</span> @@ -20391,14 +20351,14 @@ he proves his right to be considered a most useful farm hand. Ants, too, provide him with a good meal occasionally.</p> <p>Among the helpful deeds of the downy woodpecker, we must not forget to -mention that he destroys great numbers of the larvæ or worms of the +mention that he destroys great numbers of the larvæ or worms of the codlin-moth in winter, when these worms have tucked themselves away in the crevices of the bark, all wrapped in their cocoons. (<a href="#fig325">Fig. 325</a>, <a href="#fig326">326</a>.) Perhaps your father has shown you these little cocoons along the body and in the crotches of the apple tree. If not, you can find them yourself. Open some of them and see whether the worm is still there. If he is not, downy has probably taken him. I suppose you know that the -larvæ of the codlin-moth are the worms you find in apples. See Leaflet +larvæ of the codlin-moth are the worms you find in apples. See Leaflet LIII.</p> <p>You must not confound the downy woodpecker with that other woodpecker, @@ -20408,9 +20368,9 @@ about him some other time.</p> <div id="fig326" class="figcenter w100"> <img src="images/illus510.jpg" width="100%" -alt="Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, enlarged." -title="Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, enlarged." /> -<p class="center"><i>Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, enlarged.</i></p> +alt="Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, enlarged." +title="Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, enlarged." /> +<p class="center"><i>Fig. 326. Pupæ of the codlin-moth in cocoons, enlarged.</i></p> </div> <p>You have learned that insects and apple-scab and yourselves all @@ -21620,7 +21580,7 @@ pleased to know that you have made some arrangement for having outdoor-folk live in the schoolroom. Any such home will be a terrarium.</p> <p>2. Every one can have grasshoppers for study. How many different kinds -can you find? Do all have the feelers or antennæ the same length? +can you find? Do all have the feelers or antennæ the same length? Observe the growth of the wings in the nymph, as the young grasshopper is called. In the grown-up ones notice that the narrow wing is on the outside and the pretty ones underneath.</p> @@ -21767,7 +21727,7 @@ title="Fig. 346. Chrys'-a-lids of the mourning-cloak butterfly." /> <p class="center"><i>Fig. 346. Chrys'-a-lids of the mourning-cloak butterfly.</i></p> </div> -<p>One of the most interesting things to notice in the study of larvæ or +<p>One of the most interesting things to notice in the study of larvæ or caterpillars is that they occasionally appear in bright new coats, and we find the old ones have been cast aside. It is necessity, not pride, that leads them to do this. You see, an insect's skeleton is on the @@ -21790,10 +21750,10 @@ wonderful changes take place in its body. <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_547">[547]</a></span></p> <p>The queer little objects that you see illustrated in <a href="#fig346">Fig. 346</a> are the -pupæ of the mourning-cloak butterfly. When the caterpillars were about +pupæ of the mourning-cloak butterfly. When the caterpillars were about to shed their coats for the last time, they hung themselves head downward from a twig by means of a silk button which they had spun. Then -they cast off their skins, leaving the chrysalids or naked pupæ hanging; +they cast off their skins, leaving the chrysalids or naked pupæ hanging; protected from birds by their spiny form and protected from many enemies, even from young naturalists, by their wood-brown color which so closely resembles the support from which they are suspended.</p> @@ -21808,13 +21768,13 @@ title="Fig. 348. The cecropia pupa inside the cocoon. Nearly natural size." /> <p>Let us next look at the pupa of a moth. This is often inside a covering which is called a cocoon. If you look on the fruit trees or shade trees about your home you may find a cocoon of the -ce-cró-pi-a moth. You will see that it is made of silk. This +ce-cró-pi-a moth. You will see that it is made of silk. This covering was spun by the giant silkworm as a protection against the storms of winter. How snug the pupa is inside, and how firmly the cocoon is fastened to the twig on which you found it! <a href="#fig347">Figs. 347</a>, <a href="#fig348">348</a>, <a href="#fig349">349</a> show this interesting insect.</p> -<p>When you are studying pupæ remember that butterflies do not +<p>When you are studying pupæ remember that butterflies do not come out of cocoons. Their chrysalis or pupa is always uncovered. In the case of moths, however, the pupa is either inside a cocoon or protected by being underground or in some well @@ -21838,19 +21798,19 @@ title="Fig. 349. Cecropia moth just emerged from the cocoon, on which it hangs. <p class="center"><i>Fig. 349. Cecropia moth just emerged from the cocoon, on which it hangs. The moth comes from the pupa.</i></p> </div> -<p>Butterflies have uncovered pupæ. They fly by day. The wings are folded -over the back when at rest. The antennæ or feelers have <i>knobs</i> on the +<p>Butterflies have uncovered pupæ. They fly by day. The wings are folded +over the back when at rest. The antennæ or feelers have <i>knobs</i> on the ends. (<a href="#fig350">Fig. 350</a> B.) The body is slender.</p> <p>Moths have pupae either inside cocoons or protected by being underground -or in some sheltered place. Many moths fly at night. The antennæ are +or in some sheltered place. Many moths fly at night. The antennæ are never knobbed. (<a href="#fig350">Fig. 350</a> M M.) leave the wings spread when they are at rest. The body is stout.</p> <p>Occasionally you may come across insects that very closely resemble butterflies, yet have some characters that are similar to those of moths. They are the skippers, so named because of their strong and rapid -flight. The antennæ have knobs, but these knobs are drawn out and turned +flight. The antennæ have knobs, but these knobs are drawn out and turned back in the form of a hook. (<a href="#fig350">Fig. 350</a> S.) The body is rather stout. The pupa is covered by a thin cocoon. In some species the wings are held vertically, in others horizontally.</p> @@ -21864,12 +21824,12 @@ and trees. <div id="fig350" class="figright w50"> <img src="images/illus551a.jpg" width="100%" -alt="Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers." -title="Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers." /> -<p class="center"><i>Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers.</i></p> +alt="Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers." +title="Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers." /> +<p class="center"><i>Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers.</i></p> </div> -<p>You will probably find cocoons of the ce-cro-pi-a and pro-mé-the-a +<p>You will probably find cocoons of the ce-cro-pi-a and pro-mé-the-a moths. The former, illustrated by <a href="#fig347">Figs. 347</a> to <a href="#fig349">349</a>, is commonly found on fruit trees; the latter swings loosely from a branch of ash, wild cherry, or lilac. The promethea cocoon is enfolded in a leaf which the @@ -22011,7 +21971,7 @@ smallest?</p> <p>Count the rooms or cells in each.</p> -<p>You know, of course, that an egg is placed in each cell. When the larvæ, +<p>You know, of course, that an egg is placed in each cell. When the larvæ, as the young of the wasps are called, are hatched, they still live in the cells.</p> @@ -22041,7 +22001,7 @@ title="Fig. 355. Home of polistes, the paper-maker." /> </div> <p>Hiding in some crevice about your house or the school building -there is probably a wasp which naturalists call po-lis´-tes. +there is probably a wasp which naturalists call po-lis´-tes. <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_553">[553]</a></span> She has been there ever since the cold weather came. In the spring you may see her tearing off pieces of wood from some @@ -22055,8 +22015,8 @@ she has no help. When you find a nest like the one in the picture (<a href="#fig to the under side of a stone.</p> <p>As soon as the cells are completed, the mother lays an egg in each. From -these eggs little grubs or larvæ are hatched. They are fed by the mother -until they become pupæ. The cells are sealed over while the wasps are in +these eggs little grubs or larvæ are hatched. They are fed by the mother +until they become pupæ. The cells are sealed over while the wasps are in the pupa state. They have to break open the seals before they can come out.</p> @@ -22064,7 +22024,7 @@ out.</p> the mother has nothing to do but to provide eggs. They clean out the cells in which they passed their early days; they make additions to the nests; they take care of the young. Do you remember how the vespa -workers prepared food for the larvæ in their colony and what they fed +workers prepared food for the larvæ in their colony and what they fed them? The young polistes are cared for in the same way.</p> <p>You may see the workers flying about in your garden this summer, getting @@ -22144,16 +22104,16 @@ nest, you must know four things:</p> <p>1. The white oblong eggs are very small. You will not see them readily.</p> -<p>2. The little legless creatures, or larvæ, hatch from the eggs and +<p>2. The little legless creatures, or larvæ, hatch from the eggs and are fed by the workers. Mrs. Comstock says that an ant larva looks like a crook-neck squash.</p> -<p>3. The larvæ either spin cocoons or rest awhile without any +<p>3. The larvæ either spin cocoons or rest awhile without any covering before they become fully grown ants. In their resting -form they are called pupæ. Children usually think the little sack-like -pupæ are the eggs.</p> +form they are called pupæ. Children usually think the little sack-like +pupæ are the eggs.</p> -<p>4. The fully grown ants come from the pupæ.</p> +<p>4. The fully grown ants come from the pupæ.</p> <div id="fig356" class="figcenter w100"> <img src="images/illus558.jpg" width="100%" @@ -22172,7 +22132,7 @@ the school room and to observe the following:</p> <p>Try to see an ant help a younger relative out of the pupa skin.</p> -<p>Notice how many uses the ants seem to have for their antennæ +<p>Notice how many uses the ants seem to have for their antennæ or feelers.</p> <p>Has it ever seemed to you that ants carry on a conversation @@ -22199,11 +22159,11 @@ want a moist place for the young ones. Fill the groove in the plank with water and the nest is ready.</p> <p>The best ant colony to take indoors is the one that you find -under stones in a pasture. With a trowel lift up the ants, pupæ, -larvæ, and sand and put the contents carefully into a pint can. +under stones in a pasture. With a trowel lift up the ants, pupæ, +larvæ, and sand and put the contents carefully into a pint can. When you reach the schoolroom put the contents of the can on the plank and watch what happens. If the ants do not find the -room you have made for them, place a few larvae and pupæ within +room you have made for them, place a few larvae and pupæ within it. They will probably find them.</p> <p>Do not neglect to provide food for the colony. Ants like to @@ -26606,379 +26566,6 @@ lilliputian."</p> <p>Page 592, "Is you should" was changed to read "If you should."</p> </div> - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORNELL NATURE-STUDY LEAFLETS *** - -***** This file should be named 43200-h.htm or 43200-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/2/0/43200/ - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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